an
m
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
EIGHTH
NINTH
TENTH
ELEVENTH
edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771-
ten 17771784.
eighteen 17881797.
twenty 1801 1810.
twenty 18151817.
twenty 1823 1824.
twenty-one 1830 1842.
twenty-two 1853 1860.
twenty-five 18751889.
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911*
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR. MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rtfhts reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIII
HARMONY to HURSTMONCEAUX
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
IQIO
E3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. [
Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J Harocu i ,\
the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life ] resy <* r art >-
of Jesus, &c.
A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. J Hogarth.
See the biographical article, DOBSON, H. A. I
A. E. T. W. ALFRED EDWARD THOMAS WATSON. f w ., , .
Editor of the Badminton Library and Badminton Magazine. Formerly Editor J R K&cm S (tn part);
of the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News. Author of The Racing World and ] Hunting.
its Inhabitants; &c.
A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. J Hugo victor
See the biographical article, SWINBURNE, A. C. I
A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LITT.D. f Hebrew Language;
Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College. \ Hebrew Literature.
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. r Heath, Nicholas;
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls I Henry VIII. of England*
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- H rf nnn p- "u
1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892, Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England no P el > B'snop;
under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I Humphrey, Lawrence.
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / Hofmann, Melchior;
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. I Hotman.
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D. , LITT.D., LL.D. Humboldt Karl W Von
See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H. \
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f ~ _
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Hormuz (tn part).
A. J. H. ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). ,
Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music,
London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885; oM Harp (in part).
the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Musical I
Instruments ; &c.
A. L. ANDREW LANG. f Hauntings.
See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW. I
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M.
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED.
Herschel, Sir F. W. (in part) ;
Herschel, Sir J. F. W.
(in part).
Hevelius; Hipparchus;
Horroeks; Huggins;
Humboldt.
Harpy; Harrier; Hawfinch;
Hawk; Heron; Hoactzin;
Honeyeater; Honey Guide;
Hoopoe; Hornbill;
. Humming-Bird.
A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. r
Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of Industrial Efficiency; J Housing.
The London Water Supply; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Henry IV.: Roman Emperor;
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. < Hide; Hohenzollern;
[Honorius II.; Anti-Pope.
A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. f _
See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. \ Hrosvitna.
C. A. M. F. CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., LITT.D. ["
Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's Odes and Frag- -I Hercules.
mints ; and of the Stanford Dictionary of A nglicised Words and Phrases.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
V
VI
C. B.
C. El.
C. F. A.
C. H. Ha.
C. J. L.
C. L. K.
C. Mo.
C. P.
C. Pf.
C. R. B.
C. S.
C. W. W.
D. B. M.
D. F. T.
D. Gi.
D. G. H.
D. H.
D. Mn.
D. S.*
E. C. B.
E. D. B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
CHARLES BEMONT, Lirr.D. (Oxon.). jHavet;
See the biographical article, BEMONT, C. I Hozier.
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B, M.A., LL.D., D^C.L. (
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Hissar (in part),
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East -4 Hungary: Language;
Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; and Consul-General Huns.
for German East Africa, 1900-1904.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London
(Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
Hohenlohe (in part).
Member 1 Honorius II., III., IV.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City,
of the American Historical Association.
SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).
Secretary Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King s College, J _
London. Secretary to Government of India, Home Department, 1889-1894. 1 Hmdostam
Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations
of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V.
Editor of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London.
WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE.
See the biographical article, MONKHOUSE, W. C.
Henry IV., V., VI.:
REV. CHARLES PRITCHARD, M.A.
See the biographical article, PRITCHARD, CHARLES.
| Hunt, W. Holman.
f Hersehel, Sir F. W.
(in part);
I Hersehel, Sir J. F. W.
L (in part).
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lnr.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
CARL SCHTJRZ, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SCHURZ, CARL.
SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of
Lord Clive; &c.
DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., Lrrr.D.
See the biographical article, MONRO, DAVID BINNING.
Author j Hunald.
Hayton; Henry
the Navigator.
| Hayes,
Rutherford B.
Hierapolis (in part).
Homer
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The -I Harmony.
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. (_
SIR
DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc.
H.M. Astronomer at Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served in Geodetic Survey
of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar J Heliometer.
Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony i
and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogues of Stars for
the Equinoxes (1850, 1860, 1885, 1890, 1900); &c.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens,
1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.
Author of Short History of the Royal
REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive
Congregational Ideals; &c.
DAVID SHARP, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of Museum of Zoology, Univer-
sity of Cambridge. President of Entomological Society of London. Author of
" Insecta " (Cambridge Natural History); &c.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lrrr.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius "
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi.
EDWIN DAMPIER BRICKWOOD.
Author of Boat-Racing ; &c.
Heraclea (in part);
Hierapolis (in part);
Hittites; Horus.
f Heyn; Hood, Viscount;
"I Howe, Earl; Humour.
f Henderson, Alexander
(_ (in part).
f
Hexapoda (in part).
f Hieronymites;
| Hilarion, Saint.
f Horse: History;
\Horse-Racing (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii
E. D. Bu. EDWARD DUNDAS BUTLER.
Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Foreign J * ungary: Literature
Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Author of Hungarian Poems and (in part).
Fables for English Readers ; &c.
E. E. S. ERNEST EDWARD SIKES, M.A. f
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer, St John's College, Cambridge. Newton Student at J Hephaestus;
Athens, 1890. Editor of the Prometheus Vinctus of Aeschylus, and of The Homeric 1 Hera; Hermes.
Hymns.
E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. C
Assistant-Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of J Hiroshige;
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor 1 Hokusai
of Bell's " Cathedral Series. I
E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. J Heroic Romances;
See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND, W. Heroic Verse;
I Herrick; Holberg.
Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr. (Oxon.), LL.D. f
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte S Hormizd.
des Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. {,
E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. J Herodotus (;*, * r i\
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. I
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Heart: Sttreerv
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner H w prn ja
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. [
E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of Manchester. Com- I Herculano de Carvalho e
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon | Araiyo.
Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society. I
E. Re.* EMIL REICH, Doc. JURIS., F.R.HisT.S. /Huiwarv- m* rn i,, r , (;*, * n , t
Author of Hungarian Literature ; History of Civilization ; &c. \ * ' Dgary ' Llterature ( P
E. R. B. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f
New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High 1 Hellenism.
Priests. I
F. B. FELICE BARNABEI, LITT.D.
Formerly Director of Museum of Antiquities at Rome. Author of archaeological
papers in Italian reviews and in the Athenaeum.
F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen). f
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. \ Holy Water.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magi? and Morals; &c. {
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Heruli.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer oirj Heart- A t
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L
F. G. S. F. G. STEPHENS. f
Formerly art critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home; George Cruik- I jj o j] Frank.
shank; Memorials of W. Mulready; French and Flemish Pictures; Sir E. Landseer;\
T. C. Hook, R.A.;&c.
F. H. B. FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A. f Honey; Hunter, John;
Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of the Royal School of Mines. \ Hunter, William.
F. LL G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. r Heliopolis;
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey! i orrnec TVimo<ri<:tii<:'
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 fl erl
German Archaeological Institute. I Horus.
F. 0. B. FREDERICK ORPEN BOWER, D.Sc., F.R.S. r
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow. Author of Practical J Hofmeister.
Botany for Beginners.
F. Px. FRANK PUAUX. r
President of the Societe de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme francais. Author of J _ ,
Les Precurseurs francais de la tolerance ; Histoire de I' etablissement des protestants l HUguenoiS.
fran$ais en Suede; L'Eglise reformee de France; &c.
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E. PH.D., D.Lrrr.
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 18731903. In charge of Linguistic Survey
of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of -| Hindustani.
the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of
The Languages of India ; &c.
G. C. R. GEORGE GROOM ROBERTSON M.A. J Hobbes Thomas (in part).
See the biographical article, ROBERTSON, G. C. \
G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. f Hilliard Lawrence*
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J '. 'U- C IH_
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition 1 ira > w
of Bryan's Dictionary of Printers and Engravers. [ Humphry, Ozias.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
0. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The\ Henryson.
Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f Holland: History.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J Holland: County and
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- 1
tion of Literature. Province of.
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the! * rniptera;
Association of Economic Biologists. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Author] Hexapoda (in part).
of Insects: their Structure and Life; &c. '
G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas for the Forests for the H Hundred.
Selden Society. L
G. K. GUSTAV KRUGER. f =__,,,
Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author of Das'] ll PP 'y lus -
Papsitum; &c.
G. R. REV. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A. f Herodotus (in part).
See the biographical article, RAWLINSON, GEORGE. I
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f Hasan-ul-Basn
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old 1 Hassan ibn Thablt;
Testament Histony at Mansfield College, Oxford. [ Hisham ibn al-Kalbi.
H. LORD HOUGHTON. /Hood, Thomas.
See the biographical article, HOUGHTON, IST BARON.
H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. J
Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. ] Holland.
Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c.
H. Bt. SIR HENRY BURDETT, K.C.B., K.C.V.O. f
Founder and Editor of The Hospital. Formerly Superintendent of the Queen's J Hospital.
Hospital, Birmingham, and the Seamen's Hospital, Greenwich. Author of 1
Hospitals and Asylums of the World; &c.
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition^ Howe ' Samuel Gndley.
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition.
H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandianai ena > 5t * ert st>
and A eta sanctorum.
H. L. HENRI LABROSSE. f Hugh of St Cher.
Assistant Librarian at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. iOfficer of the Academy. L
H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. J
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, Condon. Formerly Professor of "l Heat.
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. I
H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. [ Henry, Stuart (Cardinal
Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; 1 York)
The Las: Stuart Queen.
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f Henry L IL ' IIL:
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, 1 f England. _
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [ Henry of Huntingdon.
H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. I"
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J Hosea (in part).
Oxford, IQOI. Author of Hebrew />-""'-'- -'- D-I-I..'...- > .,;, ^ <;..>,; i
(in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c.
H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, *j Humbert, King.
1897-1902.-
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f Hormuz (in part);
See the biographical article, YuLE/-SlR H. |_ Hsiian Tsang (in part).
1. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Hasdai ibn Shaprut;
Reader in Talmudic "and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Herzl'
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short \ ,,.L c-mcnn n
History of Jewish literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. I H rscn ' aar
J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. /Hnhhpma- Hnlhcin
See the biographical article, CROWE, SIR J. A. I H
J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. f
Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norris- J. Hippolytus, The Canons Of.
ian 'Professor of Divinity in the University. Author of Some Thoughts on the
Incarnation; &c.
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. f
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J Heating.
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of 1
Junior Engineers.
Oxford, 15)01. ^Author^of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology^
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
J. B. T. SIR JOHN BATTY TUKE, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.Sc., LL.D. f
President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J ,
of New SaughtoA Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh 1 M 'PP cra tes.
and St Andrews, 1900-1910. (_
J. Da. REV. JAMES DAVIES, M.A. (1820-1883). f
Formerly Head Master of Ludlow Grammar School and Prebendary of Hereford J D j /
Cathedral. Translated classical authors for Bohn's " Classical Library." Author 1 Hesloa U part).
of volumes in Collins's Ancient Classics for English Readers.
J. E. H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. f
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, University of Edinburgh. *! Hinduism.
Formerly Secretary and Librarian to Royal Asiatic Society.
J. F. F. JOHN FAITHFULL FLEET, C.I.E. f
Commissioner of Central and Southern Divisions of Bombay, 1891-1897. Author { Hindu Chronology.
of Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings ; &c.
J. F. H. B. SIR JOHN FRANCIS HARPIN BROADBENT, BART., M.A., M.D. r
Physician to Out-Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Hampstead n t .
General Hospital. Assistant Physician to the London Fever Hospital. Author) e8rl> Heart Disease.
of Heart Disease and Aneurysm; &c.
J. G.* REV. JAMES Gow, M.A., LITT.D. /-
Head Master of Westminster School. Fellow of King's College, London. Formerly I
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Horace's Odes and Satires. Author 1 Horace (w part).
of A Companion to the School Classics; &c.
J. Ga. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B. r
See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J. \ Henry VII.: of England.
J. G. M. JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) f
Emeritus Professor of Physiology at the University of Glasgow. Author of Life -| f
in Motion ; Life of Helmholtz ; &c. \ Helmholtz.
J. G. R. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A. , PH.D. [Heine (in part);
Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the English -| Hildebrand Lay of-
Language, Strassburg University. Author of History of German Literature; &c. Hoffmann *E T W
J. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. f Hecker, F. F. K.;
Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of- Hertzberg Count Von'
Das Rheinland unter der franzosischen Herrschaft. Hormavr
J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. /-
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. \ Herod; Herodians.
J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. r
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. -j Herald; Hesiod (in part).
J. H. Mu. JOHN HENRY MUIRHEAD, M.A., LL.D. /
Professor of Philosophy in the University of Birmingham. Author of Elements \ He S e!: Hegelianism in
of Ethics; Philosophy and Life; &c. Editor of Library of Philosophy. 1 England.
3. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). r
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage andJ Here ward.
Pedigree.
3. J. F. REV. JAMES J. Fox. (
St Thomas's College, Brookland, D.C., U.S.A. \ Hecker, I. T.
J. K. L. SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D. r
Professor of Modern History, King's College, London, Secretary of the Navy
Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1850. Honorary Tr j
Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King's College, London. ] Hood of
Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents;
Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c.
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Heraclitus;
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. 1 Hume, David (in part).
3. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. r
Editor of the Guardian (London). ! Hepplewhite.
J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. r
Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to J Hillah; Hit.
Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the \
Euphrates.
3. S. Co. JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A.
Editor of The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the Egyptian Explora-
tion Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's College, Oxford. Author 1 Hastings, Warren.
of India in the " Citizen " Series; &c.
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J Homfels.
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby '
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L
J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical \ Hissar (in part).
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia, and Tibet; &c. \_
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J Op,-,,,,
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in'the 1
University of Edinburgh and Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I
J. T. Mo. JOHN TORREY MORSE, Jr. /
Author of The Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes. \ Uo es, Oliver Wendell.
J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. f
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \
J. V.* JULES VIARD. f
Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author T Hundred Years' War.
of La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois ; &c. I
J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). fHphr PW <: PnktiA tn ,.
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \ '.
Age; &c. L Hennas, Shepherd of.
J. Ws. JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S. f .
Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex Countv Council. Author of Practical\
Guide to Garden Plants; French Market Gardening; &c. I Horticulture U part).
J. W.* JAMES WARD, D.Sc., LL.D. C
Professor^of Mental Philosophy and Logic in the University of Cambridge. Fellow J
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of the 1 HerDart.
New York Academy of Sciences. I
J. W. F. J. WALTER FERRIER. r
Translated George Eliot and Judaism from the German of Kaufmann. Author of -\ Heine (in tart)
Mottiscliffe.
J. W. Fo. THE HON. JOHN WATSON FOSTER, A.M., LL.D. ("
Professor of American Diplomatics, George Washington University, Washington, -j Harrison, Benjamin.
U.S.A. Formerly U.S. Secretary of State. Author of Diplomatic Memoirs; &c. I
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Harp , (i * par J} '
Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the \ mr P- Lute ; Harpsichord;
Orchestra. Holtztrompete;
L Horn; Hurdy-Gurdy.
L. H. B. LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY, LL.D. f H rtif nitiirc- A
Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University Chairman of Roosevelt 1
Commission on Country Life. I CofcWMf (in part).
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of I Harmotome; Hemimorphlte;
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralo- 1 Heulandite; Hornblende;
gical Magazine. ^ Humite.
L. W. LDCIEN WOLF.
Vice-President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Formerly President ~] Hirsch, Baron,
of the Society. Joint-editor of the Bibliotheca Anglo-judaica. I
M. G. MOSES CASTER, Pn.D. (Leipzig).
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine -\ Hasdeu
Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk lore Society of England. Vice-President
Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c. [
M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa " in Cam- ] Heliozoa.
bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals.
M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L.
President of the Eugenics Education Society. Honorary Fellow, St John's College,
Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Formerly Member of the General Council of 1 HerSChell 1st Baron,
the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, and Standing Counsel to the Univer-
sity of Oxford.
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEHBUR TOD, M.A. f
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -I Helots.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI. C
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham \ Heraclius.
University, 1905-1908.
M. T. M. MAXWELL T. MASTERS, M.D., F.R.S. (1833-1907). r
Formerly Editor of Gardeners' Chronicle; and Lectureron Botany, St George's Hos- HnrtinnHnro ( t\
pital, London. Author of Plant Life; Botany for Beginners; and numerous mono- 1 {ln part >-
graphs in botanical works.
N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f Henry, Patrick;
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. J \ Homestead and Exemption
[ Laws.
0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Heraldry;
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the J Herbert: family;
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. Howard: family
0. Br. OSCAR BRILIANT. f Hungary: Geography
\ and Statistics.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
0. C. W. REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. [
Christ's College, Cambridge. Professor of Hebrew, Biblical Exegesis and Theology, i Hebrew Religion.
and Theological Tutor, Cheshunt College, Cambridge.
P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. [ Henry of Lausanne;
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J U, IO .K c*
Paris. Author of Les Ue.es morales chez les heterodoxes Latines au debut du XIII" \
stick. I Humiliate.
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LLD.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- Hpmiphnr-
paratiye Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines of \ "^realty.
Biology; &c.
P. C. Y.
PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. -f Hollo*
Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. \ 6S>
P. H. PETER HENDERSON (1823-1800). _..-_. f Horticulture: American
Formerly Horticulturist, Jersey City and New York. Author of Gardening for~\ r , , /
Profit; Garden and Farm Topics. I Caltndar. (tit part).
P. H. P.-S. PHILIP HENRY PYE-SMITH, M.D., F.R.S. f
Consulting Physician to Guy's Hospital, London. Formerly Vice-Chancellor of the -j Harvey, William.
University of London. Joint-author of A Text Book of Medicine; &c. I
P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. f
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly I TT|IMIII. r- ;
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 * alaya ' ***
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. I
R. A.* ROBERT ANCHEL f Herault de s6cneU es.
Archivist to the Department de 1 Eure. L
R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. f _
See the biographical article, ADAMSON, R. \ Hume David WB part).
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. ("
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- -! Hebron; Hor, Mt.
tion Fund.
R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimi- j _. .
tation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary nasa, fcl; Hejaz.
Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c.
R. H. S. RICHARD HENRY STODDARD. f Hawt horne Nathaniel
See the biographical article, STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY. |_ a
R. L P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Harvester; Hibernation.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \_
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. ("
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Hely-Hutehinson.
Gazette, London.
R. J. S. HON. ROBERT JOHN STRUTT, M.A., F.R.S. C
Professor of Physics in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South -J Helium.
Kensington. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
R. K. D. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. f
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum,] HsQan Tsang (in tart).
and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and ]
Literature of China; &c.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. [ Hedgehog;
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Hippopotamus'
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer )
of all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. L Horse W **) J Howler.
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Hopken; Horn, A. B., Count;
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the Hunparv HVc/n (i*
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs J. J ""g* "
1611-172$; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 myaai, janos,
toi 79 6;&c. I Hunyadi, Laszl6.
Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque I Hinemar
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil |
R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D.-ES-L.
Secretary of the Ecole
Nationale, Paris. Author 01 Lie noyavme ue .rruverace suu* *cj t^urunngicns ; i^ecueit i
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c. L
R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. f
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past 1
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j House.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). r
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J 'Cl;
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 Hirpini.
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. L
R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMAN TARR. / Hudson River.
Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. L
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S.
Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Carton
Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C.,J Horse (in tart)
Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agricul-^
ture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of Cape
Colony; &c.
S. F. B. SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD, LL.D. f n
See the biographical article, BAIRD, S. F. \ M inry ' Jose P n -
S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, H t - fc .
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J *
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip- Hoshea.
/ ions ; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi ; Critical Notes on Old Testament
History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. f Holiday.
Trinity College, Dublin. I
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.). f
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ I Heraelea (in part) ;
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of J Hispellum.
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute.
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. ("
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council I gieh Seas
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems |
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I
T. B.* THOMAS BROWN. f Hosierv
Incorporated Weaving, Dyeing and Printing College, Glasgow. \
T. F. H. T. F. HENDERSON. f HAftlr __
Author of The Casket Letters and Mary Queen of Scots; Life of Robert Burns; &c. \ a ' er '
T. Gi. THOMAS GILRAY M.A. f Henderson, Alexander
Formerly Professoi of Modern History and English Literature, University College, J / .
Dundee. [ (ln P art >-
T. H. H.* COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON. D.Sc. r Helmund- Herat-
Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., J
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's] *
Award; India; Tibet; &c. I Hindu Kush.
T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- H Hero 01 Alexandria,
bridge.
T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. r
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J Hayward, Abraham;
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor H jj UK jj es Thomas
of Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson;
joint-author of Bookman History of English Literature; &c.
T. Wo. THOMAS WOODHOUSE. J" Hose-Pine
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. \
T. W. A. THOMAS WILLIAM ALLEN, M.A. / D_ mo , / A
Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford. Joint-editor of The Homeric Hymns. \ a r Un P art >-
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. r Hautes Alpes-
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's I Po_oavnio-
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature 1
and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. I Herzog, Hans.
,, . rHohenlohe (in part).
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. , AiiianpA Th-
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, J * lce> l
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. Hononus I.;
L Hungary: History (in part).
W. Ba. WILLIAM BACKER, D.Pn. f TTJII.I
Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. |_
W. Fr. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1907). c
Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J I
Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. [ Horse (in part).
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. r
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College, -I Homicide.
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yd ed.).
W. G. H. WALTER GEORGE HEADLAM (1866-1908).
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Editor of Herodas. Translator of the plays J Herodas.
of Aeschylus.
W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f _ , . .
See the biographical article, FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ * ''
W. H. Ha. WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc. f
Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor J
of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor ]
of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music; &c. L
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
W. L. G.
W. M. R.
W. P. J.
W. R. Nl.
W. R. S.
W. R. S.-R.
W. R. W.
W. T. H.
W. W.
W. Wr.
W. Y. S.
4 Haydon, Benjamin Robert
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in J
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial |
Series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.
University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. High Bailiff of County Courts, -\ Henley, W. E.
Cardiff. Author of Romantic Professions ; &c.
SIR WILLIAM ROBERTSON NICOLL, LL.D.
See the biographical article, NICOLL, SIR W. R.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. f
Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Author of Russian -\ Hertzen.
Folk Tales ;&c.
WILLIAM ROBERT WORTHINGTON WILLIAMS, F.L.S. f
Superintendent of London County Council Botany Centre.
| Harris, Thomas Lake.
Hosea (in part).
in Botany, Birkbeck College (University of London).
Association.
Assistant Lecturer
entre. Assistant Lecturer J HnrficiiltnrA (i~ A^.rt
Member of the Geologists' 1 * ortlculture Part).
Homoeopathy.
WILLIAM TOD HELMUTH, M.D., LL.D. (d. 1901).
Formerly Professor of Surgery and Dean of the Homoeopathic and Medical College
and Hospital; New York. President of the Collins State Homoeopathic Hospital.
Sometime' President of the American Institute of Homoeopathy and the New York
State Homoeopathic Medical Society. Author of Treatise on Diphtheria; System
of Surgery ; &c.
WILLIAM WALLACE, LL.D.
See the biographical article, WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).
WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega- ~\ Hopkins, Samuel.
tional Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; &c.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SELLAR, W. Y.
Hegel (in part).
(
-I Horace (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Harrow.
Hartford.
Hartlepool.
Harvard University.
Harz Mountains.
Hat.
Havana.
Hawaii.
Hazel.
Health.
Heath.
Hebrides, The.
Heidelberg Catechism.
Heligoland.
Heliostat.
Hellebore.
Helmet.
Hemp.
Herbarium.
Herefordshire.
Hero.
Hertfordshire.
Hesse.
Hesse-Cassel.
Hesse-Darmstadt.
High Place.
Highway.
Hockey.
Holly.
Homily.
Honduras.
Hong-Kong.
Hostage.
Hottentots.
Household, Royal.
Hudson's Bay Company.
Huntingdonshire.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIII
HARMONY (Gr. appovia, a concord of musical sounds,
apfio^av to join; apuoviKr] (sc. rexy-q) meant the science or
art of music, juowitcq being of wider significance), a combination
of parts so that the effect should be aesthetically pleasing. In
its earliest sense in English it is applied, in music, to a pleasing
combination of musical sounds, but technically it is confined
to the science of the combination of sounds of different pitch.
I. Concord and Discord. By means of harmony modern
music has attained the dignity of an independent art. In ancient
times, as at the present day among nations that have not come
under the influence of European music, the harmonic sense was,
if not altogether absent, at all events so obscure and undeveloped
as to have no organizing power in the art. The formation by
the Greeks of a scale substantially the same as that which has
received our harmonic system shows a latent harmonic sense,
but shows it in a form which positively excludes harmony as an
artistic principle. The Greek perception of certain successions
of sounds as concordant rests on a principle identifiable with the
scientific basis of concord in simultaneous sounds. But the
Greeks did not conceive of musical simultaneity as consisting of
anything but identical sounds; and when they developed the
practice of magadizing i.e. singing in octaves they did so
because, while the difference between high and low voices was
a source of pleasure, a note and its octave were then, as now,
perceived to be in a certain sense identical. We will now start
from this fundamental identity of the octave, and with it trace
the genesis of other concords and discords; bearing in mind
that the history of harmony is the history of artistic instincts
and not a series of progressive scientific theories.
The unisonous quality of octaves is easily explained when we
examine the " harmonic series " of upper partials (see SOUND).
Every musical sound, if of a timbre at all rich (and hence
pre-eminently the human voice), contains some of these upper
partials. Hence, if one voice produce a note which is an upper
Ex. i. The notes
marked * are out of
tune.
&"
9 IO II 12
partial of another note sung at the same time by another voice,
the higher voice adds nothing new to the lower but only rein-
forces what is already there. Moreover, the upper partials of the
XIII. I
higher voice will also coincide with some of the lower. Thus,
if a note and its octave be sung together, the upper octave is
itself No. 2 in the harmonic series of the lower, No. 2 of its own
series is No. 4 of the lower, and its No. 3 is No. 6, and so on. The
impression of identity thus produced is so strong that we often
find among people unacquainted with music a firm conviction
that a man is singing in unison with a boy or an instrument when
he is really singing in the octave below. And even musical
people find a difficulty in realizing more than a certain brightness
and richness of single tone when a violinist plays octaves per-
fectly in tune and with a strong emphasis on the lower notes.
Doubling in octaves therefore never was and never will be a
process of harmonization.
Now if we take the case of one sound doubling another in the
1 2th, it will be seen that here, too, no real addition is made by
the higher sound to the lower. The 1 2th is No. 3 of the harmonic
series, No. 2 of the higher note will be No. 6 of the lower, No. 3
will be No. 9, and so on. But there is an important difference
between the I2th and the octave. However much we alter the
octave by transposition into other octaves, we never get anything
but unison or octaves. Two notes two octaves apart are just
as devoid of harmonic difference as a plain octave or unison.
But, when we apply our principle of the identity of the octave
to the 1 2th, we find that the removal of one of the notes by an
octave may produce a combination in which there is a distinct
harmonic element. If, for example, the lower note is raised by
an octave so that the higher note is a fifth from it, No. 3 of the
harmonic series of the higher note will not belong to the lower
note at all. The sth is thus a combination of which the two notes
are obviously different; and, moreover, the principle of the
identity of octaves can now operate in a contrary direction and
transfer this positive harmonic value of the sth to the 12th,
so that we regard the i2th as a 5th plus an octave, instead of
regarding the sth as a compressed 1 2th. 1 At the same time, the
relation between the two is quite close enough to give the sth
much of the feeling of harmonic poverty and reduplication that
characterizes the octave; and hence when medieval musicians
1 Musical intervals are reckoned numerically upwards along the
degrees of the diatonic scales (described below). Intervals greater
than an octave are called compound, and are referred to their simple
forms, e.g. the I2th is a compound 5th.
HARMONY
doubled a melody in sths and octaves they believed themselves
to be doing no more than extending and diversifying the means
by which a melody might be sung in unison by different voices.
How they came to prefer for this purpose the 4th to the sth
seems puzzling when we consider that the 4th does not appear
as a fundamental interval in the harmonic series until that series
has passed beyond that part of it that maintains any relation
to our musical ideas. But it was of course certain that they
obtained the 4th as the inversion of the sth; and it is at least
possible that the singers of lower voices found a peculiar pleasure
in singing below higher voices in a position which they felt
harmonically as that of a top part. That is to say, a bass, in
singing a fourth below a tenor, would take pleasure in doubling
in the octave an alto singing normally a 5th above the tenor. 1
This should also, perhaps, be taken in connexion with the fact
that the interval of the downward 4th is in melody the earliest
that became settled. And it is worth noticing that, in any
singing-class where polyphonic music is sung, there is a marked
tendency among the more timid members to find their way into
their part by a gentle humming which is generally a 4th below
the nearest steady singers.
The limited compass of voices soon caused modifications in
the medieval parallelisms of 4ths and sths, and the introduction
of independent ornaments into one or more of the voices increased
to an extent which drew attention to other intervals. It was
long, however, before the true criterion of concord and discord
was attained; and at first the notion of concord was purely
acoustic, that is to say, the ear was sensitive only to the difference
in roughness and smoothness between combinations in them-
selves. And even the modern researches of Helmholtz fail to
represent classical and modern harmony, in so far as the pheno-
mena of beats are quite independent of the contrapuntal nature
of concord and discord which depends upon the melodic intelligi-
bility of the motion of the parts. Beats give rise to a strong
physical sense of discord akin to the painfulness of a flickering
light (see SOUND). Accordingly, in the earliest experiments in
harmony, the ear, in the absence of other criteria, attached
much more importance to the purely acoustic roughness of
beats than our ears under the experience of modern music.
This, and the circumstance that the imperfect concords 2 (the
3rds and 6ths) long remained out of tune owing to the incom-
pleteness of the Pythagorean system of harmonic ratios,
sufficiently explain the medieval treatment of these combinations
as discords differing only in degree from the harshness of 2nds
and 7ths. In the earliest attempts at really contrapuntal
writing (the astonishing i3th- and I4th- century motets, in which
voices are made to sing different melodies at once, with what
seems to modern ears a total disregard of sound and sense) we
find that the method consists in a kind of rough-hewing by which
the concords of the octave, sth and 4th are provided at most
of the strong accents, while the rest of the harmony is left to
take care of itself. As the art advanced the imperfect concords
began to be felt as different from the discords; but as their
true nature appeared it brought with it such an increased sense
of the harmonic poverty of octaves, sths and 4ths, as ended in
a complete inversion of the earliest rules of harmony.
The harmonic system of the later isth century, which cul-
minated in the " golden age " of the 16th-century polyphony, may
be described as follows: Imagine a flux of simultaneous inde-
pendent melodies, so ordered as to form an artistic texture based
not only on the variety of the melodies themselves, but also upon
gradations between points of repose and points in which the
roughness of sound is rendered interesting and beautiful by
means of the clearness with which the melodic sense in each part
indicates the convergence of all towards the next point of repose.
The typical point of repose owes its effect not only to the acoustic
smoothness of the combination, but to the fact that it actually
1 It is at least probable that this is one of the several rather
obscure reasons for the peculiar instability of the 4th in modern
harmony, which is not yet satisfactorily explained.
2 The perfect concords are the octave, unison, 5th and 4th. Other
diatonic combinations, whether concords or discords, are called
imperfect.
consists of the essential elements present in the first five notes
of the harmonic series. The major 3rd has thus in this- scheme
asserted itself as a concord, and the fundamental principle of
the identity of octaves produces the result that any combination
of a bass note with a major 3rd and perfect sth above it, at
any distance, and with any amount of doubling,
may constitute a concord available even as the
final point of repose in the whole composition.
And by degrees the major triad, with its major
3rd, became so familiar that a chord consisting of a bare sth,
with or without an octave, was regarded rather as a skeleton
triad without the 3rd than as a concord free from elements
of imperfection. Again, the identity of the octave secured for
the combination of a note with its minor 3rd and minor 6th a
place among concords; because, whether so recognized by early
theorists or not, it was certainly felt as an inversion of the major
triad. The fact that its bass note is not the fundamental note
(and therefore has a series of upper partials not compatible with-
the higher notes) deprives it of the finality and perfection of the
major triad, to which, however, its relationhsip is too near for it
to be felt otherwise than as a concord. This sufficiently explains
why the minor 6th ranks as a concord
in music, though it is acoustically nearly Ex. 3 .
as rough as the discord of the minor 7th,
and considerably rougher than that of the 7th note of the
harmonic series, which has not become accepted in our musical
system at all.
But the major triad and its inversion are not the only concords
that will be produced by our flux of melodies. From time to
time this flux will arrest attention by producing a combination
which, while it does not appeal to the ear as being a part of the
harmonic chord of nature, yet contains in itself no elements not
already present in the major triad. Theorists have in vain tried
to find in " nature " a combination of a note with its minor 3rd
and perfect sth; and so long as harmony was treated unhistori-
cally and unscientifically as an a priori theory in which every
chord must needs have a " root," the minor triad, together with
nearly every other harmonic principle of any complexity,
remained a mystery. But the minor triad, as an artistic and
not purely acoustic phenomenon, is an inevitable thing. It
has the character of a concord because of our intellectual percep-
tion that it contains the same elements as the major triad; but
its absence of connexion with the natural harmonic series deprives
it of complete finality in the simple system of 16th-century
harmony, and at the same time gives it a permanent contrast
with the major triad; a contrast which is acoustically intensified
by the fact that, though its intervals are in themselves as con-
cordant as those of the major triad, their relative position
produces decidedly rough combinations of "resultant tones."
By the time cur flux of melodies had come to include the
major and minor triads as concords, the notion of the independence
of parts had become of such paramount importance as totally
to revolutionize the medieval conception of the perfect concords.
Fifths and octaves no longer formed an oasis in a desert of
cacophony, but they assumed the character of concord so nearly
approaching to unison that a pair of consecutive sths or octaves
began to be increasingly felt as violating the independence of
the parts. And thus it came about that in pure 16th-century
counterpoint (as indeed at the present day whenever harmony
and counterpoint are employed in their purest significance)
consecutive sths and octaves are strictly forbidden. When we
compare our laws of counterpoint with those of medieval discant
(in which consecutive sths and octaves are the rule, while con-
secutive 3rds and 6ths are strictly forbidden) we are sometimes
tempted to think that the very nature of the human ear has
changed. But it is now generally recognized that the process
was throughout natural and inevitable, and the above account
aims at showing that consecutive sths are forbidden by our
harmonic system for the very reason which inculcated them in
the system of the 1 2th century.
II. Tonality. As soon as the major and minor triad and their
first inversions were well-defined entities, it became evident that
HARMONY
the successions of these concords and their alternations with
discord involved principles at once larger and more subtle than
those of mere difference in smoothness and artificiality. Not
only was a major chord (or at least its skeleton) necessary for
the final point of repose in a composition, but it could not itself
sound final unless the concords as well as the discords before it
showed a well-defined tendency towards it. This tendency was
best realized when the penultimate concord had its fundamental
note at the distance of a 5th or a 4th above or below that of the
final chord. When the fundamental note of the penultimate
chord is a 5th above or (what is the same thing) a 4th 1 below
that of the final chord, we have an " authentic " or " perfect "
cadence, and the relation between the two chords is very clear.
While the contrast between them is well marked, they have one
note in common for the root of the penultimate chord is the
5th of the final chord; and the statement of this common note,
first as an octave or unison and then as a 5th, expresses the
.first facts of harmony with a force which the major 3rds of the
chords can only strengthen, while it also involves in the bass
that melodic interval of the 4th or the 5th which is now known
f^ j to be the germ of all melodic scales. The
|p3 relation of the final note of a scale with its
=* upper 5th or lower 4th thus becomes a
fundamental fact of complex harmonic significance that is to
say, of harmony modified by melody in so far as it concerns the
succession of sounds as well as their simultaneous combination.
In our modern key-system the final note of the scale is called the
tonic, and the 5th above or 4th below it is the dominant. (In
the i6th century the term " dominant " has this meaning only
in the " authentic " modes other than the Phrygian, but as
an aesthetic fact it is present in all music, though the theory
here given would not have been intelligible to any composers
before the iSth century). Another penultimate chord asserts
itself as the converse of the dominant namely, the chord of
which the root is a 5th below or a 4th above the final. This
chord has not that relationship to the final which the dominant
chord shows, for its fundamental note is not in the harmonic
series of the final. But the fundamental note of the final chord
is in its harmonic series, and in fact stands to it as the dominant
stands to the final. Thus the progression from subdominant,
as it is called, to tonic, or final, forms a full close known as the
" plagal cadence," second only in importance to the " perfect "
f. . or " authentic cadence." In our modern
EEjEESii3 key-system these three chords, the tonic,
the dominant and the subdominant, form
a firm harmonic centre in reference to which all other chords are
grouped. The tonic is the final in which everything ultimately
resolves: the dominant stands on one side of it as a chord based
on the note harmonically most closely related to the tonic,
and the subdominant stands on the other side as the converse
and opposite of the dominant, weaker than the dominant because
not directly derived from the tonic. The other triads obtainable
from the notes of the scale are all minor, and of less importance;
and their relationship to each other and to the tonic is most
definite when they are so grouped that their basses rise and fall
in 4th and sths, because they then tend to imitate the relation-
ship between tonic, dominant and subdominant.
Ex.6.
Tonic. Supertonic. Mediant. Sub- Dominant. Sub-
dominant. mediant. 1
Here are the six common chords of the diatonic scale. The triad
on the yth degree or " leading-note " (B) is a discord, and is therefore
not given here.
Now, in the i6th century it was neither necessary nor desirable
that chords should be grouped exclusively in this way. The
relation between tonic, dominant and subdominant must
necessarily appear at the final close, and in a lesser degree at
The submediant is so-called because if the subdominant is taken
a 5th below the tonic, the submediant will come midway between
it and the tonic, as the_ mediant comes midway between tonic and
dominant.
subordinate points of repose; but, where no harmonies were
dwelt on as stable and independent entities except the major
and minor triads and their first inversions, a scheme in which
these were confined to the illustration of their most elementary
relationship would be intolerably monotonous. It is therefore
neither surprising nor a sign of archaism that the tonality of
modal music is from the modern point of view often very in-
definite. On the contrary, the distinction between masterpieces
and inferior works in the i6th century is nowhere more evident
than in the expressive power of modal tonality, alike where it
resembles and where it differs from modern. Nor is it too much
to say that that expressive power is based on the modern sense of
key, and that a description of modal tonality in terms of modern
key will accurately represent the harmonic art of Palestrina
and the other supreme masters, though it will have almost as
little in common with 16th-century theory and inferior 16th-
century practice as it has with modern custom. We must
conceive modal harmony and tonality as a scheme in which
voices move independently and melodiously in a scale capable
of bearing the three chords of the tonic, dominant and sub-
dominant, besides three other minor triads, but not under such
restrictions of symmetrical rhythm and melodic design as will
necessitate a confinement to schemes in which these three cardinal
chords occupy a central position. The only stipulation is that
the relationship of at least two cardinal chords shall appear at
every full close. At other points the character and drift of the
harmony is determined by quite a different principle namely,
that, the scale being conceived as indefinitely extended, the
voices are agreed in selecting a particular section of it,the position
of which determines not only the melodic character of each part
but also the harmonic character of the whole, according to its
greater or less remoteness from the scale in which major cardinal
chords occupy a central position. Historically these modes
were derived, with various errors and changes, from the purely
melodic modes of the Greeks. Aesthetically they are systems
of modern tonality adapted to conditions in which the range of
harmony was the smallest possible, and the necessity for what
we may conveniently call a clear and solid key-perspective
incomparably slighter than that for variety within so narrow a
range. We may thus regard modal harmony as an essentially
modern scheme, presented to us in cross-sections of various
degrees of obliquity, and modified at every close so as either to
take us to a point of view in which we see the harmony sym-
metrically (as in those modes 2 of which the final chord is normally
major, namely the Ionian, which is practically our major scale,
the Mixolydian and the Lydian, which last is almost invariably
turned into Ionian by the systematic flattening of its 4th degree)
or else to transform the mode itself so that its own notes are
flattened and sharpened into suitable final chords (as is necessary
in those modes of which the triad on the final is normally minor,
namely, the Dorian, Phrygian and Aeolian). In this way we
may describe Mixolydian tonality as a harmonic scheme in which
the keys of G major and C major are so combined that sometimes
we feel that we are listening to harmony in C major that is
disposed to overbalance towards the dominant, and sometimes
that we are in G major with a pronounced leaning towards the
subdominant. In the Dorian mode our sensations of tonality
are more confused. We seem to be wandering through all the
key-relationships of a minor tonic without defining anything,
until at the final close the harmonies gather strength and bring
us, perhaps with poetic surprise, to a close in D with a major
chord. In the Phrygian mode the difficulty in forming the final
close is such that classical Phrygian compositions actually end
in what we feel to be a half-close, an impression which is by the
great masters rendered perfectly artistic by the strong feeling
that all such parts of the composition as do not owe their ex-
pression to the variety and inconstancy of their harmonic drift
are on the dominant of A minor.
It cannot be too strongly insisted that the expression of modal
music is a permanent artistic fact. Its refinements maybe
crowded out by the later tonality, in which the much greater
2 See PLAIN SONG.
4
HARMONY
Ex.?.
Suspension.
No. 8.
Passing Note
variety of fixed chords needs a much more rigid harmonic
scheme to control it, but they can never be falsified. And when
Beethoven in his last " Bagatelle " raises the 6th of a minor
scale for the pleasure he takes in an unexpectedly bright major
chord; or when, in the Incarnatus of his Mass in D, he makes a
free use of the Dorian scale, he is actuated by precisely the same
harmonic and aesthetic motives as those of the wonderful
opening of Palestrina's eight-part Stabat Mater; just as in the
Lydian figured chorale in his A minor Quartet he carries out the
principle of harmonic variety, as produceable by an oblique
melodic scale, with a thoroughness from which Palestrina himself
would have shrunk. (We have noted that in 16th-century music
the Lydian mode is almost invariably lonicized.)
III. Modern Harmony and Tonality. In the harmonic system
of Palestrina only two kinds of discord are possible, namely,
suspensions and passing-notes. The principle of the suspension
is that while parts are moving
from one concord to another
one of the parts remains
behind, so as to create a
discord at the moment when
the other parts proceed. The
suspended part then goes on
to its concordant note, which must lie on an adjacent (and
in most cases a lower) degree of the scale. Passing-notes
are produced transiently by the motion of a part up or down the
scale while other parts remain stationary. The possibilities of
these two devices can be worked out logically so as to produce
combinations of extreme harshness. And, when combined with
the rules which laid on the performers the responsibility for
modifying the strict scale of the mode in order to form satis-
factory closes and avoid melodic harshness, they some-
times gave rise to combinations which the clearest artistic
intellects of the i6th century perceived as incompatible with
the modal style. For example, in a passage written thus
J? ,u _ - ^ . _ F^t^ I I the singer of the lower
^ 1 part would be obliged
Ex- 9. d~ to flatten his B in
[|(g|-0t <a p_^=r[^=: = \ order to avoid the
= 3 U giy "tritone" be-
tween F and B, while the other singer would be hardly
less likely on the spur of the moment to sharpen his G
under the impression that he was making a close; and thus one
of the most complex and characteristically modern discords, that
of the augmented 6th, did trequently occur in 16th-century
performances, and was not always regarded as a blunder. But
if the technical principles of 16th-century discord left much to
the good taste of composers and singers, they nevertheless in
conjunction with that good taste severely restricted the resources
of harmony; for, whatever the variety and artificiality of the
discords admitted by them, they all had this in common, that
every discord was transient and could only arise as a phenomenon
of delay in the movement of one or more parts smoothly along
the scale (" in conjunct motion ") or of a more rapid motion up
and down the scale in which none but the rigorously concordant
first and last notes received any emphasis. No doubt there were
many licenses (such as the " changing-note ") which introduced
discords by skip, or on the strong beat without preparation, but
these were all as natural as they were illogical. They were
artistic as intelligible accidents, precisely like those which make
language idiomatic, such as " attraction of the relative " in Greek.
But when Monteverde and his fellow monodists tried experi-
ments with unprepared discords, they opened up possibilities
far too vast to be organized by them or by the next three genera-
tions. We have elsewhere compared the difference between
early and modern harmony with that between classical Greek,
which is absolutely literal and concrete in expression, and modern
English, which is saturated with metaphors and abstractions.
We may go further and say that a 16th-century discord, with its
preparation and resolution, is, on a very small scale, like a
simile, in which both the figure and its interpretation are given,
whereas modern discord is like the metaphor, in which the figure
is a substitute for and not an addition to the plain statement.
It is not surprising that the sudden opening up of the whole
possibilities of modern harmony at the end of the i6th century
at first produced a chaos of style.
Another feature of the harmonic revolution arose from the
new habit of supporting a single voice on chords played by an
instrument. This, together with the use of discords in a new
sense, drew attention to the chords as things in themselves and
not as moments of greater or less repose in a flux of independent
melodies. This was as valuable an addition to musical thought
and expression as the free use of abstract terms is in literature,
but it had precisely the same dangers, and has until recent
times vitiated harmonic theory and divorced it from the
modest observation of the practice of great masters. When,
early in the i8th century, Rameau devoted much of his best
energy to the elaboration of a theory of harmony, his field of
observation was a series of experiments begun in chaos and
resolved, not as yet in a great art, but in a system of conventions,
for the contemporary art of Bach and Handel was beyond the
scope of contemporary theory. He showed great analytical
genius and sense of tonality in his development of the notion
of the " fundamental bass," and it is rather to his credit than
otherwise that he did not emphasize the distinction between
discords on the dominant and those on other degrees of the scale.
But his system, with all subsequent improvements, refutations
and repairs only led to that bane of 19th-century theory and
source of what may be called the journalese of harmonic style,
according to which every chord (no matter how obviously
artificial and transient) must be regarded, so to speak, as a
literal fact for which a root and a scientific connexion with the
natural harmonic series must at all cost be found. Some modern
theorists have, however, gone too far in denying the existence of
harmonic roots altogether, and certainly it is neither scientific
nor artistic to regard the coincidence of the major triad with the
first five notes of the harmonic series as merely accidental. It
is not likely that the dominant 7th owes all its naturalness to a
resemblance to the flat 7th of the harmonic series, which is too
far out of tune even to pass for an augmented 6th. But the
dominant major pth certainly gains in sonorousness from its
coincidence with the gth harmonic, and many cases in music
could be found where the dominant 7th itself would gain from
being so far flattened as to add coincidence with a natural
harmonic to its musical significance as an unprepared discord
(see, for example the " native wood-notes wild " of the distant
huntsmen in the second act of Tristan und Isolde, where also the
9th and nth are involved, and, moreover, on horns, of which the
natural scale is the harmonic series itself). If the distinction
between " essential " and " unessential " discords is, in the light
of history and common sense, a difference only in degree, it is
thus none the less of great aesthetic importance. Arithmetic
and acoustics show that in proportion as musical harmony
emphasizes combinations belonging to the lower region of the
harmonic series the effect will be sonorous and natural; but
common sense, history and aesthetics also show that the inter-
action of melody, harmony and rhythm must produce a host
of combinations which acoustics alone cannot possibly explain.
These facts are amply competent to explain themselves. To
describe them in detail is beyond the scope of the present article,
but a few examples from different periods are given at the end in
musical type.
IV. The Minor Mode. When the predecessors of Bach and
Handel had succeeded in establishing a key-system able to bear
the weight of free discord, that key-system took two forms, in
both of which the three chords of tonic, dominant and sub-
dominant occupied cardinal points. In the one form the tonic
chord was natural, that is to say, major. In the other form
the tonic chord was artificial, that is to say, minor. In the minor
mode so firm is the position of the tonic and dominant (the
dominant chord always being major)that it is no longer necessary,
as in the i6th century, to conclude with a major chord, although
it long remained a frequent practice, rather because of the
inherent beauty and surprise of the effect than because of any
HARMONY
mere survival of ancient customs, at least where great masters
are concerned. (This final major chord is known as the Tierce
de Picardie.) The effect of the minor mode is thus normally
plaintive because it centres round the artificial concord instead
of the natural; and, though the keynote bears this minor
artificial triad, the ear nevertheless has an expectation (which
may be intensified into a powerful emotional effect) that the
final conclusion of the harmonic scheme may brighten out into
the more sonorous harmonic system of major chords. Let us
once more recall those ecclesiastical modes of which the 3rd
degree is normally minor. We have seen how they may be
regarded as the more oblique of the various cross-sections of the
16th-century harmonic scheme. Now, the modern minor mode
is too firmly rooted in its minor tonic chord for the 16th-century
feeling of an oblique harmonic scheme to be of more than
secondary importance, though that feeling survives, as the
discussion of key-relationships will show us. But it is constantly
thrust into the background by the new possibility that the minor
tonic chord with its attendant minor harmonies may give place
to the major system round the same tonic, and by the certainty
that if any change is made at the conclusion of the work it will
be upon the same tonic and not have reference to some other
harmonic centre. In other words, a major and minor key on
the same tonic are felt as identical in everything but expression
(a point in which the Tonic Sol Fa system, as hitherto practised,
with its identification of the minor key with its " relative "
instead of its tonic major, shows a most unfortunate confusion
of thought). The characteristics of the major and minor modes
may of course be modified by many artistic considerations, and
it would be as absurd to develop this account into a scheme of
pigeon-holed passions as to do the same for the equally obvious
and closely parallel fact that in drama a constant source of
pathos is the placing of our sympathies in an oblique relation
to the natural sequence of events or to the more universal issues
of the subject.
V. Key-Relationships. On the modern sense of the identity
of the tonic in major and minor rests the whole distinctive
character of modern harmony, and the whole key-system of the
classical composers. The masters of the i6th century naturally
found it necessary to make full closes much more frequently
than would be desirable if the only possible close was that on the
final of the mode. They therefore formed closes on other notes,
but they formed them on these exactly as on a final. Thus, a
close on the second degree of the Ionian mode was identical with
a Dorian final close. The notes, other than the final, on which
closes could be made were called modulations. And what
between the three " regular modulations " (known as the
dominant, mediant, and participant) and the " conceded modula-
tions," of which two were generally admitted in each mode
simply in the interests of variety, a composer was at liberty to
form a full close on any note which did not involve too many
extraneous sharps or flats for its correct accomplishment. But
there was a great difference between modal and modern con-
ceptions of modulation. We have said that the close on the
second degree of the Ionian mode was Dorian, but such a modula-
tion was not regarded as a visit paid to the Dorian mode, but
merely as the formation of a momentary point of repose on the
second degree of the Ionian mode. When therefore it is said
that the modulations of 16th-century music are " purposeless
and shifting," the criticism implies a purpose in change of key
which is wholly irrelevant. The modal composers' purpose lay
in purely local relationships of harmony, in various degrees of
refinement which are often crowded out of the larger and more
coarse-grained scheme of modern harmony, but which modern
harmony is perfectly capable of employing in precisely the same
sense whenever it has leisure.
Modulation, in the modern sense of the term, is a different
thing. The modern sense of tonality is so firm, and modern
designs so large, that it is desirable that different portions of a
composition should be arranged round different harmonic
centres or keys, and moreover that the relation between these
keys and the primary key should be ielt, and the whole design
should at last return to the primary key, to remain there with
such emphasis and proportion as shall leave upon the mind the
impression that the whole is in the primary key and that the
foreign keys have been as artistically grouped around it as its
own local harmonies. The true principles on which keys are
related proved so elastic in the hands of Beethoven that their
results utterly outstripped the earlier theory which adhered
desperately to the limitations of the i6th century; and so
vast is the range of key which Beethoven is able to organize
in a convincing scheme of relationship, that even modern
theory, dazzled by the true harmonic possibilities, is apt to
come to the conclusion, more lame and impotent than any
ancient pedantry, that all keys are equally related. A vague
conception, dubbed " the unity of the chromatic scale," is thus
made to explain away the whole beauty and power of Wagner's
no less than Beethoven's harmonic system. We have not space
to dispute the matter here, and it must suffice to state dog-
matically and statistically the classical facts of key-relationship,
including those which Beethoven established as normal possi-
bilities on the suggestion of Haydn, in whose works they appear
as special effects.
a. Direct Relationships. The first principle on which two keys
are considered to be related is a strengthening of that which
determined the so-called modulations of the 16th-century modes.
Two keys are directly related when the tonic chord of the one
is among the common chords of the other. Thus, D minor is
related to C major because the tonic chord of D minor is the
common chord on the supertonic of C (see Ex. 6). In the same
way the four other related keys to C major are E minor the
mediant, F major the subdominant, G major the dominant
and A minor the submediant.
This last key-relationship is sometimes called the " relative "
minor, partly because it is usually expressed by the same key-
signature as the tonic, but probably more justifiably because it
is the point of view from which to reckon the key-relationships
of the minor tonic. If we take the minor scale in its " harmonic "
form (i.e. the form deducible from its chords of minor tonic,
minor subdominant and major dominant, without regard to
the exigencies of melody in concession to which the " melodic "
minor scale raises the 6th in ascent and flattens the 7th in
descent), we shall find it impossible to build a common chord
upon its mediant (Ex. 10). But we have
seen that A minor is related to C major; EX. 10.
therefore it is absurd to suppose that C
major is not related to A minor. Clearly then we must deduce
some of the relationships of a minor tonic as the converse of
those of a major tonic. Thus we may read Ex. 6 backwards and
reason as follows: A minor is the submediant of C major;
therefore C major is the mediant or relative major of A minor.
D minor is the supertonic of C major; therefore C major is
related to D minor and may be called its flat 7th. Taking A
minor as our standard key, G major is then the flat 7th to A minor.
The remaining major keys (C major to E minor = F major to
A minor) may be traced directly as well as conversely; and
the subdominant, being minor, does not involve an appeal to
the major scale at all. But with the dominant we find the curious
fact that while the dominant chord of a minor key is major it
is impossible to regard the major dominant key as directly
related to the minor tonic, since it does not contain the minor
tonic chord at all; e.g. the only chord of A in E major is A major.
But the dominant minor key contains the tonic chord of the
primary minor key clearly enough as subdominant, and therefore
when we modulate from a minor tonic to a minor dominant
we feel that we have a direct key-relationship and have not lost
touch with our tonic. Thus in the minor mode modulation to
the dominant key is, though frequent and necessary, a much
more uphill process than in the major mode, because the naturally
major dominant chord has first to be contradicted. On the other
hand, a contrast between minor tonic and major dominant key
is very difficult to work on a large scale (as, for example, in the
complementary key for second subjects of sonata movements)
because, while the major dominant key behaves as if not directly
HARMONY
related to the minor tonic, it also gives a curious sensation of
being merely on the dominant instead of in it; and thus we find
that in the few classical examples of a dominant major second
subject in a minor sonata-movement the second subject either
relapses into the dominant minor, as in Beethoven's Kreulzer
Sonata and the finale of Brahms's Third Symphony, or begins in
it, as in the first movement of Brahms's Fourth Symphony.
The effect of a modulation to a related key obviously depends
upon the change of meaning in the chords common to both keys,
and also in the new chords introduced. Thus, in modulating
to the dominant we invest the brightest chord of our first key
with the finality and importance of a tonic; our original tonic
chord becomes comparatively soft in its new position as sub-
dominant; and a new dominant chord arises, surpassing in
brilliance the old dominant (now tonic) as that surpassed the
primary tonic. Again, in modulating to the subdominant the
softest chord of the primary key becomes tonic, the old tonic
is comparatively bright, and a new and softer subdominant
chord appears. We have seen the peculiarities of modulation
to the dominant from a minor tonic, and it follows from them
that modulation from a minor tonic to the subdominant involves
the beautiful effect of a momentary conversion of the primary
tonic chord to major, the poetic and often dramatically ironical
power of which is manifested at the conclusion of more than half
the finest classical slow movements in minor keys, from Bach's
Et> minor Prelude in the first book of the Forty-eight to the slow
movement of Brahms's G major String Quintet, Op. in.
The effect of the remaining key-relationships involves contrasts
between major and minor mode; but it is otherwise far less
defined, since the primary tonic chord does not occupy a cardinal
position in the second key. These key-relationships are most
important from a minor tonic, as the change from minor to
major is more vivid than the reverse change. The smoothest
changes are those to " relative " minor, " relative " major
(C to A minor; C minor to Et>); and mediant minor and sub-
mediant major (C to E minor; C minor to At>). The change
from major tonic to supertonic minor is extremely natural on a
.small scale, i.e. within the compass of a single melody, as may be
seen in countless openings of classical sonatas. But on a large
scale the identity of primary dominant with secondary sub-
dominant confuses the harmonic perspective, and accordingly
in classical music the supertonic minor appears neither in the
second subjects of first movements nor as the key for middle
movements. 1 But since the key-relationships of a minor tonic
are at once more obscure harmonically and more vivid in con-
trast, we find that the converse key-relationship of the flat 7th,
though somewhat bold and archaic in effect on a small scale,
has once or twice been given organic function on a large scale
in classical movements of exceptionally fantastic character,
of which the three great examples are the ghostly slow movement
of Beethoven's D major Trio, Op. 70, No. i, the scherzo of his
Ninth Symphony, and the finale of Brahms's D minor Violin
Sonata (where, however, the C major theme soon passes per-
manently into the more orthodox dominant minor).
Thus far we have the set of key-relationships universally
recognized since the major and minor modes were established,
a relationship based entirely on the place of the primary tonic
chord in the second key. It only remains for us to protest
against the orthodox description of the five related keys as being
the " relative " minor or major and the dominant and sub-
dominant with their " relative " minors or majors; a conception
which expresses the fallacious assumption that keys which are
related to the same key are related to one another, and which
thereby implies that all keys are equally related and that classical
composers were fools. It cannot be too strongly insisted that
there is no foundation for key-relationship except through a
tonic, and that it is through the tonic that the most distant keys
1 Until Beethoven developed the resources for a wider scheme of
key-contrasts, the only keys for second subjects of sonata-movements
were the dominant (when the tonic was major) and the " relative "
major or dominant minor (when the tonic was minor). A wider
range was possible only in the irresponsible style of D. Scarlatti.
have always been connected by every composer with a wide
range of modulation, from Haydn to Brahms and (with due
allowance for the conditions of his musical drama) Wagner.
b. Indirect Relationships. So strong is the indentity of the
tonic in major and minor mode that Haydn and Mozart had no
scruple in annexing, with certain reservations, the key-relation-
ships of either as an addition to those of the other. The smooth-
ness of Mozart's style makes him prefer to annex the key-relation-
ships of the tonic minor (e.g. C major to Ab, the submediant of
C minor), because the primary tonic note is in the second key,
although its chord is transformed. His range of thought does
not allow him to use these keys otherwise than episodically;
but he certainly does not treat them as chaotically remote by
confining them to rapid modulations in the development-
portions of his movements. They occur characteristically as
beautiful purple patches before or during his second subjects.
Haydn, with his mastery of rational paradox, takes every
opportunity, in his later works, of using all possible indirect
key-relationships in the choice of key for slow movements and
for the trios of minuets. By using them thus sectionally (i.e.
so as not to involve the organic connecting links necessary for the
complementary keys of second subjects) he gives himself a free
hand; and he rather prefers those keys which are obtained by
transforming the minor relationships of a major primary key
(e.g. C to A major instead of A minor). These relationships are
of great brilliance and also of some remoteness of effect, since
the primary tonic note, as well as its chord, disappears entirely.
Haydn also obtains extreme contrasts by changing both modes
(e.g. C minor to A major, as in the G minor Quartet, Op. 72,
No 6, where the slow movement is in E major), and indeed
there is not one key-contrast known to Beethoven and Brahms
which Haydn does not use with complete sense of its meaning,
though his art admits it only as a surprise.
Beethoven rationalized every step in the whole possible range
of key-relationship by such harmonic means as are described in
the article BEETHOVEN. Haydn's favourite key-relationships
he used for the complementary key in first movements; and
he at once discovered that the use of the major mediant as
complementary key to a major tonic implied at all events just
as much suggestion of the submediant major in the recapitula-
tion as would not keep the latter half of the movement for too
long out of the tonic. The converse is not the case, and where
Beethoven uses the submediant major as complementary key
in a major first movement he does not subsequently introduce
the still more remote and brilliant mediant in the recapitulation.
The function of the complementary key is that of contrast and
vividness, so that if the key is to be remote it is as well that it
should be brilliant rather than sombre; and accordingly the
easier key-relationships obtainable through transforming the
tonic into minor do not appear as complementary keys until
Beethoven's latest and most subtle works, as the Quartet in
Bb, Op. 130 (where we again note that the flat submediant of
the exposition is temporarily answered by the flat mediant of
the recapitulation).
c. Artificial Key-relationships. Early in the history of the
minor mode it was discovered that the lower tetrachord could
be very effectively and naturally altered so as to resemble the
upper (thus producing the scale C Db Et[ F, G Ab Bit C). This
produces a flat supertonic (the chord of which is generally pre-
sented in its first inversion, and is known as the Neapolitan 6th.
from its characteristic use in the works of the Neapolitan school
which did so much to establish modern tonality) and its origin,
as just described, often impels it to resolve on a major tonic
chord. Consequently it exists in the minor mode as a pheno-
menon not much more artificial than the mode itself; and
although the keys it thus connects are extremely remote, and
the effect of their connexion very surprising, the connexion is
none the less real, whether from a major or a minor tonic, and
is a crucial test of a composer's sense of key-perspective. Thus
Philipp Emanuel Bach in a spirit of mere caprice puts the
charming little slow movement of his D major Symphony into
Eb and obliterates all real relationship by chaotic operatic
HARMONY
connecting links. Haydn's greatest pianoforte sonata (which,
being probably his last, is of course No. i in most editions)
is in Eb, and its slow movement is in Fl) major ( = Ft>). That
key had already appeared, with surprising effect, in the wander-
ings of the development of the first movement. No attempt is
made to indicate its connexion with Eb; and the finale begins
in Et, but its first bar is unharmonized and starts on the one
note which most contradicts Ei; and least prepares the mind for
Et. The immediate repetition of the opening phrase a step
higher on the normal supertonic strikes the note which the, open-
ing had contradicted, and thus shows its function in the main
key without in the least degree explaining away the paradoxical
effect of the key of the slow movement. Brahms's Violoncello
Sonata Op. 99, is in F; a prominent episode in the development
of the first movement is in E# minor ( = Gb), thus preparing the
mind for the slow movement, which is in F$ major ( = Gt>), with
a central episode in F minor. The scherzo is in F minor, and
begins on the dominant. Thus if we play its first chord immedi-
ately after the last chord of the slow movement we have exactly
that extreme position of flat supertonic followed by dominant
which is a favourite form of cadence in Wagner, who can even
convey its meaning by its mere bass without any harmonies
(Walkiire, Act 3, Scene 2:"Was jetzt du bist,das sage dir selbst").
Converse harmonic relationships are, as we have seen, always
weaker than their direct forms. And thus the relation of C major
to B major or minor (as shown in the central episode of the slow
movement just mentioned) is rare. Still more rare is the obtain-
ing of indirect artificial relationships, of which the episode in
the first movement just mentioned is an illustration in so far
as it enhances the effect of the slow movement, but is incon-
clusive in so far as it is episodic. For with remote key-relation-
ships everything depends upon whether they are used with what
may be called cardinal function (like complementary keys) or not.
Even a near key may occur in the course of wandering modula-
tions without producing any effect of relationship at all, and this
should always be borne in mind whenever we accumulate
statistics from classical music.
d. Contrary and Unconnected Keys. There remain only two
pairs of keys that classical music has not brought into connexion,
a circumstance which has co-operated with the utter vagueness
of orthodox theories on the subject to confirm the conventionally
progressive critic in his conviction that all modulations are
alike. We have seen how the effect of modulation from major
tonic to minor supertonic is, on a large scale, obscured by the
identity of the primary dominant with the secondary sub-
dominant, though the one chord is major and the other minor.
Now when the supertonic becomes major this difference no
longer obviates the confusion, and modulation from C major
to D major, though extremely easy, is of so bewildering effect
that it is used by classical composers only in moments of intensely
dramatic surprise, as, for example, in the recapitulation of the
first subject of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony, and the last
variation (or coda) cf the slow movement of his Trio in B\>,
Op. 97. And in both cases the balance is restored by the
converse (and equally if not more contradictory) modulation
between major tonic and major fiat yth, though in the slow
movement of the B\> Trio the latter is represented only by its
dominant chord which is " enharmonically " resolved into quite
another key. The frequent attempts made by easy-going
innovators to treat these key-contrasts on another footing than
that of paradox, dramatic surprise or hesitation, only show a
deficient sense of tonality, which must also mean an inability
to see the intensely powerful effect of the true use of such
modulations in classical music, an effect which is entirely inde-
pendent of any ability to formulate a theory to explain it. 1
1 Many theorists mistake the usual extreme emphasis on the
dominant chord of the dominant key, in preparation for second
subjects, for a modulation to the major supertonic, but this can
deceive no one with any sense of tonality. A good practical test
is to see what becomes of such passages when translated into the
minor mode. Illusory modulation to the flat yth frequently occurs
as a bold method of throwing strong emphasis on to the subdominant
at the outset of a movement, as in Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 31, No. I.
There now remains only one pair of keys that have never been
related, namely, those that (whether major or minor) are at the
distance of a tritone 4th. In the first place they are unrelated
because there is no means of putting any form of a tonic chord
of F$ into any form of the key of C, or vice versa; and in the
second place because it is impossible to tell which of two precisely
opposite keys the second key may be (e.g. we have no means of
knowing that a direct modulation from C to F$ is not from C to Gt>,
which is exactly the same distance in the opposite direction) . And
this brings us to the only remaining subjects of importance in
the science and art of harmony, namely, those of the tempered
scale, enharmonic ambiguity and just intonation. Before
proceeding we subjoin a table of all the key-relationships from
major and minor tonics, representing the degrees by capital
Roman figures when the second key is major and small figures
TABLES OF KEY-RELATIONSHIPS
A. From Major Tonic
i
1
1
1
Indirect through both
i and the second key
i !
Indirect, through i \
III> \{It \
Indirect through the
second key
HI Vl
i i
Doubly indirect through the
farmer indirect keys
Hi* V i k
\
\
\
\
t
Artificial, direct
\
\
IH> \
VII & vfi
Artificial, indirect*
\
S
I* \
\
\
\
Unrelated
\i
>
! V \IVt& ivff-V k &vk
Contradictory
1 \,
VII> & viib
B.
i
From Minor Tonic *
Direct Relationships III iv v VI V,II
jt
1
I
i
I
Indirect, through I
iji viS
i i i i
,lil
Indirect 'through both ! i
I and the second key IV V ,'
Indirect through the /
second key ill vi /
Dcjmbly indirect
III* VI
\
Artificial, direct
Artificial, indirect*
*
1 X
\ Ilk
'< il* VlHt'it vii#
> ,
f
*
/
\ /
Unrelated
\ /
\IV4t & MI=|V> &v(>
Contradictory 6
;
\l II viik
2 Very rare, but the slow movement of Schubert's C major String
Quintet demonstrates it magnificently.
3 All the indirect relationships from a minor tonic are distinctly
strained and, except in the violently contrasted doubly indirect
keys, obscure as being themselves minor. But the direct artificial
modulation is quite smooth, and rich rather than remote. See
Beethoven's C$ minor Quartet.
4 No classical example, though the clearer converse from a major
tonic occurs effectively.
6 Not (with the exception of II) so violent as when from major
tonic. Bach, whose range seldom exceeds direct key-relationships,
is not afraid to drift from D minor to C minor, though nothing would
induce him to go from D major to C major or minor.
8
HARMONY
when minor. Thus I represents tonic major, iv represents
subdominant minor, and so on. A flat or a sharp after the figure
indicates that the normal degree of the standard scale has been
lowered or raised a semitone, even when in any particular pair
of keys it would not be expressed by a flat or a sharp. Thus
vib would, from the tonic of Bb major, express the position of the
slow movement of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, which is written
in F# minor since Gb minor is beyond the practical limits of
notation.
VI. Temperament and Enharmonic Changes. As the facts
of artistic harmony increased in complexity and range, the
purely acoustic principles which (as Helmholtz has shown)
go so far to explain 16th-century aesthetics became more and
more inadequate; and grave practical obstacles to euphonious
tuning began to assert themselves. The scientific (or natural)
ratios of the diatonic scale were not interfered with by art so
long as no discords were "fundamental"; but when discords
began to assume independence, one and the same note often
became assignable on scientific grounds to two slightly different
positions in pitch, or at all events to a position incompatible
with even tolerable effect in performance. Thus, the chord of
the diminished 7th is said to be intolerably harsh in " just
intonation," that is to say, intonation based upon the exact
ratios of a normal minor scale. In practical performance the
diminished 7th contains three minor 3rds and two imperfect
5ths (such as that which is present in the dominant 7th), while
the peculiarly dissonant interval from which the chord takes its
name is very nearly the same as a major 6th. Now it can only
be said that an intonation which makes nonsense of chords of
which every classical composer from the time of Corelli has made
excellent sense, is a very unjust intonation indeed; and to
anybody who realizes the universal relation between art and
nature it is obvious that the chord of the diminished 7th must
owe its naturalness to its close approximation to the natural
ratios of the minor scale, while it owes its artistic possibility
to the extremely minute instinctive modification by which its
dissonance becomes tolerable. As a matter of fact, although
we have shown here and in the article Music how artificial
is the origin and nature of all but the very scantiest materials
of the musical language, there is no art in which the element of
practical compromise is so minute and so hard for any but trained
scientific observation to perceive. If a painter could have a
scale of light and shade as nearly approaching nature as the
practical intonation of music approaches the acoustic facts
it really involves, a visit to a picture gallery would be a severe
strain on the strongest eyes, as Ruskin constantly points out.
Yet music is in this respect exactly on the same footing as other
arts. It constitutes no exception to the universal law that
artistic ideas must be realized, not in spite of, but by means of
practical necessities. However independent the treatment of
discords, they assert themselves in the long run as transient.
They resolve into permanent points of repose of which the
basis is natural; but the transient phenomena float through
the harmonic world adapting themselves, as best they can, to
their environment, showing as much dependence upon the
stable scheme of " just intonation " as a crowd of metaphors
and abstractions in language shows a dependence upon the
rules of the syllogism. As much and no more, but that is no
doubt a great deal. Yet the attempt to determine the point
in modern harmony where just intonation should end and the
tempered scale begin, is as vexatious as the attempt to define
in etymology the point at which the literal meaning of a word
gives places to a metaphorical meaning. And it is as unsound
scientifically as the conviction of the typical circle-squarer
that he is unravelling amysteryandmeasuringaquantityhitherto
unknown. Just intonation is a reality in so far as it emphasizes
the contrast between concord and discord; but when it forbids
artistic interaction between harmony and melody it is a chimera.
It is sometimes said that Bach, by the example of his forty-eight
preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys, first fixed
the modern scale. This is true practically, but not aesthetically.
By writing a series of movements in every key of which the
keynote was present in the normal organ and harpsichord
manuals of his and later times, he enforced the system by which
all facts of modern musical harmony are represented on keyed
instruments by dividing the octave into twelve equal semitones,
instead of tuning a few much-used keys as accurately as possible
and sacrificing the euphony of all the rest. This system of
equal temperament, with twelve equal semitones in the octave,
obviously annihilates important distinctions, and in the most
used keys it sours the concords and blunts the discords more than
unequal temperament; but it is never harsh; and where it does
not express harmonic subtleties the ear instinctively supplies
the interpretation; as the observing faculty, indeed, always
does wherever the resources of art indicate more than they
express.
Now it frequently happens that discords or artificial chords
are not merely obscure in their intonation, whether ideally or
practically, but as produced in practice they are capable of two
sharply distinct interpretations. And it is possible for music to
take advantage of this and to approach a chord in one signifi-
cance and quit it with another. Where this happens in just
intonation (in so far as that represents a real musical conception)
such chords will, so to speak, quiver from one meaning into the
other. And even in the tempered scale the ear will interpret the
change of meaning as involving a minute difference of intonation.
The chord of the diminished 7th has in this way four different
meanings
E*. ii.
and the chord of the augmented 6th, when accompanied by the
fifth, may become a dominant 7th or vice versa, as in the passage
already cited in the coda of the slow movement of Beethoven's
Bb Trio, Op. 97. Such modulations are called enharmonic.
We have seen that all the more complex musical phenomena
involve distinctions enharmonic in the sense of intervals smaller
than a semitone, as, for instance, whenever the progression
D E in the scale of C, which is a minor tone, is identified with the
progression of D E in the scale of D, which is a major tone
(differing from the former as f from ^). But the special musical
meaning of the word " enharmonic " is restricted to the difference
between such pairs of sharps with flats or naturals as can be
represented on a keyboard by the same note, this difference
being the most impressive to the ear in " just intonation " and
to the imagination in the tempered scale.
Not every progression of chords which is, so to speak, spelt
enharmonically is an enharmonic modulation in itself. Thus a
modulation from D flat to E major looks violently enharmonic
on paper, as in the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata,
Op. 1 10. But E major with four sharps is merely the most
convenient way of expressing F flat, a key which would need
six flats and a double flat. The reality of an enharmonic modula-
tion can be easily tested by transporting the passage a semi-
tone. Thus, the passage just cited, put a semitone lower,
becomes a perfectly diatonic modulation from C to E flat. But
no transposition of the sixteen bars before the return of the main
theme in the scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata in Ey, Op. 31,
No. 3, will get rid of the fact that the diminished 7th (G Bb Db Efl) ,
on the dominant of F minor, must have changed into G Bb Db Fb
(although Beethoven does not take the trouble to alter the
spelling) before it could resolve, as it does, upon the dominant
of Ab. But though there is thus a distinction between real and
apparent enharmonic modulations, it frequently happens that
a series of modulations perfectly diatonic in themselves
returns to the original key by a process which can only be
called an enharmonic circle. Thus the whole series of keys now
in practical use can be arranged in what is called the circle of
fifths (C G D A E B F# [ = Gbl Db Ab Bb F C, from which
series we now see the meaning of what was said in the discussion
of key-relationships as to the ambiguity of the relationships
between keys a tritone fourth apart). Now no human memory
is capable of distinguishing the difference of pitch between the
HARMONY
keys of C and B# after a wide series of modulations. The
difference would be perceptible enough in immediate juxta-
position, but after some interval of time the memory will certainly
accept two keys so near in pitch as identical, whether in "just
intonation " or not. And hence the enharmonic circle of fifths
is a conception of musical harmony by which infinity is at once
rationalized and avoided, just as some modern mathematicians
are trying to rationalize the infinity of space by a non-Euclidian
space so curved in the fourth dimension as to return upon itself.
A similar enharmonic circle progressing in major 3rds is of
frequent occurrence and of very rich effect. For example,
the keys of the movements of Brahms's C Minor Symphony
are C minor, E major, Ab major ( = G#),aridC ( = Bft). And the
same circle occurs in the opposite direction in the first movement
of his Third Symphony, where the first subject is in F, the transi-
tion passes directly to Db and thence by exactly the same step
to A (= Bbb). The exposition is repeated, which of course
means that in " just intonation " the first subject would begin
in Gbb and then pass through a transition in Ebbb to the second
subject in Cbbb. As the development contains another spurious
enharmonic modulation, and the recapitulation repeats in
another position the first spurious enharmonic modulation
of the exposition/ it would follow that Brahms's movement
began in F and ended in C sextuple-flat! So much, then, for
the application of bad metaphysics and circle-squaring
mathematics to the art of music. Neither in mathematics nor in
art is an approximation to be confused with an imperfection.
Brahms's movement begins and ends in F much more exactly
than any wooden diagonal fits a wooden square.
The following series of musical illustrations show the genesis of
typical harmonic resources of classical and modern music.
Ex. u. Three concords (tonic, first inversion of sub-
dominant, and dominant of A minor, a possible 16th-
century cadence in the Phrygian mode).
Ex. 13. The same chords varied by a sus-
pension (*).
Ex. 14. Ditto, with the further addition
of a double suspension (*) and two passing
notes (ft).
1 , ' | i ,.
r i J 1
Ex. 15. Ditto, with a chromatic alteration
of the second chord (*) and an "essential"
discord (dominant 7th) at (t).
Ex. 16. Ditto, with chromatic
passing notes (**) and appoggiaturas
(tt).
Ex. 17. The last two
chor ds of Ex. 1 6 at tacked
unexpectedly, the first ap-
poggiatura (.*) prolonged (til
it seems to make a strange
foreign chord before it resolves
on the short note at $, while
the second appoggiatura (f) is
chromatic.
Ex. 18. The same en-
harmonically transformed so
as to become a variation of
the "dominant ninth" of C
minor. The G# at * is
really Ab, and % is no longer
a note of resolution, but a
chromatic passing-note.
WAGNER.
"*^>-_ ^S ' % ~' ^
Definitions.
(Intended to comprise the general conceptions set forth in the
above article.)
1. Musical sounds, or notes, are sensations produced by regular
periodical vibrations in the air, sufficiently rapid to coalesce in a
single continuous sensation, and not too rapid for the mechanism
or the human ear to respond.
2. The pitch of a note is the sensation corresponding to the degree
of rapidity of its vibrations; being low or gram where these are
slow, ana High or acute where they are rapid.
3. An interval is the difference in pitch between two notes.
4. Rhythm is the organization, in a musical scheme, of sounds in
respect of time.
5. Melody is the organization, in a musical scheme, of rhythmic
notes in respect of pitch.
6. Harmony is the organization, in a musical scheme, of simul-
taneous combinations of notes on principles whereby their acoustic
properties interact with laws of rhythm and melody.
7. The harmonic series is an infinite series of notes produced by
the subdivision of a vibrating body or column of air into aliquot
parts, such notes being generally inaudible except in the form of
the timbre which their presence in various proportions imparts to
the fundamental note produced by the whole vibrating body or
air-column.
8. A concord is a combination which, both by its acoustic smooth-
ness and by its logical origin and purpose in a musical scheme, can
form a point of repose.
9. A discord is a combination in which both its logical origin in a
musical scheme and its acoustic roughness show that it cannot
form a point of repose.
10. The perfect concords and perfect intervals are those comprised
within the first four members of the harmonic series, namely, the
octave, as between numbers I and 2 of the series (see Ex. I above) ;
the 5th, as between Nos. 2 and 3; and the 4th, as between Nos'
3 and 4.
11. All notes exactly one or more octaves apart are regarded as
harmonically identical.
12. The root of a chord is that note from which the whole or the
most important parts of the chord appear (if distributed in the right
octaves) as members of the harmonic series.
13. A chord is inverted when its lowest note is not its root.
14. The major triad is a concord containing three different notes
which (octaves being disregarded) are identical with the first, third
and fifth members of the harmonic series (the second and fourth
members being negligible as octaves).
15. The mino - '.riad is a concord containing the same intervals
as the major tried in a different order; in consequence it is artificial,
as one of its notes is not derivable from the harmonic series.
16. Unessential discords are those that are treated purely as the
phenomena of transition, delay or ornament, in an otherwise con-
cordant harmony.
17. Essential discords are those which are so treated that the mind
tends to regard them as definite chords possessing roots.
1 8. A key is an harmonic system in which there is never any
doubt as to which note or triad shall be the final note of music
in that system, nor of the relations between that note or chord
and the other notes or chords. (In this sense the church modes
are either not keys or else they are subtle mixtures of keys.)
19. This final note of a key is called its tonic.
20. The major mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad and
the two other cardinal triads are major.
21. The minor mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad
and one other cardinal triad are minor.
22. A diatonic scale is a series of the notes essential to one major
or minor key, arranged in order of pitch and repeating itself in
other octaves on reaching the limit of an octave.
23. Modulation is the passing from one key to another.
24. Chromatic notes and chords are those which do not belong to
the diatonic scale of the passage in which they occur, but which are
not so used as to cause modulation.
25. Enharmonic intervals are minute intervals which never
occur in music as directly measured quantities, though they exist
as differences between approximately equal ordinary intervals,
diatonic or chromatic. In an enharmonic modulation, two chords
differing by an enharmonic quantity are treated as identical.
26. Pedal or organ point is the sustaining of a single note in the
bass (or, in the case of an inverted pedal, in an upper part) while the
larmonies move independently. Unless the harmonies are some-
:imes foreign to the sustained note, it does not constitute a pedal. In
modern music pedals take place on either the tonic or the dominant,
other pedal-notes being rare and of complex meaning. Double
medals (of tonic and dominant, with tonic below) are not unusual.
The device is capable of very free treatment, and has produced
many very bold and rich harmonic effects in music since the earlier
works of Beethoven. It probably accounts for many so-called
essential discords."
In the form of drones the pedal is the only real harmonic device
of ancient and primitive music. The ancient Greeks sometimes
IO
HARMOTOME HARNESS
used a reiterated instrumental note as an accompaniment above
the melody. These primitive devices, though harmonic in the true
modern sense of the word, are out of the line of harmonic develop-
ment, and did not help it in any definite way.
27. The fundamental bass of a harmonic passage is an imaginary
bass consisting of the roots of the chords.
28. A figured bass, or continue, is the bass of a composition supplied
with numerals indicating the chords to be filled in by the accompanist.
Thorough-bass (Ger. Generalbass) is the art of interpreting such
figures. (D. F. T.)
HARMOTOME, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of
hydrous barium and aluminium silicate, HsBaAi^SiOs^+SHjO.
Usually a small amount of potassium is present replacing part
of the barium. The system of
crystallization is monoclinic; only
complex twinned crystals are
known. A common and character-
istic form of twinned crystal, such
as is represented in the figure, con-
sists of four intercrossing indi-
viduals twinned together according
to two twin-laws; the compound
group resembles a tetragonal crystal
with prism and pyramid, but may
be distinguished from this by the
grooves along the edges of the
pseudo-prism. The faces of the
crystals are marked by character-
istic striations, as indicated in the figure. Twinned crystals of
exactly the same kind are also frequent in phillipsite (q.v.).
Crystals are usually white and translucent, with a vitreous
lustre. The hardness is 45, and the specific gravity 2-5.
The name harmotome (from dp^os, " a joint," and Ttpvuv,
" to cut ") was given by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, and has a crystallo-
graphic signification. Earlier names are cross-stone (Ger.
Kreuzstein) , ercinite, andreasbergolite and andreolite, the two
last being derived from the locality, Andreasberg in the Harz.
Morvenite (from Morven in Argyllshire) is the name given to
small transparent crystals formerly referred to phillipsite.
Like other zeolites, harmotome occurs with calcite in the
amygdaloidal cavities of volcanic rocks, for example, in the
dolerites of Dumbartonshire, and as fine crystals in the agate-
lined cavities in the melaphyre of Oberstein in Germany. It
also occurs in gneiss, and sometimes in metalliferous veins.
At Andreasberg in the Harz it is found in the lead and silver
veins; and at Strontian in Argyllshire in lead veins, associated
with brewsterite (a strontium and barium zeolite), barytes and
calcite. (L. J. S.)
HARMS, CLAUS (1778-1855), German divine, was born at
Fahrstedt in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of May 1778, and
in his youth worked in his father's mill. At the university of
Kiel he repudiated the prevailing rationalism and under the
influence of Schleiermacher became a fervent Evangelical
preacher, first at Lunden (1806), and then at Kiel (1816). His
trenchant style made him very popular, and he did great service
for his cause especially in 1817, when, on the 3ooth anniversary
of the Reformation, he published side by side with Luther's
theses, ninety-five of his own, attacking reason as " the pope of
our time " who " dismisses Christ from the altar and throws
God's word from the pulpit." He also had some fame as a hymn-
writer, and besides volumes of sermons published a good book on
Pastoraltheologie (1830). He resigned his pastorate on account
of blindness in 1849, and died on the ist of February 1855.
See Autobiography (2nd ed., Kiel, 1852); M. Baumgarten, Bin
Denkmalfur C. Harms (Brunswick, 1855).
HARNACK, ADOLF (1851- ), German theologian, was born
on the 7th of May 1851 at Dorpat, in Russia, where his father,
Theodosius Harnack (1817-1889), held a professorship of pastoral
theology.
Theodosius Harnack was a staunch Lutheran and a prolific
writer on theological subjects; his chief field of work was
practical theology, and his important book on that subject,
summing up his long experience and teaching, appeared at
Eriangen (1877-1878, 2 vols.). The liturgy of the Lutheran
church of Russia has, since 1898, been based on his Liturgische
Formulare (1872).
The son pursued his studies at Dorpat (1869-1872) and at
Leipzig, where he took his degree; and soon afterwards (1874)
began lecturing as a Privatdozent. These lectures, which dealt
with such special subjects as Gnosticism and the Apocalypse,
attracted considerable attention, and in 1876 he was appointed
professor extraordinarius. In the same year he began the publica-
tion, in conjunction with O. L. von Gebhardt and T. Zahn, of
an edition of the works of the Apostolic Fathers, Patrum apostoli-
corum opera, a smaller edition of which appeared in 1877.
Three years later he was called to Giessen as professor ordinarius
of church history. There he collaborated with Oscar Leopold
von Gebhardt in Texte und U nlersuchungen zur Geschichte der
altchristlichen Litleratur (1882 sqq.), an irregular periodical, con-
taining only essays in New Testament and patristic fields. In
1 88 1 he published a work on monasticism, Das Monchtum, seine
Ideale und seine Geschichte (sth ed., 1900; English translation,
1901), and became joint-editor with Emil Schurer of the
Theologische Literaturzeitung. In 1885 he published the first
volume of his epoch-making work, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte
(3rd ed. in three volumes, 1894-1898; English translation in
seven volumes, 1894-1899). In this work Harnack traces the
rise of dogma, by which he understands the authoritative
doctrinal system of the 4th century and its development down
to the Reformation. He considers that in its earliest origins
Christian faith and the methods of Greek thought were so
closely intermingled that much that is not essential to Chris-
tianity found its way into the resultant system. Therefore
Protestants are not only free, but bound, to criticize it; indeed,
for a Protestant Christian, dogma cannot be said to exist. An
abridgment of this appeared in 1889 with the title Grundriss
der Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed., 1898). In 1886 Harnack was
called to Marburg; and in 1888, in spite of violent opposition
from the conservative section of the church authorities, to
Berlin. In 1890 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences.
At Berlin, somewhat against his will, he was drawn into a
controversy on the Apostles' Creed, in which the party antagon-
isms within the Prussian Church had found expression. Harnack 's
view is that the creed contains both too much and too little to
be a satisfactory test for candidates for ordination, and he
would prefer a briefer symbol which could be rigorously exacted
from all (cf. his Das apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis. Ein
geschichtlicher Bericht nebst einem Nachworte, 1892; 27th ed.,
1896). At Berlin Harnack continued his literary labours. In
1893 he published a history of early Christian literature down
to Eusebius, Geschichte der altchrisll. Litteratur bis Eusebius
(part 2 of vol. i., 1897); and in 1900 appeared his popular
lectures, Das Wesen des Christentums (sth ed., 1901; English
translation, What is Christianity? 1901; 3rd ed., 1904). One
of his more recent historical works is Die Mission und Ausbreitung
des Christentums in den ersten drei J ahrhunderten (1902; English
translation in two volumes, 1904-1905). It has been followed
by some very interesting and important New Testament studies
(Beitrage zur Einleilung in das neue Testament, 1906 sqq.; Engl.
trans.: Luke the Physician, 1907; Tke Savings of Jesus, 1908).
Harnack, both as lecturer and writer, was one of the most
prolific and most stimulating of modern critical scholars, and
trained up in his " Seminar " a whole generation of teachers,
who carried his ideas and methods throughout the whole of
Germany and even beyond its borders. His distinctive character-
istics are his claim for absolute freedom in the study of church
history and the New Testament; his distrust of speculative
theology, whether orthodox or liberal; his interest in practical
Christianity as a religious life and not a system of theology.
Some of his addresses on social matters have been published
under the heading " Essays on the Social Gospel " (1907).
HARNESS (from O. Fr. harneis or harnois; the ultimate origin
is obscure; the Celtic origin which connects it with the Welsh
haiarn, iron, has phonetic and other difficulties; the French is
the origin of the Span, arnes, and Ger. Harnisch), probably, in
HARO HARP
n
origin, gear, tackle, equipment in general, but early applied
particularly to the body armour of a soldier, including the
trappings of the horse; now the general term for the gear of an
animal used for draft purposes, traces, collar, bridle, girth,
breeching, &c. It is usually not applied to the saddle or bridle
of a riding animal. The word, in its original meaning of tackle
or working apparatus, is still found in weaving, for the mechanism
which shifts the warp-threads to form the " shed," and in
bell-hanging, for the apparatus by which a large bell is hung.
The New English Dictionary quotes an early use of the word for
the lines, rod and hooks of an angler (Fysshing with an Angle,
c. 145)-
HARO, CLAMEUR DE, the ancient Norman custom of " crying
for justice," still surviving in the Channel Islands. The wronged
party must on his knees and before witnesses cry: "Haro!
Haro! Haro! a 1'aide, mon prince, on me fait tort." This
appeal has to be respected, and the alleged trespass or tort
must cease till the matter has been thrashed out in the courts.
The " cry " thus acts as an interim injunction, and no inhabitant
of the Channel Islands would think of resisting it. The custom
is undoubtedly very ancient, dating from times when there
were no courts and no justice except such as was meted out by
princes personally. The popular derivation for the name is
that which explains "Haro" as an abbreviation of "Ha!
Rollo," a direct appeal to Rollo, first duke of Normandy. It
is far more probable that haro is simply an exclamation to call
attention (O.H.G. hera, hara, "here"!). Indeed it is clear
that the " cry for justice " was in no sense an institution of
Rollo, but was a method of appeal recognized in many countries.
It is said to be identical with the " Legatro of the Bavarians
and the Thuringians," and the first mention of it in France is
to be found in the " Grand coutumier de Normandie." A
similar custom, only observed in criminal charges, was recognized
by the Saxon laws under the name of " Clamor Violentiae."
Thus there is reason to think that William the Conqueror on his
arrival in England found the " cry " fully established as far as
criminal matters were concerned. Later the " cry " was made
applicable to civil wrongs, and, when the administration of
justice became systematized, disappeared altogether in criminal
cases. It naturally tended to become obsolete as the administra-
tion of justice became systematized, but it was long retained
in north-western France in cases of disputed possession,
and was not actually repealed until the close of the i8th
century. A survival of the English form of haro is possibly to
be found in the " Ara," a cry at fairs when " settling time "
arrived.
HAROLD I. (d. 1040), surnamed Harefopt, the illegitimate
son of Canute, king of England, and ^Elfgifu of Northampton.
On the death of his father in 1035, he claimed the crown of
England in opposition to Canute's legitimate son, Hardicanute.
His claims were supported by Leofric, earl of Mercia, and the
north; those of Hardicanute by his mother, Queen Emma,
Godwine, earl of the West-Saxons and the south. Eventually
Harold was temporarily elected regent, pending a final settle-
ment on Hardicanufe's return from Denmark. Hardicanute,
however, tarried, and meanwhile Harold's party increased
rapidly. In 1037 he was definitely elected king, and banished
Emma from the kingdom. The only events of his brief reign
are ineffectual inroads of the Welsh and Scots. Hardicanute
was preparing to invade England in support of his claims when
Harold died at Oxford on the loth of March 1040.
HAROLD II. (c. 1022-1066), king of the English, the second
son of Earl Godwine, was born about 1022. While still very
young (before 1045) he was appointed to the earldom of the
East-Angles. He snared his father's outlawry and banishment
in 1051; but while Godwine went to Flanders, Harold with his
brother Leofwine took refuge in Ireland. In 1052 Harold and
Leofwine returned. Having plundered in the west of England,
they joined their father, and were with him at the assembly
which decreed the restoration of the whole family. Harold
was now restored to his earldom of the East-Angles, and on his
father's death in 1053 he succeeded him in the greater earldom
of the West-Saxons. He was now the chief man in the kingdom,
and when the older earls Leofric and Siward died his power
increased yet more, and the latter part of Edward's reign was
virtually the reign of Harold. In 1055 he drove back the Welsh,
who had burned Hereford. In 1063 came the great Welsh war,
in which Harold, with the help of his brother Tostig, crushed the
power of Gruffyd, who was killed by his own people. But in
spite of his power and his prowess, Harold was the minister of
the king rather than his personal favourite. This latter position
rather belonged to Tostig, who on the death of Siward in 1053
received the earldom of Northumberland. Here, however,
his harshness soon provoked enmity, and in 1065 the North-
umbrians revolted against him, choosing Morkere in his place.
Harold acted as mediator between the king and the insurgents,
and at length agreed to the choice of Morkere, and the banish-
ment of his brother. At the beginning of 1066 Edward died,
with his last breath recommending Harold as his successor.
He was accordingly elected at once and crowned. The men
of Northumberland at first refused to acknowledge him, but
Harold won them over. The rest of his brief reign was taken
up with preparations against the attacks which threatened
him on both sides at once. William challenged the crown,
alleging both a bequest of Edward in his favour and a personal
engagement which Harold had contracted towards him
probably in 1064; and prepared for the invasion of England.
Meanwhile Tostig was trying all means to bring about his own
restoration. He first attacked the Isle of Wight, then Lindesey,
but was compelled to take shelter in Scotland. From May to
September the king kept the coast with a great force by sea
and land, but at last provisions failed and the land army was
dispersed. Harold then came to London, ready to 'meet which-
ever enemy came first. By this time Tostig had engaged Harold
Hardrada of Norway to invade England. Together they sailed
up the Humber, defeated Edwin and Morkere, and received the
submission of York. Harold hurried northwards; and on the
25th of September he came on the Northmen at Stamford
Bridge and won a complete victory, in which Tostig and Harold
Hardrada were slain. But two days later William landed at
Pevensey. Harold marched southward as fast as possible. He
gathered his army in London from all southern and eastern
England, but Edwin and Morkere kept back the forces of the
north. The king then marched into Sussex and engaged the
Normans on the hill of Senlac near Battle (see HASTINGS). After
a fight which lasted from morning till evening, the Normans had
the victory, and Harold and his two brothers lay dead on the
field (i4th of October 1066). .
HARP (Fr. harpe; Ger. Harfe; Ital. arpa), a member of the
class of stringed instruments of which the strings are twanged or
vibrated by the fingers. The harp is an instrument of beautiful
proportions, approximating to a triangular form, the strings
diminishing in length as they ascend in pitch. The mechanism
is concealed within the different parts of which the instrument
is composed, (i) the pedestal or pedal-box, on which rest (2) the
vertical pillar, and (3) the inclined convex body in which the
soundboard is fixed, (4) the curved neck, with (5) the comb
concealing the mechanism for stopping the strings, supported
by the pillar and the body.
(1) The pedestal or pedal-box^ forms the base of the harp and
contains seven pedals both in single and double action harps, the
difference being that in the single action the pedals are only capable
of raising the strings one semitone by means of a drop into a notch,
whereas with the double action the pedals, after a first drop, can by
a further drop into a second and lower notch shorten the string a
second semitone, whereby each string is made to serve in turn for
flat, natural and sharp. The harp is normally in the key of C flat
major, and each of the seven pedals acts upon one of the notes of
this diatonic scale throughout the compass. The choice of this
method of tuning was imposed by the construction of the harp with
double action. The pedals remain in the notches until released by
the foot, when the pedal returns to its normal position through the
action of a spiral spring, which may be seen under each of the pedals
by turning the harp up.
(2) The vertical pillar is a kind of tunnel in which are placed the
seven rods worked by the pedals, which set in motion the mechanism
situated in the neck of the instrument. Although the pillar apparently
12
HARP
rests on the pedestal, it is really supported by a brass shoulder firmly
screwed to the beam which forms the lowest part of the body, a
connexion which remains undisturbed when the pedal box and its
cover are removed.
(3) The body or sound-chest of the harp is in shape like the longi-
tudinal section of a cone. It was formerly composed of staves joined
together as in the lute and mandoline. Erard was the first to make
it in two pieces of wood, generally sycamore, with the addition of a
flat soundboard of Swiss pine. The body is strengthened on the
inside, in order to resist the tension of the strings, by means of ribs;
there are five soundholes in the back, which in the older models were
furnished with swell shutters opened at will by the swell pedal, the
fourth from the left worked by the left foot. As the increase of
sound obtained by means of the swell was infinitesimal, the device
has now been discarded. The harp is strung by knotting the end of
the string and passing it through its hole in the centre of the sound-
board, where it is kept in position by means cf a grooved peg which
grips the string.
(4) The neck consists of a curved piece of wood resting on the body
at the treble end of the instrument and joining the pillar at the bass
end. In the neck are set the tuning pins round which are wound the
strings.
(5) The comb is the name given to two brass plates or covers
which fit over both sides of the neck, concealing part of the mechan-
ism for shortening the strings and raising their pitch a semitone
when actuated by the pedals. On the front plate of the comb, to the
left of the player, is a row of brass bridges against which the strings
rest below the tuning pins, and which determine the vibrating length
of the string reckoned from the peg in the soundboard. Below the
bridges are two rows of brass disks, known as forks, connected by
steel levers; each disk is equipped with two studs for grasping the
string and shortening it. The mechanism is ingenious. When a
pedal is depressed to the first notch, the corresponding lower disk
turns a little way on a mandrel keeping the studs clear of the string.
The upper disk, set in motion by the steel levers connecting the disks,
revolves simultaneously till the string is caught by the two studs
which thus form a new bridge, shortening the vibrating length of
the string by just the length necessary to raise the pitch a semitone.
If the same pedal be depressed to the second notch, another move-
ment causes the lower disk to revolve again till the string is a second
time seized and shortened, the upper disk remaining stationary.
The hidden mechanism meanwhile has gone through a series of
movements; the pedal is really a lever set upon a spring, and when
depressed it draws down the connecting rod in the pillar which sets
in motion chains governing the mandrels of the disks.
The harp usually has forty-six strings, of gut in the middle and
upper registers, and of covered steel wire in the bass; the C strings
are red and the F strings blue. The compass thus has a range of
octaves from
The double stave is
used as for the pianoforte. The single action harp used to be tuned
to the key of Efc> major.
The modern harp with double action is the only instrument with
fixed tones, not determined by the ear or touch of the performer,
which has separate notes for naturals, sharps and flats, giving it an
enharmonic compass. On the harp the appreciable interval between
D# and El> can be played. The harp in its normal condition is tuned
to Ct> major; it rests with the performer to transpose it at will in a
few seconds into any other key by means of the pedals. Each of the
pedals influences one note of the scale throughout the compass,
beginning at the left with D, C, and B worked by the left foot.
Missing the fourth or forte pedal, and continuing towards the right
we get the E, F, G and A pedals worked by the right foot. By
lowering the D pedal into the first notch the Db becomes Dti, and
into the second notch D#, and so on for all the pedals. If, for
example, a piece be written in the key of E major, the harp is trans-
posed into that key by depressing the E, A, and B pedals to the first
notch, and those for F, G, C and D to the second or sharp notch and
so on through all the keys. Accidentals and modulations are
readily played by means of the pedals, provided the transitions be
not too rapid. The harp is the instrument upon which transposition
presents the least difficulty, for the fingering is the same for all
keys. The strings are twanged with the thumbs and the first three
fingers.
The quality of tone does not vary much in the different registers,
but it has the greatest brilliancy in keys with many flats, for the
strings are then open and not shortened by the forks. Various
effects can be obtained on the harp: (i) by harmonics, (2) by damp-
ing, (3) by guitar tones, (4) by the glissando. (i) Harmonics are
produced by resting the ball of the hand on the middle of the string
and setting it in vibration by the thumb or the first two fingers of
the same hand, whereby a mysterious and beautiful tone is obtained.
Two or three harmonics can be played together with the left hand,
and by using both hands at once as many as four are possible.
(2) Damping is effected by laying the palm against the string in the
bass and the back of the finger in the treble. (3) Guitar or pizzicato
notes are obtained by twanging the strings sharply at the lower end
near the soundboard with the nails. (4) The glissando effect is
produced, as on the pianoforte, by sliding the thumb or finger along
the strings in quick succession; this does not necessarily give the
diatonic scale, for by means of the pedals the harp can be tuned
beforehand to chords. It is possible to play on the harp all kinds of
diatonic and arpeggio passages, but no chromatic, except in very
slow tempo, on account of the time required by the mechanism of
the pedals; and chords of three or four notes in each hand, shakes,
turns, successions of double notes can be easily acquired. The same
note can also be repeated slowly or quickly, the next string being
tuned to a duplicate note, and the two strings plucked alternately
in order to give the string time to vibrate.
Pleyel's chromatic harp, patented in 1894 ar >d improved in 1903
by Gustave Lyon, manager of the firm of Pleyel, Wolff & Co., is
an instrument practically without mechanism which has already
won great favour in France and Belgium, notably in the orchestra.
It has been constructed on the familiar lines of the pianoforte.
Henry Pape, a piano manufacturer, had in 1845 conceived the idea
of a chromatic harp of, which the strings crossed in the centre as in
the piano, and a report on the construction was published at the
time; the instrument, however, was not considered successful, and
was relegated to oblivion until Mr Lyon revised the matter and
brought out a successful and practical instrument. The advantages
claimed for this harp are the abandonment of the whole pedal
mechanism, a metal framing which insures the strings keeping in
tune as long as those of a piano, and an easily acquired technique.
The chromatic harp consists of (i) a pedestal on castors, (2) a steel
pillar without internal mechanism, (3) a wide neck containing two
brass wrest-planks in which are fixed two rows of tuning pins, and
(4) a soundchest in which is firmly riveted the steel plate to which
the strings are fastened, and the soundboard pierced with eyelet
holes through which the strings are drawn to the string plate. There
is a string for every chromatic semitone of the scale of C major, the
white strings representing the white keys of the piano keyboard,
and the black strings corresponding to the black keys. The tuning
pins for the black strings are set in the left side of the neck in alternate
groups of twos and threes, and those for the white in the right side
in alternate groups of threes and fours. The strings cross half-way
between neck and soundboard, this being the point where they are
plucked; the left hand finds the black notes above, and the right
hand below the crossing. There is besides in the neck a set of twelve
tuning buttons, each one of which on being pressed gives out one
note of the chromatic scale tuned to the pitch of the diapason normal.
It is obvious that the repertoire for this harp is very extensive,
including many compositions written for the piano, which however
cannot be played with any legato effects, these being still impossible
on this chromatic harp.
History. While the instrument is of great antiquity, it is yet
from northern Europe that the modern harp and its name are derived.
The Greeks and Romans preferred to it the lyre in its different
varieties, and a Latin writer, Venantius Fortunatus, 1 describes it in
the 7th century of our era as an instrument of the barbarians
" Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi barbarus harpa." This is believed
to be the earliest mention of the name, which is clearly Teutonic,
O.H.Ger. harapha, A.-S. hearpe, Old Norse harpa. The modern
Fr. harpe retains the aspirate; in the Spanish and Italian arpa it is
dropped.
The earliest delineations of the harp in Egypt give no indication
that it had not existed long before. There are, indeed, representa-
tions in Egyptian paintings of stringed instruments of a bow-form
having affinities with both primitive harp and nefer (a kind of oval
guitar) that support the idea of the invention of the harp from
the tense string of the
warrior's or hunter's
bow. This primitive-
looking instrument,
called nanga, had a boat-
shaped sound-chest with
a parchment or skin
soundboard, down the
centre of which one end
of the string was fas-
tened to a strip of wood,
whilst the other was
wound round pegs in
the upper part of the p
bow. The nanga was <IG '
played horizontally, being borne upon the performer's shoulder. 1
Between it and the grand vertical harps in the frescos of the time of
Rameses III., more than 3000 years old, discovered by the traveller
Bruce 3 (fig. i), there are varieties that permit us to bind the whole,
1 Poemala, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245, Migne's Patrologiae cursus
completes (Paris, 1857-1866, vol. 88).
1 A few nangas (c. 1500 B.C.) are preserved among the Egyptian
antiquities at the British Museum, fourth Egyptian room.
* Bruce's harps are reproduced by Champollion, tome iii. p. 261.
HARP
from the simplest bow-form to the almost triangular harp, into one
family (see fig. 2).
The Egyptian harp had no front pillar, and as it was strung with
catgut the tension and pitch must necessarily have been low. The
harps above - mentioned
depicted in the tomb at
Thebes, assumed from
the players to be more
than 6 ft. high, have not
many strings, the one
having ten, the other
thirteen. What the
, accordance of these strings
I was it would be hard to
recover. We must be
content with the know-
ledge that the old
Egyptians possessed harps
in principle like our
.., own, the largest having
pedestals upon which they
bestowed a wealth of decoration, as if to show how much they
prized them.
The ancient Assyrians had harps like those of Egypt in being
without a front pillar, but differing from them in having the sound-
body uppermost, in which we find the early use of soundholes;
while the lower portion was a bar to which the strings were tied and
by means of which the tuning was apparently effected. 1 What the
Hebrew harp was, whether it followed the Egyptian or the Assyrian,
we do not know. That King David played upon the harp as com-
monly depicted is rather a modern idea. Medieval artists frequently
gave King David the psaltery, a horizontal stringed instrument from
which has gradually developed the modern piano. The Hebrew
" kinnor " may have been a kind ot trigonon, a triangular stringed
instrument between a small harp and a psaltery, sounded by a
plectrum, or more probably, as advocated by Dr Stainer in his essay
on the music of the Bible, a kind of lyre.
The earliest records that we possess of the Celtic race, whether
Gaelic or Cymric, give the harp a prominent place and harpists
peculiar veneration and distinction. The names for the harp are,
however, quite different from the Teutonic. The Irish " clairseach,"
the Highland Scottish " clarsach," the Welsh, Cornish, Breton
" telyn, ' " telein," " te'Ien," show no etymological kinship to the
other European names. The first syllable in clairseach or clarsach
is derived from the Gaelic " clar," a board or table (soundboard),
while the first syllable of telyn is distinctly Old Welsh, and has a
tensile meaning; thus resonance supplies the one idea, tension
the other.
The literature of these Celtic harps may be most directly found in
Bunting's Ancient Music of Ireland (Dublin, 1840), Gunn's His-
torical Enquiry respecting the Performance on the Harp in the Highlands
of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1807), and E. Jones's Musical and Poetical
Memoirs of the Welsh Bards (London, 1784). The treatises of Walker,
Dalyell, and others may also be consulted ; but in all these authorities
due care must be taken of the bias of patriotism, and the delusive
aim to reconstruct much that we must be content to receive as only
vaguely indicated in records and old monuments. There is, however,
one early Irish monument about which there can be no mistake, the
harp upon a cross belonging to the ancient church of Ullard near
Kilkenny, the date of which cannot be later than 830; the sculpture
is rude, but the instrument is clearly shown by the drawing in
Bunting's work to have no front pillar. This remarkable structural
likeness to the old harps of Egypt and Assyria may be accidental,
but permits the plausible hypothesis of Eastern descent. The oldest
specimen of the beautiful form by which the Irish harp is now
recognized, with gracefully curved front pillar and sweep of neck
(the latter known as the harmonic curve), is the famous harp in
Trinity College, Dublin, the possession of which has been attributed
to King Brian Boiroimhe. From this mythic ownership Dr Petrie
(see essay in Bunting) has delivered it; but he can only deduce the
age from the ornamentation and heraldry, which fix its date in the
I4th century or a little later. There is a cast of it in the Victoria
and Albert Museum. The next oldest is in the Highlands of Scotland,
the Clarsach Lumanach, or Lament's Clarschoe, belonging, with
another of later date, to the old Perthshire family of Robertson of
Lude. Both are described in detail by Gunn. This Lamont harp
was taken by a lady of that family from Argyleshire about 1460,
on her marriage into the family of Lude. It had about thirty strings
tuned singly, but the scale was sometimes doubled in pairs of unisons
like lutes and other contemporary instruments. The Dalway harp
in Ireland (fig. 3) inscribed " Ego sum Regina Cithararum," and
dated 1621, appears to have had pairs of strings in the centre only.
These were of brass wire, and played with the pointed finger-nails.
The Italian contemporary " Arpa Doppia " was entirely upon the
duplex principle, but with gut strings played by the fleshy ends of
the fingers. When E. Bunting met at Belfast in 1792 as
' , Re P r ? scntati ns of these may be seen among the musical scenes
in the Nimrod Gallery at the British Museum.
many Irish harpers as could be at that late date assembled, he
found the compass of their harps to comprise
thirty notes which were tuned diatonically in the key^f G, under
certain circumstances transposable to C and rarely to D, the scales
being the major of these keys. The harp first appeared in the coat
of arms of Ireland in the reign of Henry VIII.; and some years
after in a map of 1567 preserved in a volume of state papers, we
find it truly drawn according to the outlines of the national Irish
instrument. 2 References to the Highlands of Scotland are of neces-
sity included with Ireland; and in both we find another name
erroneously applied by lexicographers to the
harp, viz. " cruit." Bunting particularly
mentions the " cinnard cruit " (harp with
a high head) and the " crom cruit " (the
curved harp). In the Ossianic MSS. of the
Dean of Lismore (1512) the word " crwt "
occurs several times, and in Neill M 'Alpine's
Gaelic Dictionary (1832), which gives the
dialect of Islay, closely related to that of
Ulster, the word " cruit " is rendered
" harp." The confusion doubtless arose from
the fact that from the nth century cithara
is glossed hearpan in Anglo-Saxon MSS., a
word which, like cilharisare in medieval
Latin, referred to plucking or twanging of
strings in contradistinction to those instru-
ments vibrated by means of the bow. In FIG. 3.
Irish of the 8th and gth centuries (Zeuss) Irish (Dalway) Harp,
cithara is always glossed by " crot." The modern Welsh " crwth "
is not a harp but a " rotta " (see CROWD). An old Welsh harp,
not triple strung, exists, which bears a great resemblance to
the Irish harp in neck, soundboard and soundholes. But this
does not imply derivation of the harp of Wales from that of
Ireland or the reverse. There is really no good historical evidence,
and there may have been a common or distinct origin on which
ethnology only can throw light. 3 The Welsh like the Irish harp
was often an hereditary instrument to be preserved with great
care and veneration, and used by the bards of the family, who were
alike the poet-musicians and historians. A slave was not allowed
to touch a harp, and it was exempted by the Welsh laws from seizure
for debt. The old Welsh harp appears to have been at one time
strung with horse-hair, and by the Eisteddfod laws the pupil spent
his noviciate of three years in the practice of a harp with that string-
ing. The comparatively modern Welsh triple harp (fig. 4) is always
strung with gut. It has a rising neck as before
stated, and three rows of strings, the outer rows
tuned diatonic, the centre one chromatic for the
sharps and flats. Jones gives it 98 strings and
a compass of 5 octaves and one note, from
violoncello C. As in all Celtic harps, the left is
the treble hand, and in the triple harps there are
27 strings on that side, the right or bass hand
having 37, and the middle or chromatic row 34.
The first pattern of the modern harp is dis-
covered in German and Anglo-Saxon illuminated
MSS. as far back as the gth century. 4 A diatonic
instrument, it must have been common through-
out Europe, as Orcagna, Fra Angelico, and other
famous Italian painters depict it over and over
again in their masterpieces. No accidental
semitones were possible with this instrument,
unless the strings were shortened by the player's
fingers. This lasted until the 1 7th century,
when a Tirolese maker adapted hooks 6 (perhaps FIG. 4.
suggested by the fretted or bonded clavichord) WelshTripleHarp.
that, screwed into the neck, could be turned
downwards to fix the desired semitone at pleasure. At last, some-
where about 1720, Hochbrucker, a Bavarian, invented pedals that,
acting through the pedestal of the instrument, governed by mechan-
ism the stopping, and thus left the player's hands free, an indisput-
able advantage; and it became possible at once to play in no less
2 See also a woodcut in John Derrick's Image of Ireland (1581),
pi. iii. (Edinburgh ed. 1883).
3 See the fine volume Musical Instruments on the Irish and
Scottish harps by Robert Bruce Armstrong (1904), vol. i. Vol. ii.,
which deals with the Welsh harp, has unfortunately been withdrawn
from sale.
4 See for the medieval harp a careful article by Hortense Panum,
" Harfe und Lyra im alten -Nord-Europa," in Intern. Mus. Ges.
vol. vii. pt. I (Leipzig, 1905); and for references as to illuminated
MSS., early woodcuts, paintings, &c. see Hugo Leichtentritt, " Was
lehren uns die Bildwerke des 14-17 Jahrhunderts uber die Instru-
mentalmusik ihrer Zeit ? " ibid. vol. vii. p. 3 (Leipzig, 1906).
6 See Nauwerk, " Die Hakenharfe, Die Vervoilkommnung des
Mechanismus an der deutschen Harfe." in Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig,
1815), p. 545 seq.
HARPENDEN HARPIES
than eight major scales. By a sequence of improvements, in which
two Frenchmen named Cousineau took an important part, the
various defects inherent in Hochbrucker's plan became ameliorated.
The pedals were doubled, and, the tuning of the instrument being
changed from the key of Ei> to Ci>, it became possible to play in
fifteen keys, thus exceeding the power of the keyboard instruments,
over which the harp has another important advantage in the sim-
plicity of the fingering, which is the same for every key.
It is to Sebastian Erard we owe the perfecting of the pedal harp
( n g' 5)> a triumph he gained in Paris by unremitting studies begun
when he adopted a " fork " mechanism in 1786
and ended in 1810 when he had attained com-
plete success with the double action pedal
mechanism already described above. Erard's
merit was not confined to this improvement
only; he modified the structure of the comb
that conceals the mechanism, and constructed
the sound-body of the instrument upon a
modern principle more advantageous to the
tone.
Notwithstanding these improvements and the
great beauty of tone the harp possesses, the
domestic use of it in modern times has almost
disappeared. The great cost of a good harp,
and the trouble to many amateurs of tuning,
may have led to the supplanting of the harp
by the more convenient and useful pianoforte.
With this comes naturally a diminution in
FIG. 5. the number of solo-players on the instru-
Modern Erard Harp. ment. Were it not for the increasing use of
the harp in the orchestra, the colour of its
tone having attracted the masters of instrumentation, so that
the great scores of Meyerbeer and Gounod, of Berlioz, Liszt and
Wagner are not complete without it, we should perhaps know
little more of the harp than of the dulcimer, in spite of the
efforts of distinguished virtuosi whose devotion to their instrument
maintains its technique on an equality with that of any other, even
the most in public favour. The first record of the use of harps in the
orchestra occurs in the account of the Ballet comique de la royne
performed at the chateau de Moutiers on the occasion of the marriage
of Mary of Lorraine with the due de Joyeuse in 1581, when harps
formed part of the concert de musique.
See in addition to the works already referred to, Engel's Musical
Instruments in the South Kensington Museum (1874); and the
articles " Harp," in Rees's Cyclopaedia, written by Dr Burney, in
Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms (1876), and in
Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. On the origins of the
instrument see Proceedings of British Association (1904) (address of
president of anthropological section). (K. S. ; A. J. H.)
HARPENDEN, an urban district in the Mid or St Albans
parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W.
by N. from London by the Midland railway, served also by a
branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 4725. It
is a favourite outlying residential district for those whose work
lies in London. The church of St Nicholas is a modern recon-
struction with the exception of the Perpendicular tower. In the
Lawes Testimonial Laboratory there is a vast collection of
samples of experimentally grown produce, annual products,
ashes and soils. Sir John Bennet Lawes (d. 1900) provided an
endowment of 100,000 for the perpetuation of the agricultural
experiments which he inaugurated here at his seat of Rothamsted
Park. The success of his association of chemistry with botany
is shown by the fact that soil has been made to bear wheat without
intermission for upwards of half a century without manure.
The country neighbouring to Harpenden is very pleasant, includ-
ing the gorse-covered Harpenden Common and the narrow
well-wooded valley of the upper Lea.
HARPER'S FERRY, a town of Jefferson county, West
Virginia, U.S.A., finely situated at the confluence of the Potomac
and Shenandoah rivers (which here pass through a beautiful
gorge in the Blue Ridge), 55 m. N.W. of Washington. Pop.
(1900) 896; (19101 766. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio
railway, which crosses the Potomac here, by the Winchester &
Potomac railway (Baltimore & Ohio) of which it is a terminus,
and by boats on the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, which passes
along the Maryland side of the Potomac. Across the Potomac
on the north rise the Maryland Heights; across the Shenandoah,
on the West Virginia side, the Virginia or Loudoun Heights:
and behind the town to the W. the Bolivar Heights. A United
States arsenal and armoury were established at Harper's Ferry
in 1796, the site being chosen because of the good water-power;
these were seized on the i6th of October 1859 by John Brown
(q.v.), the abolitionist, and some 21 of his followers. For four
months before the raid Brown and his men lived on the Kennedy
Farm, in Washington county, Maryland, about 4 m. N.W. of
Harper's Ferry. The engine-house in which Brown was captured
was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago and was
later rebuilt on Bolivar Heights; a marble pillar, marked
" John Brown's Fort," has been erected on its original site.
On Camp Hill is Storer College (state-aided), a normal school for
negroes, which was established under Free Baptist control in
1867, and has academic, normal, biblical, musical and industrial
departments.
The first settlement here was made about 1747 by Robert
Harper, who ran a ferry across the Potomac. The position
of Harper's Ferry at the lower end of the Shenandoah Valley
rendered it a place of strategic importance during the Civil
War. On the i8th of April 1861, the day after Virginia passed
her ordinance of secession, when a considerable force of Virginia
militia under General Kenton Harper approached the town an
attack having been planned in Richmond two days before the
Federal garrison of 45 men under Lieutenant Roger Jones set fire
to the arsenal and fled. Within the next few days large numbers
of Confederate volunteers assembled here; and Harper was
succeeded in command (27th April) by " Stonewall " Jackson,
who was in turn succeeded by Brigadier-General Joseph E.
Johnston on the 23rd of May. Johnston thought that the place
was unimportant, and withdrew when (i^th June) the Federal
forces under General Robert Patterson and Colonel Lew Wallace
approached, and Harper's Ferry was again occupied by a Federal
garrison. In September 1862, during General Lee's first invasion
of the North, General McClellan advised that the place be
abandoned in order that the 10,000 men defending it might be
added to his fighting force, but General Halleck would not
consent, so that when Lee needed supplies from the Shenandoah
Valley he was blocked by the garrison, then under the command
of Colonel Dixon S. Miles. On Jackson's approach they were
distributed as follows: about 7000 men on Bolivar Heights,
about 2000 on Maryland Heights, and about 1800 on the lower
ground. On the i3th of September General Lafayette McLaws
carried Maryland Heights and General John G. Walker planted
a battery on Loudoun Heights. On the I4th there was some
fighting, but early on the i $th, as Jackson was about to make
an assault on Bolivar Heights, the garrison, surrounded by a
superior force, surrendered. The total Federal loss (including
the garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg) amounted to
44 killed (the commander was mortally wounded), 12,520
prisoners, and 13,000 small arms. For this terrible loss to the
Union army the responsibility seems to have been General
Halleck's, though the blame was officially put on Colonel Miles,
.who died immediately after the surrender. Jackson rejoined
Lee on the following day in time to take part in the battle of
Antietam, and after the battle General McClellan placed a
strong garrison (the I2th Corps) at Harper's Ferry. In June
1863 the place was again abandoned to the Confederates on their
march to Pennsylvania. After their defeat at Gettysburg, the
town again fell into the hands of the Federal troops, and it
remained in their possession until the end of the war. On the
4th of July 1864 General Franz Sigel, who was then in command
here, withdrew his troops to Maryland Heights, and from there
resisted Early's attempt to enter the town and to drive the
Federal garrison from Maryland Heights. Harper's Ferry was
seriously damaged by a flood in the Shenandoah in October
1878.
HARPIES (Gr. "Aprruitu, older form 'Aptiruicu, " swift
robbers "), in ancient mythology, the personification of the sweep-
ing storm-winds. In Homer, where they appear indifferently under
the name of apirtucu and 6vf\\ai, their function is to carry off
those whose sudden disappearance is desired by the gods. Only
one of them is there mentioned (Iliad, xvi. 150) by name, Podarge,
the mother of the coursers of Achilles by Zephyrus, the generative
wind. According to Hesiod (Thcog. 265) they are two in number,
Ae'llo and Ocypete, daughters of Thaumas and Elect ra, winged
HARPIGNIES HARPSICHORD
goddesses with beautiful locks, swifter than winds and birds
in their flight, and their domain is the air. In later times their
number was increased (Celaeno being a frequent addition and
their leader in Virgil), and they were described as hateful and
repulsive creatures, birds with the faces of old women, the ears
of bears, crooked talons and hanging breasts; even in Aeschylus
(Eumenides, 50) they appear as ugly and misshapen monsters.
Their function of snatching away mortals to the other world
brings them into connexion with the Erinyes, with whom they
are often confounded. On the so-called Harpy monument from
Lycia, now in the British Museum, the Harpies appear carrying
off some small figures, supposed to be the daughters of Pandareus,
unless they are intended to represent departed souls. The
repulsive character of the Harpies is more especially seen in the
legend of Phineus, king of Salmydessus in Thrace (Apollodorus
i. 9, 21 ; see also Diod. Sic. iv. 43). Having been deprived of
his sight by the gods for his ill-treatment of his sons by his first
wife (or for having revealed the future to mortals), he was con-
demned to be tormented by two Harpies, who carried off what-
ever food was placed before him. On the arrival of the Argonauts,
Phineus promised to give them particulars of the course they
should pursue and of the dangers that lay before them, if they
would deliver him from his tormentors. Accordingly, when the
Harpies appeared as usual to carry off the food from Phineus's
table, they were driven off and pursued by Calais and Zetes, the
sons of Boreas, as far as the Strophades islands in the Aegean.
On promising to cease from molesting Phineus, their lives were
spared. Their place of abode is variously placed in the
Strophades, the entrance to the under-world, or a cave in Crete.
According to Cecil Smith, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii.
(1892-1893), the Harpies are the hostile spirits of the scorching
south wind; E. Rohde (Rlieinisches Museum, i., 1895) regards
them as spirits of the storm, which at the bidding of the gods
carry off human beings alive to the under-world or some spot
beyond human ken.
See articles in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and Daremberg
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites. In the article GREEK ART,
fig. 14 gives a representation of the winged Harpies.
HARPIGNIES, HENRI (1819- ), French landscape painter,
born at Valenciennes in 1819, was intended by his parents for
a business career, but his determination to become an artist was
so strong that it conquered all obstacles, and he was allowed at
the age of twenty-seven to enter Achard's atelier in Paris. From
this painter he acquired a groundwork of sound constructive
draughtsmanship, which is so marked a feature of his landscape
painting. After two years under this exacting teacher he went
to Italy, whence he returned in 1850. During the next few
years he devoted himself to the painting of children in landscape
setting, and fell in with Corot and the other Barbizon masters,
whose principles and methods are to a certain extent re-
flected in his own personal art. To Corot he was united by a
bond of warm friendship, and the two artists went together to
Italy in 1860. On his return, he scored his first great success
at the Salon, in 1861, with his " Lisiere de bois sur les bords
de 1'Allier." After that year he was a regular exhibitor at the old
Salon; in 1886 he received his first medal for " Le Soir dans la
campagne de Rome," which was acquired for the Luxembourg
Gallery. Many of his best works were painted at Herisson in
the Bourbonnais, as well as in the Nivernais and the Auvergne.
Among his chief pictures are " Soir sur les bords de la Loire "
(1861), "Les Corbeaux" (1865), " Le Soir" (1866), " Le
Saut-du-Loup " (1873), " La Loire " (1882), and " Vue de
Saint-Prive " (1883). He also did some decorative work for the
Paris Opera the " Vallee d'Egerie " panel, which he Ishowed
at the Salon of 1870.
HARP-LUTE, or DITAL HARP, one of the many attempts to
revive the popularity of the guitar and to increase its compass,
invented in 1798 by Edward Light. The harp-lute owes the first
part of its name to the characteristic mechanism for shortening
the effective length of the strings; its second name dital harp
emphasizes the nature of the stops, which are worked by the
thumb in contradistinction to the pedals of the harp worked
by the feet. It consists of a pear-shaped body, to which is added
a curved neck supported on a front pillar or arm springing from
the body, and therefore reminiscent of the harp. There are
12 catgut strings. The curved fingerboard, almost parallel with
the neck, is provided with frets, and has in addition a thumb-
key for each string, by means of which the accordance of the
string is mechanically raised a semitone at will. The dital or
key, on being depressed, acts upon a stop-ring or eye, which
draws the string down against the fret, and thus shortens its
effective length. The fingers then stop the strings as usual
over the remaining frets. A further improvement was patented
in 1816 as the British harp-lute. Other attempts possessing less
practical merit than the dital harp were the lyra-guitarre, which
appeared in Germany at the beginning of the igth century;
the accord-guitarre, towards the middle of the same century;
and the keyed guitar. (K. S.)
HARPOCRATES, originally an Egyptian deity, adopted by
the Greeks, and worshipped in later times both by Greeks and
Romans. In Egypt, Harpa-khruti, Horus the child, was one of
the forms of Horus, the sun-god, the child of Osiris. He was
supposed to carry on war against the powers of darkness, and
hence Herodotus (ii. 144) considers him the same as the Greek
Apollo. He was represented in statues with his finger on his
mouth, a symbol of childhood. The Greeks and Romans, not
understanding the meaning of this attitude, made him the god
of silence (Ovid, Metam. ix. 691), and as such he became a
favourite deity with the later mystic schools of philosophy.
See articles by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiquites, and by E. Meyer (s.v . " Horos ") in Roscher's Lexikon
der Mythologie.
HARPOCRATION, VALERIUS, Greek grammarian of Alex-
andria. He is possibly the Harpocration mentioned by Julius
Capitolinus (Life of Verus, 2) as the Greek tutor of Antoninus
Verus (and century A.D.); some authorities place him much
later, on the ground that he borrowed from Athenaeus. He
is the author of a Ae!-iK6v (or Ilept rlav Xeewj') Tuvotna. prjropuv,
which has come down to us in an incomplete form. The work
contains, in more or less alphabetical order, notes on well-known
events and persons mentioned by the orators, and explanations
of legal and commercial expressions. As nearly all the lexicons to
the Greek orators have been lost, Harpocration's work is especially
valuable. Amongst his authorities were the writers of Atthides
(histories of Attica), the grammarian Didymus, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, and the lexicographer Dionysius, son of Tryphon.
The book also contains contributions to the history of Attic
oratory and Greek literature generally. Nothing is known of
an '\vdripSiv avva-yuyri, a sort of anthology or chrestomathy
attributed to him by Suidas. A series of articles in the margin
of a Cambridge MS. of the lexicon forms the basis of the Lexicon
rheloricum Canlabrigiense (see DOBREE, P. P.). *
The best edition is by W. Dindprf (1853); see also J. E. Sandys,
History of Classical Scholarship, i. (1906), p. 325; C. Boysen, De
Harpocrationis fontibus (Kiel, 1876).
HARPOON (from Fr. harpon, a grappling-iron, O. Fr. harpe,
a dog's claw, an iron clamp for fastening stones together; the
source of these words is the Lat. harpago, harpa, &c., formed
from Gr. aprajri, hook, apwa^tiv, to snatch, tear away, cf.
" harpy "), barbed spear, particularly one used for spearing
whales or other large fish, and either thrown by hand or fired
from a gun (see WHALE-FISHERY).
HARPSICHORD, HARPSICON, DOUBLE VIRGINALS (Fr. clavecin;
Ger. Clavicymbel, Kiel-Flilgel; Ital. arpicordo, cembalo, clavi-
cembalo, graveccmbalo; Dutch, clavisinbal) , a large keyboard
instrument (see PIANOFORTE), belonging to the same family as
the virginal and spinet, but having 2, 3, or even 4 strings to each
note, and a case of the harp or wing shape, afterwards adopted
for the grand pianoforte. J. S. Bach's harpsichord, preserved
in the museum of the Hochschule fiir Musik at Charlottenburg,
has two manuals and 4 strings to each note, one 16 ft., two
8 ft. and one 4 ft. By means of stops the performer has within
his power a number of combinations for varying the tone and
dynamic power. In all instruments of the harpsichord family
i6
HARPY HARRAR
the strings, instead of being struck by tangents as in the clavi-
chord, or by hammers as in the pianoforte, are plucked by means
of a quill firmly embedded in the centred tongue of a jack or
upright placed on the back end of the key-lever. When the
finger depresses a key, the jack is thrown up, and in passing the
crow-quill catches the string and twangs it. It is this twanging
of the string which produces the brilliant incisive tone peculiar
to the harpsichord family. What these instruments gain in
brilliancy of tone, however, they lose in power of expression and
of accent. The impossibility of commanding any emphasis
necessarily created for the harpsichord an individual technique
which influenced the music composed for it to so great an extent
that it cannot be adequately rendered upon the pianoforte.
The harpsichord assumed a position of great importance
during the i6th and lyth centuries, more especially in the
orchestra, which was under the leadership of' the harpsichord
player. The most famous of all harpsichord makers, whose
names form a guarantee for excellence, were the Ruckers,
established at Antwerp from the last quarter of the i6th
century. (K. S.)
HARPY, a large diurnal bird of prey, so named after the
mythological monster of the classical poets (see HARPIES), the
Thrasaetus harpyia of modern ornithologists an inhabitant
of the warmer parts of America from Southern Mexico to Brazil.
Though known since the middle of the iyth century, its habits
have come very little under the notice of naturalists, and what
is said of them by the older writers must be received with some
-^
Harpy.
suspicion. A cursory inspection of the bird, which is not un-
frequently brought alive to Europe, its size, and its enormous
bill and talons, at once suggest the vast powers of destruction
imputed to it, and are enough to account for the stories told of
its ravages on mammals sloths, fawns, peccaries and spider-
monkeys. It has even been asserted to attack the human race.
How much of this is fabulous there seems no means at present of
determining, but some of the statements are made by veracious
travellers D'Orbigny and Tschudi. It is not uncommon in the
forests of the isthmus of Panama, and Salvin says (Proc. Zool.
Society, 1864, p. 368) that its flight is slow and heavy. Indeed
its owl-like visage, its short wings and soft plumage, do not in-
dicate a bird of very active habits, but the weapons of offence
with which it is armed show that it must be able to cope with
vigorous prey. Its appearance is sufficiently striking the head
and lower parts, except a pectoral band, white, the former
adorned with an erectile crest, the upper parts dark grey banded
with black, the wings dusky, and the tail barred; but the huge
bill and powerful scutellated legs most of all impress the be-
holder. The precise affinities of the haroy cannot be said to
have been determined. By some authors it is referred to the
eagles, by others to the buzzards, and by others again to the
hawks; but possibly the first of these alliances is the most likely
to be true. (A. N.)
HARRAN, HARAN or CHARRAN (Sept. Happav or Kappa : Strabo,
Kdppcu: Pliny, Carrae or Carrhae; Arab. Harrdn), in biblical
history the place where Terah halted after leaving Ur, and ap-
parently the birthplace of Abraham, a town on the stream
Jullab, some nine hours' journey from Edessa in Syria. At this
point the road from Damascus joins the highway between
Nineveh and Carchemish, and Haran had thus considerable
military and commercial value. As a strategic position it
is mentioned in inscriptions as early as the time of Tiglath
Pileser I., about noo B.C., and subsequently by Sargon II., who
restored the privileges lost at the rebellion which led to the con-
quest referred to in 2 Kings xix. 12 C = Isa. xxxvii. 12). It was
the centre of a considerable commerce (Ezek. xxvii. 23), and one
of its specialities was the odoriferous gum derived from the
strobus (Pliny, H.N. xii. 40). It was here that Crassus in his
eastern expedition was attacked and slain by the Parthians (53
B.C.) ; and here also the emperor Caracalla was murdered at the
instigation of Macrinus (A.D. 217). Haran was the chief home of
the moon-god Sin, whose temple was rebuilt by several kings,
among them Assur-bani-pal and Nabunidus and Herodian (iv.
13, 7) mentions the town as possessing in his day a temple of the
moon. In the middle ages it is mentioned as having been the
seat of a particular heathen sect, that of the Haranite Sabeans.
It retained its importance down to the period of the Arab
ascendancy; but by Abulfeda it is mentioned as having before
his time fallen into decay. It is now wholly in ruins. The
Yahwistic writer (Gen. xxvii. 43) makes it the home of Laban
and connects it with Isaac and Jacob. But we cannot thus put
Haran in Aramnaharaim; the home of the Labanites is rather
to be looked for in the very similar word Hauran.
HARRAR (or HARAR), a city of N.E. Africa, in 8 45' N.,
42 36' E., capital of a province of Abyssinia and 220 m. S.S.W.
of the ports of Zaila (British) and Jibuti (French) on the Gulf of
Aden. With Jibuti it is connected by a railway (188 m. long)
and carriage-road. Harrar is built on the slopes of a hill at an
elevation of over 5000 ft. A lofty stone wall, pierced by five
gates and flanked by twenty-four towers, encloses the city,
which has a population of about 40,000. The streets are steep,
narrow, dirty and unpaved, the roadways consisting of rough
boulders. The houses are in general made of undressed stone
and mud and are flat-topped, the general aspect of the city
being Oriental and un-Abyssinian. A few houses, including the
palace of the governor and the foreign consulates, are of more
elaborate and solid construction than the majority of the build-
ings. There are several mosques and an Abyssinian church (of
the usual circular construction) built of stone. Harrar is a city
of considerable commercial importance, through it passing all
the merchandise of southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla land.
The chief traders are Abyssinians, Armenians and Greeks. The
principal article of export is coffee, which is grown extensively
in the neighbouring hills and is of the finest quality. Besides
coffee there is a large trade in durra, the kat plant (used by the
Mahommedans as a drug), ghee, cattle, mules and camels, skins
and hides, ivory and gums. The import trade is largely in cotton
goods, but every kind of merchandise is included.
Harrar is believed to owe its foundation to Arab immigrants
from the Yemen in the 7th century of the Christian era. In the
region of Somaliland, now the western part of the British pro-
tectorate of that name, the Arabs established the Moslem state
of Adel or Zaila, with their capital at Zaila on the Gulf of Aden.
In the I3th century the sultans of Adel enjoyed great power. In
1521 the then sultan Abubekr transferred the seat of govern-
ment to Harrar, probably regarding Zaila as too exposed to the
attacks of the Turkish and Portuguese navies then contending
HARRATIN HARRIGAN
for the mastery of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Abubekr's
successor was Mahommed III., Ahmed ibn Ibrahim el-Ghazi
(1507-1543), surnamed Gran (Granye), the left-handed. He
was not an Arab but, probably, of Somali origin. The son of a
noted warrior, he quickly rose to supreme power, becoming
sultan or amir in 1525. He is famous for his invasion of Abys-
sinia, of which country he was virtual master for several years.
From the beginning of the iyth century Adel suffered greatly
from the ravages of pagan Galla tribes, and Harrar sank to the
position of an amirate of little importance. It was first visited
by a European in 1854 when (Sir) Richard Burton spent ten days
there in the guise of an Arab. In 1875 Harrar was occupied by
an Egyptian force under Raouf Pasha, by whose orders the amir
was strangled. The town remained in the possession of Egypt
until 1885, when the garrison was withdrawn in consequence of
the rising of the Mahdi in the Sudan. The Egyptian garrison
and many Egyptian civilians, in all 6500 persons, left Harrar
between November 1884 and the 25th of April 1885, when a son
of the ruler who had been deposed by Egypt was installed as
amir, the arrangement being carried out under the super-
intendence of British officers. The new amir held power until
January 1887, in which month Harrar was conquered by
Menelek II., king of Shoa (afterwards emperor of Abyssinia).
The governorship of Harrar was by Menelek entrusted to Ras
Makonnen, who held the post until his death in 1906.
The Harrari proper are of a distinct stock from the neigh-
bouring peoples, and speak a special language. Harrarese
is " a Semitic graft inserted into an indigenous stock " (Sir R.
Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa). The Harrari are
Mahommedans of the Shafa'i or Persian sect, and they employ
the solar year and the Persian calendar. Besides the native
population there are in Harrar colonies of Abyssinians, Somalis
and Gallas. By the Somalis the place is called Adari, by the
Gallas Adaray.
See ABYSSINIA; SOMALILAND. Also P. Paulitschke, Harar:
Forschungsreise nach den Som&l- und Calla-Landern Ost-Afrikas
(Leipzig, 1888).
HARRATIN, black Berbers, dwelling in Tidikelt and other
Saharan oases. Many of them are blacker than the average
negro. In physique, however, they are true to the Berber type,
being of handsome appearance with European features and well-
proportioned bodies. They are the result of an early crossing
with the Sudanese negro races, though to-day they have all the
pride of the Berbers (?..), and do not live with or intermarry
among negroes.
HARRIER, or HEN-HARRIER, name given to certain birds of
prey which were formerly very abundant in parts of the British
Islands, from their habit of harrying poultry. The first of these
names has now become used in a generic sense for all the species
ranked under the genus Circus of Lacepede, and the second con-
fined to the particular species which is the Falco cyaneus of
Linnaeus and the Circus cyaneus of modern ornithologists.
One European species, C. aeruginosus, though called in books
the marsh-harrier, is far more commonly known in England and
Ireland as the moor-buzzard. But harriers are not, like buzzards,
arboreal in their habits, and always affect open country, generally,
though not invariably, preferring marshy or fenny districts, for
snakes and frogs form a great part of their ordinary food. On
the ground their carriage is utterly unlike that of a buzzard, and
their long wings and legs render it easy to distinguish the two
groups when taken in the hand. All the species also have a more
or less well-developed ruff or frill of small thickset feathers
surrounding the lower part of the head, nearly like that seen in
owls, and accordingly many systematists consider that the genus
Circus, though undoubtedly belonging to the Falconidae, connects
that family with the Striges. No osteological affinity, however, can
be established between the harriers and any section of the owls,
and the superficial resemblance will have to be explained in some
other way. Harriers are found almost all over the world, 1 and
1 The distribution of the different species is rather curious, while
the range of some is exceedingly wide, one, C. maillardi, seems to be
limited to the island of Reunion (Bourbon).
fifteen species are recognized by Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. Birds
Brit. Museum, i. pp. 50-73). In most if not all the harriers the
sexes differ greatly in colour, so much so that for a long while the
males and females of one of the commonest and best known, the
C. cyaneus above mentioned, were thought to be distinct .species,
and were or still are called in various European languages by
different names. The error was maintained with the greater
persistency since the young males, far more abundant than the
adults, wear much the same plumage as their mother, and it was
not until after Montagu's observations were published at the
v
vV^
Hen- Harrier (Male and Female).
beginning of the ipth century that the " ringtail," as she was
called (the Falco pygargus of Linnaeus), was generally admitted
to be the female of the " hen-harrier." But this was not Montagu's
only good service as regards this genus. He proved the hitherto
unexpected existence of a second species, 2 subject to the same
diversity of plumage. This was called by him the ash-coloured
falcon, but it now generally bears his name, and is known as
Montagu's harrier, C. cineraceus. In habits it is very similar to
the hen-harrier, but it has longer wings, and its range is not so
northerly, for while the hen-harrier extends to Lapland, Mon-
tagu's is but very rare in Scotland, though in the south of
England it is the most common species. Harriers indeed in the
British Islands are rapidly becoming things of the past. Their
nests are easily found, and the birds when nesting are easily
destroyed. In the south-east of Europe, reaching also to the
Cape of Good Hope and to India, there is a fourth species, the
C. swainsoni of some writers, the C. pallidus of others. In North
America C. cyaneus is represented by a kindred form, C. hudsonius,
usually regarded as a good species, the adult male of which is
always to be recognized by its rufous markings beneath, in which
character it rather resembles C. cineraceus, but it has not the long
wings of that species. South America has in C. cinereus another
representative form, while China, India and Australia possess
more of this type. Thus there is a section in which the males
have a strongly contrasted black -and grey plumage, and finally
there is a group of larger forms allied to the European C. aeru-
ginosus, wherein a grey dress is less often attained, of which the
South African C. raniwrus and the New Zealand C. gouldi are
examples. (A. N.)
HARRIGAN, EDWARD (1845- ), American actor, was
born in New York of Irish parents on the 26th of October 1845.
He made his first appearance in San Francisco in 1867, and soon
afterwards formed a stage partnership with Tony Hart, whose
real name was Anthony Cannon. As " Harrigan and Hart," they
had a great success in the presentation of types of low life in New
York. Beginning as simple sketches, these were gradually
worked up into plays, with occasional songs, set to popular music
8 A singular mistake, which has been productive of further error,
was made by Albin, who drew his figure (Hist. Birds, ii. pi. 5) from
a specimen of one species, and coloured it from a specimen of the
other.
i8
HARRIMAN, E. H. HARRINGTON, J.
by David Braham. The titles of these plays indicate their
character, The Mulligan Guards, Squatter Sovereignty, A Leather
Patch, The O'Regans. The partnership with Hart lasted from
1871-1884. Subsequently Harrigan played in different cities of
the United States, one of his favourite parts being George Coggs-
well in Old Lavender.
HARRIMAN, EDWARD HENRY (1848-1909), American
financier and railroad magnate, son of the Rev. Orlando
Harriman, rector of St George's Episcopal church, Hempstead,
L.I., was born at Hempstead on the 25th of February 1848. He
became a broker's clerk in New York at an early age, and in
1870 was able to buy a seat on the New York Stock Exchange
on his own account. For a good many years there was nothing
sensational in his success, but he built up a considerable business
connexion and prospered in his financial operations. Meanwhile
he carefully mastered the situation affecting American railways.
In this respect he was assisted by his friendship with Mr Stuy-
vesant Fish, who, on becoming vice-president of the Illinois
Central in 1883, brought Harriman upon the directorate, and in
1887, being then president, made Harriman vice-president;
twenty years later it was Harriman who dominated the finance
of the Illinois Central, and Fish, having become his opponent,
was dropped from the board. It was not till 1898, however, that
his career as a great railway organizer began with his formation,
by the aid of the bankers, Kuhn, Loeb & Co., of a syndicate to
acquire the Union Pacific line, which was then in the hands of a
receiver and was generally regarded as a hopeless failure. It
was soon found that a new power had arisen in the railway world.
Having brought the Union Pacific out of bankruptcy into
prosperity, and made it an efficient instead of a decaying line,
he utilized his position to draw other lines within his control,
notably the Southern Pacific in 1901. These extensions of his
power were not made without friction, and his abortive contest
in 1901 with James J. Hill for the control of the Northern
Pacific led to one of the most serious financial crises ever known
on Wall Street. But in the result he became the dominant
factor in American railway matters. At his death, on the 9th of
September 1909, his influence was estimated to extend over
60,000 m. of track, with an annual earning power of $700,000,000
or over. Astute and unscrupulous manipulation of the stock
markets, and a capacity for the hardest of bargaining and the
most determined warfare against his rivals, had their place in
this success, and Harriman's methods excited the bitterest
criticism, culminating in a stern denunciation from President
Roosevelt himself in 1907. Nevertheless, besides acquiring
colossal wealth for himself, he helped to create for the
American public a vastly improved railway service, the benefit
of which survived all controversy as to the means by which he
triumphed over the obstacles in his way.
HARRIMAN, a city of Roane county, Tennessee, U.S.A., on the
Emory river, about 35 m.W. by S.of Knoxville. Pop. (1900) 3442
(5 1 6 being negroes); (1910) 3061. Harriman is served by the Har-
riman & North Eastern, the Tennessee Central, and the Southern
railways. It is the seat of the East Tennessee Normal and
Industrial Institute, for negroes, and of the American University
of Harriman (Christian Church, coeducational; 1893), which
comprises primary, preparatory, collegiate, Bible school, civic
research, commercial, music and art departments, and in 1907-
1908 had 12 instructors and 317 students. Near the city are
large deposits of iron and an abundance of coal and timber.
Among manufactures are cotton products, farming tools, leather,
tannic acid, furniture and flour. Harriman was founded in 1890
by a land company. A clause in this company's by-laws requires
that every conveyance of real estate by the company " shall
contain a provision forbidding the use of the property or any
building thereon, for the purpose of making, storing or selling
intoxicating beverages as such." Harriman was chartered as a
city in 1891, and its charter was revised in 1899.
HARRINGTON, EARLS OF. The first earl of Harrington
was the diplomatist and politician, William Stanhope (c. 1690-
1756), a younger son of John Stanhope of Elvaston, Derbyshire,
and a brother of Charles Stanhope (1673-1760), an active
politician during the reign of George I. His ancestor, Sir John
Stanhope (d. 1638). was a half-brother of Philip Stanhope, ist
earl of Chesterfield. Educated at Eton, William Stanhope
entered the army and served in Spain, but soon he turned his
attention to more peaceful pursuits, went on a mission to Madrid
and represented his country at Turin. When peace was made
between England and Spain in 1720 Stanhope became British
ambassador to the latter country, and he retained this position
until March 1727, having built up his reputation as a diplomatist
during a difficult period. In 1729 he had some part in arranging
the treaty of Seville between England, France and Spain, and for
his services in this matter he was created Baron Harrington in
January 1730. Laterin thesame year he was appointed secretary
of state for the northern department under Sir Robert Walpole,
but, like George II., he was anxious to assist the emperor Charles
VI. in his war with France, while Walpole favoured a policy of
peace. Although the latter had his way Harrington remained
secretary until the great minister's fall in 1742, when he was
transferred to the office of president of the council and was
created earl of Harrington and Viscount Petersham. In 1744,
owing to the influence of his political allies, the Pelhams, he
returned to his former post of secretary of state, but he soon
lost the favour of the king, and this was the principal cause
why he left office in October 1746. He was lord lieutenant
of Ireland from 1747 to 1751, and he died in London on the 8th
of December 1756.
The earl's successor was his son, William (1719-1779), who
entered the army, was wounded at Fontenoy and became a
general in 1770. He was a member of parliament for about ten
years and he died on the ist of April 1779. This earl's wife
Caroline (1722-1784), daughter of Charles Fitzroy, 2nd duke of
Grafton, was a noted beauty, but was also famous for her
eccentricities. Their elder son, Charles(i753-i829),whobccame
the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier. He served with the
British army during the American War of Independence and
attained the rank of general in 1802. From 1805 to 1812 he was
commander-in-chief in Ireland; he was sent on diplomatic
errands to Vienna and to Berlin, and he died at Brighton on the
i jth of September 1829.
Charles Stanhope, 4th earl of Harrington (1780-1851), the
eldest son of the 3rd earl, was known as Lord Petersham
until he succeeded to the earldom in 1829. He was very well
known in society owing partly to his eccentric habits; he
dressed like the French king Henry IV., and had other personal
peculiarities. He married the actress, Maria Foote, but when
he died in March 1851 he left no sons, and his brother Leicester
Fitzgerald Charles (1784-1862) became the sth earl. This
nobleman was a soldier and a politician of advanced views, who
is best known as a worker with Lord Byron in the cause of
Greek independence. He was in Greece in 1823 and 1824, where
his relations with Byron were not altogether harmonious. He
wrote A Sketch of the History and Influence of the Press in British
India (1823); and Greece in 1823 and 1824 (English edition
1824, American edition 1825). His son Sydney Seymour Hyde,
6th earl (1845-1866), dying unmarried, was succeeded by a
cousin, Charles Wyndham Stanhope (1809-1881), as 7th earl,
and in 1881 the latter's son Charles Augustus Stanhope (b. 1844)
became Sth earl of Harrington.
Before the time of the first earl of Harrington the Stanhope family
had held the barony of Stanhope of Harrington, which was created
in 1605 in favour of Sir John Stanhope (c. 1550-1621) of Harrington,
Northamptonshire. Sir John was a younger son of Sir Michael
Stanhope (d. 1552) of Shelford, Nottinghamshire, who was a brother-
in-law of the protector Somerset. Sir Michael's support of Somerset
cost him his life, as he was beheaded on the 26th of February 1552.
Sir John was treasurer of the chamber from 1596 to 1616 and was a
member of parliament for several years. He died on the 9th of
March 1621, and when his only son Charles, 2nd baron (c. 1595-1675),
died without issue in 1675 the barony became extinct.
HARRINGTON, or HARINGTON, JAMES (1611-1677), English
political philosopher, was born in January 161 1 of an old Rutland-
shire family. He was son of Sir Sapcotes Harrington of Rand,
Lincolnshire, and great-nephew of the first Lord Harington of
Exton (d. 1615). In 1629 he entered Trinity College, Oxford, as
HARRIOT HARRIS, J.
a gentleman commoner. One of his tutors was the famous
Chillingworth. After several years spent in travel, and as a
soldier in the Dutch army, he returned to England and lived in
retirement till 1646, when he was appointed to the suite of
Charles I., at that time being conveyed from Newcastle as
prisoner. Though republican in his ideas, Harrington won the
king's regard and esteem, and accompanied him to the Isle of
Wight. He roused, however, the suspicion of the parliament-
arians and was dismissed: it is said that he was for a short time
put in confinement because he would not swear to refuse assist-
ance to the king should he attempt to escape. After Charles's
death Harrington devoted his time to the composition of his
Oceana, a work which pleased neither party. By order of Cromwell
it was seized when passing through the press. Harrington, how-
ever managed to secure the favour of the Protector's favourite
daughter, Mrs Claypole; the work was restored to him, and
appeared in 1656, dedicated to Cromwell. The views embodied
in Oceana, particularly that bearing on vote by ballot and rota-
tion of magistrates and legislators, Harrington and others (who
in 1659 formed a club called the " Rota ") endeavoured to push
practically, but with no success. In November 1661, by order
of Charles II., Harrington was arrested, apparently without
sufficient cause, on a charge of conspiracy, and was thrown into
the Tower. Despite his repeated request no public trial could
be obtained, and when at length his sisters obtained a writ of
habeas corpus he was secretly removed to St Nicholas Island off
Plymouth. There his health gave way owing to his drinking
guaiacum on medical advice, and his mind appeared to be
affected. Careful treatment restored him to bodily vigour, but
his mind never wholly recovered. After his release he married,
at what date does not seem to be precisely known. He died on
the nth of September 1677, and was buried next to Sir Walter
Raleigh in St Margaret's, Westminster.
Harrington's writings consist of the Oceana, and of papers,
pamphlets, aphorisms, even treatises, in defence of the Oceana.
The Oceana is a hard, prolix, and in many respects heavy exposi-
tion of an ideal constitution, " Oceana " being England, and the
lawgiver Olphaus Megaletor, Oliver Cromwell. The details are
elaborated with infinite care, even the salaries of officials being
computed, but the main ideas are two in number, each with
a practical corollary. The first is that the determining element
of power in a state is property generally, property in land in
particular; the second is that the executive power ought not
to be vested for any considerable time in the same men or class
of men. In accordance with the first of these, Harrington re-
commends an agrarian law, limiting the portion of land held to
that yielding a revenue of 3000, and consequently insisting on
particular modes of distributing landed property. As a practical
issue of the second he lays down the rule of rotation by ballot. A
third part of the executive or senate are voted out by ballot every
year (not being capable of being elected again for three years).
Harrington explains very carefully how the state and its govern-
ing parts are to be constituted by his scheme. Oceana contains
many valuable ideas, but it is irretrievably dull.
His Works were edited with biography by John Toland in 1700;
Toland's edition, with additions by Birch, appeared in 1747, and
again in 1771. Oceana was reprinted by Henry Morley in 1887.
See Dwight in Political Science Quarterly (March, 1887). Harrington
has often been confused with his cousin Sir James Harrington, a
member of the commission which tried Charles I., and afterwards
excluded from the acts of pardon.
HARRIOT.or HARRIOTT, THOMAS (1560-1621), English mathe-
matician and astronomer, was born at Oxford in 1560. After
studying at St Mary Hall, Oxford, he became tutor to Sir Walter
Raleigh, who appointed him in 1585 to the office of geographer
to the second expedition to Virginia. Harriot published an
account of this expedition in 1588, which was afterwards
reprinted in Hakluyt's Voyages. On his return to England,
after an absence of two years, he resumed his mathematical
studies, and having made the acquaintance of Henry Percy,
earl of Northumberland, distinguished for his patronage of
men of science, he received from him a yearly pension of 120.
He died at London on the 2nd of July 1621. A manuscript of
Harriot's entitled Ephemeris chrysometria is preserved in Sion
College; and his Artis analyticae praxis ad aequationes alge-
braicas resolvendas was published at London in 1631. His con-
tributions to algebra are treated in the article ALGEBRA;
Wallis's History of Algebra (1685) may also be consulted. From
some papers of Harriot's, discovered in 1784, it would appear
that he had either procured a telescope from Holland, or divined
the construction of that instrument, and that he coincided in
point of time with Galileo in discovering the spots on the sun's
disk.
See Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary
(1815), and J. E. Montucla, Histoire des mathematigues (1758).
HARRIS, GEORGE, IST BARON (1746-1829), British general,
was the son of the Rev George Harris, curate of Brasted, Kent,
and was born on the i8th of March 1746. Educated at West-
minster school and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
he was commissioned to the Royal Artillery in 1760, transferring
to an ensigncy in the 5th foot (Northumberland Fusiliers) in
1762. Three years la.ter he became lieutenant, and in 1771
captain. His first active service was in the American War of
Independence, in which he served at Lexington, Bunker Hill
(severely wounded) and in every engagement of Howe's army
except one up to November 1778. By this time he had obtained
his majority, and his next service was under Major-General
Medows at Santa Lucia in 1778-1779, after which his regiment
served as marines in Rodney's fleet. Later in 1779 he was for a
time a prisoner of war. Shortly before his promotion to lieu-
tenant-colonel in his regiment (1780) he married. After com-
manding the 5th in Ireland for some years, he exchanged and
went with General Medows to Bombay, and served with that
officer in India until 1792, taking part in various battles and
engagements, notably Lord Cornwallis's attack on Seringapatam.
In 1794, after a short period of home service, he was again in
India. In the same year he became major-general, and in 1796
local lieutenant-general in Madras. Up to 1800 he commanded
the troops in the presidency, and for a short time he exercised the
civil government as well. In December 1798 he was appointed
by Lord Wellesley, the governor-general, to command the field
army which was intended to attack Tipu Sahib, and in a few
months Harris reduced the Mysore country and stormed the
great stronghold of Seringapatam. His success established his
reputation as a capable and experienced commander, and its
political importance led to his being offered the reward (which
he declined) of an Irish peerage. He returned home in 1800,
became lieutenant-general in the army the following year, and
attained the rank of full general in 1812. In 1815 he was made a
peer of the United Kingdom under the title Baron Harris of
Seringapatam and Mysore, and of Belmont, Kent. In 1820 he
received the G.C.B., and in 1824 the governorship of Dumbarton
Castle. Lord Harris died at Belmont in May 1829. He had
been colonel of the 73rd Highlanders since 1800.
His descendant, the 4th Baron Harris (b. 1851), best known as
a cricketer, was under-secretary for India (1883-1886), under-
secretary for war (1886-1889) and governor of Bombay (1890-
1895).
See Rt. Hon. S. Lushington, Life of Lord Harris (London, 1840),
and the regimental histories of the 5th Northumberland Fusiliers
and 73rd Highlanders.
HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780), English grammarian, was born
at Salisbury on the zoth of July 1709. He was educated at the
grammar school in the Close at Salisbury, and at Wadham
College, Oxford. On leaving the university he was entered at
Lincoln's Inn as a student of law, though not intended for the
bar. The death of his father in 1733 placed him in possession of
an independent fortune and of the house in Salisbury Close. He
became a county magistrate, and represented Christchurch in
parliament from 1761 till his death, and was comptroller to the
queen from 1774 to 1780. He held office under Lord Grenville,
retiring with him in 1765. The decided bent of his mind had
always been towards the Greek and Latin classics; and to the
study of these, especially of Aristotle, he applied himself with
unremitting assiduity during a period of fourteen or fifteen
20
HARRIS, J. C. HARRIS, SIR W. S.
years. He published in 1744 three treatises on art; on music,
painting and poetry; and on happiness. In 1751 appeared the
work by which he became best known, Hermes, a philosophical
inquiry concerning universal grammar. He also published
Philosophical Arrangements and Philosophical Inquiries. Harris
was a great lover of music, and adapted the words for a selec-
tion from Italian and German composers, published by the
cathedral organist, James Corfe. He died on the 22nd of
December 1780.
His works were collected and published in 1801, by his son, the
first earl of Malmesbury, who prefixed a brief biography.
HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908), American author,
was born in Eatonton, Putnam county, Georgia, on the 8th of
December 1848. He started as an apprentice to the printer's
trade in the office of the Countryman, a weekly paper published
on a plantation not far from his home. He then studied law,
and practised for a short time in Forsyth, Ga., but soon took
to journalism. He joined the staff of the Savannah Daily News
in 1871, and in 1876 that of the Atlanta Constitution, of which
he was an editor from 1890 to 1901, and in this capacity did
much to further the cause of the New South. But his most
distinctive contribution to this paper, and to American literature,
consisted of his dialect pieces dealing with negro life and folklore.
His stories are characterized by quaint humour, poetic feeling
and homely philosophy; and " Uncle Remus," the principal
character of most of them, is a remarkably vivid and real creation.
The first collection of his stories was published in 1880 as Uncle
Remus: his Songs and his Sayings. Among his later works are
Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), Mingo and Other Sketches in
Black and White (1884), Free Joe and Other Georgian Sketches
(1887), Balaam and His Master and Other Sketches and Stories
(1891), Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892), On the Plantation
(1892), which is partly autobiographic, Sister Jane (1896), The
Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann (1899), and The Tar- Baby and
Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904). More purely juvenile are
Daddy Jake the Runaway and Other Stories (1889), Little Mr
Thimblefinger and his Queer Country (1894) and its sequel Mr
Rabbit at Home (1895), Aaron in the Wildwoods (1897), Plantation
Pageants (1899), Told by Uncle Remus (1905), and Uncle Remus
and Br'er Rabbit (1907). He was one of the compilers of the
Life of Henry W. Grady, including his Writings and Speeches
(1890) and wrote Stories of Georgia (1896), and Georgia from the
Invasion of De Soto to Recent Times (1899). He died in Atlanta
on the 3rd of July 1908.
HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719), English writer. He is best
known as the editor of the Lexicon technicum, or Dictionary
of the Arts and Sciences (1704), which ranks as the earliest of the
long line of English encyclopaedias, and as the compiler of the
Collection of Voyages and Travels which passes under his name.
He was born about 1666, probably in Shropshire, and was a
scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, from 1684 to 1688. He was
presented to the vicarage of Icklesham in Sussex, and subse-
quently to the rectory of St Thomas, Winchelsea. In 1698 he
was entrusted with the delivery of the seventh series of the
Boyle lectures Atheistical Objections against the Being of God
and His Attributes fairly considered and fully refuted. Between
1702 and 1704 he delivered at the Marine Coffee House in
Birchin Lane the mathematical lectures founded by Sir Charles
Cox, and advertised himself as a mathematical tutor at Amen
Corner. The friendship of Sir William Cowper, afterwards lord
chancellor, secured for him the office of private chaplain, a
prebend in Rochester cathedral (1708), and the rectory of the
united parishes of St Mildred, Bread Street and St Margaret
Moses, in addition to other preferments. He showed himself
an ardent supporter of the government, and engaged in a bitter
quarrel with the Rev. Charles Humphreys, who afterwards was
chaplain to Dr Sacheverel. Harris was one of the early members
of the Royal Society, and for a time acted as vice-president.
At his death on the 7th of September 1719, he was busy
completing an elaborate History of Kent. He is said to have
died in poverty brought on by his own bad management of his
affairs.
HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906), American spiritual-
istic "prophet," was born at Fenny Stratford in Buckinghamshire,
England, on the isth of May 1823. His parents were Calvinistic
Baptists, and very poor. They settled at Utica, New York,
when Harris was five years old. When he was about twenty
Harris became a Universalist preacher, and then aSwedenborgian.
He became associated about 1847 with a spiritualist of indifferent
character named Davis. After Davis had been publicly exposed,
Harris established a congregation in New York. About 1850
he professed to receive inspirations, and published some long
poems. He had the gift of improvisation in a very high degree.
About 1859 he preached in London, and is described as a man
" with low, black eyebrows, black beard, and sallow countenance."
He was an effective speaker, and his poetry was admired by
many; Alfred Austin in his book The Poetry of the Period even
devoted a chapter to Harris. He founded in 1861 a community
at Wassaic, New York, and opened a bank and a mill, which
he superintended. There he was joined by about sixty converts,
including five orthodox clergymen, some Japanese people, some
American ladies of position, and especially by Laurence Oliphant
(q.ii.) with his wife and mother. The community the Brother-
hood of the New Life decided to settle at the village of Brocton
on the shore of Lake Erie. Harris established there a wine-
making industry. In reply to the objections of teetotallers he
said that the wine prepared by himself was filled with the
divine breath so that all noxious influences were neutralized.
Harris also built a tavern and strongly advocated the use of
tobacco. He exacted complete surrender from his disciples
even the surrender of moral judgment. He taught that God
was bi-sexual, and apparently, though not in reality, that the
rule of society should be one of married celibacy. He professed
to teach his community a change in the mode of respiration
which was to be the visible sign of possession by Christ and the
seal of immortality. The Oliphants broke away from therestraint
about 1881, charging him with robbery and succeeding in getting
back from him many thousands of pounds by legal proceedings.
But while losing faith in Harris himself, they did not abandon
his main teaching. In Laurence Oliphant's novel Masollam
his view of Harris will be found. Briefly, he held that Harris
was originally honest, greatly gifted, and possessed of certain
psychical powers. But in the end he came to practise unbridled
licence under the loftiest pretensions, made the profession of
extreme disinterestedness a cloak to conceal his avarice, and
demanded from his followers a blind and supple obedience.
Harris in 1876 discontinued for a time public activities, but
issued to a secret circle books of verse dwelling mainly on sexual
questions. On these his mind ran from the first. In 1891 he
announced that his body had been renewed, and that he had
discovered the secret of the resuscitation of humanity. He pub-
lished a book, Lyra triumphalis, dedicated to A. C. Swinburne.
He also made a third marriage, and visited England intending
to remain there. He was called back by a fire which destroyed
large stocks of his wine, and remained in New York till 1903,
when he visited Glasgow. His followers believed that he had
attained the secret of immortal life on earth, and after his death
on the 23rd of March 1906 declared that he was only sleeping.
It was three months before it was acknowledged publicly that
he was really dead. There can be little or no doubt as to the
real character of Harris. His teaching was esoteric in form, but
is a thinly veiled attempt to alter the ordering of sexual relations.
The authoritative biography from the side of his disciples is the
Life byA. A. Cuthbert, published in Glasgow in 1908. It is full of the
jargon of Harris's sect, but contains some biographical facts as well
as many quotations. Mrs Oliphant's Life of Laurence Oliphant
(1891) has not been shaken in any important particular, and Oli-
phant's own portrait of Harris in Masollam is apparently unexag-
gerated. But Harris had much personal magnetism, unbounded
self-confidence, along with endless fluency, and to the last was
believed in by some disciples of character and influence. (W. R. Ni.)
HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW (1701-1867), English
electrician, was descended from an old family of solicitors at
Plymouth, where he was born on the ist of April 1791. He
received his early education at the Plymouth grammar-school,
HARRIS, W. T. HARRISBURG
21
and completed a course of medical studies at the university of
Edinburgh, after which he established himself as a general
medical practitioner in Plymouth. On his marriage in 1824 he
resolved to abandon his profession on account of its duties
interfering too much with his favourite study of electricity. As
early as 1820 he had invented a new method of arranging the
lightning conductors of ships, the peculiarity of which was that
the metal was permanently fixed in the masts and extended
throughout the hull; but it was only with great difficulty, and
not till nearly thirty years afterwards, that his invention was
adopted by the government for the royal navy. In 1826 he
read a paper before the Royal Society " On the Relative Powers of
various Metallic Substances as Conductors of Electricity," which
led to his being elected a fellow of the society in 1831. Subse-
quently, in 1834, 1836 and 1839, he read before the society several
valuable papers on the elementary laws of electricity, and he
also communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh various
interesting accounts of his experiments and discoveries in the
same field of inquiry. In 1835 he received the Copley gold
medal from the Royal Society for his papers on the laws of
electricity of high tension, and in 1839 he was chosen to deliver
the Bakerian lecture. Meanwhile, although a government
commission had recommended the general adoption of his
conductors in the royal navy, and the government had granted
him an annuity of 300 "in consideration of services in the
cultivation of science," the naval authorities continued to offer
various objections to his invention; to aid in removing these
he in 1843 published his work on Thunderstorms, and also about
the same time contributed a number of papers to the Nautical
Magazine illustrative of damage by lightning. His system was
actually adopted in the Russian navy before he succeeded in
removing the prejudices against it in England, and in 1845 the
emperor of Russia, in acknowledgment of his services, presented
him with a valuable ring and vase. At length, the efficiency of
his system being acknowledged, he received in 1847 the honour
of knighthood, and subsequently a grant of 5000. After suc-
ceeding in introducing his invention into general use Harris
resumed his labours in the field of original research, but as he
failed to realize the advances that had been made by the new
school of science his application resulted in no discoveries of
much value. His manuals of Electricity, Galvanism and
Magnetism, published between 1848 and 1856, were, however,
written with great clearness, and passed through several editions.
He died at Plymouth on the 22nd of January 1867, while having
in preparation a Treatise on Frictional Electricity, which was
published posthumously in the same year, with a memoir of the
author by Charles Tomlinson.
HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909), American edu-
cationist, was born in North Killingly, Connecticut, on the
xoth of September 1835. He studied at Phillips Andover
Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, and entered Yale, but left
in his junior year (1857) to accept a position as a teacher of
shorthand in the St Louis, Missouri, public schools. Advancing
through the grades of principal and assistant superintendent,
he was city superintendent of schools from 1867 until 1880. In
1858, under the stimulus of Henry C. Brockmeyer, Harris
became interested in modern German philosophy in general,
and in particular in Hegel, whose works a small group, gather-
ing about Harris and Brockmeyer, began to study in 1859.
From 1867 to 1893 Harris edited The Journal of Speculative
Philosophy (22 vols.), which was the quarterly organ of the
Philosophical Society founded in 1866. The Philosophical
Society died out before 1874, when Harris founded in St Louis
a Kant Club, which lived for fifteen years. In 1873, with Miss
Susan E. Blow, he established in St Louis the first permanent
public-school kindergarten in America. He represented the
United States Bureau of Education at the International Con-
gress of Educators at Brussels in 1880. In 1889 he represented
the United States Bureau of Education at the Paris Exposition,
and from 1889 to 1906 was United States commissioner of
education. In 1899 the university of Jena gave him the honorary
degree of Doctor of Philosophy for his work on Hegel. In 1906
the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching
conferred upon him "as the first man to whom such recognition
for meritorious service is given, the highest retiring allowance
which our rules will allow, an annual income of $3000." Besides
being a contributor to the magazines and encyclopedias on
educational and philosophical subjects, he wrote An Intro-
duction to the Study of Philosophy (1889); The Spiritual Sense
of Dante's Divina Commedia (1889); Hegel's Logic (1890);
and Psychologic Foundations of Education (1898); and edited
Appleton's International Education Series and Webster's Inter-
national Dictionary. He died on the sth of November 1909.
See Henry R. Evans, "A List of the Writings of William Torrey
Harris ' in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1007
vol. i. (Washington, 1908).
HARRISBURG, the capital of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Dauphin county, on the E. bank of the Susque-
hanna river, about 105 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop.
(189), 39,38s; (i9), 50,167, of whom 2493 were foreign-born
and 4107 were negroes; (1910 census) 64,186. It is served by
the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading, the Northern
Central and the Cumberland Valley railways; and the Pennsyl-
vania canal gives it water communication with the ocean. The
river here is a mile wide, and is ordinarily very shallow and
dotted with islets, but rises from 4 to 6 ft. after a moderate rain;
it is spanned by several bridges.
The city lies for the most part on the E. slope of a hill extend-
ing from the river bank, several feet in height, across the Penn-
sylvania canal to Paxton Creek. Front Street, along the river,
is part of a parkway connecting the park system with which the
city is encircled. Overlooking it are the finest residences, among
them the governor's mansion. State Street, 120 ft. in width,
runs at right angles with Front Street through the business
centre of the city, being interrupted by the Capitol Park (about
16 acres). The Capitol, 1 dedicated in 1906, was erected to re-
place one burned in 1897; it is a fine building, with a dome
modelled after St Peter's at Rome. At the main entrance are
bronze doors, decorated in relief with scenes from the state's
history; the floor of the rotunda is of tiles made at Doylestown,
in the style of the pottery made by early Moravian settlers, and
illustrating the state's resources; the Senate Chamber and the
House Chamber have stained-glass windows by W. B. van Ingen
and mural paintings by Edwin A. Abbey, who painted a series,
" The Development of the Law," for the Supreme Court room
in the eastern wing and decorated the rotunda. The mural
decorations of the south corridor, by W. B. van Ingen, portray
the state's religious sects; those in the north corridor, by John
W. Alexander, represent the changes in the physical and material
character of the state; and there is a frieze by Miss Violet
Oakley, " The Founding of the State of Liberty Spiritual,"
in the governor's reception room. Two heroic groups of
statuary for the building were designed by George Grey Barnard.
The state library in the Capitol contains about 150,000 volumes.
In the same park is also a monument 105 ft. high erected in
1 For this building the legislature in 1901 appropriated $4,000,000,
stipulating that it should be completed before the 1st of January
1907, It was completed by that-time, the net expenditure of the
building commission being about $3,970,000. Although the legis-
lature had made no provision for furniture and decoration, the state
Board of Public Grounds and Buildings (governor, auditor-general
and treasurer) undertook to complete the furnishing and decoration
of the building within the stipulated time, and paid out for that
purpose more than $8,600,000. In May 1906 a new treasurer entered
office, who discovered that many items for furniture and decoration
were charged twice, once at a normal and again at a remarkably high
figure. In 1907 the legislature appointed a committee to investigate
the charge of fraud. The committee's decision was that the Board
of Grounds and Buildings was not authorized to let the decorating
and furnishing of the state house; that it had illegally authorized
certain expenditures; and that architect and contractors had made
fraudulent invoices and certificates. Various indictments were
found : in the first trial for conspiracy in the making and delivering
of furniture the contractor and the former auditor-general, state
treasurer and superintendent of public grounds and buildings were
convicted and in December 1908 were sentenced to two years'
imprisonment and fined $500 each; in 1910 a suit was brought for
the recovery of about $5,000,000 from those responsible.
22
HARRISMITH HARRISON, BENJAMIN
1868 to the memory of the soldiers who fell in the Mexican War;
it has a column of Maryland marble 76 ft. high, which is sur-
mounted by an Italian marble statue of Victory, executed in
Rome. At the base of the monument are muskets used by
United States soldiers in that war and guns captured at Cerro
Gordo. In State Street is the Dauphin County Soldiers' monu-
ment, a shaft 10 ft. sq. at the base and no ft. high, with a pyra-
midal top.
For several years prior to 1902 Harrisburg suffered much from
impure water, a bad sewerage system, and poorly paved and
dirty streets. In that year, however, a League for Municipal
Improvements was formed; in February 1902 a loan of
$1,000,000 for municipal improvements was voted, landscape
gardeners and sewage engineers were consulted, and a non-
partisan mayor was elected, under whom great advances were
made in street cleaning and street paving, a new nitration plant
was completed, the river front was beautified and protected
from flood, sewage was diverted from Paxton Creek, and the
development of an extensive park system was undertaken.
Harrisburg's charitable institutions include a city hospital,
a home for the friendless, a children's industrial home, and
a state lunatic hospital (1845). The city is the seat of a Roman
Catholic bishopric. Both coal and iron ore abound in the
vicinity, and the city has numerous manufacturing establish-
ments. The value of its factory products in 1905 .was
$17,146,338 (14-3% more than in 1900), the more import-
ant being those of steel works and rolling mills ($4,528,907),
blast furnaces, steam railway repair shops, cigar and cigarette
factories ($1,258,498), foundries and machine shops ($953,617),
boot and shoe factories ($922,568), flouring and grist mills,
slaughtering and meat-packing establishments and silk mills.
Harrisburg was named in honour of John Harris, who, upon
coming into this region to trade early in the i8th century, was
attracted to the site as an easy place at which to ford the Susque-
hanna, and about 1726 settled here. He was buried in what is
now Harris Park, where he erected the first building, a small hut,
within the present limits of Harrisburg. In 1753 his son estab-
lished a ferry over the river, and the place was called Harris's
Ferry until 1785, when the younger Harris laid out the town and
named it Harrisburg. In the same year it was made the county-
seat of the newly constituted county of Dauphin, and its name was
changed to Louisburg; but when, in 1791, it was incorporated
as a borough, the present name was again adopted. In 1812,
after an effort begun twenty-five years before, it was made the
capital of the state; and in 1860 it was chartered as a city. In
the summer of 1827, through the persistent efforts of persons
most interested in the woollen manufactures of Massachusetts
and other New England states to secure legislative aid for that
industry, a convention of about 100 delegates manufacturers,
newspaper men and politicians was held in Harrisburg, and
the programme adopted by the convention did much to bring
about the passage of the famous high tariff act of 1828.
HARRISMITH, a town in the Orange Free State, 60 m. N.W.
by rail of Ladysmith, Natal, and 240 m. N.E. of Bloemfontein
via Bethlehem. Pop. (1904) 8300 (including troops 1921). It is
built on the banks of the Wilge, 5250 ft. above the sea and some
20 m. W. of the Drakensberg. Three miles N. is the Platberg,
a table-shaped mountain rising 2000 ft. above the town, whence
an excellent supply of water is derived. The town is well laid
out and several of the streets are lined with trees. Most of the
houses are built of white stone quarried in the neighbourhood.
The Kaffirs, who numbered in 1904 3483, live in a separate
location. Harrismith has a dry, bracing climate and enjoys a
high reputation in South Africa as a health resort. It serves
one of the best-watered and most fertile agricultural and pastoral
districts of the province, of which it is the chief eastern trading
centre. Wool and hides are the principal exports.
Harrismith was founded in 1849, the site first chosen being on
the Elands river, where the small town of Aberfeldig now is;
but the advantages of the present site soon became apparent
and the settlement was removed. The founders were Sir Harry
Smith (after whom the town is named), then governor of Cape
Colony, and Major Henry D. Warden, at that time British
resident at Bloemfontein, whose name is perpetuated in that
of the principal street. In a cave about 2 m. from the town are
well-preserved Bushman paintings.
HARRISON, BENJAMIN (1833-1901), the twenty-third
president of the United States, was born at North Bend, near
Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 2oth of August 1833. His great-
grandfather, Benjamin Harrison of Virginia (c. 1740-1791), was
a signer of the Declaration of Independence. His grandfather,
William Henry Harrison (1773-1841), was ninth president of
the United States. His father, John Scott Harrison (1804-1878),
represented his district in the national House of Representatives
in 1853-1857. Benjamin's youth was passed upon the ancestral
farm, and as opportunity afforded he attended school in the log
school-house near his home. He was prepared for college by a
private tutor, studied for two years at the Farmers' College,
near Cincinnati, and in 1852 graduated from Miami University,
at that time the leading educational institution in the State of
Ohio. From his youth he was diligent in his studies and a
great reader, and during his college life showed a marked talent
for extemporaneous speaking. He pursued the study of law,
partly in the office of Bellamy Storer (1798-1875), a leading
lawyer and judge of Cincinnati, and in 1853 he was admitted
to the bar. At the age of twenty-one he removed to Indianapolis.
He had but one acquaintance in the place, the clerk of the federal
court, who permitted him to occupy a desk in his office and
place at the door his sign as a lawyer. Waiting for professional
business, he was content to act as court crier for two dollars
and a half a day; but he soon gave indications of his talent, and
his studious habits and attention to his cases rapidly brought
him clients. Within a few years he took rank among the leading
members of the profession at a bar which included some of the
ablest lawyers of the country. His legal career was early inter-
rupted by the Civil War. His whole heart was enlisted in the
anti-slavery cause, and during the second year of the war he
accepted a commission from the governor of the state as second-
lieutenant and speedily raised a regiment. He became its
colonel, and as such continued in the Union Army until the close
of the war, and on the 23rd of January 1865 was breveted a
brigadier-general of volunteers for " ability and manifest energy
and gallantry in command of brigade." He participated with
his regiment in various engagements during General Don Carlos
Buell's campaigns in Kentucky and Tennessee in 1862 and 1863;
took part in General W. T. Sherman's march on Atlanta in 1864
and in the Nashville campaign of the same year; and was
transferred early in 1865 to Sherman's army in its march through
the Carolinas. As the commander of a brigade he served with
particular distinction in the battles of Kenesaw Mountain
(June 29~July 3, 1864), Peach Tree Creek (2oth of July 1864)
and Nashville (i5th-i6th of December 1864).
Allowing for this interval of military service, he applied
himself exclusively for twenty-four years to his legal work.
The only office he held was that of reporter of the supreme court
of Indiana for two terms (1860-1862 and 1864-1868), and this
was strictly in the line of his profession. He was a devoted
member of the Republican party, but not a politician in the
strict sense. Once he became a candidate for governor, in 1876,
but his candidature was a forlorn hope, undertaken from a sense
of duty after the regular nominee had withdrawn. He took
a deep interest in the campaign which resulted in the election
of James A. Garfield as president, and was offered by him a
place in his cabinet; but this he declined, having been elected
a member of the United States Senate, in which he took his seat
on the 4th of March 1881. He was chairman of the committee
on territories, and took an active part in urging the admission
as states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Idaho
and Montana, which finally came into the Union during his
presidency. He served also on the committee of military and
Indian affairs, the committee on foreign relations and others,
was prominent in the discussion of matters brought before the
Senate from these committees, advocated the enlargement of
the navy and the reform of the civil service, and opposed the
HARRISON, F. HARRISON, J.
pension veto messages of President Cleveland. Having failed to
secure a re-election to the Senate in 1887, Harrison was nominated
by the Republican party for the presidency in 1888, and defeated
Grover Cleveland, the candidate of the Democratic party,
receiving 233 electoral votes to Cleveland's 168. Among the
measures and events distinguishing his term as president were
the following: The meeting of the Pan-American Congress at
Washington; the passage of the McKinley Tariff Bill and of the
Sherman Silver Bill of 1890; the suppressing of the Louisiana
Lottery; the enlargement of the navy; further advance in
civil service reform; the convocation by the United States of an
international monetary conference; the establishment of
commercial reciprocity with many countries of America and
Europe; the peaceful settlement of a controversy with Chile;
the negotiation of a Hawaiian Annexation Treaty, which,
however, before its ratification, his successor withdrew from the
Senate; the settlement of difficulties with Germany concerning
the Samoan Islands, and the adjustment by arbitration with
Great Britain of the Bering Sea fur-seal question. His adminis-
tration was marked by a revival of American industries and a
reduction of the public debt, and at its conclusion the country
' was left in a condition of prosperity and on friendly terms with
foreign nations. He was nominated by his party in 1892 for
re-election, but was defeated by Cleveland, this result being due,
at least in part, to the labour strikes which occurred during the
presidential campaign and arrayed the labour unions against the
tariff party.
After leaving public life he resumed the practice of the law,
and in 1898 was retained by the government of Venezuela as its
leading counsel in the arbitration of its boundary dispute with
Great Britain. In this capacity he appeared before the inter-
national tribunal of arbitration at Paris in 1899, worthily main-
taining the reputation of the American bar. After the Spanish-
American War he strongly disapproved of the colonial policy
of his party, which, however, he continued to support. He
occupied a portion of his leisure in writing a book, entitled
This Country of Ours (1897), treating of the organization and
administration of the government of the United States, and a
collection of essays by him was published posthumously, in
1901, under the title Views of an Ex-President. He died at
Indianapolis on the i3th of March 1901. Harrison's distinguish-
ing trait of character, to which his success is to be most largely
attributed, was his thoroughness. He was somewhat reserved
in manner, and this led to the charge in political circles that he
was cold and unsympathetic; but no one gathered around him
more devoted and loyal friends, and his dignified bearing in and
out of office commanded the hearty respect of his countrymen.
President Harrison was twice married; in 1853 to Miss
Caroline Lavinia Scott, by whom he had a son and a daughter,
and in 1896 to Mrs Mary Scott Lord Dimmock, by whom he had
a daughter.
A " campaign " biography was published by Lew Wallace (Phila-
delphia, 1888), and a sketch of his life may be found in Presidents
of the United States (New York, 1894), edited by James Grant
Wilson. (J. W. Fo.)
HARRISON, FREDERIC (1831- ), English jurist and
historian, was born in London on the i8th of October 1831.
Members of his family (originally Leicestershire yeomen) had
been lessees of Sutton Place, Guildford, of which he wrote an
interesting account (Annals of an Old Manor House, 1893). He
was educated at King's College school and at Wadham College,
Oxford, where, after taking a first-class in Literae Humaniores in
1853, he became fellow and tutor. He was called to the bar in
1858, and, in addition to his practice in equity cases, soon began
to distinguish himself as an effective contributor to the higher-
class reviews. Two articles in the Westminster Review, one on
the Italian question, which procured him the special thanks of
Cavour, the other on Essays and Reviews, which had the probably
undesigned effectof stimulating the attack on the book, attracted
especial notice. A few years later Mr Harrison worked at the
codification of the law with Lord Westbury, of whom he con-
tributed an interesting notice to Nash's biography of the chan-
cellor. His special interest in legislation for the working classes
led him to be placed upon the Trades Union Commission of 1867-
1869; he was secretary to the commission for the digest of the
law, 1869-1870; and was from 1877 to 1889 professor of juris-
prudence and international law under the council of legal educa-
tion. A follower of the positive philosophy, but in conflict with
Richard Congreve (q.i>.) as to details, he led the Positivists who
split off and founded Newton Hall in 1881, and he was president
of the English Positivist Committee from 1880 to 1905; he was
also edifor and part author of the Positivist New Calendar of
Great Men (1892), and wrote much on Comte and Positivism. Of
his separate publications, the most important are his lives of
Cromwell (1888), William the Silent, (1897), Ruskin (1902), and
Chatham (1905); his Meaning of History (1862; enlarged 1894)
and Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (1900); and
his essays on Early Victorian Literature (1896) and The Choice
of Books (1886) are remarkable alike for generous admiration
and good sense. In 1904 he published a " romantic mono-
graph " of the roth century, Theophano, and in 1906 a verse
tragedy, Nicephorus. An advanced and vehement Radical in
politics and Progressive in municipal affairs, Mr Harrison in 1886
stood unsuccessfully for parliament against Sir John Lubbock
for London University. In 1889 he was elected an alderman
of the London County Council, but resigned in 1893. In 1870
he married Ethel Berta, daughter of Mr William Harrison, by
whom he had four sons. George Gissing, the novelist, was at
one time their tutor; and in 1905 Mr Harrison wrote a preface
to Gissing's Veranilda (see also Mr Austin Harrison's article on
Gissing in the Nineteenth Century, September 1906). As a relig-
ious teacher, literary critic, historian and jurist, Mr Harrison
took a prominent part in the life of his time, and his writings,
though often violently controversial on political and social
subjects, and in their judgment and historical perspective
characterized by a modern Radical point of view, are those of an
accomplished scholar, and of one whose wide knowledge of
literature was combined with independence of thought and
admirable vigour of style. In 1907 he published The Creed of a
Layman,' Apologia pro fide mea, in explanation of his religious
position.
HARRISON, JOHN (1693-1776), English horologist, was the
son of a carpenter, and was born at Faulby, near Pontefract
in Yorkshire, in the year 1693. Thence his father and family
removed in 1700 to Barrow in Lincolnshire. Young Harrison
at first learned his father's trade, and worked at it for several
years, at the same time occasionally making a little money by
land-measuring and surveying. The bent of his mind, however,
was towards mechanical pursuits. In 1 7 1 5 he made a clock with
wooden wheels, which is in the patent museum at South
Kensington, and in 1726 he devised his ingenious " gridiron
pendulum," which maintains its length unaltered in spite of
variations of temperature (see CLOCK). Another invention of
his was a recoil clock escapement in which friction was reduced
to a minimum, and he was the first to employ the commonly
used and effective form of " going ratchet," which is a spring
arrangement for keeping the timepiece going at its usual rate
during the interval of being wound up.
In Harrison's time the British government had become fully
alive to the necessity of determining more accurately the longi-
tude at sea. For this purpose they passed an act in 1713 offering
rewards of 10,000, 15,000 and 20,000 to any who should
construct chronometers that would determine the longitude
within 60, 40 and 30 m. respectively. Harrison applied himself
vigorously to the task, and in 1735 went to the Board of Longi-
tude with a watch which he also showed to Edmund Halley,
George Graham and others. Through their influence he was
allowed to proceed in a king's ship to Lisbon to test it; and the
result was so satisfactory that he was paid 500 to carry out
further improvements. Harrison worked at the subject with the
utmost perseverance, and, after making several watches, went up
to London in 1761 with one which he considered almost perfect.
His son William was sent on a voyage to Jamaica to test it ; and,
on his return to Portsmouth in 1762, it was found to have lost
HARRISON, T. HARRISON, T. A.
only i minute 54! seconds. This was surprisingly accurate, as it
determined the longitude within 18 m., and Harrison claimed the
full reward of 20,000; but though from time to time he received
sums on account, it was not till 1773 that he was paid in full.
In these watches compensation for changes of temperature was
applied for the first time by means of a " compensation-curb,"
designed to alter the effective length of the balance-spring in
proportion to the expansion or contraction caused by variations
of temperature. Harrison died in London on the 24th of March
1776. His want of early education was felt by him greatly
throughout life. He was unfortunately never able to express his
ideas clearly in writing, although in conversation he could give
a very precise and exact account of his many intricate mechanical
contrivances.
Among his writings were a Description concerning such Mechanism
as will afford a Nice or True Mensuration of Time (1775), and The
Principles of Mr Harrison's Timekeeper, published by order of the
Commissioners of Longitude (1767).
HARRISON, THOMAS (1606-1660), English parliamentarian,
a native of Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, the son of a
butcher and mayor of that town, was baptized in 1606. He was
placed with an attorney of Clifford's Inn, but at the beginning of
the war in 1642 he enlisted in Essex's lifeguards, became major
in Fleetwood's regiment of horse under the earl of Manchester,
was present at Marston Moor, at Naseby, Langport and at the
taking of Winchester and Basing, as well as at the siege of Oxford.
At Basing Harrison was accused of having killed a prisoner in cold
blood. In 1646 he was returned to parliament for Wendover,
and served in Ireland in 1647 under Lord Lisle, returning to
England in May, when he took the side of the army in the dispute
with the parliament and obtained from Fairfax a regiment of
horse. In November he opposed the negotiations with the king,
whom he styled " a man of blood " to be called to account,
and he declaimed against the House of Lords. At the surprise of
Lambert's quarters at Appleby on the i8th of July 1648, in the
second civil war, he distinguished himself by his extraordinary
daring and was severely wounded. He showed a special zeal in
bringing about the trial of the king. Charles was entrusted to
his care on being brought up from Hurst Castle to London, and
believed that Harrison intended his assassination, but was at
once favourably impressed by his bearing and reassured by his
disclaiming any such design. Harrison was assiduous in his
attendance at the trial, and signed the death-warrant with the
fullest conviction that it was his duty. He took part in sup-
pressing the royalist rising in the midlands in May 1649, and in
July was appointed to the chief command in South Wales, where
he is said to have exercised his powers with exceptional severity.
On the 2oth of February 1651 he became a member of the council
of state, and during Cromwell's absence in Scotland held the
supreme military command in England. He failed in stopping
the march of the royalists into England at Knutsford on the
1 6th of August 1651, but after the battle of Worcester he ren-
dered great service in pursuing and capturing the fugitives.
Later he pressed on Cromwell the necessity of dismissing the
Long Parliament, and it was he who at Cromwell's bidding, on
the 2oth of April 1653, laid hands on Speaker Lenthall and com-
pelled him to vacate the chair. He was president of the council
of thirteen which now exercised authority, and his idea of govern-
ment appears to have been an assembly nominated by the congre-
gations, on a strictly religious basis, such as Barebone's Parlia-
ment which now assembled, of which he was a member and a
ruling spirit. Harrison belonged to the faction of Fifth Monarchy
men, whose political ideals were entirely destroyed by Cromwell's
assumption, of the protectorate. He went immediately into
violent opposition, was deprived of his commission on the 22nd of
December 1653, and on the 3rd of February 1654 was ordered to
confine himself to liis father's house in Staffordshire. Suspected
of complicity in the plots of the anabaptists, he was imprisoned
for a short time in September, and on that occasion was sent
for by Cromwell, who endeavoured in a friendly manner to per-
suade him to desist. He, however, incurred the suspicions of the
administration afresh, and on the isth of February 1655 he was
imprisoned in Carisbrooke Castle, being liberated in March 1656,
when he took up his residence at Highgate with his family. In
April 1657 he was arrested for supposed complicity in Venner's
conspiracy, and again once more in February 1658, when he was
imprisoned in the Tower. At the Restoration, Harrison, who
was excepted from the Act of Indemnity, refused to take any
steps to save his life, to give any undertaking not to conspire
against the government or to flee. " Being so clear in the thing,"
he declared, " I durst not turn my back nor step a foot out of
the way by reason I had been engaged in the service of so glorious
and great a God." He was arrested in Staffordshire in May 1660
and brought to trial on the nth of October. He made a manly
and straightforward defence, pleading the authority of parlia-
ment and adding, " May be I might be a little mistaken, but I
did it all according to the best of my understanding, desiring to
make the revealed will of God in His holy scriptures a guide to
me." At his execution, which took place at Charing Cross on the
I3th of October 1660, he behaved with great fortitude.
Richard Baxter, who was acquainted with him, describes
Harrison as " a man of excellent natural parts for affection
and oratory, but not well seen in the principles of his religion;
of a sanguine complexion, naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity
and alacrity as another man hath when he hath drunken a cup
too much, but naturally also so far from humble thoughts of
himself that it was his ruin." Cromwell also complained of his
excessive eagerness. " Harrison is an honest man and aims at
good things, yet from the impatience of his spirit will not wait
the Lord's leisure but hurries me on to that which he and all
honest men will have cause to repent." Harrison was an
eloquent and fluent expounder of the scriptures, and his " rap-
tures " on the field of victory are recorded by Baxter. He was
of the chief of those " fiery spirits " whose ardent and emotional
religion inspired their political action, and who did wonders
during the period of struggle and combat, but who later, in the
more sober and difficult sphere of constructive statesmanship,
showed themselves perfectly incapable.
Harrison married about 1648 Katherine, daughter and heiress
of Ralph Harrison of Highgate in Middlesex, by whom he had
several children, all of whom, however, appear to have died in
infancy.
See the article on Harrison by C. H. Firth in the Diet, of Nat.
Biog.; Life of Harrison by C. H. Simpkinson (1905); Notes and
Queries, 9 series, xi. 211.
HARRISON, THOMAS ALEXANDER (1853- ), American
artist, was born in Philadelphia on the i7th of January 1853.
He was a pupil of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and
of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, whither he went in 1878, .
having previously been with a United States government survey
expedition on the Pacific coast. Chafing under the restraints of
the schools, he went into Brittany, and at Pont Aven and Con-
carneau turned his attention to marine painting and landscape.
In 1882 he sent a figure-piece to the Salon, a fisher boy on the
beach, which he called " Chateaux en Espagne." This attracted
attention, and in 1885 he received an honourable mention, the
first of many awards conferred upon him, including the Temple
gold medal (Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia,
1887), first medal, Paris Exhibition (1889), and medals in Munich,
Brussels, Ghent, Vienna and elsewhere. He became a member
of the Legion of Honour and officier of Public Instruction,
Paris; a member of the Societe Nationale des Beaux- Arts,
Paris; of the Royal Institute of Painters in Oil Colours, London;
of the Secession societies of Munich, Vienna and Berlin; of the
National Academy of Design, the Society of American Artists,
New York, and other art bodies. In the Salon of 1885 he had
a large canvas of several nude women, called " In Arcady," a
remarkable study of flesh tones in light and shade which had a
strong influence on the younger men of the day. But his reputa-
tion rests rather on his marine pictures, long waves rolling in on
the beach, and great stretches of open sea under poetic con-
ditions of light and colour.
His brother, BIRGE HARRISON (1834- ), also a painter,
particularly successful in snow scenes, was a pupil of the Ecole
HARRISON, W. HARRISON, W. H.
des Beaux Arts, Paris, under Cabanel and Carolus Duran; his
" November " (honourable mention, 1882) was purchased by
the French government. Another brother, BUTLER HARRISON
(d. 1886), was a figure painter.
HARRISON, WILLIAM (1534-1593), English topographer and
antiquary, was born in London on the iSth of April 1534- He
was educated, according to his own account, at St Paul's school
and at Westminster under Alexander Nowell. In 1551 he was
at Cambridge, but he took his B.A. degree from Christ Church,
Oxford, in 1560. He was inducted early in 1559 to the rectory
of Radwinter, Essex, on the presentation of Sir William Brooke,
Lord Cobham, to whom he had formerly acted as chaplain; and
from 1571 to 1581 he held from another patron, Francis de la
Wood, the living of Wimbish in the same county. He became
canon of Windsor in 1586, and his death and burial are noted in
the chapter book of St George's chapel on the 24th of April 1593.
His famous and amusing Description of England was under-
taken for the queen's printer, Reginald Wolfe, who designed the
publication of " an universall cosmographie of the whole world
. . with particular histories of every knowne nation." After
Wolfe's death in 1576 this comprehensive plan was reduced to
descriptions and histories of England, Scotland and Ireland.
The historical section was to be supplied by Raphael Holinshed,
the topographical by Harrison. The work was eventually pub-
lished as The Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland . . .
by Raphael Holinshed and others, and was printed in two black-
letter folio volumes in 1577. Harrison's Description of England,
humbly described as his " foule frizeled treatise," and dedicated
to his patron Cobham, is an invaluable survey of the condition of
England under Elizabeth, in all its political, religious and social
aspects. Harrison is a minute and careful observer of men and
things, and his descriptions are enlivened with many examples
of a lively and caustic humour which makes the book excellent
reading. In spite of his Puritan prejudices, which lead him to
regret that the churches had not been cleared of their " pictures
in glass " (" by reason of the extreme cost thereof "), and to
exhaust his wit on the effeminate Italian fashions of the younger
generation, he had an eye for beauty and is loud in his praise of
such architectural gems as Henry VII. 's chapel at Westminster.
He is properly contemptuous of the snobbery that was even then
characteristic of English society; but his account of " how
gentlemen are made in England " must be read in full to be
appreciated. He is especially instructive on the condition and
services of the Church immediately after the Reformation;
notably in the fact that, though an ardent Protestant, he is quite
unconscious of any breach of continuity in the life and organiza-
tion of the Church of England.
Harrison also contributed the translation from Scots into
English of Bellenden's version of Hector Boece's Latin Descrip-
tion of Scotland. His other works include a " Chronologic,"
giving an account of events from the creation to the year 1593,
which is of some value for the period covered by the writer's
lifetime. This, with an elaborate treatise on weights and
measures, remains in MS. in the diocesan library of Londonderry.
For the later editions of the Chronicles of England . . . see
HOLINSHED. The second and third books of Harrison's Description
were edited by Dr F. J. Furnivall for the New Shakspcre Society,
with extracts from his " Chronologie " and from other contemporary
writers, as Shakspere's England (2 vols., 1877-1878).
HARRISON, WILLIAM HENRY (1773-1841), ninth president
of the United States, was born at Berkeley, Charles City county,
Virginia, on the 9th of February 1773, the third son of Benjamin
Harrison (c. 1740-1791). His father was long prominent in
Virginia politics, and became a member of the Virginia House
of Burgesses in 1764, opposing Patrick Henry's Stamp Act
resolutions in the following year; he was a member of the
Continental Congress in 1774-1777, signing the Declaration ol
Independence and serving for a time as president of the Boarc
of War; speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1777-
1782; governor of Virginia in 1781-1784; and in 1788 as a
member of the Virginia Convention he actively opposed the
ratification of the Federal Constitution by his state. William
rlenry Harrison received a classical education at Hampden-
Sidney College, where he was a student in 1787-1790, and began
a medical course in Philadelphia, but the death of his father
caused him to discontinue his studies, and in November 1791 he
entered the army as ensign in the Tenth Regiment at Fort
Washington, Cincinnati. In the following year he became a
ieutenant, and subsequently acted as aide-de-camp to General
Anthony Wayne in the campaign which ended in the battle of
Fallen Timbers on the loth of August 1 794. He was promoted to
a captaincy in 1797 and for a brief period served as commander of
Fort Washington, but resigned from the army in June 1798.
Soon afterwards he succeeded Winthrop Sargent as secretary of
the North-west Territory. In 1799 he was chosen by the Jeffer-
sonian party of this territory as the delegate of the territory in
Congress. While serving in this capacity he devised a plan for
disposing of the public lands upon favourable terms to actual
settlers, and also assisted in the division of the North-west
Territory. It was his ambition to become governor of the more
populous eastern portion, which retained the original name, but
nstead, in January 1800, President John Adams appointed him
governor of the newly created Indiana Territory, which com-
prised until 1809 a much larger area than the present state of
the same name. (See INDIANA: History.) He was not sworn
into office until the loth of January 1801, and was governor
until September 1812. Among the legislative measures of his
administration may be mentioned the attempted modification
of the slavery clause of the ordinance of 1787 by means of an
indenture law a policy which Harrison favoured; more
effective land laws; and legislation for the more equitable
treatment of the Indians and for preventing the sale of liquor to
them. In 1803 Harrison also became a special commissioner to
treat with the Indians " on the subject of boundary or lands,"
and as such negotiated various treaties at Fort Wayne (1803
and 1809), Vincennes (1804 and 1809) and Grouseland (1805)
by which the southern part of the present state of Indiana and
portions of the present states of Illinois, Wisconsin and Missouri
were opened to settlement. For a few months after the division
in 1804 of the Louisiana Purchase into the Orleans Territory
and the Louisiana Territory he also acted as governor of the
Louisiana Territory all of the Louisiana Purchase N. of the
thirty-third parallel, his jurisdiction then being the greatest
in extent ever exercised by a territorial official in the United
States.
The Indian cessions of 1809, along the Wabash river, aroused
the hostility of Tecumseh (q.v.) and his brother, familiarly known
as " The Prophet," who were attempting to combine the tribes
between the Ohio and the Great Lakes in opposition to the
encroachment of the whites. Several fruitless conferences
between the governor and the Indian chiefs, who were believed
to be encouraged by the British, resulted in Harrison's advance
with a force of militia and regulars to the Tippecanoe river,
where (near the present Lafayette, Ind.) on the 7th of November
1811 he won over the Indians a victory which established his
military reputation and was largely responsible for his sub-
sequent nomination and election to the presidency of the United
States. From one point of view the battle of Tippecanoe may
be regarded as the opening skirmish of the war of 1812. When
in the summer of 181 2 open hostilities with Great Britain began,
Harrison was appointed by Governor Charles Scott of Kentucky
major-general in the militia of that state. A few weeks later
(22nd August 1812) he was made brigadier-general in the regular
U.S. army, and soon afterwards was put in command of all the
troops in the north-west, and on the 2nd of March 1813 he was
promoted to the rank of major-general. General James Win-
chester, whom Harrison had ordered to prepare to cross Lake
Erie on the ice and surprise Fort Maiden, turned back to rescue
the threatened American settlement at Frenchtown (now
Monroe), on the Raisin river, and there on the 22nd of January
1813 was .forced to surrender to Colonel Henry A. Proctor.
Harrison's offensive operations being thus checked, he accom-
plished nothing that summer except to hold in check Proctor, who
(May 1-5) besieged him at Fort Meigs, the American advanced
HARRISON
post after the disaster of the river Raisin. After Lieutenant
O. H. Perry's naval victory on the roth of September 1813,
Harrison no longer had to remain on the defensive; he advanced
to Detroit, re-occupied the territory surrendered by General
William Hull, and on the sth of October administered a crushing
defeat to Proctor at the battle of the Thames.
In 1814 Harrison received no active assignments to service,
and on this account and because the secretary of war (John
Armstrong) issued an order to one of Harrison's subordinates
without consulting him, he resigned his commission. Armstrong
accepted the resignation without consulting President Madison,
but the president later utilized Harrison in negotiating with the
north-western Indians, the greater part of whom agreed (22nd
July 1814) to a second treaty of Greenville, by which they were
to become active allies of the United States, should hostilities
with Great Britain continue. This treaty publicly marked an
American policy of alliance with these Indians and caused the
British peace negotiators at Ghent to abandon them. In the
following year Harrison held another conference at Detroit with
these tribes in order to settle their future territorial relations
with the United States.
From 1816 to 1819 Harrison was a representative in Congress,
and as such worked in behalf of more liberal pension laws and a
better militia organization, including a system of general military
education, of improvements in the navigation of the Ohio, and of
relief for purchasers of public lands, and for the strict construc-
tion of the power of Congress over the Territories, particularly
in regard to slavery. In accordance with this view in 1819 he
voted against Tallmadge's amendment (restricting the extension
of slavery) to the enabling act for the admission of Missouri.
He also delivered forcible speeches upon the death of Kosciusko
and upon General Andrew Jackson's course in the Floridas,
favouring a partial censure of the latter.
Harrison was a member of the Ohio senate in 1810-1821, and
was an unsuccessful candidate for the National House of Repre-
sentatives in 1822, when his Missouri vote helped to cause his
defeat; he was a presidential elector in 1824, supporting Henry
Clay, and from 1825 to 1828 was a member of the United States
Senate. In 1828 after unsuccessful efforts to secure for him the
command of the army, upon the death of Major-General Jacob
Brown, and the nomination for the vice-president, on the ticket
with John Quincy Adams, his friends succeeded in getting
Harrison appointed as the first minister of the United States to
Colombia. He became, however, an early sacrifice to Jackson's
spoils system, being recalled within less than a year, but not
until he had involved himself in some awkward diplomatic com-
plications with Bolivar's autocratic government.
For some years after his return from Colombia he lived in
retirement at North Bend, Ohio. He was occasionally " men-
tioned " for governor, senator or representative, by the anti-
Jackson forces, and delivered a few addresses on agricultural or
political topics. Later he became clerk of the court of common
pleas of Hamilton county a lucrative position that was then
most acceptable to him. Early in 1835 Harrison began to be
mentioned as a suitable presidential candidate, and later in the
year he was nominated for the presidency at large public meet-
ings in Pennsylvania, New York and Maryland. In the election
of the following year he attracted a large part of the Whig and
Anti-Masonic vote of the Middle and Western states and led
among the candidates opposing Van Buren, but received only
73 electoral votes while Van Buren received 1 70. His unexpected
strength, due largely to his clear, if non-committal, political
record, rendered him the most " available " candidate for the
Whig party for the campaign of 1840, and he was nominated by
the Whig convention at Harrisburg, Pa., in December 1839, his
most formidable opponent being Henry Clay, who, though
generally regarded as the real leader of his party, was less
" available " because as a mason he would alienate former
members of the old Anti-Masonic party, and as an advocate of a
protective tariff would repel many Southern voters. The conven-
tion adjourned without adopting any " platform " of principles,
the party shrewdly deciding to make its campaign merely on the
issue of whether the Van Buren administration should be con-
tinued in power and thus to take full advantage of the popular
discontent with the administration, to which was attributed the
responsibility for the panic of 1837 and the subsequent business
depression. Largely to attract the votes of Democratic mal-
contents the Whig convention nominated for the vice-presidency
John Tyler, who had previously been identified with the Demo-
cratic party. The campaign was marked by the extraordinary
enthusiasm exhibited by the Whigs, and by their skill in attacking
Van Buren without binding themselves to any definite policy.
Because of his fame as a frontier hero, of the circumstance that
a part of his home at North Bend, Ohio, had formerly been a log
cabin, and of the story that cider, not wine, was served on his
table, Harrison was derisively called by his opponents the " log
cabin and hard cider " candidate; the term was eagerly accepted
by the Whigs, in whose processions miniature log cabins were
carried and at whose meetings hard cider was served, and
the campaign itself has become known in history as the "log
cabin and hard cider campaign." Harrison's canvass was con-
spicuous for the immense Whig processions and mass meetings,
the numerous " stump " speeches (Harrison himself addressing
meetings at Dayton, Chillicothe, Columbus and other places),
and the use of campaign songs, of party insignia, and of campaign
cries (such as " Tippecanoe and Tyler too "); and in the election
he won by an overwhelming majority of 234 electoral votes to
60 cast for Van Buren.
President Harrison was inaugurated on the 4th of March 1841.
He chose for his cabinet Daniel Webster as secretary of state,
Thomas Ewing as secretary of the treasury, John Bell as secretary
of war, George E. Badger as secretary of the navy, Francis
Granger as postmaster-general, and John J. Crittenden as
attorney-general. He survived his inauguration only one month,
dying on the 4th of April 1841, and being succeeded by the vice-
president, John Tyler. The immediate cause of his death was
an attack of pneumonia, but the disease was aggravated by the
excitement attending his sudden change in circumstances and
the incessant demands of office seekers. After temporary
interment at Washington, his body was removed to the tomb at
North Bend, Ohio, where it now lies. A few of Harrison's public
addresses survive, the most notable being A Discourse on the
Aborigines of the Ohio. It has been said of him: " He was not a
great man, but he had lived in a great time, and he had been a
leader in great things." He was the first territorial delegate in
the Congress of the United States and was the author of the first
step in the development of the country's later homestead policy;
the first presidential candidate to be selected upon the ground
of " expediency " alone; and the first president to die in office.
In 1795 he married Anna Symmes (1775-1864), daughter of John
Cleves Symmes. Their grandson, Benjamin Harrison, was the
twenty-third president of the United States.
AUTHORITIES. In 1824 Moses Dawson published at Cincinnati the
Historical Narrative of the Civil and Military Services of Major-
General William H. Harrison. This is a combined defence and
political pamphlet, but it is the source of all the subsequent " lives "
that have appeared. There are several " campaign " biographies,
including one by Richard Hildreth (1839) and one by Caleb Gushing
(1840); and there is a good sketch in Presidents of the United States
(New York, 1894), edited by J. G. Wilson. An excellent study of
Harrison's career in Indiana appears in vol. 4 of the Indiana Historical
Society Publications. Selections from his scanty correspondence
appear in vols. ii. and iii. of the Quarterly Publications of the Historical
and Philosophical Society of Ohio.
HARRISON, a town of Hudson county. New Jersey, U.S.A.,
on the Passaic river, opposite Newark (with which it is connected
by bridges and electric railways), and 7 m. W. of Jersey City.
Pop. (1890) 8338; (1900) 10,596, of whom 3633 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 14,498. It is served by the Pennsylvania,
the Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways.
Harrison was chosen as the eastern terminal of the Pennsylvania
railroad for steam locomotive service, transportation thence
to New York being by electric power through the railway's
Hudson river tunnels. The town has an extensive river-front,
along which are many of its manufactories; among their
products are steam-pumps, steel, iron, machinery, roller bearings,
HARRODSBURG HARROW
27
brass tubing, iron and brass castings, marine engines, hoisting
engines, metal novelties, dry batteries, electric lamps, concrete
blocks, cotton thread, wire cloth, leather, trunks, beer, barrels,
lumber, inks and cutlery. The factory product in 1905 was
valued at $8,408,924. The town is governed by a mayor and a
common council. Harrison was settled toward the close of the
1 7th century, and for many years constituted the S. portion of
the township of Lodi. In 1840, however, it was set off from
Lodi and named in honour of President William Henry Harrison,
and in 1873 it was incorporated. Harrison originally included
what is now the town of Kearny (q.v.).
HARRODSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Mercer
county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 32 m. S. of Frankfort, on the Southern
railway. Pop. (1890) 3230; (1900) 2876, of whom 1150 were
negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 3147. On account of its sulphur
springs Harrodsburg became early in the igth century a fashion-
able resort, and continues to attract a considerable number of
visitors. The city is the seat of Harrodsburg Academy, Beau-
mont College for women (1894; founded as Daughters' College
in 1856); and Wayman College (African M.E.) for negroes.
Among its manufactures are flour, whisky, dressed lumber and
ice. About 7 m. E. of Harrodsburg is Pleasant Hill, or Union
Village, a summer resort and the home, since early in the igth
century, of a Shaker community. Harrodsburg was founded on
the 1 6th of June 1774 by James Harrod (1746-1793) and a
few followers, and is the oldest permanent settlement in the
state. It was incorporated in 1875. Harrodsburg was formerly
the seat of Bacon College (see LEXINGTON, Kentucky).
HARROGATE, a municipal borough and watering-place in
the Ripon parliamentary division of the West Riding of York-
shire, England, 203 m. N. by W. from London, on the North-
Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 16,316; (1901) 28,423. It is
indebted for its rise and importance to its medicinal springs,
and is the principal inland watering-place in the north of England.
It consists of two scattered townships, Low Harrogate and High
Harrogate, which have gradually been connected by a continuous
range of handsome houses and villas. A common called the
Stray, of 200 acres, secured by act of parliament from ever being
built upon, stretches in front of the main line of houses, and on
this account Harrogate, notwithstanding its rapid increase, has
retained much of its rural charm. As regards climate a choice
is offered between the more bracing atmosphere of High Harro-
gate and the sheltered and warm climate of the low town. The
waters are chalybeate, sulphureous and saline, and some of the
springs possess all these qualities to a greater or less extent.
The principal chalybeate springs are the Tewitt well, called by
Dr Bright, who wrote the first account of it, the " English Spa,"
discovered by Captain William Slingsby of Bilton Hall near the
close of the i6th century; the Royal Chalybeate Spa, more
commonly known as John's Well, discovered in 1631 by Dr
Stanhope of York; Muspratt's chalybeate or chloride of iron
spring discovered in 1819, but first properly analysed by Dr
Sheridan Muspratt in 1865; and the Starbeck springs midway
between High Harrogate and Knaresborough. The principal
sulphur springs are the old sulphur well in the centre of Low
Harrogate, discovered about the year 1656; the Montpellier
springs, the principal well of which was discovered in 1822,
situated in the grounds of the Crown Hotel and surmounted by
a handsome building in the Chinese style, containing pump-room,
baths and reading-room; and the Harlow Car springs, situated
in a wooded glen about a mile west from Low Harrogate. Near
Harlow Car is Harlow observatory, a square tower 100 ft. in
height, standing on elevated ground and commanding a very
extensive view. A saline spring situated in Low Harrogate was
discovered in 1783. Some eighty springs in all have been dis-
covered. The principal bath establishments are the Victoria
Baths (1871) and the Royal Baths (1897). There are also a
handsome kursaal (1903), a grand opera house, numerous modern
churches, and several hospitals and benevolent institutions,
including the Royal Bath hospital. The corporation owns the
Stray, and also the Spa concert rooms and grounds, Harlow
Moor, Crescent Gardens, Royal Bath gardens and other large
open spaces, as well as Royal Baths, Victoria Baths and Starbeck
Baths. The mineral springs are vested in the corporation. The
high-lying moorland of the surrounding district is diversified
by picturesque dales; and Harrogate is not far from mony
towns and sites of great interest, such as Ripon, Knaresborough
and Fountains Abbey. The town was incorporated in 1884,
and the corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
councillors. Area, 3276 acres.
HARROW, 1 an agricultural implement used for (i) levelling
ridges left by the plough and preparing a smooth surface for
the reception of seeds; (2) covering in seeds after sowing; (3)
tearing up and gathering weeds; (4) disintegrating and levelling
the soil of meadows and pastures; (5) forming a surface tilth
by pulverizing the top soil and so conserving moisture.
The harrow rivals the plough in antiquity. In its simplest
form it consists of the boughs of trees interlaced into a wooden
frame, and this form survives in the " bush-harrow." Another
old type, found in the middle ages and still in use, consists of a
wooden framework in which iron pegs or " tines " are set. This
is now generally superseded by the " zig-zag " harrow patented
by Armstrong in 1839, built of iron bars in which the tines are so
arranged that each follows its own track and" has a separate line
of action. This harrow is usually made in two or three sections
FIG. i. Jointed Zig-zag Harrow. (Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies, Ltd.)
which fold over one another and are thus easily portable, the
arrangement at the same time giving a flexibility on uneven
ground. Additional flexibility may be imparted to the imple-
ment by jointing the stays of the frame which are in the line of
draught. The liability that the tines may snap off is the chief
weakness of this type, and improvements have consisted chiefly
in alterations in their shape and the method of fixing them to the
frame.
The other type of harrow most used is the chain harrow', con-
sisting of a number of square-link chains connected by cross links
and attached to a draught-bar, the whole being kept expanded
by stretchers and trailing weights. It is used for levelling and
spreading manure over grass-land, from which it at the same
time tears up moss and coarse herbage. Mention may also be
made of the drag-harrow, a heavy implement with long tines,
approximating closely to the cultivator, and of the Norwegian
harrow with its revolving rows of spikes.
A few variations and developments of the ordinary harrow require
notice. In the adjustable harrow (fig. 2) the teeth are secured to
bars pivoted at their ends in the side bars of the frame, and provided
with crank arms connected to a common link bar, which may be
moved horizontally by means of a lever for the purpose of adjusting
1 In Mid. Eng. harwe; the O. Eng. appears to have been hearge; the
word is cognate with the Dutch hark, Swed. harke, Ger. Harke, rake,
and with Danish ham, and Swed. harf, harrow, but the ultimate
origin is unknown; the Fr. herse is a different word, cf. HEARSE.
28
HARROWBY HARROWING OF HELL
the angle which the teeth make with the ground, and thus convert
the machine from a pulverizer to a smooching harrow. The small
figure illustrates a spring connexion between the adjusting lever and
its locking bar, which allows the teeth to yield upon striking an
obstruction. As the briskness of the operation adds to its effective-
Siiowing tooth mechanism of harrow.
FIG. 2. Adjustable Harrow.
ness, the harrow is often made with a seat from which the operator
can hasten the team without fatiguing himself.
Fig. 3 illustrates a spring-tooth harrow. In this harrow the in-
dependent frames are carried upon wheels, and a seat for the operator
is mounted upon standards supported by the two frames. The teeth
consist of flat steel springs of scroll form, which yield to rigid obstruc-
tions and are mounted on rock shafts in the same manner as in the
walking harrow before described. The levers enable the operator t o
raise the teeth more or less, and thus free them from rubbish and
also regulate the depth of action.
Another variation of the harrow with great pulverizing and
loosening capabilities consists of a main frame, having a pole and
whipple-trees attached ; to this frame are pivoted two supplemental
frames, each of which has mounted on it a shaft carrying a series of
concavo-convex disks. The supplemental frames may be swung by
FIG. 3. Spring-tooth Harrow.
the adjusting levers to any angle with relation to the line of draught,
and the disks then act like that of the disk plough (see PLOUGH),
throwing the soil outward with more or less force, according to the
angle at which they are set, and thus thoroughly breaking up and
pulverizing the clods. Above the disks is a bar to which are pivoted
a series of scrapers, one for each disk, which are held to their work
with a yielding action, being thrown out of operation when desired
by the levers shown in connexion with the operating bar. Pans on
the main frame are used to carry weights to hold the disks down to
their work. The cut away disk narrow differs from the ordinary disk
harrow in that its disks are notched and so have greater penetrating
power. The curved knife-tooth harrow consists of a frame to which
a row of curved blades is attached. Other forms of the implement
are illustrated and discussed in Farm Machinery and Farm Motors
by J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase (New York, 1908).
HARROWBY, DUDLEY RYDER, IST EARL OF (1762-1847),
the eldest son of Nathaniel Ryder, ist Baron Harrowby (1735-
1803), was born in London on the 22nd of December 1762. His
grandfather Sir Dudley Ryder (1691-1756) became a member
of parliament and solicitor-general owing to the favour of Sir
Robert Walpole in 1733; in 1737 he was appointed attorney-
general and three years later he was knighted; in 1754 he was
made lord chief justice of the king's bench and a privy councillor,
the patent creating him a peer having been just signed by the
king, but not passed, when he died on the 25th of May 1756. His
only son Nathaniel, who was member of parliament for Tiverton
for twenty years, was created Baron Harrowby in 1776. Edu-
cated at St John's College, Cambridge, Dudley Ryder became
member of parliament for Tiverton in 1784 and under-secretary
for foreign affairs in 1789. In 1791 he was appointed paymaster
of the forces and vice-president of the board of trade, but he
resigned the positions and also that of treasurer of the navy
when he succeeded to
his father's barony in
June 1803. In 1804 he
was secretary of state
for foreign affairs and
in 1805 chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster
under his intimate
friend William Pitt; in
the latter year he was
sent on a special and
important mission to
the emperors of Austria
and Russia and the
king of Prussia, and
for the long period between 1812 and 1827 he was lord
president of the council. After Canning's death in 1827 he
refused to serve George IV. as prime minister and he
never held office again, although he continued to take part
in politics, being especially prominent during the deadlock
which preceded the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832.
Harrowby's long association with the Tories did not prevent
him from assisting to remove the disabilities of Roman Catholics
and Protestant dissenters, or from supporting the movement
for electoral reform; he was also in favour of the emancipation
of the slaves. The earl died at his Staffordshire residence,
Sandon Hall, on the 26th of December 1847, being, as Charles
Greville says, " the last of his generation and of the colleagues
of Mr Pitt, the sole survivor of those stirring times and mighty
contests."
Harrowby's eldest son, Dudley Ryder, 2nd earl (1798-1882), was
born in London on the igih of May 1798, his mother being Susan
(d. 1838), daughter of.Granville Leveson-Gower, marquess of
Stafford, a lady of exceptional attainments. As Viscount Sandon
he became member of parliament for Tiverton in 1819, in 1827
he was appointed a lord of the admiralty, and in 1830 secretary
to the India board. From 1831 to 1847 Sandon represented
Liverpool in the House of Commons. For a long time he was
out of office, but in 1855, eight years after he had become earl
of Harrowby, he was appointed chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster by Lord Palmerston; in a few months he was trans-
ferred to the office of lord privy seal, a position which he resigned
in 1857. He was chairman of the Maynooth commission and a
member of other important royal commissions, and was among
the most stalwart and prominent defenders of the established
church. He died at Sandon on the loth of November 1882. His
successor was his eldest son, Dudley Francis Stuart Ryder (1831-
1900), vice-president of the council from 1874 to 1878, president of
the board olf trade from 1878 to 1880, and lord privy seal in 1885
and 1886. He died without sons on the 26th of March 1900, and
was succeeded by his brother, Henry Dudley Ryder (1836-1900),
whose son, John Herbert Dudley Ryder (b. 1864), became sth
earl of Harrowby.
HARROWING OF HELL, an English poem in dialogue, dating
from the end of the I3th century. It is written in the East
Midland dialect, and is generally cited as the earliest dramatic
work of any kind preserved in the language, though it was in
reality probably intended for recitation rather than performance.
It is closely allied to the kind of poem known as a debat, and the
opening words " Alle herkneth to me nou A strif wille I tellen
ou Of Jesu and of Satan " seem to indicate that the piece was
delivered by a single performer. The subject the descent of
Christ into Hades to succour the souls of the just, as related in
the apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus is introduced in a kind of
prologue; then follows the dispute between " Dominus " and
" Satan " at the gate of Hell; the gatekeeper runs away, and
the just are set free, while Adam, Eve, Habraham, David,
Johannes and Moyses do homage to the deliverer. The poem
HARROW-ON-THE-HILL HARSDORFFER
29
ends with a short prayer: " God, for his moder loue Let ous
never thider come." Metrically, the poem is characterized by
frequent alliteration imposed upon the rhymed octosyllabic
couplet:
Welcome, louerd, god of londe
Codes sone and godes sonde (ii. 149-150).
The piece is obviously connected with the Easter cycle of litur-
gical drama, and the subject is treated in the York and Townley
plays.
MSS. are: Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 2253; Edinburgh, Auchinteck
MS W 41 ; Oxford, Bodleian, Digby 86. It was privately printed
by J P Collier and by J. O. Halliwell, but is available in Appendix
III of A. W. Pollard's English Miracle Plays . . . (4th ed., 1904)
K Boddcker, Altengl. Dichtungen des MS. Harl. 2253 (Berlin, 1878) ;
and E. Mall, The Harrowing of Hell (Breslau, 1871). See also E. K.
Chambers, The Medieval Stage (2 vols., 1903).
HARROW-ON-THE-HILL, an urban district in the Harrow
parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, 12 m. W.N.W.
of St Paul's cathedral, London, served by the London and North
Western, Metropolitan and District railways. Pop. (1901), 10,220.
It takes its name from its position on an isolated hill rising to
a height of 345 ft. On the summit, and forming a conspicuous
landmark, is the church of St Mary, said to have been founded by
Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, in the reign of William I.,
and Norman work appears at the base of the tower. The re-
mainder of the church is of various later dates, and there are
several ancient monuments and brasses.
Harrow is celebrated for its public school, founded in 1571 by
John Lyon, whose brass is in the church, a yeoman of the
neighbouring village of Preston who had yearly during his life
set aside 20 marks for the education of poor children of Harrow;
though a school existed before his time. Though the charter
was granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1571, and the statutes drawn
up by the founder in 1590, two years before his death, it was not
till 1611 that the first building was opened for scholars. Lyon
originally settled about two-thirds of his property on the school,
leaving the remainder for the maintenance of the highway
between London and Harrow, but in the course of time the
values of the respective endowments have changed so far that
the benefit accruing to the school is a small proportion of the
whole. About 1660 the headmaster, taking advantage of a con-
cession in Lyon's statutes, began to receive " foreigners," i.e.
boys from other parishes, who were to pay for their education.
From this time the prosperity of the school may be dated. In
1809 the parishioners of Harrow appealed to the court of chan-
cery against the manner in which the school was conducted, but
the decision, while it recognized their privileges, confirmed the
right of admission to foreigners. The government of the school
was originally vested in six persons of standing in the parish who
had the power of filling vacancies in their number by election
among themselves; but under the Public Schools Act of 1868
the governing body now consists of the surviving members of
the old board, besides six new members who are elected re-
spectively by the lord chancellor, the universities of Oxford,
Cambridge and London, the Royal Society, and the assistant
masters of the school. There are several scholarships in con-
nexion with the school to Oxford and Cambridge Universities.
Harrow was originally an exclusively classical school, but
mathematics became a compulsory study in 1837; modern
languages, made compulsory in the upper forms in 1851, were
extended to the whole school in 1855; while English history and
literature began to be especially studied about 1869. The
number of boys is about 600. The principal buildings are
modern, including the chapel (1857), the library (1863), named
after the eminent headmaster Dr Charles John Vaughan, and the
speech-room (1877), the scene of the brilliant ceremony on
" Speech Day " each summer term. The fourth form room
however, dates from 161 1, and on its panels are cut the names ol
many eminent alumni, such as Byron, Robert Peel, R. B
Sheridan and Temple (Lord Palmerston). Several of the
buildings were erected out of the Lyon Tercentenary Fund, sub-
scribed after the tercentenary celebration in 1871.
A considerable extension of Harrow as an outer residential
3 uburb of London has taken place north of the hill, where is the
urban district of Wealdstone (pop. 5901), and there are also
mportant printing and photographic works.
HARRY THE MINSTREL, or BLIND HARRY (fl. 1470-1492),
author of the Scots historical poem The Actis and Deidis of the
Ulustere and Vailzeand Campioun Schir William Wallace, Knicht
?/ Ellerslie, flourished in the latter half of the i $th century. The
details of his personal history are of the scantiest. He appears
to have been a blind Lothian man, in humble circumstances, who
lad some reputation as a story-teller, and who received, on five
occasions, in 1490 and 1491, gifts from James IV. The entries of
these, in the Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer, occur among
others to harpers and singers. He is alluded to by Dunbar (q.v.)
in the fragmentary Interlude of the Droichis Part of the Play, where
a " droich," or dwarf, personates
" the nakit blynd Harry
That lang has bene in the fary
Farleis to find;"
and again in Dunbar's Lament for the Makaris. John Major
(q.v.) in his Latin History speaks of " one Henry, blind from his
birth, who, in the time of my childhood, fashioned a whole book
about William Wallace, and therein wrote down in our popular
verse and this was a kind of composition in which he had much
skill all that passed current among the people in his day. I,
however, can give but partial credence to these writings. This
Henry used to recite his tales before nobles, and thus received
food and clothing as his reward " (Bk. iv. ch. xv.).
The poem (preserved in a unique MS., dated 1488, in the
Advocates' library, Edinburgh) is divided into eleven books and
runs to 11,853 l' n es. Its poetic merits are few, and its historical
accuracy is easily impugned. It has the formal interest of being
one of the earliest, certainly one of the most extensive verse-
documents in Scots written in five-accent, or heroic, couplets.
It is also the earliest outstanding work which discloses that
habit of Scotticism which took such strong hold of the popular
Northern literature during the coming years of conflict with
England. In this respect it is in marked contrast with all the
patriotic verse of preceding and contemporary literature. This
attitude of the Wallace may perhaps be accepted as corroborative
evidence of the humble milieu and popular sentiment of its
author. The poem owed its subsequent widespread reputation
to its appeal to this sentiment rather than to its literary quality.
On the other hand, there are elements in the poem which show
that it is not entirely the work of a poor crowder; and these
(notably references to historical and literary authorities, and
occasional reminiscences of the literary tricks of the Scots
Chaucerian school) have inclined some to the view that the text,
as we have it, is an edited version of the minstrel's rough song-
story. It has been argued, though by no means conclusively, that
the " editor " was John Ramsay, the scribe of the Edinburgh MS.
and of the companion Edinburgh MS. of the Brus by John
Barbour (q.v.).
The poem appears, on the authority of Laing, to have been printed
at the press of Chepman & Myllar about 1508, but the fragments
which Laing saw are not extantr. The first complete edition, now
available, was printed by Lekprevik for Henry Charteris in 1570
(Brit. Museum). It was reprinted by Charteris in 1594 and IOOI,
and by Andro Hart in 1611 and 1620. At least six other editions
appealed in the I7th century. There are many later reprints,
including some of William Hamilton of Gilbertfield's modern Scots
version of 1722. The first critical edition was prepared by Dr
Jamieson and published in 1820. In 1889 the Scottish Text Society
completed their edition of the text, with prolegomena and notes by
James Moir.
See, in addition to Jamieson s and Moir s volumes (u.s.), J. 1. 1.
Brown's The Wallace and the Bruce Resludied (Bonner, Beitrdge zur
AnMstik. vi., 1900), a pica for Ramsay's authorship of the known
text- also W. A. Craigie's article in The Scottish Review (July 1903),
a comparative estimate of the Brus and Wallace, in favour of the
latter.
HARSDORFFER, GEORG PHILIPP (1607-1658), German
poet, was born at Nuremberg on the ist of November 1607. He
studied law at Altdorf and Strassburg, and subsequently travelled
HARSHA HART, SIR R.
through Holland, England, France and Italy. His knowledge
of languages gained for him the appellation " the learned,"
though he was as little a learned man as he was a poet. As a
member of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft he was called der
Spielende (the player). Jointly with Johann Klaj (q.v.) he
founded in 1644 at Nuremberg the order of the Pegnitzschafer,
a literary society, and among the members thereof he was known
by the name of Strephon. He died at Nuremberg on the 22nd of
September 1658. His writings in German and Latin fill fifty
volumes, and a selection of his poems, interesting mostly for
their form, is to be found in Miiller's Bibliothek deutscher Dichter
des i~ t len Jahrhunderts, vol. ix. (Leipzig, 1826).
His life was written by Widmann (Altdorf, 1707). See also
Tittmann, Die Nurnberger Dichterschule (Gottingen, 1847); Hoder-
mann, Rine vornehme Gesellschaft, nach Hirsdorffers " Gesprdch-
spielen " (Paderborn, 1890) ; T. Bischoff, " Georg Philipp Hars-
dorffer " in the Festschrift zur 2$ojahrigen Jubelfeier des Peg-
nesischen Blumenordens (Nuremberg, 1894); and Krapp, Die
asthetischen Tendenzen Harsdorffers (Berlin, 1904).
HARSHA, or HARSHA VARDHANA (fl. A.D. 606-648), an Indian
king who ruled northern India as paramount monarch for over
forty years. The events of his reign are related by Hsu'an Tsang,
the Chinese pilgrim, and by Bana, a Brahman author. He was
the son of a raja of Thanesar, who gained prominence by success-
ful wars against the Huns, and came to the throne in A.D. 606,
though he was only crowned in 612. He devoted himself to a
scheme of conquering the whole of India, and carried on wars for
thirty years with success, until (A.D. 620) he came in contact
with Pulakesin II., the greatest of the Chalukya dynasty, who
made himself lord of the south, as Harsha was lord of the north.
The Nerbudda river foimed the boundary between the two
empires. In the latter years of his reign Harsha's sway over the
whole basin of the Ganges from the Himalayas to the Nerbudda
was undisputed. After thirty-seven years of war he set himself
to emulate Asoka and became a patron of art and literature.
He was the last native monarch who held paramount power in
the north prior to the Mahommedan conquest; and was suc-
ceeded by an era of petty states.
See Bana, Sri-harsha-charita, trans. Cowell and Thomas (1897);
Ettinghausen, Harsha Vardhana (Louvain, 1906).
HARSNETT, SAMUEL (1561-1631), English divine, arch-
bishop of York, was born at Colchester in June 1561, and was
educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he was success-
ively scholar, fellow and master (1605-1616). He was also vice-
chancellor of the university in 1606 and 1614. His ecclesiastical
career began somewhat unpromisingly, for he was censured by
Archbishop Whitgift for Romanist tendencies in a sermon which
he preached against predestination in 1584. After holding the
living of Chigwell (1597-1605) he became chaplain to Bancroft
(then bishop of London), and afterwards archdeacon of Essex
(1603-1609), rector of Stisted and bishop of Chichester (1609-
1619) and archbishop of York (1629). He died on the 25th of
May 1631. Harsnett was no favourite with the Puritan com-
munity, and Charles I. ordered his Considerations for the better
Settling of Church Government (1629) to be circulated among the
bishops. His Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures (1603)
furnished Shakespeare with the names of the spirits mentioned
by Edgar in King Lear.
HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL (1854- ), American his-
torian, was born at Clarksville, Mercer county, Pennsylvania,
on the ist of July 1854. He graduated at Harvard College in
1880, studied at Paris, Berlin and Freiburg, and received
the degree of Ph.D. at Freiburg in 1883. He was instructor in
history at Harvard in 1883-1887, assistant professor in 1887-
1897, and became professor in 1897. Among his writings are:
Introduction to the Study of Federal Government (1890), Forma-
tion of the Union (1892, in the Epochs of American History
series), Practical Essays on American Government (1893), Studies
in American Education (1895), Guide to the Study of American
History (with Edward Channing, 1897), Salmon Portland Chase
(1899, in the American Statesman series), Foundations of
American Foreign Policy (1901), Actual Government (1903),
Slavery and Abolition (1906, the volume in the American
Nation series dealing with the period 1831-1841), National
Ideals Historically Traced (1907), the z6th volume of the
American Nation series, and many historical pamphlets and
articles. In addition he edited American History told by Con-
temporaries (4 vols., 1898-1901), and Source Readers in American
History (4 vols., 1901-1903), and two co-operative histories of the
United States, the Epochs of American History series (3 small
text-books), and, on a much larger scale, the American Nation
series (27 vols., 1903-1907); he also edited the American
Citizen series.
HART, CHARLES (d. 1683), English actor, grandson of
Shakespeare's sister Joan, is first heard of as playing women's
parts at the Blackfriars' theatre as an apprentice of Richard
Robinson. In the Civil War he was a lieutenant of horse in
Prince Rupert's regiment, and after the king's defeat he played
surreptitiously at the Cockpit and at Holland House and other
noblemen's residences. After the Restoration he is known to
have been in 1660 the original Dorante in The Mistaken Beauty,
adapted from Corneille's Le Menleur. In 1663 he went to the
Theatre Royal in Killigrew's company, with which he remained
until 1682, taking leading parts in Dryden's, Jonson's and
Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. He is highly spoken of by
contemporaries in such Shakespearian parts as Othello and
Brutus. He is often mentioned by Pepys. Betterton praised
him, and would not himself play the part of Hotspur until after
Hart's retirement. He died in 1683 and was buried on the 2oth
of August. Hart is said to have been the first lover of Nell Gwyn,
and to have trained her for the stage.
HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM (1835-1898), English medical
journalist, was born in London on the 26th of June 1835, the son
of a Jewish dentist. He was educated at the City of London
school, and became a student at St George's hospital. In 1856
he became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, making
a specialty of diseases of the eye. He was appointed ophthalmic
surgeon at St Mary's hospital at the age of 28, and occupied
various other posts, introducing into ophthalmic practice some
modifications since widely adopted. His name, too, is associated
with a method of treating popliteal aneurism, which he was the
first to use in Great Britain. His real life-work, however, was
as a medical journalist, beginning with the Lancet in 1857.
He was appointed editor of the British Medical Journal in 1866.
He took a leading part in the exposures which led to the inquiry
into the state of London workhouse infirmaries, and to the reform
of the treatment of sick poor throughout England, and the
Infant Life Protection Act of 1872, aimed at the evils of baby-
farming, was largely due to his efforts. The record of his public
work covers nearly the whole field of sanitary legislation during
the last thrity years of his life. He had a hand in the amend-
ments of the Public Health and of the Medical Acts; in the
measures relating to notification of infectious disease, to vaccina-
tion, to the registration of plumbers; in the improvement of
factory legislation; in the remedy of legitimate grievances of
Army and Navy medical officers; in the removal of abuses and
deficiencies in crowded barrack schools; in denouncing the
sanitary shortcomings of the Indian government, particularly in
regard to the prevention of cholera. His work on behalf of the
British Medical Association is shown by the increase from
2000 to 19,000 in the number of members, end the growth of the
British Medical Journal from 20 to 64 pages, during his editor-
ship. From 1872 to 1897 he was chairman of the Association's
Parliamentary Bill Committee. He died on the 7th of January
1898. For his second wife he married Alice Marion Rowland,
who had herself studied medicine in London and Paris, and was
no less interested than her husband in philanthropic reform.
She was most active in her encouragement of Irish cottage
industries, and was the founder of the Donegal Industrial
Fund.
HART, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1835- ), Anglo-Chinese
statesman, was born at Milltown, Co. Armagh, on the 2oth of
February 1835. He was educated at Taunton, Dublin and
Belfast, and graduated at Queen's College, Belfast, in 1853.
In the following year he received an appointemnt as student-
HART, W. HARTE, BRET
interpreter in the China consular service, and after serving for
a short time at the Ningpo vice-consulate, he was transferred to
Canton, where after acting as secretary to the allied commis-
sioners governing the city, he was appointed the local inspector
of.customs. There he first gained an insight into custom-house
work. One effect of the Taiping rebellion was to close the native
custom-house at Shanghai; and as the corrupt alternatives
proposed by the Chinese were worse than useless, it was arranged
by Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British consul, with his French
and American colleagues, that they should undertake to collect
the duties on goods owned by foreigners entering and leaving
the port. Sir T. Wade was appointed to the post of collector
in the first instance, and after a short tenure of office was succeeded
by Mr H. N. Lay, who held the post until 1863, when he resigned
owing to a disagreement with the Chinese government in con-
nexion with the Lay-Osborn fleet. During his tenancy of office
the system adopted at Shanghai was applied to the other treaty
ports, so that when on Mr Lay's resignation Mr Hart was
appointed inspector-general of foreign customs, he found himself
at the head of an organization which collected a revenue of up-
wards of eight million taels per annum at fourteen treaty ports.
From the date when Mr Hart took up his duties at Peking, in
1863, he unceasingly devoted the whole of his energies to the
work of the department, with the result that the revenue grew
from upwards of eight million taels to nearly twenty-seven
million, collected at the thirty-two treaty ports, and the customs
staff, which in 1864 numbered 200, reached in 1901 a total of
5704. From the first Mr .Hart gained the entire confidence of
the members of the Chinese government, who were wise enough
to recognize his loyal and able assistance. Of all their numerous
sources of revenue, the money furnished by Mr Hart was the only
certain asset which could be offered as security for Chinese loans.
For many years, moreover, it was customary for the British
minister, as well as the ministers of other powers, to consult him
in every difficulty; and such complete confidence had Lord
Granville in his ability and loyalty, that on the retirement of
Sir T. Wade he appointed him minister plenipotentiary at Peking
(1885). Sir Robert Hart, however who was made a K.C.M.G.
in 1882 recognized the anomalous position in which he would
have been placed had he accepted the proposal, and declined the
proffered honour. On all disputed points, whether commercial,
religious or political, his advice was invariably sought by the
foreign ministers and the Chinese alike. Thrice only did he visit
Europe between 1863 and 1902, the result of this long comparative
isolation, and of his constant intercourse with the Peking
officials, being that he learnt to look at events through Chinese
spectacles; and his work, These froth the Land of Sinim, shows
how far this affected his outlook. The faith which he put in the
Chinese made him turn a deaf ear to the warnings which he re-
ceived of the threatening Boxer movement in 1900. To the last
he believed that the attacking force would at least have spared
his house, which contained official records of priceless value,
but he was doomed to see his faith falsified. The building was
burnt to the ground with all that it contained, including his
private diary for forty years. When the stress came, and he
retreated to the British legation, he took an active part in the
defence, and spared neither risk nor toil in his exertions. In
addition to the administration of the foreign customs service,
the establishment of a postal service in the provinces devolved
upon him, and after the signing of the protocol of 1901 he was
called upon to organize a native customs service at the treaty
ports.
The appointment of Sir Robert Hart as inspector-general
of the imperial maritime customs secured the interests of
European investors in Chinese securities, and helped to place
Chinese finance generally on a solid footing. When, therefore,
in May 1906 the Chinese government appointed a Chinese
administrator and assistant administrator of the entire customs
of China, who would control Sir Robert Hart and his staff, great
anxiety was aroused. The Chinese government had bound
itself in 1896 and 1898 that the imperial maritime customs
services should remain as then constituted during the currency
of the loan. The British government obtained no satisfactory
answer to its remonstrances, and Sir Robert Hart, finding
himself placed in a subordinate position after his long service,
retired in July 1907. He received formal leave of absence in
January 1908, when he received the title of president of the
board of customs. Both the Chinese and the British govern-
ments from time to time conferred honours upon Sir Robert
Hart. By giving him a Red Button, or button of the highest
rank, a Peacock's Feather, the order of the Double Dragon, a
patent of nobility to his ancestors for three generations, and the
title of Junior Guardian of the heir apparent, the Chinese showed
their appreciation of his manifold and great services; while
under the seal of the British government there were bestowed
upon him theordersofC.M.G. (1880), K.C.M.G. (i882),G.C.M.G.
(1889), and a baronetcy (1893). He has also been the recipient
of many foreign orders. Sir Robert Hart married in 1886
Hester, the daughter of Alexander Bredon, Esq., M.D., of
Portadown.
See his life by Julia Bredon (Sir Robert Hart, 1909).
HART, WILLIAM (1823-1894), American landscape and
cattle painter, was born in Paisley, Scotland, on the 3ist of
March 1823, and was taken to America in early youth. He was
apprenticed to a carriage painter at Albany, New York, and his
first efforts in art were in making landscape decorations for the
panels of coaches. Subsequently he returned to Scotland,
where he studied for three years. He opened a studio in New
York in 1853, and was elected an associate of the National
Academy of Design in 1857 and an academician in the following
year. He was also a member of the American Water Colour
Society, and was its president from 1870 to 1873. As one of the
group of the Hudson River School he enjoyed considerable
popularity, his pictures being in many well-known American
collections. He died at Mount Vernon, New York, on the i7th
of June 1894.
His brother, JAMES McDouGAL HART (1828-1901), born in
Kilmarnock, Scotland, was also a landscape and cattle painter.
He was a pupil of Schirmer in Dusseldorf, and became an
associate of the National Academy of Design in 1857 and a full
member in 1859. He was survived by two daughters, both
figure painters, Letitia B. Hart (b. 1867) and Mary Theresa
Hart (b.i872).
HARTE, FRANCIS BRET (1839-1902), American author, was
born at Albany, New York, on the 25th of August 1839. His
father, a professor of Greek at the Albany College, died during
his boyhood. After a common-school education he went with
his mother to California at the age of seventeen, afterwards
working in that state as a teacher, miner, printer, express-
messenger, secretary of the San Francisco mint, and editor. His
first literary venture was a series of Condensed Novels (travesties
of well-known works of fiction, somewhat in the style of
Thackeray), published weekly in The Californian, of which he
was editor, and reissued in book form in 1867. The Overland
Monthly, the earliest considerable literary magazine on the
Pacific coast, was established in 1868, with Harte as editor.
His sketches and poems, which appeared in its pages during the
next few years, attracted wide attention in the eastern states
and in Europe.
Bret Harte was an early master of the short story, and his
Californian tales were regarded as introducing a new genre into
fiction. " The Luck of Roaring Camp " (1868), " The Outcasts
of Poker Flat " (1869), the later sketch " How Santa Claus came
to Simpson's Bar," and the verses entitled " Plain Language
from Truthful James," combined humour, pathos and power
of character portrayal in a manner that indicated that the new
land of mining-gulches, gamblers, unassimilated Asiatics, and
picturesque and varied landscape had found its best delineator; so
that Harte became, in his pioneer pictures, a sort of later Fenimore
Cooper. Forty-four volumes were published by him between
1867 and 1898. After a year as professor in the university of
California, Harte lived in New York, 1871-1878; was United
States consul at Crefeld, Germany, 1878-1880; consul at
Glasgow, 1880-1885; ar "d after 1885 resided in London, engaged
HARTEBEEST HARTFORD
in literary work. He died at Camberley, England, on the 5th
of May 1902.
A library edition of his Writings (16 vols.) was issued in 1900, and
increased to 19 vols. in 1904. See also H. W. Boynton, Bret Harte
( I 95) in the Contemporary Men of Letters series; T. E. Pemberton,
Life of Bret Harte (1903), which contains a list of his poems, tales, &c.
HARTEBEEST, the Boer name for a large South African
antelope (also known as caama) characterized by its red colour,
long face with naked muzzle and sharply angulated lyrate
horns, which are present in both sexes. This antelope is the
Cape Hartebeest (Bubalis cama).
Bubalis cama or Alcelaphus cama of naturalists; but the name
hartebeest has been extended to include all the numerous
members of the same genus, some of which are to be found in
every part of Africa, while one or two extend into Syria. Some
of the species of the allied genus Damaliscus, such as Hunter's
antelope (D. hunter f), are also often cailed hartebeests. (See
ANTELOPE.)
HARTFORD, a city and the capital of Connecticut, U.S.A.,
the county-seat of Hartford county, and a port of entry, coter-
minous with the township of Hartford, in the west central part
of the state, on the W. bank of the Connecticut river, and about
35 m. from Long Island Sound. Pop. (1890), 53,230; (1900),
79,850, of whom 23,758 were foreign-born (including 8076 Irish,
2700 Germans, 2260 Russians, 1952 Italians, 1714 Swedes,
1634 English and 1309 English Canadians); (1910 census)
98,915. Of the total population in 1900, 43,872 were of foreign
parentage (both parents foreign-born), and of these 18,410 were
of Irish parentage. Hartford is served by two divisions of the
New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by the Central
New England railway, by the several electric lines of the Con-
necticut Company which radiate to the surrounding towns, and
by the steamboats of the Hartford & New York Transporta-
tion Co., all of which are controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H.
The river, which is navigable to this point, is usually closed from
the middle of December to the middle of March.
The city covers an area of 17-7 sq. m.; it is well laid out and
compactly built, and streets, parks, &c., are under a city-plan
commission authorized in 1907. It is intersected by the sluggish
Park river, which is spanned by ten bridges. A stone arch
bridge, with nine arches, built of granite at a cost of $1,700,000
and dedicated in 1908, spans the Connecticut (replacing the old
Connecticut river bridge built in 1818 and burned in 1895), and
connects Hartford with the village of East Hartford in the town-
ship of East Hartford (pop. 1900, 6406), which has important
paper-manufacturing and tobacco-growing interests. The park
system of Hartford is the largest in any city of the United States
in proportion to the city's population. In 1908 there were 21
public parks, aggregating more than 1335 acres. In the extreme
S. of the city is Goodwin Park (about 200 acres) ; in the S.E. is
Colt Park (106 acres), the gift of Mrs Elizabeth Colt, the widow
of Samuel Colt, inventor of the Colt revolver; in the S.W. is
Pope Park (about 90 acres); in the W. is Elizabeth (100 acres);
in the E., along the Connecticut river front, is Riverside (about
80 acres); and in the extreme N. is Keney Park (680 acres), the
gift of Henry Keney, and, next to the Metropolitan Reservations
near Boston, the largest park in the New England states. Near
the centre of the city are the Capitol Grounds (27 acres; until
1872 the campus of Trinity College) and Bushnell Park (41 acres),
adjoining Capitol Park. Bushnell Park, named in honour of
Horace Bushnell, contains the Corning Memorial Fountain,
erected in 1899 and designed by J. Massey Rhind, and three
bronze statues, one, by J.Q. A. Ward, of General Israel Putnam;
one, by Truman H. Bartlett, of Dr Horace Wells (1815-1848), the
discoverer of anaesthesia; and one, by E. S. Woods, of Colonel
Thomas Knowlton (1749-1776), a patriot soldier of the War of
Independence, killed at the battle of Harlem Heights. On the
Capitol Grounds is the state capitol (Richard M. Upjohn, archi-
tect), a magnificent white marble building, which was completed in
1880 at a cost of $2,534,000. Its exterior is adorned with statues
and busts of Connecticut statesmen and carvings of scenes in
the history of the state. Within the building are regimental
flags of the Civil War, a bronze statue by Olin L. Warner of
Governor William A. Buckingham, a bronze statue by Karl
Gerhardt of Nathan Hale, a bronze tablet (also by Karl Ger-
hardt) in memory of John Fitch (1743-1798), the inventor; a
portrait of Washington, purchased by the state in 1800 from the
artist, Gilbert Stuart; and a series of oil portraits of the colonial
and state governors. The elaborately carved chair of the
lieutenant-governor in the senate chamber, made of wood from
the historic Charter Oak, and the original charter of 1662 (or
its duplicate of the same date) are preserved in a special vault
in the Connecticut state library. A new state library and
supreme court building and a new state armoury and arsenal,
both of granite, have been (1910) erected upon lands recently
added to the Capitol Grounds, thus forming a group of state
buildings with the Capitol as the centre. Near the Capitol, at
the approach of the memorial bridge across the Park river, is
the Soldiers' and Sailors' memorial arch, designed by George
Keller and erected by the city in 1885 in memory of the Hartford
soldiers and sailors who served in the American Civil War.
Near the centre of the city is the old town square (now known
as the City Hall Square), laid off in 1637. Here, facing Main
Street, stands the city hall, a beautiful example of Colonial
architecture, which was designed by Charles Bulfinch, completed
in 1796, and until 1879 used as a state capitol; it has subse-
quently been restored. In Main Street is the present edifice
of the First Church of Christ, known as the Centre Congregational
Church, which was organized in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
in 163 2, and removed to Hartford, under the leadership of Thomas
Hooker and Samuel Stone, in 1636. In the adjoining cemetery
are the graves of Thomas Hooker, Governor William Leete
(1603-1683), and Governor John Haynes, and a monument
in memory of 100 early residents of Hartford. In the same
thoroughfare is the Wadsworth Atheneum (built in 1842;
enlarged in 1892-1893 and 1907) and its companion buildings,
the Colt memorial (built in 1908 to accommodate the Elizabeth
Colt art collection) and the Morgan art gallery (built in 1908 by
J. Pierpont Morgan in memory of his father, Junius Morgan,
a native of Hartford). In this group of buildings are the Hartford
public library (containing 90,000 volumes in 1908), the Watkinson
library of reference (70,000 volumes in 1908), the library of the
Connecticut historical society (25,000 volumes in 1908) and a
public art gallery. Other institutions of importance in Hartford
are the American school for the deaf (formerly the American
asylum for the deaf and dumb), founded in 1816 by Thomas
H. Gallaudet; the retreat for the insane (opened for patients
in 1824); the Hartford hospital; St Francis hospital; St
Thomas's seminary (Roman Catholic); La Salette Missionary
college (R.C.; 1898) ; Trinity college (founded by members of the
Protestant Episcopal church, and now non-sectarian), which was
HARTFORD
33
chartered as Washington College in 1823, opened in 1824,
renamed Trinity College in 1845, and in 1907-1908 had 27 in-
structors and 208 students; the Hartford Theological seminary,
a Congregational institution, which was founded at East Windsor
Hill in 1834 as the Theological Institute of Connecticut, was
removed to Hartford in 1865, and adopted its present name
in 1885; and, affiliated with the last mentioned institution,
the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy. The Hartford
grammar school, founded in 1638, long managed by the town
and in 1847 merged with the classical department of the Hartford
public high school, is the oldest educational institution in the
state. In Farmington Avenue is St Joseph's cathedral (Roman
Catholic), the city being the seat of the diocese of Hartford.
During the i8th century Hartford enjoyed a large and lucrative
commerce, but the railway development of the igth century
centralized commerce in New York and Boston, and consequently
the principal source of the city's wealth has come to be manu-
facturing and insurance. In 1905 the total value of the "factory"
product was $25,975,651. The principal industries are the
manufacture of small arms (by the Colt's Patent Fire-Arms
Manufacturing Co., makers of the Colt revolver and the Catling
gun) , typewriters (Royal and Underwood) , automobiles, bicycles,
cyclometers, carriages and wagons, belting, cigars, harness,
machinists' tools and instruments of precision, coil-piping,
church organs, horse-shoe nails, electric equipment, machine
screws, drop forgings, hydrants and valves, and engines and
boilers. In 1788 the first woollen mill in New England was
opened in Hartford; and here, too, about 1846, the Rogers
process of electro-silver plating was invented. The city is one
of the most important insurance centres in the United States.
As early as 1794 policies were issued by the Hartford Fire
Insurance Company (chartered in 1810). In 1909 Hartford
was the home city of six fire insurance and six life insurance
companies, the principal ones being the Aetna (fire), Aetna
Life, Phoenix Mutual Life, Phoenix Fire, Travelers (Life and
Accident), Hartford Fire, Hartford Life, National Fire, Connecti-
cut Fire, Connecticut General Life and Connecticut Mutual
Life. In 1906 the six fire insurance companies had an aggregate
capital of more than $10,000,000; on the ist January 1906
they reported assets of about $59,000,000 and an aggregate
surplus of $30,000,000. In the San Francisco disaster of that
year they paid more than $15,000,000 of losses. Since the fire
insurance business began in Hartford, the companies of that
city now doing business there have paid about $340,000,000 in
losses. Several large and successful foreign companies have
made Hartford their American headquarters. The life insurance
companies have assets to the value of about $225,000,000.
The Aetna (fire), Aetna Life, Connecticut Fire, Connecticut
Mutual Life, Connecticut General Life, Hartford Fire, Hartford
Life, Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co.,
National Fire, Orient Fire, Phoenix Mutual Life and Travelers
companies have their own homes, some of these being among
the finest buildings in Hartford. The city has also large banking
interests.
The first settlement on the site of Hartford was made by the
Dutch from New Amsterdam, who in 1633 established on the
bank of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Park river,
a fort which they held until 1654. The township of Hartford
was one of the first three original townships of Connecticut.
The first English settlement was made in 1635 by sixty immi-
grants, mostly from New Town (now Cambridge), Massachusetts;
but the main immigration was in 1636, when practically all the
New Town congregation led by Thomas Hooker and Samuel
Stone joined those who had preceded them. Their settlement
was called Newtown until 1637, when the present name was
adopted from Hertford, England, the birthplace of Stone. In
1636 Hartford was the meeting-place of the first general court
of the Connecticut colony; the Fundamental Orders, the first
written constitution, were adopted at Hartford in 1639; and
after the union of the colonies of New Haven and Connecticut,
iccomplished by the charter of 1662, Hartford became the sole
capital; but from 1701 until 1873 that honour was shared with
XIII. 2
New Haven. At Hartford occurred in 1687 the meeting of
Edmund Andros and the Connecticut officials (see CONNECTICUT).
Hartford was first chartered in 1784, was rechartered in 1856
(the charter of that date has been subsequently revised) , and in
1881 was made coterminous with the township of Hartford.
The city was the literary centre of Federalist ideas in the latter
part of the iSth century, being the home of Lemuel Hopkins,
John Trumbull, Joel Barlow and David Humphreys, the leading
members of a group of authors known as the " Hartford Wits ";
and in 1814-1815 the city was the meeting-place of the famous
Hartford Convention, an event of great importance in the history
of the Federalist party. The War of 1812, with the Embargo
Acts (1807-1813), which were so destructive of New England's
commerce, thoroughly aroused the Federalist leaders in this
part of the country against the National government as ad-
ministered by the Democrats, and in 1814, when the British
were not only threatening a general invasion of their territory
but had actually occupied a part of the Maine coast, and the
National government promised no protection, the legislature
of Massachusetts invited the other New England states to join
with her in sending delegates to a convention which should
meet at Hartford to consider their grievances, means of preserv-
ing their resources, measures of protection against the British,
and the advisability of taking measures to bring about a con-
vention of delegates from all the United States for the purpose
of revising the Federal constitution. The legislatures of Connecti-
cut and Rhode Island, and town meetings in Cheshire and Grafton
counties (New Hampshire) and in Windham county (Vermont)
accepted the invitation, and the convention, composed of 12
delegates from Massachusetts, 7 from Connecticut, 4 from Rhode
Island, 2 from New Hampshire and i from Vermont, all
Federalists, met on the i5th of December 1814, chose George
Cabot of Massachusetts president and Theodore Dwight of
Connecticut secretary, and remained in secret session until the
5th of January 1815, when it adjourned sine die. At the con-
clusion of its work it recommended greater military control for
each of the several states and that the Federal constitution
be so amended that representatives and direct taxes should be
apportioned among the several states " according to their
respective numbers of free persons," that no new state should
be admitted to the Union without the concurrence of two-thirds
of both Houses of Congress, that Congress should not have the
power to lay an embargo for more than sixty days, that the
concurrence of two-thirds of the members of both Houses of
Congress should be necessary to pass an act " to interdict the
commercial intercourse between the United States and any
foreign nation or the dependencies thereof " or to declare war
against any foreign nation except in case of actual invasion, that
" no person who shall hereafter be naturalized shall be eligible
as a member of the Senate or House of Representatives of the
United States, nor capable of holding any civil office under the
authority of the United States," and that " the same person
shall not be elected president of the United States a second time;
nor shall the president be elected from the same state two terms
in succession." After making these recommendations concerning
amendments the Convention resolved: " That if the application
of these states to the government of the United States, recom-
mended in a foregoing resolution, should be unsuccessful, and
peace should not be concluded, and the defence of these states
should be neglected, as it has been since the commencement
of the war, it will, in the opinion of this convention, be expedient
for the legislatures of the several states to appoint delegates
to another convention, to meet at Boston in the state of
Massachusetts on the third Thursday of June next, with such
powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis so momentous
may require." The legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut
approved of these proposed amendments and sent commissioners
to Washington to urge their adoption, but before their arrival
the war had closed, and not only did the amendments fail to
receive the approval of any other state, but the legislatures of
nine states expressed their disapproval of the Hartford Convention
itself, some charging it with sowing "seeds of dissension and
HARTFORD CITY HARTLEPOOL
disunion." The cessation of the war brought increased popularity
to the Democratic administration, and the Hartford Convention
was vigorously attacked throughout the country.
Hartford was the birthplace of Noah Webster, who here
published his Grammatical Institute of the English Language
(1783-1785), and of Henry Barnard, John Fiske and Frederick
Law Olmsted, and has been the home of Samuel P. Goodrich
(Peter Parley), George D. Prentice, Harriet Beecher Stowe,
Charles Dudley Warner, Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain)
and Horace Bushnell. More than 100 periodicals have been
established in Hartford, of which the oldest is the Hartford
Courant(i?64), the oldest newspaper in the United States. This
paper was very influential in shaping public opinion in the
years preceding the War of Independence; after the war it
was successively Federalist, Whig and Republican. The Times
(semi- weekly 1817; daily 1841) was one of the most powerful
Democratic organs in the period before the middle of the ipth
century, and had Gideon Wells for editor 1826-1836. The
Congregationalist (afterwards published in Boston) and the
Churchman (afterwards published in New York) were also
founded at Hartford.
See Scaeva, Hartford in the Olden Times: Its First Thirty Years
(Hartford, 1853), edited by W. M. B. Hartley; and J. H. Trumbull,
Memorial History of Hartford County (Boston, 1886). For the
Hartford Convention see History of the Hartford Convention (Boston,
1833), published by its secretary, Theodore Dwight; H. C. Lodge,
Life and Letters of George Cabot (Boston, 1877); and Henry Adams,
Documents Relating to New England Federalism (Boston, 1877).
HARTFORD CITY, a city and the county-seat of Blackford
county, Indiana, U.S.A., 62 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop.
(1890) 2287; (1900) 5912 (572 foreign-born); (1910) 6187. The
city is served by the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and
the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and the
Indiana Union Traction line (electric) . There are oil and natural
gas wells in the vicinity, and the city has pulp and paper mills,
glass and tile works, and manufactories of woodenware, and
nitro-glycerine and powder. The municipality owns and operates
its water-works system. The first settlement in the vicinity was
made in 1832. Hartford City became the county-seat of Black-
ford county when that county was erected in 1837; it was laid
out in 1839 and was first incorporated as a town in 1867.
HARTIG, GEORG LUDWIG (1764-1837), German agricul-
turist and writer on forestry, was born at Gladenbach, near
Marburg, on the 2nd of September 1764. After obtaining a
practical knowledge of forestry at Harzburg, he studied from
1781 to 1783 at the university of Giessen. In 1786 he became
manager of forests to the prince of Solms-Braunfels at Hungen in
the Wetterau, where he founded a school for the teaching of
forestry. After obtaining in 1 797 the appointment of inspector
of forests to the prince of Orange-Nassau, he continued his school
of forestry at Dillenburg, where the attendance thereat increased
considerably. On the dissolution of the principality by Napoleon
I. in 1 805 he lost his position, but in 1 806 he went as chief inspector
of forests to Stuttgart, whence in 1811 he was called to Berlin in
a like capacity. There he continued his school of forestry, and
succeeded in connecting it with the university of Berlin, where in
1830 he was appointed an honorary professor. He died at Berlin
on the 2nd of February 1837. His son Theodor (1805-1880), and
grandson Robert (1839-1901), were also distinguished for their
contributions to the study of forestry.
G. L. Hartig was the author of a number of valuable works:
Lehrbuch fur Jdger (Stuttgart, 1810); Lehrbuch fiir Forster (3 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1808); Kubiktabellen fiir geschnittene, beschlagene, und
runde Holzer (1815, loth ed. Berlin, 1871); and Lexikon fur Jager
und Jagdfreunde (1836, 2nd ed. Berlin, 1859-1861). Theodor
Hartig and his son Robert also published numerous works dealing
with forestry, one of the latter's books being translated into English
by W. Somerville and H. Marshall Ward as Diseases of Trees (1894).
HARTLEPOOL, a parliamentary borough of Durham, England,
embracing the municipal borough of Hartlepool or East Hartle-
pool and the municipal and county borough of West Hartlepool.
Pop. (1901) of Hartlepool, 22,723; of West Hartlepool, 62,627.
The towns are on the coast of the North Sea separated by Hartle-
pool Bay, with a harbour, and both have stations on branches of
the North Eastern railway, 247 m. N. by W. from London. The
surrounding country is bleak, and the coast is low. Caves occur
in the slight cliffs, and protection against the attacks of the waves
has been found necessary. The ancient market town of Hartle-
pool lies on a peninsula which forms the termination of a south-
eastward sweep of the coast and embraces the bay. Its naturally
strong position was formerly fortified, and part of the walls,
serving as a promenade, remain. The parish church of St Hilda,
standing on an eminence above the sea, is late Norman and Early
English, with a massive tower, heavily buttressed. There is a
handsome borough hall in Italian style. West Hartlepool, a
wholly modern town, has several handsome modern churches,
municipal buildings, exchange, market hall, Athenaeum and
public library. The municipal area embraces the three town-
ships of Seaton Carew, a seaside resort with good bathing,
and golf links; Stranton, with its church of All Saints, of the
I4th century, on a very early site; and Throston.
The two Hartlepools are officially considered as one port. The
harbour, which embraces two tidal basins and six docks aggregat-
ing 83! acres, in addition to timber docks of 57 acres, covers
altogether 350 acres. There are five graving docks, admitting
vessels of 550 ft. length and 10 to 21 ft. draught. The depth of
water on the dock sills varies from 17 j ft. at neap tides to 25 ft. at
spring tides. A breakwater three-quarters of a mile long protects
the entrance to the harbour. An important trade is carried on
in the export of coal, ships, machinery, iron and other metallic
ores, woollens and cottons, and in the import of timber, sugar, iron
and copper ores, and eggs. Timber makes up 59 % of the
imports, and coal and ships each about 30% of the exports. The
principal industries are shipbuilding (iron), boiler and engineer-
ing works, iron and brass foundries, steam saw and planing mills,
flour-mills, paper and paint factories, and soapworks.
The parliamentary borough (falling within the south-east
county division) returns one member. The municipal borough
of Hartlepool is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors,
and has an area of 972 acres. The municipal borough of West
Hartlepool is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors, and
has an area of 2684 acres.
Built on the horns of a sheltered bay, Hartlepool (Hertepull,
Hertipol), grew up round the monastery founded there in 640,
but was destroyed by the Danes in 800 and rebuilt by Ecgred,
bishop of Lindisfarne. In 1173 Bishop Hugh de Puiset allowed
French and Flemish troops to land at Hartlepool to aid the Scots.
It is not mentioned in Boldon Book as, being part of the royal
manor of Sadberg held at this time by the family of Bruce, it did
not become the property of the see of Durham until the purchase
of that manor in 1189. The bishops did not obtain possession
until the reign of John, who during the interval in 1201 gave
Hartlepool a charter granting the burgesses the same privileges
that the burgesses of Newcastle enjoyed; in 1230 Bishop
Richard Poor granted further liberties, including a gild merchant.
Edward II. seized the borough as a possession of Robert Bruce,
but he could control it very slightly owing to the bishop's powers.
In 1328 Edward III. granted the borough 100 marks towards the
town-wall and Richard II. granted murage for seven years, the
term being extended in 1400. In 1383 Bishop Fordham gave
the burgesses licence to receive tolls within the borough for the
maintenance of the walls, while Bishop Neville granted a com-
mission for the construction of a pier or mole. In the i6th
century Hartlepool was less prosperous; in 1523 the haven was
said to be ruined, the fortifications decayed. An act of 1535
declared Hartlepool to be in Yorkshire, but in 1554 it was re-
instated in the county of Durham. It fell into the hands of the
northern earls in 1563, and a garrison was maintained there after
the rebellion was crushed. In 1593 Elizabeth incorporated it,
and gave the burgesses a town hall and court of pie powder.
During the civil wars Hartlepool, which a few years before was
said to be the only port town in the country, was taken by the
Scots, who maintained a garrison there until 1647. As a borough
of the Palatinate Hartlepool was not represented in parliament
until the igth century, though strong arguments in its favour
were advanced in the Commons in 1614. The markets of
HARTLEY, SIR C. HARTLIB
35
Hartlepool were important throughout the middle ages. In 1 2 1 6
John confirmed toRobertBruce the marketon Wednesday granted
to his father and the fair on the feast of St Lawrence; this fair was
extended to fifteen days by the grant of 1230, while the charter
of 1 595 also granted a fair and market. During the i4th century
trade was carried on with Germany, Spain and Holland, and in
1346 Hartlepool provided five ships for the French war, being
considered one of the chief seaports in the kingdom. The
markets were still considerable in Camden's day, but declined
during the i8th century, when Hartlepool became fashionable as
a watering-place.
HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1825- ), English
engineer, was born in 1825 at Heworth, Durham. Like most
engineers of his generation he was engaged in railway work in
the early part of his career, but subsequently he devoted himself
to hydraulic engineering and the improvement of estuaries and
harbours for the purposes of navigation. He was employed in
connexion with some of the largest and most important water-
ways of the world. After serving in the Crimea as a captain of
engineers in the Anglo-Turkish contingent, he was in 1856
appointed engineer-in-chief for the works carried out by the
European Commission of the Danube for improving the naviga-
tion at the mouths of that river, and that position he retained
till 1872, when he became consulting engineer to the Commission
(see DANUBE). In 1875 he was one of the committee appointed
by the authority of the U.S.A. Congress to report on the works
necessary to form and maintain a deep channel through the south
pass of the Mississippi delta; and in 1884 the British government
nominated him a member of the international technical commission
for widening the Suez Canal. In addition he was consulted by
the British and other governments in connexion with many other
river and harbour works, including the improvement of the
navigation of the Scheldt, Hugli, Don and Dnieper, and of the
ports of Odessa, Trieste, Kustendjie, Burgas, Varna and Durban.
He was knighted in 1862, and became K.C.M.G. in 1884.
HARTLEY, DAVID (1705-1757), English philosopher, and
founder of the Associationist school of psychologists, was born
on the 30th of August 1705* He was educated at Bradford
grammar school and Jesus College, Cambridge, of which society
he became a fellow in 1727. Originally intended for the Church,
he was deterred from taking orders by certain scruples as to
signing the Thirty-nine Articles, and took up the study of
medicine. Nevertheless, he remained in the communion of the
English Church, living on intimate terms with the most dis-
tinguished churchmen of his day. Indeed he asserted it to be a
duty to obey ecclesiastical as well as civil authorities. The
doctrine to which he most strongly objected was that of eternal
punishment. Hartley practised as a physician at Newark,
Bury St Edmunds, London, and lastly at Bath, where he died on
the 28th of August 1757. His Observations on Man was pub-
lished in 1749, three years after Condillac's Essai sur I'origine des
connaissances humaines, in which theories essentially similar
to his were expounded. It is in two parts the first dealing
with the frame of the human body and mind, and their mutual
connexions and influences, the second with the duty and expecta-
tions of mankind. His two main theories are the doctrine of
vibrations and the doctrine of associations. His physical
theory, he tells us, was drawn from certain speculations as to
nervous action which Newton had published in his Principia.
His psychological theory was suggested by the Dissertation con-
cerning the Fundamental Principles of Virtue or Morality, which
was written by a clergyman named John Gay (1699-1745), and
prefixed by Bishop Law to his translation 1 of Archbishop King's
Latin work on the Origin of Evil, its chief object being to show
that sympathy and conscience are developments by means of
association from the selfish feelings.
The outlines of Hartley's theory are as follows. With Locke he
asserted that, prior to sensation, the human mind is a blank. By
a growth from simple sensations those states of consciousness which
appear most remote from sensation come into being. And the one
1 Anonymously in the 1731 ed., with acknowledgment in the
1758 ed.
law of growth of which Hartley took account was -the law of con-
tiguity, synchronous and successive. By this law he sought to
explain, not only the phenomena of memory, which others had
similarly explained before him, but also the phenomena of emotion,
of reasoning, and of voluntary and involuntary action (see ASSOCIA-
TION OF IDEAS).
By his physical theory Hartley gave the first strong impulse to
the modern study of the intimate connexion of physiological and
psychical facts which has proved so fruitful, though his physical
theory in itself is inadequate, and has not been largely adopted.
He held that sensation is the result of a vibration of the minute
particles of the medullary substance of the nerves, to account for
which he postulated, with Newton, a subtle elastic ether, rare in
the interstices of solid bodies and in their close neighbourhood, and
denser as it recedes from them. Pleasure is the resujt of moderate
vibrations, pain of vibrations so violent as to break the continuity
of the nerves. These vibrations leave behind them in the brain
a tendency to fainter vibrations or " vibratiuncles " of a similar
kind, which correspond to " ideas of sensation." Thus memory is
accounted for. The course of reminiscence and of the thoughts
generally, when not immediately dependent upon external sensation,
is accounted for on the ground that there are always vibrations in
the brain on account of its heat and the pulsation of its arteries.
What these vibrations shall be is determined by the nature of each
man's past experience, and by the influence of the circumstances of
the moment, which causes now one now another tendency to prevail
over the rest. Sensations which are often associated together
become each associated with the ideas corresponding to the others;
and the ideas corresponding to the associated sensations become
associated together, sometimes so intimately that they form what
appears to be a new simple idea, not without careful analysis resolv-
able into its component parts.
Starting, like the modern Associationists, from a detailed account
of the phenomena of the senses, Hartley tries to show how, by the
above laws, all the emotions, which he analyses with considerable
skill, may be explained. Locke's phrase " association of ideas " is
employed throughout, " idea " being taken as including every
mental state but sensation. He emphatically asserts the existence
of pure disinterested sentiment, while declaring it to be a growth
from the self-regarding feelings. Voluntary action is explained as
the result of a firm connexion between a motion and a sensation or
"idea," and, on the physical side, between an "ideal" and a
motory vibration. Therefore in the Freewill controversy Hartley
took his place as a determinist. It is singular that, as he tells us,
it was only with reluctance, and when his speculations were nearly
complete, that he came to a conclusion on this subject in accordance
with his theory.
See life of Hartley by his son in the 1801 edition of the Observations,
which also contains notes and additions translated from the German
of H. A. Pistorius; Sir Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought
in the Eighteenth Century (y& ed., 1902), and article fn the Dictionary
of National Biography; G. S. Bower, Hartley and James Mill (1881);
B. Schonlank, Hartley und Priestley die Begrilnder des Assoziatio-
nismus in England (1882). See also the histories of philosophy and
bibliography in J. M. Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and
Psychology (1905), vol. iii.
HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT (1845- ), American
sculptor, was born at Albany, New York, on the 23rd of
September 1845. He was a pupil of E. D. Palmer, New York,
and of the schools of the Royal Academy, London; he later
studied for a year in Berlin and for a year in Paris. His first
important work (1882) was a statue of Miles Morgan, the Puritan,
for Springfield, Mass. Among his other works are the Daguerre
monument in Washington; " Thomas K. Beecher," Elmira,
New York, and "Alfred the Great," Appellate Court House,
New York. He devoted himself particularly to the making of
portrait busts, in which he attained high rank. In 1891 he
became a member of the National Academy of Design.
HARTLIB, SAMUEL (c. 1599-6. 1670), English writer on
education and agriculturist, was born towards the close of the
1 6th century at Elbing in Prussia, his father being a refugee
merchant from Poland. His mother was the daughter of a rich
English merchant at Danzig. About 1628 Hartlib went to
England, where he carried on a mercantile agency, and at the
same time found leisure to enter with interest into the public
questions of the day. An enthusiastic admirer of Comenius, he
published in 1637 his Conatuum Comenianorum praeludia, and
in 1639 Comenii pansophiae prodromus el didaclica dissertatio.
In 1641 appeared his Relation of that which hath been lately
attempted to procure Ecclesiastical Peace among Protestants, and
A Description of Macaria, containing his ideas of what a model
state should be. During the civil war Hartlib occupied himself
HARTMANN, K. R. E. VON HARTMANN, M.
with the peaceful study of agriculture, publishing various works
by himself, and printing at his own expense several treatises
by others on the subject. In 1652 he issued a second edition of
the Discourse of Flanders Husbandry by Sir Richard Weston
(1645); and in 1651 Samuel Hartlib, his Legacy, or an Enlarge-
ment of the Discourse of Husbandry used in Brabant and Flanders,
by Robert Child. For his various labours Hartlib received from
Cromwell a pension of 100, afterwards increased to 300, as he
had spent all his fortune on his experiments. He planned a school
for the sons of gentlemen, to be conducted on new principles,
and this probably was the occasion of his friend Milton's Tractate
on Education, addressed to him in 1644, and of Sir William Petty 's
Two Letters on the same subject, in 1647 and 1648. At the
Restoration Hartlib lost his pension, which had already fallen
into arrears; he petitioned parliament for a new grant of it,
but what success he met with is unknown, as his latter years and
death are wrapped in obscurity. A letter from him is known to
have been written in February 1661-1662, and apparently he
is referred to by Andrew Marvell as alive in 1670 and fleeing to
Holland from his creditors.
A Biographical Memoir of Samuel Hartlib, by H. Dircks, appeared
in 1865.
HARTMANN, KARL ROBERT EDUARD VON (1842-1906),
German philosopher, was born in Berlin on the 23rd of February
1842. He was educated for the army, and entered the artillery
of the Guards as an officer in 1860, but a malady of the knee,
which crippled him, forced him to quit the service in 1865.
After some hesitation between music and philosophy, he decided
to make the latter the serious work of his life, and in 1867 the
university of Rostock conferred on him the degree of doctor of
philosophy. He subsequently returned to Berlin, and died at
Grosslichterfelde on the 5th of June 1906. His reputation
as a philosopher was established by his first book, The Philosophy
of the Unconscious (1869; loth ed. 1890). This success was
largely due to the originality of its title, the diversity of its
contents (von Hartmann professing to obtain his speculative
results by the methods of inductive science, and making plentiful
use of concrete illustrations), the fashionableness of its pessimism
and the vigour and lucidity of its style. The conception of the
Unconscious, by which von Hartmann describes his ultimate
metaphysical principle, is not at bottom as paradoxical as it
sounds, being merely a new and mysterious designation for the
Absolute of German metaphysicians. The Unconscious appears
as a combination of the metaphysic of Hegel with that of Schopen-
hauer. The Unconscious is both Will and Reason and the
absolute all-embracing ground of all existence. Von Hartmann
thus combines " pantheism " with " panlogism " in a manner
adumbrated by Schelling in his " positive philosophy." Never-
theless Will and not Reason is the primary aspect of the Un-
conscious, whose melancholy career is determined by the primacy
of the Will and the subservience of the Reason. Precosmically
the Will is potential and the Reason latent, and the Will is void
of reason when it passes from potentiality to actual willing.
This latter is absolute misery, and to cure it the Unconscious
evokes its Reason and with its aid creates the best of all possible
worlds, which contains the promise of its redemption from
actual existence by the emancipation of the Reason from its
subjugation to the Will in the conscious reason of the enlightened
pessimist. When the greater part of the Will in existence is so
far enlightened by reason as to perceive the inevitable misery
of existence, a collective effort to will non-existence will be made,
and the world will relapse into nothingness, the Unconscious into
quiescence. Although von Hartmann is a pessimist, his pessim-
ism is by no means unmitigated. The individual's happiness
is indeed unattainable either here and now or hereafter and in
the future, but he does not despair of ultimately releasing the
Unconscious from its sufferings. He differs from Schopenhauer
in making salvation by the " negation of the Will-to-live "
depend on a collective social effort and not on individualistic
asceticism. The conception of a redemption of the Unconscious
also supplies the ultimate basis of von Hartmann's ethics. We
must provisionally affirm life and devote ourselves to social
evolution, instead of striving after a happiness which is
impossible; in so doing we shall find that morality renders life
less unhappy than it would otherwise be. Suicide, and all other
forms of selfishness, are highly reprehensible. Epistemologically
von Hartmann is a transcendental realist, who ably defends his
views and acutely criticizes those of his opponents. His realism
enables him to maintain the reality of Time, and so of the process
of the world's redemption.
Von Hartmann's numerous works extend to more than 12,000
pages. They may be classified into A. Systematical, including
Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie ; Kategorienlehre; Das sittliche
Bewusstsein; Die Philosophic des Schonen; Die Religion des Geistes;
Die Philosophic des Unbewusslen (3 vols., which now include his,
originally anonymous, self-criticism, Das Unbewusste vom Stand-
punkte der Physiologic und Descendenztheorie, and its refutation, Eng.
trs. by W. C. Coupland, 1884) ; System der Philosophic im Crundriss,
i.; Grundriss der Erkennlnislehre. B. Historical and critical Das
religiose Bewusstsein der Menschheil; Geschichte der Metaphysik
(2 vols.); Kant's Erkenntnistheorie; Kritische Grundlegung des
transcendentalen Realismus; Vber die dialektische Methode; studies of
Schelling, Lotze, von Kirchmann; Zur Geschichte des Pessimismus;
Neukantianismus, Schopenhauerismus, Hegelianismus ; Geschichte
der deutschen Aslhetik seit Kant; Die Krisis des Christentums in
der modernen Theologie; Philosophische Fragen der Gegenwart;
Ethische Studien; Moderne Psychologic; Das Christentum des
neuen Testaments; Die Weltanschauung der modernen Physik.
C. Popular Soziale Kernfragen; Moderne Probleme; Tagesfragen;
Zwei Jahrzehnte deutscher Politik; Das Judentum in Gegenwart und
Zukunft; Die Selbslzersetzung des Christentums; Gesammelte
Sludien; Der Spiritismus and Die Geisterhypothese des Spiritismus;
Zur Zeitgeschichle. His select works have been published in 10
volumes (2nd ed., 1885-1896). On his philosophy see R. Kober,
Das philosophische System Eduard von Hartmanns (1884); O.
Plumacher, Der Kampf urns Unbewusste (2nd ed., 1890), with a
chronological table of the Hartmann literature from 1868 to 1890;
A. Drews, E. von Hartmanns Philosophic und der Materialismus in
der modernen Kultur (1890) and E. von Hartmanns philosophisches
System im Grundriss (1902), with biographical introduction; and
for further authorities, J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and
Psychology (1901-1905).
HARTMANN, MORITZ (1821-1872), German poet and
author, was born of Jewish parentage at Duschnik in Bohemia
on the isth of October 1821. Having studied philosophy at
Prague and Vienna, he travelled in south Germany, Switzerland
and Italy, and became tutor in a family at Vienna. In 1845 he
proceeded to Leipzig and there published a volume of patriotic
poems, Kelch und Schwert (1845). Fearing in consequence
prosecution at the hands of the authorities, he abided events in
France and Belgium, and after issuing in Leipzig Neuere Gedichte
(1846) returned home, suffered a short term of imprisonment,
and in 1848 was elected member for Leitmeritz in the short-lived
German parliament at Frankfort-on-Main, in which he sided
with the extreme Radical party. He took part with Robert
Blum (1807-1848) in the revolution of that year in Vienna, but
contrived to escape to London and Paris. In 1849 he published
Reimclironik des Pfaffen Mauritius, a satirical political poem in
the style of Heine. During the Crimean War (1854-56) Hart-
mann was correspondent of the Kolnische Zeitung, settled in
1860 in Geneva as a teacher of German literature and history,
became in 1865 editor of the Frcya in Stuttgart and in 1868 a
member of the staff of the Neue Freie Presse in Vienna. He
died at Oberdobling near Vienna on the i3th of May 1872.
Among Hartmann's numerous works may be especially
mentioned Der Krieg urn den Wald (1850), a novel, the scene of
which is laid in Bohemia; Tagebuch aus Languedoc und Provence
(1852); Erzahlungen eines Unstelen (1858); and Die lelzlen Tage
eines Kdnigs (1867). His idyll, Adam und Eva (1851), and his
collection of poetical tales, Schatten (1851), show that the author
possessed but little talent for epic narrative. Hartmann's
poems are often lacking in genuine poetical feeling, but the love
of liberty which inspired them, and the fervour, ease and clear-
ness of their style compensated for these shortcomings and
gained for him a wide circle of admirers.
His Gesammelte Werke were published in 10 vols. in 1873-1874,
and a selection of his Gedichte in the latter year. The first two
volumes of a new edition of his works contain a biography of Hart-
mann by O. Wittner. See also E. Ziel, " Moritz Hartmann " (in
Unsere Zeit, 1872); A. Marchand, Les Poetes lyriques de I'Autriche
(1892) ; Brandes, Dasjunge Deutschland (Charlottenburg, 1899).
HARTMANN VON AUE HARUSPICES
37
HARTMANN VON AUE (c. ii^o-c. 1210), one of the chief
Middle High German poets. He belonged to the lower nobility
of Swabia, where he was born about 1170. After receiving a
monastic education, he became retainer (dienstman) of a noble-
man whose domain, Aue, has been identified with Obernau
on the Neckar. He also took part in the Crusade of 1196-97.
The date of his death is as uncertain as that of his birth; he
is mentioned by Gottfried von Strassburg (c. 1210) as still alive,
and in the Krone of Heinrich von dem Tiirlin, written about 1220,
he is mourned for as dead. Hartmann was the author of four
narrative poems which are of importance for the evolution of
the Middle High German court epic. The oldest of these, Erec,
which may have been written as early as 1191 or 1192, and the
latest and ripest, Iwein, belong to the Arthurian cycle and are
based on epics by Chretien de Troyes (q.v.) ; between them lie
the romance, Gregorius, also an adaptation of a French epic, and
Der arme Heinrich, one of the most charming specimens of
medieval German poetry. The theme of the latter the cure
of the leper, Heinrich, by a young girl who is willing to sacrifice
her life for him Hartmann had evidently found in the annals of
the family in whose service he stood. Hartmann's most con-
spicuous merit as a poet lies in his style; his language is care-
fully chosen, his narrative lucid, flowing and characterized by a
sense of balance and proportion which is rarely to be found in
German medieval poetry. Gregorius, Der arme Heinrick and his
lyrics, which are all fervidly religious in tone, imply a tendency
towards asceticism, but, on the whole, Hartmann's striving
seems rather to have been to reconcile the extremes of life; to
establish a middle way of human conduct between the worldly
pursuits of knighthood and the ascetic ideals of medieval religion.
Erec has been edited by M. Haupt (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1871);
Gregorius, by H. Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1900); Der arme Heinrich,
by W. Wackernagel and W. Toischer (Basel, 1885) and by H.
Paul (2nd ed., Halle, 1893); by J. G. Robertson (London, 1895),
with English notes; Iwein, by G. F. Benecke and K. Lach-
mann (4th ed., Berlin, 1877) and E. Henrici (Halle, 1891-1893).
A convenient edition of all Hartmann's poems by F. Bech,
3 vols. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1891-1893, vol. 3 in 4th ed., 1902).
The literature on Hartmann is extensive. See especially L.
Schmid. Des Minnesingers Hartmann von Aue Stand, Heimat und
Ceschlecht (Tubingen, 1874); H. Rotteken, Die epische Kunst
Heinrichs von Veldeke und Hartmanns von Aue (Halle, 1887); F.
Saran, Hartmann von Aue als Lyriker (Halle, 1889) ; A. E. Schonbach,
(Jber Hartmann von Aue (Graz, 1894); F. Piquet, Ittude sur Hart-
mann d'Aue (Paris, 1898). Translations have been made into
modern German of all Hartmann's poems, while Der arme Heinrich
has repeatedly attracted the attention of modern poets, both English
(Longfellow, Rossetti) and German (notably, Gerhart Hauptmann).
See H. Tardel, Der arme Heinrich in der neueren Dichtung (Berlin,
HARTSHORN, SPIRITS OF, a name signifying originally the
ammoniacal liquor obtained by the distillation of horn shavings,
afterwards applied to the partially purified similar products of the
action of heat on nitrogenous animal matter generally, and now
popularly used to designate the aqueous solution of ammonia (q.ti).
HARTZENBUSCH, JUAN EUGENIO (1806-1880), Spanish
dramatist, was born at Madrid on the 6th of September 1806.
The son of a German carpenter, he was educated for the priest-
hood, but he had no religious vocation and, on leaving school,
followed his father's trade till 1830, when he learned shorthand
and joined the staff of the Gaceta. His earliest dramatic essays
were translations from Moliere, Voltaire and the elder Dumas;
he next recast old Spanish plays, and in 1837 produced his first
original play, Los Amantes de T cruel, the subject of which had
been used by Rey de Artieda, Tirso de Molina and Perez de
Montalban. Los Amantes de Teruel at once made the author's
reputation, which was scarcely maintained by Dona Mencia
(1839) and Alfonso el Casto (1841); it was not till 1845 that he
approached his former success with La Jura en Santa Gadea.
Hartzenbusch was chief of the National Library from 1862 to
1875, and was an indefatigable though not very judicious
editor of many national classics. Inferior in inspiration to other
contemporary Spanish dramatists, Hartzenbusch excels his
rivals in versatility and in conscientious workmanship.
HARUN AL-RASHID (763 or 766-809), i.e. "Harun the
Orthodox," the fifth of the 'Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad, and the
second son of the third caliph Mahdi. His full name was Harun
ibn Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn
'Abdallah ibn 'Abbas. He was born at Rai (Rhagae) on the 2oth
of March A.D. 763, according to some accounts, and according
to others on the isth of February A.D. 766. Harun al-Rashld
was twenty-two years old when he ascended the throne. His
father Mahdi just before his death conceived the idea of
superseding his elder son Musa (afterwards known as Hadi,
the fourth caliph) by Harun. But on Mahdi's death Harun
gave way to his brother. For the campaigns in which he
took part prior to his accession see CALIPHATE, section C,
The Abbasids, 3 and 4.
Rashid owed his succession to the throne to the prudence and
sagacity of Yahya b. Khalid the Barmecide, his secretary,
whom on his accession he appointed his lieutenant and grand
vizier (se.e BARMECIDES). Under his guidance the empire
flourished on the whole, in spite of several revolts in the provinces
by members of the old Alid family. Successful wars were waged
with the rulers of Byzantium and the Khazars. In 803, however,
Harun became suspicious of the Barmecides, whom with only
a single exception he caused to be executed. Henceforward
the chief power was exercised by Fadl b. Rabi', who had
been chamberlain not only under Harun himself but under his
predecessors, Mansur, Madhi and Hadi. In the later years of
Harun's reign troubles arose in the eastern parts of the empire.
These troubles assumed proportions so serious that Harun
himself decided to go to Khorasan. He died, however, at Tus
in March 809.
The reign of Harun (see CALIPHATE, section C, 5) was one of
the most brilliant in the annals of the caliphate, in spite of
losses in north-west Africa and Transoxiana. His fame spread
to the West, and Charlemagne and he exchanged gifts and com-
pliments as masters respectively of the West and the East. No
caliph ever gathered round him so great a number of learned men,
poets, jurists, grammarians, cadis and scribes, to say nothing of
the wits and musicians who enjoyed his patronage. Harun
himself was a scholar and poet, and was well versed in history,
tradition and poetry. He possessed taste and discernment,
and his dignified demeanour is extolled by the historians. In
religion he was extremely strict; he prostrated himself a hundred
times daily, and nine or ten times made the pilgrimage to Mecca.
At the same time he cannot be regarded as a great administrator.
He seems to have left everything to his viziers Yahya and Fadl,
to the former of whom especially was due the prosperous con-
dition of the empire. Harun is best known to Western readers
as the hero of many of the stories in the Arabian Nights; and in
Arabic literature he is the central figure of numberless anecdotes
and humorous stories. Of his incognito walks through Bagdad,
however, the authentic histories say nothing. His Arabic
biographers are unanimous in describing him as noble and
generous, but there is little doubt that he was in fact a man of
little force of character, suspicious, untrustworthy and on
occasions cruel.
See the Arabic histories of Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Khaldun. Among
modern works see Sir W. Muir, The Caliphate (London, 1891);
R. D. Osborn, Islam under the Khalifs of Bagdad (London, 1878);
Gustav Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen (Mannheim and Stuttgart,
1846-1862); G. le Strange, Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate
(Oxford, 1900); A. Miiller, Der Islam, vol. i. (Berlin, 1885); E. H.
Palmer, The Caliph Haroun Alraschid (London, 1880); J. B. Bury's
edition of Gibbon's Decline and Fall (London, 1898), vol. vi. pp.
34 foil.
HARUSPICES, or ARUSPICES (perhaps " entrail observers,"
cf. Skt. hira, Gr. xopSy), a class of soothsayers in Rome. Their
art (disciplina) consisted especially in deducing the will of the
gods from the appearance presented by the entrails of the slain
victim . They also interpreted all portents or unusual phenomena
of nature, especially thunder and lightning, and prescribed the
expiatory ceremonies after such events. To please the god, the
victim must be without spot or blemish, and the practice of ob-
serving whether the entrails presented any abnormal appearance,
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
and thence deducing the will of heaven, was also very im-
portant in Greek religion. This art, however, appears not to
have been, as some other modes of ascertaining the will of the
gods undoubtedly were, of genuine Aryan growth. It is foreign
to the Homeric poems, and must have been introduced into
Greece after their composition. In like manner, as the Romans
themselves believed, the art was not indigenous in Rome, but
derived from Etruria. 1 The Etruscans were said to have learned
it from a being named Tages, grandson of Jupiter, who had
suddenly sprung from the ground near Tarquinii. Instructions
were contained in certain books called libr i haruspicini, fulgurates,
rituales. The art was practised in Rome chiefly by Etruscans,
occasionally by native-born Romans who had studied in the
priestly schools of Etruria. From the regal period to the end
of the republic, haruspices were summoned from Etruria to deal
with prodigies not mentioned in the pontifical and Sibylline
books, and the Roman priests carried out their instructions as to
the offering necessary to appease the anger of the deity con-
cerned. Though the art was of great importance under the early
republic, it never became a part of the state religion. In this
respect the haruspices ranked lower than the augurs, as is shown
by the fact that they received a salary; the augurs were a more
ancient and purely Roman institution, and were a most important
element in the political organization of the city. In later times
the art fell into disrepute, and the saying of Cato the Censor is well
known, that he wondered how one haruspex could look another
in the face without laughing (Cic. De div. ii. 24). Under the
empire, however, we hear of a regular collegium of sixty haru-
spices; and Claudius is said to have tried to restore the art and
put it under the control of the pontifices. This collegium con-
tinued to exist till the time of Alaric.
See A. Bouche'-Leclercq, Hisloire de la divination dans_ I'antiquite
(1879-1881); Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885),
pp. 410-415; G. Schmeisser, Die etruskische Disciplin vom Bundes-
genossenkriege bis zum Untergang des Heidentums (1881), and
Quaestionum de Etrusca disciplina particula (1872); P. Clairin, De
haruspicibus apud Romanes (1880). Also OMEN.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest of American educational
institutions, established at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1636
the General Court of the colony voted 400 towards " a schoale
or colledge," which in the next year was ordered to be at " New
Towne." In memory of the English university where many
(probably some seventy) of the leading men of the colony had
been educated, the township was named Cambridge in 1638.
In the same year John Harvard (1607-1638), a Puritan minister
lately come to America, a bachelor and master of Emmanuel
college, Cambridge, dying in Charlestown (Mass.), bequeathed
to the wilderness seminary half his estate (780) and some three
hundred books; and the college, until then unorganized, was
named Harvard College (1639) in his honour. Its history is
unbroken from 1640, and its first commencement was held in
1642. The spirit of the founders is beautifully expressed in the
words of a contemporary letter which are carved on the college
gates: " After God had carried us safe to New-England, and wee
had builded our houses, provided necessaries for our liveli-hood,
rear'd convenient places for Gods worship, and setled the Civill
Government; One of the next things we longed for, and looked
after was to advance Learning, and perpetuate it to Posterity;
dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches, when our
present Ministers shall lie in the Dust." The college charter of
1650 dedicated it to " the advancement of all good literature,
arts, and sciences," and " the education of the English and Indian
youth ... in knowledge and godly nes." The second building
(1654) on the college grounds was called " the Indian College."
In it was set up the College press, which since 1638 had been in the
president's house, and here, it is believed, was printed the trans-
lation of the Bible (1661-1663) by John Eliot into the language
of the natives, with primer, catechisms, grammars, tracts, &c.
A fair number of Indians were students, but only one, Caleb
Cheeshahteaumuck, took a bachelor's degree(i665). By generous
1 The statement of Dionysius of Halicarnassus (ii. 22) that the
haruspices were instituted by Romulus is due to his confusing them
with the augurs.
aid received from abroad for this special object, the college was
greatly helped in its infancy.
The charter of 1650 has been in the main, and uninterruptedly
since 1707, the fundamental source of authority in the administra-
tion of the university. It created a co-optating corporation
consisting of the president, treasurer and five fellows, who
formally initiate administrative measures, control the college
funds, and appoint officers of instruction and government;
subject, however, to confirmation by the Board of Overseers
(established in 1642), which has a revisory power over all acts
of the corporation. Circumstances gradually necessitated
ordinary government by the resident teachers; and to-day the
various faculties, elaborately organized, exercise immediate
government and discipline over all the students, and individually
or in the general university council consider questions of policy.
The Board of Overseers was at first jointly representative of
state and church. The former, as founder and patron, long
regarded Harvard as a state institution, controlling or aiding
it through the legislature and the overseers; but the contro-
versies and embarrassments incident to legislative action proved
prejudicial to the best interests of the college, and its organic
connexion with the state was wholly severed in 1866. Financial
aid and practical dependence had ceased some time earlier;
indeed, from the very beginning, and with steadily increasing
preponderance, Harvard has been sustained and fostered by
private munificence rather than by public money. The last
direct subsidy from the state determined in 1824, although
state aid was afterwards given to the Agassiz museum, later
united with the university. The church was naturally sponsor
for the early college. The changing composition of its Board
of Overseers marked its liberation first from clerical and later
from political control; since 1865 the board has been chosen
by the alumni (non-residents of Massachusetts being eligible
since 1880), who therefore really control the university. When
the state ceased to repress effectually the rife speculation
characteristic of the first half of the seventeenth century, in
religion as in politics, and in America as in England, the unity
of Puritanism gave way to a variety of intense sectarianisms,
and this, as also the incoming of Anglican churchmen, made
the old faith of the college insecure. President Henry Dunster
(c. 1612-1659), the first president, was censured by the
magistrates and removed from office for questioning infant
baptism. The conservatives, who clung to pristine and undiluted
Calvinism, sought to intrench themselves in Harvard, especially
in the Board of Overseers. The history of the college from about
1673 to 1725 was exceedingly troubled. Increase and Cotton
Mather, forceful but bigoted, were the bulwarks of reaction
and fomenters of discord. One episode in the struggle was the
foundation and encouragement of Yale College by the reaction-
aries of New England as a truer " school of the prophets "
(Cotton Mather being particularly zealous in its interests), after
they had failed to secure control of the government of Harvard.
It represented conservative secession. In 1792 the first layman
was chosen to the corporation; in 1805 a Unitarian became
professor of theology; in 1843 the board of overseers was
opened to clergymen of all denominations; in 1886 attendance
on prayers by the students ceased to be compulsory. Thus
Harvard, in response to changing ideas and conditions, grew
away from the ideas of its founders.
Harvard, her alumni, and her faculty have- been very closely
connected with American letters, not only in the colonial period,
when the Mathers, Samuel Sewall and Thomas Prince were
important names, or in the revolutionary and early national
epoch with the Adamses, Fisher Ames, Joseph Dennie and
Robert Treat Paine, but especially in the second third of the
ipth century, when the great New England movements of
Unitarianism and Transcendentalism were led by Harvard
graduates. In 1805 Henry Ware (1764-1845) was elected the
first anti-Trinitarian to be Hollis professor of divinity, and this
marked Harvard's close connexion with Unitarianism, in the
later history of which Ware, his son Henry (1794-1843), and
Andrews Norton (1786-1852)^1! Harvard alumni and professors,
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
39
and Joseph Buckminster (1751-1812) and William Ellery
Channing were leaders of the conservative Unitarians, and
Joseph Stevens Buckminster (1784-1812), James Freeman
Clarke, and Theodore Parker were liberal leaders.- Of the
" Transcendentalists," Emerson, Francis Henry Hedge (1805-
1890), Clarke, Convers Francis (1795-1863), Parker, Thoreau
and Christopher Pearse Cranch (1813-1892) were Harvard
graduates. Longfellow's professorship at Harvard identified
him with it rather than with Bowdoin; Oliver Wendell Holmes
was professor of anatomy and physiology at Harvard in 1847-
1882; and Lowell, a Harvard alumnus, was Longfellow's
successor in 1855-1886 as Smith Professor of the French and
Spanish languages and literatures. Ticknor and Charles Eliot
Norton are other important names in American literary criticism.
The historians Sparks, Bancroft, Hildreth, Palfrey, Prescott,
Motley and Parkman were graduates of Harvard, as were
Edward Everett, Charles Sumner and Wendell Phillips.
In organization and scope of effort Harvard has grown,
especially after 1869, under the direction of President Charles
W. Eliot, to be in the highest sense a university; but the
" college " proper, whose end is the liberal culture of under-
graduates, continues to be in many ways the centre of university
life, as it is the embodiment of university traditions. The
medical school (in Boston) dates from 1782, the law school from
1817, the divinity school 1 (though instruction in theology was of
course given from the foundation of the college) from 1819, and
the dental school (in Boston ) from 1867. The Bussey Institution
at Jamaica Plain was established in 1871 as an undergraduate
school of agriculture, and reorganized in 1908 for advanced
instruction and research in subjects relating to agriculture and
horticulture. The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences dates
from 1872, the Graduate School of Applied Science (growing
out of the Lawrence Scientific School) from 1906, and the
Graduate School of Business Administration (which applies to
commerce the professional methods used in post-graduate
schools of medicine, law, &c.) from 1908. The Lawrence
Scientific School, established in 1847, was practically abolished
in 1907-1908, when its courses were divided between the College
(which thereafter granted a degree of S.B.) and the Graduate
School of Applied Science, which was established in 1906 and
gives professional degrees in civil, mechanical and electrical
engineering, mining, metallurgy, architecture, landscape archi-
tecture, forestry, applied physics, applied chemistry, applied
zoology and applied geology. A school of veterinary medicine,
established in 1882, was discontinued in 1901. The university
institutions comprise the botanic garden (1807) and the (Asa)
Gray herbarium (1864); the Arnold arboretum (1872), at
Jamaica Plain, for the study of arboriculture, forestry and
dendrology; the university museum of natural history, founded
in 1859 by Louis Agassiz as a museum of comparative zoology,
enormously developed by his son, Alexander Agassiz, and
transferred to the university in 1876, though under an inde-
pendent faculty; the Peabody museum of American archaeology
and ethnology, founded in 1866 by George Peabody; the
William Hayes Fogg art museum (1895); the Semitic museum
(1889); the Germanic Museum (1902), containing rich gifts
from Kaiser Wilhelm II., the Swiss government, and individuals
and societies of Germanic lands; the social museum (1906);
and the astronomical observatory (1843; location 42 22' 48" N.
lat., 71 8' W. long.), which since 1891 has maintained a station
near Arequipa, Peru. A permanent summer engineering camp is
maintained at Squam Lake, New Hampshire. In Petersham,
Massachusetts, is the Harvard Forest, about 2000 acres of hilly
wooded country with a stand in 1908 of 10,000,000 ft. B.M. of
merchantable timber (mostly white pine) ; this forest was given
to the university in 1907, and is an important part of the equip-
ment of the division of forestry. The university library is the
largest college library in the country, and from its slow and
competent selection is of exceptional value. In 1 908 it numbered,
1 Affiliated with the university, but autonomous and independent,
is the Andovcr Theological Seminary, which in 1908 removed from
Andover to Cambridge.
including the various special libraries, 803,800 bound volumes,
about 496,600 pamphlets, and 27,450 maps. Some of its collec-
tions are of great value from associations or special richness,
such as Thomas Carlyle's collection on Cromwell and Frederick
the Great; the collection on folk-lore and medieval romances,
supposed to be the largest in existence and including the material
used by Bishop Percy in preparing his Reliques; and that on the
Ottoman empire. The law library has been described by
Professor A. V. Dicey of Oxford as " the most perfect collection
of the legal records of the English people to be found in any
part of the English-speaking world." There are department
libraries at the Arnold arboretum, the Gray herbarium, the
Bussey Institution, the astronomical observatory, the dental
school, the medical school, the law school, the divinity school,
the Peabody museum, and the museum of comparative zoology.
In 1878 the library published the first of a valuable series of
Bibliographical Contributions. Other publications of the univer-
sity (apart from annual reports of various departments) are:
the Harvard Oriental Series (started 1891), Harvard Studies in
Classical Philology (1890), Harvard Theological Review (1907),
the Harvard Law Review (1889), Harvard Historical Studies
(1897), Harvard Economic Studies (1906), Harvard Psychological
Studies (1903), the Harvard Engineering Journal (1902), the
Bulletin (1874) of the Bussey Institution, the Archaeological
and Ethnological Papers (1888) of the Peabody museum, and the
Bulletin (-1863), Contributions and M emoirs (1865) of the museum
of comparative zoology. The students' publications include the
Crimson (1873), a daily newspaper; the Advocate (1831), a
literary bi-weekly; the Lampoon (1876), a comic bi-weekly;
and the Harvard Monthly (1885), a literary monthly. The
Harvard Bulletin, a weekly, and the Harvard Graduates' Magazine
(1892), a quarterly, are published chiefly for the alumni.
In 1908-1909 there were 743 officers of instruction and ad-
ministration (including those for Radcliffe) and 5250 students
(1059 in 1869), the latter including 2238 in the college, 1641 in
the graduate and professional schools, and 1332 in the summer
school. Radcliffe College, for women, had 449 additional
students. The whole number of degrees conferred up to 1905
was 31,805 (doctors of science and of philosophy by examination,
408; masters of arts and of science by examination, 1759). The
conditions of the time when Harvard was a theological seminary
for boys, governed like a higher boarding school, have left traces
still discernible in the organization and discipline, though no
longer in the aims of the college. The average age of students
at entrance, only 14 years so late as 1820, had risen by 1890 to
19 years, making possible the transition to the present regime
of almost entire liberty of life and studies without detriment,
but with positive improvement, to the morals of the student
body. A strong development toward the university ideal
marked the opening of the igth century, especially in the widen-
ing of courses, the betterment of instruction, and the suggestions
of quickening ideas of university freedom, whose realization,
along with others, has come since 1870. The elimination of the
last vestiges of sectarianism and churchly discipline, a lessening
of parietal oversight, a lopping off of various outgrown colonial
customs, a complete reconstruction of professional standards
and methods, the development of a great graduate school in
arts and sciences based on and organically connected with the
undergraduate college, a great improvement in the college
standard of scholarship, the allowance of almost absolute
freedom to students in the shaping of their college course (the
" elective " system), and very remarkable material prosperity
marked the administration (1869-1909) of President Eliot. In
the readjustment in the curricula of American colleges of the
elements of professional training and liberal culture Harvard
has been bold in experiment and innovation. With Johns
Hopkins University she has led the movement that has trans-
formed university education, and her influence upon secondary
education in America has been incomparably greater than that
of any other university. Her entrance requirements to the
college and to the schools of medicine, law, dentistry and divinity
have been higher than those of any other American university.
HARVEST
A bachelor's degree is requisite for entrance to the professional
schools (except that of dentistry), and the master's degree (since
1872) is given to students only for graduate work in residence,
and rarely to other persons as an honorary degree. In scholarship
and in growth of academic freedom Germany has given the
quickening impulse. This influence began with George Ticknor
and Edward Everett, who were trained in Germany, and was
continued by a number of eminent German scholars, some driven
into exile for their liberalism, who became professors in the
second half of the ipth century, and above all by the many
members of the faculty still later trained in German universities.
The ideas of recognizing special students and introducing the
elective system were suggested in 1824, attaining establishment
even for freshmen by 1885, the movement characterizing particu-
larly the years 1865-1885. The basis of the elective system (as
in force in 1910) is freedom in choice of studies within liberal
limits; and, as regards admission to college 1 (completely
established 1891), the idea that the admission is of minds for the
quality of their training and not for their knowledge of particular
subjects, and that any subject may be acceptable for such
training if followed with requisite devotion and under proper
methods. Except for one course in English in the Freshman
year, and one course in French or German for those who do not
on entrance present both of these languages, no study is pre-
scribed, but the student is compelled to select a certain number
of courses in some one department or field of learning, and to
distribute the remainder among other departments, the object
being to secure a systematic education, based on the principle of
knowing a little of everything and something well.
The material equipment of Harvard is very rich. In 1909 it
included invested funds of $22,716,760 ($2,257,990 in 1869)
and lands and buildings valued at $i 2,000,000 at least. In 1908-
1909 an income of more than $130,000 was distributed in
scholarships, fellowships, prizes and other aids to students. The
yearly income available for immediate use from all sources in
1899-1904 averaged $1,074,229, of which $452,760 yearly
represented gifts. The total gifts, for funds and for current use,
in the same years aggregated $6,152,988. The income in 1907-
1908 was $1,846,976; $241,924 was given for immediate use,
and $449,822 was given for capital. The medical school is well
endowed and is housed in buildings (1906) on Longwood Avenue,
Boston; the gifts for its buildings and endowments made in
1901-1902 aggregate $5,000,000. Among the university buildings
are two dining-halls accommodating some 2500 students, a
theatre for public ceremonies, a chapel, a home for religious
societies, a club-home (the Harvard Union) for graduates and
undergraduates, an infirmary, gymnasium, boat houses and large
playgrounds, with a concrete stadium capable of seating 27,000
spectators. Massachusetts Hall (1720) is the oldest building.
University Hall (1815), the administration building, dignified,
of excellent proportions and simple lines, is a good example
of the work of Charles Bulfinch. Memorial Hall (1874), an
ambitious building of cathedral suggestion, commemorates the
Harvard men who fell in the Civil War, and near it is an ideal
statue (1884) of John Harvard by Daniel C. French. The
medical and dental schools are in Boston, and the Bussey
Institution and Arnold Arboretum are at Jamaica Plain.
RADCLIFFE COLLEGE, essentially a part of Harvard, dates
from the beginning of systematic instruction of women by
members of the Harvard faculty in 1879, the Society for the
Collegiate Instruction of Women being formally organized in
1882. The present name was adopted in 1894 in honour of Ann
1 The requirements for admission as changed in 1908 are based
on the " unit system "; satisfactory marks must be got in subjects
aggregating 26 units, the unit being a measure of preparatory study.
Of these 26 units, English (4 units), algebra (2), plane geometry (2),
some science or sciences (2), history (2; either Greek and Roman,
or American and English), a modern language (2; French and
German) are prescribed ; prospective candidates for the degree of
A.B. are required to take examinations for 4 additional units in
Greek or Latin, and for the other 8 points have large range of choice;
and candidates for the degree of S.B. must take additional examina-
tions in French or German (2 units) and have a similar freedom of
choice in making up the remaining 10 units.
Radcliffe, Lady Mowlson (ob. c. 1661), widow of Sir Thomas
Mowlson, alderman and (1634) lord mayor of London, who in
1643 founded the first scholarship in Harvard College. From
1894 alsa dates the present official connexion of Radcliffe with
Harvard. The requirements for admission and for degrees are the
same as in Harvard (whose president countersigns all diplomas),
and the president and fellows of Harvard control absolutely the
administration of the college, although it has for immediate ad-
ministration a separate government. Instruction is given by
members of the university teaching force, who repeat in Rad-
cliffe many of the Harvard courses. Many advanced courses in
Harvard, and to a certain extent laboratory facilities, are directly
accessible to Radcliffe students, and they have unrestricted
access to the library.
The presidents of Harvard have been: Henry Dunster (1640-
1654); Charles Chauncy (1654-1672); Leonard Hoar (1672-
1675); Urian Oakes (1675-1681); John Rogers (1682-1684);
Increase Mather (1685-1701); Charles Morton (vice-president)
(1697-1698); Samuel Willard (1700-1707); John Leverett (1708-
1724); Benjamin Wadsworth (1725-1737); Edward Holyoke
(1737-1769); Samuel Locke (1770-1773); Samuel Langdon
(1774-1780); Joseph Willard (1781-1804); Samuel Webber
(1806-1810); John Thornton Kirkland (1810-1828); Josiah
Quincy (1829-1845); Edward Everett (1846-1849); Jared
Sparks (1849-1853); James Walker (1853-1860); Cornelius
Conway Felton (1860-1862); Thomas Hill (1862-1868); Charles
William Eliot (1869-1909); Abbott Lawrence Lowell (appointed
1909).
AUTHORITIES. Benjamin Peirce, A History of Harvard University
1636-1775 (Boston, 1883); Josiah Quincy, A History of Harvard
University (2 vols., Boston, 1840) ; Samuel A. Eliot, Harvard College
and its Benefactors (Boston, 1848); H. C. Shelley, John Harvard
and his Times (Boston, 1907) ; The Harvard Book (2 vols., Cambridge,
1874) ; G. Birkbeck Hill, Harvard College, by an Oxonian (New York,
1894); William R. Thayer, "History and Customs of Harvard
University," in Universities and their Sons, vol. i. (Boston, 1898) ;
Official Guide to Harvard, and the various other publications of the
university; also the Harvard Graduates' Magazine (1892 sqq.).
HARVEST (A.S. harfest "autumn," O.K. Ger. herbist,
possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. carpere,
' ' to pluck ") , the season of the ingathering of crops. Harvest has
been a season of rejoicing from the remotest ages. The ancient
Jews celebrated the Feast of Pentecost as their harvest festival,
the wheat ripening earlier in Palestine. The Romans had their
Cerealia or feasts in honour of Ceres. The Druids celebrated
their harvest on the ist of November. In pre-reformation
England Lammas Day (Aug. ist, O.S.) was observed at the be-
ginning of the harvest festival, every member of the church
presenting a loaf made of new wheat. Throughout the world
harvest has always been the occasion for many queer customs
which all have their origin in the animistic belief in the Corn-
Spirit or Corn-Mother. This personification of the crops has left
its impress upon the harvest customs of modern Europe. In
west Russia, for example, the figure made out of the last sheaf of
corn is called the Bastard, and a boy is wrapped up in it. The
woman who binds this sheaf represents the " Cornmother," and
an elaborate simulation of childbirth takes place, the boy in the
sheaf squalling like a new-born child, and being, on his liberation,
wrapped in swaddling bands. Even in England vestiges of
sympathetic magic can be detected. In Northumberland, where
the harvest rejoicing takes place at the close of the reaping and
not at the ingathering, as soon as the last sheaf is set on end
the reapers shout that they have " got the kern." An image
formed of a wheatsheaf, and dressed in a white frock and
coloured ribbons, is hoisted on a pole. This is the " kern-baby "
or harvest-queen, and it is carried back in triumph with music
and shouting and set up in a prominent place during the harvest
supper. In Scotland the last sheaf if cut before Hallowmas is
called the " maiden," and the youngest girl in the harvest-field
is given the privilege of cutting it. If the reaping finishes after
Hallowmas the last corn cut is called the Cailleach (old woman).
In some parts of Scotland this last sheaf is kept till Christmas
morning and then divided among the cattle " to make them
HARVEST-BUGHARVEY
thrive all the year round," or is kept till the first mare foals and
is then given to her as her first food. Throughout the world, as
J. G. Frazer shows, the semi-worship of the last sheaf is or has
been the great feature of the harvest-home. Among harvest
customs none is more interesting than harvest cries. The cry
of the Egyptian reapers announcing the death of the corn-spirit,
the rustic prototype of Osiris, has found its echo on the world's
harvest-fields, and to this day, to take an English example, the
Devonshire reapers utter cries of the same sort and go through
a ceremony which in its main features is an exact counterpart of
pagan worship. " After the wheat is cut they ' cry the neck.'
. . . An old man goes round to the shocks and picks out a bundle
of the best ears he can find. . . this bundle is called ' the neck ';
the harvest hands then stand round in a ring, the old man holding
' the neck ' in the centre. At a signal from him they take off
their hats, stooping and holding them with both hands towards
the ground. Then all together they utter in a prolonged cry ' the
neck! ' three times, raising themselves upright with their hats
held above their heads. Then they change their cry to ' Wee
yen! way yen! ' or, as some report, ' we haven!' " On a fine still
autumn evening " crying the neck " has a wonderful effect at
a distance. In East Anglia there still survives the custom known
as " Hallering Largess." The harvesters beg largess from
passers, and when they have received money they shout thrice
" Halloo, largess," having first formed a circle, bowed their heads
low crying " Hoo-Hoo-Hoo," and then jerked their heads back-
wards and uttered a shrill shriek of " Ah ! Ah ! "
For a very full discussion of harvest customs see J. G. Frazer,
The Golden Bough, and Brand's Antiquities of Great Britain (Hazlitt's
edit., 1905).
HARVEST-BUG, the familiar name for mites of the family
Trombidiidae, belonging to the order Acari of the class Arachnida.
Although at one time regarded as constituting a distinct species,
described as Leptus aulumnalis, harvest-bugs are now known to
be the six-legged larval forms of several British species of mites
of the genus Trombidium, They are minute, rusty-brown
organisms, barely visible to the naked eye, which swarm in grass
and low herbage in the summer and early autumn, and cause
considerable, sometimes intense, irritation by piercing and
adhering to the skin of the leg, usually lodging themselves in
some part where the clothing is tight, such as the knee when
covered with gartered stockings. They may be readily destroyed,
and the irritation allayed, by rubbing the affected area with some
insecticide like turpentine or benzine. They are not permanently
parasitic, and if left alone will leave their temporary host to
resume the active life characteristic of the adult mite, which is
predatory in habits, preying upon minute living animal
organisms.
HARVESTER, HARVEST-SPIDER, or HARVEST-MAN, names
given to Arachnids of the order Opiliones, referable to various
species of the family Phalangiidae. Harvest-spiders or harvest-
men, so-called on account of their abundance in the late summer
and early autumn, may be at once distinguished from all true
spiders by the extreme length and thinness of their legs, and by
the small size and spherical or oval shape of the body, which is not
divided by a waist or constriclion into an anterior and a posterior
region. They may be met with in houses, back yards, fields,
woods and heaths; either climbing on walls, running over the
grass, or lurking under stones and fallen tree trunks. They are
predaceous, feeding upon small insects, mites and spiders. The
males are smaller than the females, and often differ from them in
certain well-marked secondary sexual characters, such as the
mandibular protuberance from which one of the common English
spiders, Phalangium cormitum, takes its scientific name. The
male is also furnished with a long and protrusible penis, and the
female with an equally long and protrusible ovipositor. The
sexes pair in the autumn, and the female, by means of her
ovipositor, lays her eggs in some cleft or hole in the soil and
leaves them to their fate. After breeding, the parents die with
the autumn cold; but the eggs retain their vitality through the
winter and hatch with the warmth of spring and early summer,
the young gradually attaining maturity as the latter season
progresses. Hence the prevalence of adult individuals in the late
summer and autumn, and at no other time of the year. They
are provided with a pair of glands, situated one on each side of
the carapace, which secrete an evil-smelling fluid believed to be
protective in nature. Harvest-men are very widely distributed
and are especially abundant in temperate countries of the
FIG. i. Harvest-man (Phalangium cprnutum, Linn.); profile of
male, with legs and palpi truncated.
a, Ocular tubercle. d, Sheath of penis protruded.
b, Mandible e. Penis.
c, Labrum (upper lip). /, The glans.
northern hemisphere. They are also, however, common in India,
where they are well known for their habit of adhering together
in great masses, comparable to a swarm of bees, and of swaying
gently backwards and forwards. The long legs of harvest-men
serve them not only as organs of rapid locomotion, but also as
props to raise the body well off the ground, thus enabling the
animals to stalk unmolested from the midst of an army of raiding
ants. (R. I. P.)
HARVEY, GABRIEL (c. 1545-1630), English writer, eldest son
of a ropemaker of Saffron- Walden, Essex, was born about 1545.
He matriculated at Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1566, and in
1570 was elected fellow of Pembroke Hall. Here he formed a
lasting friendship with Edmund Spenser, and it has been sug-
gested (A then. Cantab, ii. 258) that he may have been the poet's
tutor. Harvey was a scholar of considerable weight, who has
perhaps been judged too exclusively from the brilliant invectives
directed against him by Thomas Nashe. Henry Morley, writing
in the Fortnightly Review (March 1869), brought evidence from
Harvey's Latin writings which shows that he was distinguished
by quite other qualities than the pedantry and conceit usually
associated with his name. He desired to be " epitaphed as the
Inventour of the English Hexameter," and was the prime mover
in the literary clique that desired to impose on English verse the
Latin rules of quantity. In a " gallant, familiar letter " to M.
Immerito (Edmund Spenser) he says that Sir Edward Dyer and
Sir Philip Sidney were helping forward " our new famous enter-
prise for the exchanging of Barbarous and Balductum Rymes
with Artificial Verses." The document includes a tepid apprecia-
tion of the Faerie Queene which had been sent to him for his
opinion, and he gives examples of English hexameters illustrative
of the principles enunciated in the correspondence. The opening
lines
" What might I call this Tree ? A Laurell ? O bonny Laurell
Needes to thy bowes will I bow this knee, and vayle my bonetto "
afford a fair sample of the success of Harvey's metrical experi-
ments, which presented a fair mark for the wit of Thomas Nashe.
" He (Harvey) goes twitching and hopping in our language like
a man running upon quagmires, up the hill in one syllable, and
down the dale in another," says Nashe in Strange Newes, and he
mimics him in the mocking couplet:
" But eh ! what news do you hear of that good Gabriel Huffe-Snuffe,
Known to the world for a foole, and clapt in the Fleete for a
Runner ? "
Harvey exercised great influence over Spenser for a short time,
and the friendship lasted even though Spenser's genius refused
HARVEY, SIR G. HARVEY, WILLIAM
42
to be bound by the laws of the new prosody. Harvey is the
Hobbinoll of his friend's Shepheards Calender, and into his mouth
is put the beautiful song in the fourth eclogue in praise of Eliza.
If he was really the author of the verses " To the Learned
Shepheard " signed " Hobynoll " and prefixed to the Faerie
Queene, he was a good poet spoiled. But Harvey's genuine
friendship for Spenser shows the best side of a disposition un-
compromising and quarrelsome towards the world in general.
In 1573 ill-will against him in his college was so strong that there
was a delay of three months before the fellows would agree to
grant him the necessary grace for his M.A. degree. He be-
came reader in rhetoric aboat 1576, and in 1378, on the occasion
of Queen Elizabeth's visit to Sir Thomas Smith at Audley End,
he was appointed to dispute publicly before her. In the next
year he wrote to Spenser complaining of the unauthorized publi-
cation of satirical verses of his which were supposed to reflect on
high personages, and threatened seriously to injure Harvey ; s
career. In 1583 he became junior proctor of the university, and
in 1 585 he was elected master of Trinity Hall, of which he had
been a fellow from 1578, but the appointment appears to have
been quashed at court. He was a protege of the Earl of Leicester,
to whom he introduced Spenser, and this connexion may account
for his friendship with Sir Philip Sidney. But in spite of patron-
age, a second application for the mastership of Trinity Hall
failed in 1598. In 1585 he received the degree of D.C.L. from
the university of Oxford, and is found practising at the bar in
London. Gabriel's brother, Richard, had taken part in the
Marprelate controversy, and had given offence to Robert Greene
by contemptuous references to him and his fellow wits. Greene
retorted in his Quip for an Upstart Courtier with some scathing
remarks on the Harveys, the worst of which were expunged in
later editions, drawing attention among other things to Harvey's
modest parentage. In 1599 Archbishop Whitgift made a raid on
contemporary satire in general, and among other books the tracts
of Harvey and Nashe were destroyed, and it was forbidden to
reprint them. Harvey spent the last years of his life in retire-
ment at his native place, dying in 1630.
His extant Latin works are: Ciceronianus (1577); G. Harveii
rhetor, sive 2 dierum oratio de natura, arte et exercitatione rhetorica
('577); Smithus, vel Musarum lachrymae (1578), in honour of Sir
Thomas Smith; and G, Harveii gratulationum Valdensium libri
quatuour (sic), written on the occasion of the queen's visit to Audley
End (1578). The Letter-Book of Gabriel Harvey, A,D. 1573-80 (1884,
ed. E. J. L. Scott, Camden Society), contains rough drafts of the
correspondence between Spenser and Harvey, letters relative to the
disputes at Pembroke Hall, and an extraordinary correspondence
dealing with the pursuit of his sister Mercy by a young nobleman.
A copy of Quintilian (1542), in the British Museum, is extensively
annotated by Gabriel Harvey. After Greene's death Harvey pub-
lished Foure Letters and certaine Sonnets (1592), in which in a spirit
of righteous superiority he laid bare with spiteful fulness the miser-
able details of Greene's later years. Thomas Nashe, who in power of
invective and merciless wit was far superior to Harvey, took upon
himself to avenge Greene's memory, and at the same time settle his
personal account with the Harveys, in Strange Nnues (1593). Harvey
refuted the personal charges made by Nashe /in Pierce' s Superero-
gation, or a New Prayse of the Old Asse . . . (1593). InChristesTeares
over Jerusalem (1593) Nashe made a full apology to Harvey, who
refused to be appeased, and resumed what had become a very scur-
rilous controversy in a New Letter of Notable Contents (1593). Nashe
thereupon withdrew his apology in a new edition (1594) of Christes
Teares, and hearing that Harvey had boasted of victory he produced
the most biting satire of the series in Have with you to Saffron Walden
(1596). Harvey retorted in The Trimming of Thomas Nashe Gentle-
man, by the high-tituled patron Don Richardo de Medico campo
(1597).
His complete works were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart with a
" Memorial Introduction " for the Huth Library (1884-1885). See
also Isaac Disraeli, on " Literary Ridicule," in Calamities of Authors
(ed. 1840) ; T. Warton's History of English Poetry (ed. W. C. Hazlitt,
1871); J. P. Collier's Bibliographical and Critical Account of the
Rarest Books in the English Language (1865), and the Works of Thomas
Nashe.
HARVEY, SIR GEORGE (1806-1876), Scottish painter, the
son of a watchmaker, was born at St Ninians, near Stirling, in
February 1806. Soon after his birth his parents removed to
Stirling, where George was apprenticed to a bookseller. His
love for art having, however, become very decided, in his
eighteenth year he entered the Trustees' Academy at Edinburgh.
Here he so distinguished himself that in 1826 he was invited
by the Scottish artists, who had resolved to found a Scottish
academy, to join it as an associate. Harvey's first picture,
"A Village School," was exhibited in 1826 at the Edinburgh
Institution; and from the time of the opening of the Academy
in the following year he continued annually to exhibit. His
best-known pictures are those depicting historical episodes
in religious history from a puritan or evangelical point of view,
such as " Covenanters Preaching," " Covenanters' Communion,"
" John Bunyan and his Blind Daughter," " Sabbath Evening,"
and the " Quitting of the Manse." He was, however, equally
popular in Scotland for subjects not directly religious; and
" The Bowlers," " A Highland Funeral," " The Curlers," "A
Schule Skailin'," and " Children Blowing Bubbles in the Church-
yard of Greyfriars', Edinburgh," manifest the same close observa-
tion of character, artistic conception and conscientious elabora-
tion of details. In " The Night Mail" and " Dawn Revealing
the New World to Columbus " the aspects of nature arc made
use of in different ways, but with equal happiness, to lend
impressiveness and solemnity to human concerns. He also
painted landscapes and portraits. In 1829 he was elected a
fellow of the Royal Scottish Academy; in 1864 he succeeded
Sir J. W. Gordon as president; and he was knighted in 1867.
He died at Edinburgh on the 22nd of January 1876.
Sir George Harvey was the author of a paper on the " Colour of
the Atmosphere," read before the Edinburgh Royal Society, and
afterwards published with illustrations in Good Words; and in
1870 he published a small volume entitled Notes of the Early History
of the Royal Scottish Academy. Selections from the Works of Sir
George Harvey, P.R.S.A., described by the Rev. A. L. Simpson,
F.S.A. Scot., and photographed by Thomas Annan, appeared at
Edinburgh in 1869.
HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578-1657), English physician, the
discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was the eldest son of
Thomas Harvey, a prosperous Kentish yeoman, and was born
at Folkestone on the ist of April 1578. After passing through
the grammar school of Canterbury, on the 3ist of May 1593,
having just entered his sixteenth year, he became a pensioner
of Caius College, Cambridge, at nineteen he took his B.A. degree,
and soon after, having chosen the profession of medicine, he
went to study at Padua under H. Fabricius and Julius Casserius.
At the age of twenty-four Harvey became doctor of medicine, in
April 1602. Returning to England in the first year of James I.,
he settled in London; and two years later he married the
daughter of Dr Lancelot Browne, who had been physician to
Queen Elizabeth. In the same year he became a candidate
of the Royal College of Physicians, and was duly admitted a
fellow (June 1607). In 1609 he obtained the reversion of the
post of physician to St Bartholomew's hospital. His application
was supported by the king himself and by Dr Henry Atkins
(1558-1635), the president of the college, and on the death of
Dr Wilkinson in the course of the same year he succeeded to the
post. He was thrice censor of the college, and in 1615 was
appointed Lumleian lecturer.
In 1616 he began his course of lectures, and first brought
forward his views upon the movements of the heart and blood.
Meantime his practice increased, and he had the lord chancellor,
Francis Bacon, and the earl of Arundel among his patients.
In 1618 he was appointed physician extraordinary to James I.,
and on the next vacancy physician in ordinary to his successor.
In 1628, the year of the publication of the Exercilatio anatomica
de motu cordis et sanguinis, he was elected treasurer of the
College of Physicians, but at the end of the following year he
resigned the office, in order, by command of Charles I., to accom-
pany the young duke of Lennox (James Stuart, afterwards duke
of Richmond) on his travels. He appears to have visited
Italy, and returned in 1632. Four years later he accompanied
the earl of Arundel on his embassy to the emperor Ferdinand II.
He was eager in collecting objects of natural history, sometimes
causing the earl anxiety for his safety by his excursions in a
country infested by robbers in consequence of the Thirty Years'
War. In a letter written on this journey, he says: " By the
HARVEY, WILLIAM
43
way we could scarce see a dogg, crow, kite, raven, or any bird,
or anything to anatomise; only sum few miserable people, the
reliques of the war and the plague, whom famine had made
anatomies before I came." Having returned to his practice
in London at the close of the year 1636, he accompanied Charles I.
in one of his journeys to Scotland (1639 or 1641). While at
Edinburgh he visited the Bass Rock; he minutely describes
its abundant population of sea-fowl in his treatise De generatione,
and incidentally speaks of the account then credited of the solan
goose growing on trees as a fable. He was in attendance on the
king at the battle of Edgehill (October 1642), where he withdrew
under a hedge with the prince of Wales and the duke of York
(then boys of twelve and ten years old), " and took out of his
pocket a book and read. But he had not read very long before
a bullet of a great gun grazed on the ground near him, which
made him remove his station," as he afterwards told John
Aubrey. After the indecisive battle, Harvey followed Charles I.
to Oxford, " where," writes the same gossiping narrator, " I
first saw him, but was then too young to be acquainted with so
great a doctor. I remember he came several times to our college
(Trinity) to George Bathurst, B.D. who had a hen to hatch eggs
in his chamber, which they opened daily to see the progress and
way of generation. " In Oxford he remained three years, and
there was some chance of his being superseded in his office at
St Bartholomew's hospital, " because he hath withdrawn himself
from his charge, and is retired to the party in arms against the
Parliament." It was no doubt at this time that his lodgings
at Whitehall were searched, and not only the furniture seized
but also invaluable manuscripts and anatomical preparations. 1
While with the king at Oxford he was made warden of Merton
College, but a year later, in 1646, that city surrendered to Fairfax,
and Harvey returned to London. He was now sixty-eight years
old, and, having resigned his appointments and relinquished
the cares of practice, lived in learned retirement with one or
other of his brothers. It was in his brother Daniel's house at
Combe that Dr (afterwards Sir George) Ent, a faithful friend and
disciple (1604-1689), visited him in 1650. " I found him," he
says. " with a cheeerful and sprightly countenance investigating,
like Democritus, the nature of things. Asking if all were well
with him 'How can that be,' he replied, 'when the state is so
agitated with storms and I myself am yet in the open sea? And
indeed, were not my mind solaced by my studies and the recollec-
tion of the observations I have formerly made, there is nothing
which should make me desirous of a longer continuance. But
thus employed, this obscure life and vacation from public cares
which would disgust other minds is the medicine of mine.' '
The work on which he had been chiefly engaged at Oxford, and
indeed since the publication of his treatise on the circulation
in 1628, was an investigation into the recondite but deeply
interesting subject of generation. Charles I. had been an
enlightened patron of Harvey's studies, had put the royal deer
parks at Windsor and Hampton Court at his disposal, and had
watched his demonstration of the growth of the chick with no
less interest than the movements of the living heart. Harvey
had now collected a large number of observations, though he
would probably have delayed their publication. But Ent
succeeded in obtaining the manuscripts, with authority to print
them or not as he should find them. " I went from him," he says,
" like another Jason in possession of the golden fleece, and when
Ignoscant mihi niveae animae, si, summarum injuriarum memor,
levem gemitum effudero. Doloris mihi haec causa est : cum, inter
nuperos_ nostros tumultus et bella plusquam civilia, serenissimum
regem (idque non solum senatus permissione sed et jussu) sequor,
rapaces quaedam manus non modo aedium mearum supellectilem
omnem expilarunt, sed etiam, quae mihi causa gravior querimoniae,
adversaria mea, multorum annorum laboribus parta, e museo meo
summoverunt. Quo factum est ut observations plurimae, prae-
sertim de generatione insectorum, cum republicae Hterariae (ausim
dicere) detrimento, perierint." De gen., Ex. Ixviii. To this loss
Cowley refers
" O cursed war! who can forgive thee this?
Houses and towns may rise again,
And ten times easier 'tis
To rebuild Paul's than any work of his."
I came home and perused the pieces singly, I was amazed that
so vast a treasure should have been so long hidden." The result
was the publication of the Exercilaliones de generatione (1651).
This was the last of Harvey's labours. He had now reached
his seventy-third year. His theory of the circulation had been
opposed and defended, and was now generally accepted by the
most eminent anatomists both in his own country and abroad.
He was known and honoured throughout Europe, and his own
college (Caius) voted a statue in his honour (1652) viro monti-
mentis suis immorlali. In 1654 he was elected to the highest post
in his profession, that of president of the college; but the follow-
ing day he met the assembled fellows, and, declining the honour
for himself on account of the infirmities of age, recommended
the re-election of the late president Dr Francis Prujean (1593-
1666). He accepted, however, the office of consiliarius, which
he again held in the two following years. He hati already
enriched the college with other gifts besides the honour of his
name. He had raised for them " a noble building of Roman
architecture (rustic work with Corinthian pilasters) , comprising
a great parlour or conversation room below and a library above";
he had furnished the library with books, and filled the museum
with " simples and rarities," as well as with specimens of instru-
ments used in the surgical and obstetric branches of medicine.
At last he determined to give to his beloved college his paternal
estate at Burmarsh in Kent. His wife had died some years before,
his brothers were wealthy men, and he was childless, so that he
was defrauding no heir when, in July 1656, he made the transfer
of this property, then valued at 56 per annum, with provision
for a salary to the college librarian and for the endowment of an
annual oration, which is still given on the anniversary of the day.
The orator, so Harvey orders in his deed of gift, is to exhort
the fellows of the college " to search out and study the secrets
of nature by way of experiment, and also for the honour of
the profession to continue mutual love and affection among
themselves."
Harvey, like his contemporary and great successor Thomas
Sydenham, was long afflicted with gout, but he preserved his
activity of mind to an advanced age. In his eightieth year, on
the 3rd of June 1657, he was attacked by paralysis, and though
deprived of speech was able to send for his nephews and distribute
his watch, ring, and other personal trinkets among them. He
died the same evening, " the palsy giving him an easy passport,"
and was buried with great honour in his brother Eliab's vault at
Hempstead in Essex, annorum etfamae satur. In 1883 the lead
coffin containing his remains was enclosed in a marble sarcophagus
and moved to the Harvey chapel within the church.
John Aubrey, to whom we owe most of the minor particulars
about Harvey which have been preserved, says: " In person he
was not tall, but of the lowest stature; round faced, olivaster
complexion, little eyes, round, very black, full of spirits; his
hair black as a raven, but quite white twenty years before he
died." The best portrait of him extant is by Cornelius Jansen
in the library of the College of Physicians, one of those rescued
from the great fire, which destroyed their original hall in 1666.
It has been often engraved, and is prefixed to the fine edition of
his works published in 1766.
Han'ey's Work on the Circulation. In estimating the character
and value of the discovery announced in the Exercilatio de molu
cordis et sanguinis, it is necessary to bear in mind the previous
state of knowledge on the subject. Aristotle taught that in man
and the higher animals the blood was elaborated from the food
in the liver, thence carried to the heart, and sent by it through
the veins over the body. His successors of the Alexandrian
school of medicine, Erasistratus and Herophilus, further elabor-
ated his system, and taught that, while the veins carried blood
from the heart to the members, the arteries carried a subtle kind
of air or spirit. For the practical physician only two changes had
been made in this theory of the circulation between the Christian
era and the i6th century. Galen had discovered that the
arteries were not, as their name implies, merely air-pipes, but
that they contained blood as well as vital air or spirit. And it
had been gradually ascertained that the nerves (vtvpa) which
44-
HARVEY, WILLIAM
arose from the brain and conveyed " animal spirits " to the
body were different from the tendons or sinews (vevpa) which
attach muscles to bones. First, then, the physicians of the
time of Thomas Linacre knew that the blood is not stagnant in
the body. So did Shakespeare and Homer, and every augur who
inspected the entrails of a victim, and every village barber who
breathed a vein. Plato even uses the expression rt> alfia Kara
wavra TO. fjx\rj acfroSpSis 7repi<pe<r0ai. But no one had a con-
ception of a continuous stream returning to its source (a circula-
tion in the true sense of the word) either in the system or in the
lungs. If they used the word circulatio, as did Caesalpinus, 1 it
was as vaguely as the French policeman cries " Circulez." The
movements of the blood were in fact thought to be slow and
irregular in direction as well as in speed, like the " circulation "
of air in a house, or the circulation of a crowd in the streets of a
city. Secondly, they supposed that one kind of blood flowed
from the liver to the right ventricle of the heart, and thence to
the lungs and the general system by the veins, and that another
kind flowed from the left ventricle to the lungs and general
system by the arteries. Thirdly, they supposed that the septum
of the heart was pervious and allowed blood to pass directly
from the right to the left side. Fourthly, they had no conception
of the functions of the heart as the motor power of the movement
of the blood. They doubted whether its substance was muscular :
they supposed its pulsation to be due to expansion of the spirits
it contained; they believed the only dynamic effect which it
had on the blood to be sucking it in during its active diastole,
and they supposed the chief use of its constant movements to be
the due mixture of blood and spirits.
Of the great anatomists of the i6th century, Sylvius (In Hipp,
et Gal. phys. partem analom. isagoge) described the valves of
the veins; Vesalius (De humani corporis fabrica, 1542) ascer-
tained that the septum between the right and left ventricles is
complete, though he could not bring himself to deny the invisible
pores which Galen's system demanded. Servetus, in his Chris-
tianismi restitutio (1553), goes somewhat farther than his fellow-
student Vesalius, and says: " Paries ille medius non est aptus ad
communicationem et elaborationem illam; licet aliquid resudare
possit"; and, from this anatomical fact and the large size of the
pulmonary arteries he concludes that there is a communication
in the lungs by which blood passes from the pulmonary artery to
the pulmonary vein: " Eodem artificio quo in hepate fit trans-
f usio a vena porta ad venam cavam propter sanguinem, fit etiam in
pulmone transfusio a vena arteriosa ad arteriam venosam propter
spiritum." The natural spirit of the left side and the vital spirit
of the right side of the heart were therefore, he concluded,
practically the same, and hence two instead of three distinct
spiritus should bs admitted. It seems doubtful whether even
Servetus rightly conceived of the entire mass of the blood passing
through the pulmonary artery and the lungs. The transference
of the spiritus naluralis to the lungs, and its return to the left
ventricle as spiritus vitalis, was the function which he regarded
as important. Indeed a true conception of the lesser circulation
as a transference of the whole blood of the right side to the left
was impossible until the corresponding transference in the
greater or systematic circulation was discovered. Servetus,
however, was the true predecessor of Harvey in physiology, and
his claims to that honour are perfectly authentic and universally
admitted. 2
1 Indeed the same word, ireplodos aljiaTos, occurs in the Hippo-
cratic writings, and was held by Van der Linden to prove that to
the father of medicine himself, and not to Columbus or Caesalpinus,
belonged the laurels of Harvey.
1 Realdo Columbus (De re anatomica, 1559) formally denies the
muscularity of the heart, yet correctly teaches that blood and spirits
pass from the right to the left ventricle, not through the septum
but through the lungs, " quod nemo hactenus aut animadvertit aut
scriptum reliquit." The fact that Harvey quotes Columbus and not
Servetus is explained by the almost entire destruction of the writings
of the latter, which are now among the rarest curiosities. The great
anatomist Fabricius, Harvey's teacher at Padua, described the valves
of the veins more perfectly than had Sylvius. Carlo Ruini, in his
treatise on the Anatomy and Diseases of the Horse (1590), taught that
the left ventricle sends blood and vital spirits to all parts of the body
except the lungs the ordinary Galenical doctrine. Yet on the
The way then to Harvey's great work had been paved by the
discovery of the valves in the veins, and by that of the lesser
circulation the former due to Sylvius and Fabricius, the latter
to Servetus but the significance of the valves was unsuspected,
and the face of even the pulmonary circulation was not generally
admitted in its full meaning.
In his treatise Harveyproves (i) that it is the contraction, not
the dilatation, of the heart which coincides with the pulse, and
that the ventricles as true muscular sacs squeeze the blood which
they contain into the aorta and pulmonary artery; (2) that the
pulse is not produced by the arteries enlarging and so filling, but
by the arteries being filled with blood and so enlarging; (3) that
there are no pores in the septum of the heart, so that the whole
blood in the right ventricle is sent to the lungs and round by the
pulmonary veins to the left ventricle, and also that the whole
blood in the left ventricle is again sent into the arteries, round by
the smaller veins into the venae cavae, and by them to the right
ventricle again thus making a complete " circulation " ; (4)
that the blood in the arteries and that in the veins is the same
blood; (5) that the action of the right and left sides of the heart,
auricles, ventricles and valves, is the same, the mechanism in
both being for reception and propulsion of liquid and not of air,
since the blood on the right side, though mixed with air, is still
blood; (6) that the blood sent through the arteries to the tissues
is not all used, but that most of it runs through into the veins;
(7) that there is no to and fro undulation in the veins, but a con-
stant stream from the distant parts towards the heart; (8) that
the dynamical starting-point of the blood is the heart and not
the liver.
The method by which Harvey arrived at his complete and
almost faultless solution of the most fundamental and difficult
problem in physiology has been often discussed, and is well
worthy of attention. He begins his treatise by pointing out the
many inconsistencies and defects in the Galenical theory, quoting
the writings of Galen himself, of Fabricius, Columbus and others,
with great respect, but with unflinching criticism. For, in his
own noble language, wise men must learn anatomy, not from the
decrees of philosophers, but from the fabric of nature herself,
" nee ita in verba jurare antiquitatis magistrae, ut veritatem
amicam in apertis relinquant, et in conspectu omnium deserant."
He had, as we know, not only furnished himself with all the
knowledge that books and the instructions of the best anatomists
of Italy could give, but, by a long series of dissections, had
gained a far more complete knowledge of the comparative
anatomy of the heart and vessels than any contemporary we
may almost say than any successor until the times of John
Hunter and J. F. Meckel. Thus equipped, he tells us that he
began his investigations into the movements of the heart and
blood by looking at them i.?. by seeing their action in living
animals. After a modest preface, he heads his first chapter
strength of this phrase Professor J. B. Ercolani actually put up a
tablet in the veterinary school at Bologna to Ruini as the discoverer
of the circulation of the blood! The claims of Caesalpinus, a more
plausible claimant to Harvey's laurels, are scarcely better founded.
In his Quaestiones peripateticae (1571) he followed Servetus and
Columbus in describing what we now know as the pulmonary
" circulation " under that name, and this is the only foundation
for the assertion (first made in Bayle's dictionary) that Caesalpinus
knew " the circulation of the blood." He is even behind Servetus,
for he only allows part of the blood of the right ventricle to go round
by this "circuit": some, he conceives, passes through the hypo-
thetical pores in the septum, and the rest by the superior cava to
the head and arms, by the inferior to the rest of the body: " Hanc
esse venarum utilitatem ut omnes partes corporis sanguinem pro
nutrimento deferant. Ex dextro ventr cordis vena cava sanguinem
crassiorem, in quo calor intensus est magis, ex altero autem ventr ,
sanguinem temperatissimum ac sincerissimum habente, egreditur
aorta." Caesalpinus seems to have had no original views on the
subject; all that he writes is copied from Galen or from Servetus
except some erroneous observations of his own. His greatest merit
was as a botanist ; and no claim to the " discovery of the circulation "
was made by him or by his contemporaries. When it was made,
Haller decided conclusively against it. The fact that an inscription
has been placed on the bust of Caesalpinus at Rome, which states
that he preceded others in recognizing and demonstrating " the
general circulation of the blood," is only a proof of the blindness of
misplaced national vanity.
HARVEY, WILLIAM
45
" Ex vivorum dissectione, qualis sit cordis motus." He minutely
describes what he saw and handled in dogs, pigs, serpents, frogs
and fishes, and even in slugs, oysters, lobsters and insects, in the
transparent minima squilla, " quae Anglice dicitur a shrimp,"
and lastly in the chick while still in the shell. In these investiga-
tions he used a perspidllum or simple lens. He particularly
describes his observations and experiments on the ventricles,
the auricles, the arteries and the veins. He shows how the
arrangement of the vessels in the foetus supports his theory.
He adduces facts observed in disease as well as in health to prove
the rapidity of the circulation. He explains how the mechanism
of the valves in the veins is adapted, not, as Fabricius believed,
to moderate the flow of blood from the heart, but to favour its
flow to the heart. He estimates the capacity of each ventricle,
and reckons the rate at which the whole mass of blood passes
through it. He elaborately and clearly demonstrates the effect
of obstruction of the blood-stream in arteries or in veins, by the
forceps in the case of a snake, by a ligature on the arm of a man,
and illustrates his argument by figures. He then sums up his
conclusion thus: " Circulari quodam motu, in circuitu, agitari
in animalibus sanguinem, et esse in perpetuo motu; et hanc esse
actionem sive functionem cordis quam pulsu peragit; et omnino
motus et pulsus cordis causam unam esse." Lastly, in the isth,
i6th and i7th chapters, he adds certain confirmatory evidence,
as the effect of position on the circulation, the absorption of
animal poisons and of medicines applied externally, the muscular
structure of the heart and the necessary working of its valves.
The whole treatise, which occupies only 67 pages of large print
in the quarto edition of 1766, is a model of accurate observation,
patient accumulation of facts, ingenious experimentation, bold
yet cautious hypothesis and logical deduction.
In one point only was the demonstration of the circulation
incomplete. Harvey could not discover the capillary channels
by which the blood passes from the arteries to the veins. This
gap in the circulation was supplied several years later by the great
anatomist Marcello Malpighi, who in 1661 saw in the lungs of
a frog, by the newly invented microscope, how the blood passes
from the one set of vessels to the other. Harvey saw all that
could be seen by the unaided eye in his observations on living
animals; Malpighi, four years after Harvey's death, by another
observation on a living animal, completed the splendid chain of
evidence. If this detracts from Harvey's merit it leaves Servetus
no merit at all. But in fact the existence of the channels first
seen by Malpighi was as clearly pointed to by Harvey's reasoning
as the existence of Neptune by the calculations of Leverrier and
of Adams. .
Harvey himself and all his contemporaries were well aware of the
novelty and importance of his theory. He says in the admirable
letter to Dr Argent, president of the College of Physicians, which
follows the dedication of his treatise to Charles I., that he should
not have ventured to publish " a book which alone asserts that
the blood pursues its course and flows back again by a new path,
contrary to the received doctrine taught so many ages by innumerable
learned and illustrious men," if he had not set forth his theory for
more than nine years in his college lectures, gradually brought it to
perfection, and convinced his colleagues by actual demonstrations
of the truth of what he advanced. He anticipates opposition, and
even obloquy or loss, from the novelty of his views. These antici-
pations, however, the event proved to have been groundless. If we
are to credit Aubrey indeed, he found that after the publication
of the Dz motu " he fell mightily in his practice; 'twas believed by
the vulgar that he was crackbrained, and all the physicians were
against him." But the last assertion is demonstrably untrue;
and if apothecaries and patients ever forsook him, they must soon
have returned, for Harvey left a handsome fortune. By his own
profession the book was received as it deserved. So novel a doctrine
was not to be accepted without due inquiry, but his colleagues had
heard his lectures and seen his demonstrations for years; they were
already convinced of the truth of his theory, urged its publication,
continued him in his lectureship, and paid him every honour in
their power. In other countries the book was widely read and
much canvassed. Few accepted the new theory; but no one
dreamt of claiming the honour of it for himself, nor for several years
did any one pretend that it could be found in the works of previous
authors. The first attack on it was a feeble tract by one James
Primerose, a pupil of Jean Riolan (Exerc. et animadv. in libr.
Hand de motu cord, et sang., 1630). Five years later Parisanus,
an Italian physician, published his Lapis Lydius de motu cord.
et sang. (Venice, 1635), a still more bulky and futile performance.
Primerose's attacks were " imbellia pleraque " and " sine ictu ";
that of Parisanus " in quamplurimis turpius," according to the con-
temporary judgment of Johann Vessling. Their dulness has pro-
tected them from further censure. Caspar Hoffmann, professor at
Nuremberg, while admitting the truth of the lesser circulation in
the full Harveian sense, denied the rest of the new doctrine. To
him the English anatomist replied in a short letter, still extant,
with great consideration yet with modest dignity, beseeching him
to convince himself by actual inspection of the truth of the facts in
question. He concludes: . " I accept your censure in the candid
and friendly spirit in which you say you wrote it; do you also the
same to me, now that I have answered you in the same spirit."
This letter is dated May 1636, and in that year Harvey passed
through Nuremberg with the earl of Arundel, and visited Hoffmann.
But he failed to convince him; "nee tamen valuit Harveius vel
coram," writes P. M. Schlegel, who, however, afterwards succeeded
in persuading the obstinate old Galenist to soften his opposition to
the new doctrine, and thinks that his complete conversion might have
been effected if he had but lived a little longer " nee dubito quin
concessisset tandem in nostra castra." While in Italy the following
year Harvey visited his old university of Padua, and demonstrated
his views to Professor Vessling. A few months later this excellent
anatomist wrote him a courteous and sensible letter, with certain
objections to the new theory. The answer to this has not been
preserved, but it convinced his candid opponent, who admitted
the truth of the circulation in a second letter (both were published
in 1640), and afterwards told a friend, " Harveium nostrum si audis,
agnosces coelestem sanguinis et spiritus ingressum ex arteriis per
venas in dextrum cordis sinum." Meanwhile a greater convert,
R. Descartes, in his Discours sur la mcthode (1637) had announced
his adhesion to the new doctrine, and refers to " the English physician
to whom belongs the honour of having first shown that the course
of the blood in the body is nothing less than a kind of perpetual
movement in a circle." J. Walaeus of Leyden, H. Regius of Utrecht
and Schlegel of Hamburg successively adopted the new physiology.
Of these professors, Regius was mauled by the pertinacious Prime-
rose and mauled him in return (Spongia qua eluuntur sordes quae Jac.
Primirosius, &c., and Antidotum adv. Spongiam venenatam Henr.
Regii). Descartes afterwards repeated Harvey's vivisections, and,
more convinced than ever, demolished Professor V. F. Plempius of
Louvain, who had written on the other side. George Ent also
published an Apologia pro circulations sanguinis in answer to
Parisanus.
At last Jean Riolan ventured to publish his Enchiridium ana-
tomicum (1648), in which he attacks Harvey's theory, and proposes
one of his own. Riolan had accompanied the queen dowager of
France (Maria de' Medici) on a visit to her daughter at Whitehall,
and had there met Harvey and discussed his theory. He was, in the
opinion of the judicious Haller, " vir asper et in nuperos suosque
coaevos immitis ac nemini parcens, nimis avidus suarum laudum
praeco, et se ipsp fatente anatomicorum princeps." Harvey replied
to the Enchiridium with perfectly courteous language and perfectly
conclusive arguments, in two letters De circulatione sanguinis,
which were published at Cambridge in 164^, and are still well worth
reading. He speaks here of the " circuitus sanguinis a me in-
ventus." Riolan was unconvinced, but lived to see another pro-
fessor of anatomy appointed in his own university who taught
Harvey's doctrines. Even in Italy, Trullius, professor of anatomy
at Rome, expounded the new doctrine in 1651. But the most
illustrious converts were Jean Pecquet of Dieppe, the discoverer of
the thoracic duct, and of the true course of the lacteal vessels, and
Thomas Barthplinus of Copenhagen, in his Anatome ex omnium
veterum recentiorumque obseniationibus, imprimis inslitutionibus
beali mei parentis Caspari Bartholini, ad circulalionem Harveianam
et vasa lymphatica renovata (Leiden, 1651). At last Plempius also
retracted all his objections; for, as he candidly stated, " having
opened the bodies of a few living dogs, I find that all Harvey's state-
ments are perfectly true." Hpbbes of Malmesbury could thus say in
the preface to his Elementa philosophiae that his friend Harvey,
" solus quod sciam, doctrinam novam superata invidia vivens
stabilivit."
It has been made a reproach to Harvey that he failed to appreciate
the importance of the discoveries of the lacteal and lymphatic vessels
by G. Aselli, J. Pecquet and C. Bartholinus. In three letters on the
subject, one to Dr R. Morison of Paris (1652) and two to Dr Horst of
Darmstadt (1655), a correspondent of Bartholin's, he discusses
these observations, and shows himself unconvinced of their accuracy.
He writes, however, with great moderation and reasonableness, and
excuses himself from investigating the subject further on the score
of the infirmities of age; he was then above seventy-four. The
following quotation shows the spirit of these letters: " Laudo
equidem summopere Pecqueti aliorumque in indaganda veritate
industriam singularem, nee dubito quin multa adhuc in Democriti
putco abscondita sint, a venturi saeculi indefatigabili diligentia
:xpromenda." Bartholin, though reasonably disappointed in not
bavir.g Harvey's concurrence, speaks of him with the utmost respect,
and generously says that the glory of discovering the movements of
the heart and of the blood was enough for one man.
HARVEY, WILLIAM
Hartley's Work on Generation. We have seen how Dr. Ent per-
suaded his friend to publish this book in 1651. It is between
five and six times as long as the Exerc. de molu cord, el sang.,
and is followed by excursus De partu, De uteri membranis, De
conceptione; but, though the fruit of as patient and extensive
observations, its value is far inferior. The subject was far more
abstruse, and in fact inaccessible to proper investigation without
the aid of the microscope. And the field was almost untrodden
since the days of Aristotle. Fabricius, Harvey's master, in his
work De formatione ovi et pulli (1621), had alone preceded him
in modern times. Moreover, the seventy-two chapters which
form the book lack the co-ordination so conspicuous in the earlier
treatise, and some of them seem almost like detached chapters of
a system which was never completed or finally revised.
Aristotle had believed that the male parent furnished the body of
the future embryo, while the female only nourished and formed the
seed; this is in fact the theory on which, in the Eumenides of
Aeschylus, Apollo obtains the acquittal of Orestes. Galen taught
almost as erroneously that each parent contributes seeds, the union
of which produced the young animal. Harvey, after speaking with
due honour of Aristotle and Fabricius, begins rightly " ab ovo ";
for, as he remarks, " eggs cost little and are always and everywhere
to be had," and moreover " almost all animals, even those which
bring forth their young alive, and man himself, are produced from
eggs " (" omnia omnino animalia, etiam yivipara, atque hominem
adeo ipsum, ex ovo progigni "). This dictum, usually quoted as
" omne vivum ex ovo," would alone stamp this work as worthy of
the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, but it was a prevision
of genius, and was not proved to be a fact until K. E. von Baer
discovered the mammalian ovum in 1827. Harvey proceeds with
a careful anatomical description of the ovary and oviduct of the hen,
describes the new-laid egg, and then gives an account of the appear-
ance seen on the successive days of incubation, from the 1st to the
6th, the loth and the I4th, and lastly describes the process of
hatching. He then comments upon and corrects the opinions of
Aristotle and Fabricius, declares against spontaneous generation
(though in one passage he seems to admit the current doctrine of
production of worms by putrefaction as an exception), proves that
there is no semen foemineum, that the chalazae of the hen's eggs are
not the semen galli, and that both parents contribute to the forma-
tion of the egg. He describes accurately the first appearance of the
ovarian ova as mere specks, their assumption of yelk and after-
wards of albumen. In chapter xlv. he describes two methods of
production of the embryo from the ovum : one is metamorphosis, or
the direct transformation of pre-existing material, as a worm from
an egg, or a butterfly from an aurelia (chrysalis); the other is
epigenesis, or development with addition of parts, the true genera-
tion observed in all higher animals. Chapters xlvi.-l. are devoted
to the abstruse question of the efficient cause of generation, which,
after much discussion of the opinions of Aristotle and of Sennertius,
Harvey refers to the action of both parents as the efficient instru-
ments of the first great cause. 1 He then goes on to describe the
order in which the several parts appear in the chick. He states that
the punctum saliens or foetal heart is the first organ to be seen, and
explains that the nutrition of the chick is not only effected by yelk
conveyed directly into the midgut, as Aristotle taught, but also by
absorption from yelk and white by the umbilical (omphalomeseraic)
veins; on the fourth day of incubation appear two masses (which he
oddly names vermiculus), one of which develops into three vesicles,
to form the cerebrum, cerebellum and eyes, the other into the
breastbone and thorax; on the sixth or seventh day come the
viscera, and lastly, the feathers and other external parts. Harvey
points out how nearly this order of development in the chick agrees
with what he had observed in mammalian and particularly in human
embryos. He notes the bifid apex of the foetal heart in man and
the equal thickness of the ventricles, the soft cartilages which
represent the future bones, the large amount of liquor amnii and
absence of placenta which characterize the foetus in the third month ;
in the fourth the position of the testes in the abdomen, and the uterus
with its Fallopian tubes resembling the uterus bicornis of the sheep;
the large thymus; the caecum, small as in the adult, not forming a
1 So in Exerc. liv. : " Superior itaque et divinior opifex, quam
est homo, videtur hominem fabricare et conservare, et nobilior
artifex, quam gallus, pullum ex ovo producere. Nempe agnoscimus
Deum, creatorem summum atque omnipotentem, in cunctorum
animalium fabrica ubique praesentem esse, et in operibus suis quasi
digito monstrari: cujus in procreatione pulli instruments sint gallus
et gallina. . . . Ncc cuiquam ' sane haec attributa convenient nisi
omnipotent! rerum Principio, quocunque demum nomine idipsum
appellare libuerit : sive Mentem divinam cum Aristotele, sive cum
Platone Animam Mundi, aut cum aliis Naturam naturantem, vel
cum ethnicis Saturnum aut lovem; vel potius (ut nos decet) Crea-
torem ac Patrem omnium quae in coelis et terris, a quo animalia
eorumque origines dependent, cujusque nutu sive effatu fiunt et
generantur omnia.
second stomach as in the pig, the horse and the hare ; the lobulated
kidneys, like those of the seal (" vitulo," sc. marino) and porpoise,
and the large suprarenal veins, not much smaller than those of the
kidneys (li.-lvi). He failed, however, to trace the connexion of
the urachus with the bladder. In the following chapters (Ixiii.-
Ixxii.) he describes the process of generation in the fallow deer or
the roe. After again insisting that all animals arise from ova,
that a " conception " is an internal egg and an egg an extruded
conception, he goes on to describe the uterus of the doe, the process
of impregnation, and the subsequent development of the foetus and
its membranes, the punctum saliens, the cotyledons of the placenta,
and the " uterine milk," to which Sir William Turner recalled
attention in later years. The treatise concludes with detached
notes on the placenta, parturition and allied subjects.
Harvey's other Writings and Medical Practice. The remaining
writings of Harvey which are extant are unimportant. A com-
plete list of them will be found below, together with the titles of
those which we know to be lost. Of these the most important
were probably that on respiration, and the records of post-
mortem examinations. From the following passage (De partu,
p. 550) it seems that he had a notion of respiration being con-
nected rather with the production of animal heat than, as then
generally supposed, with the cooling of the blood. " Haec qui
diligenter perpenderit, naturamque aeris diligenter introspexerit,
facile opinor fatebitur eundem nee refrigerationis gratia nee in
pabulum animalibus concedi. Haec autem obiter duntaxat de
respiratione diximus, proprio loco de eadem forsitan copiosius
disceptaturi."
Of Harvey as a practising physician we know very little.
Aubrey tells us that " he paid his visits on horseback with a foot-
cloth, his man following on foot, as the fashion then was." He
adds " Though all of his profession would allow him to be an
excellent anatomist, I never heard any that admired his thera-
peutic way. I knew several practitioners that would not have
given threepence for one of his bills " (the apothecaries used to
collect physicians' prescriptions and sell or publish them to their
own profit), " and that a man could hardly tell by his bill what
he did aim at." However this may have been, and rational
therapeutics was impossible when the foundation stone of physio-
logy had only just been laid, we know that Harvey was an active
practitioner, performing such important surgical operations as
the removal of a breast, and he turned his obstetric experience
to account in his book on generation. Some good practical
precepts as to the conduct of labour are quoted by Percivall
Willughby (1596-1685). He also took notes of the anatomy of
disease; these unfortunately perished with his other manuscripts.
Otherwise we might regard him as a forerunner of G. B. Mor-
gagni; for Harvey saw that pathology is but a branch of physio-
logy, and like it must depend first on accurate anatomy. He
speaks strongly to this purpose in his first epistle to Riolan:
"Sicut enim sanorum et boni habitus corporum dissectio pluri-
mum ad philosophiam et rectam physiologiam facit, ita corporum
morbosorum et cachecticorum inspectio potissimum ad patho-
logiam philosophicam." The only specimen we have of his
observations in morbid anatomy is his account of the post-
mortem examination made by order of the king on the body of
the famous Thomas Parr, who died in 1635, at the reputed age
of 152. Harvey insists on the value of physiological truths for
their own sake, independently of their immediate utility; but
he himself gives us an interesting example of the practical
application of his theory of the circulation in the cure of a large
tumour by tying the arteries which supplied it with blood (De
general. Exerc. xix.).
The following is believed to be a complete list of all the known
writings of Harvey, published and unpublished :
Exercitatio anatomica de molu cordis et sanguinis, 4to (Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1628); Exercitationes duae anatomicae de circulations
sanguinis, ad Johannem Riolanum, filium, Parisiensem (Cambridge,
1649) ; Exercitationes de generatione animalium, quibus accedunl
quaedam de partu, de membranis ac humoribus uteri, et de concep-
tione, 4to (London, 1651); Anatomia Thomae Parr, first published
in the treatise of Dr John Belts, De ortu el natura sanguinis, 8vo
(London, 1669). Letters: (l) to Caspar Hoffmann of Nuremberg,
May 1636; (2) to Schlegel of Hamburg, April 1651; (3) three to
Giovanni Nardi of Florence, July 1651, Dec. 1653 and Nov. 1655;
(4) two to Dr Morison of Paris, May 1652; (5) two to Dr Horst of
HARVEY HARZBURG
47
Darmstadt, Feb 1654-1655 and July 1655; (6) to Dr Vlackveld of
Haarlem, May 1657. His letters to Hoffmann and Schlegel are on
the circulation; those to Morison, Horst and Vlackveld refer to
the discovery of the lacteals; the two to Nardi are short letters of
friendship. All these letters were published by Sir George Ent in
his collected works (Leiden, 1687). Of two MS. letters, one on
official business to the secretary Dorchester was printed by Dr
Aveling, with a facsimile of the crabbed handwriting (Memorials of
Harvey, 1875), and the other, about a patient, appears in Dr Robert
Willis's Life of Harvey (1878). Praelectiones anatomiae universalis
per me Gul. Harveium medicum Londinensem, anal, el Mr. professorem,
an. dom. (1616), aetat. 37, MS. notes of his Lumleian lectures in
Latin, are in the British Museum library; an autotype reproduction
was issued by the College of Physicians in 1886. An account of a
second MS. in the British Museum, entitled Gulielmus Harveius de
musculis, motu locali, &c., was published by Sir G. E. Paget (Notice
of an unpublished MS. of Harj-y, London, 1850). The following
treatises, or notes towards them, were lost either in the pillaging
of Harvey's house, or perhaps in the fire of London, which destroyed
the old College of Physicians: A Treatise on Respiration, promised
and probably at least in part completed (pp. 82, 550, ed. 1766);
Observationes de usu Lienis; Observationes de motu locali, perhaps
. identical with the above-mentioned manuscript; Tractatum physio-
logicum ; Anatcmia medicalis (apparently notes of morbid anatomy) ;
De generatione insectorum. The fine 410 edition of Harvey's Works,
published by the Royal College of Physicians in 1766, was super-
intended by Dr Mark Akenside; it contains the two treatises,
the account of the post-mortem examination of old Parr, and the
six letters enumerated above. A translation of this volume by Dr
Willis, with Harvey's will, was published by the Sydenham Society,
8vo (London, 1849).
The following are the principal biographies of Harvey : in Aubrey's
Letters of Eminent Persons, &c., vol. ii. (London, 1813), first pub-
lished in 1685, the only contemporary account; in Bayle's Diclion-
naire historique el critique (1698 and 1720; Eng. ed., 1738);
in the Biographia Britannica, and in Aitken's Biographical Memoirs;
the Latin Life by Dr Thomas Lawrence, prefixed to the college
edition of Harvey's Works in 1766; memoir in Lives of British
Physicians (London, 1830) : a Life by Dr Robert Willis, founded on
that by Lawrence, and prefixed to his English edition of Harvey
in 1847; the much enlarged Life by the same author, published in
1878; the biography by Dr William Munk in the Roll of the College
of Physicians, voL i. (2nd ed., 1879).
. The literature which has arisen on the great discovery of Harvey,
on his methods and his merits, would fill a library. The most im-
portant contemporary writings have been mentioned above. The
following list gives some of the most remarkable in modern times:
the article in Bayle's dictionary quoted above; Anatomical Lectures,
by Wm. Hunter, M.D. (1784) ; Sprengell, Geschichte der Arzneikunde
(Halle, 1800), vol. iv. ; Flourens, Histoire de la circulation (1854);
Lewes, Physiology of Common Life (1859), vol. i. pp. 291-345;
Ceradini, La Scoperta della circolazione del sangue (Milan, 1876);
Tollin, Die Entdeckung des Blutkreislaufs durch Michael Servet
(Jena, 1876); Kirchner, Die Entdeckung des Blutkreislaufs (Berlin,
1878); Willis, in his Life of Harvey; Wharton Jones, " Lecture on
the Circulation of the Blood," Lancet for Oct. 25 and Nov. I, 1879;
and the various Harveian Orations, especially those by Sir E. Sieve-
king, Dr Guy and Professor George Rolleston. (P. H. P.-S.)
HARVEY, a city of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 18 m.
S. of the Chicago Court House. Pop. (1900) 5395 (982 foreign-
born);(i9io) 7227. It is served by the Chicago Terminal Transfer,
the Grand Trunk and the Illinois Central railways. Harvey is
a manufacturing and residence suburb of Chicago. Among its
manufactures are railway, foundry and machine-shop supplies,
mining and ditching machinery, stone crushers, street-making
and street-cleaning machinery, stoves and motor-vehicles. It
was named in honour of Turlington W. Harvey, a Chicago
capitalist, founded in 1890, incorporated as a village in 1891
and chartered as a city in 1895.
HARWICH, a municipal borough and seaport in the Harwich
parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the extremity of
a small peninsula projecting into the estuary of the Stour and
Orwell, 70 m. N.E. by E. of London by the Great Eastern
railway. Pop. (1901), 10,070. It occupies an elevated situation,
and a wide view is obtained from Beacon Hill at the southern
end of the esplanade. The church of St Nicholas was built of
brick in 1821; and there are a town hall and a custom-house.
The harbour is one of the best on the east coast of England, and
in stormy weather is largely used for shelter. A breakwater
and sea-wall prevent the blocking of the harbour entrance and
encroachments of the sea; and there is another breakwater at
Landguard Point on the opposite (Suffolk) shore of the estuary.
The principal imports are grain and agricultural produce, timber
and coal, and the exports cement and fish. Harwich is one of
the principal English ports for continental passenger traffic,
steamers regularly serving the Hook of Holland, Amsterdam,
Rotterdam, Antwerp, Esbjerg, Copenhagen and Hamburg. The
continental trains of the Great Eastern railway run to Parkeston
Quay, i m. from Harwich up the Stour, where the passenger
steamers start. The fisheries are important, principally those
for shrimps and lobsters. There are cement and shipbuilding
works. The port is the headquarters of the Royal Harwich
Yacht Club. There are batteries at and opposite Harwich, and
modern works on Shotley Point, at the fork of the two estuaries.
There are also several of the Martello towers of the Napoleonic
era. At Landguard Fort there are important defence works with
heavy modern guns commanding the main channel. This has
been a point of coast defence since the time of James I. Between
the Parkeston Quay and Town railway stations is that of Dover-
court, an adjoining parish and popular watering-place. Harwich
is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1341
acres.
Harwich (Herewica, Herewyck) cannot be shown to have been
inhabited very early, although in the i8th century remains of a
camp, possibly Roman, existed there. Harwich formed part of
the manor of Dovercourt. It became a borough in 1319 by a
charter of Edward II., which was confirmed in 1342 and 1378,
and by each of the Lancastrian kings. The exact nature and
degree of its self-government is not clear. Harwich received
charters in 1547, 1553 and 1560. In 1604 James I. gave it a charter
which amounted to a new constitution, and from this charter
begins the regular parliamentary representation. Two burgesses
had attended parliament in 1343, but none had been summoned
since. Until 1867 Harwich returned two members; it then lost
one, and in 1885 it was merged in the county. Included in the
manor of Dovercourt, Harwich from 1086 was for long held by
the de Vere family. In 1252 Henry III. granted to Roger Bigod
a market here every Tuesday, and a fair on Ascension day, and
eight days after. In 1320 a grant occurs of a Tuesday market,
but no fair is mentioned. James I. granted a Friday market,
and two fairs, at the feast of St Philip and St James, and on
St Luke's day. The fair has died out, but markets are still
held on Tuesday and Friday. Harwich has always had a
considerable trade; in the I4th century merchants came
even from Spain, and there was much trade in wheat and
wool with Flanders. But the passenger traffic appears to have
been as important at Harwich in the i4th century as it is now.
Shipbuilding was a considerable industry at Harwich in the
1 7th century.
HARZBURG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick,
beautifully situated in a deep and well-wooded vale at the north
foot of the Harz Mountains, at the terminus of the Brunswick-
Harzburg railway, 5 m. E.S.E. from Goslar and 18 m. S.
from Wolfenbuttel. Pop. (1905), 4396. The Radau, a mountain
stream, descending from the Brocken, waters the valley and adds
much to its picturesque charm. The town is much frequented
as a summer residence. It possesses brine and carbonated springs,
the Juliushall saline baths being about a mile to the soufh of
the town, and a hydropathic establishment. A mile and a half
south from the town lies the'Burgberg, 1500 ft. above sea-level,
on whose summit, according to tradition, was once an altar to
the heathen idol Krodo, still to be seen in the Ulrich chapel at
Goslar. There are on the summit of the hill the remains of an
old castle, and a monument erected in 1875 to Prince Bismarck,
with an inscription taken from one of his speeches against
the Ultramontane claims of Rome " Nach Canossa gehen
wir nicht."
The castle on the Burgberg called the Harzburg is famous in
German history. It was built between 1065 and 1069, but was
laid in ruins by the Saxons in 1074; again it was built and
again destroyed during the struggle between the emperor
Henry IV. and the Saxons. By Frederick I. it was granted to
Henry the Lion, who caused it to be rebuilt about 1180. It was
a frequent residence of Otto IV., who died therein, and after
being frequently besieged and taken, it passed to the house of
HARZ MOUNTAINS HASA, EL
Brunswick. It ceased to be of importance as a fortress after the
Thirty Years' War, and gradually fell into ruins.
See Delius, Untersuchungen tiber die Geschichte der Harzburg
(Halberstadt, 1826) ; Dommes, Harzburg und seine Umgebung
(Goslar, 1862); Jacobs, Die Harzburg und Hire Geschichte (1885);
and Stolle, Fiihrervon Bad Harzburg (1899).
HARZ MOUNTAINS (also spelt HAETZ, Ger. Harzgebirge, anc.
Silva Hercynia), the most northerly mountain-system of
Germany, situated between the rivers Weser and Elbe, occupy
an area of 784 sq. m., of which 455 belong to Prussia, 286 to
Brunswick and 43 to Anhalt. Their greatest length extends in
a S.E. and N.W. direction for 57 m., and their maximum breadth
is about 20 m. The group is made up of an irregular series of
terraced plateaus, rising here and there into rounded summits,
and intersected in various directions by narrow, deep valleys.
The north-western and higher part of the mass is called the Ober
or Upper Harz; the south-eastern and more extensive part,
the Unter or Lower Harz; while the N.W. and S.W. slopes of
the Upper Harz form the Vorharz. The Brocken group, which
divides the Upper and Lower Harz, is generally regarded as
belonging to the first. The highest summits of the Upper Harz
are the Brocken (3747 ft.), the Heinrichshohe (3425 ft.), the
Konigsberg (3376 ft.) and the Wurmberg (3176 ft.); of the
Lower Harz, the Josephshohe in the Auerberg group and the
Viktorhohe in the Ramberg, each 1887 ft. Of these the Brocken
(q.v.) is celebrated for the legends connected with it, immortal-
ized in Goethe's Faust. Streams are numerous, but all small.
While rendered extensively useful, by various skilful artifices, in
working the numerous mines of the district, at other parts of
their course they present the most picturesque scenery in the
Harz. Perhaps the finest valley is the rocky Bodethal, with the
Rosstrappe, the Hexentanzplatz, the Baumannshohle and the
Bielshohle.
The Harz is a mass of Palaeozoic rock rising through the Mesozoic
strata of north Germany, and bounded on all sides by faults. Slates,
schists, quartzites and limestones form the greater part of the hills,
but the Brocken and Victorshohe are masses of intrusive granite,
and diabases and diabase tuffs are interstratified with the sedi-
mentary deposits. The Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
systems are represented the Silurian and Devonian forming the
greater part of the hills S.E. of a line drawn from Lauterberg to
Wernigerode, while N.W. of this line the Lower Carboniferous pre-
dominates. A few patches of Upper Carboniferous are found on the
borders of the hijls near Ilfeld, Ballenstedt, &c., lying unconformably
upon the Devonian. The structure of the Harz is very complicated,
but the general strike of the folds, especially in the Oberharz plateau,
is N.E. or N.N.E. The whole mass evidently belongs to the ancient
Hercynian chain of North Europe (which, indeed, derives its name
from the Harz), and is the north-easterly continuation of the rocks
of the Ardennes and the Eifel. The folding of the old rocks took
place towards the close of the Palaeozoic era; but the faulting to
which they owe their present position was probably Tertiary.
Metalliferous veins are common, amongst the best-known being the
silver-bearing lead veins of Klausthal, which occur in the Culm or
Lower Carboniferous.
Owing to its position as the first range which the northerly
winds strike after crossing the north German plain, the climate
on the summit of the Harz is generally raw and damp, even in
summer. In 1895 an observatory was opened on the top of the
Brocken, and the results of the first five years (1896-1900) showed
a July mean of 50 Fahr., a February mean of 24-7, and a yearly
mean of 36-6. During the same five years the rainfall averaged
645 ins. annually. But while the summer is thus relatively un-
genial on the top of the Harz, the usual summer heat of the
lower-lying valleys is greatly tempered and cooled; so that,
adding this to the natural attractions of the scenery, the deep
forests, and the legendary and romantic associations attaching
to every fantastic rock and ruined castle, the Harz is a favourite
summer resort of the German people. Among the more popular
places of resort are Harzburg, Thale and the Bodethal; Blanken-
burg, with the Teufelsmauer and the Hermannshohle; Werni-
gerode, Ilsenburg, Grund, Lauterberg, Hubertusbad, Alexisbad
and Suderode. Somecf these, and other places not named, add
to their natural attractions the advantage of mineral springs and
baths, pine-needle baths, whey cures, &c. The Harz is pene-
trated by several railways, among them a rack-railway up the
Brocken, opened in 1898. The district is traversed by excellent
roads in all directions.
The northern summits are destitute of trees, but the lower
slopes of the Upper Harz are heavily wooded with pines and firs.
Between the forests of these stretch numerous peat-mosses,
which contain in their spongy reservoirs the sources of many
small streams. On the Brocken are found one or two arctic and
several alpine, plants. In the Lower Harz the forests contain a
great variety of timber. The oak, elm and birch are common,
while the beech especially attains an unusual size and beauty.
The walnut-tree grows in the eastern districts.
The last bear was killed in the Harz in 1705, and the last lynx
in 1817, and since that time the wolf too has become extinct;
but deer, foxes, wild cats and badgers are still found in the
forests.
The Harz is one of the richest mineral storehouses in Germany,
and the chief industry is mining, which has been carried on since
the middle of the loth century. The most important mineral is
a peculiarly rich argentiferous lead, but gold in small quantities,
copper, iron, sulphur, alum and arsenic are also found. Mining
is carried on principally at Klausthal and St Andreasberg in the
Upper Harz. Near the latter is one of the deepest mining shafts
in Europe, namely the Samson, which goes down 2790 ft. or 720
ft. below sea-level. For the purpose of getting rid of the water,
and obviating the flooding of such deep workings, it has been
found necessary to construct drainage works of some magnitude.
As far back as 1777-1799 the Georgsstollen was cut through the
mountains from the east of Klausthal westward to Grund, a
distance of 4 m.; but this proving insufficient, another sewer,
the Ernst-Auguststollen, no less than 14 m. in length, was made
from the same neighbourhood to Gittelde, at the west side of the
Harz, in 1851-1864. Marble, granite and gypsum are worked;
and large quantities of vitriol are manufactured. The vast
forests that cover the mountain slopes supply the materials
for a considerable trade in timber. Much wood is exported for
building and other purposes, and in the Harz itself is used as
fuel. The sawdust of the numerous mills is collected for use
in the manufacture of paper. Turf-cutting, coarse lace-making
and the breeding of canaries and native song-birds also occupy
many of the people. Agriculture is carried on chiefly on the
plateaus of the Lower Harz; but there is excellent pasturage
both in the north and in the south. In the Lower Harz, as in
Switzerland, the cows, which carry bells harmoniously tuned,
are driven up into the heights in early summer, returning to the
sheltered regions in late autumn.
The inhabitants are descended from various stocks. The
Upper and Lower Saxon, the Thuringian and the Prankish
races have all contributed to form the present people, and their
respective influences are still to be traced in the varieties of
dialect. The boundary line between High and Low German
passes through the Harz. The Harz was the last stronghold of
paganism in Germany, and to that fact are due the legends, in
which no district is richer, and the fanciful names given by the
people to peculiar objects and appearances of nature.
See Zeitschrift des Harzvereins (Wernigerode, annually since 1868) ;
Gunther, Der Harz in Geschichts- Kuitur- und Landschaftsbildern
(Hanover, 1885), and " Der Harz " in Scobel's Monographien zur
Erdkunde (Bielefeld, 1901); H. Hoffmann and others, Der Harz
(Leipzig, 1899), Harzwanderungen (Leipzig, 1902); Hampe, Flora
Hercynica (Halle, 1873); von Groddeck, Abriss der Geognosie des
Harzes (2nd ed., Klausthal, 1883); Prohle, Harzsagen (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1886); Hautztnger, Der Kupfer- und Silbersegen des Harzes
(Berlin, 1877) ; Hoppe, Die Bergwerke im Ober- und Unterharz
(Klausthal, 1883); Schulze, Lilhia Hercynica (Leipzig, 1895);
Liidecke, Die Minerale des Harzes (Berlin, 1896).
HASA, EL (Ahsa, Al Hasa), a district in the east of Arabia
stretching along the shore of the Persian Gulf from Kuwet in 29
20' N. to the south point of the Gulf of Bahrein in 25 10' N., a
length of about 360 m. On the W. it is bounded by Nejd, and
on the S.E. by the peninsula of El Katr which forms part of
Oman. The coast is low and flat and has no deep-water port
along its whole length with the exception of Kuwet; from that .
place to El Katif the country is barren and without villages
HASAN AND HOSAIN HASDEU
49
or permanent settlements, and is only occupied by nomad tribes,
of which the principal are the Bani Hajar, Ajman and Khalid.
The interior consists of low stony ridges rising gradually to the
inner plateau. The oases of Hofuf and Katif, however, form a
strong contrast to the barren wastes that cover the greater part
of the district. Here an inexhaustible supply of underground
water (to which the province owes its nameHasa) issues in strong
springs, marking, according to Arab geographers, the course of a
great subterranean river draining the Nejd highlands. Hofuf the
capital, a town of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, with its neighbour
Mubariz scarcely less populous, forms the centre of a thriving
district 50 m. long by 15 m. in breadth, containing numerous
villages each with richly cultivated fields and gardens. The town
walls enclose a space of 15 by i m., at the north-west angle
of which is a remarkable citadel attributed to the Carmathian
princes. Mubariz is celebrated for its hot spring, known as Um
Saba or " mother of seven," from the seven channels by which
its water is distributed. Beyond the present limits of the oasis
much of the country is well supplied with water, and ruined
sites and half-obliterated canals show that it has only relapsed
into waste in recent times. Cultivation reappears at Katif, a
town situated on a small bay some 35 m. north-west of Bahrein.
Date groves extend for several miles along the coast, which is
low and muddy. The district is fertile but the climate is hot and
unhealthy; still, owing to its convenient position, the town has
a considerable trade with Bahrein and the gulf ports on one side
and the interior of Nejd on the other. The fort is a strongly built
enclosure attributed, like that at Hofuf, to the Carmathian prince
Abu Tahir.
'Uker or "Ujer is the nearest port to Hofuf, from which it is
distant about 40 m.; large quantities of rice and piece goods
transhipped at Bahrein are landed here and sent on by caravan
to Hofuf, the great entrepot for the trade between southern Nejd
and the coast. It also shares in the valuable pearl fishery of
Bahrein and the adjacent coast.
Politically El Hasa is a dependency of Turkey, and its capital
Hofuf is the headquarters of the sanjak or district of Nejd.
Hofuf, Katif and El Katr were occupied by Turkish garrisons in
1871, and the occupation has been continued in spite of British
protest as to El Katr, which according to the agreement made in
1867, when Bahrein was taken under British protection, was
tributary to the latter. Turkish claims to Kuwet have not been
admitted by Great Britain.
AUTHORITIES. W. G. Palgrave, Central and Eastern Arabia
(London, 1865); L. Pelly, Journal R.C.S. (1866); S. M. Zwemer,
Ceog. Journal (1902) ; G. F. Sadlier, Diary of a Journey across Arabia
(Bombay, 1866); V. Chirol, The Middle East (London, 1904).
(R. A. W.)
HASAN AND HOSAIN (or HUSEIN), sons of the fourth
Mahommedan caliph Ali by his wife Fatima, daughter of
Mahomet. On Ali's death H asar > was proclaimed caliph, but
the strength of Moawiya who had rebelled against Ali was such
that he resigned his claim on condition that he should have the
disposal of the treasure stored at Kufa, with the revenues of
Darabjird. This secret negotiation came to the ears of H a san's
supporters, a mutiny broke out and Hasan was wounded. He
retired to Medina where he died about 669. The story that he
was poisoned at Moawiya's instigation is generally discredited
(see CALIPHATE, sect. B, i). Subsequently his brother Hosain
was invited by partisans in Kufa to revolt against Moawiya's
successor Yazid. He was, however, defeated and killed at
Kerbela on the loth of October (Muharram) 680 (see CALIPHATE,
sect. B, 2 ad init.). Hosain is the hero of the Passion Play
which is performed annually (e.g. at Kerbela) on the anniversary
of his death by the Shi'ites of Persia and India, to whom from
the earliest times the family of Ali are the only true descendants of
Mahomet. The play lasts for several days and concludes with
the carrying out of the coffins (tabut) of the martyrs to an open
place in the neighbourhood.
See Sir VVm. Muir, The Caliphate (1883); Sir Lewis Pelly, The
Miracle Play of Hasan and Hosein (1879).
HASAN UL-BARl [Abu Sa'ud ul-flasan ibn Abi-1-Hasan
Yassar ul-Basri], (642-728 or 737), Arabian theologian, was
born at Medina. His father was a freedman of Zaid ibn Thabit,
one of the An^ar (Helpers of the Prophet), his mother a client of
Umm Salama, a wife of Mahomet. Tradition says that Umm
Salama often nursed Hasan in his infancy. He was thus one
of the Tdbi'un (i.e. of the generation that succeeded the Helpers).
He became a teacher of Basra and founded a school there.
Among his pupils was Wasil ibn 'Ata, the founder of the
Mo'tazilites. He himself was a great supporter of orthodoxy
and the most important representative of asceticism in the time
of its first development. With him fear is the basis of morality,
and sadness the characteristic of his religion. Life is only a
pilgrimage, and comfort must be denied to subdue the passions.
Many writers testify to the purity of his life and to his excelling
in the virtues of Mahomet's own companions. He was " as if
he were in the other world." In politics, too, he adhered to the
earliest principles of Islam, being strictly opposed to the in-
herited caliphate of the Omayyads and a believer in the election
of the caliph.
His life is given in Nawawi's Biographical Dictionary (ed. F.
Wiistenfeld, Gottingen, 1842-1847). Cf. R. Dozy, Essai sur I'his-
toire de I'islamisme, pp. 201 sqq. (Leiden and Paris, 1879); A. von
Kremer, Culturgeschichtliche Streifzuge, p. 5 seq. ; R. A. Nicholson, A
Literary History of the Arabs, pp.225-227 (London, 1907). (G.W.T.)
HASBEYA, or HASBEIYA, a town of the Druses, about 36 m.
W. of Damascus, situated at the foot of Mt. Hermon in Syria,
overlooking a deep amphitheatre from which a brook flows to
the Hasbani. The population is about 5000 (4000 Christians).
Both sides of the valley are planted in terraces with olives, vines
and other fruit trees. The grapes are either dried or made
into a kind of syrup. In 1846 an American Protestant mission
was established in the town. This little community suffered
much persecution at first from the Greek Church, and afterwards
from the Druses, by whom in 1860 nearly 1000 Christians were
massacred, while others escaped to Tyre or Sidon. The castle
in Hasbeya was held by the crusaders under Count Oran; but
in 1171 the Druse emirs of the great Shehab family (see DRUSES)
recaptured it. In 1205 this family was confirmed in the lordship
of the town and district, which they held till the Turkish
authorities took possession of the castle in the igth century.
Near Hasbeya are bitumen pits let by the government; and to
the north, at the source of the Hasbani, the ground is volcanic.
Some travellers have attempted to identify Hasbeya with the
biblical Baal-Gad or Baal-Hermon.
HASDAI IBN SHAPRUT, the founder of the new culture of
the Jews in Moorish Spain in the loth century. He was both
physician and minister to Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III. in Cordova.
A man of wide learning and culture, he encouraged the settlement
of Jewish scholars in Andalusia, and his patronage of literature,
science and art promoted the Jewish renaissance in Europe.
Poetry, philology, philosophy all flourished under his encourage-
ment, and his name was handed down to posterity as the first
of the many Spanish Jews who combined diplomatic skill with
artistic culture. This type was the creation of the Moors in
Andalusia, and the Jews ably seconded the Mahommedans
in the effort to make life at once broad and deep. (I. A.)
HASDEU, or HAJDEU, BOGDAN PETRICEICU (1836-1907),
Rumanian philologist, was born at Khotin in Bessarabia in
1836, and studied at the university of Kharkov. In 1858 he
first settled in Jassy as professor of the high school and librarian.
He may be considered as the pioneer in many branches of
Rumanian philology and history. At Jassy he started his A rchiva
historica a Romaniei (1865-1867), in which a large number of
old documents in Slavonic and Rumanian were published for
the first time. In 1870 he inaugurated Columna lui Traian,
the best philological review of the time in Rumania. In his
Cuvente den Batrdni (2 vols., 1878-1881) he was the first to
contribute to the history of apocryphal literature in Rumania.
His Historia critica a Romanilor (1875), though incomplete,
marks the beginning of critical investigation into the history
of Rumania. Hasdeu edited the ancient Psalter of Coresi of
!S77 (Psaltirea lui Coresi, 1881). His Etymologicum magnum
Romaniae (1886, &c.) is the beginning of an encyclopaedic
dictionary of the Rumanian language, though never finished
HASDRUBAL HASLINGDEN
beyond the letter B. In 1876 he was appointed director of the
state archives in Bucharest and in 1878 professor of philology
at the university of Bucharest. His works, which include one
drama, Rasvan $i Vidra, bear the impress of great originality
of thought, and the author is often carried away by his profound
erudition and vast imagination. Hasdeu was a keen politician.
After the death of his only child Julia in 1888 he became a
mystic and a strong believer in spiritism. He died at Campina
on the 7th of September 1907. (M. G.)
HASDRUBAL, the name of several Carthaginian generals,
among whom the following are the most important:
1. The son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca (<?..), who followed
the latter in his campaign against the governing aristocracy
at Carthage at the close of the First Punic War, and in his
subsequent career of conquest in Spain. After Hamilcar's
death (228) Hasdrubal, who succeeded him in the command,
extended the newly acquired empire by skilful diplomacy, and
consolidated it by the foundation of New Carthage (Cartagena)
as the capital of the new province, and by a treaty with Rome
which fixed the Ebro as the boundary between the two powers.
In 221 he was killed by an assassin.
Polybius ii. I ; Livy xxi. I ; Appian, Hispanica, 4-8.
2. The second son of Hamilcar Barca, and younger brother
of Hannibal. Left in command of Spain when Hannibal departed
to Italy (218), he fought for six years against the brothers
Gnaeus and Publius Scipio. He had on the whole the worst
of the conflict, and a defeat in 216 prevented him from joining
Hannibal in Italy at a critical moment; but in 212 he com-
pletely routed his opponents, both the Scipios being killed. He
was subsequently outgeneralled by Publius Scipio the Younger,
who in 209 captured New Carthage and gained other advantages.
In the same year he was summoned to join his brother in Italy.
He eluded Scipio by crossing the Pyrenees at their western
extremity, and, making his way thence through Gaul and the
Alps in safety, penetrated far into Central Italy (207). He was
ultimately checked by two Roman armies, and being forced to
give battle was decisively defeated on the banks of the Metaurus.
Hasdrubal himself fell in the fight; his head was cut off and
thrown into Hannibal's camp as a sign of his utter defeat.
Polybius x. 34-xi. 3; Livy xxvii. 1-51; Appian, Bellum Hanni-
balicum, ch. Hi. sqq. ; R. Oehler, Der letzte Feldzug des Barkiden
Hasdrubals (Berlin, 1897); C. Lehmann, Die Angriffe der drei
Barkiden auf Italien (Leipzig, 1905). See also PUNIC WARS.
BASE, CARL BENEDICT (1780-1864), French Hellenist, of
German extraction, was born at Suiza near Naumburg on the
nth of May 1780. Having studied at Jena and Helmstedt, in
1801 he made his way on foot to Paris, where he was commis-
sioned by the comte de Choiseul-Gouffier, late ambassador to
Constantinople, to edit the works of Johannes Lydus from a
MS. given to Choiseul by Prince Mourousi. Hase thereupon
decided to devote himself to Byzantine history and literature,
on which he became the acknowledged authority. In 1805 he
obtained an appointment in the MSS. department of the royal
library; in 1816 became professor of palaeography and modern
Greek at the Ecole Royale, and in 1852 professor of compara-
tive grammar in the university. In 1812 he was selected to
superintend the studies of Louis Napoleon (afterwards Napoleon
III.) and his brother. He died on the 2 ist of March 1864. His
most important works are the editions of Leo Diaconus and
other Byzantine writers (1819), and of Johannes Lydus, De
ostentis (1823), a masterpiece of textual restoration, the diffi-
culties of which were aggravated by the fact that the MS. had
for a long time been stowed away in a wine-barrel in a monastery.
He also edited part of the Greek authors in the collection of the
Historians of the Crusades and contributed many additions
(from the fathers, medical and technical writers, scholiasts and
other sources) to the new edition of Stephanus's Thesaurus.
See J. D. Guigniaut, Notice historique sur la vie el les travaux de
Carl Benedict Hase (Paris, 1867); articles in Nouvelle Biographic
generate and Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; and a collection of
autobiographical letters, Briefe von der Wanderung und aus Paris,
edited by O. Heine (1894), containing a vivid account of Hase's
journey, his enthusiastic impressions of Paris and the hardships of
his early life.
HASE, KARL AUGUST VON (1800-1890), German Protestant
theologian and Church historian , was born at Steinbach in Saxony
on the 25th of August 1800. He studied at Leipzig and Erlangen,
and in 1829 was called to Jena as professor of theology. He
retired in 1883 and was made a baron. He died at Jena on the
3rd of January 1890. Hase's aim was to reconcile modern culture
with historical Christianity in a scientific way. But though a
liberal theologian, he was no dry rationalist. Indeed, he vigor-
ously attacked rationalism, as distinguished from the rational
principle, charging it with being unscientific inasmuch as it
ignored the historical significance of Christianity, shut its eyes
to individuality and failed to give religious feeling its due. His
views are presented scientifically in his Evangelisch-protestan-
tische Dogmatik (1826; 6th ed., 1870), the value of which " lies
partly in the full and judiciously chosen historical materials
prefixed to each dogma, and partly in the skill, caution and tact
with which the permanent religious significance of various
dogmas is discussed " (Otto Pfleiderer) . More popular in style is
his Gnosis oder prot.-evang. Glaubenslehre (3 vols., 1827-1829; 2nd
ed. in 2 vols., 1869-1870). But his reputation rests chiefly on his
treatment of Church history in his Kirchengeschichte, Lehrbuch
zunachst jiir akademische Vorlesungen (1834, i2th ed., 1900).
His biographical studies, Franz von Assist (1856; 2nd ed., 1892),
Katerina von Siena (1864; 2nd ed., 1892), Neue Propheten (Die
Jungfrau von Orleans, Savonarola, Thomas Miinzer) are judicious
and sympathetic. Other works are: Hutterus redivivus oder Dog-
matik der evang.-luth. Kirche (1827; I2th ed., 1883), in which he
sought to present the teaching of the Protestant church in such a
way as Hutter would have reconstructed it, had he still been alive;
Leben Jesu (1829; 5th ed., 1865; Eng. trans., 1860); in an enlarged
form, Geschichte Jesu (2nd ed., 1891); and Handbuch der prot.
Polemik gegen die rom.-kath. Kirche (1862; 7th ed., 1900; Eng.
trans., 1906).
For his life see his Ideale und Irrtiimer (1872; 5th ed., 1894) and
Annalen meines Leben: (1891); and cf. generally Otto Pfleiderer,
Development of Theology (1890); F. Lichtenberger, Hist, of German
Theology (1889).
HASHISH, or HASHEESH, the Arabic name, meaning literally
" dried herb," for the various preparations of the Indian hemp
plant (Cannabis indica), used as a narcotic or intoxicant in the
East, and either smoked, chewed ordrunk (see HEMP and BHANG).
From the Arabic hashishin, i.e. "hemp-eaters," comes the English
" assassin " (see ASSASSIN).
HASLEMERE, a market-town in the Guildford parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 43 m. S.W. from London by the
London & South-Western railway. It is situated in an elevated
valley between the bold ridges of Hindhead (895 ft.) and Black-
down (918 ft.). Their summits are open and covered with heath,
but their flanks and the lower ground are magnificently wooded.
The hills are deeply scored by steep and picturesque valleys, of
which the most remarkable is the Devil's Punch Bowl, a hollow
of regular form on the west flank of Hindhead. The invigorating
air has combined with scenic attraction to make the district a
favourite place of residence. Professor Tyndall built a house on
the top of Hindhead, setting an example followed by many
others. On Blackdown, closely screened by plantations, is
Aldworth, built for Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who died here in
1892. George Eliot stayed for a considerable period at Shotter-
mill, a neighbouring village. Pop. of Haslemere (1901), 2614;
of Hindhead, 666.
HASLINGDEN, a market-town and municipal borough in the
Rossendale and Heywood parliamentary divisions of Lancashire,
England, 19 m. N. by W. from Manchester by the Lancashire &
Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 18,543. It lies in a hilly district
on the borders of the forest of Rossendale, and is supposed by
some to derive its name from the hazel trees which formerly
abounded in its neighbourhood. The old town stood on the
slope of a hill, but the modern part ha? extended about its base.
The parish church of St James was rebuilt in 1780, with the
exception of the tower, which dates from the time of Henry VIII.
The woollen manufacture was formerly the staple. The
town, however, steadily increasing in importance, has cotton,
woollen and engineering works coal-mining, quarrying and
brickmaking are carried on in the neighbourhood. The borough,
HASPE HASSELQUIST
5 1
as incorporated in 1891 , comprised several townships and parts of
townships, but under the Local Government Act of 1894 these
were united into one civil parish. The corporation consists of a
mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 8196 acres.
HASPE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, in the valley of the Ennepe, at the confluence of the
Hasper, and on the railway from Diisseldorf to Dortmund, 10 m.
N.E. of Barmen by rail. Pop. (1905), 19,813. Its industries
include iron foundries, rolling mills, puddling furnaces, and
manufactures of iron, steel and brass wares and of machines.
Haspe was raised to the rank of a town in 1873.
HASSAM, CHILDE (1859- ), American figure and land-
scape painter, born in Boston, Massachusetts, was a pupil of
Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. He soon fell under the influence
of the Impressionists, and took to painting in a style of his own,
in brilliant colour, with effective touches of pure pigment. He
won a bronze medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1889; medals at
the World's Fair, Chicago, 1893; Boston Art Club, 1896;
Philadelphia Art Club, 1892; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg,
1898; Buffalo Pan-American, 1901; Temple gold medal,
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1899; and
silver medal, Paris Exhibition, 1900. He became a member of
the National Academy of Design, the Society of American
Artists, the Ten Americans, the American Water Colour Society,
the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris, and the Secession
Society, Munich.
HASSAN, a town and district of Mysore, India. The town
dates from the nth century and had in 1901 a population of 8241.
The district naturally divides into two portions, the Malnad,
or hill country, which includes some of the highest ranges of
the Western Ghats, and the Maidan or plain country, sloping
towards the south. The Hemavati, which flows into the Cauvery
in the extreme south, is the most important river of the district.
The upper slopes of the Western Ghats are abundantly clothed
with magnificent forests, and wild animals abound. Among
the mineral products are kaolin, felspar and quartz. The soil
of the valleys is a rich red alluvial loam. The area is 2547 sq. m.
Population (1901), 568,919, showing an increase of 11% in the
decade. The district contains some of the most remarkable
archaeological monuments in India, such as the colossal Jain
image at Sravana Belgola (a monolith 57 ft. high on the summit
of a hill) and the great temple at Halebid. Coffee cultivation
has been on the increase of late years. The first plantation was
opened in 1843, and now there are many coffee estates owned
by Europeans and also native holdings. The exports are large,
consisting chiefly of food-grains and coffee. The imports are
European piece-goods, hardware of all sorts and spices. The
largest weekly fair is held at Alur. A great annual religious
gathering and fair, attended by about 10,000 persons, takes
place every year at Melukot. The Southern Mahratta railway
traverses the north-east of the district.
The real history of Hassan does not begin until the epoch of
the Hoysala dynasty, which lasted from the nth till the I4th
century. Their capital was at D warasamundra (D waravati-pura) ,
the ruins of which are still to be seen scattered round the village
of Halebid. The earlier kings professed the Jain faith, but the
finest temples were erected to Siva by the later monarchs of the
line. While they were at the zenith of their power the whole
of southern India acknowledged their sway.
HASSANIA, an African tribe of Semitic stock. They inhabit
the desert between Merawi and the Nile at the 6th Cataract,
and the left bank of the Blue Nile immediately south of Khartum.
HASSAN IBN THiBIT (died 674), Arabian poet, was born
in Yathrib (Medina), a member of the tribe Rhazraj. In his
youth he travelled to Hira and Damascus, then settled in Medina,
where, after the advent of Mahomet, he accepted Islam and
wrote poems in defence of the prophet. His poetry is regarded
as commonplace and lacking in distinction.
His diwan has been published at Bombay (1864), Tunis (1864) and
Lahore (1878). See H. Hirschfeld's "Prolegomena to an edition
of the Diwan of Hassan " in Transactions of Oriental Congress
(London, 1892). (G. W. T.)
HASSE, JOHANN ADOLPH (1699-1783), German musical
composer, was born at Bergedorf near Hamburg, on the 25th
of March 1699, and received his first musical education from
his father. Being possessed of a fine tenor voice, he chose the
theatrical career, and joined the operatic troupe conducted by
Reinhard Keiser, in whose orchestra Handel had played the
second violin some years before. Hassc's success led to an
engagement at the court theatre of Brunswick, and it was there
that, in 1723, he made his debut as a composer with the opera
Antigonus. The success of this first work induced the duke to
send Hasse to Italy for the completion of his studies, and in
1724 he went to Naples and placed himself under Porpora, with
whom, however, he seems to have disagreed both as a man and
as an artist. On the other hand he gained the friendship of
Alessandro Scarlatti, to whom he owed his first commission for
a serenade for two voices, sung at a family celebration of a
wealthy merchant by two of the greatest singers of Italy, Farinelli
and Signora Tesi. This event established Hasse's fame; he
soon became very popular, and his opera Sesostrato, written for
the Royal Opera at Naples in 1726, made his name known all
over Italy. At Venice, where he went in 1727, he became
acquainted with the celebrated singer Faustina Bordogni (born
at Venice in 1700), who became the composer's wife in 1730.
The two artists soon afterwards went to Dresden, in compliance
with a brilliant offer made to them by the splendour-loving
elector of Saxony, Augustus II. There Hasse remained for two
years, after which he again journeyed to Italy, and also in 1733
to London, in which latter city he was tempted by the aristocratic
clique inimical to Handel to become the rival and antagonist
of that great master. But this he modestly and wisely declined,
remaining in London only long enough to superintend the
rehearsals for his opera Artaserse (first produced at Venice,
1730). All this while Faustina had remained at Dresden, the
declared favourite of the public and unfortunately also of the
elector, nor was her husband, who remained attached to her,
allowed to see her except at long intervals. In 1739, after the
death of Augustus II., Hasse settled permanently at Dresden
till 1763, when he and his wife retired from court service with
considerable pensions. But Hasse was still too young to rest
on his laurels. He went with his family to Vienna, and added
several operas to the great number of his works already in
existence. His last work for the stage was the opera Ruggiero
(1771), written for the wedding of Archduke Ferdinand at Milan.
On the same occasion a work by Mozart, then fourteen years
old, was performed, and Hasse observed " this youngster will
surpass us all." By desire of his wife Hasse settled at her
birthplace Venice, and there he died on the 2^rd of December
1783. His compositions include as many as 120 operas, besides
oratorios, cantatas, masses, and almost every variety of instru-
mental music. During the siege of Dresden by the Prussians
in 1760, most of his manuscripts, collected for a complete edition
to be brought out at the expense of the elector, were burnt.
Some of his works, amongst them an opera Alcide al Biiiio (i 760),
have been published, and the libraries of Vienna and Dresden
possess the autographs of others. Hasse's instrumentation is
certainly not above the low level attained by the average
musicians of his time, and his ensembles do not present any
features of interest. In dramatic fire also he was wanting, but
he had a fund of gentle and genuine melody, and by this fact
his enormous popularity during his life must be accounted for.
The two airs which Farinelli had to repeat every day for ten
years to the melancholy king of Spain, Philip V., were both from
Hasse's works. Of Faustina Hasse it will be sufficient to add
that she was, according to the unanimous verdict of the critics
(including Dr Burney), one of the greatest singers of a time rich
in vocal artists. The year of her death is not exactly known.
Most probably it shortly preceded that of her husband.
HASSELQUIST, FREDERIK (1722-1752), Swedish traveller
and naturalist, was born at Tornevalla, East Gothland, on the
3rd of January 1722. On account of the frequently expressed
regrets of Linnaeus, under whom he studied at Upsala, at the
lack of information regarding the natural history of Palestine,
HASSELT, A. H. C. VAN HASSENPFLUG
Hasselquist resolved to undertake a journey to that country,
and a sufficient subscription having been obtained to defray
expenses, he reached Smyrna towards the end of 1749. He
visited parts of Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyprus and Palestine,
making large natural history collections, but his constitution,
naturally weak, gave way under the fatigues of travel, and
he died near Smyrna on the pth of February 1752 on his way
home. His collections reached home in safety, and five years
after his death his notes were published by Linnaeus under the
title Resa till Heliga Landet fordttad fran ar 1749 till 1752, which
was translated into French and German in 1762 and into English
in 1766.
HASSELT, ANDRfi HENRI CONSTANT VAN (1806-1874),
Belgian poet, was born at Maastricht, in Limburg, on the 5th of
January 1806. He was educated in his native town, and at.the
university of Liege. In 1833 he left Maastricht, then blockaded
by the Belgian forces, and made his way to Brussels, where he
became a naturalized Belgian, and was attached to the Biblio-
theque de Bourgogne. In 1843 he entered the education depart-
ment, and eventually became an inspector of normal schools.
His native language was Dutch, and as a French poet Andre van
Hasselt had to overcome the difficulties of writing in a foreign
language. He had published a Chant hellenique in honour of
Canaris in the columns of La Sentinelle des Pays-Box as early as
1826, and other poems followed. His first volume of verse,
Primeveres (1834), shows markedly the influence of Victor Hugo,
which had been strengthened by a visit to Paris in 1830. His
relations with Hugo became intimate in 1851-1852, when the
poet was an exile in Brussels. In 1839 he became editor of the
Renaissance, a paper founded to encourage the fine arts. His
chief work, the epic of the Quatre Incarnations du Christ, was
published in 1867. In the same volume were printed his Etudes
rylhmiqu.es, a series of metrical experiments designed to show
that the French language could be adapted to every kind of
musical rhythm. With the same end in view he executed trans-
lations of many German songs, and wrote new French libretti
for the best-known operas of Mozart, Weber and others. Hasselt
died at Saint Josse ten Noode, a suburb of Brussels, on the ist
of December 1874.
A selection from his works (10 vols., Brussels, 1876-1877) was
edited by MM. Charles Hen and Louis Alvin. He wrote many
books for children, chiefly under the pseudonym of Alfred Avelines;
and studies on historical and literary subjects. The books written
in collaboration with Charles Hen are signed Charles Andre\ A
bibliography of his writings is appended to the notice by Louis
Alvin in the Biographic nat. de Belgique, vol. vii. Van Hasselt's
fame has continued to increase since his death. A series of tributes
to his memory are printed in the Poesies choisies (1901), edited by
M. Georges Barral for the Collection des poetes franQ ais de I'etranger.
This book contains a biographical and critical study by Jules Guil-
laume, and some valuable notes on the poet's theories of rhythm.
HASSELT, the capital of the Belgian province of Limburg.
Pop. (1904), 16,179. It derives its name from Hazel-bosch (hazel
wood). It stands at the junction of several important roads
and railways from Maaseyck, Maastricht and Liege. It has many
breweries and distilleries, and the spirit known by its name,
which is a coarse gin, has a certain reputation throughout
Belgium. On the 6th of August 1831 the Dutch troops obtained
here their chief success over the Belgian nationalists during the
War of Independence. Hasselt is best known for its great septen-
nial fete held on the day of Assumption, August isth. The
curious part of this fete, which is held in honour of the Virgin
under the name of Virga Jesse, is the conversion of the town for
the day into the semblance of a forest. Fir trees and branches
from the neighbouring forest are collected and planted in front
of the houses, so that for a few hours Hasselt has the appearance
of being restored to its primitive condition as a wood. The
figure of the giant who is supposed to have once held the Hazel-
bosch under his terror is paraded on this occasion as the " lounge
man." Originally this celebration was held annually, but in
the 1 8th century it was restricted to once in seven years. There
was a celebration in 1905.
HASSENPFLUG, HANS DANIEL LUDWI6 FRIEDRICH
(1794-1862), German statesman, was born at Hanau in Hesse
on the 26th of February 1794. He studied law at Gb'ttingen,
graduated in 1816, and took his seat as Assessor in the judicial
chamber of the board of government (Regierungskollegium) at
Cassel, of which his father Johann Hassenpflug was also a member.
In 1821 he was nominated by the new elector, William II.,
Justisrat (councillor of justice) ; in 1832 he became Minislerialrat
and reporter (Referent) to the ministry of Hesse-Cassel, and in
May of the same year was appointed successively minister of
justice and of the interior. It was from this moment that he
became conspicuous in the constitutional struggles of Germany.
The reactionary system introduced by the elector William I.
had broken down before the revolutionary movements of 1830,
and in 1831 Hesse had received a constitution. This develop-
ment was welcome neither to the elector nor to the other German
governments, and Hassenpflug deliberately set to work to reverse
it. In doing so he gave the lie to his own early promise; for he
had been a conspicuous member of the revolutionary Burschf.n-
schaft at Gottingen, and had taken part as a volunteer in the War
of Liberation. Into the causes of the change it is unnecessary to
inquire; Hassenpflug by training and tradition was a strait-laced
official; he was also a first-rate lawyer; and his naturally
arbitrary temper had from the first displayed itself in an attitude
of overbearing independence towards his colleagues and even
towards the elector. To such a man constitutional restrictions
were intolerable, and from the moment he came into power he
set to work to override them, by means of press censorship, legal
quibbles, unjustifiable use of the electoral prerogatives, or frank
supersession of the legislative rights of the Estates by electoral
ordinances. The story of the constitutional deadlock that
resulted belongs to the history of Hesse-Cassel and Germany;
so far as Hassenpflug himself was concerned, it made him, more
even than Metternich, the Mephistopheles of the Reaction to
the German people. In Hesse itself he was known as " Hessen's
Hass und Fluch " (Hesse's hate and curse). In the end, however,
his masterful temper became unendurable to the regent (Frederick
William) ; in the summer of 1837 he was suddenly removed from
his post as minister of the interior and he thereupon left the
elector's service.
In 1838 he was appointed head of the administration of the
little principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, an office which
he exchanged in the following year for that of civil governor
of the grand-duchy of Luxemburg. Here, too, his independent
character suffered him to remain only a year: he resented having
to transact all business with the grand-duke (king of the Nether-
lands) through a Dutch official at the Hague; he protested
against the absorption of the Luxemburg surplus in the Dutch
treasury; and, failing to obtain redress, he resigned (1840).
From 1841 to 1850 he was in Prussian service, first as a member
of the supreme court of justice (Oberlribunal) and then (1846)
as president of the high court of appeal (Oberappellationsgericht)
at Greifswald. In 1850 he was tried for peculation and convicted ;
and, though this judgment was reversed on appeal, he left the
service of Prussia.
With somewhat indecent haste (the appeal had not been
heard) he was now summoned by the elector of Hesse once
more to the head of the government, and he immediately threw
himself again with zeal into the struggle against the constitution.
He soon found, however, that the opinion of all classes, including
the army, was solidly against him, and he decided to risk all on
an alliance with the reviving fortunes of Austria, which was
steadily working for the restoration of the status quo overthrown
by the revolution of 1848. On his advice the elector seceded
from the Northern Union established by Prussia and, on the
i3th of September, committed the folly of flying secretly from
Hesse with his minister. They went to Frankfort, where the
federal diet had been re-established, and on the 2ist persuaded
the diet to decree an armed intervention in Hesse. This decree,
carried out by Austrian troops, all but led to war with Prussia,
but the unreadiness of the Berlin government led to the triumph
of Austria and of Hassenpflug, who at the end of the year was
once more installed in power at Cassel as minister of finance.
His position was, however, not enviable; he was loathed and
HASTINAPUR HASTINGS, MARQUESS OF
53
despised by all, and disliked even by his master. The climax
came in November 1853, when he was publicly horse-whipped
by the count of Isenburg-Wachtersbach, the elector's son-in-law.
The count was pronounced insane; but Hassenpflug was con-
scious of the method in his madness, and tendered his resignation.
This was, however, not accepted; and it was not till the i6th
of October 1855 that he was finally relieved of his offices. He
retired to Marburg, where he died on the isth of October 1862.
He lived just long enough to hear of the restoration of the Hesse
constitution of 1831 (June 21, 1862), which it had been his life's
mission to destroy. Of his publications the most important is
Actenstiicke, die landstdndischen Anklagen wider den Kur/iirst-
lichen hessischen Staatsminister Hassenpflug. Ein Beitrag zur
Zeitgeschichte und zum neueren deutschen Staatsrcchte, anonym.
(Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1836). He was twice married, his
first wife being the sister of the brothers Grimm. His son Karl
Hassenpflug (1824-1890) was a distinguished sculptor.
See the biography by Wippermann in Allgemeine deutsche Bio-
graphic, with authorities.
HASTINAPUR, an ancient city of British India, in the Meerut
district of the United Provinces, lying on the bank of a former
bed of the Ganges, 22 m. N.E. of Meerut. It formed the capital
of the great Pandava kingdom, celebrated in the Mahabhdrata,
and probably one of the earliest Aryan settlements outside the
Punjab. Tradition points to a group of shapeless mounds as
the residence of the Lunar princes of the house of Bharata whose
deeds are commemorated in the great national epic. After the
conclusion of the famous war which forms the central episode
of that poem, Hastinapur remained for some time the metropolis
of the descendants of Parikshit, but the town was finally swept
away by a flood of the Ganges, and the capital was transferred
to Kausambi.
HASTINGS, a famous English family. JOHN, BARON HASTINGS
(c. 1262-0. 1313), was a son of Sir Henry de Hastings (d. 1268),
who was summoned to parliament as a baron by Simon de
Montfort in 1264. Having joined Montfort's party Sir Henry
led the Londoners at the battle of Lewes and was taken prisoner
at Evesham. After his release he continued his opposition
to Henry III.; he was among those who resisted the king at
Kenilworth, and after the issue of the Dictum de Kenilworlh
he commanded the remnants of the baronial party when they
made their last stand in the isle of Ely, submitting to Henry in
July 1267. His younger son, Edmund, was specially noted for
his military services in Scotland during the reign of Edward I.
John Hastings married Isabella (d. 1305), daughter of William
de Valence, earl of Pembroke, a half-brother of Henry III.,
and fought in Scotland and in Wales. Through his mother,
Joanna de Cantilupe, he inherited the extensive lordship of
Abergavenny, hence he is sometimes referred to as lord of
Bergavenny, and in 1295 he was summoned to parliament as
a baron. Before this date, however, he had come somewhat
prominently to the front. His paternal grandmother, Ada,
was a younger daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, and a
niece of the Scottish king, William the Lion; and in 1290 when
Margaret, the maid of Norway, died, Hastings came forward
as a claimant for the vacant throne. Although unsuccessful
in the matter he did not swerve from his loyalty to Edward I.
He fought constantly either in France or in Scotland; he led
the bishop of Durham's men at the celebrated siege of Carlaverock
castle in 1300; and with his brother Edmund he signed the
letter which in 1301 the English barons sent to Pope Boniface
VIII. repudiating papal interference in the affairs of Scotland;
on two occasions he represented the king in Aquitaine. Hastings
died in 1312 or 1313. His second wife was Isabella, daughter
of the elder Hugh le Despenser. Hastings, who was one of the
most wealthy and powerful nobles of his time, stood high in the
regard of the king and is lauded by the chroniclers.
His eldest son JOHN (d. 1325), who succeeded to the barony,
was the father of Laurence Hastings, who was created earl of
Pembroke in 1339, the earls of Pembroke retaining the barony
of Hastings until 1389. A younger son by a second marriage,
Sir Hugh Hastings (c. 1307-1347), saw a good deal of military
service in France; his portrait and also that of his wife may
still be seen on the east window of Elsing church, which contains
a beautiful brass to his memory.
On the death of John, the third and last earl of Pembroke
of the Hastings family, in 1389, Sir Hugh's son JOHN had,
according to a decision of the House of Lords in 1840, a title
to the barony of Hastings, but he did not prosecute his claim
and he died without sons in 1393. However his grand-nephew
and heir, Hugh (d. 1396), claimed the barony, which was also
claimed by Reginald, Lord Grey of Ruthyn. Like the earls of
Pembroke, Grey was descended through his grandmother,
Elizabeth Hastings, from John, Lord Hastings, by his first wife;
Hugh, on the other hand, was descended from John's second wife.
After Hugh's death his brother, Sir Edward Hastings (c. 1382-
1438), claimed the barony, and the case as to who should bear
the arms of the Hastings family came before the court of chivalry .
In 1410 it was decided in favour of Grey, who thereupon assumed
the arms. Both disputants still claimed the barony, but the
view seems to have prevailed that it had fallen into abeyance
in 1389. Sir Edward was imprisoned for refusing to pay his
rival's costs, and he was probably still in prison when he died in
January 1438. After his death the Hastings family, which
became extinct during the i6th century, tacitly abandoned the
claim to the barony. Then in 1840 the title was revived in
favour of Sir Jacob Astley, Bart. (1797-1859), who derived his
claim from a daughter of Sir Hugh Hastings who died in 1540.
Sir Jacob's descendant, Albert Edward (b. 1882), became 2ist
Baron Hastings in 1904.
A distant relative of the same family was William, Baron
Hastings (c. 1430-1483), a son of Sir Leonard Hastings (d. 1455).
He became attached to Edward IV., whom he served before his
accession to the throne, and after this event he became master of
the mint, chamberlain of the royal household and one of the king's
most trusted advisers. Having been made a baron in 1461, he
married Catherine, daughter of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury,
and was frequently sent on diplomatic errands to Burgundy and
elsewhere. He was faithful to Edward IV. during the king's exile
in the winter of 1470-1471, and after his return he fought for
him at Barnet and at Tewkesbury ; he has been accused of taking
part in the murder of Henry VI. 's son, prince Edward, after the
latter battle. Hastings succeeded his sovereign in the favour of
JaneShore. He was made captain of Calais in 1471, and waswith
Edward IV. when he met Louis XI. of France at Picquigny in 147 5,
on which occasion he received gifts from Louis and from Charles
the Bold of Burgundy. After Edward IV. 's death Hastings be-
haved in a somewhat undecided manner. He disliked the queen,
Elizabeth Woodville, but he refused to ally himself with Richard,
duke of Gloucester, afterwards King Richard III. Suddenly
Richard decided to get rid of him, and during a meeting of the
council on the i3th of June 1483 he was seized and at once put
to death. This dramatic incident is related by Sir Thomas More
in his History of Richard 7//.,and has been worked by Shakespeare
into his play Richard HI. Hastings is highly praised by his
friend Philippe de Commines, and also by More. He left a son,
Edward (d. 1 508) , the father of George, Baron Hastings (c. 1488-
1545), who was created earl of Huntingdon (q.v.) in 1529.
When Francis, loth earl of Huntingdon, died in October 1789,
the barony of Hastings passed to his sister Elizabeth (1731-1 808) ,
wife of John Rawdon, earl of Moira, and from her it came to her
son Francis Rawdon-Hastings (see below), who was created
marquess of Hastings in 1817.
HASTINGS, FRANCIS RAWDON-HASTINGS, ist MARQUESS
OF (1754-1826), British soldier and governor-general of India,
born on the 9th of December 1754, was the son of Sir John
Rawdon of Moira in the county of Down, 4th baronet, who was
created Baron Rawdon of Moira, and afterwards earl of Moira,
in the Irish peerage. His mother was the Lady Elizabeth
Hastings, daughter of Theophilus, 9th earl of Huntingdon.
Lord Rawdon, as he was then called, was educated at Harrow
and Oxford, and joined the army in 1771 as ensign in the isth
foot. His life henceforth was entirely spent in the service of his
country, and may be divided into four periods: from 1775 to
54
HASTINGS, MARQUESS OF
1782 he was engaged with much distinction in the American war;
from 1783 to 1813 he held various high appointments at home,
and took an active part in the business of the House. of Lords;
from 1813 to 1823 was the period of his labours in India; after
retiring from which, in the last years of his life (1824-1826), he
was governor of Malta.
In America Rawdon served at the battles of Bunker Hill,
Brooklyn, White Plains, Monmouth and Camden, at the attacks
on Forts Washington and Clinton, and at the siege of Charleston.
In fact he was engaged in many important operations of the war.
Perhaps his most noted achievements were the raising of a
corps at Philadelphia, called the Irish Volunteers, who under him
became famous for their fighting qualities, and the victory of
Hobkirk's Hill, which, in command of only a small force, he
gained by superior military skill and determination against a
much larger body of Americans. In 1781 he was invalided. The
vessel in which he returned to England was captured and carried
into Brest. He was speedily released, and on his arrival in
England was much honoured by George III., who created him
an English peer (Baron Rawdon) in March 1783. In 1789 his
mother succeeded to the barony of Hastings, and Rawdon added
the surname of Hastings to his own.
In 1793 Rawdon succeeded his father as earl of Moira. In
1794 he was sent with 7000 men to Ostend to reinforce the duke
of York and the allies in Flanders. The march by which he
effected a junction was considered extraordinary. In 1803 he
was appointed commander-in-chief in Scotland, and in 1804 he
married Flora Mure Campbell, countess of Loudoun in her own
right. When Fox and Grenville came into power in 1806, Lord
Moira, who had always voted with them, received the place of
master-general of the ordnance. He was now enabled to carry
a philanthropic measure, of which from his first entry into the
House of Lords he had been a great promoter, namely, the Debtor
and Creditor Bill for relief of poor debtors. Ireland was another
subject to which he had given particular attention: in 1797 there
was published a Speech by Lord Moira on the Dreadful and Alarm-
ing State of Ireland. Lord Moira's sound judgment on public
affairs, combined with his military reputation and the upright-
ness of his character, won for him a high position among the
statesmen of the day, and he gained an additional prestige from
his intimate relations with the prince of Wales. As a mark of
the regent's regard Lord Moira received the order of the Garter
in 1812, and in the same year was appointed governor-general
of Bengal and commander-in-chief of the forces in India. He
landed at Calcutta, and assumed office in succession to Lord
Minto in October 1813. One of the chief questions which awaited
him was that of relations with the Gurkha state of Nepal. The
Gurkhas, a brave and warlike little nation, failing to extend
their conquests in the direction of China, had begun to encroach
on territories held or protected by the East India Company;
especially they had seized the districts of Batwal and Seoraj,
in the northern part of Oudh, and when called upon to relinquish
these, they deliberately elected (April 1814) to go to war rather
than do so. Lord Moira, having travelled through the northern
provinces and fully studied the question, declared war against
Nepal (November 1814). The enemy's frontier was 600 m. long,
and Lord Moira, who directed the plan of the campaign, resolved
to act offensively along the whole line. It was an anxious under-
taking, because the native states of India were all watching the
issue and waiting for any serious reverse to the English to join
against them. At first all seemed to go badly, as the British
officers despised the enemy, and the sepoys were unaccustomed
to mountain warfare, and thus alternate extremes of rashness
and despondency were exhibited. But this rectified itself in
time, especially through the achievements of General (afterwards
Sir David) Ochterlony, who before the end of 1815 had taken all
the Gurkha posts to the west, and early in 1816 was advancing
victoriously within 50 m. of Khatmandu, the capital. The
Gurkhas now made peace; they abandoned the disputed districts,
ceded some territory to the British, and agreed to receive a
British resident. For his masterly conduct of these affairs Lord
Moira was created marquess of Hastings in February 1817.
He had now to deal with internal dangers. A combination of
Mahratta powers was constantly threatening the continuance
of British rule, under the guise of plausible assurances severally
given by the peshwa, Sindhia, Holkar and other princes. At
the same time the existence of the Pindari state was not only
dangerous to the British, as being a warlike power always ready
to turn against them, but it was a scourge to India itself. In
1816, however, the Pindaris entered British territory in the
Northern Circars, where they destroyed 339 villages. On this,
permission was obtained to act for their suppression. Before
the end of 1817 the preparations of Lord Hastings were com-
pleted, when the peshwa suddenly broke into war, and the
British were opposed at once to the Mahratta and Pindari powers,
estimated at 200,000 men and 500 guns. Both were utterly
shattered in a brief campaign of four months (1817-18). The
peshwa's dominions were annexed, and those of Sindhia, Holkar,
and the raja of Berar lay at the mercy of the governor-general,
and were saved only by his moderation. Thus, after sixty years
from the battle of Plassey, the supremacy of British power in
India was effectively established. The Pindaris had ceased to
exist, and peace and security had been substituted for misery
and terror.
" It is a proud phrase to use," said Lord Hastings, " but it is a
true one, that we have bestowed blessings upon millions. Nothing
can be more delightful than the reports I receive of the sensibility
manifested by the inhabitants to this change in their circumstances.
The smallest detachment of our troops cannot pass through that
district without meeting everywhere eager and exulting gratula-
tions, the tone of which proves them to come from glowing hearts.
Multitudes of people have, even in this short interval, come from
the hills and fastnesses in which they had sought refuge for years,
and have reoccupied their ancient deserted villages. The plough-
share is again in every quarter turning up a soil which had for
many seasons never been stirred, except by the hoofs of predatory
cavalry."
While the natives of India appreciated the results of Lord
Hastings's achievements, the court of directors grumbled at his
having extended British territory. They also disliked and
opposed his measures for introducing education among the
natives and his encouraging the freedom of the press. In 1819
he obtained the cession by purchase of the island of Singapore.
In finance his administration was very successful, as notwith-
standing the expenses of his wars he showed an annual surplus
of two millions sterling. Brilliant and beneficent as his career
had been, Lord Hastings did not escape unjust detraction. His
last years of office were embittered by the discussions on a matter
notorious at the time, namely, the affairs of the banking-house
of W. Palmer and Company. The whole affair was mixed
up with insinuations against Lord Hastings, especially charging
him with having been actuated by favouritism towards one of
the partners in the firm. From imputations which were incon-
sistent with his whole character he has subsequently been
exonerated. But while smarting under them he tendered his
resignation in 1821, though he did not leave India till the first
day of 1823. He was much exhausted by the arduous labours
which for more than nine years he had sustained. Among his
characteristics it is mentioned that " his ample fortune
absolutely sank under the benevolence of his nature "; and,
far from having enriched himself in the appointment of governor-
general, he returned to England in circumstances which obliged
him still to seek public employment. In 1824 he received the
comparatively small post of governor of Malta, in which island
he introduced many reforms and endeared himself to the in-
habitants. He died on the 28th of November 1826, leaving a
request that his right hand should be cut off and preserved till
the death of the marchioness of Hastings, and then be interred
in her coffin.
Hastings was succeeded by his son, Francis George Augustus
(1808-1844), who i n 1840 succeeded through his mother to the
earldom of Loudoun. When 'his second son, Henry Weysford,
the 4th marquess, died childless on the icth of November 1868
the marquessate became extinct; the earldom of Loudoun
devolved upon his sister, Edith Mary (d. 1874), wife of Charles
Frederick Abney-Hastings, afterwards Baron Donington; the
HASTINGS, F. A. HASTINGS, WARREN
barony of Hastings, which fell into abeyance, was also revived
in 1871 in her favour.
See Ross-of-Bladensburg, The Marquess of Hastings (" Rulers of
India " series) (1893) ; and Private Journal cf the Marquess of
Hastings, edited by his daughter, the marchioness of Bute (1858).
HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828), British naval
officer and Philhellene, was the son of Lieut. -general Sir Charles
Hastings, a natural son of Francis Hastings, tenth earl of
Huntingdon. He entered the navy in 1805, and was in the
" Neptune " (100) at the battle of Trafalgar; but in iSzoa quarrel
with his flag captain led to his leaving the service. The revolu-
tionary troubles of the time offered chances of foreign employ-
ment. Hastings spent a year on the continent to learn French,
and sailed for Greece on the i2th of March 1822 from Marseilles.
On the 3rd of April he reached Hydra. For two years he took
part in the naval operations of the Greeks in the Gulf of Smyrna
and elsewhere. He saw that the light squadrons of the Greeks
must in the end be overpowered by the heavier Turkish navy,
clumsy as it was; and in 1823 he drew up and presented to
Lord Byron a very able memorandum which he laid before the
Greek government in 1824. This paper is of peculiar interest
apart from its importance in the Greek insurrection, for it
contains the germs of the great revolution which has since
been effected in naval gunnery and tactics. In substance the
memorandum advocated the use of steamers in preference to
sailing ships, and of direct fire with shells and hot shot, as a more
trustworthy means of destroying the Turkish fleet than fire-ships.
It will be found in Finlay's History of the Greek Revolution,
vol. ii. appendix i. The application of Hastings's ideas led
necessarily to the disuse of sailing ships, and the introduction
of armour. The incompetence of the Greek government and
the corrupt waste of its resources prevented the full application
of Hastings's bold and far-seeing plans. But largely by the use
of his own money, of which he is said to have spent 7000, he
was able to some extent to carry them out. In 1824 he came
to England to obtain a steamer, and in 1825 he had fitted out a
small steamer named the " Karteria " (Perseverance), manned
by Englishmen, Swedes and Greeks, and provided with apparatus
for the discharge of shell and hot shot. He did enough to show
that if his advice had been vigorously followed the Turks would
have been driven off the sea long before the date of the battle
of Navarino. The great effect produced by his shells in an
attack on the sea-line of communication of the Turkish army,
then besieging Athens at Oropus and Volo in March and April
1827, was a clear proof that much more could have been done.
Military mismanagement caused the defeat of the Greeks round
Athens. But Hastings, in co-operation with General Sir R.
Church (q.v.), shifted the scene of the attack to western Greece.
Here his destruction of a small Turkish squadron at Salona Bay
in the Gulf of Corinth (29th of September 1827) provoked
Ibrahim Pasha into the aggressive movements which led to the
destruction of his fleet by the allies at Navarino (q.v.) on the
2oth of October 1827. On the 25th of May 1828 he was wounded
in an attack on Anatolikon, and he died in the harbour of Zante
on the ist of June. General Gordon, who served in the war
and wrote its history, says of him: " If ever there was a
disinterested and really useful Philhellene it was Hastings.
He received no pay, and had expended most of his slender
fortune in keeping the ' Karteria ' afloat for the last six months.
His ship, too, was the only one in the Greek navy where regular
discipline was maintained."
See Thomas Gordon, History of the Greek Revolution (London,
1832); George Finlay, History of the Greek Revolution (Edinburgh,
1861).
HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818), the first governor-general
of British India, was born on the 6th of December 1732 in the
little hamlet of Churchill in Oxfordshire. He came of a family
which had been settled for many generations in the adjoining
village of Daylesford; but his great-grandfather had sold the
ancestral manor-house, and his grandfather had been unable
to maintain himself in possession of the family living. His
mother died a few days after giving him birth; his father,
55
Pynaston Hastings, drifted away to perish obscurely in the West
Indies. Thus unfortunate in his birth, young Hastings received
the elements of education at a charity school in his native village.
At the age of eight he was taken in charge by an elder brother
of his father, Howard Hastings, who held a post in the customs.
After spending two years at a private school at Newington Butts,
he was moved to Westminster, where among his contemporaries
occur the names of Lord Thurlow and Lord Shelburne, Sir
Elijah Impey, and the poets Cowper and Churchill. In 1749,
when his headmaster Dr Nichols was already anticipating for him
a successful career at the university, his uncle died, leaving him
to the care of a distant kinsman, Mr Creswicke, who was afterwards
in the direction of the East India Company; and he determined
to send his ward to seek his fortune as a " writer " in Bengal.
When Hastings landed at Calcutta in October 1750 the affairs
of the East India Company were at a low ebb. Throughout the
entire south of the peninsula French influence was predominant.
The settlement of Fort St George or Madras, captured by force
of arms, had only recently been restored in accordance with a
clause of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. The organizing genius of
Dupleix everywhere overshadowed the native imagination, and
the star of Clive had scarcely yet risen above the horizon. The
rivalry between the English and the French, which had already
convulsed the south, did not penetrate to Bengal. That province
was under the able government of Ali Vardi Khan, who
peremptorily forbade the foreign settlers at Calcutta and Chander-
nagore to introduce feuds from Europe. The duties of a young
" writer " were then such as are implied in the name. At an
early date Hastings was placed in charge of an aurang or factory
in the interior, where his duties would be to superintend the
weaving of silk and cotton goods under a system of money
advances. In 1753 he was transferred to Cossimbazar, the
river-port of the native capital of Murshidabad. In 1756 the
old nawab died, and was succeeded by his grandson Suraj-
ud-Dowlah, a young madman of 19, whose name is indelibly
associated with the tragedy of the Black Hole. When that
passionate youn^ prince, in revenge for a fancied wrong, resolved
to drive the English out of Bengal, his first step was to occupy
the fortified factory at Cossimbazar, and make prisoners of
Hastings and his companions. Hastings was soon released at the
intercession of the Dutch resident, and made use of his position
at Murshidabad to open negotiations with the English fugitives
at Falta, the site of a Dutch factory near the mouth of the Hugli.
In later days he used to refer with pride to his services on this
occasion, when he was first initiated into the wiles of Oriental
diplomacy. After a while he found it necessary to fly from the
Mahommedan court and join the main body of the English at
Falta. When the relieving force arrived from Madras under
Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson, Hastings enrolled himself as
a volunteer, and took part in the action which led to the recovery
of Calcutta. Clive showed his appreciation of Hastings's merits
by appointing him in 1758 to the important post of resident at
the court of Murshidabad. It was there that he first came into
collision with the Bengali Brahman, Nuncomar, whose sub-
sequent fate has supplied more material for controversy than any
other episode in his career. During his three years of office as
resident he was able to render not a few valuable services to the
Company; but it is more important to observe that his name
nowhere occurs in the official lists of those who derived pecuniary
profit from the necessities and weakness of the native court. In
1761 he was promoted to be member of council, under the presi-
dency of Mr Vansittart, who had been introduced by Clive from
Madras. The period of Vansittart's government has been truly
described as " the most revolting page of our Indian history."
The entire duties of administration were suffered to remain in
the hands of the nawab, while a few irresponsible English traders
had drawn to themselves all real power. The members of
council, the commanders of the troops, and the commercial
residents plundered on a grand scale. The youngest servant of
the Company claimed the right of trading on his own account,
Free from taxation and from local jurisdiction, not only for him-
self but also for every native subordinate whom he might permit
HASTINGS, WARREN
to use his name. It was this exemption, threatening the very
foundations of the Mussulman government, that finally led to a
rupture with the nawab. Macaulay, in his celebrated essay, has
said that " of the conduct of Hastings at this time little is known."
As a matter of fact, the book which Macaulay was professing to
review describes at length the honourable part consistently
taken by Hastings in opposition to the great majority of the
council. Sometimes in conjunction only with Vansittart, some-
times absolutely alone, he protested unceasingly against the
policy and practices of his colleagues. On one occasion he was
stigmatized in a minute by Mr Batson with " having espoused
the nawab's cause, and as a hired solicitor defended all his actions,
however dishonourable and detrimental to the Company." An
altercation ensued. Batson gave him the lie and struck him in
the council chamber. When war was actually begun, Hastings
officially recorded his previous resolution to have resigned, in
order to repudiate responsibility for measures which he had
always opposed. Waiting only for the decisive victory of Buxar
over the allied forces of Bengal and Oudh, he resigned his seat
and sailed for England in November 1764.
After fourteen years' residence in Bengal Hastings did not
return home a rich man, estimated by the opportunities of his
position. According to the custom of the time he had augmented
his slender salary by private trade. At a later date he was
charged by Burke with having taken up profitable contracts for
supplying bullocks for the use of the Company's troops. It is
admitted that he conducted by means of agents a large business
in timber in the Gangetic Sundarbans. When at Falta he had
married Mrs Buchanan, the widow of an officer. She bore him
two children, of whom one died in infancy at Murshidabad, and
was shortly followed to the grave by her mother. Their common
gravestone is in existence at the present day, bearing date
July n, 1759. The other child, a son, was sent to England, and
also died shortly before his father's return. While at home
Hastings is said to have attached himself to literary society;
and it may be inferred from his own letters that he now made the
personal acquaintance of Samuel Johnson and Lord Mansfield.
In 1766 he was called upon to give evidence before a committee
of the House of Commons upon the affairs of Bengal. The good
sense and clearness of the views which he expressed caused
attention to be paid to his desire to be again employed in India.
His pecuniary affairs were embarrassed, partly from the liberality
with which he had endowed his few surviving relatives. The
great influence of Lord Clive was also exercised on his behalf.
At last, in the winter of 1768, he received the appointment of
second in council at Madras. Among his companions on his
voyage round the Cape were the Baron Imhoff, a speculative
portrait-painter, and his wife, a lady of some personal attractions
and great social charm, who was destined henceforth to be
Hastings's lifelong companion. Of his, two years' work at Madras
it is needless to speak in detail. He won the good-will of his
employers *by devoting himself to the improvement of their
manufacturing business, and he kept his hands clean from the
prevalent taint of pecuniary transactions with the nawab of the
Carnatic. One fact of some interest is not generally known.
He drew up a scheme for the construction of a pier at Madras,
to avoid the dangers of landing through the surf, and instructed
his brother-in-law in England to obtain estimates from the
engineers Brindley and Smeaton.
In the beginning of 1772 his ambition was stimulated by the
nomination to the second place in council in Bengal with a
promise of the reversion of the governorship when Mr Cartier
should retire. Since his departure from Bengal in 1764 the
situation of affairs in that settlement had scarcely improved.
The second governorship of Clive was marked by the transfer
of the diviani or financial administration from the Mogul emperor
to the Company, and by the enforcement of stringent regulations
against the besetting sin of peculation. But Clive was followed
by two inefficient successors; and in 1770 occurred the most
terrible Indian famine on record, which is credibly estimated
to have swept away one-third of the population. In April 1772
Warren Hastings took his seat as president of the council at Fort
William. His first care was to carry out the instructions received
from home, and effect a radical reform in the system of govern-
ment. Clive's plan of governing through the agency of the native
court had proved a failure. The directors were determined " to
stand forth as dvuoan, and take upon themselves by their own
servants the entire management of the revenues." All the
officers of administration were transferred from Murshidabad
to Calcutta, which Hastings boasted at this early date that he
would make the first city in Asia. This reform involved the
ruin of many native reputations, and for a second time brought
Hastings into collision with the wily Brahman, Nuncomar.
At the same time a settlement of the land revenue on leases for
five years was begun, and the police and military systems of
the country were placed upon a new footing. Hastings was a
man of immense industry, with an insatiable appetite for detail.
The whole of this large series of reforms was conducted under
his own personal supervision, and upon no part of his multifarious
labours did he dwell in his letters home with greater pride.
As an independent measure of economy, the stipend paid to the
titular nawab of Bengal, who was then a minor, was reduced by
one-half to sixteen lakhs a year (say 160,000). Macaulay
imputes this reduction to Hastings as a characteristic act of
financial immorality; but in truth it had been expressly enjoined
by the court of directors, in a despatch dated six months before
he took up office. His pecuniary bargains with Shuja-ud-Dowlah,
the nawab wazlr of Oudh, stand on a different basis. Hastings
himself always regarded them as incidents in his general scheme
of foreign policy. The Mahrattas at this time had got possession
of the person of the Mogul emperor, Shah Alam, from whom
Clive obtained the grant of Bengal in 1765, and to whom he
assigned in return the districts of Allahabad and Kora and a
tribute of 300,000. With the emperor in their camp, the
Mahrattas were threatening the province of Oudh, and
causing a large British force to be cantoned along the frontier
for its defence. Warren Hastings, as a deliberate measure of
policy, withheld the tribute due to the emperor, and resold
Allahabad and Kora to the wazlr of Oudh. The Mahrattas
retreated, and all danger for the time was dissipated by the
death of their principal leader. The wazlr now bethought him
that he had a good opportunity for satisfying an old quarrel
against the adjoining tribe of Rohillas, who had played fast and
loose with him while the Mahratta army was at hand. The
Rohillas were a race of Afghan origin, who had established
themselves for some generations in a fertile tract west of Oudh,
between the Himalayas and the Ganges, which still bears the
name of Rohilkhand. They were not so much the occupiers of
the soil as a dominant caste of warriors and freebooters. But
in those troubled days their title was as good as any to be found
in India. After not a little hesitation, Hastings consented to
allow the Company's troops to be used to further the ambitious
designs of his Oudh ally, in consideration of a sum of money
which relieved the ever-pressing wants of the Bengal treasury.
The Rohillas were defeated in fair fight. Some of them fled the
country, and so far as possible Hastings obtained terms for
those who remained. The fighting, no doubt, on the part of the
wazlr was conducted with all the savagery of Oriental warfare ;
but there is no evidence that it was a war of extermination.
Meanwhile, the affairs of the East India Company had come
under the consideration of parliament. The Regulating Act,
passed by Lord North's ministry in 1773, effected considerable
changes in the constitution of the Bengal government. The
council was reduced to four members with a governor-general,
who were to exercise certain indefinite powers of control over the
presidencies of Madras and Bombay. Hastings was named in
the act as governor-general for a term of five years. The council
consisted of General Clavering and the Hon. Colonel Monson,
two third-rate politicians of considerable parliamentary influence;
Philip Francis (q.v.), then only known as an able permanent
official; and Barwell, of the Bengal Civil Service. At the same
time a supreme court of judicature was appointed, composed
of a chief and three puisne judges, to exercise an indeterminate
jurisdiction at Calcutta. The chief-justice was Sir Elijah Impey,
HASTINGS, WARREN
57
already mentioned as a schoolfellow of Hastings at Westminster.
The whole tendency of the Regulating Act was to establish for
the first time the influence of the crown, or rather of parliament,
in Indian affairs. The new members of council disembarked
at Calcutta on the iglh of October 1774; and on the following
day commenced the long feud which scarcely terminated twenty-
one years later with the acquittal of Warren Hastings by the
House of Lords. Macaulay states that the members of council
were put in ill-humour because their salute of guns was not
proportionate to their dignity. In a contemporary letter
Francis thus expresses the same petty feeling: " Surely Mr H.
might have put on a ruffled shirt." Taking advantage of an
ambiguous clause in their commission, the majority of the
council (for Harwell uniformly sided with Hastings) forthwith
proceeded to pass in review the recent measures of the governor-
general. All that he had done they condemned; all that they
could they reversed. Hastings was reduced to the position of a
cipher at their meetings. After a time they lent a ready ear to
detailed allegations of corruption brought against him by his
old enemy Nuncomar. To charges from such a source, and
brought in such a manner, Hastings disdained to reply, and
referred his accuser to the supreme court. The majority of the
council, in their executive capacity, resolved that the governor-
general had been guilty of peculation, and ordered him to
refund. A few days later Nuncomar was thrown into prison on
a charge of forgery preferred by a private prosecutor, tried before
the supreme court sitting in bar, found guilty by a jury of
Englishmen and sentenced to be hanged. Hastings always
maintained that he did not cause the charge to be instituted,
and the legality of Nuncomar's trial is thoroughly proved by
Sir James Stephen. The majority of the council abandoned
their supporter, who was executed in due course. He had
forwarded a petition for reprieve to the council, which Clavering
took care should not be presented in time, and which was subse-
quently burnt by the common hangman on the motion of Francis.
While the strife was at its hottest, Hastings had sent an agent
to England with a general authority to place his resignation in
the hands of the Company under certain conditions. The agent
thought fit to exercise that authority. The resignation was
promptly accepted, and one of the directors was appointed
to the vacancy. But in the meantime Colonel Monson had
died, and Hastings was thus restored, by virtue of his casting
vote, to the supreme management of affairs. He refused to
ratify his resignation; and when Clavering attempted to seize
on the governor-generalship, he judiciously obtained an opinion
from the judges of the supreme court in his favour. From that
time forth, though he could not always command an absolute
majority in council, Hastings was never again subjected to
gross insult, and his general policy was able to prevail.
A crisis was now approaching in foreign affairs which de-
manded all the experience and all the genius of Hastings for
its solution. Bengal was prosperous, and free from external
enemies on every quarter. But the government of Bombay had
hurried on a rupture with the Mahratta confederacy at a time
when France was on the point of declaring war against England,
and when the mother-country found herself unable to subdue
her rebellious colonists in America. Hastings did not hesitate
to take upon his own shoulders the whole responsibility of
military affairs. All the French settlements in India were
promptly occupied. On the part of Bombay, the Mahratta war
was conducted with procrastination and disgrace. But Hastings
amply avenged the capitulation of Wargaon by the complete
success of his own plan of operations. Colonel Goddard with a
Bengal army marched across the breadth of the peninsula from
the valley of the Ganges to the western sea, and achieved almost
without a blow the conquest of Gujarat. Captain Popham, with
a small detachment, stormed the rock fortress of Gwalior, then
deemed impregnable and the key of central India; and by this
feat held in check Sindhia, the most formidable of the Mahratta
chiefs. The Bhonsla Mahratta raja of Nagpur, whose dominions
bordered on Bengal, was won over by the diplomacy of an
emissary of Hastings. But while these events were taking place,
a new source of embarrassment had arisen at Calcutta. The
supreme court, whether rightly or wrongly, assumed a jurisdic-
tion of first instance over the entire province of Bengal. The
English common law, with all the absurdities and rigours of that
day, was arbitrarily extended to an alien system of society.
Zaminddrs, or government renters, were arrested on mesne
process; the sanctity of the zendna, or women's chamber, as
dear to Hindus as to Mahommedans, was violated by the sheriff's
officer; the deepest feelings of the people and the entire fabric
of revenue administration were alike disregarded. On this point
the entire council acted in harmony. Hastings and Francis went
joint-bail for imprisoned natives of distinction. At last, after
the dispute between the judges and the executive threatened to
become a trial of armed force, Hastings set it at rest by a charac-
teristic stroke of policy. A new judicial office was created in
the name of the Company, to which Sir Elijah Impey was
appointed, though he never consented to draw the additional
salary offered to him. The understanding between Hastings
and Francis, originating in this state of affairs, was for a short
period extended to general policy. An agreement was come to
by which Francis received patronage for his circle of friends,
while Hastings was to be unimpeded in the control of foreign
affairs. But a difference of interpretation arose. Hastings
recorded in an official minute that he had found Francis's private
and public conduct to be " void of truth and honour." They
met as duellists. Francis fell wounded, and soon afterwards
returned to England.
The Mahratta war was not yet terminated, but a far more
formidable danger now threatened the English in India. The
imprudent conduct of the Madras authorities had irritated
beyond endurance the two greatest Mussulman powers in the
peninsula, the nizam of the Deccan and Hyder Ali, the usurper
of Mysore, who began to negotiate an alliance with the Mahrattas.
A second time the genius of Hastings saved the British empire
in the east. On the arrival of the news that Hyder had descended
from the highlands of Mysore, cut to pieces the only British army
in the field, and swept the Carnatic up to the gates of Madras,
he at once adopted a policy of extraordinary boldness. He
signed a blank treaty of peace with the Mahrattas, who were still
in arms, reversed the action of the Madras government towards
the nizam, and concentrated all the resources of Bengal against
Hyder Ali. Sir Eyre Coote, a general of renown in former
Carnatic wars, was sent by sea to Madras with all the troops and
treasure that could be got together; and a strong body of rein-
forcements subsequently marched southwards under Colonel
Pearse along the coast line of Orissa. The landing of Coote
preserved Madras from destruction, though the war lasted
through many campaigns and only terminated with the death
of Hyder. Pearse's detachment was decimated by an epidemic
of cholera (perhaps the first mention of this disease by name in
Indian history); but the survivors penetrated to Madras, and
not only held in check Bhonsla and the nizam, but also corro-
borated the lesson taught by Goddard that the Company's
sepoys could march anywhere, when boldly led. Hastings's
personal task was to provide the ways and means for this exhaust-
ing war. A considerable economy was effected by a reform in
the establishment for collecting the land tax. The government
monopolies of opium and salt were then for the first time placed
upon a remunerative basis. But these reforms were of necessity
slow in their beneficial operation. The pressing demands of the
military chest had to be satisfied by loans, and in at least one
case from the private purse of the governor-general. Ready
cash could alone fill up the void; and it was to the hoards of
native princes that Hastings's fertile mind at once turned.
Chait Sing, raja of Benares, the greatest of the vassal chiefs who
had grown rich under the protection of the British rule, lay
under the suspicion of disloyalty. The wazir of Oudh had fallen
into arrears in the payment due for the maintenance of the
Company's garrison posted in his dominions, and his administra-
tion was in great disorder. In his case the ancestral hoards were
under the control of his mother, the begum of Oudh, into whose
hands they had been allowed to pass at the time when Hastings
HASTINGS, WARREN
was powerless in council. Hastings resolved to make a progress
up country in order to arrange the affairs of both provinces, and
bring back all the treasure that could be squeezed out of its
holders by his personal intervention. When he reached Benares
and presented his demands, the raja rose in insurrection, and the
governor-general barely escaped with his life. But the faithful
Popham rapidly rallied a force for his defence. The insurgents
were defeated again and again; Chait Sing took to flight, and
an augmented permanent tribute was imposed upon his suc-
cessor. The Oudh business was managed with less risk. The
wazir consented to everything demanded of him. The begum
was charged with having abetted Chait Sing in his rebellion;
and after the severest pressure applied to herself and her
attendant eunuchs, a fine of more than a million sterling was
exacted from her. Hastings appears to have been not altogether
satisfied with the incidents of this expedition, and to have antici-
pated the censure which it received in England. As a measure
of precaution, he procured documentary evidence of the rebellious
intentions of the raja and the begum, to the validity of which
Impey obligingly lent his extra-judicial sanction;
The remainder of Hastings's term of office in India was passed
in comparative tranquillity, both from internal opposition and
foreign war. The centre of interest now shifts to the India
House and to the British parliament. The long struggle between
the Company and the ministers of the crown for the supreme
control of Indian affairs and the attendant patronage had
reached its climax. The decisive success of Hastings's adminis-
tration alone postponed the inevitable solution. His original
term of five years would have expired in 1778; but it was
annually prolonged by special act of parliament until his
voluntary resignation. Though Hastings was thus irremovable,
his policy did not escape censure. Ministers were naturally
anxious to obtain the reversion to his vacant post, and Indian
affairs formed at this time the hinge on which party politics
turned. On one occasion Dundas carried a motion in the House
of Commons, censuring Hastings and demanding his recall.
The directors of the Company were disposed to act upon this
resolution; but in the court of proprietors, with whom the
decision ultimately lay, Hastings always possessed a sufficient
majority. Fox's India Bill led to the downfall of the Coalition
ministry in 1783. The act which Pitt successfully carried in the
following year introduced a new constitution, in which Hastings
felt that he had no place. In February 1785 he finally sailed
from Calcutta, after a dignified ceremony of resignation, and
amid enthusiastic farewells from all classes.
On his arrival in England, after a second absence of sixteen
years, he was not displeased with the reception he met with at
court and in the country. A peerage was openly talked of as
his due, while his own ambition pointed to some responsible
office at home. Pitt had never taken a side against him, while
Lord Chancellor Thurlow was his pronounced friend. But he
was now destined to learn that his enemy Francis, whom he had
discomfited in the council chamber at Calcutta, was more than
his match in the parliamentary arena. Edmund Burke had taken
the subject races of India under the protection of his eloquence.
Francis, who had been the early friend of Burke, supplied him
with the personal animus against Hastings, and with the know-
ledge of detail, which he might otherwise have lacked. The
Whig party on this occasion unanimously followed Burke's lead.
Dundas, Pitt's favourite subordinate, had already committed
himself by his earlier resolution of censure; and Pitt was induced
by motives which are still obscure to incline the ministerial
majority to the same side. To meet the oratory of Burke and
Sheridan and Fox, Hastings wrote an elaborate minute with
which he wearied the ears of the House for two successive nights,
and he subsidized a swarm of pamphleteers. The impeachment
was decided upon in 1786, but the actual trial did not commence
until 1788. For seven long years Hastings was upon his defence
on the charge of " high crimes and misdemeanours." During
this anxious period he appears to have borne himself with charac-
teristic dignity, such as is consistent with no other hypothesis
than the consciousness of innocence. At last, in 1795, the House
of Lords gave a verdict of not guilty on all charges laid against
him; and he left the bar at which he had so frequently appeared,
with his reputation clear, but ruined in fortune. However large
the wealth he brought back from India, all was swallowed up in
defraying the expenses of his trial. Continuing the line of conduct
which in most other men would be called hypocrisy, he forwarded
a petition to Pitt praying that he might be reimbursed his costs
from the public funds. This petition, of course, was rejected.
At last, when he was reduced to actual destitution, it was
arranged that the East India Company should grant him an
annuity of 4000 for a term of years, with 90,000 paid down in
advance. This annuity expired before his death; and he was
compelled to make more than one fresh appeal to the bounty of
the Company, which was never withheld. Shortly before his
acquittal he had been able to satisfy the dream of his childhood,
by buying back the ancestral manor of Daylesford, where the
remainder of his life was passed in honourable retirement. In
1813 he was called on to give evidence upon Indian affairs before
the two houses of parliament, which received him with excep-
tional marks of respect. The university of Oxford conferred on
him the honorary degree of D.C.L.; and in the following year
he was sworn of the privy council, and took a prominent part in
the reception given to the duke of Wellington and the allied
sovereigns. He died on the 22nd of August 1818, in his 86th
year, and lies buried behind the chancel of the parish church,
which he had recently restored at his own charges.
In physical appearance, Hastings " looked like a great man,
and not like a bad man." The body was wholly subjugated to
the mind. A frame naturally slight had been further attenuated
by rigorous habits of temperance, and thus rendered proof
against the diseases of the tropics. Against his private character
not even calumny has breathed a reproach. As brother, as
husband and as friend, his affections were as steadfast as they
were warm. By the public he was always regarded as reserved,
but within his own inner circle he gave and received perfect
confidence. In his dealings with money, he was characterized
rather by liberality of expenditure than by carefulness of acquisi-
tion. A classical education and the instincts of family pride
saved him from both the greed and the vulgar display which
marked the typical " nabob," the self-made man of those days.
He could support the position of a governor-general and of a
country gentleman with equal credit. Concerning his second
marriage, it suffices to say that the Baroness Imhoff was nearly
forty years of age, with a family of grown-up children, when the
complaisant law of her native land allowed her to become Mrs
Hastings. She survived her husband, who cherished towards
her to the last the sentiments of a lover. Her children he
adopted as his own; and it was chiefly for her sake that he
desired the peerage which was twice held out to him.
Hastings's public career will probably never cease to be a
subject of controversy. It was his misfortune to be the scape-
goat upon whose head parliament laid the accumulated sins,
real and imaginary, of the East India Company. If the acquisi-
tion of the Indian empire can be supported on ethical grounds,
Hastings needs no defence. No one who reads his private
correspondence will admit that even his least defensible acts
were dictated by dishonourable motives. It is more pleasing to
point out certain of his public measures upon which no difference
of opinion can arise. He was the first to attempt to open a trade
route with Tibet, and to organize a survey of Bengal and of the
eastern seas. It was he who persuaded the pundits of Bengal to
disclose the treasures of Sanskrit to European scholars. He
founded the Madrasa or college for Mahommedan education at
Calcutta, primarily out of his own funds; and he projected the
foundation of an Indian institute in England. The Bengal
Asiatic Society was established under his auspices, though he
yielded the post of president to Sir W. Jones. No Englishman
ever understood the native character so well. as Hastings; none
ever devoted himself more heartily to the promotion of every
scheme, great and small, that could advance the prosperity of
India. Natives and Anglo-Indians alike venerate his name, the
former as their first beneficent administrator, the latter as the
HASTINGS
59
most able and the most enlightened of their own class. If Clive's
sword conquered the Indian empire, it was the brain of Hastings
that planned the system of civil administration, and his genius
that saved the empire in its darkest hour.
See G. B. Malleson, Life of Warren Hastings (1894); G. W.
Forrest, The Administration of Warren Hastings (Calcutta, 1892);
Sir Charles Lawson, The Private Life of Warren Hastings (1895);
L. J. Trotter, Warren Hastings (" Rulers of India " series) (1890);
Sir Alfred Lyall, Warren Hastings (" English Men of Action " series)
(1889) ; F. M. Holmes, Four Heroes of India (1892) ; G. W. Hastings,
A Vindication of Warren Hastings (1909). Macaulay's famous essay,
though a classic, is very partial and inaccurate; and Burke's speech,
on the impeachment of Warren Hastings, is magnificent rhetoric.
The true historical view has been restored by Sir James Stephen's
Story of Nuncomar (1885) and by Sir John Strachey's Hastings and
the Rohilla War (1892), and it is enforced in some detail in Sydney
C. Grier's Letters of Warren Hastings to his Wife (1905), material for
which existed in a mass of documents relating to Hastings, acquired
by the British Museum. (J. S. Co.)
HASTINGS, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
and watering-place of Sussex, England, one of the Cinque Ports,
62 m. S.E. by S. from London, on the South Eastern & Chatham
and the London, Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1901),
65,528. It is picturesquely situated at the mouth of two narrow
valleys, and, being sheltered by considerable hills on the north
and east, has an especially mild climate. Eastward along the
coast towards Fairlight, and inland, the country is beautiful.
A parade fronts the English Channel, and connects the town on
the west with St Leonard's, which is included within the borough.
This is mainly a residential quarter, and has four railway stations
on the lines serving Hastings. Both Hastings and St Leonard's
have fine piers; there is a covered parade known as the Marina,
and the Alexandra Park of 75 acres was opened in 1891. There
are also numerous public gardens. The sandy beach is extensive,
and affords excellent bathing. On the brink of the West Cliff
stand a square and a circular tower and other fragments of the
castle, probably erected soon after the time of William the
Conqueror; together with the ruins, opened up by excavation
in 1824, of the castle chapel, a transitional Norman structure
no ft. long, with a nave, chancel and aisles. Besides the chapel
there was formerly a college, both being under the control of a
dean and secular canons. The deanery was held by Thomas
Becket, and one of the canonries by William of Wykeham. The
principal public buildings are the old parish churches of All
Saints and St Clements, the first containing in its register for
1619 the baptism of Titus Dates, whose father was rector of the
parish; numerous modern churches, the town hall (1880);
theatre, music hall and assembly rooms. The Brassey Institute
contains a public library, museum and art school. The Albert
Memorial clock-tower was erected in 1864. Educational institu-
tions include the grammar school (1883), school of science and
art (1878) and technical schools. At the west end of the town
are several hospitals and convalescent homes. The prosperity
of the town depends almost wholly on its reputation as a watering-
place, but there is a small fishing and boat-building industry.
In 1890 an act of parliament authorized the construction of a
harbour, but the work, begun in 1896, was not completed. The
fish-market beneath the castle cliff is picturesque. The parlia-
mentary borough, returning one member, falls within the Rye
division of the county. The county borough was created in
1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 10 aldermen
and 30 councillors. Area, 4857 acres.
Rock shelters on Castle Hill and numerous flint instruments
which have been discovered at Hastings point to an extensive
neolithic population, and there are ancient earthworks and a
promontory camp of unknown date. There is no evidence that
Hastings was a Roman settlement, but it was a place of some
note in the Anglo-Saxon period. In 795 land at Hastings
(Haestingaceaster, Haestingas, Haestingaport) is included in a
grant, which may possibly be a forgery, of a South Saxon chieftain
to the abbey of St Denis in France; and a royal mint was
established at the town by ^thelstan. The battle of Hastings
in 1066 described below was the first and decisive act of the
Norman Conquest. It was fought near the present Battle Abbey,
about 6 m. inland. After the Conquest William I. erected the
earthworks of the existing castle. By 1086 Hastings was a
borough and had given its name to the rape of Sussex in which
it lay. The town at that time had a harbour and a market.
Whether Hastings was one of the towns afterwards known as
the Cinque Ports at the time when they received their first charter
from Edward the Confessor is uncertain, but in the reign of
William I. it was undoubtedly among them. These combined
towns, of which Hastings was the head, had special liberties
and a separate jurisdiction under a warden. The only charter
peculiar to Hastings was granted in 1589 by Elizabeth, and
incorporated the borough under the name of " mayor, jurats
and commonalty," instead of the former title of " bailiff, jurats
and commonalty." Hastings returned two members to parlia-
ment probably from 1322, and certainly from 1366, until 1885,
when the number was reduced to one.
Battle of Hastings. On the 28th of September 1066, William
of Normandy, bent on asserting by arms his right to the English
crown, landed at Pevensey. King Harold, who had destroyed
the invaders of northern England at the battle of Stamford
Bridge in Yorkshire, on hearing the news hurried southward,
gathering what forces he could on the way. He took up his
position, athwart the road from Hastings to London, on a hill 1
some 6 m. inland from Hastings, with his back to the great
forest of Anderida (the Weald) and in front of him a long glacis-
like slope, at the bottom of which began the opposing slope of
Telham Hill. The English army was composed almost entirely
of infantry. The shire levies, for the most part destitute of body
armour and with miscellaneous and even improvised weapons,
were arranged on either flank of Harold's guards (huscarks),
picked men armed principally with the Danish axe and shield.
Before this position Duke William appeared on the morning
of the I4th of October. His host, composed not only of his
Norman vassals but of barons, knights and adventurers from all
quarters, was arranged in a centre and two wings, each corps
having its archers and arblasters in the front line, the rest of the
infantry in the second and the heavy armoured cavalry in the
third. Neither the arrows nor the charge of the second line
of foot-men, who, unlike the English, wore defensive mail, made
any impression on the English standing in a serried mass behind
their interlocked shields. 2
Then the heavy cavalry came on, led by the duke and his
brother Odo, and encouraged by the example of the minstrel
Taillefer, who rode forward, tossing and catching his sword,
into the midst of the English line before he was pulled down and
killed. All along the front the cavalry came to close quarters
with the defenders, but the long powerful Danish axes were
1 Freeman called this hill Senlac and introduced the fashion of
describing the battle as " the battle of Senlac." Mr J. H. Round,
however, proved conclusively that this name, being French (Sen-
lecque), could not have been in use at the time of the Conquest,
that the battlefield had in fact no name, pointing out that in William
of Malmesbury and in Domesday Book the battle is called " of
Hastings " (Bellum Hastingense) , while only one writer, Ordericus
Vitalis, describes it two hundred years after the event as Bellum
Senlacium. See Round, Feudal England (London, 1895), p. 333
et seq.
2 There is still a difference of opinion as to whether the English
were, or were not, defended by any other rampart than that of the
customary " shield-wall." Freeman, apparently as a result of a
misunderstanding of a passage in Henry of Huntingdon and the
slightly ambiguous verse of Wace in the Roman du Ron (11. 6991-
6994 and 11. 7815-7826), affirms that Harold turned " the battle as
far as possible into the likeness of a siege," by building round his
troops a " palisade " of solid timber (Norman Conquest, iii. 444):
This was proved to be a fable by J. H. Round, in the course of a
general attack on Freeman's historical method, which provoked the
professor's defenders to take up the cudgels on his behalf in a very
long and lively controversy. The result of this was that Freeman's
account was wholly discredited, though Round 's view that there was
no wall of any kind save the shield-wall is not generally accepted.
Professor Oman (Academy, June 9, 1894), for instance, holds that
there was " an abattis of some sort " set to hamper the advance
of cavalry (see also ENGLISH HISTORY, vol. ix., p. 474). Mr Round
sums up the controversy, from his point of view, in his Feudal
England, p. 340 et seq., where references to other monographs on
the subject will be found.
6o
HASTINGS HAT
as formidable as the halbert and the bill proved to be in battles
of later centuries, and they lopped off the arms of the assailants
and cut down their horses. The fire of the attack died out and
the left wing (Bretons) fled in rout. But as thefyrd levies broke
out of the line and pursued the Bretons down the hill in a wild,
formless mob, William's cavalry swung round and destroyed
them, and this suggested to the duke to repeat deliberately
what the B retons had done from fear. Another a d vance , followed
by a feigned retreat, drew down a second large body of the
English from the crest, and these in turn, once in the open, were
ridden over and slaughtered by the men-at-arms. Lastly,
these two disasters having weakened the defenders both
materially and morally, William subjected the huscarles, who
had stood fast when the fyrd broke its ranks, to a constant rain
of arrows, varied from time to time by cavalry charges. These
magnificent soldiers endured the trial for many hours, from
noon till close on nightfall; but at last, when the Norman
archers raised their bows so as to pitch the arrows at a steep
angle of descent in the midst of the huscarles, the strain became
too great. While some rushed forward alone or in twos and threes
to die in the midst of the enemy, the remainder stood fast, too
closely crowded almost for the wounded to drop. At last
Harold received a mortal wound, the English began to waver,
and the knights forced their way in. Only a remnant of the
defenders made its way back to the forest; and William, after
resting for a night on the hardly-won ground, began the work of
the Norman Conquest.
HASTINGS, a city and the county-seat of Adams county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., about 95 m. W. by S. of Lincoln. Pop.
(1890) 13,584; (1900) 7188 (1253 foreign-born); (1910) 9338.
Hastings is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Chicago & North-western, the Missouri Pacific and the St Joseph
& Grand Island railways. It is the seat of Hastings College
(Presbyterian, coeducational), opened in 1882, and having 286
students in 1908, and of the state asylum for the chronic insane.
The city carries on a considerable jobbing business for the farm-
ing region of which it is the centre and produce market. There
are a large foundry and several large brickyards here. Hastings
was settled in 1872, was incorporated in 1874 and was chartered
as a city in the same year.
HAT, a covering for the head worn by both sexes, and dis-
tinguished from the cap or bonnet by the possession of a brim.
The word in O.E. is licet, which is cognate with O. Frisian halt,
O.N. hotte, &c., meaning head-covering, hood ; it is distantly
related to the O.E. hod, hood, which is cognate with the German
for " hat," Hut. The history of the hat as part of the apparel
of both sexes, with the various changes in shape which it has
undergone, is treated in the article COSTUME.
Hats were originally made by the process of felting, and as
tradition ascribed the discovery of that very ancient operation
to St Clement, he was assumed as the patron saint of the craft.
At the present day the trade is divided into two distinct classes.
The first and most ancient is concerned with the manufacture
of felt hats, and the second has to do with the recent but now
most extensive and important manufacture of silk or dress hats.
In addition to these there is the important manufacture of straw
or plaited hats (see STRAW AND STRAW MANUFACTURES); and
hats are occasionally manufactured of materials and by processes
not included under any of these heads, but such manufactures
do not take a large or permanent position in the industry.
Felt Hats. There is a great range in the quality of felt hats:
the finer and more expensive qualities are made entirely of fur;
for commoner qualities a mixture of fur and wool is used; and for
the cheapest kinds wool alone is employed. The processes and
apparatus necessary for making hats of fur differ also from those
required in the case of woollen bodies; and in large manufactories
machinery is now generally employed for operations which at no
distant date were entirely manual. An outline of the operations
by which the old beaver hat was made will give an idea of the
manual processes in making a fur napped hat, and the apparatus
and mechanical processes employed in making ordinary hard and
soft felts will afterwards be noticed.
Hatters' fur consists principally of the hair of rabbits (technically
called coneys) and hares, with some proportion of nutria, musquash
and beavers' hair; and generally any parings and cuttings from
furriers are also used. Furs intended for felting are deprived of their
long coarse hairs, after which they are treated with a solution of
nitrate of mercury, an operation called carroting or secretage, whereby
the felting properties of the fur are greatly increased. The fur is
then cut by hand or machine from the skip, and in this state it is
delivered to the hat maker.
The old process of making a beaver hat was as follows. The
materials of a proper beaver consisted, for the body or foundation, of
rabbits' fur, and for the nap, of beaver fur, although the beaver was
often mixed with or supplanted by a more common fur. In pre-
paring the fur plate, the hatter weighed out a sufficient quantity
of rabbit fur for a single hat, and spread it out and combined it by
the operation of bowing. The bow or stang ABC (fig. i) was about
FIG. i.
7 ft. long, and it stretched a single cord of catgut D, which the
workman vibrated by means of a wooden pin E, furnished with a
half knob at each end. Holding the bow in his left hand, and the pin
in his right, he caused the vibrating string to come in contact with
the heap of tangled fur, which did not cover a space greater than that
of the hand. At each vibration some of the filaments started up to
the height of a few inches, and fell away from the mass, a little to
the right of the bow, their excursions being restrained by a concave
frame of wicker work called the basket. One half of the material
was first operated on, and by bowing and gathering, or a patting use
of the basket, the stuff was loosely matted into a triangular figure,
about 50 by 36 in., called a bat. In this formation care was taken to
work about two-thirds of the fur down towards what was intended
for the brim, and this having been effected, greater density was in-
duced by gentle pressure with the basket. It was then covered with
a wettish linen cloth, upon which was laid the hardening skin, a
piece of dry half-tanned horse hide. On this the workman pressed
until the stuff adhered closely to the damp cloth, in which it was then
doubled up, freely pressed with the hand, and laid aside. By this
process, called basoning, the bat became compactly felted and
thinned toward the sides and point. The other half of the fur was next
subjected to precisely the same processes, after which a cone-shaped
slip of stiff paper was laid on its surface, and the sides of the bat were
folded over ics edges to its form and size. It was then laid paper-side
downward upon the first bat, which was now replaced on the hurdle,
and its edges were transversely doubled over the introverted side-lays
of the second bat, thus giving equal thickness to the whole body.
In this condition it was reintroduced between folds of damp linen
cloth, and again hardened, so as to unite the two halves, the knitting
together of which was quickly effected. The paper was then with-
drawn, and the body in the form of a large cone removed to the
plank or battery room.
The battery consisted of an open iron boiler or kettle A (fig. 2),
filled with scalding hot water, with shelves, B, C, partly of mahogany
and partly of lead, slop-
ing down to it. Here
the body was first dipped
in the water, and then
withdrawn to the plank
to cool and drain, when
it was unfolded, rolled
gently with a pin tapering
towards the ends, turned,
and worked in every
direction, to toughen and
shrink it, and at the same
time prevent adhesion of
its sides. Stopping or
thickening any thin spots
seen on looking through
the body, was carefully
performed by dabbing on
additional stuff in succes-
FIG. 2.
sive supplies from the hot liquor with a brush frequently dipped into
the kettle, until the body was shrunk sufficiently (about one-half) and
thoroughly equalized. When quite dried, stiffening was effected
with a brush dipped into a thin varnish of shellac, and rubbed into
the body, the surface intended for the inside having much more
laid on it than the outer, while the brim was made to absorb many
times the quantity applied to any other part.
On being again dried, the body was ready to be covered with a nap
of beaver hair. For this, in inferior qualities, the hair of the otter,
nutria or other fine fur was sometimes substituted. The requisite
quantity of one or other of these was. taken and mixed with a pro-
portion of cotton, and the whole was bowed up into a thin uniform
lap. The cotton merely s
to enable the workman
11, aliu Lllc Wliuic w<ts uuvvju up liny a. ii
L merely served to give sufficient body to the material
workman to handle the lap. The body of the hat
HATCH, EDWIN HATCH
61
being damped, the workman spread over it a covering of this lap,
and by moistening and gentle patting with a brush the cut ends
of the hair penetrated and fixed themselves in the felt body. The
hat was then put into a coarse hair cloth, dipped and rolled in
the hot liquor until the fur was quite worked in, the cotton being
left on the surface loose and ready for removal. The blocking,
dyeing and finishing processes in the case of beaver hats were
similar to those employed for ordinary felts, except that greater care
and dexterity were required on the part of the workmen, and further
that the coarse hairs or kemps which might be in the fur were cut off
by shaving the surface with a razor. The nap also had to be laid in
one direction, smoothed and rendered glossy by repeated wettings,
ironings and brushings. A hat so finished was very durable and
much more light, cool and easy-fitting to the head than the silk hat
which has now so largely superseded it.
The first efficient machinery for making felt hats was devised in
America, and from the United States the machine-making processes
were introduced into England about the year 1858; and now in all
large establishments machinery such as that alluded to below is
employed. For the forming of hat bodies two kinds of machine are
used, according as the material employed is fur or wool. In the case
of fur, the essential portion of the apparatus is a " former," con-
sisting of a metal cone of the size and form of the body or bat to
be made, perforated all over with small holes. The cone is made to
revolve on its axis slowly over an orifice under which there is a
powerful fan, which maintains a strong inward draught of air
through the holes in the cone. At the side of the cone, and with
an opening towards it, is a trunk or box from which the fur to be
made into a hat is thrown out by the rapid revolution of a brush-
like cylinder, and as the cloud of separate hairs is expelled from
the trunk, the current of air being sucked through the cone carries
the fibres to it and causes them to cling closely to its surface. Thus
a coating of loose fibres is accumulated on the copper cone, and
these are kept in position only by the exhaust at work under it.
When sufficient for a hat body has been deposited, it is damped and a
cloth is wrapped round it ; then an outer cone is slipped over it and
the whole is removed for felting, while another copper cone is placed
in position for continuing the work. The fur is next felted by
being rolled and pressed, these operations being performed partly by
hand and partly by machine.
In the case of wool hats the hat or body is prepared by first
carding in a modified form of carding machine. The wool is divided
into two separate slivers as delivered from the cards, and these are
wound simultaneously on a double conical block of wood mounted
and geared to revolve slowly with a reciprocating horizontal motion,
so that there is a continual crossing and recrossing of the wool as
the sliver is wound around the cone. This diagonal arrangement of
the sliver is an essential feature in the apparatus, as thereby the
strength of the finished felt is made equal in every direction; and
when strained in the blocking the texture yields in a uniform manner
without rupture. The wool wound on the double block forms the
material of two hats, which are separated by cutting around the
median or base line, and slipping each half off at its own end. Into
each cone of wool or bat an " inlayer " is now placed to prevent the
inside from matting, after which they are folded in cloths, and placed
over a perforated iron plate through which steam is blown. When
well moistened and heated, they are placed between boards, and
subjected to a rubbing action sufficient to harden them for bearing
the subsequent strong planking or felting operations. The planking
of wool hats is generally done by machine, in some cases a form of
fulling mill being used; but in all forms the agencies are heat,
moisture, pressure, rubbing and turning.
When by thorough felting the hat bodies of any kind have been
reduced to dense leathery cones about one-half the size of the original
bat, they are dried, and, if hard felts are to be made, the bodies are
at this stage hardened or stiffened with a varnish of shellac. Next
follows the operations of blocking, in which the felt for the first time
assumes approximately the form it is ultimately to possess. For
this purpose the conical body is softened in boiling water, and
forcibly drawn over and over a hat-shaped wooden block. The
operation of dyeing next follows, and the finishing processes include
shaping on a block, over which crown and brim receive ultimately
their accurate form, and pouncing or pumicing, which consists of
smoothing the surface with fine emery paper, the hat being for this
purpose mounted on a rapidly revolving block. The trimmer finajly
binds the outer brim and inserts the lining, after which the brim
may be given more or less of a curl or turn over according to pre-
vailing fashion.
Silk flats. The silk hat, which has now become co-extensive with
civilization, is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It
was invented in Florence about 1760, but it was more than half a
century before it was worn to any great extent.
A silk hat consists of a light stiff body covered with a plush of
silk, the manufacture of which in a brilliant glossy condition is the
most important element in the industry. Originally the bodies
were made of felt and various other materials, but now calico is
chiefly used. The calico is first stiffened with a varnish of shellac,
and then cut into pieces sufficient for crown, side and brim. The
side-piece is wound round a wooden hat block, and its edges are
joined by hot ironing, and the crown-piece is put on and similarly
attached to the side. The brim, consisting of three thicknesses of
calico cemented together, is now slipped over and brought to its
position, and thereafter a second side-piece and another crown are
cemented on. The whole of the body, thus prepared, now receives
a coat of size, and subsequently it is varnished over, and thus it is
ready for the operation of covering. In covering this body, the
under brim, generally of merino, is first attached, then the upper
brim, and lastly the crown and side sewn together are drawn over.
All these by hot ironing and stretching are drawn smooth and tight,
and as the varnish of the body softens with the heat, body and coyer
adhere all over to each other without wrinkle or pucker. Dressing
and polishing by means of damping, brushing and ironing, come
next, after which the hat is " velured " in a revolving machine by
the application of haircloth and velvet velures, which cleans the nap
and gives it a smooth and glossy surface. The brim has only then to
be bound, the linings inserted, and the brim finally curled, when
the hat is ready for use.
HATCH, EDWIN (1835-1889), English theologian, was born
at Derby on the I4th of September 1835, and was educated at
King Edward's school, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee,
afterwards bishop of Manchester. He had many struggles to
pass through in early life, which tended to discipline his character
and to form the habits of severe study and the mental independ-
ence for which he came to be distinguished. Hatch became
scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford, took a second-class in
classics in 1857, and won the Ellerton prize in 1858. He was
professor of classics in Trinity College, Toronto, from 1859 to
1862, when he became rector of the high school at Quebec.
In 1867 he returned to Oxford, and was made vice-principal of
St Mary Hall, a post which he held until 1885. In 1883 he was
presented to the living of Purleigh in Essex, and in 1884 was
appointed university reader in ecclesiastical history. In 1880
he was Bampton lecturer, and from 1880 to 1884 Grinfield
lecturer on the Septuagint. In 1883 the university of Edinburgh
conferred on him the D.D. degree. He was the first editor of
the university official Gazette (1870), and of the Student's Hand-
book to the University. A reputation acquired through certain
contributions to the Dictionary of Christian Antiquities was
confirmed by his treatises On the Organization of the Early
Christian Churches (1881, his Bampton lectures), and on The
Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages on the Christian Church
(the Hibbert lectures for 1888). These works provoked no little
criticism on account of the challenge they threw down to the
high-church party, but the research and fairness displayed were
admitted on all hands. The Bampton lectures were translated
into German by Harnack. Among his other works are The
Growth of Church Institutions (1887); Essays in Biblical Greek
(1889); A Concordance to the Septuagint (in collaboration with
H. A. Redpath); Towards Fields of Light (verse, 1889); The
God of Hope (sermons with memoir, 1890). Hatch died on the
loth of November 1889.
An appreciation by W. Sanday appeared in The Expositor for
February 1890.
HATCH, i. (In Mid. Eng. hacche; the word is of obscure
origin, but cognate forms appear in Swed. hacka, and Dan.
hackke; it has been connected with " hatch," grating, with
possible reference to a coop, and with " hack " in the sense
" to peck," of chickens coming out of the shell), to bring out
young from the egg, by incubation or other process, natural or
artificial. The word is also used as a substantive of a brood of
chickens brought out from the eggs. " Hatchery " is particularly
applied to a place for the hatching of fish spawn, where the
natural process is aided by artificial means. In a figurative
sense " to hatch " is often used of the development or contrivance
of a plot or conspiracy.
2. (From the Fr. hacker, to cut, hache, hatchet), to engrave
or draw by means of cutting lines on wood, metal, &c., or to
ornament by inlaying with strips of some other substance as
gold or silver. Engraved lines, especially those used in shading,
are called " hatches " or " hachures " (see HACHURE).
3. (O.E. hcec, a gate, rack in a stable; found in various
Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hek, Dan. hekke; the ultimate
origin is obscure; Skeat suggests a connexion with the root
seen in " hook "), the name given to the lower half of a divided
HATCHET- -HATHERLEY, BARON
door, as in " buttery-hatch," the half-door leading from the
buttery or kitchen, through which the dishes could be passed
into the dining-hall. It was used formerly as another name for
a ship's deck, and thus the phrase " under hatches " meant
properly below deck; the word is now applied to the doors of
grated framework covering the openings (the " hatchways ")
which lead from one deck to another into the hold through
which the cargo is lowered. In Cornwall the word is used to
denote certain dams or mounds used to prevent the tin-washes
and the water coming from the stream-works from flowing into
the fresh rivers.
HATCHET (adapted from the Fr. hachelte, diminutive of hache,
axe, hacher, to cut, hack), a small, light form of axe with a short
handle (see TOOL) ; for the war-hatchet of the North American
Indians and the symbolical ceremonies connected 'with it see
TOMAHAWK.
HATCHETTITE, sometimes termed Mountain Tallow, Mineral
Adipocire, or Adipocerite, a mineral hydrocarbon occurring in
the Coal-measures of Belgium and elsewhere, occupying in some
cases the interior of hollow concretions of iron-ore, but more
generally the cavities of fossil shells or crevices in the rocks.
It is of yellow colour, and translucent, but darkens and becomes
opaque on exposure. It has no odour, is greasy to the touch, and
has a slightly glistening lustre. Its hardness is that of soft
wax. The melting point is 46 to 47 C., and the composition is
C. 85-55, H. 14-45.
HATCHMENT, properly, in heraldry, an escutcheon or armorial
shield granted for some act of distinction or " achievement,"
of which word it is a corruption through such forms as atcheament,
achement, hachemenl, &c. " Achievement " is an adaptation
of the Fr. achevement, from achever, a chef venir, Lat. ad caput
venire, to come to a head, or conclusion, hence accomplish,
achieve. The term " hatchment " is now usually applied to
funeral escutcheons or armorial shields enclosed in a black
lozenge-shaped frame suspended against the wall of a deceased
person's house. It is usually placed over the entrance at the
level of the second floor, and remains for from six to twelve
months, when it is removed to the parish church. This custom
is falling into disuse, though still not uncommon. It is usual to
hang the hatchment of a deceased head of a house at the univer-
sities of Oxford and Cambridge over the entrance to his lodge
or residence.
If for a bachelor the hatchment bears upon a shield his arms,
crest, and other appendages, the whole on a black ground. If
for a single woman, her arms are represented upon a lozenge,
bordered with knotted ribbons,
also on a black ground. If the
hatchment be for a married
man ( as in the illustration), his
arms upon a shield impale those
of his surviving wife; or if she
be an heiress they are placed
upon a scutcheon of pretence,
and crest and other appendages
are added. The dexter half of
the ground is black, the sinister
white. For a wife whose hus-
band is alive the same arrange-
ment is used, but the sinister
ground only is black. For a
widower the same is used as
for a married man, but the
whole ground is black; for a
widow the husband's arms are given with her own, but upon a
lozenge, with ribbons, without crest or appendages, and the
whole ground is black. When there have been two wives or
two husbands the ground is divided into three parts per pale,
and the division behind the arms of the survivor is white.
Colours and military or naval emblems are sometimes placed
behind the arms of military or naval officers. It is thus easy
to discern from the hatchment the sex, condition and quality,
and possibly the name of the deceased.
In Scottish hatchments it is not unusual to place the arms
of the father and mother of the deceased in the two lateral
angles of the lozenge, and sometimes the 4, 8 or 16 genealogical
escutcheons are ranged along the margin.
HATFIELD, a town in the Mid or St Albans parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, 172 m. N. of London by the
Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901), 47 54. It lies picturesquely
on the flank of a wooded hill, and about its foot, past which runs
the Great North Road. The church of St Etheldreda, well
situated towards the top of the hill, contains an Early English
round arch with the dog-tooth moulding, -but for the rest is
Decorated and Perpendicular, and largely restored. The chapel
north of the chancel is known as the Salisbury chapel, and was
erected by Robert Cecil, first earl of Salisbury (d. 1612), who
was buried here. It is in a mixture of classic and Gothic styles.
In a private portion of the churchyard is buried, among others
of the family, the third marquess of Salisbury (d. 1903). In the
vicinity is Hatfield House, close to the site of a palace of the
bishops of Ely, which was erected about the beginning of the
1 2th century. From this palace comes the proper form of the
name of the town, Bishop's Hatfield. In 1538 the manor was
resigned to Henry VIII. by Bishop Thomas Goodrich of Ely,
in exchange for certain lands in Cambridge, Essex and Norfolk;
and after that monarch the palace was successively the residence
of Edward VI. immediately before his accession, of Queen
Elizabeth during the reign of her sister Mary, and of James I.
The last-named exchanged it in 1607 for Theobalds, near
Cheshunt, in the same county, an estate of Robert Cecil, earl of
Salisbury, in whose family Hatfield House has since remained.
The west wing of the present mansion, built for Cecil in 1608-
1611, was destroyed by fire in November 1835, the dowager
marchioness of Salisbury, widow of the ist marquess, perishing
in the flames. Hatfield House was built, and has been restored
and maintained, in the richest style of its period, both without
and within. The buildings of mellowed red brick now used as
stables and offices are, however, of a period far anterior to Cecil's
time, and are probably part of the erection of John Morton,
bishop of Ely in 1478-1486. The park measures some 10 m,
in circumference. From the eminence on which the mansion
stands the ground falls towards the river Lea, which here expands
into a small lake. Beyond this is a rare example of a monks'
walled vineyard. In the park is also an ancient oak under
which Elizabeth is said to have been seated when the news of her
sister's death was brought to her. Brocket Park is another fine
demesne, at the neighbouring village of Lemsford, and the
Brocket chapel in Hatfield church contains memorials of the
families who have held this seat.
HATHERLEY, WILLIAM PAGE WOOD, IST BARON (1801-
1881), lord chancellor of Great Britain, son of Sir Matthew
.Wood, a London alderman and lord mayor who became famous
for befriending Queen Caroline and braving George IV., was born
in London on the 29th of November 1801. He was educated
at Winchester, Geneva University, and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, where he became a fellow after being 24th wrangler in
1824. He entered Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in
1824, studying conveyancing in Mr John Tyrrell's chambers.
He soon obtained a good practice as an equity draughtsman
and before parliamentary committees, and in 1830 married
Miss Charlotte Moor. In 1845 he became Q.C., and in 1847 was
elected to parliament for the city of Oxford as a Liberal. In
1849 he was appointed vice-chancellor of the county palatine
of Lancaster, and in 1851 was made solicitor-general and knighted,
vacating that position in 1852. When his party returned to
power in 1853, he was raised to the bench as a vice-chancellor.
In 1868 he was made a lord justice of appeal, but before the end
of the year was selected by Mr Gladstone to be lord chancellor,
and was raised to the peerage as Lord Hatherley of Down
Hatherley. He retired in 1872 owing to failing eyesight, but sat
occasionally as a law lord. His wife's death in 1878 was a great
blow, from which he never recovered, and he died in London
on the loth of July 1881. Dean Hook said that Lord Hatherley
who was a sound and benevolent supporter of the Church of
HATHERTON, BARON HATTON, SIR C.
England was the best man he had ever known. He was a
particularly clear-headed lawyer, and his judgments always
delivered extempore commanded the greatest confidence both
with the public and the legal profession. He left no issue and
the title became extinct on his death.
HATHERTON, EDWARD JOHN LITTLETON, IST BARON
(1791-1863), was born on the i8th of March 1791 and was
educated at Rugby school and at Brasenose College, Oxford.
He was the only son of Moreton Walhouse of Hatherton, Stafford-
shire; but in 1812, in accordance with the will of his great-uncle
Sir Edward Littleton, Bart. (d. 1812), he took the name of
Littleton. From 1812 to 1832 he was member of parliament for
Staffordshire and from 1832 to 1835 for the southern division of
that county, being specially prominent in the House of Commons
as an advocate of Roman Catholic emancipation. In January
1833, against his own wish, he was put forward by the Radicals
as a candidate for the office of speaker, but he was not elected and
in May 1833 he became chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of
Ireland in the ministry of Earl Grey. His duties in this capacity
brought him frequently into conflict with O'Connell, but he was
obviously unequal to the great Irishman, although he told his
colleagues to " leave me to manage Dan." He had to deal with
the vexed and difficult question of the Irish tithes on which the
government was divided, and with his colleagues had to face the
problem of a new coercion act. Rather hastily he made a
compact with O'Connell on the assumption that the new act could
not contain certain clauses which were part of the old act.
The clauses, however, were inserted; O'Connell charged Littleton
with deception; and in July 1834 Grey, Althorp (afterwards
Earl Spencer) and the Irish secretary resigned. The two latter
were induced to serve under the new premier, Lord Melbourne,
and they remained in office until Melbourne was dismissed in
November 1834. In 1835 Littleton was created Baron Hatherton,
and he died at his Staffordshire residence, Teddesley Hall, on the
4th of May 1863. In 1888 his grandson, Edward George Littleton
(b. 1842), became 3rd Baron Hatherton.
See Hatherton's Memoirs and Correspondence relating to Political
Occurrences, June-July 1834, edited by H. Reeve (1872); and Sir
S. Walpole, History 0} England, vol. iii. (1890).
HATHRAS, a town of British India, in the Aligarh district
of the United Provinces, 29 m. N. of Agra. Pop. (1901), 42,578.
At the end of the i8th century it was held by a Jat chieftain,
whose ruined fort still stands at the east end of the town, and
was annexed by the British in 1803, but insubordination on
the part of the chief necessitated the siege of the fort in 1817.
Since it came under British rule, Hathras has rapidly risen to
commercial importance, and now ranks second to Cawnpore
among the trading centres of the Doab. The chief articles of
commerce are sugar and grain, there are also factories for ginning
and pressing cotton, and a cotton spinning-mill. Hathras is
connected by a light railway with Muttra, and by a branch with
Hathras junction, on the East Indain main line.
HATTIESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Forrest county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Hastahatchee (or Leaf) river, about
90 m. S.E. of Jackson. Pop. (1890) 1172; (1900) 4175 (1687
negroes); (1910) 11,733. Hattiesburg is served by the Gulf &Ship
Island, the Mississippi Central, the New Orleans, Mobile &
Chicago and the New Orleans & North Eastern railways. The
officers and employees of the Gulf & Ship Island railway own and
maintain a hospital here. The city is in a rich farming, truck-
gardening and lumbering "ountry. Among its manufactures
are lumber (especially yellow-pine), wood-alcohol, turpentine,
paper and pulp, fertilizers, wagons, mattresses and machine-shop
products. Hattiesburg was founded about 1882 and was nahied
in honour of the wife of W. H. Hardy, a railway official, who
planned a town at the intersection of the New Orleans & North-
Eastern (which built a round house and repair shops here in 1885)
and the Gulf & Ship Island railways. The latter railway was
opened from Gulfport to Hattiesburg in January 1897, and from
Hattiesburg to Jackson in September 1900. Hattiesburg was
incorporated as a town in 1884 and was chartered as a city in
1899. Formerly the " court house " of the second judicial
district of Perry county, Hattiesburg became on the ist of
January 1908 the county-seat of Forrest county, erected from
the W. part of Perry county.
HATTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia, on the river Ruhr, 21 m. N.E. of Diisseldorf.
Pop. ( 1 900) , 89 7 5 . It has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
church. The manufactures include tobacco, and iron and steel
goods. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the Isenburg,
demolished in 1 2 26. Hattingen, which received communal rights
in 1396, was one of the Hanse towns.
HATTO I. (c. 850-913), archbishop of Mainz, belonged to a
Swabiah family, and was probably educated at the monastery
of Reichenau, of which be became abbot in 888. He soon became
known to the German king, Arnulf, who appointed him arch-
bishop of Mainz in 891; and he became such a trustworthy
and confidential counsellor that he was popularly called " the
heart of the king." He presided over the important synod at
Tribur in 895, and accompanied the king to Italy in 894 and
895, where he was received with great favour by Pope Formosus.
In 899, when Arnulf died, Hatto became regent of Germany, and
guardian of the young king, Louis the Child, whose authority
he compelled Zwentibold, king of Lorraine, an illegitimate son of
Arnulf, to recognize. During these years he did not neglect
his own interests, for in 896 he secured for himself the abbey of
Ellwangen and in 898 that of Lorsch . He assisted the Franconian
family of the Conradines in its feud with the Babenbergs, and
was accused of betraying Adalbert, count of Babenberg, to
death. He retained his influence during the whole of the reign
of Louis; and on the king's death in 911 was prominent in
securing the election of Conrad, duke of Fran'conia, to the
vacant throne. When trouble arose between Conrad and Henry,
duke of Saxony, afterwards King Henry the Fowler, the attitude
of Conrad was ascribed by the Saxons to the influence of Hatto,
who wished to prevent Henry from securing authority in Thur-
ingia, where the see of Mainz had extensive possessions. He
was accused of complicity in a plot to murder Duke Henry, who
in return ravaged the archiepiscopal lands in Saxony and
Thuringia. He died on the 1 5th of May 913, one tradition saying
he was struck by lightning, and another that he was thrown alive
by the devil into the crater of Mount Etna. His. memory was
long regarded in Saxony with great abhorrence, and stories of
cruelty and treachery gathered round his name. The legend of
the Mouse Tower at Bingen is connected with Hatto II., who
was archbishop of Mainz from 968 to 970. This Hatto built
the church of St George on the island of Reichenau, was generous
to the see of Mainz and to the abbeys of Fulda and Reichenau,
and was a patron of the chronicler Regino, abbot of Priim.
See E. Dummler, Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reichs (Leipzig,
1887-1888); G. Phillips, Die grosse Synode von Tribur (Vienna,
1865) ; J. Heidemann, Hatto I., Erzbischof von Mainz (Berlin, 1865) ;
G. Waitz, Jahrbucher der deutschen Geschichte unter Heinrich I.
(Berlin and Leipzig, 1863); and J. F. Bohmer, Regesta archiepisco-
porum Maguntinensium, edited by C. Will (Innsbruck, 1877-1886).
HATTON, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1540-1591), lord chancellor of
England and favourite of Queen Elizabeth, was a son of William
Hatton (d. 1546) of Holdenby, Northamptonshire, and was
educated at St Mary Hall, Oxford. A handsome and accom-
plished man, being especially distinguished for his elegant
dancing, he soon attracted the notice of Queen Elizabeth, became
one of her gentlemen pensioners in 1564, and captain of her
bodyguard in 1572. He received numerous estates and many
positions of trust and profit from the queen, and suspicion was
not slow to assert that he was Elizabeth's lover, a chaige which
was definitely made by Mary queen of Scots in 1584. Hatton,
who was probably innocent in this matter, had been made vice-
chamberlain of the royal household and a member of the privy
council in 1578, and had been a member of parliament since 1571,
first representing the borough of Higham Ferrers and afterwards
the county of Northampton. In 1578 he was knighted, and was
now regarded as the queen's spokesman in the House of Commons,
being an active agent in the prosecutions of John Stubbs and
William Parry. He was one of those who were appointed to
arrange a marriage between Elizabeth and Francis, duke of
6 4
HATTON, J. L. HAUCH
Alencon, in 1581; was a member of the court which tried
Anthony Babington in 1586; and was one of the commissioners
who found Mary queen of Scots guilty. He besought Elizabeth
not to marry the French prince; and according to one account
repeatedly assured Mary that he would fetch her to London if
the English queen died. Whether or no this story be true,
Hatton's loyalty was not questioned; and he was the foremost
figure in that striking scene in the House of Commons in December
1584, when four hundred kneeling members repeated after him
a prayer for Elizabeth's safety. Having been the constant
recipient of substantial marks of the queen's favour, he vigor-
ously denounced Mary Stuart in parliament, and advised William
Davison to forward the warrant for her execution to Fother-
ingay. In the same year (1587) Hatton was made lord chan-
cellor, and although he had no great knowledge of the law, he
appears to have acted with sound sense and good judgment in
his new position. He is said to have been a Roman Catholic
in all but name, yet he treated religious questions in a moderate
and tolerant way. He died in London on the 2oth of November
1591, and was buried in St Paul's cathedral. Although mention
has been made of a secret marriage, Hatton appears to have
remained single, and his large and valuable estates descended
to his nephew, Sir William Newport, who took the name of
Hatton. Sir Christopher was a knight of the Garter and chan-
cellor of the university of Oxford. Elizabeth frequently showed
her affection for her favourite in an extravagant and ostentatious
manner. She called him her mouton, and forced the bishop of
Ely to give him the freehold of Ely Place, Holborn, which became
his residence, his name being perpetuated in the neighbouring
Hatton Garden. Hatton is reported to have been a very mean
man, but he patronized men of letters, and among his friends
was Edmund Spenser. He wrote the fourth act of a tragedy,
Tancred and Gismund, and his death occasioned several pane-
gyrics in both prose and verse.
When Hatton's nephew, Sir William Hatton, died without
sons in 1597, his estates passed to a kinsman, another Sir Christ-
opher Hatton (d. 1619), whose son and successor, Christopher
(c. 1605-1670), was elected a member of the Long Parliament in
1640, and during the Civil War was a partisan of Charles I.
In 1643 he was created Baron Hatton of Kirby; and, acting as
comptroller of the royal household, he represented the king during
the negotiations at Uxbridge in 1645. Later he lived for some
years in France, and after the Restoration was made a privy
councillor and governor of Guernsey. He died at Kirby on
the 4th of July 1670, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
By his wife Elizabeth (d. 1672), daughter of Sir Charles Montagu
of Boughton, he had two sons and three daughters. His eldest
son Christopher (1632-1706), succeeded his father as Baron
Hatton and also as governor of Guernsey in 1670. In 1683 he
was created Viscount Hatton of Grendon. He was married three
times, and left two sons: William (1690-1760), who succeeded
to his father's titles and estates, and Henry Charles (c. 1700-
1762), who enjoyed the same dignities for a short time after his
brother's death. When Henry Charles died, the titles became
extinct, and the family is now represented by the Finch-Hattons,
earls of Winchilsea and Nottingham, whose ancestor, Daniel
Finch, 2nd earl of Nottingham, married Anne (d. 1743), daughter
of the ist Viscount Hatton.
See Sir N. H. Nicolas, Life and Times of Sir Christopher Hatton
(London, 1847) ; and Correspondence of the Family of Ilatton, being
chiefly Letters addressed to Christopher, first Viscount Ilatton, 1601-
1704, edited with introduction by E. M. Thompson (London, 1878).
HATTON, JOHN LIPTROT (1809-1886), English musical
composer, was born at Liverpool on the i2th of October 1809.
He was virtually a self-taught musician, and besides holding
several appointments as organist in Liverpool, appeared as an
actor on the Liverpool stage, subsequently finding his way to
London as a member of Macready's company at Drury Lane
in 1832. Ten years after this he was appointed conductor
at the same theatre for a series of English operas, and in 1843
his own first operetta, Queen of the Thames, wasgiven with success.
Staudigl, the eminent German bass, was a member of the com-
pany, and at his suggestion Hatton wrote a more ambitious work,
Pascal Bruno, which, in a German translation, was presented at
Vienna, with Staudig! in the principal part; the opera con-
tained a song, " Revenge," which the basso made very popular
in England, though the piece as a whole was not successful
enough to be produced here. Hatton's excellent pianoforte
playing attracted much attention in Vienna; he took the
opportunity of studying counterpoint under Sechter, and wrote
a number of songs, obviously modelled on the style of German
classics. In 1846 he appeared at the Hereford festival as a singer,
and also played a pianoforte concerto of Mozart. He undertook
concert tours about this time with Sivori, Vieuxtemps and others.
From 1848 to 1850 he was in America; on his return he became
conductor of the Glee and Madrigal Union, and from about
1853 was engaged at the Princess's theatre to provide and con-
duct the music for Charles Kean's Shakespearean revivals. He
seems to have kept this apppointment for about five years. In
1856 a cantata, Robin Hood, was given at the Bradford festival,
and a third opera, Rose, or Love's Ransom, at Covent Garden in
1864, without much success. In 1866 he went again to America,
and from this year Hatton held the post of accompanist at the
Ballad Concerts, St James's Hail, for nine seasons. In 1875
he went to Stuttgart, and wrote an oratorio, Hezekiah, given
at the Cyrstal Palace in 1877; like all his larger works it met
with very moderate success. Hatton excelled in the lyrical
forms of music, and, in spite of his distinct skill in the severer
styles of the madrigal, &c., he won popularity by such songs as
" To Anthea," " Good-bye, Sweetheart," and " Simon the
Cellarer," the first of which may be called a classic in its own
way. His glees and part-songs, such as " When Evening's
Twilight," are still reckoned among the best of their class;
and he might have gained a place of higher distinction among
English composers had it not been for his irresistible animal
spirits and a want of artistic reverence, which made it uncertain
in his younger days whether, when he appeared at a concert,
he would play a fugue of Bach or sing a comic song. He died
at Margate on the 2oth of September 1886.
HAUCH, JOHANNES CARSTEN (1790-1872), Danish poet,
was born of Danish parents residing at Frederikshald in Norway,
on the 1 2th of May 1790. In 1802 he lost his mother, and in
1803 returned with his father to Denmark. In 1807 he fought
as a volunteer against the English invasion. He entered the
university of Copenhagen in 1808, and in 1821 took his doctor's
degree. He became the friend and associate of Steffens and
Oehlenschlager, warmly adopting the romantic views about
poetry and philosophy. His first two dramatic poems, The
Journey to Cinistan and The Power of Fancy, appeared in 1816,
and were followed by a lyrical drama, Rosaura (1817); but
these works attracted little or no attention. Hauch therefore
gave up all hope of fame as a poet, and resigned himself entirely
to the study of science. He took his doctor's degree in zoology
in 1821, and went abroad to pursue his studies. At Nice he
had an accident which obliged him to submit to the amputation
of one foot. He returned to literature, publishing a dramatized
fairy tale, the Hamadryad, and the tragedies of Bajazet, Tiberius,
Gregory VII., in 1828-1829, The Death of Charles V. (1831),
and The Siege of Maastricht (1832). These plays were violently
attacked and enjoyed no success. Hauch then turned to novel-
writing, and published in succession five romances Vilhelm
Zabern (1834); The Alchemist (1836); A Polish Family (1839);
The Castle on the Rhine (1845); and Robert Fulton (1853).
In 1842 he collected his shorter Poems. In 1846 he was
appointed professor of the Scandinavian languages in Kiel,
but returned to Copenhagen when the war broke out in 1848.
About this time his dramatic talent was at its height, and he
produced one admirable tragedy after another; among these
may be mentioned Svend Grathe (1841); The Sisters at Kinne-
kulle (1849); Marshal Stig (1850); Honour Lost and Won (1851);
and Tycho Brake's Youth (1852). From 1858 to 1860 Hauch
was director of the Danish National Theatre; he produced
three more tragedies The King's Favourite (1859); Henry of
Navarre (1863); and Julian the Apostate (1866). In 1861 he
HAUER HAUGE
published another collection of Lyrical Poems and Romances;
and in 1862 the historical epic of Valdemar Seir, volumes which
contain his best work. P'rom 1851, when he succeeded Oehlen-
schlager, to his death, he held the honorary post of professor
of aesthetics at the university of Copenhagen. He died in Rome
in 1872. Hauch was one of the most prolific of the Danish
poets, though his writings are unequal in value. His lyrics and
romances in verse are always fine in form and often strongly
imaginative. In all his writings, but especially in his tragedies,
he displays a strong bias in favour of what is mystical and
supernatural. Of his dramas Marshal Stig is perhaps the best,
and of his novels the patriotic tale of Vilhelm Zabern is admired
the most.
See G. Brandes, " Carsten Hauch " (1873) in DanskeDigtere (1877) ;
F. Ronning, J. C. Hauch (1890), and in Dansk Biografisk-Lexicon,
(vol. vii. Copenhagen, 1893). Hauch's novels were collected (1873
1874) and his dramatic works (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1852-1859).
HAUER, FRANZ, RITTER VON (1822-1899), Austrian geologist,
born in Vienna on the 3oth of January 1822, was son of Joseph
von Hauer (1778-1863), who was equally distinguished as a high
Austrian official and authority on finance and as a palaeontologist.
He was educated in Vienna, afterwards studied geology at
the mining academy of Schemnitz (1839-1843), and for a time
was engaged in official mining work in Styria. In 1846 he
became assistant to W. von Haidinger at the minera logical
museum in Vienna; three years later he joined the imperial
geological institute, and in 1866 he was appointed director.
In 1886 he became superintendent of the imperial natural history
museum in Vienna. Among his special geological works are
those on the Cephalopoda of theTriassicand Jurassicformations
of Alpine regions (1855-1856). His most important general
work was that of the Geological Map of Austro-Hungary, in
twelve sheets (1867-1871; 4th ed., 1884, including Bosnia
and Montenegro). This map was accompanied by a series of
explanatory pamphlets. In 1882 he was awarded the Wollaston
medal by the Geological Society of London. In 1892 von Hauer
became a life-member of the upper house of the Austrian parlia-
ment. He died on the 2oth of March 1899.
PUBLICATIONS. Beitrage zur Paldontolographie von Osterreich
(18581859); Die Geologic und Hire Anwendung auf die Kenntnis
der Bodcnbeschajfenheit der osterr.-ungar. Monarchie (1875; ed. 2,
1878).
Memoir by Dr E. Tietze ; Jahrbuch der K. K. geolog. Reichsanslalt
(1899, reprinted 1900, with portrait).
HAUFF, WILHELM (1802-1827), German poet and novelist,
was born at Stuttgart on the 29th of November 1802, the son
of a secretary in the ministry of foreign affairs. Young Hauff
lost his father when he was but seven years of age, and his early
education was practically self-gained in the library of his maternal
grandfather at Tubingen, to which place his mother had removed.
In 1818 he was sent to the Klosterschule at Blaubeuren, whence
he passed in 1820 to the university of Tubingen. In four years
he completed his philosophical and theological studies, and on
leaving the university became tutor to the children of the famous
Wurttemberg minister of war, General Baron Ernst Eugen von
Hugel (1774-1849), and for them wrote his Marchen, which he
published in his Miirchenalmanach auf das Jahr 1826. He also
wrote there the first part of the Mitteilungen aus den Memoiren
des Satan (1826) and Der Mann im Monde (1825). The latter,
a parody of the sentimental and sensual novels of H. Clauren
(pseudonymof Karl Gottlieb Samuel Heun[i77i-i8s4l), became,
in course of composition, a close imitation of that author's style
and was actually published under his name. Clauren, in con-
sequence, brought an action for damages against Hauff and
gained his case. Whereupon Plauff followed up the attack in
hi$ witty and sarcastic Kontroverspredigt uber H. Clauren und
den Mann im Monde (1826) and attained his original object
the moral annihilation of the mawkish and unhealthy literature
with which Clauren was flooding the country. Meanwhile,
animated by Sir Walter Scott's novels, Hauff wrote the historical
romance Lichlenstein (1826), which acquired great popularity
in Germany and especially in Swabia, treating as it did the
most interesting period in the history of that country, the reign
xni. 3
of Duke Ulrich (1487-1550). While on a journey to France,
the Netherlands and north Germany he wrote the second part
of the Memoiren des Satan and some short novels, among them
the charming Bettlerin iiom Pont des Arts and his masterpiece,
the Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller (1827). He also published
some short poems which have passed into Volkslieder, among
them Morgenrot, Morgenrot, leuchtest mir zum friihen Tod;
and Steh' ich in finstrer Mittcrnacht. In January 1827, Hauff
undertook the editorship of the Stuttgart Morgenblatt and in
the following month married, but his happiness was prematurely
cut short by his death from fever on the i8th of November 1827.
Considering his brief life, Hauff was an extraordinarily prolific
writer. The freshness and originality of his talent, his inventive-
ness, and his genial humour have won him a high place among the
south German prose writers of the early nineteenth century.
His Sdmtliche Werke were published, with a biography, by
G. Schwab (3 vols., 1830-1834; 5 vols., i8th ed., 1882), and by
F. Bobertag (1891-1897), and a selection by M. Mendheim (3 vols.,
1891). For his life cf. J. Klaiber, Wilhelm Hauff, ein Lebensbild
(1881); M. Mendheim, Hauffs Leben und Werke (1894); and
H. Hofmann, W. Hauff (1902).
HAUG, MARTIN (1827-1876), German Orientalist, was born
at Ostdorf near Balingen. Wurttemberg, on the 3oth of January
1827. He became a pupil in the gymnasium at Stuttgart at a
comparatively late age, and in 1848 he entered the university
of Tubingen, where he studied Oriental languages, especially
Sanskrit. He afterwards attended lectures in Gottingen, and
in 1854 settled as Privatdozent at Bonn. In 1856 he removed
to Heidelberg, where he assisted Bunsen in his literary under-
takings; and in 1859 he accepted an invitation to India, where
he became superintendent of Sanskrit studies and professor of
Sanskrit in Poona. Here his acquaintance with the Zend
language and literature afforded him excellent opportunities
for extending his knowledge of this branch of literature. The
result of his researches was a volume of Essays on the sacred
language, writings and religion of the Parsees (Bombay, 1862).
Having returned to Stuttgart in 1866, he was called to Munich
as professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in 1868.
He died on the 3rd of June 1876.
Besides the Essays on the Parsees, of which a new edition, by
E. W. West, greatly enriched from the posthumous papers of the
author, appeared in 1878, Haug published a number of works of
considerable importance to the student of the literatures of ancient
India and Persia. They include Die Pehlewisprache und der Bunde-
hesch (1854) ; Die Schrfft und Sprache der zweiten Keilschriftgattung
(1855); Die funf Cathas, edited, translated and expounded (1858-
1860) ; an edition, with translation and explanation, of the Aitareya
Brahmana of the Rigveda (Bombay, 1863), which is accounted his
best work in the province of ancient Indian literature; A Lecture
on an original Speech of Zoroaster (1865); An old Zend-Pahlavi
Glossary (1867); Uber den Charakter der Pehlewisprache (1869);
Das 18. Kapitel des Wendidad (1869); Uber das Ardai-Viraf-
nameh (1870) ; An old Pahlavi-Pazand Glossary (1870) ; and Vedische
Rdtselfragen und Rdtselspruche (1875).
For particulars of Haug's life and work, see A. Bezzenberger,
Beitrage zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. i. pp. 70 seq.
HAUGE, HANS NIELSEN (1771-1824), Norwegian Lutheran
divine, was born in the parish of Thuno, Norway, on the 3rd of
April 1771, the son of a peasant. With the aid of various
religious works which he found in his father's house, he laboured
to supplement his scanty education. In his twenty-sixth year,
believing himself to be a divinely-commissioned prophet, he
began to preach in his native parish and afterwards throughout
Norway, calling people to repentance and attacking rationalism.
In 1800 he passed to Denmark, where, as at home, he gained
many followers and assistants, chiefly among the lower orders.
Proceeding to Christiansand in 1804, Hauge set up a printing-
press to disseminate his views more widely, but was almost
immediately arrested for holding illegal religious meetings,
and for insulting the regular clergy in his books, all of which
were confiscated; he was also heavily fined. After being in
confinement for some years, he was released in 1814 on payment
of a fine, and retiring to an estate at Breddwill, near Christiania,
he died there on the 29th of March 1824. His adherents, who
did not formally break with the church, were called Haugianer
or Leser (i.e. Readers). He unquestionably did much to revive
66
HAUGESUND HAUGWITZ
the spiritual life of the northern Lutheran Church. His views
were of a pietistic nature. Though he cannot be said to have
rejected any article of the Lutheran creed, the peculiar emphasis
which he laid upon the evangelical doctrines of faith and grace
involved considerable antagonism to the rationalistic or sacerdotal
views commonly held by the established clergy.
Hauge's principal writings are Forsog til Afhandeling om Cuds
Visdom (1796); Anvisning til nogle morkelige Sprog i Bibelen
(1798) ; Forklaring over Loven og Evangelium (1803). For an account
of his life and doctrines see C. Bang's Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans
Samtid (Christiania ; 2nd ed., 1875); O. Rost, Nogle Bemaerkninger
om Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans Reining (1883), and the article in
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie.
HAUGESUND, a seaport of Norway in Stavanger ami (county),
on the west coast, 34 m. N. by W. of Stavanger. Pop. (1900),
7935. It is an important fishing centre. Herrings are exported
to the annual value of 100,000 to 200,000, also mackerel and
lobsters. The principal imports are coal and salt. There are
factories for woollen goods and a margarine factory. Haugesund
is the reputed death-place of Harald Haarfager, to whpm an
obelisk of red granite was erected in 1872 on the thousandth
anniversary of his victory at the Hafsfjord (near Stavanger)
whereby he won the sovereignty of Norway. The memorial
stands ij m. north of the town, on the Haraldshaug, where the
hero's supposed tombstone is shown.
HAUGHTON, SAMUEL (1821-1897), Irish scientific writer,
the son of James Haughton (1795-1873), was born at Carlow
on the 2ist of December 1821. His father, the son of a Quaker,
but himself a Unitarian, was an active philanthropist, a strong
supporter of Father Theobald Mathew, a vegetarian, and an
anti-slavery worker and writer. After a distinguished career
in Trinity College, Dublin, Samuel was elected a fellow in 1844.
He was ordained priest in 1847, but seldom preached. In 1851
he was appointed professor of geology in Trinity College, and
this post he held for thirty years. He began the study of
medicine in 1859, and in 1862 took the degree of M.D. in the
university of Dublin. He was then made registrar of the
Medical School, the status of which he did much to improve,
and he represented the university on the General Medical
Council from 1878 to 1896. He was elected F.R.S. in 1858, and
in course of time Oxford conferred upon him the hon. degree
of D.C.L., and Cambridge and Edinburgh that of LL.D. He
was a man of remarkable knowledge and ability, and he
communicated papers on widely different subjects to various
learned societies and scientific journals in London and Dublin.
He wrote on the laws of equilibrium and motion of solid and
fluid bodies (1846), on sun-heat, terrestrial radiation, geological
climates and on tides. He wrote also on the granites of Leinster
and Donegal, and on the cleavage and joint-planes in the Old
Red Sandstone of Waterford (1857-1858). He was president of
the Royal Irish Academy from 1886 to 1891, and for twenty
years he was secretary of the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland.
He died in Dublin on the 3ist of October 1897.
PUBLICATIONS. Manual of Geology (1865); Principles of Animal
Mechanics (1873); Six Lectures on Physical Geography (1880). In
conjunction with his friend, Professor J. Galbraith, he issued a
series of Manuals of Mathematical and Physical Science.
HAUGHTON, WILLIAM (fl. 1598), English playwright. He
collaborated in many plays with Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker,
John Day and Richard Hathway. The only certain biographical
information about him is derived from Philip Henslowe, who on
the loth of March 1600 lent him ten shillings " to release him
out of the Clink." Mr Fleay credits him with a considerable
share in The Patient Grissill (1599), and a merry comedy entitled
English-Men for my Money, or A Woman will have her Will
(1598) is ascribed to his sole authorship. The Devil and his
Dame, mentioned as a forthcoming play by Henslowe in March
1600, is identified by Mr Fleay as Grim, the Collier of Croydon,
which was printed in 1662. In this play an emissary is sent
from the infernal regions to report on the conditions of married
life on earth.
Grim is reprinted in vol. viii., and English-Men for my Money in
vol. x., of W. C. Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's Old Plays.
HAUGWITZ, CHRISTIAN AUGUST HEINRICH KURT,
COUNT VON, FREIHERR VON KRAPPITZ (1752-1831), Prussian
statesman, was born on the nth of June 1752, at Peucke near
Ols. He belonged to the Silesian (Protestant) branch of the
ancient family of Haugwitz, of which the Catholic branch is
established in Moravia. He studied law, spent some time in
Italy, returned to settle on his estates in Silesia, and in 1791 was
elected by the Silesian estates general director of the province.
At the urgent instance of King Frederick William II. he entered
the Prussian service, became ambassador at Vienna in 1792
and at the end of the same year a member of the cabinet at
Berlin.
Haugwitz, who had attended the young emperor Francis II.
at his coronation and been present at the conferences held at
Mainz to consider the attitude of the German powers towards
the Revolution, was opposed to the exaggerated attitude of the
French emigres and to any interference in the internal affairs of
France. After the war broke out, however, the defiant temper
of the Committee of Public Safety made an honourable peace
impossible, while the strained relations between Austria and
Prussia on the question of territorial " compensations " crippled
the power of the Allies to carry the war to a successful conclusion.
It was in these circumstances that Haugwitz entered on the
negotiations that resulted in the subsidy treaty between Great
Britain and Prussia, and Great Britain and Holland, signed at
the Hague on the igth of April 1794. Haugwitz, however, was
not the man to direct a strong and aggressive policy; the
failure of Prussia to make any effective use of the money "supplied
broke the patience of Pitt, and in October the denunciation by
Great Britain of the Hague treaty broke the last tie that bound
Prussia to the Coalition. The separate treaty with France,
signed at Basel on the 5th of April 1795, was mainly due to the
influence of Haugwitz.
His object was now to save the provinces on the left bank of
the Rhine from being lost to the Empire. No guarantee of their
maintenance had been inserted in the Basel treaty; but Haug-
witz and the king hoped to preserve them by establishing the
armed neutrality of North Germany and securing its recognition
by the French Republic. This policy was rendered futile by
the victories of Napoleon Bonaparte and the virtual conquest
of South Germany by the French. Haugwitz, who had con-
tinued to enjoy the confidence of the new king, Frederick
William III., recognized this fact, and urged his master to join
the new Coalition in 1798. But the king clung blindly to the
illusion of neutrality, and Haugwitz allowed himself to be made
the instrument of a policy of which he increasingly disapproved.
It was not till 1803, when the king refused his urgent advice to
demand the evacuation of Hanover by the French, that he
tendered his resignation. In August 1804 he was definitely
replaced by Hardenberg, and retired to his estates.
In his retirement Haugwitz was still consulted, and he used
all his influence against Hardenberg's policy of a rapprochement
with France. His representations had little weight, however,
until Napoleon's high-handed action in violating Prussian
territory by marching troops through Ansbach, roused the anger
of the king. Haugwitz was now once more appointed foreign
minister, as Hardenberg's colleague, and it was he who was
charged to carry to Napoleon the Prussian ultimatum which was
the outcome of the visit of the tsar Alexander I. to Berlin in
November. But in this crisis his courage failed him; his nature
was one that ever let "I dare not wait upon I will "; he delayed
his journey pending some turn in events and to give time for
the mobilization of the duke of Brunswick's army; he was
frightened by reports of separate negotiations between Austria
and Napoleon, not -realizing that a bold declaration by Prussia
would nip them in the bud. Napoleon, when at last they met,
read him like a book and humoured his diplomatic weakness
until the whole issue was decided at Austerlitz. On the I5th of
December, instead of delivering an ultimatum, Haugwitz signed
at Schonbrunn the treaty which gave Hanover to Prussia in
return for Ansbach, Cleves and Neuchatel.
The humiliation of Prussia and her minister was, however,
HAUNTINGS
67
not yet complete. In February 1806 Haugwitz went to Paris
to ratify the treaty of Schonbrunn and to attempt to secure some
modifications in favour of Prussia. He was received with a storm
of abuse by Napoleon, who insisted on tearing up the treaty and
drawing up a fresh one, which doubled the amount of territory
to be ceded by Prussia and forced her to a breach with Great
Britain by binding her to close the Hanoverian ports to British
commerce. The treaty, signed on the isth of February, left
Prussia wholly isolated in Europe. What followed belongs to
the history of Europe rather than to the biography of Haugwitz.
He remained, indeed, at the head of the Prussian ministry of
foreign affairs, but the course of Prussian policy it was beyond his
power to control. The Prussian ultimatum to Napoleon was
forced upon him by overwhelming circumstances, and with
the battle of Jena, on the I4th of October, his political career
came to an end. He accompanied the flight of the king into East
Prussia, there took leave of him and retired to his Silesian estates.
In 1811 he was appointed Curator of the university of Breslau;
in 1820, owing to failing health, he went to live in Italy, where
he remained till his death at Venice in 1831.
Haugwitz was a man of great intellectual gifts, of dignified
presence and a charming address which endeared him to his
sovereigns and his colleagues; but as a statesman he failed,
not through want of perspicacity, but through lack of will power
and a fatal habit of procrastination. During his retirement
in Italy he wrote memoirs in justification of his policy, a fragment
of which dealing with the episode of the treaty of Schonbrunn
was published at Jena in 1837.
See J. von Minutoli, Der Graf von Haugwitz und Job von Wilzleben
(Berlin, 1844); L. von Ranke, Hardenberg u. d. Gesch. des preuss.
Staates (Leipzig, 18791881), note on Haugwitz's memoirs in vol. ii. ;
Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fiirslen von Hardenberg, ed.
Ranke (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Revol.
Frant;., passim.
HAUNTINGS (from " to haunt," Fr. hanter, of uncertain
origin, but possibly from Lat. ambitare, ambire, to go about,
frequent), the supposed manifestations of existence by spirits
of the dead in houses or places familiar to them in life. The
savage practice of tying up the corpse before burying it is clearly
intended to prevent the dead from " walking "; and cremation,
whether in savage lands or in classical times, may have originally
had the same motive. The " spirit " manifests himself, as a
rule, either in his bodily form, as when he lived, or in the shape
of some animal, or by disturbing noises, as in the case of the
poltergeist (q.v.). Classical examples occur in Plautus (Mostel-
laria), Lucian (Pldlopseud.es) , Pliny, Suetonius, St Augustine,
St Gregory, Plutarch and elsewhere, while Lucretius has his
theory of apparitions of the dead. He does not deny the fact;
he explains it by " films " diffused from the living body and
persisting in the atmosphere.
A somewhat similar hypothesis, to account for certain alleged
phenomena, was invented by Mr Edmund Gurney. Some
visionary appearances in haunted houses do not suggest the idea
of an ambulatory spirit, but rather of the photograph of a past
event, impressed we know not how on we know not what. In
this theory there is no room for the agency of spirits of the dead.
The belief in hauntings was naturally persistent through the
middle ages, and example and theory abound in the Loca infesta
(Cologne, 1598) of Petrus Thyraeus, S.J.; Wierius (c. 1560),
in De praestigiis daemonum, is in the same tale. According
to Thyraeus, hauntings appeal to the senses of sight, hearing
and touch. The auditory phenomena are mainly thumping
noises, sounds of footsteps, laughing and moaning. Rackets
in general are caused by lares domeslici (" brownies ") or the
Poltergeist. In the tactile way ghosts push the living; " I have
been thrice pushed by an invisible power," writes the Rev.
Samuel Wesley, in 1717, in his narrative of the disturbances at
his rectory at Epworth. Once he was pushed against the corner
of his desk in the study; once up against the door of the matted
chamber; and, thirdly, " against the right-hand side of the
frame of my study door, as I was going in." We have thus
Protestant corroboration of the statement of the learned
Jesuit.
Thyraeus raises the question, Are the experiences hallucina-
tory? Did Mr Wesley (to take his case) receive a mere halluci-
natory set of pushes? Was the hair of a friend of the writer's,
who occupied a haunted house, only pulled in a subjective
way? Thyraeus remarks that, in cases of noisy phenomena,
not all persons present hear them ; and, rather curiously, Mr
Wesley records the same experience; he sometimes did not
hear sounds that seemed violently loud to his wife and family,
who were with him at prayers. Thyraeus says that, as collective
hallucinations of sight are rare all present not usually seeing
the apparition so* audible phenomena are not always ex-
perienced by all persons present. In such cases, he thinks that
the sights and sounds have no external cause, he regards the
sights and sounds as delusions caused by spirits. This is a
difficult question. He mentions that we hear all the furniture
being tossed about (as Sir Walter and Lady Scott heard it at
Abbotsford; see Lockhart's Life, v. 311-315). Yet, on inspec-
tion, we find all the furniture in its proper place. There is
abundant evidence to experience of this phenomenon, which
remains as inexplicable as it was in the days of Thyraeus. When
the sounds are heard, has the atmosphere vibrated, or has the
impression only been made on " the inner ear " ? In reply,
Mr. Procter, who for sixteen years (1831-1847) endured the
unexplained disturbances at Willington Mill, avers that the
material objects on which the knocks appeared to be struck
did certainly vibrate (see POLTERGEIST). Is then the felt
vibration part of the hallucination?
As for visual phenomena, " ghosts," Thyraeus does not regard
them as space-filling entities, but as hallucinations imposed by
spirits on the human senses; the spirit, in each case, not being
necessarily the soul of the dead man or woman whom the
phantasm represents.
In the matter of alleged hauntings, the symptoms, the pheno-
mena, to-day, are exactly the same as those recorded by Thyraeus.
The belief in them is so far a living thing that it greatly lowers
the letting value of a house when it is reported to be haunted.
(An action for libelling a house as haunted was reported in the
London newspapers of the 7th of March 1907). It is true that
ancient family legends of haunts are gloried in by the inheritors
of stately homes in England, or castles in Scotland, and to
discredit the traditional ghost in the days of Sir Walter Scott
was to come within measurable distance of a duel. But the
time-honoured phantasms of old houses usually survive only in
the memory of " the oldest aunt telling the saddest tale." Their
historical basis can no more endure criticism than does the family
portrait of Queen Mary, signed by Medina about 1750-1770,
and described by the family as " given to our ancestor by the
Queen herself." After many years' experience of a baronial
dwelling credited with seven distinct and separate phantasms,
not one of which was ever seen by hosts, guests or domestics,
scepticism as regards traditional ghosts is excusable. Legend
reports that they punctually appear on the anniversaries of their
misfortunes, but no evidence of such punctuality has been,
produced.
The Society for Psychical Research has investigated hundreds
of cases of the alleged haunting of houses, and the reports are
in the archives of the society. But, as the mere rumour of a
haunt greatly lowers the value of a house, it is seldom possible
to publish the names of the witnesses, and hardly ever permitted
to publish the name of the house. From the point of view of
science this is unfortunate (see Proceedings S.P.R. vol. viii.
pp. 311-332 and Proceedings of 1882-1883, 1883-1884). As
far as inquiry had any results, they were to the following effect.
The spectres were of the most shy and fugitive kind, seen now by
one person, now by another, crossing a room, walking along a
corridor, and entering chambers in which, on inspection, they were
not found. There was almost never any story to account for the
appearances, as in magazine ghost-stories, and, if story there
were, it lacked evidence. Recognitions of known dead persons
were infrequent; occasionally there was recognition of a portrait
in the house. The apparitions spoke in only one or two recorded
cases, and, as a rule, seemed to have no motive for appearing.
68
HAUPT HAUPTMANN, M.
The " ghost " resembles nothing so much as a somnambulist,
or the dream-walk of one living person made visible, telepathic-
ally, to another living person. Almost the only sign of conscious-
ness given by the appearances is their shyness; on being spoken
to or approached they generally vanish. Not infrequently they
are taken, at first sight, for living human beings. In darkness
they are often luminous, otherwise they would be invisible !
Unexplained noises often, but not always, occur in houses where
these phenomena areperceived. Evidence is only good, approxi-
mately, when a series of persons, in the same house, behold the
same appearance, without being aware that it has previously
been seen by others. Naturally it ie almost impossible to prove
this ignorance.
When inquirers believe thai the appearances are due to the
agency of spirits of the dead, they usually suppose the method
to be a telepathic impact on the mind of the living by some
" mere automatic projection from a consciousness which has its
centre elsewhere " (Myers, Proceedings S.P.R. vol. xv. p. 64).
Myers, in Human Personality, fell back on " palaeolithic psycho-
logy," and a theory of a phantasmogenetic agency producing a
phantasm which had some actual relation to space. But space
forbids us to give examples of modern experiences in haunted
houses, endured by persons sane, healthy and well educated.
The cases, abundantly offered in Proceedings S. P. R., suggest that
certain localities, more than others, are " centres of permanent
possibilities of being hallucinated in a manner more or less
uniform." The causes of this fact (if causes there be, beyond a
rasual hallucination or illusion of A, which, when reported,
begets by suggestion, or, when not reported, by telepathy,
hallucinations in B, C, D and E), remain unknown (Proceedings
S.P.R. vol. viii. p. 133 et seq.). Mr Podmore proposed this
hypothesis of causation, which was not accepted by Myers;
he thought that the theory laid too heavy a burden on telepathy
and suggestion. Neither cause, nor any other cause of similar
results, ever affects members of the S.P.R. who may be sent to
dwell in haunted houses. They have no weird experiences,
except when they are visionaries who see phantoms wherever
they go. (\- L.)
HAUPT, MORITZ (1808-1874), German philologist, was born
at Zittau, in Lusatia, on the 27th of July 1808. His early
education was mainly conducted by his father, Ernst Friedrich
Haupt, burgomaster of Zittau, a man of good scholarly attain-
ment, who used to take pleasure in turning German hymns or
Goethe's poems into Latin, and whose memoranda were employed
by G. Freytag in the 4th volume of his Bilder aus der deutschen
Vergangenhe.it. From the Zittau gymnasium, where he spent
the five years 1821-1826, Haupt removed to the university of
Leipzig with the intention of studying theology; but the natural
bent of his mind and the influence of Professor G. Hermann soon
turned all his energies in the direction of philosophy. On the
close of his university course (1830) he returned to his father's
house, and the next seven years were devoted to quiet work, not
only at Greek, Latin and German, but at Old French, Provencal
and Bohemian. He formed with Lachmann at Berlin a friendship
which had great effect on his intellectual development. In
September 1837 he " habilitated " at Leipzig as Privatdozent,
and his first lectures, dealing with such diverse subjects as
Catullus and the Nibelungenlied, indicated the twofold direction
of his labours. A new chair of German language and literature
being founded for his benefit, he became professor extraordinarius
(1841) and then professor ordinarius (1843); and in 1842 he
married Louise Hermann, the daughter of his master and col-
league. But the peaceful and prosperous course opening out
before him at the university of Leipzig was brought to a sudden
close. Having taken part in 1849 with Otto Jahn and Theodor
Mommsen in a political agitation for the maintenance of the
imperial constitution, Haupt was deprived of his professorship
by a decree of the 22nd of April 1851. Tw i years later, however,
he was called to succeed Lachmann at the university of Berlin;
and at the same time the Berlin academy, which had made him
a corresponding member in 1841, elected him an ordinary
member. For twenty-one years he continued to hold a prominent
alace among the scholars of the Prussian capital, making his
presence felt, not only by the prestige of his erudition and the
clearness of his intellect, but by the tirelessness of his energy
and the ardent fearlessness of his temperament. He died, of
icart disease, on the 5th of February 1874.
Haupt's critical work is distinguished by a happy union of the
most painstaking investigation with intrepidity of conjecture, and
while in his lectures and addresses he was frequently carried away
sy the excitement of the moment, and made sharp and questionable
attacks on his opponents, in his writings he exhibits great self-
control. The results of many of his researches are altogether lost,
Decause he could not be prevailed upon to publish what fell much
short of his own high ideal of excellence. To the progress of classical
scholarship he contributed by Quaestiones Catullianae (1837),
Obseruationes criticae (1841), and editions of Ovid's Halieutica
and the Cynegetica of Gratius and Nemesianus (1838), of Catullus,
Tibullus and Propertius (3rd ed., 1868), of Horace (3rd ed., 1871)
and of Virgil (2nd ed., 1873). As early as 1836, with Hoffmann
von Fallersleben, he started the Altdeutsche Blatter, which in 1841
gave place to the Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum, of which he
continued editor till his death. Hartmann von Aue's Erec (1839)
and his Lieder, Buchlein and Der arme Heinrich (1842), Rudolf
von Ems's Cuter Gerhard (1840) and Conrad von Wiirzburg's
Engelhard (1844) are the principal German works which he edited.
To form a collection of the French songs of the i6th century was
one of his favourite schemes, but a little volume published after his
death, Franzosische Volkslieder (1877), is the only monument of
his labours in that direction. Three volumes of his Opuscula were
published at Leipzig (1875-1877).
See Kirchhoff, " Gedachtnisrede," in Abhandl. der Konigl. Akad.
der Wissenschaflen zu Berlin (1875); Otto Belger, Moritz Haupt als
Lehrer (1879); Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. iii. (1908).
HAUPTMANN, GERHART (1862- ), German dramatist,
was born on the I5th of November 1862 at Obersalzbrunn in
Silesia, the son of an hotel-keeper. From the village school of
his native place he passed to the Realschule in Breslau, and was
then sent to learn agriculture on his uncle's farm at Jauer.
Having, however, no taste for country life, he soon returned to
Breslau and entered the art school, intending to become a
sculptor. He then studied at Jena, and spent the greater part
of the years 1883 and 1884 in Italy. In May 1885 Hauptmann
married and settled in Berlin, and, devoting himself henceforth
entirely to literary work, soon attained a great reputation as
one of the chief representatives of the modern drama. In 1891
he retired to Schreiberhau in Silesia. Hauptmann's first drama,
Vor Sonnenaufgang (1889) inaugurated the realistic movement
in modern German literature; it was followed by Das Friedens-
fest (1890), Einsame Menschen (1891) and Die Weber (1892), a
powerful drama depicting the rising of the Silesian weavers in
1844. Of Hauptmann's subsequent work mention may be
made of the comedies Kollege Grampian (1892), Der Biberpelz
(1893) and Der rote Hahn (1901), a " dream poem," Hannele
(1893), and an historical drama Florian Geyer (1895). He also
wrote two tragedies of Silesian peasant life, Fuhrmann Hensc/iel
(1898) and Rose Berndt (1903), and the " dramatic fairy-tales "
Die versunkene Glocke (1897) and Und Pippa tanzt (1905).
Several of his works have been translated into English.
Biographies of Hauptmann and critical studies of his dramas
have been published by A. Bartels (1897); P. Schlenther (1898);
and U. C. Woerner (2nd ed., 1900). See also L. Benoist-Hanappier,
Le Drame naturaliste en Allemagne (1905).
HAUPTMANN, MORITZ (1792-1868), German musical com-
poser and writer, was born at Dresden, on the I3th of October
1792, and studied music under Scholz, Lanska, Grosse and
Morlacchi, the rival of Weber. Afterwards he completed his
education as a violinist and composer under Spohr, and till 1820
held various appointments in private families, varying his
musical occupations with mathematical and other studies
bearing chiefly on acoustics and kindred subjects. For a time
also Hauptmann was employed as an architect, but all other
pursuits gave place to music, and a grand tragic opera. Malhilde,
belongs to the period just referred to. In 1822 he entered the
orchestra of Cassel, again under Spohr's direction, and it was then
that he first taught composition and musical theory to such men
as Ferdinand David, Burgmiiller, Kiel and others. His com-
positions at this time chiefly consisted of motets, masses, can-
tatas and songs. His opera Malhilde was performed at Cassel
HAUREAU HAUSA
with great success. In 1842 Hauptmann obtained the position
of cantor at the Thomas-school of Leipzig (long previously
occupied by the great Johann Sebastian Bach) together with
that of professor at the conservatoire, and it was in this capacity
that his unique gift as a teacher developed itself and was acknow-
ledged by a crowd of enthusiastic and more or less distinguished
pupils. He died on the 3rd of January 1868, and the universal
regret felt at his death at Leipzig is said to have been all but
equal to that caused by the loss of his friend Medelssohn many
years before. Hauptmann's compositions are marked' by
symmetry and perfection of workmanship rather than by
spontaneous invention.
Amongst his vocal compositions by far the most important
portion of his work may be mentioned two masses, choral songs
for mixed voices (Op. 32, 47), and numerous part songs. The re-
sults of his scientific research were embodied in his book Die Natur
dcr Harmonik und Metrik (1853), a standard work of its kind, in
which a philosophic explanation of the forms of music is attempted.
HAUREAU, (JEAN) BARTHlJLEMY (1812-1896), French
historian and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris. At the
age of twenty he published a series of apologetic studies on the
Montagnards. In later years he regretted the youthful enthu-
siasm of these papers, and endeavoured to destroy the copies.
He joined the staff of the National, and was praised by Theophile
Gautier as the " tribune " of romanticism. At that time he
seemed to be destined to a political career, and, indeed, after
the revolution of the 24th of February 1848 was elected member
of the National Assembly; but close contact with revolutionary
men and ideas gradually cooled his old ardour. Throughout
his life he was an enemy to innovators, not only in politics and
religion, but also in literature. This attitude sometimes led
him to form unjust estimates, but only on very rare occasions,
for his character was as just as his erudition was scrupulous.
After the coup d'etat he resigned his position as director of the
MS. department of the Bibliotheque Nationale, to which he had
been appointed in 1848, and he refused to accept any adminis-
trative post until after the fall of the empire. After having acted
as director of the national printing press from 1870 to 1881, he
retired, but in 1893 accepted the post of director of the Fondation
Thiers. He was also a member of the council of improvement
of the Ecole des Charles. He died on the agth of April 1896.
For over half a century he was engaged in writing on the religious,
philosophical, and more particularly the literary history of the
middle ages. Appointed librarian of the town of Le Mans in
1838, he was first attracted by the history of Maine, and in 1843
published the first volume of his Histoire litteraire du Maine
(4 vols., 1843-1852), which he subsequently recast on a new plan
(10 vols., 1870-1877). In 1845 he brought out an edition of
vol. ii. of G. Menage's Histoire de Sable. He then undertook
the continuation of the Callia Christiana, and produced vol. xiv.
(1856) for the province of Tours, vol. xv. (1862) for the province
of Besancon, and vol. xvi. (1865-1870) for the province of Vienne.
This important work gained him admission to the Academic des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1862). In the Notices et exlraits
des manuscrils he inserted several papers which were afterwards
published separately, with additions and corrections, under the
title Notices et exlraits de quelqucs manuscrits de la Bibliolh'eque
Nationale (6 vols., 1890-1893). To the Histoire litteraire de la
France he contributed a number of studies, among which must
be mentioned that relating to the sermon-writers (vol. xxvi.,
1873), whose works, being of ten anonymous, raise many problems
of attribution, and, though deficient in orginality of thought
and style, reflect the very spirit of the middle ages. Among his
other works mention must be made of his remarkable Histoire
de la philosophie scolastique (1872-1880), extending from the
time of Charlemagne to the I3th century, which was expanded
from a paper crowned by the Academic des Sciences Morales et
Politiques in 1850; Les Melanges poetiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin
1882); an edition of the Works of Hugh of St Victor (1886); a
critical study of the Latin poems attributed to St Bernard
(1890); and Bernard Delicieux et I'inquisition albigeoise (1877).
To these must be added his contributions to the Dictionnaire des
sciences philosophiques, Didot's Biographie generate, the Biblio-
theque de l'cole des Charles, and the Journal des savants. From
the time of his appointment to the Bibliotheque, Nationale. up
to the last days of his life he was engaged in making abstracts
of all the medieval Latin writings (many anonymous or of
doubtful attribution) relating to philosophy, theology, grammar,
canon law, and poetry, carefully noting ori cards the first words
of each passage. After his death this index of incipits, arranged
alphabetically, was presented to the Academic des Inscriptions,
and a copy was placed in the MS. department of the Bibliotheque
Nationale.
See obituary notice read by Henri Wallon at a meeting of the
Academic des Inscriptions on the I2th of November 1897- and the
notice by Paul Meyer prefixed to vol. xxxiii. of the Histoire litteraire
de la France.
HAUSA, sometimes incorrectly written HAUSSA, HOUSSA or
HAOUSSA, a people inhabiting about half a million square miles
in the western and central Sudan from the river Niger in the
west to Bornu in the east. Heinrich Earth identifies them with
the Atarantians of Herodotus. According to their own traditions
the earliest home of the race was the divide between the Sokoto
and Chad basins, and more particularly the eastern watershed,
whence they spread gradually westward. In the middle ages,'
to which period the first authentic records refer, the Hausa^
though never a conquering race, attained great political power.
They were then divided into seven states known as " Hausa
bokoy " (" the seven Hausa ") and named Biram, Daura, Gober,
Kano, Rano, Katsena and Zegzeg, after the sons of their legendary
ancestor. This confederation extended its authority over many
of the neighbouring countries, and remained paramount till
the Fula under Sheikh Dan Fodio in 1810 conquered the Hausa
states and founded the Fula empire of Sokoto (see FULA).
The Hausa, who number upwards of 5,000,000, form the most
important nation of the central Sudan. They are undoubtedly
nigritic, though in places with a strong crossing of Fula and
Arab blood. Morally and intellectually they are, however,
far superior to the typical Negro. They are a powerful, heavily
built race, with skin as black as most Negroes, but with lips not
so thick nor hair so woolly. They excel in physical strength.
The average Hausa will carry on his head a load of ninety or a
hundred pounds without showing the slightest signs of fatigue
during a long day's march. When carrying their own goods
it is by no means uncommon for them to take double this weight.
They are a peaceful and industrious people, living partly in
farmsteads amid their crops, partly in large trading centres
such as Kano, Katsena and Yakoba (Bauchi). They are
extremely intelligent and even cultured, and have exercised a
civilizing effect upon their Fula conquerors to whose oppressive
rule they submitted. They are excellent agriculturists, and,
almost unaided by foreign influence, they have developed a
variety of industries, such as the making of cloth, mats, leather
and glass. In Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast territory they
'orm the backbone of the military police, and under English
leadership have again and again shown themselves to be admir-
able fighters and capable of a high degree of discipline and good
conduct. Their food consists chiefly of guinea com (sorghum
vtdgare), which is ground up and eaten as a sort of porridge
mixed with large quantities of red pepper. The Hausa attribute
their superiority in strength to the fact that they live on guinea
corn instead of yams and bananas, which form the staple food of
the tribes on the river Niger. The Hausa carried on agriculture
chiefly by slave labour; they are themselves born traders,
and as such are to be met with in almost every part of Africa
north of the equator. Small colonies of them are to be found in
owns as far distant from one another as Lagos, Tunis, Tripoli,
Alexandria and Suakin.
Language. The Hausa language has a wider range over Africa
jorth of the equator, south of Barbary and west of the valley of the
Nile, than any other tongue. It is a rich sonorous language, with a
/ocabulary containing perhaps 10,000 words. As an example of
he richness of the vocabulary Bishop Crowther mentions that there
re eight names for different parts of the day from cockcrow till
fter sunset. About a third of the words are connected with Arabic
oots, nor are these such as the Hausa could well have borrowed in
nything like recent times from the Arabs. Many words representing
HAUSER HAUSMANN
ideas or things with which the Hausa must have been familiar
from the very earliest time are obviously connected with Arabic or
Semitic roots. There is a certain amount of resemblance between
the Hausa language and that spoken by the Berbers to the south of
Tripoli and Tunis. This language, again, has several striking points
of resemblance with Coptic. If, as seems likely, the connexion
between these three languages should be demonstrated, such con-
nexion would serve to corroborate the Hausa tradition that their
ancestors came from the very far east away beyond Mecca. The
Hausa language has been reduced to writing for at least a century,
possibly very much longer. It is the only language in tropical
Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives themselves,
unless the Vai alphabet, introduced by a native inventor in the
interior of Liberia in the first half of the igth century be excepted;
the character used is a modified form of Arabic. Some fragments of
literature exist, consisting of political and religious poems, together
with a limited amount of native history. A volume, consisting of
history and poems reproduced in facsimile, with translations, has
been published by the Cambridge University Press.
Religion. About one-third of the people are professed Mahom-
medans, one-third are heathen, and the remainder have apparently
no definite form of religion. Their Mahommedanism dates from the
1 4th century, but became more general when the Fula sheikh Dan
Fodio initiated the religious war which ended in the founding of the
Fula empire. Ever since then the ruler of Sokoto has been acknow-
ledged as the religious head of the whole country, and tribute has
been paid to him as such. The Hausa who profess Mahommedanism
are extremely ignorant of their own faith, and what little religious
fanaticism exists is chiefly confined to the Fula. Large numbers of
the Hausa start every year on the pilgrimage to Mecca, travelling
sometimes across the Sahara desert and by way of Tripoli and Alex-
andria, sometimes by way of Wadai, Darfur, Khartum and Suakin.
The journey often occupies five or six years, and is undertaken quite
as much from trading as from religious motives. Mahommedanism
is making very slow, if any, progress amongst the Hausa. The
greatest obstacle to its general acceptance is the institution of the
Ramadan fast. In a climate so hot as that of Hausaland, the
obligation to abstain from food and drink from sunrise to sunset
during one month in the year is a serious difficulty. Until the last
decade of the igth century no important attempt had been made to
introduce Christianity, but the fact that the Hausa are fond of read-
ing, and that native schools exist in all parts of the country, should
greatly facilitate the work of Christian missionaries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny, Account of
Timbuctoo and Haussa Territories (1820) ; Morris, Dialogues and part
of the New Testament in the English, Arabic, Haussa and Bornu
Languages (1853); Koelle, Polyglotta Africana (1854); Schon,
Grammar of the Hausa Language (London, 1862), Hausa Reading
Book (1877), and also A Dictionary of the Hausa Language (1877).
Schon has also produced Hausa translations of Gen. (1858), Matt.
(1857) and Luke (1858). Heinrich Barth, Travels in North and
Central Africa (2 vols., London, 1857) ; Central-afrikanische Vokabu-
larien (Gotha, 1867) ; C. H. Robinson, Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred
Miles through the Central Soudan ( 1 896) ; Specimens of Hausa
Literature (1896); Hausa Grammar (1897); Hausa Dictionary
(1899) ; P. L. Monteil, De St-Louis a Tripoli par le lac Tchad (Paris,
1895) ; Lt. Seymour Vandeleur, Campaigning on the Upper Nile and
Niger (1898).
HAUSER, KASPAR, a German youth whose life was re-
markable from the circumstances of apparently inexplicable
mystery in which it was involved. He appeared on the 26th of
May 1828, in the streets of Nuremberg, dressed in the garb of a
peasant, and with such a helpless and bewildered air that he
attracted the attention of the passers-by. In his possession
was found a letter purporting to be written by a poor labourer,
stating that the boy was given into his custody on the 7th of
October 1812, and that according to agreement he had instructed
him in reading, writing, and the Christian religion, but that up
to the time fixed for relinquishing his custody he had kept him
in close confinement. Along with this letter was enclosed another
purporting to be written by the boy's mother, stating that he
was born on the 3Oth of April 1812, that his name was Kaspar,
and that his father, formerly a cavalry officer in the 6th regiment
at Nuremberg, was dead. The appearance, bearing, and pro-
fessions of the youth corresponded closely with these credentials.
He showed a repugnance to all nourishment except bread and
water, was seemingly ignorant of outward objects, wrote his
name as Kaspar Hauser, and said that he wished to be a cavalry
officer like his father. For some time he was detained in prison
at Nuremberg as a vagrant, but on the i8th of July 1828 he
was delivered over by the town authorities to the care of a school-
master, Professor Daumer, who undertook to be his guardian
and to take the charge of his education. Further mysteries
accumulated about Kaspar's personality and conduct, not
altogether unconnected with the vogue in Germany, at that time,
of " animal magnetism," " somnambulism," and similar theories
of the occult and strange. People associated him with all sorts
of possibilities. On the i7th of October 1829 he was found to
have received a wound in the forehead, which, according to his
own statement, had been inflicted on him by a man with a
blackened face. Having on this account been removed to the
house of a magistrate and placed under close surveillance, he
was visited by Earl Stanhope, who became so interested in his
history that he sent him in 1832 to Ansbach to be educated
under a certain Dr Meyer. After this he became clerk in the
office of Paul John Anselm von Feuerbach, president of the
court of appeal, who had begun to pay attention to his case in
1828; and his strange history was almost forgotten by the
public when the interest in it was suddenly revived by his
receiving a deep wound on his left breast, on the i4th of December
1833, and dying from it three or four days afterwards. He
affirmed that the wound was inflicted by a stranger, but many
believed it to be the work of his own hand, and that he did
not intend it to be fatal, but only so severe as to give a sufficient
colouring of truth to his story. The affair created a great sensa-
tion, and produced a long literary agitation. But the whole story
remains somewhat mysterious. Lord Stanhope eventually
became decidedly sceptical as to Kaspar's stories, and ended by
being accused of contriving his death !
In 1830 a pamphlet was published at Berlin, entitled Kaspar
Hauser nicht unwahrscheinlich ein Betruger; but the truthfulness
of his statements was defended by Daumer, who published Mittei-
lungen uber Kaspar Hauser (Nuremberg, 1832), and Enthullungen
uber Kaspar Hauser (Frankfort, 1859); as well as Kaspar Hauser,
sein Wesen, seine Unschuld, &c. (Regensburg, 1873), in answer to
Meyer's (a son of Kaspar's tutor) Authentische Mitteilungen uber
Kaspar Hauser (Ansbach, 1872). Feuerbach awakened considerable
psychological interest in the case by his pamphlet Kaspar Hauser,
Beispiel eines Verbrechens am Seelenleben (Ansbach, 1832), and Earl
Stanhope also took part in the discussion by publishing Materialen
zur Geschichte K. Hausers (Heidelberg, 1836). The theory of Daumer
and Feuerbach and other pamphleteers (finally presented in 1892 by
Miss Elizabeth E. Evans in her Story of Kaspar Hauser from Authentic
Records) was that the youth was the crown prince of Baden, the
legitimate son of the grand-duke Charles of Baden, and that he
had been kidnapped at Karlsruhe in October 1812 by minions of
the countess of Hochberg (morganatic wife of the grand-duke) in
order to secure the succession to her offspring; but this theory was
answered in 1875 by the publication in the Augsburg Allgemeine
Zeitung of the official record of the baptism, post-mortem examina-
tion and burial of the heir supposed to have been kidnapped. See
Kaspar Hauser und sein badisches Prinzentum (Heidelberg, 1876).
In 1883 the story was again revived in a Regensburg pamphlet attack-
ing, among other people, Dr Meyer; and the sons of the latter,
who was dead, brought an action for libel, under the German law,
to which no defence was made; all the copies of the pamphlet were
ordered to be destroyed. The evidence has been subtly analyzed
by Andrew Lang in his Historical Mysteries (1904), with results un-
favourable to the " romantic " version of the story. Lang's view
is that possibly Kaspar was a sort of " ambulatory automatist," an
instance of a phenomenon, known by other cases to students of
psychical abnormalities, of which the characteristics are a mania
for straying away and the persistence of delusions as to identity;
but he inclines to regard Kaspar as simply a " humbug " The
" authentic records " purporting to confirm the kidnapping story
Lang stigmatizes as worthless and impudent rubbish." The
evidence is in any case in complete confusion.
HAUSMANN, JOHANN FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1782-1859),
German mineralogist, was born at Hanover on the 22nd of Feb-
ruary 1782. He was educated at Gottingen, where he obtained
the degree of Ph.D. After making a geological tour in Denmark,
Norway and Sweden in 1807, he was two years later placed at
the head of a government mining establishment in Westphalia,
and he established a school of mines at Clausthal in the Harz
mountains. In 1811 he was appointed professor of technology
and mining, and afterwards of geology and mineralogy in the
university of Gottingen, and this chair he occupied until a short
time before his death. He was also for many years secretary
of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Gottingen. He published
observations on geology and mineralogy in Spain and Italy as
well as in central and northern Europe: he wrote on gypsum,
pyrites, felspar, tachylite, cordierite and on some eruptive
HAUSRATH HAUSSONVILLE
rocks, and he devoted much attention to the crystals developed
during metallurgical processes. He died at Hanover on the 26th
of December 1859.
PUBLICATIONS. Grundlinien einer Encyklopadie der Bergwerks-
wissenschaften (181 1) ; Reise durch Skandinavien (5 vois., 1811-1818) ;
Handbuch der Mineralogie (3 vols., 1813; 2nd ed., 1828-1847).
HAUSRATH, ADOLPH (1837-1909), German theologian,
was born at Karlsruhe on the I3th of January 1837 and was
educated at Jena, Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, where
he became Privatdozent in 1861, professor extraordinary in
1867 and ordinary professor in 1872. He was a disciple of the
Tubingen school and a strong Protestant. Among other works he
wrote Der A pastel Paulus (1865), Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte
(1868-1873, 4 vols.; Eng. trans.), D. F. Strauss und die Theologie
seiner Zeit (1876-1878, 2 vols.), and lives qf Richard Rothe
(2 vols. 1902), and Luther (1904). His scholarship was sound
and his style vigorous. Under the pseudonym George Taylor
he wrote several historical romances, especially Antinous (1880),
which quickly ran through five editions, and is the story of a
soul " which courted death because the objective restraints
of faith had been lost." Klytia (1883) was a 16th-century story,
Jetta (1884) a tale of the great immigrations, and Elfriede " a
romance of the Rhine." He died on the 2nd of August 1909.
HAUSSER, LUDWIG (1818-1867), German historian, was
born at Kleeburg, in Alsace. Studying philology at Heidelberg
in 1835, he was led by F. C. Schlosser to give it up for history,
and after continuing his historical work at Jena and teaching
in the gymnasium at Wertheim he made his mark by his Die
teutschen Geschichtsschreiber vom Anfang des Frankenreichs
bis auf die Hohenstaufen (1839). Next year appeared his Sage
von Tell. After a short period of study in Paris on the French
Revolution, he spent some time working in the archives of
Baden and Bavaria, and published in 1845 Die GeschiMe der
rheinischen Pfalz, which won for him a professorship extra-
ordinarius at Heidelberg. In 1850 he became professor ordinarius.
Hausser also interested himself in politics while at Heidelberg,
publishing in i&46Schleswig-Holstein, Danemark und Deutschland,
and editing with Gervinus the Deutsche Zeitung. In 1848 he
was elected to the lower legislative chamber of Baden, and in
1850 advocated the project of union with Prussia at the parlia-
ment held at Erfurt. ' Another timely work was his edition
of Friedrich List's Gesammelle Schriften (1850), accompanied
with a life of the author. His greatest achievement, and the
one on which his fame as an historian rests, is his Deutsche
Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Grundung
des deutschen Bundes (Leipzig, 1854-1857, 4 vols.). This was
the first work covering that period based on a scientific study
of the archival sources. In 1859 he again took part in politics,
resuming his place in the lower chamber, opposing in 1863 the
project of Austria for the reform of the Confederation brought
forward in the assembly of princes at Frankfort, in his book
Die Reform des deutschen Bundestages, and becoming one of
the leaders of the " little German " (kleindeutsche) party, which
advocated the exclusion of Austria from Germany. In addition
to various essays (in his Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1869-
1870, 2 vols.), Hausser's lectures have been edited by W. Oncken
in the Geschichte des Zeitalters der Reformation (1869, 2nd ed.
1880), and Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution (1869, 2nd
ed. 1870). These lectures reveal all the charm of style and
directness of presentation which made Hausser's work as a
professor so vital.
See W. Wattenbach, Lud. Hausser, ein Vortrag (Heidelberg, 1867).
HAUSSMANN, GEORGES EUGENE, BARON (1809-1891),
whose name is associated with the rebuilding of Paris, was born
in that city on the 27th of March 1809 of a Protestant family,
German in origin. He was educated at the College Henri IV,
and subsequently studied law, attending simultaneously the
classes at the Paris conservatoire of music, for he was a good
musician. He became sous-prefet of Nerac in 1830, and advanced
rapidly in the civil service until in 1853 he was chosen by Persigny
prefect of the Seine in succession to Jean Jacques Berger, who
hesitated to incur the vast expenses of the imperial schemes
for the embellishment of Paris. Haussmann laid out the Bois
de Boulogne, and made extensive improvements in the smaller
parks. The gardens of the Luxembourg Palace were cut down
to allow of the formation of new streets, and the Boulevard
de Sebastopol, the southern half of which is now the Boulevard
St Michel, was driven through a populous district. A new
water supply, a gigantic system of sewers, new bridges, the
opera, and other public buildings, the inclusion of outlying
districts these were among the new prefect's achievements,
accomplished by the aid of a bold handling of the public funds
which called forth Jules Ferry's indictment, Les Comptes fan-
tasliques de Haussmann, in 1867. A loan of 250 million francs
was sanctioned for the city of Paris in 1865, and another of
260 million in 1869. These sums represented only part of his
financial schemes, which led to his dismissal by the government
of Emile Ollivier. After the fall of the Empire he spent about
a year abroad, but he re-entered public life in 1877, when he
became Bonapartist deputy for Ajaccio. He died in Paris
on the nth of January 1891. Haussmann had been made
senator in 1857, member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1867,
and grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1862. His name
is preserved in the Boulevard Haussmann. His later years
were occupied with the preparation of his Memoires (3 vols.,
1890-1893).
HAUSSONVILLE, JOSEPH OTHENIN BERNARD DE
CLERON, COMTE D' (1809-1884), French politician and historian,
was born in Paris on the 27th of May 1809. His grandfather had
been " grand louvetier " of France; his father Charles Louis
Bernard de Cleron, comte d'Haussonville (1770-1846), was
chamberlain at the court of Napoleon, a count of the French
empire, and under the Restoration a peer of France and an
opponent of the Villele ministry. Comte Joseph had filled a
series of diplomatic appointments at Brussels, Turin and Naples
before he entered the chamber of deputies in 1842 for Provins.
Under the Second Empire he published a liberal anti-imperial
paper at Brussels, Le Bulletin franqais, and in 1863 he actively
supported the candidature of Prevost Paradol. He was elected
to the French Academy in 1869, in recognition of his historical
writings, Histoire de la politique exterieure du gouvernemenl
franqais de 1830 a, 1848 (2 vols., 1850), Histoire de la reunion de
la Lorraine a la France (4 vols., 1854-1859), L'Eglise romaine
et le premier empire 1800-1814 (5 vols., 1864-1879). In 1870
he published a pamphlet directed against the Prussian treatment
of France, La France el la Prusse devant I' Europe, the sale of
which was prohibited in Belgium at the request of King William
of Prussia. He was the president of an association formed to
provide new homes in Algeria for the inhabitants of Alsace-
Lorraine who elected to retain their French nationality. In
1878 he was made a life-senator, in which capacity he allied
himself with the Right Centre in defence of the religious associa-
tions against the anti-clericals. He died in Paris on the 28th
of May 1884.
His wife Louise (1818-1882), a daughter of Due Victor de
Broglie, published in 1858 a novel Robert Emmet, followed by
Marguerite de Valois reine de Navarre (1870), Lajeunesse de Lord
Byron (1872), and Les Dernieres Annees de Lord Byron (1874).
His son, GABRIEL PAUL OTHENIN DE CLERON, comte
d'Haussonville, was born at Gurcy de Chatel (Seine-et-Marne)
on the 2ist of September 1843, and married in 1865 Mile Pauline
d'Harcourt. He represented Seine-et-Marne in the National
Assembly (1871) and voted with the Right Centre. Though he
was not elected to the chamber of deputies he became the right-
hand man of his maternal uncle, the due de Broglie, in the
attempted coup of the i6th of May. His Etablissements peni-
tentiaires en France et aux colonies (1875) was crowned by the
Academy, of which he was admitted a member in 1888. In
1891 the resignation of Henri Edouard Bocher from the adminis-
tration of the Orleans estates led to the appointment of M
d'Haussonville as accredited representative of the comte de
Paris in France. He at once set to work to strengthen the
Orleanist party by recruiting from the smaller nobility the
officials of the local monarchical committees. He established
HAUTE-GARONNE HAUTE-MARNE
new Orleanist organs, and sent out lecturers with instructions
to emphasize the modern and democratic principles of the comte
de Paris; but the prospects of the party were dashed in 1894
by the death of the comte de Paris. In 1904 he was admitted
to the Academy of Moral and Political Science. The comte
d'Haussonville published: C. A. Sainle-Beuve, sa vie et ses
ceuvres (1875), .tudes biographiques et litter aires, 2 series (1879
and 1888), Le Saloh de Mme Necker (1882, 2 vols.), Madame
de La Fayette (1891), Madame Ackermann (1892), Le Comte de
Paris, souvenirs personnels (1895), La Duchesse de Bourgogne
et I' alliance savoy arde (1898-1903), Salaire et miseres de femme
(1900), and, with G. Hanotaux, Souvenirs sur Madame de
Maintcnon (3 vols., 1902-1904).
HAUTE-GARONNE, a frontier department of south-western
France, formed in 1790 from portions of the provinces of
Languedoc(ToulousainandLauraguais)andGascony(Comminges
and Nebouzan). Pop. (1906), 442,065. Area, 2458 sq. m. It
is bounded N. by the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, E. by
Tarn, Aude and Ariege, S. by Spain and W. by Gers and Hautes-
Pyrenees. Long and narrow in shape, the department consists
in the north of an undulating stretch of country with continual
interchange of hill and valley nowhere thrown into striking
relief; while towards the south the land rises gradually to the
Pyrenees, which on the Spanish border attain heights of upwards
of 10,000 ft. Two passes, the Port d'Oo, near the beautiful lake
and waterfall of Oo, and the Port de Venasque, exceed 9800 and
7900 ft. in altitude respectively. Entering the department in
the south-east, the Garonne flows in a northerly direction and
traverses almost its entire length, receiving in its course the
Pique, the Salat, the Louge, the Ariege, the Touch and the Save.
Except in the mountainous region the climate is mild, the mean
annual temperature being rather higher than that of Paris.
The rainfall, which averages 24 in. at Toulouse, exceeds 40 in.
in some parts of the mountains; and sudden and destructive
inundations of the Garonne of which that of 1875 is a celebrated
example are always to be feared. The valley of the Garonne
is also frequently visited by severe hail-storms. Thick forests
of oak, fir and pine exist in the mountains and furnish timber
for shipbuilding. The arable land of the plains and valleys is
well adapted for the cultivation of wheat, maize and other grain
crops; and the produce of cereals is generally much more than is
required for the local consumption. Market-gardening flourishes
around Toulouse. A large area is occupied by vineyards, though
the wine is only of medium quality; and chestnuts, apples and
peaches are grown. As pasture laud is abundant a good deal
of attention is given to the rearing of cattle and sheep, and
co-operative dairies are numerous in the mountains; but de-
forestation has tended to reduce the area of pasture-land, because
the soil, unretained by the roots of trees, has been gradually
washed away. Haute-Garonne has deposits of zinc and lead,
and salt- workings; there is an ancient and active marble-
working industry at St Beat. Mineral springs are common,
those of Bagneres-de-Luchon Encausse, Barbazan and Salies-du-
Salat being well known. The manufactures are various though
not individually extensive, and include iron and copper goods,
woollen, cotton and linen goods, leather, paper, boots and shoes,
tobacco and table delicacies. Flour-mills, iron-works and
brick-works are numerous. Railway communication is furnished
by the Southern and the Orleans railways, the main line of the
former from Bordeaux to Cette passing through Toulouse. The
Canal du Midi traverses the department for 32m. and the lateral
canal of the Garonne for ism. The Garonne is navigable below
its confluence with the Salat. There are four arrondissements
Toulouse, Villefranche, Muret and St Gaudcns, subdivided into
39 cantons and 588 communes. The chief town is Toulouse,
which is the seat of a court of appeal and of an archbishop, the
headquarters of the XVIIth army corps and the centre of an
academy; and St Gaudens, Bagneres-de-Luchon and, from an
architectural and historical standpoint, St Bertrand-de-
Comminges are of importance and receive separate treatment.
Other placesof interest are St Aventin,Montsaunes and Venerque,
which possess ancient churches in the Romanesque style. The
church of St Just at Valcabrere is of still greater age, the choir
dating from the 8th or 9th century and part of the nave from the
nth century. There are ruins of a celebrated Cistercian abbey
at Bonnefont near St Martory. Gallo-Roman remains and
works of art have been discovered at Martres. Near Revel is
the fine reservoir of St Ferreol, constructed for the canal du Midi
in the i7th century.
HAUTE-LOIRE, a department of central France, formed
in 1790 of Velay and portions of Vivarais and Gevaudan, three
districts formerly belonging to the old province of Languedoc,
of a portion of Forez formerly belonging to Lyonnais, and a
portion of lower Auvergne. Pop. (1906), 314,770. Area, 1931
sq. m. It is bounded N. by Puy-de-D6me and Loire, E. by Loire
and Ardeche, S. by Ardeche and Lozere and W. by Lozere and
Cantal. Haute-Loire, which is situated on the central plateau
of France, is traversed from north to south by four mountain
ranges. Its highest point, the Mont Mezenc (5755 ft.), in the
south-east of the department, belongs to the mountains of
Vivarais, which are continued along the eastern border by the
Boutieres chain. The Lignon divides the Boutieres from the
Massif du Megal, which is separated by the Loire itself from the
mountains of Velay, a granitic range overlaid with the eruptions
of more than one hundred and fifty craters. The Margeride
mountains run along the western border of the department.
The Loire enters the department at a point 16 m. distant from
its source in Ardeche, and first flowing northwards and then
north-east, waters its eastern half. The Allier, which joins the
Loire at Nevers, traverses the western portion of Haute-Loire
in a northerly direction. The chief affluents of the Loire within
the limits of the department are the Borne on the left, joining it
near Le Puy, and the Lignon, which descends from the Mezenc,
between the Boutieres and Megal ranges, on the right. The
climate, owing to the altitude, the northward direction of the
valleys, and the winds from the Cevennes, is cold, the winters
being long and rigorous. Storms and violent rains are frequent
on the higher grounds, and would give rise to serious inundations
were not the rivers for the most part confined within deep rocky
channels. Cereals, chiefly rye, oats, barley and wheat, are
cultivated in the lowlands and on the plateaus, on which aromatic
and medicinal plants are abundant. Lentils, peas, mangel-
wurzels and other forage and potatoes are also grown. Horned
cattle belong principally to the Mezenc breed; goats are
numerous. The woods yield pine, fir, oak and beech. Lace-
making, which employs about 90,000 women, and coal-mining
are main industries; the coal basins are those of Brassac and
Langeac. There are also mines of antimony and stone-quarries.
Silk-milling, caoutchouc-making, various kinds of smith's work,
paper-making, glass-blowing, brewing, wood-sawing and flour-
milling are also carried on. The principal imports are flour,
brandy ,wine, live-stock, lace-thread and agricultural implements.
Exports include fat stock, wool, aromatic plants, coal, lace.
The department is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee
company. There are three arrondissements Le Puy, Brioude
and Yssingeaux, with 28 cantons and 265 communes.
Haute-Loire forms the diocese of Le Puy and part of the
ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and belongs to the academic
(educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand. Its court of appeal
is at Riom. Le Puy the capital, Brioude and La Chaise-Dieu
the principal towns of the department, receive separate treat-
ment. It has some notable churches, of which those of Chama-
lieres, St Paulien and Sainte-Marie-des-Chazes are Romanesque
in style; Le Monastier preserves the church, in part Romanesque,
and the buildings of the abbey to which it owes its origin.
Arlempdes and Bouzols (near Coubon) have the ruins of large
feudal chateaus. The rocky plateau overlooking Polignac is
occupied by the ruins of the imposing stronghold of the ancient
family of Polignac, including a square donjon of the i4th century.
Interesting Gallo-Roman remains have been found on the site.
HAUTE-MARNE, a department, of north-eastern France, made
up for the most part of districts belonging to the former province
of Champagne (Bassigny, Perthois, Vallage), with smaller
portions of Lorraine and Burgundy, and seme fragments of
HAUTERIVE HAUTES ALPES
73
Franche-Comt6. Area, 2415 sq. m. Pop. (1906), 221,724. It is
bounded N.E. by Meuse, E. by Vosges, S.E. by Haute-Saone,
S. and S.W. by C6te d'Or, W. by Aube, and N.W. by Marne.
Its greatest elevation (1693 ft.) is in the plateau of Langres in
the south between the sources of the Marne and those of the
Aube; the watershed between the basin of the Rhone on the
south and those of the Seine and Meuse on the north, which is
formed by the plateau of Langres continued north-east by the
Monts Paucities, has an average height of 1500 or 1600 ft. The
country descends rapidly towards the south, but in very gentle
slopes northwards. To the north is Bassigny (the paybas or
low country, as distinguished from the highlands), a district
characterized by monotonous flats of little fertility and extensive
wooded tracts. The lowest level of the department is 361 ft.
Hydrographically Haute-Marne belongs for the most part to
the basin of the Seine, the remainder to those of the Rhone and
the Meuse. The principal river is the Marne, which rises here,
and has a course of 75 m. within the department. Among its
more important affluents are, on the right the Rognon, and on
the left the Blaise. The Saulx, another tributary of the Marne
on the right, also rises in Haute-Marne. Westward the depart-
ment is watered by the Aube and its tributary the Aujon, both
of which have their sources on the plateau of Langres. The Meuse
also rises in the Monts Faucilles, and has a course of 31 m. within
the department. On the Mediterranean side the department
sends to the Sa6ne the Apance, the Amance, the Salon and the
Vingeanne. The climate is partly that of the Seine region,
partly that of the Vosges, and partly that of the Rhone; the
mean temperature is 51 F., nearly that of Paris; the rainfall
is slightly below the average for France.
The agriculture of the department is carried on chiefly by
small proprietors. The chief crops are wheat and oats, which
are more than sufficient for the needs of the inhabitants; potatoes,
lucerne and mangel wurzels are next in importance. Natural
pasture is abundant, especially in Bassigny, where horse and
cattle-raising flourish. The vineyards produce some fair wines,
notably the white wine of Soyers. More than a quarter of the
territory is under wood. The department is rich in iron and
building and other varieties of stone are quarried. The warm
springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains are among the earliest known and
most frequented in France. The leading industry is the metal-
lurgical; its establishments include blast furnaces, foundries,
forges, plate-rolling works, and shops for nailmaking and smith's
work of various descriptions. St Dizier is the chief centre of
manufacture and distribution. The cutlery trade occupies
thousands of hands at Nogent-en-Bassigny and in the neighbour-
hood of Langres. Val d'Osne is well known for its production
of fountains, statues, &c., in metal-work. Flour-milling, glove-
making (at Chaumont), basket-making, brewing, tanning and
other industries are also carried on. The principal import is
coal, while manufactured goods, iron, stone, wood and cereals
are exported. The department is served by the Eastern railway,
of which the line from Paris to Belfort passes through Chaumont
and Langres. The canal from the Marne to the Saone and the
canal of the Haute-Marne, which accompany the Marne, together
cover 99 m.; there is a canal 14 m. long from St Dizier to Wassy.
There are three arrondissements (Chaumont, Langres and Wassy) ,
with 28 cantons and 550 communes. Chaumont is the capital.
The department forms the diocese of Langres; it belongs to the
VII. military region and to the educational circumscription
(academic) of Dijon, where also is its court of appeal. The
principal towns Chaumont, Langres, St Dizier and Bourbonne-
les-Bains receive separate notice. At Montier-en-Der the
remains of an abbey founded in the 7th century include a fine
church with nave and aisles of the roth, and choir of the i3th
century. Wassy, the scene in 1562 of the celebrated massacre of
Protestants by the troops of Francis, duke of Guise, has among
its old buildings a church much of which dates from the Roman-
esque period. Vignory has a church of the nth century. Join-
ville, a metallurgical centre, preserves a chateau of the dukes of
Guise in the Renaissance style. Pailly, near Langres, has a fine
chateau of the last half of the i6th century.
HAUTERIVE, ALEXANDRE MAURICE BLANC DE
LANAUTTE, COMTE D' (1754-1830), French statesman and
diplomatist, was born at Aspres (Hautes-Alpes) on the i4th of
April 1754, and was educated at Grenoble, where he became a
professor. Later he held a similar position at Tours, and there
he attracted the attention of the due de Choiseul, who invited
him to visit him at Chanteloup. Hauterive thus came in contact
with the great men who visited the duke, and one of these, the
comte de Choiseul-Goiflier, on his appointment as ambassador
to Constantinople in 1784 took him with him. Hauterive was
enriched for a time by his marriage with a widow, Madame de
Marchais, but was ruined by the Revolution. In 1790 he applied
for and received the post of consul at New York. Under the
Consulate, however, he was accused of embezzlement and re-
called; and, though the charge was proved to be false, was not
reinstated. In 1798, after trying his hand at farming in America,
Hauterive was appointed to a post in the French foreign office.
In this capacity he made a sensation by his L'tal de la France a
la fin de I' an VIII (1800), which he had been commissioned by
Bonaparte to draw up, as a manifesto to foreign nations, after
the coup d'itat of the i8th Brumaire. This won him the con-
fidence of Bonaparte, and he was henceforth employed in drawing
up many of the more important documents. In 1805 he was
made a councillor of state and member of the Legion of Honour,
and between 1805 and 1813 he was more than once temporarily
minister of foreign affairs. He attempted, though vainly, to use
his influence to moderate Napoleon's policy, especially in the
matter of Spain and the treatment of the pope. In 1805 a
difference of opinion with Talleyrand on the question of the
Austrian alliance, which Hauterive favoured, led to his with-
drawal from the political side of the ministry of foreign affairs,
and he was appointed keeper of the archives of the same depart-
ment. In this capacity he did very useful work, and after the
Restoration continued in this post at the request of the due de
Richelieu, his work being recognized by his election as a member
of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1820. He
died at Paris on the 28th of July 1830.
There is a detailed account of Hauterive, with considerable extracts
from his correspondence with Talleyrand, in the Biographie universelle
by A. F. Artand de Montor, who published a separate life in 1831.
Criticisms of his Etat de la France appeared in Germany and England
by F. von Gentz (Von dem politischen Zustande, 1801). and by
T. B. Clarke (A Hist, and Pol. View ..., 1803).
HAUTES ALPES, a department in S.E. France, formed in
1790 out of the south-eastern portion of the old province of
Dauphine, together with a small part of N. Provence. It is
bounded N. by the department of Savoie, E. by Italy and the
department of the Basses Alpes, S. by the last-named depart-
ment and that of the Dr6me, and W. by the departments of the
Drome and of the Isere. Its area is 2178 sq. m., its greatest
length is 85 m. and its greatest breadth 62 m. It is very moun-
tainous, and includes the Pointe des Ecrins (13,462 ft.), the
loftiest summit in France before the annexation of Savoy in
1860, as well as the Meije (13,081 ft.), the Ailefroide (12,989 ft.)
and the Mont Pelvoux (12,973 ft.), though Monte Viso (12,609 &)
is wholly in Italy, rising just over the border. The department
is to a large extent made up of the basins of the upper Durance
(with its tributaries, the Guisane, the Gyronde and the Guil), of
the upper Drac and of the Bue'ch all being to a very large
extent wild mountain torrents in their upper course. The depart-
ment is divided into three arrondissements (Gap, Briancon and
Embrun), 24 cantons and 186 communes. In 1906 its population
was 107,498. It is a very poor department owing to its great
elevation above the sea-level. There are no industries of any
extent, and its commerce is almost wholly of local importance.
The prolonged winter greatly hinders agricultural development,
while the pastoral region has been greatly damaged and the
forests destroyed by the ravages of the Provencal sheep, vast
flocks of which are driven up here in the summer, as the pastures
are leased out to a large extent, and but little utilized by the
inhabitants. It now forms the diocese of Gap (this see is first
certainly mentioned in the 6th century), which is in the ecclesi-
astical province of Aix en Provence; in 1791 there was annexed
74
HAUTE-SAONE HAUTES-PYRENEES
to it the archiepiscopal see of Embrun, which was then sup-
pressed. There are 114 m. of railway in the department. This
includes the main line from Briancon past Gap towards Grenoble.
About 165 m. W. of Gap is the important railway junction of
Veynes, whence branch off the lines to Grenoble, to Valence by
Die and Livron, and to Sisteron for Marseilles. The chief town
is Gap, while Briancon and Embrun are the only other important
places.
See J. Roman, Dictionnaire lopographique du dep. des Htes-Alpes
(Paris, 1884), Tableau historique du dep. des Htes-Alpes (Paris, 1887-
1890, 2 vols.'), and Repertoire archeologique du dep. des Htes-Alpes
(Paris, 1888); J. C. F. Ladoucette, Histoire, topographic, &c., des
Hautes-Alpes (yd ed., Paris, 1848). (W. A. B. C.)
HAUTE-SAONE, a department of eastern France, formed in
1 790 from the northern portion of Franche Comte. It is traversed
by the river Saone, bounded N. by the department of the Vosges,
E. by the territory of Belfort, S. by Doubs and Jura, and W. by
Cote-d'Or and Haute-Marne. Pop. (1906), 263,890; area, 2075
sq. m. On the north-east, where they are formed by the Vosges,
and to the south along the course of the Ognon the limits are
natural. The highest point of the department is the Ballon de
Servance (3970 ft.), and the lowest the confluence of the Saone
and Ognon (610 ft.). The general slope is from north-east to
south-west, the direction followed by those two streams. In the
north-east the department belongs to the Vosgian formation,
consisting of forest-clad mountains of sandstone and granite,
and is of a marshy nature; but throughout the greater part of its
extent it is composed of limestone plateaus 800 to 1000 ft. high
pierced with crevasses and subterranean caves, into which the
rain water disappears to issue again as springs in the valleys 200
ft. lower down. In its passage through the department the
Saone receives from the right the Amance and the Salon from the
Langres plateau, and from the left the Coney, the Lanterne
(augmented by the Breuchin which passes by Luxeuil), the
Burgeon (passing Vesoul), and the Ognon. The north-eastern
districts are cold and have an annual rainfall ranging from 36
to 48 in. Towards the south-west the climate becomes more
temperate. At Vesoul and Gray the rainfall only reaches 24 in.
per annum.
Haute-Saone is primarily agricultural. Of its total area
nearly half is arable land; wheat, oats, meslin and rye are the
chief cereals and potatoes are largely grown. The vine flourishes
mainly in the arrondissement of Gray. Apples, plums and
cherries (from which the kirsch, for which the department is
famous, is distilled) are the chief fru'ts. The woods which cover
a quarter of the department are composed mainly of firs in the
Vosges and of oak, beech, hornbeam and aspen in the other
districts. The river-valleys furnish good pasture for the rearing
of horses and of horned cattle. The department possesses mines
of coal (at Ronchamp) and rock-salt (at Gouhenans) and stone
quarries are worked. Of the many mineral waters of Haute-
Saone the best known are the hot springs of Luxeuil (q.v.).
Besides iron-working establishments (smelting furnaces, foundries
and wire-drawing mills) , Haute-Saone possesses copper-foundries,
engineering works, steel-foundries and factories at Plancher-les-
Mines and elsewhere for producing ironmongery, nails, pins, files,
saws, screws, shot, chains, agricultural implements, locks, spin-
ning machinery, edge tools. Window-glass and glass wares,
pottery and earthenware are manufactured; there are also
brick and tile-works. The spinning and weaving of cotton, of
which Hericourt (pop. in 1906, 5194) is the chief centre, stand
next in importance to metal working, and there are numerous
paper-mills. Print-works, fulling mills, hosiery factories and
straw-hat factories are also of some account; as well as sugar
works, distilleries, dye-works, saw-mills, starch-works, the
chemical works at Gouhenans, oil-mills, tanyards and flour-
mills. The department exports wheat, cattle, cheese, butter,
iron, wood, pottery, kirschwasser, plaster, leather, glass, &c.
The Saone provides a navigable channel of about 70 m., which
is connected with the Moselle and the Meuse at Corre by the
Canal de 1'Est along the valley of the Coney. Gray is the chief
emporium of the water-borne trade of the Saone. Haute-Sa6ne
is served chiefly by the Eastern railway. There are three arron-
dissements Vesoul, Gray, Lure comprising 28 cantons, 583
communes. Haute-Saone is in the district of the VII. army
corps, and in its legal, ecclesiastical and educational relations
depends on Besancon.
Vesoul, the capital of the department, Gray and Luxeuil are
the principal towns. There is an important school of agri-
culture at St Remy in the arrondissement of Vesoul. The'
Roman ruins and mosaics at Membrey in the arrondissement
of Gray and the church (i3th and isth centuries) and abbey
buildings at Faverney, in the arrondissement of Vesoul, are of
antiquarian interest.
HAUTE-SAVOIE, a frontier department of France, formed
in 1860 of the old provinces of the Genevois, the Chablais and
the Faucigny, which constituted the northern portion of the
duchy of Savoy. It is bounded N. by the canton and Lake of
Geneva, E. by the Swiss canton of the Valais, S. by Italy and the
department of Savoie, and W. by the department of the Ain. It
is mainly made up of the river-basins of the Arve (flowing along
the northern foot of the Mont Blanc range, and receiving the
Giffre, on the right, and the Borne and Foron, on the left the
Arve joins the Rhone, close to Geneva), of the Dranse (with
several branches, all flowing into the Lake of Geneva), of the
Usses and of the Fier (both flowing direct into the Rhone, the
latter after forming the Lake of Annecy) . The upper course of the
Arly is also in the department, but the river then leaves it to fall
into the Isere. The whole of the department is mountainous.
But the hills attain no very great height, save at its south-east
end, where rises the sncwclad chain of Mont Blanc, with many
high peaks (culminating in Mont Blanc, 15,782 ft.) and many
glaciers. That portion of the department is alone frequented by
travellers, whose centre is Chamonix in the upper Arve valley.
The lowest point (945 ft.) in the department is at the junction of
the Fier with the Rhone. The whole of the department is
included in that portion of the duchy of Savoy which was neutral-
ized in 1815. In 1906 the population of the department was
260,617. Its area is 1775 sq. m., and it is divided into four
arrondissements (Annecy, the chief town, Bonneville, St Julien
and Thonon), 28 cantons and 314 communes. It forms the
diocese of Annecy. There are in the department 176 m. of
broad-gauge railways, and 70 m. of narrow-gauge lines.
There are also a number of mineral springs, only three of
which are known to foreigners the chalybeate waters of
Evian and Amphion, close to each other on the south shore
of the Lake of Geneva, and the chalybeate and sulphurous
waters of St Gervais, at the north-west end of the chain of Mont
Blanc. Anthracite and asphalte mines are numerous, as well as
stone quarries. Cotton is manufactured at Annecy, while Cluses
is the centre of the clock-making industry. There is a well-known
bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux. Thonon (the old capital of the
Chablais) is the most important town on the southern shore of the
Lake of Geneva and, after Annecy, the most populous place in
the department. (W. A. B. C.)
HAUTES-PYRENEES, a department of south-western France,
on the Spanish frontier, formed in 1790, half of it being taken
from Bigorre and the remainder from Armagnac, Nebouzan,
Astarac and Quatre Vallees, districts which all belonged to the
province of Gascony. Pop. (1906), 209,397. Area, 1750 sq. m.
Hautes-Pyrenees is bounded S. by Spain, W. by the department
of Basses-Pyrenees (which encloses on its eastern border five
communes belonging to Hautes-Pyrenees), N. by Gers and E.
by Haute-Garonne. Except on the south its boundaries are
conventional. The south of the department, comprising two-
thirds of its area, is occupied by the central Pyrenees. Some
of the peaks reach or exceed the height of 10,000 ft., the Vigne-
male (10,820 ft.) being the highest in the French Pyrenees. The
imposing cirques (Cirques de Troumouse, Gavarnie and Estaube),
with their glaciers and waterfalls, and the pleasant valleys
attract a large number of tourists, the most noted point being
the Cirque de Gavarnie. The northern portion of the depart-
ment is a region of plains and undulating hills clothed with corn-
fields, vineyards and meadows. To the north-east, however, the
HAUTE- VIENNE
75
cold and wind-swept plateau of Lannemezan (about 2000 ft.),
the watershed of the streams that come down on the French side
of the Pyrenees, presents in its bleakness and barrenness a
striking contrast to the plain that lies below. The department
is drained by three principal streams, the Gave de Pau, the Adour
and the Neste, an affluent of the Garonne. The sources of the
first and third lie close together in the Cirque of Gavarnie and
on the slopes of Troumouse, whence they flow respectively to
the north-west and north-east. An important section of the
Pyrenees, which carries the Massif Neouvielle and the Pic du
Midi de Bigorre (with its meteorological observatory), runs
northward between these two valleys. From the Pic du Midi
descends the Adour, which, after watering the pleasant valley
of Campan, leaves the mountains at Bagneres and then divides
into a multitude of channels, to irrigate the rich plain of Tarbes.
The chief of these is the Canal d'Alaric with a length of 36 m.
Beyond Hautes-Pyrenees it receives on the right the Arros,
which flows through the department from south to north-north-
west; on the left it receives the Gave de Pau. This latter
stream, rising in Gavarnie, is joined at Luz by the Gave de
Bastan from Neouvielle, and at Pierrefitte by the Gave de
Cauterets, fed by streams from the Vignemale. The Gavede Pau,
after passing Argeles, a well-known centre for excursions, and
Lourdes, leaves the mountains and turns sharply from north
to west; it has a greater volume of water than the Adour, but,
being more of a mountain torrent, is regarded as a tributary
of the Adour, which is navigable in the latter part of its course.
The Neste d'Aure, descending from the peaks of Neouvielle
and Troumouse, receives at Arreau the Neste de Louron from
the pass of Clarabide and flows northwards through a beautiful
valley as far as La Barthe, where it turns east; it is important
as furnishing the plateau of Lannemezan with a canal, the Canal
de la Neste, the waters of which are partly used for irrigation
and partly for supplying the streams that rise there and are dried
up in summer the Gers and the Baise, affluents of the Garonne.
This latter only touches the department. The climate of Hautes-
Pyrenees, though very cold on the highlands, is warm and moist
in the plains, where there are hot summers, fine autumns, mild
winters and rainy springs. On the plateau of Lannemezan,
while the summers are dry and scorching, the winters are very
severe. The average annual rainfall at Tarbes, in the north of
the department, is about 34 in.; at the higher altitudes it is
much greater. The mean annual temperature at Tarbes is
59 Fahr.
Hautes-Pyrenees is agricultural in the plains, pastoral in the
highlands. The more important cereals are wheat and maize,
which is much used for the feeding of pigs and poultry, especially
geese; rye, oats and barley are grown in the mountain districts.
The wines of Madiran and Peyriguere are well known and
tobacco is also cultivated; chestnut trees and fruit trees are
grown on the lower slopes. In the neighbourhood of Tarbes and
Bagneres-de-Bigorre horse-breeding is the principal occupation
and there is a famous stud at Tarbes. The horse of the region
is the result of a fusion of Arab, English and Navarrese blood
and is well fitted for saddle and harness; it is largely used by
light cavalry regiments. Cattle raising is important; the milch-
cows of Lourdes and the oxen of Tarbes and the valley of the
Aure are highly esteemed. Sheep and goats are also reared.
The forests, which occur chiefly in the highlands, contain bears,
boars, wolves and other wild animals. There are at Campan
and Sarrancolin quarries of fine marble, which is sawn and
worked at Bagneres. There is a group of slate quarries at
Labassere. Deposits of lignite, lead, manganese and zinc are
found. The mineral springs of Hautes-Pyrenees are numerous
and much visited. The principal in the valley of the Gave de
Pau are Cauterets (hot springs containing sulphur and sodium),
St Sauveur (springs with sulphur and sodium), and Bareges
(hot springs with sulphur and sodium), and in the valley of the
Adour Bagneres (hot or cold springs containing calcium sulphates,
iron, sulphur and sodium) and Capvern near Lannemezan
(springs containing calcium sulphates).
The department has flour-mills and saw-mills, a large military
arsenal at Tarbes, paper-mills, tanneries and manufactories of
agricultural implements and looms. The spinning and weaving
of wool and the manufacture of knitted goods are carried
on; Bagneres-de-Bigorre is the chief centre of the textile
industry.
Of the passes (ports) into Spain, even the chief, Gavarnie
(7398 ft.), is not accessible to carriages. The department is
served by the Southern railway and is traversed from west to
east by the main line from Bayonne to Toulouse. There are
three arrondissements, those of Tarbes, Argeles and Bagneres-
de-Bigorre, 26 cantons and 480 communes. Tarbes is the capital
of Hautes-Pyrenees, which constitutes the diocese of Tarbes, and
is attached to the appeal court of Pau; it forms part of the region
of the XVHI. army corps. In educational matters it falls within
the circumscription of the academic of Toulouse. Tarbes,
Lourdes, Bagneres-de-Bigorre and Luz-St Sauveur are the prin-
cipal towns. St Savin, in the valley of the Gave de Pau, and
Sarrancolin have interesting Romanesque churches. The church
of Maubourguet built by the Temolars in the i2th century is also
remarkable.
HAUTE-VIENNE, a department of central France, formed in
1790 of Haut-Limousin and of portions of Marche, Poitou and
Berry. Pop. (1906), 385,732. Area, 2144 sq. m. It is bounded
N. by Indre, E. by Creuse, S.E. by Correze, S.W. by Dordogne,
W. by Charente and N.W. by Vienne. Haute- Vienne belongs
to the central plateau of France, and drains partly to the Loire
and partly to the Garonne. The highest altitude (2549 ft.) is
in the extreme south-east, and belongs to the treeless but well-
watered plateau of Millevaches, formed of granite, gneiss and
mica. From that point the department slopes towards the west,
south-west and north. To the north-west of the Millevaches
are the Ambazac and Blond Hills, both separating the valley
of the Vienne from that of the Gartempe, a tributary of the
Creuse. The Vienne traverses the department from east to
west, passing Eymoutiers, St Leonard, Limoges and St Junien,
and receiving on the right the Maude and the Taurion. The Isle,
which flows into the Dordogne, with its tributaries the Auvezere
and the Dronne, and the Tardoire and the Bandiat, tributaries
of the Charente, all rise in the south of the department. The
altitude and inland position of Haute-Vienne, its geological
character, and the northern exposure of its valleys make the
winters long and severe; but the climate is milder in the west
and north-west. The annual rainfall often reaches 36 or 37 in.
and even more in the mountains. Haute-Vienne is on the whole
unproductive. Rye, wheat, buckwheat and oats are the cereals
most grown, but the chestnut, which is a characteristic product
of the department, still forms the staple food of large numbers
of the population. Potatoes, mangolds, hemp and colza are
cultivated. After the chestnut, walnuts and cider-apples are
the principal fruits. Good breeds of horned cattle and sheep are
reared and find a ready market in Paris. Horses for remount
purposes are also raised. The quarries furnish granite and large
quantities of kaolin, which is both exported and used in the
porcelain works of the department. Amianthus, emeralds and
garnets are found. Limoges is the centre of the porcelain industry
and has important liqueur distilleries. Woollen goods, starch,
paper and pasteboard, wooden and leather shoes, gloves, agri-
cultural implements and hats are other industrial products,
and there are flour-mills, breweries, dye-<works, tanneries, iron
foundries and printing works. Wine and alcohol for the liqueur-
manufacture, coal, raw materials for textile industries,
hops, skins and various manufactured articles are among the
imports.
The department is served almost entirely by the Orleans
Railway. It is divided into the arrondissements of Limoges,
Bellac, Rochechouart and St Yrieix (29 cantons and 205 com-
munes), and belongs to the academic (educational division) of
Poitiers and the ecclesiastical province of Bourges. Limoges,
the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of a court of appeal,
and is the headquarters of the XII. army corps. The other prin-
cipal towns are St Yrieix and St Junien. Solignac, St Leonard
and Le Dorat have fine Romanesque churches. The remains
7 6
HAUT-RHIN HAVANA
of the chateau of Chalusset (S.S.E. of Limoges) , the most remark-
able feudal ruins in Limousin, and the chateau of Rochechouart,
which dates from the I3th, isth and i6th centuries, are also of
interest.
HAUT-RHIN, before 1871 a department of eastern France,
formed in 1790 from the southern portion of Alsace. The
name " Haut-Rhin " is sometimes used of the territory of
Belfort (?..).
HAUY, REN& JUST (1743-1822), French mineralogist,
commonly styled the Abbe Haiiy, from being an honorary
canon of Notre Dame, was born at St Just, in the department
of Oise, on the 28th of February 1743. His parents were in
a humble rank of life, and were only enabled by the kindness of
friends to send their son to the college of Navarre and afterwards
to that of Lemoine. Becoming one of the teachers at the
latter, he began to devote his leisure hours to the study of botany ;
but an accident directed his attention to another field in natural
history. Happening to let fall a specimen of calcareous spar
belonging to a friend, he was led by examination of the fragments
to make experiments which resulted in the statement of the
geometrical law of crystallization associated with his name
(see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). The value of this discovery, the
mathematical theory of which is given by Haiiy in his Traite
de mineralogie, was immediately recognized, and when communi-
cated to the Academy, it secured for its author a place in that
society. Haiiy's name is also known for the observations he
made in pyro-electricity. When the Revolution broke out, he
was thrown into prison, and his life was even in danger, when
he was saved by the intercession of E. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire.
In 1802, under Napoleon, he became professor of mineralogy
at the museum of natural history, but after 1814 he was deprived
of his appointments by the government of the Restoration.
His latter days were consequently clouded by poverty, but the
courage and high moral qualities which had helped him forward
in his youth did not desert him in his old age; and he lived
cheerful and respected till his death at Paris on the 3rd of June
1822.
The following are his principal works: Essai d'une theorie sur
la structure des cristaux (1784); Exposition raisonnee de la theorie
de I'eleclricM et du magnetisme, d'apres les principes d'Aepinus
(1787); De la structure consideree comme caractere distinctif des
mineraux (1793); Exposition abregee de la theorie de la structure
des cristaux (1793); Extrait d'un traite elementaire de mineralogie
(1797); Traite de mineralogit (4 vols., 1801); Traite elementaire
de physique (2 vols., 1803, 1806); Tableau comparatif des resultats
de la cristallographie, et de I'analyse chimique relativement & la
classification des mineraux (1809); Trnite des pierres precieuses
(1817); Traite de cristallographie (2 vols., 1822). He also contri-
buted papers, of which loo are enumerated in the Royal Society's
catalogue, to various scientific journals, especially the Journal de
physique and the Annals du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle.
HAVANA (the name is of aboriginal origin; Span. Habana
or, more fully, San Cristobal de la Habana), the capital of Cuba,
the largest city of the West Indies, and one of the principal
seats of commerce in the New World, situated on the northern
coast of the island in 23 9' N. lat. and 82 22' W. long. Pop.
(1899), 235,981 ; (1907), 297,159. The city occupies a peninsula
to the W. of the harbour, between its waters and those of the
sea. Several small streams, of which the Almendares river is
the largest, empty into the harbour. The pouch-shaped, land-
locked bay is spacious and easy of access. Large merchantmen
and men-of-war can come up and unload along at least a consider-
able part of the water-front. The entrance, which is encumbered
by neither bar nor rock, averages about 260 yds. in width and
is about 1400 yds. long. Within, the bay breaks up into three
distinct arms, Marimalena or Regla Bay, Guanabacoa Bay
and the Bay of Atares. On the left hand of the entrance stands
the lofty lighthouse tower of the Morro. The sewage of the
city and other impurities were for centuries allowed to pollute
the bay, but the extent to which the harbour was thereby filled
up has been exaggerated. Though certainly very much smaller
than it once was, there is a difference of opinion as to whether
the harbour has grown smaller since the end of the i8th century.
From the sea the city presents a picturesque appearance.
The Havana side of the bay has a sea-wall and an excellent
drive. The city walls, begun in 1671 and completed about 1740,
were almost entirely demolished between 1863 and 1880, only
a few insignificant remnants having survived the American
military occupation of 1899-1902; but it is still usual to speak
of the " intramural " and the " extramural " city. The former,
the old city, lying close to the harbour front, has streets as
narrow as is consistent with wheel traffic. Obispo (Pi y Margali
in the new republican nomenclature), O'Reilly and San Rafael
are the finest retail business streets, and the Prado and the
Cerro the handsomest residential streets in the city proper.
The new city, including the suburbs to the W. overlooking the
sea, has been laid out on a somewhat more spacious plan, with
isolated dwellings and wide thoroughfares, some planted with
trees. Most of the houses, and especially those of the planter
aristocracy, are massively built of stone, with large grated
windows, flat roofs with heavy parapets and inner courts. As
the erection of wooden buildings was illegal long after 1772,
it is only in the suburban districts that they are to be seen.
The limestone which underlies almost all the island affords
excellent building stone. The poorer houses are built of brick
with plaster fronts. Three-fourths of all the buildings of the
city are of one very high storey; there are but a few dozen
buildings as high as four storeys. Under Spanish rule, Havana
was reputed to be a city of noises and smells. There was no
satisfactory cleaning of the streets or draining of the sub-soil,
and the harbour was rendered visibly foul by the impurities
of the town. A revolution was worked in this respect during
the United States military occupation of the city, and the
republic continued the work.
Climate. The general characteristics of the climate of Havana are
described in the article CUBA. A temperature as low as 40 F. is
extraordinary; and freezing point is only reached on extremely
rare occasions, such as during hurricanes or electric storms. The
mean annual temperature is about 25-7 C. (78 F.); that of the
hottest month is about 28-8 C. (84 F.), and that of the coldest,
2 1 C. (70 F.). The means of the four seasons are approximately
for December, January, February and successive quarters 23,
27, 28 and 26* C. (73-4, 80-6, 82-4 and 78-8 F.). The mean
relative humidity is between 75 and 80 for all seasons save spring,
when it is least and may be from 65 upward. A difference of 30 C.
(54 F.) at mid-day in the temperature of two spots close together,
one in sun and one in shade, is not unusual. The daily variation of
temperature is also considerable. The depressing effect of the heat
and humidity is greatly relieved by afternoon breezes from the sea,
and the nights are invariably comfortable and generally cool.
Defences. The principal defences of Havana under Spanish rule,
when the city was maintained as a military stronghold of the first
rank, were (to use the original and unabbreviated form of the names)
the Castillo de San Salvador de la Punta, to the W. of the harbour
entrance; the Castillo de Los Tres Reyes del Morro and San Carlos
de la Cabana, to the E. ; the Santo Domingo de Alarms, at the
head of the western arm of the bay, commanding the city and its
vicinity; and the Castillo del Principe (1767-1780), situated inland
on an eminence to the W. El Morro, as it is popularly called, was
first erected in 1590-1640, and La Punta, a much smaller fort, is of
the same period; both were reconstructed after the evacuation of
the citybythe English in 1763, from which time also date the castles
of Principe, Atares and tlje Cabana. The Cabana, which alone
can accommodate some 6000 men, fronts the bay for a distance of
more than 800 yds., and was long supposed, at least by Spaniards,
to be the strongest fortress of America. Here is the " laurel
ditch " or " dead-line " commemorated by a handsome bronze
relief set in the wall of the fortress where scores of Cuban patriots
were shot. To the E. and W. inland are several small forts. The
military establishment of the republic is very small.
Churches. Of the many old churches in the city, the most note-
worthy is the cathedral. The original building was abandoned
in 1762. The present one, originally the church of the Jesuits, was
erected in 1656-1724. The interior decoration dates largely from
the last decade of the i8th century and the first two decades of the
igth. In the wall of the chancel, a medallion and inscription long
distinguished the tomb of Columbus, whose remains ware removed
hither from Santo Domingo in 1796. In 1898 they were taken to
Spain. Mention may also be made of the churches of Santo Domingo
(begun in 1578), Santa Catalina (1700), San Agustin (1608), Santa
Clara (1644), La Merced (1744, with a collection of oil paintings)
and San Felipe (1693). Monasteries and nunneries were very
numerous until the suppression of the religious orders in 1842,
when many became simple churches. Some of the convents were
successful in conserving their wealth. The former monastery of the
Jesuits, now the Jesuit church of Bel6n (1704), at the corner of Luz
HAVANA
77
and Compostela Streets, is one of the most elegant and richly
ornamented in Cuba.
Public Buildings. The Palace, which served as a residence for the
captains-general during the Spanish rule, is the home of the city
government and the residence of the president of the republic. It
is a large and handsome stone structure (tinted in white and yellow),
and stands on the site of the original parish church, facing the Plaza
de Armas from the east. It was erected in 1773-1792 and radically
altered in 1835 and 1851. A large municipal gaol (1834-1837),
capable of receiving 500 inmates, with barracks for a regiment, is a
striking object on the Prado. The Castillo del Principe now serves
as the state penitentiary. Among other public buildings are, the
exchange (El Muelle), the custom-house (formerly the church of San
Francisco; begun about 1575, rebuilt in 1731-1737), and the
Maestranza (c. 1723), once the navy yard and the headquarters of
the artillery and now the home of the national library. All these
are in the old city. Some of the older structures notably the
church of Santo Domingo and the Maestranza are built of grey
limestone. In the old city also are the Plaza Vieja, dating from the
middle of the i6th century (with the modern Mercado de Cristina,
of 1837 destroyed 1908), the old stronghold La Fuerza, erected by
Hernando de Soto in 1538, once the treasury of the flotas and
galleons, and residence of the governors, with its old watch-tower
(La Vigia); and the Plaza de Armas, with the palace, the Senate
building, a statue of Fernando VII. (1833), and a commemorative
chapel (El Templete, 1828) to mark the supposed spot where mass
was first said at the establishment of the city. Mention must be
made of the large and interesting markets, especially those of
Colon and Tacon. Of the theatres, which until the end of the
Spanish period had to compete with the bull-ring and the cock-
pit, the most important is the Tacon (now " Nacional ") erected
in 1838.
Havana is famous for its promenades, drives and public gardens.
On the city's E. harbour front runs the Paseo (Alameda) de Paula
(1772-1775, improved 1844-1845), an embanked drive, continued
by the Paseo de Rocali and the Cortina de Valdes, with fine views
of the forts and the harbour. On the N., along the sea, beginning
at the Punta fortress and running W. for several miles along the sea-
wall, is a speedway and pleasure-drive, known from the wall
as the Malecon. Beginning at the Punta fortress where a park
was laid out in 1899 in the place of an ugly quarter, with a memorial
to the students judicially murdered by the Spanish volunteers in
1871 and running along the line of the former city walls, past the
Parque Central, through the Parque de Isabel II. and the Parque de
la India (these two names are now practically abandoned) to the
Parque de Colon or Campo de Marte, is the Prado, 1 a wide and hand-
some -promenade and drive, shaded with laurels and lined with fine
houses and clubs. In 1907 a hurricane destroyed the greater part of
the laurels of the Prado and the roVal palms of the Parque de Colon.
Central Park is surrounded by hotels, theatres, caf6s and clubs,
the last including the Centro Asturiano and Casino Espanol. In the
centre is a monument to Jos6 Marti (1853-1895), " the apostle of
independence," and in an adjoining square is the city's fine monu-
ment to the Cuban engineer Francisco de Albear, to whom she owes
her water system. From the Parque de Colon the Calle (or Calzada)
de la Reina an ordinary, business street, once a promenade and
known as the Alameda de Isabel 1 1 . with its continuations, the Paseo
de Carlos III. and Paseo de Tacon, runs westward through the city
past the botanical gardens and the Quinta de los Molinos to the
citadel of El Principe (1774-1794). A statue of Charles III. by
Canova (1803), fountains, pavilions and four rows of trees adorn the
PaseodeCarlos III. Thegardcns of Los Molinos, where the captains-
general formerly maintained their summer residence, and the ad-
joining botanical gardens of the university, contain beautiful
avenues of palm trees. Near El Principe is the Columbus cemetery,
with a fine gateway, a handsome monument (1888) to the students
shot in 1871, and another (1897; 75 ft. high) to the firemen lost in a
great fire in 1890, besides many smaller memorials. The Calzada
de la Infanta is a fine street at the W. end of the new city; the
Cerro, in the S.W., is lined with massive residences, once the homes
of Cuban aristocracy.
Suburbs. In the coral rock of the coast sea-baths are excavated,
so that bathers may run no risk from sharks. On the S. and W. the
city is backed by an amphitheatre of hills, which are crowned in
the W. by the conspicuous fortifications of Castillo del Principe.
On the lower heights near the city lie Vedado, Jesus del Monte,
Luyano and other healthy suburbs. Chorrera, Puentes Grandes,
Marianao (founded 1830; pop. 1907, 9332) and Guanabacoa (with
mineral springs), are attractive places of resort. Regla, just across
the bay (now part of the municipio), has large business interests.
Chanties and Education. Among the numerous charitable in-
stitutions the most important hospital is the Casa de Beneficencia
y Maternidad (Charity and Maternity Asylum), opened in 1794, and
containing an orphan asylum, a maternity ward, a home for vagrants,
a lunatic asylum and an infirmary. There is also in the city an
immense lazaretto for lepers. The Centro Asturiano, a club with a
membership of some ten or fifteen thousand (not limited to Asturians),
1 Renamed Paseo de Marti by the republic, but the name is never
used.
maintains for the benefit of its members a large and well-managed
sanatorium in spacious grounds in the midst of the city.
Of the schools of the city the most noteworthy is the university
(581 regular students, 1907), founded in 1728. Its quarters were in
the old convent of Santo Domingo until 1900, when the American
military government prepared better quarters for it in the former
Pirotecnica Militar, near El Principe. There are various laboratories
in the city. Other schools are the provincial Institute of Secondary
Education (490 regular students in 1907; library of 12,863 vols.),
a provincial school of arts and trades (opened 1882), a theological
seminary, a boys' technical school, a school of painting and sculpture,
a conservatory of music, normal school, mercantile school and a
military academy. The Jesuit church (Bel6n) has a large college
for boys, laboratories, an observatory, a museum of natural history,
and an historical library. Great progress has been made in educa-
tion, which was extremely backward until after the end of Spanish
rule. The Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pais, established in
1792, has always had considerable influence. It has a library of
some 42,000 volumes, rich in material for Cuban history. Among
other similar organizations are an Academy of Medical, Physical
and Natural Sciences (1863); a national library, established in 1901,
and having in 1908 about 40,000 volumes, including the finest
collection in the world of materials for Cuban history; an anthropo-
logical society; various medical societies; and a Bar association.
An association of sugar planters is a very important factor in the
economic development of the island.
Of the newspapers of Havana the most notable is the El Diario
de la Marina (established in 1838; under its present name, 1844;
morning and evening), which was almost from its foundation an
official organ of the Spanish government, and generally the mouth-
piece of the most intransigent peninsular opinion in all that con-
cerned the politics of the island. El Ansador Cpmercial (1868;
evening) is devoted almost exclusively to commercial and financial
news. Of the other newspapers the leading ones in 1909 were
La Discusion (1888; evening), La Lucha (1884; evening) and El
Mundo (1902; morning).
Trade. Havana commands the wholesale trade of all the western
half of the island, and is the centre of commercial and banking
interests. Its foreign trade in the five calendar years 1902-1906
(average imports $57,201,276; exports, $40,563,637) amounted to
68-9% of the imports and 44-6% of the exports of the island.
The average number of vessels entering the port annually in the ten
years from 1864 to 1873 was 1981 (771,196 tons), and the average
entries in the five years 1902-1906 were 3698 of 3,904,906 gross tons
(coast trade alone, 2162 of 333,795 tons).
In spite of high tariffs and civil wars, and the competition of
Matanzas, Cardenas, Cienfuegos and other Cuban ports opened to
foreign trade in modern times, the commerce of Havana has steadily
increased. The chief foreign customers are Great Britain and the
United States. The two staple articles of export are sugar and
tobacco-wares. Other exports of importance are rum, wax and
honey; and of less primary importance, fruits, fine cabinet woods,
oils and starch. The leading imports are grains, flour, lard and
various other foodstuffs, coal, lumber, petroleum and machinery,
all mainly from the United States; wines and olive oil from Spain;
jerked beef from South America; fabrics and other staples from
varied sources. Rice is a principal food of the people; it was
formerly taken from the East Indies, but is now mostly raised in the
island.
The chief manufacturing industry of Havana is that of tobacco.
Of the cigar factories, some of which are in former public and private
palaces, more than a hundred may be reckoned as of the first class.
Besides the making of boxes and barrels and other articles necessarily
involved in its sugar and tobacco trade, Havana also, to some extent,
builds carriages and small ships, and manufactures iron and
machinery; but the weight of taxation during the Spanish period
was always a heavy deterrent on the development of any business
requiring great capital. There are minor manufacturing interests in
tanneries, and in the manufacture of sweetmeats, malt and distilled
liquors, especially rum, besides soaps, candles, starch, perfume, &c.
There is one large and complete petroleum refinery (1905).
Havana has frequent steam-boat communication with New York,
Baltimore, Philadelphia, Tampa, Mobile, New Orleans and other
ports of the United States; and about as frequent with several
ports in England, Spain and France. It is the starting-point of a
railway system which reaches the six provincial capitals between
Pinar del Rio and Santiago, Cardenas, Cienfuegos and other ports.
Telegraphs radiate to all parts of the island; a submarine cable to
Key West forms part of the line of communication between Colon
and New York, and by other cables the island has connexion with
various parts of the West Indies and with South America.
Population and Health. The population of Havana was reported
as 51,307 in 1791; 96,304 in 1811; 94,023 in 1817; 184,508 in 1841.
In 1899 the American census showed 235,981, of whom about 25%
were foreign (20 % Spanish); and the census of 1907 showed
297,159 (not including the attached country districts) and 302,526
(including these country districts), the last being for the" municipio "
of Havana. The industrial population is very densely crowded.
Owing to this, as well as to the entire lack of proper sanitary customs
among the people, the horrible condition of sewerage and the
7 8
HAVANT
prevalence of yellow fever (first brought to Havana, it is thought, in
1761, from Vera Cruz), the reputation of the city as regards health
was long very bad. The practical extermination of yellow fever
during the U.S. military occupation following 1899 was a remarkable
achievement. In 1895-1899, owing to the war, there were few
non-immune persons in the city, and there was no trouble with
the fever, but from the autumn of 1899 a heavy immigration from
Spain began.and a fever epidemic was raging in 1900. TheAmerican
military authorities found that the most extraordinary measures for
cleansing the city involving repeated house-to-house inspection,
enforced cleanliness, improved drainage and sewerage, the destruc-
tion of various public buildings, and thorough cleansing of the streets
although decidedly effective in reducing the general death-rate
of the city (average, 1890-1899, 45-83; 1900, 24-40; 1901, 22-11;
1902, 20-63; general death-rate of U.S. soldiers in 1898, 67-94; ' n
1901-1902, 7-00), apparently did not affect yellow fever at all.
In 1900-1901 Major Walter Reed (1851-1902), a surgeon in the
United States army, proved by experiments on voluntary human
subjects that the infection was spread by the Stegomyia mosquito, 1
and the prevention of the disease was then undertaken by Major
William C. Gorgas all patients being screened and mosquitoes
practically exterminated. 2 The number of subsequent deaths from
yellow fever has depended solely on the degree to which the necessary
precautionary measures were taken.
The entire administrative system of the island, when a Spanish
colony, was centred at Havana. Under the republic this remains
the capital and the residence of the president, the supreme court,
Congress when in session and the chief administrative officers.
None of the public services was good in the Spanish period, except
the water-supply, which was excellent. The water is derived from
the Vento springs, 9 m. from Havana, and is conducted through
aqueducts constructed between 1859 and 1894 at a cost of some
$5,000,000. About 40,000,000 gallons are supplied daily. The
system is owned by the municipality. The older Fernando VII.
aqueduct (1831-1835) is still usable in case of need; its supply was
the Almendares river (until long after the construction of this, a
still older aqueduct, opened at the end of the l6th century, was in
use). The sewerage system and conditions of house sanitation
were found extremely inadequate when the American army occupied
the city in 1899. Several public buildings were so foul that they
were demolished and burned. The improvement since the end of
Spanish rule has been steady.
History. Havana, originally founded by Diego Velasquez
in 1514 on an unhealthy site near the present Batabano (pop.
in 1907, 15,435, including attached country districts), on the
south coast, was soon removed to its present position, was
granted an ayuntamiento (town council), and shortly came to
be considered one of the most important places in the New
World. Its commanding position gained it in 1634, by royal
decree, the title of " Llave del Nuevo Mundo y Antemural
de las Indias Occidentales " (Key of the New World and Bulwark
of the West Indies), in reference to which it bears on its coat
of arms a symbolic key and representations of the Morro, Punta
and Fuerza. In the history of the place in the i6th century
few things stand out except the investments by buccaneers:
in 1537 it was sacked and burned, and in 1555 plundered by
French buccaneers, and in 1586 it was threatened by Drake.
In 1589 Philip II. of Spain ordered the erection of the Punta
and the Morro. In the same year the residence of the governor
of the island was moved from Santiago de Cuba to Havana.
Philip II. granted Havana the title of " ciudad " in 1592. Sugar
plantations in the environs appeared before the end of the
1 6th century. The population of the city, probably about 3000
at the beginning of the I7th century, was doubled in the
years following 1655 by the coming of Spaniards from Jamaica.
In the course of the i7th century the port became the great
1 Dr Carlos Finlay of Havana, arguing from the coincidence
between the climatic limitation of yellow fever and the geographical
limitation of the mosquito, urged (1881 sqq.) that there was some
relation between the disease and the insect. Reed worked from
the observation of D H. R. Carter (U.S. Marine Hospital Service)
that although the incubation of the disease was 5 days, 15 to 20 days
had to elapse before the " infection " of the house, and from Ross's
demonstration of the part played in malaria by the Anopheles.
See H. A. Kelly, Walter Reed and Yellow Fever (New York, 1907).
1 The average number of deaths from yellow fever annually from
1885 (when reliable registration began) to 1898 was 455; maximum
1282 in 1896 (supposed average for 4 years, 1856-1859, being 1489-8
and for 7 years, 1873-1879, 1395-1), minimum 136, in 1898; average
deaths of military, 1885-1898, 278-4 (in 1896-1897 constituting 1966
out of a total of 2140); deaths of American soldiers, 18991900,
18 out of 431.
rendezvous for the royal merchant and treasure fleets that mono-
polized trade with America, and the commercial centre of the
Spanish-American possessions. It was blockaded four times
by the Dutch (who were continually molesting the treasure
fleets) in the first half of the i7th century. In 1671 the city
walls were begun; they were completed in 1702. The European
wars of the i7th and i8th centuries were marked by various
incidents in local history. After the end of the Spanish War of
Succession (1713) came a period of comparative prosperity
in slave-trading and general commerce. The creation in 1740
of a monopolistic trading-company was an event of importance
in the history of the island. English squadrons threatened the
city several times in the first half of the i8th century, but it
was not until 1762 than an investment, made by Admiral Sir
George Pocock and the earl of Albemarle, was successful. The
siege lasted from June to August and was attended by heavy
loss to both besiegers and besieged. The British commanders
wrung great sums from the church and the city as prize of war
and price of good order. By the treaty of the loth of February
1763, at the close of the Seven Years' War, Havana was restored
to Spain in exchange for the Floridas. The English turned
over the control of the city on the 6th of July. Their occupation
greatly stimulated commerce, and from it dates the modern
history of the city and of the island (see CUBA). The gradual
removal of obstacles from the commerce of the island from
1766 to 1818 particularly benefited Havana. At the end of the
1 8th century the city was one of the seven or eight great com-
mercial centres of the world, and in the first quarter of the
1 9th century was a rival in population and in trade of Rio
Janeiro, Buenos Aires and New York. In 1789 a bishopric
was created at Havana suffragan to the archbishopric at Santiago.
From the end of the i8th century Havana, as the centre of
government, was the centre of movement and interest. During
the administration of Miguel Tac6n Havana was improved
by many important public works; his name is frequent in the
nomenclature of the city. The railway from Havana to Giiines
was built between 1835 and 1838. Fifty Americans under
Lieut. Crittenden, members of the Bahia Honda filibustering
expedition of Narciso Lopez, were shot at Fort Atares in 1851.
Like the rest of Cuba, Havana has frequently suffered severely
from hurricanes, the most violent being those of 1768 (St
Theresa's), 1810 and 1846. The destruction of the U.S. battle-
ship " Maine " in the harbour of Havana on the isth of
February 1898 was an influential factor in causing the outbreak
of the Spanish-American War, and during the war the city was
blockaded by a United States fleet.
See J. de la Pezuela, Diccionario de la Isla de Cuba, vol. iii. (Madrid,
1863), for minute details of history, administration and economic
conditions down to 1862; J. M. de la Torre, Lo que fuimos y lo
que somos, 6 la Habana antigua y moderna (Habana, 1857); P. J.
Guite'ras, Historia de la conquista de la Habana 1762 (Philadelphia,
1856); J. de la Pezuela, Sitio y rendition de la Habana en 1762
(Madrid, 1859); A. Bachiller y Morales, Monografia historica
(Habana, 1883), minutely covering the English occupation (the
best account) of 1762-1763; Maria de los Mercedes, comtesse de
Merlin, La Havana (3 vols., Paris, 1844) ; and the works cited under
CUBA.
HAVANT, a market-town in the Fareham parliamentary
division of Hampshire, England, 67 m. S.W. from London by
the London & South Western and the London, Brighton &
South Coast railways. Pop. of urban district (.1901), 3837.
The urban district of Warblington, i m. S.E. (pop. 3639), has
a fine church, Norman and later, with traces of pre-Norman
work, and some remains of a Tudor castle. Havant lies in a
flat coastal district, near the head of Langstone Harbour, a wide
shallow inlet of the English Channel. The church of St Faith
was largely rebuilt in 1875, but retains some good Early English
work. There are breweries and tanneries, and the manufacture
of parchment is carried on. Off the mainland near Havant lies
Hayling, a flat island of irregular form lying between the harbours
of Langstone and Chichester. It measures 4 m. in length from
N. to S., and is nearly the same in breadth at the south, but the
breadth generally is about i\ m. It is well wooded and fertile.
A railway serves the village of South Hayling, which is in some
HAVEL HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY
79
favour as a seaside resort, having a wide sandy beach and good
golf links. The island was in the possession of successive religious
bodies from the Conquest (when it was given to the Benedictines
of Jumieges, near Rouen), until the Dissolution. The church
of South Hayling is a fine Early English building.
HAVEL, a river of Prussia, Germany, having its origin in
Lake Dambeck (223 ft.) on the Mecklenburg plateau, a few
miles north-west of Neu-Strelitz, and after threading several
lakes flowing south as far as Spandau. Thence it curves south-
west, past Potsdam and Brandenburg, traversing another chain
of lakes, and finally continues north-west until it joins the Elbe
from the right some miles above Wittenberge after a total
course of 221 m. and a total fall of only 158 ft. Its banks are
mostly marshy or sandy, and the stream is navigable from the
Mecklenburg lakes downwards. Several canals connect it
with these lakes, as well as with other rivers e.g. the Finow
canal with the Oder, the Ruppin canal with the Rhin, the Berlin-
Spandau navigable canal (55 m.) with the Spree, and the Plaue-
Ihle canal with the Elbe. The Sakrow-Paretz canal, 1 1 m. long,
cuts off the deep bend at Potsdam. The most notable of the
tributaries is the Spree (227 m. long), which bisects Berlin and
joins the Havel at Spandau. Area of river basin, 10,159 sq.m.
HAVELBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Havel and the railway Glowen-Havel-
berg. Pop. (1905), 5988. The town is built partly on an island
in the Havel, and partly on hills on the right bank of the river,
on one of which stands the fine Romanesque cathedral dating
from the I2th century. The two parts, which are connected
by a bridge, were incorporated as one town in 1875. The
inhabitants are chiefly engaged in tobacco manufacturing,
sugar-refining and boat-building, and in the timber trade.
Otto I. founded a bishopric at Havelberg in 946; the bishop,
however, who was a prince of the Empire, generally resided at
Plattenburg, or Wittstock, a few miles to the north. In 1548
the bishopric was seized by the elector of Brandenburg, who
finally took possession of it fifty years later, and the cathedral
passed to the Protestant Church, retaining its endowments till
the edict of 1810, by which all former ecclesiastical oossessions
were assumed by the crown. The final secularization was delayed
till 1819. Havelberg was formerly a strong fortress, but in the
Thirty Years' War it was taken from the Danish by the imperial
troops in 1627. Recaptured by the Swedes in 1631, a'nd again
in 1635 and 1636, it was in 1637 retaken by the Saxons. It
suffered severely from a conflagration in 1870.
HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY (1795-1857), British soldier, one of
the heroes of the Indian Mutiny, the second of four brothers (all
of whom entered the army), was born at Ford Hall, Bishop-
Wearmouth, Sunderland, on the 5th of April 1795. His parents
were William Havelock, a wealthy shipbuilder in Sunderland,
and Jane, daughter of John Carter, solicitor at Stockton-on-Tees.
When about five years old Henry accompanied his elder brother
William to Mr Bradley's school at Swanscombe, whence at the
age of ten he removed for seven years to Charterhouse school.
In accordance with the desire of his mother, who had died in
1811, he entered the Middle Temple in 1813, studying under
Chitty the eminent special pleader. His legal studies having been
abridged by a misunderstanding with his father, he in 1815
accepted a second lieutenancy in the Rifle Brigade (gsth),
procured for him by the interest of his brother William. During
the following eight years of service in Britain he read extensively
and acquired a good acquaintance with the theory of war. In
1823, having exchanged into the 2ist and thence into the i3th
Light Infantry, he followed his brothers William and Charles
to India, first qualifying himself in Hindustani under Dr Gilchrist,
a celebrated Orientalist.
At the close of twenty-three years' service he was still a
lieutenant, and it was not until 1838 that, after three years'
adjutancy of his regiment, he became captain. Before this,
however, he had held several staff appointments, notably that
of deputy assistant-adjutant-general of the forces in Burma till
the peace of Yandabu, of which he, with Lumsden and Knox,
procured the ratifications at Ava from the " Golden Foot,"
who bestowed on him the " gold leaf " insignia of Burmese
nobility. His first command had been at a stockade capture
in the war, and he was present also at the battles of Napadee,
Patanago and Pagan. He had also held during his lieutenancy
various interpreterships and the adjutancy of the king's troops
at Chinsura. In 1828 he published at Serampore Campaigns in
Ava, and in 1829 he married Hannah Shepherd, daughter of Dr
Marshman, the eminent missionary. About the same time he
became a Baptist, being baptized by Mr John Mack at Serampore.
During the first Afghan war he was present as aide-de-camp to
Sir Willoughby Cotton at the capture of Ghazni, on the 23rd of
July 1839, and at the occupation of Kabul. After a short absence
in Bengal to secure the publication of his Memoirs of the Afghan
Campaign, he returned to Kabul in charge of recruits, and
became interpreter to General Elphinstone. In 1840, being
attached to Sir Robert Sale's force, he took part in the Khurd-
Kabul fight, in the celebrated passage of the defiles of the Ghilzais
(1841) and in the fighting from Tezeen to Jalalabad. Here,
after many months' siege, his column in a sortie en masse defeated
Akbar Khan on the 7th of April 1842. He was now madedeputy
adjutant-general of the infantry division in Kabul, and in
September he assisted at Jagdalak, at Tezeen, and at the release
of the British prisoners at Kabul, besides taking a prominent
part at Istaliff. Having obtained a regimental majority he next
went through the Mahratta campaign as Persian interpreter
to Sir Hugh (Viscount) Gough, and distinguished himself at
Maharajpore in 1843, and also in the Sikh campaign at Moodkee,
Ferozeshah and Sobraon in 1845. For these services he was
made deputy adjutant-general at Bombay. He exchanged from
the I3th to the 39th, then as second major into the 53rd at the
beginning of 1849, and soon afterwards left for England, where
he spent two years. In 1854 he became quartermaster-general,
then full colonel, and lastly ajdutant-general of the troops in
India.
In 1857 he was selected by Sir James Outram for the command
of a division in the Persian campaign, during which he was present
at the actions of Muhamra and Ahwaz. Peace with Persia set
him free just as the Mutiny broke out; and he was chosen to
command a column " to quell disturbances in Allahabad, to
support Lawrence at Lucknow and Wheeler at Cawnpore, to
disperse and utterly destroy all mutineers and insurgents." At
this time Lady Canning wrote of him in her diary: " General
Havelock is not in fashion, but all the same we believe that he
will do well. No doubt he is fussy and tiresome, but his little
old stiff figure looks as active and fit for use as if he were made of
steel." But in spite of this lukewarm commendation Havelock
proved himself the man for the occasion, and won the reputation
of a great military leader. At Fatehpur, on the i2th of July,
at Aong and Pandoobridge on the isth, at Cawnpore on the
i6th, at Unao on the 2gth, at Busherutgunge on the 2gth and
again on the 5th of August, at Boorhya on the i2th of August,
and at Bithur on the i6th, he defeated overwhelming forces.
Twice he advanced for the relief of Lucknow, but twice prudence
forbade a reckless exposure of troops wasted by battle and
disease in the almost impracticable task. Reinforcements arriv-
ing at last under Outram, he was enabled by the generosity of his
superior officer to crown his successes on the 25th of September
1857 by the capture of Lucknow. There he died on the 24th of
November 1857, of dysentery, brought on by the anxieties and
fatigues connected with his victorious march and with the
subsequent blockade of the British troops. He lived long enough
to receive the intelligence that he had been created K.C.B. for
the first three battles of the campaign; but of the major-general-
ship which Vas shortly afterwards conferred he never knew.
On the 26th of November, before tidings of his death had reached
England, letters-patent were directed to create him a baronet
and a pension of 1000 a year was voted at the assembling of
parliament. The baronetcy was afterwards bestowed upon his
eldest son; while to his widow, by royal order, was given the
rank to which she would have been entitled had her husband
survived and been created a baronet. To both widow and son
pensions of 1000 were awarded by parliament.
8o
HAVELOK THE DANE HAVERFORDWEST
See Marshman, Life of Havelock (1860) ; L. J. Trotter, The Bayard
of India (1903); F. M. Holmes, Four Heroes of India; G. B. Smith,
Heroes of the Nineteenth Century (1901); and A. Forbes, Havelock
(" English Men of Action " series, 1890).
HAVELOK THE DANE, an Anglo-Danish romance. The hero,
under the name of CUHERAN or CUARAN, was a scullion-jongleur
at the court of Edelsi (Alsi) or Godric, king of Lincoln and
Lindsey. At the same court was brought up Argentine or
Goldborough, the orphan daughter of Adelbrict, the Danish
king of Norfolk, and his wife Orwain, Edelsi's sister; and
Edelsi, to humiliate his ward, married her to the scullion Cuaran.
But, inspired by a vision, Cuaran and Goldborough set out for
Grimsby, where Cuaran learned that Grim, his supposed father,
was dead. His foster-sister, moreover, told him that his real
name was Havelok, that he was the son of Gunter (or Birkabeyn),
king of Denmark, and had been rescued by Grim, who though
a poor fisherman was a noble in his own country, when Gunter
perished by treason. The hero then wins back his own and
Goldborough's kingdoms, punishing traitors and rewarding the
faithful. The story exists in two French versions: as an inter-
polation between Geffrei Gaimar's Brut and his Estorie des
Engles (c. 1150) and in the Anglo-Norman Lai d' Havelok (i2th
century). The English Havelok (c. 1300) is written in a Lincoln-
shire dialect and embodies abundant local tradition. A short
version of the tale is interpolated in the Lambeth MS. of Robert
Mannyng's Handlyng Synne. The story reappears more than
once in English literature, notably in the ballad of " Argentille
and Curan " in William Warner's Albion's England. The name
of Havelok (Habloc, Abloec, Abloyc) is said to correspond in
Welsh to Anlaf or Olaf. Now the historical Anlaf Curan was the
son of a Viking chief Sihtric, who was king of Northumbria in
925 and died in 927. Anlaf Sihtricson was driven into exile by
his stepmother's brother ^Ethelstan, and took refuge in Scotland
at the court of Constantine II., whose daughter he married.
He was defeated with Constantine 1 at Brunanburh (937), but
was nevertheless for two short periods joint ruler in Northumbria
with his cousin Anlaf Godfreyson. He reigned in Dublin till 980,
when he was defeated. He died the next year as a monk at lona.
Round the name of Anlaf Curan a number of legends rapidly
gathered, and the legend of the Danish hero probably filtered
through Celtic channels, as the Welsh names of Argentille and
Orwain indicate. The close similarity between the Havelok
saga and the story of Hamlet (Amlethus) as told by Saxo Gram-
maticus was pointed out long ago by Scandinavian scholars.
The individual points they have in common are found in other
legends, but the series of coincidences between the adventurous
history of Anlaf Curan and the life of Amlethus can hardly be
fortuitous. Interesting light is thrown on the whole question by
Professor I. Gollancz (Hamlet in Iceland, 1898) by the identifica-
tion of Amhlaide who is said by Queen Gormflaith 2 in the
Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters to have slain Niall
Glundubh with Anlaf's father Sihtric. The exploits of father
and son were likely to be confused.
The mythical elements in the Havelok story are numerous.
Argentille, as H. L. Ward points out, is a disguised Valkyrie.
Like Svava she inspired a dull and nameless youth, and as Hild
raised the dead to fight by magic, so Argentille in Havelok and
Hermuthruda in Amlelh prop up dead or wounded men with
stakes to bluff the enemy. Havelok's royal lineage is betrayed
by his flame breath when he is asleep, a phenomenon which has
parallels in the history of Servius Tullius and of Dietrich of Bern.
Part of the Havelok legend lingers in local tradition. Havelok
destroyed his enemies in Denmark by casting down great stones
upon them from the top of a tower, and Grim is said to have
1 H. L. Ward (Cat. of Romances, i. 426) suggests that it was the
mention of Constantine in the Havelock legend which led Gaimar
to place the tale in the 6th century in the days of the Constantine
who succeeded King Arthur. Gaimar voices more than once an
Anglo-Danish legend of a Danish dynasty in Britain anterior to the
Saxon invasion.
J A different person from the second wife of Anlaf Curan, alsi
Gormflaith, who forms another link with Amlethus, as she was a
woman of the Hermuthruda type and married her husband'
conqueror.
licked three of the turrets from the church tower in his efforts to
destroy the enemy's ships. John Weever (Antient Funerall
Monuments, 1631, p. 749) says that the privilege of the town in
ilsinore, where its merchants were free from toll, was due to the
nterest of Havelok, the Danish prince, and the common seal of
he town of Grimsby represents Grim, with " Habloc " on his
ight hand and Goldeburgh on his left.
The English MS. of Havelok (MSS. Laud Misc. 108) in the Bodleian
ibrary is unique. It was edited for the Roxburghe Club by Sir
r . Madden in 1828. This edition contains, besides the English text,
he two French versions. There are subsequent editions by W. W.
ikeat (1868) for the E.E. Text Society, by F. Holthausen (London,
Mew York and Heidelberg, 1901), and by W. W. Skeat (Clarendon
Vess, Oxford, 1902, where further bibliographical references will
ie found) ; and a modern English version by Miss E. Hickey (London,
-902). Gaimar's text and the French lai are edited by Sir T. D.
lardy and C. F. Martin in Rerum Brit. med. aev. scriptores, vol. i.
1888). See also the account of the saga by H. L. Ward (Cat._of
Romances, i. 423-446); for the identification of Havelok with
Anlaf Curan see G. Storm, Englische Studien (1880), iii. 533, a
eprint of an earlier article ; E. K. Putnam, The Lambeth Version of
'iavelok (Baltimore, 1900).
HAVERFORDWEST (Welsh Hwlfordd, the English name
)eing perhaps a corruption of the Scandinavian Hafna-Fjord),
he chief town of Pembrokeshire, S. Wales, a contributory
parliamentary and municipal borough, and a county of itself
with its own lord-lieutenant. Pop. (1901), 6007. It is pictur-
esquely situated on the slopes overlooking the West Cleddau river,
which is here crossed by two stone bridges. It has a station on
the Great Western Railway on the east side of the river, and
when viewed from this point the town presents an imposing
appearance with its castle-keep and its many ancient buildings.
The river is tidal and navigable for vessels of not more than
150 tons. Coal, cattle, butter and grain are exported, but the
commercial importance of the place has greatly declined, as the
many ruined warehouses near the river plainly testify. The
old walls and fortifications have almost disappeared, but Haver-
iordwest is still rich in memorials of its past greatness. The huge
castle-keep, which dominates the town, was probably built by
Gilbert de Clare, early in the I2th century; formerly used as
the county gaol, it now serves as the police-station. The large
church of St Mary, at the top of the steep High Street, has fine
clerestory windows, clustered columns and an elaborate carved-
oak ceiling of the isth century; it contains several interesting
monuments of the I7th and i8th centuries, some of which
commemorate'members of the family of Philipps of Picton Castle.
At the N. corner of the adjacent churchyard stands an ancient
building with a vaulted roof, once the record office, but now used
as a fish-market. St Martin's, with a low tower and spire, close
to the castle, is probably the oldest church in the town, but has
been much modernized. Near St Thomas's church on the Green
stands an old Moravian chapel which is closely associated with
the great scholar and divine, Bishop John Gambold (1711-1771).
In a meadow on the W. bank of the river are the considerable
remains of the Augustinian Priory of St Mary and St Thomas,
built by Robert de Hwlfordd, lord of Haverford, about the year
. joo. On the E. bank are the suburbs of Cartlet and Prender-
gast, the latter of which contains the ancient parish church of
St David and the ruins of a large mansion originally built by
Maurice de Prendergast (i2th century) and subsequently the
seat of the Stepney family. A little to the S. of the town are the
remains of Haroldstone, once the residence of the powerful
Perrot family. The charities belonging to the town, which
include John Perrot's bequest (i579)> yielding about 350
annually for the improvement of the town, and Tasker's charity
school (1684), are very considerable.
Haverfordwest owes its origin to the advent of the Flemings,
who were permitted by Henry I. to settle in the hundred of
Roose, or Rhos, in the years 1106-1108, in mi, and again in
1156. English is exclusively spoken in the town and district,
and its inhabitants exhibit their foreign extraction by their
language, customs and appearance. Haverfordwest is, in fact,
the capital of that English-speaking portion of Pembrokeshire,
which has been nicknamed " Little England beyond Wales."
HAVERGAL HAVERSACK
81
This new settlement of intruding foreigners had naturally to be
protected against the infuriated natives, and the castle was
accordingly built c. 1113 by Gilbert de Clare, first earl of Pem-
broke, who subsequently conferred the seignory of Haverford
on his castellan, Richard Fitz-Tancred. On the death of Robert
de Hwlfordd, the benefactor and perhaps founder of the priory
of St Mary and St Thomas, in 1213, the lordship of the castle
reverted to the Crown, and was purchased for 1000 marks from
King John by William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who gave
various privileges to the town. Of the numerous charters the
earliest known (through an allusion found in a document of
Bishop Houghton of St Davids, c. 1370) is one from Henry II.,
who therein confirms all former rights granted by his grand-
father, Henry I. John in 1207 gave certain rights to the town
concerning the Port of Milford, while William Marshal II., earl
of Pembroke, presented it with three charters, the earliest of
which is dated 1219. An important charter of Edward V., as
prince of Wales and lord of Haverford, enacted that the town
should be incorporated under a mayor, two sheriffs and two
bailiffs, duly chosen by the burgesses. In 1536, under Henry
VIII., Haverfordwest was declared a town and county of itself
and was further empowered to send a representative burgess to
parliament.
The town long played a prominent part in South Welsh
history. In 1220 Llewelyn ap lorwerth, prince of North
Wales, during the absence of William Marshal II., earl of
Pembroke, attacked and burnt the suburbs, but failed to reduce
the castle by assault. Several of the Plantagenet kings visited
the town, including Richard II., who stopped here some time
on his return from Ireland in 1299, and is said to have performed
here his last regal act the confirmation of the grant of a
burgage to the Friars Preachers. Oliver Cromwell spent some
days here on his way to Ireland, and his original warrant to the
mayor and council for the demolition of the castle is still
preserved in the council chamber. The prosperity and local im-
portance of Haverfordwest continued unimpaired throughout the
i7th and iSth centuries, and Richard Fenton, the historian of
Pembrokeshire, describes it in 1810, as " the largest town in the
county, if not in all Wales." With the rise of Milford, however,
the shipping trade greatly declined, and Haverfordwest has now
the appearance of a quiet country town.
HAVERGAL, FRANCES RIDLEY (1836-1879), English hymn-
writer, daughter of the Rev. William Henry Havergal, was born
at Astley, Worcestershire, on the i4th of December 1836. At
the age of seven she began to write verse, most of it of a religious
character. As a hymn-writer she was particularly successful,
and the modern English Church collections include several of her
compositions. Her collected Poetical Works were published in
1884. She died at Caswell Bay, Swansea, on the 3rd of June
1879.
See Memorials of Frances Ridley Havergal (1880), by her sister.
HAVERHILL, a market town of England, in the Sudbury
parliamentary division of Suffolk, and the Saffron Walden
division of Essex. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4862. It is
55 m. N.N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway, on
the Long Melford-Cambridge branch, and is the terminus of
the Colne Valley railway from Chappel in Essex. The church
of St Mary is Perpendicular, but extensively restored. There
. are large manufactures of cloth, silk, matting, bricks, and boots
and shoes, and a considerable agricultural trade.
HAVERHILL, a city of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated on the Merrimac river, at the head of tide and navigation,
and on the Boston & Maine railway, 33 m. N. of Boston. Pop.
(1880) 18,472; (1890) 27,412; (1900) 37,175, of whom 8530
were foreign-born (including 2403 French Canadians, 1651
English Canadians and 2144 Irish), and 15,077 were of foreign
parentage (both parents foreign-bom); (1910 census) 44,115.
The city, 3 m. wide and 10 m. long, lies for its entire length
along the Merrimac river, from which it rises picturesquely,
its surface being undulating, with several detached round hills
(maximum 339 ft.). Like all old New England cities, it is
irregularly laid out. A number of lakes within its limits are the
source of an abundant and excellent water supply. There are
fifteen public parks, the largest of which, Winnikenni Park
(214 acres), contiguous to Lake Kenoza, is of great natural
beauty. The city has three well-equipped hospitals, the beautiful
Pentucket club house, a children's home, an old ladies' home
and numerous charitable organizations. The schools of the
city, both public and private, are of high standing; they include
Bradford Academy (1803) for girls and the St James School
(Roman Catholic). The public library is generously endowed,
and in 1908 had about 90,000 volumes. Almost from the
beginning of its history Haverhill was active industrially.
Thomas Dustin, the husband of Hannah Dustin, manufactured
bricks, and this industry has been carried on in the same locality
for more than two hundred years. The large Stevens woollen
mills are the outgrowth of mills established in 1835. The
manufacture of woollen hats, established in the middle of the
i8th century, is one of the prominent industries. There are
large morocco factories. By far the leading industry of the
city is the manufacture of boots, shoes and slippers, chiefly
of the finer kinds, of which it is one of the largest producers in
the world. In 1905 Haverhill ranked fourth among the cities
of the United States in the product value of this manufacture,
which was 4-8% of the total value of boots and shoes made in
the United States. This industry began about 1795. In 1905
Haverhill's manufacturing establishments produced goods valued
at $24,446,594, 83-9% of this output being represented by
boots and shoes or their accessories. One of the largest sole-
leather manufactories in the world is here.
Haverhill was settled in June 1640 by a small colony from
Newbury and Ipswich, and its Indian name, Pentucket, was
replaced by that of Haverhill in compliment to the first minister,
Rev. John Ward, who was born at Haverhill, England. In its
earlier years this frontier town suffered severely from the forays
of the Indians, and in 1690 the abandonment of the settlement
was contemplated. Two Indian attacks are particularly
noteworthy one in 1698, in which Hannah Dustin, her new-
born babe, and her nurse were carried away to the vicinity of
Penacook, now Concord, New Hampshire. Here in the night
Mrs Dustin, assisted by her nurse and by a captive English boy,
tomahawked and scalped ten Indians (two men, the others
children and women) and escaped down the river to Haverhill;
a monument to her stands in City Hall Park. In 1708 250
French and Indians attacked the village, killing 40 of its
inhabitants. In 1873 a destructive fire caused the loss of 35
places of business, and on the i7th of February 1882 almost the
entire shoe district (consisting of 10 acres) was burned, with a
loss of more than $2,000,000; but a greater business district
was built on the ruins of the old. Haverhill was the birthplace
of Whittier, who lived here in 1807-1836, and who in his poem
Haverhill, written for the 25oth anniversary of the town in 1890,
and in many of his other poems, gave the poet's touch to the
history, the legends and the scenery of his native city. His
birthplace, the scene of Snow-Bound in the eastern part of the
city, is owned by the Whittier Association and is open to
visitors. A petition from Haverhill to the national House of
Representatives in 1842, praying for a peaceable dissolution
of the Union, raised about J. Q. Adams, its presenter, perhaps
the most violent storm in the long course of his defence of the
right of petition. Haverhill was incorporated as a town in
1645 and became a city in 1869. Bradford, a town (largely
residential) lying on the opposite bank of the river, became
a part of the city in 1897. In October 1908, by popular vote,
the city adopted a new charter providing for government by
commission.
HAVERSACK, or HAVRESACK (through the French from
Ger. Habersack, an oat-sack, a nose-bag, Hafer or Haver, oats),
the bag in which horsemen carried the oats for their horses.
In Scotland and the north of England haver, meaning oats, is
still used, as haver-meal or haver-bread. Haversack is now
used for the strong bag made of linen or canvas, in which soldiers,
sportsmen or travellers, carry their personal belongings, or more
usually the provisions for the day.
HAVERSTRAW HAVRE
HAVERSTRAW, a village of Rockland county, New York,
U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 32 m. N. of New York
City, and finely situated on the W. shore of Haverstraw Bay,
an enlargement of the Hudson river. Pop. of the village (1890),
5070; (1900) 5935, of whom 1231 were foreign-born and 568
were negroes; (1905, state census) 6182; (1910) 5669; of the town-
ship (1910) 9335. Haverstraw is served by the West Shore,
the New Jersey & New York (Erie), and the New York, Ontario
& Western railways, and is connected by steamboat lines with
Peekskill and Newburgh. The village lies at the N. base of
High Tor (83 2 ft.). It has a public library, founded by the King's
Daughters' Society in 1895 and housed in the Fowler library
building. Excellent clay is found in the township, and Haver-
straw is one of the largest brick manufacturing centres in the
world; brick-machines also are manufactured here. The
Minesceongo creek furnishes water power for silk mills, dye
works and print works. Haverstraw was settled by the Dutch
probably as early as 1648. Near the village of Haverstraw
(in the township of Stony Point), in the Joshua Hett Smith
House, or " Old Treason House," as it is generally called,
Benedict Arnold and Major Andre met before daylight on the
22nd of September 1780 to arrange plans for the betrayal of
West Point. In 1826 a short-lived Owenite Community (of
about 80 members) was established near West Haverstraw and
Garnerville (in the township of Haverstraw). The members
of the community established a Church of Reason, in which
lectures were delivered on ethics, philosophy and science.
Dissensions soon arose in the community, the experiment was
abandoned within five months, and most of the members joined
in turn the Coxsackie Community, also in New York, and the
Kendal Community, near Canton, Ohio, both of which were
also short-lived. The village of Haverstraw was originally
known as Warren and was incorporated under that name in
1854; in 1873 it became officially the village of Haverstraw
both names had previously been used locally. The village of
West Haverstraw (pop. in 1890, 180; in 1900, 2079; and in 1910,
2369), also in Haverstraw township, was founded in 1830, was
long known as Samsondale, and was incorporated under its
present name in 1883.
See F. B. Green, History of Rockland County (New York, 1886).
HAVET, EUGENE AUGUSTE ERNEST (1813-1889), French
scholar, was born in Paris on the nth of April 1813. Educated
at the Lycee Saint-Louis and the Ecole Normale, he was for
many years before his death on the 2ist of December 1889
professor of Latin eloquence at the College de France. His two
capital works were a commentary on the works of Pascal, Pensees
de Pascal publiees dans leur texte aulhenlique aiiec un commentaire
suivi (1852; 2nd ed. 2 vols., 1881), and Le Christianisme et ses
origines (4 vols., 1871-1884), the chief thesis of which was that
Christianity owed more to Greek philosophy than to the writings
of the Hebrew prophets. His elder son, Pierre Antoine Louis
Ha vet (b. 1849), was professor of Latin philology at the College
de France and a member of the Institute. The younger, Julien,
is separately noticed.
HAVET, JULIEN (PIERRE EUGENE) (1853-1893), French
historian, was born at Vitry-sur-Seine on the 4th of April 1853,
the second son of Ernest Havet. He early showed a remarkable
aptitude for learning, but had a pronounced aversion for pure
rhetoric. His studies at the Ecole des Charles (where he took
first place both on entering and leaving) and at the Ecole des
Hautes Etudes did much to develop his critical faculty, and the
historical method taught and practised at these establishments
brought home to him the dignity of history, which thenceforth
became his ruling passion. His valedictory thesis at the Ecole
des Chart es, Serie chronologique des gardiens et seigneurs des lies
Normandes (1876), was a definitive work and but slightly affected
by later research. In 1 878 he followed his thesis by a study called
Les Cours royales dans les lies Normandes. Both these works were
composed entirely from the original documents at the Public
Record Office, London, and the archives of Jersey and Guernsey.
On the history of Merovingian institutions, Havet's conclusions
were widely accepted (see La Formule N. rex Francor., v. M.,
1885). His first work in this province was Du sens du mot
" romain " dans les loisfranques (1876), a critical study on a theory
of Fustel de Coulanges. In this he showed that the status of the
homo Romanus of the barbarian laws was inferior to that of the
German freeman; that the Gallo-Romans had been subjected
by the Germans to a state of servitude; and, consequently,
that the Germans had conquered the Gallo-Romans. He aimed
a further blow at Fustel's system by showing that the Prankish
kings had never borne the Roman title of vir inluster, and that
they could not therefore be considered as being in the first place
Roman magistrates; and that in the royal diplomas the king
issued his commands as rex Francorum and addressed his
functionaries as viri inlwslres. His attention having been drawn
to questions of authenticity by the forgeries of Vrain Lucas, he
devoted himself to tracing the spurious documents that en-
cumbered and perverted Merovingian and Carolingian history.
In his A propos des decoutiertes de Jerome Vignier (1880), he
exposed the forgeries committed in the i7th century by this
priest. He then turned his attention to a group of documents
relating to ecclesiastical history in the Carolingian period and
bearing on the question of false decretals, and produced Les
Charles de Si-Calais (1887) and Les Actes de Vbieche du Mans
(1894). On the problems afforded by the chronology of Gerbert's
(Pope Silvester II.) letters^and by the notes in cipher in the MS.
of his letters, he wrote L'Ecriture secrete de Gcrbert (1877), which
may be compared with his Notes tironiennes dans les dipldmes
merovingiens (1885). In 1889 he brought out an edition of
Gerbert's letters, which was a model of critical sagacity. Each
new work increased his reputation, in Germany as well as France.
At the Bibliotheque Nationale, where he obtained a post, he
rendered great service by his wide knowledge of foreign languages,
and read voraciously everything that related, however remotely,
to his favourite studies. He was finally appointed assistant
curator in the department of printed books. He died pre-
maturely at St Cloud on the igth of August 1893.
After his death his published and unpublished writings were
collected and published (with the exception of Les Cours royales des
lies Normandes and Lettres de Gerbert) in two volumes called Questions
merovingiennes and Opuscules inedits (1896), containing, besides
important papers on diplomatic and on Carolingian and Merovingian
history', a large number of short monographs ranging over a great
variety of subjects. A collection of his articles was published
by his friends under the title of Melanges Havet (1895), pre-
fixed by a bibliography of his works compiled by his friend Henri
Omont. (C. B.*)
HAVRE, LE, a seaport of north-western France, in the depart-
ment of Seine-Inferieure, on the north bank of the estuary of the
Seine, 143 m. W.N.W. of Paris and 55 m. W. of Rouen by the
Western railway. Pop. (1906), 129,403. The greater part of the
town stands on the level strip of ground bordering the esluary,
but on the N. rises an eminence, la Cote, covered by the gardens
and villas of the richer quarter. The central point of the town
is the Place de 1'hotel de ville in which are the public gardens.
It is crossed by the Boulevard de Strasbourg, running from the
sea on the west to the railway station and the barracks on the
east. The rue de Paris, the busiest street, starts at the Grand
Quai, overlooking the outer harbour, and, intersecting the Place
Gambetta, runs north and enters the Place de 1'hotel de ville on
its southern side. The docks start immediately to the east of this
street and extend over a large area to the south and south-east
of the town. Apart from the church of Notre-Dame, dating
from the i6th and i7th centuries, the chief buildings of Havre,
including the h6tel de ville, the law courts, and the exchange,
are of modern erection. The museum contains a collection of
antiquities and paintings. Havre is the seat of a sub-prefect,
and forms part of the maritime arrondissement of Cherbourg.
Among the public institutions are a tribunal of first instance, a
1 ribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a tribunal of
maritime commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the
Bank of France. There are lycees for boys and girls, schools of
commerce and other educational establishments. Havre, which is
a fortified place of the second class, ranks second to Marseilles
among French seaports. There are nine basins (the oldest of which
HAWAII
dates back to i66g) with an area of about 200 acres and more
than 8 m. of quays. They extend to the east of the outer
harbour which on the west opens into the new outer harbour,
formed by two breakwaters converging from the land and leaving
an entrance facing west. The chief docks (see DOCK for plan)
are the Bassin Bellot and the Bassin de 1'Eure. In the latter
the mail-steamers of the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique are
berthed; and the Tancarville canal, by which river-boats unable
to attempt the estuary of the Seine can make the port direct,
enters the harbour by this basin. There are, besides, several
repairing docks and a petroleum dock for the use of vessels carry-
ing that dangerous commodity. The port, which is an important
point of emigration, has regular steam-communication with
New York (by the vessels of the Compagnie Generale Trans-
atlantique) and with many of the other chief ports of Europe,
North, South and Central America, the West Indies and Africa.
Imports in 1907 reached a value of 57,686,000. The chief were
cotton, for which Havre is the great French market, coffee,
copper and other metals, cacao, cotton goods, rubber, skins and
hides, silk goods, dye-woods, tobacco, oil-seeds, coal, cereals and
wool. In the same year exports were valued at 47,130,000, the
most important being cotton, silk and woollen goods, coffee, hides,
leather, wine and spirits, rubber, tools and metal ware, earthen-
ware and glass, clothes and millinery, cacao and fancy goods.
In 1907 the total tonnage of shipping (with cargoes) reached its
highest point, viz. 5,671,975 tons (4018 vessels) compared with
3,816,340 tons (3832 vessels) in 1898. Forty-two per cent of
this shipping sailed under the British flag. France and Germany
were Great Britain's most serious rivals. Havre possesses oil
works, soap works, saw mills, flour mills, works for extracting
dyes and tannin from dye-woods, an important tobacco manu-
factory, chemical works and rope works. It also has metal-
lurgical and engineering works which construct commercial and
war-vessels of every kind as well as engines and machinery,
cables, boilers, &c.
Until 1516 Havre was only a fishing village possessing a
chapel dedicated to Notre-Dame de Grace, to which it owes
the name, Havre (harbour) de Grace, given to it by Francis I.
when he began the construction of its harbour. The town in
1562 was delivered over to the keeping of Queen Elizabeth
by Louis I., prince de Conde, leader of the Huguenots, and the
command of it was entrusted to Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick ;
but the English were expelled in 1563, after a most obstinate
siege, which was pressed forward by Charles IX. and his mother,
Catherine de' Medici, in person. The defences of the town
and the harbour-works were continued by Richelieu and com-
pleted by Vauban. In 1694 it was vainly besieged by the
English, who also bombarded it in 1759, 1794 and 1795. It
was a port of considerable importance as early as 1572, and
despatched vessels to the whale and cod-fishing at Spitsbergen
and Newfoundland. In 1672 it became the entrep6t of the
French East India Company, and afterwards of the Senegal
and Guinea companies. Napoleon I. raised it to a war harbour
of the first rank, and under Napoleon III. works begun by Louis
XVI. were completed.
See A. E. Borely, Histoire de la mile du Havre (Le Havre, 1880-
1881).
HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS), a Territory of
the United States of America, consisting of a chain of islands
in the North Pacific Ocean, eight inhabited and several unin-
habited. The inhabited islands lie between latitudes 18 54'
and 22 15' N., and between longitudes 154 50' and 160 30' W.,
and extend about 380 m. from E.S.E. to W.N.W.; the unin-
habited ones, mere rocks and reefs, valuable only for their
guano deposits and shark-fishing grounds, continue the chain
several hundred miles farther W.N.W. From Honolulu, the
capital, which is about 100 m. N.W. of the middle of the inhabited
group, the distance to San Francisco is about 2100 m.; to
Auckland, New Zealand, about 3810 m.; to Sydney, New South
Wales, about 4410 m. ; to Yokohama, about 3400 m.; to
Hong- Kong, about 4920 m.; to Manila, about 4890 m. The
total area of the inhabited islands is 6651 sq. m., distributed as
follows: Hawaii, 4210; Maui, 728; Oahu, about 600; Kauai,
547; Molokai, 261; Lanai, 139; Niihau, 97; Kahoolawe, 69.
All the islands are of volcanic origin, and have been built up by
the eruptive process from a base about 15,000 ft. below the sea to a
maximum height (Mauna Kea) on the largest island (Hawaii) of
13,823 ft. above the sea; altogether there are forty volcanic peaks.
Evidence of slight upheaval is occasionally afforded by an elevated
coral-reef along the shore, and evidence of the subsidence of the S.
portion of Oahu for several hundred feet has been discovered by
artesian borings through coral-rock. In some instances, notably
the high and nearly vertical wall along the N. shore of the E. half
of Molokai, there is evidence of a fracture followed by the sub-
mergence of a portion of a volcano. With the exception of the coral
and a small amount of calcareous sandstone, the rocks are entirely
volcanic and range from basalt to trachyte, but are mainly basalt.
Cinder cones and tufa cones abound, but one of the most distinguish-
ing features of the Hawaiian volcanoes is the great number of
craters of the engulfment type, i.e. pit-craters which enlarge slowly
by the breaking off and falling in of their walls, and discharge vast
lava-flows with comparatively little violence. The age of the several
inhabited islands, or at least the time since the last eruptions on
them, decreases from W. to E., and on the most easterly (Hawaii)
volcanic forces are still in operation. That those to the westward
have long been inactive is shown by the destruction of craters by
denudation, by deep ravines, valleys and tall cliffs eroded on the
mountain sides, especially on the windward side, by the depth of
soil formed from the disintegrated rocks, and by the amount as well
as variety of vegetable life.
Hawaii Island, from which the group and later the Territory
was named, has the shape of a rude triangle with sides of 90 m.,
75 m. and 65 m. Its coast, unlike that of the other islands of
the archipelago, has few coral reefs. Its surface consists mainly
of the gentle slopes of five volcanic mountains which have
encroached much upon one another by their eruptions.
Mauna Loa (" Great Mountain "), on the S., is by far the largest
volcano in the world ; from a base measuring at sea-level about 75 m.
from N. to S. and 50 m. from E. to W., it rises gradually to a height
of 13,675 ft. On its E.S.E. side, at an elevation of 4000 ft. above
the sea (300 ft. above the adjoining plain on the W.) is Kilauea,
from whose lava-flows the island has been extended to form its S.E.
angle. To the N.N.E. ot Mauna Loa, and blending with it in an
intervening plateau, is Mauna Kea (" White Mountain," so named
from the snow on its summit), with a much smaller base but with
steeper slopes and a crowning cinder cone 13,823 ft. above the sea,
the maximum height in the Pacific Ocean; blending with Mauna
Loa on the N.N.W. is Mauna Hualalai, 8269 ft. in height; and rising
abruptly from the extreme N.W. shore are the remains of the oldest
mountains of the island, the Kohala, with a summit 5505 ft. in height.
On the land side the Kohala Mountains have been covered with lava
from Mauna Kea, and form the broad plains of Kohala, having a
maximum elevation of about 3000 ft. ; on the ocean side, wherever
this lava has not extended, erosion has gone on until bluffs 1000 ft.
in height face the sea and the enormous gorges of Waipio and
Waimanu, with nearly perpendicular walls as much as 3000 ft.
high and extending inland 5-6 m., have been formed. Mauna Kea
is not nearly so old as the Kohala Mountains, but there is no record
of its eruption, nor have its lavas a modern aspect. The last eruption
of Mauna Hualalai was in 1801. Mauna Loa and Kilauea are still
active. Cinder cones are the predominant type of craters on both
Mauna Kea and the Kohala Mountains, and they are also numerous
on the upper slopes of Mauna Hualalai; but the more typically
Hawaiian pit or engulfment craters also abound on Mauna Hualalai
and Mokuaweoweo, crowning the summit of Mauna Loa, as well as
Kilauea, to the S.E. of it, are prominent representatives of this type.
Kilauea is the largest active crater in the world (8 m. in circum-
ference) and is easily accessible. - Enclosed by a circular wall from
200 to 700 ft. in height is a black and slightly undulating plain
having an area of 4-14 sq. m., and within this plain is a pit, Hale-
maumau, of varying area (about 2000 ft. in diameter in 1905), now
full of boiling lava, now empty to a depth of perhaps 1000 ft. When
most active, Halemaumau affords a grand spectacle, especially at
night : across the crust run glowing cracks, the crust is then broken
into cakes, the cakes plunge beneath, lakes of liquid lava are forme'd,
over whose surface play fire-fountains 10 to 50 ft. in height, the
surface again solidifies and the process is repeated. 1 According to
an account of the natives, a violent eruption of Kilauea occurred in
1789, or about that time, and deposits of volcanic sand, large stones,
sponge-like scoria (pumice) and ashes for miles around are evidence
of such an eruption. Since the Rev. William Ellis and a party of
American missionaries first made the volcano known to the civilized
1 Among the minor phenomena of Hawaiian volcanoes are the
delicate glassy fibres called Pele's hair by the Hawaiians, which are
spun by the wind from the rising and falling drops of liquid lava,
and blown over the edge or into the crevices of the crater. Pele in
idolatrous times was the dreaded goddess of Kilauea.
8 4
HAWAII
D
HAWAII
Scale, 1:3,500,000
English Miles
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
County Seats
Railways, -^.
Lave, flows _ 3SB
&fg%s ^s~d$Sjg&Z'
LanaiQ^
malaDau Harb.) ^-*V>
70* West 165' Long. 160'
160'
B
Longitude West 158" of Greenwich
Emtry Wjlktf 1C.
world in 1823, the eruptions have consisted mainly in the quiet
discharge of lava through a subterranean passage into the sea. In
the eruptions of 1823, 1832, 1840 and 1868 the floor of the crater
rose on the eve of an eruption and then sank, sometimes hundreds
of feet, with the discharge of lava; but since 1868 (in 1879, 1886,
1891, 1894 and 1907; and once, before 1868, in 1855) this action
has been confined to Halemaumau and such other pits as at the time
existed.
Mokuaweoweo, on the flat top of Mauna Loa, is a pit crater with
a floor 3-7 sq. m. in area and sunk 500-600 ft. within walls that
are almost vertical and that measure 9-47 m. in circumference.
Formerly, on the eve of a great eruption of Mauna Loa, this crater
often spouted forth great columns of flame and emitted clouds of
vapour, but in modern times this action has usually been followed
by a fracture of the mountain side from the summit down to a point
1000 ft. or more below where the lava was discharged in great
streams, the action at the summit diminishing or wholly ceasing
when this discharge began. The first recorded eruption of Mauna
Loa was in 1832; since then there have been eruptions in 1851,
1852, 1855, 1859, 1868, 1880-1881, 1887, 1896, 1899 and 1907. The
eruptions of 1868, 1887 and 1907 were attended by earthquakes;
in 1868 huge sea waves, 40 ft. in height, were raised, and, as they
broke on the S. shore, they destroyed the villages of Punaluu,
Ninole, Kawaa and Honuapo. But the eruptions of Mauna Loa
have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of enormous flows of
lava: in 1859 the lava-stream, which began to run on the 23rd of
January, flowed N.W., reached the sea, 33 m. distant, eight days
later, and continued to flow into it until the 25th of November;
and the average length of the flows from seven other eruptions is
nearly 14 m. The surface of the upper slopes of Mauna Loa is
almost wholly of two widely different kinds of barren lava-flows,
called by the Hawaiians the pahoehoe and the aa. The pahoehoe
has a smooth but billowy or hummocky surface, and is marked by
lines which show that it cooled as it flowed. The aa is lava broken
into fragments having sharp and jagged edges. As the same stream
sometimes changes abruptly from one kind to the other, the two
kinds must be due to different conditions affecting the flow, and
among the conditions which may cause a stream to break up into
the aa have been mentioned the greater depth of the stream, a
sluggish current, impediments in its course just as it is granulating,
and, what is more probable, subterranean moisture which causes it
to cool from below upward instead of from above downward as in
the pahoehoe. The natives are in the habit of making holes in the aa,
and planting in them banana shoots or sweet-potato cuttings, and
though the holes are simply filled with stones or fern leaves, the
plants grow and in due time are productive. Another curious feature
of Mauna Loa, and to some extent of other Hawaiian volcanoes, is
the great number of caves, some of them as much as 60 to 80 ft. in
height and several miles in length ; they were produced by the
escape of lava over which a crust had formed. In the midst of
barren wastes to the S.E. and S.W. of Kilauea are small channels
with steam cracks, along which appears the only vegetation of the
region.
Maui, lying 26 m. N.W. of Hawaii, is composed of two
mountains connected by an isthmus, Wailuku, 7 or 8 m. long,
about 6 m. across, and about 160 ft. above the sea in its
highest part.
Mauna Haleakala, on the E. peninsula, has a height of 10,032 ft.,
and forms a great dome-like mass, with a circumference at the base
of 90 m. and regular slopes of only 8 or 9. It has numerous cinder
cones on its S.W. slope, is well wooded on the N. and E. slopes,
and has on its summit an extinct pit-crater which is one of the
largest in the world. This crater is 7-48 m. long, 2-37 m. wide,
and covers 19 sq. m.; the circuit of its walls, which are composed of
a hard grey clinkstone much fissured, is 20 m.; its greatest depth
is 2720 ft. At opposite ends are breaks in the walls a mile or more
in width one about 1000 ft., the other at least 3000 ft. in depth
through which poured the lava of probably the last great eruption.
From the floor of the crater rise sixteen well-preserved cinder-cones,
which range from more than 400 ft. to 900 ft. in height. Along the
N. base of the mountain are numerous ravines (several hundred feet
deep), to the bottom of which small streams of water fall in long
cascades, but elsewhere on the eastern mountain there is littleerosion
or other mark of age. That the mountainous mass of western Maui
is much older is shown by the destruction of its crater, by its sharp
ridges and by deeply eroded gorges or valleys. Its highest peak,
Puu Kukui, rises 5788 ft. above the sea, and directly under this
is the head of lao Valley, 5 m. long and 2 m. wide, which has been cut
in the mountain to a depth of 4000 ft. This and the smaller valleys
are noted for the beauty of their tropical scenery.
Kahoolawe is a small island 6 m. S.W. of Maui. It is 14 m.
long by 6 m. wide. Its mountains, which rise to a height of
1472 ft., are rugged and nearly destitute of verdure, but the
intervening valleys afford pasturage for sheep.
Lanai is another small island, 7 m. W. of Maui, about 18 m.
long and 12 m. wide. It has a mountain- range which rises to a
HAWAII
maximum height, S.E. of its centre, of about 3480 ft. The N.E.
slope is cut by deep gorges, and at the bottom of one of these,
which is 2000 ft. deep, is the only water-supply on the island.
On the S. side is a rolling table-land affording considerable
pasturage for sheep, but over the whole N.W. portion of the
island the trade winds, driving through the channel between
Maui and Molokai, sweep the rocks bare. Kahoolawe and Lanai
are both privately owned.
Molokai, 8 m. N.W. of Maui, extends 40 m. from E. to W.
and has an average width of nearly 7 m. From the S.W. ex-
tremity of the island rises the backbone of a ridge which extends
E.N.E. about 10 m., where it culminates in the round-topped
hill of Mauna Loa, 1382 ft. above the sea. Both the northern
and southern slopes of this ridge are cut by ravines and gulches,
and along the N. shore is a steep sea-cliff. At the E. extremity
of the ridge there is a sudden drop to a low and gently rolling
plain, but farther on the surface rises gradually towards a range
of mountains which comprises more than one-half the island
and attains a maximum height of 4958 ft. in the peak of Kama-
kou. The S. slope of this range is gradual but is cut by many
straight and narrow ravines, in some instances to a great depth.
The N. slope is abrupt, with precipices from 1000 to 4000 ft.
in height. Extending N. from the foot of the precipice, a little
E. of the centre of the island, is a comparatively low peninsula
(separated from the mainland by a rock wall 2000 ft. high),
on which is a famous leper settlement. The peninsula forms a
separate county, Kalawao.
Oahu, 23 m. N.W. of Molokai, has an irregular quadrangular
form. It is traversed from S.E. to N.W. by two roughly parallel
ranges of hill separated by a plain that is 20 m. long and in some
parts 9 to 10 m. wide. The highest point in the island is Mauna
Kaala, 4030 ft., in the Waianae or W. range; but the Koolau
or E. range is much longer than the other, and its ridge is very
much broken; on the land side there are many ravines formed
by lateral spurs, but to the sea for 30 m. it presents a nearly
vertical wall without a break. The valleys are remarkable for
beautiful scenery, peaks, cliffs, lateral ravines, cascades and
tropical vegetation. There are few craters on the loftier heights,
but on the coasts there are several groups of small cones with
craters, some of lava, others of tufa. The greater part of the
coast is surrounded by a coral reef, often half a mile wide; in
several localities an old reef upheaved, sometimes 100 ft. high,
forms part of the land.
Kauai, 63 m. W.N.W. of Oahu, has an irregularly circular
form with a maximum diameter of about 25 m. On the N.W.
is a precipice 2000 ft. or more in height and above this is a
mountain plain, but elsewhere around the island is a shore
plain, from which rises Mount Waialeale to a height of 5250 ft.
The peaks of the mountain are irregular, abrupt and broken;
its sides are deeply furrowed by gorges and ravines; the shore
plain is broken by ridges and by broad and deep valleys; no
other island of the group is so well watered on all sides by large
mountain streams; and it is called " garden isle."
Niihau, the most westerly of the inhabited islands, is 18 m.
W. by S. of Kauai. It is 16 m. longand 6 m. wide. The western
two-thirds consists of a low plain, composed of an uplifted
coral reef and matter washed down from the mountains; but
on the E. side the island rises precipitously from the sea and
attains a maximum height of 1304 ft. at Paniau. There are
large salt lagoons on the southern coast.
Climate. The climate is cooler than that of other regions in the
same latitude, and is very healthy. The sky is usually cloudless
or only partly cloudy. The N.E. trades blow with periodic varia-
tions from March to December; and the leeward coast, being pro-
tected by high mountains, is refreshed by regular land and sea
breezes. During January, February and a part of March the wind
blows strongly from the S. or S.W. ; and at this season an unpleasant
hot, damp wind is sometimes felt. More rain falls from January to
May than during the other months; very much more falls on the
windward side of the principal islands than on the leeward ; and the
amount increases with the elevation also up to about 4000 ft. The
greatest recorded extremes of local rainfall for a year within the larger
islands range from 12 to 300 in. For Honolulu the mean annual
rainfall (1884-1899) was 28-18 in.; the maximum 49-82; and the
minimum 13-46. At sea level the daily average temperature for
July is 76-4 F., for December 70-7 F. ; the mean annual tempera-
ture is about 73 F. 68 during the night, 80 during the day
and for each 200 ft. of elevation the temperature falls about 1 F.,
and snow lies for most of the time on the highest mountains.
Flora. The Hawaiian Islands have a peculiar flora. As a result
of their isolation, the proportion of endemic plants is greater here
than in any other region, and the great elevation of the mountains,
with the consequent variation in temperature, moisture and baro-
metric pressure, has multiplied the number of species. Towards the
close of the igth century William Hillebrand found 365 genera and
999 species, and of this number of species 653 were peculiar to this
part of the Pacific. The number of species is greatest on the older
islands, particularly Kauai and Oahu, and the total number for the
group has been constantly increasing, some being introduced, others
possibly being produced by the varying climatic conditions from
those already existing. Among the peculiar dicotyledonous plants
there is not a single annual, and by far the greater number ar* per-
ennial and woody. Hawaiian forests are distinctly tropical, and are
composed for the most part of trees below the medium height. They
are most common between elevations of 2000 and 8000 ft. ; there
are only a few species below 2000 ft., and above 8000 ft. the growth
is stunted. The destruction of considerable portions of the forests
by cattle, goats, insects, fire and cutting has been followed by re-
foresting, the planting of hitherto barren tracts, the passage of severe
forest fire laws, and the establishment of forest reserves, of which
the area in 1909 was 545,746 acres, of which 357,180 were govern-
ment land. In regions of heavy rainfall the ohia-lehua (Metrosideros
polymorpha), a tree growing from 30 to 100 ft. in height, is predomi-
nant, and on account of the dense undergrowth chiefly of ferns
and climbing vines, forms the most impenetrable of the forests;
its hard wood is used chiefly for fuel. The koa (Acacia koa), from
the wood of which the natives used to make the bodies of their canoes,
and the only tree of the islands that furnishes much valuable lumber
(a hard cabinet wood marketed as " Hawaiian mahogany "), forms
extensive forests on Hawaii and Maui between elevations of 2000 and
4000 ft. The mamane (Sophora chrysophytta) , which furnishes the
best posts, grows principally on the high slopes of Mauna Kea and
Hualalai. Posts and railway ties are also made from ohia-ha
(Eugenia sandwicensis). In many districts between elevations of
2000 and 6000 ft., where there is only a moderate amount of moisture,
occur mixed forests of koa, koaia (Acacia koaia), kopiko (Straussia
oncocarpa and 5. hawaiiensis) , kolea (Myrsine kauaiensis and
M. lanaiensis), naio or bastard sandalwood (Myoporum sandwicense)
and pua (Olea sandwicensis); of these the koaia furnishes a hard
wood suitable for the manufacture of furniture, and out of it the
natives formerly made spears and fancy paddles. The wood of
the naio when dry has a fragrance resembling that of sandalwood,
and is used for torches in fishing. The kukui (Aleurites triloba) and
the algaroba (Prosopis juliflora) are the principal species of forest
trees that occur below elevations of 2000 ft. The kukui grows along
streams and gulches; from its nuts, which are very oily, the natives
used to make candles, and it is still frequently called the candlenut
tree. On the leeward side, from near the sea level to elevations
of 1500 ft., and on ground that was formerly barren, the algaroba
tree has formed dense forests since its introduction in 1837. Forests
of iron-wood and blue gum have also been planted. Sandalwood
(Sanlalum album or freycinetianum) was once abundant on rugged
and rather inaccessible heights, but so great a demand arose for it in
China, 1 where it was used for incense and for the manufacture of
fancy articles, that the supply was nearly exhausted between 1802
and 1836; since then some young trees have sprung up, but the
number is relatively small. Other peculiar trees prized for their
wood are: the kauila (Alphitonia ponderosa), used for making
spears, mallets and other tools; the kela (Mezoneuron kauaiense),
the hard wood of which resembles ebony; the halapepe (Dracaena
OMreo), out of the soft wood of which the natives carved many of
their idols; and the wiliwili (Erythrina monosperma), the wood of
which is as light as cork and is used for outriggers. In 1909, on six
large rubber plantations, mostly on the windward side of the island of
Maui, there were planted 444,450 ceara trees, 66,700 hevea trees, and
600 castilloa trees. About the only indigenous fruit-bearing plants
are the Chilean strawberry (Fragaria chilensis) and the ohelo berry
(Vaccinium reticulatum) , both of which grow at high elevations on
Hawaii and Maui. The ohelo berry is famous in song and story, and
formerly served as a propitiatory offering to Pele. The number of
fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants that have been introduced and
are successfully cultivated or grow wild is much greater; among
them are the mango, orange, banana, pineapple, coconut, palm, grape,
fig, strawberry, litchi (Nephelium litchi) the favourite fruit of the
Chinese avocado or alligator pear (Persea gratissima), Sapodilla pear
(Achras sapota), loquat or mespilus plum (Eriobotrya japonica) , Cape
gooseberry (Physalis peruviana), tamarind (Tamarindus indica),
papaw (Carica papaya), resembling in appearance the cantaloupe,
granadilla (Passiflora quadrangularis) and guava (Psidiumguajava).
Most of the native grasses are too coarse for grazing, and some of
1 The Chinese name for the Hawaiian Islands means " Sandalwood
Islands."
86
HAWAII
them, particularly the hilo grass (Paspalum conjugatum) , which forms
a dense mat over the ground, prevent the spread of forests. The pili
grass (Heteropogon contortus) is also noxious, for its awns get badly
entangled in the wool of sheep. The native manienie (Slenotaphrum
americanum) and kukai (Panicum pruriens), however, are relished
by stock and are found on all the inhabited islands; the Bermuda
grass (Cynodon dactylon), a June grass (Poa annua), and Guinea grass
(Panicum iumentorum) have also been successfully introduced.
The Paspalum orbiculare is the large swamp grass with which the
natives covered their houses. On the island of Niihau is a fine
grass (Cyperus laevigatus) , out of which the beautiful Niihau mats
were formerly made; it is used in making Panama hats. Mats
were also made of the leaves of the hala tree (Pandanus odoratissi-
mus). The wauke plant (Broussonetia papyrifera), and to a less
extent the mamake (Pipturus albidus) and Boehmeria stipularis,
furnished the bark out of which the famous kapa cloth was made,
while theolopa ( Cheirodendron gaudichaudi i) and the koolea (Myrsine
lessertiana) furnished the dyes with which it was coloured. From
several species of Cibotium is obtained a glossy yellowish wool,
used for making pillows and mattresses. Ferns, of which there are
about 130 species varying' from a few inches to 30 ft. in height,
form a luxuriant undergrowth in the ohia-lehua and the koa forests,
and the islands are noted for the profusion and beautiful colours
of their flowering plants. Kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, var., escu-
lenta), which furnishes the principal food of the natives, and sugar
cane (Saccharum officinaruni), the cultivation of which has become
the chief industry of the islands, were introduced before the discovery
of the group by Captain Cook in 1778. Sisal hemp has been intro-
duced, and there is a large plantation of it W. of Honolulu.
Over seventy varieties of seaweeds, growing in the fresh-water
pools and in the waters near the coast, are used by the natives
as food. These limus, as they are called by the Kanakas, are
washed, salted, broken and eaten as a relish or as a flavouring
for fish or other meat. The culture of such algae may prove of eco-
nomic importance; gelatine, glue and agar-agar would be valuable
by-products.
Fauna. A day-flying bat, whales and dolphins are about the only
indigenous mammals ; hogs, dogs and rats had been introduced before
Cook's discovery. Fish in an interesting variety of colours and
shapes abound in the sea and in artificial ponds along the coasts. 1
There are some fine species of birds, and the native avifauna is so
distinctive that Wallace argued from it that the Hawaiian Archi-
pelago had long been separated from any other land. There were
native names for 89 varieties. The most typical family is the
Drepanidae, so named for the stout sickle-shaped beak with which
the birds extract insects from heavy-barked trees; Gadow con-
siders the family American in its origin, and thinks that the Moho, 1
a family of honey-suckers, were later comers and from Australia.
The mamo (Drepanis pacifica) has large golden feathers on its back ;
it is now very rare, and is seldom found except on Mauna Loa,
Hawaii, about 4000 ft. above the sea. The smaller yellow feathers,
once used for the war cloaks of the native chiefs, were furnished by
the oo (Moho_ nobilis) and the aa (Moho braccatus), now found only
occasionally in the valleys of Kauai near Hanalei, on the N. side of
the island ; scarlet feathers for similar mantles were taken from the
iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea), a black-bodied, scarlet-winged song-bird,
which feeds on nectar and on insects found in the bark of the koa
and ohia trees, and from the Fringilla coccinea. In the old times
birds were protected by the native belief that divine messages were
conveyed by bird cries, and by royal edict forbidding the killing
of species furnishing the material for feather cloaks, contributions
towards which were long almost the. only taxes paid. Thus the
downfall of the monarchy and of the ancient cults nave been nearly
fatal to some of the more beautiful birds; feather ornaments,
formerly worn only by nobles, came to be a common decoration;
and many species (for example the Hawaiian gallinule, Gallinula
sandwicensis, which, because of its crimson frontal plate and bill,
was said by the natives to have played the part of Prometheus,
burning its head with fire stolen from the gods and bestowed on
mortals) have been nearly destroyed by the mongoose, or have
been driven from their lowland homes to the mountains, such being
the fate of the mamo, mentioned above, and of the Sandwich Island
goose (Bernicla sandwicensis}, which is here a remarkable example of
adaptation, as its present habitat is quite arid. This goose has
been introduced successfully into Europe. A bird called moho,
but actually of a different family, was the Pennula ecaudata or
millsi, which had hardly any tail, and had wings so degenerate
that it was commonly thought wingless. The turnstone (Strepsilas
interpres) arrives in the islands in August after breeding in Alaska.
There are no parrots. The only reptiles are three species of skinks
and four of the gecko ; the islands are famed for their freedom from
1 Partly described by T. S. Streets, Contributions to the Natural
History of the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands, Bulletin 7 of U.S.
National Museum (Washington, 1877). Several new species are
described in U.S. Bureau of Fisheries Document, No. 623 (Washing-
ton, 1907).
2 So Lesson called the family from the native name in 1831;
Cabanis (1847) suggested Acrulocercus.
snakes. Land-snails, mostly A chatinellidae, are remarkably frequent
and diverse; over 300 varieties exist. Insects are numerous, and
of about 500 species of beetle some 80% are not known to exist
elsewhere; cockroaches and green locusts are pests, as are, also,
mosquitoes, 3 wasps, scorpions, centipedes and white ants, which
have all been introduced from elsewhere.
Soil. The soil of the Territory is almost wholly a decomposition
of lava, and in general differs much from the soils of the United
States, particularly in the large amount of nitrogen (often more
than 1-25% in cane and coffee soil, and occasionally 2-2%) and
iron, and in the high degree of acidity. High up on the windward
side of a mountain it is thin, light red or yellow, and of inferior
quality. Low down on the leeward side it is dark red and fertile,
but still too pervious to retain moisture well. In the older valleys
on the islands of Kauai, Oahu and Maui, as well as on the jowland
plain of Molokai, the soil is deeper and usually, too, the moisture is
retained by a heavy clay. In some places along the coast there is a
narrow strip of decomposed coral limestone ; often, too, a coral reef
has served to catch the sediment washed down the mountain
side until a deep sedimentary soil has been deposited. On the still
lower levels the soil is deepest and most productive.
Agriculture. The tenure by which lands were held before 1838
was strictly feudal, resembling that of Germany in the nth century,
and lands were sometimes enfeoffed to the seventh degree. But
in the " Great Division " which took place in 1848 and forms the
foundation of present land titles, about 984,000 acres, nearly one-
fourth of the inhabited area, were set apart for the crown, about
1,495,000 acres for the government, and about 1,619,000 acres for
the several chiefs; and the common people received fee-simple
titles 4 for their house lots and the pieces of land which they culti-
vated for themselves, about 28,600 acres, almost entirely in isolated
patches of irregular shape hemmed in by the holdings of the crown,
the government or the great chiefs. Generally the chiefs ran into
debt; many died without heirs; and their lands passed largejy
into the hands of foreigners. At the abolition of the monarchy in
1893, the crown domains were declared to be public lands, and,
with the other government lands, were by the terms of annexation
turned over to the United States in 1898. They had been offered for
sale or lease in accordance with land acts (of 1884 and 1895 the
latter corresponding generally to the land laws of New Zealand)
designed to promote division into small farms and their immediate
improvement. In 1909 the area of the public land was about
1,700,000 acres. In 1900 there were in the Territory 2273 farms, of
which 1209 contained less than 10 acres, 785 contained between 10
and loo acres, and 116 contained 1000 acres or more. The natives
seldom cultivate more than half an acre apiece, and the Portuguese
settlers usually only 25 or 30 acres at most. Of the total area of
the Territory only 86,854 acres, or 2-77%, were under cultivation
in 1900, and of this 65,687 acres, or 75-6%, were divided into 170
farms and planted to sugar-cane. In 1909 it was estimated that
213,000 acres (about half of which was irrigated) were planted to sugar,
one half being cropped each year. The average yield per acre of
cane-sugar is the greatest in the world, 30 to 40 tons of cane being
an average per acre, and as much as ioj tons of sugar having been
produced from a single acre under irrigation. The cultivation of the
cane was greatly encouraged by the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875,
which established practically free trade between the islands and the
United States, and since 1879 it has been widely extended by means
of irrigation, the water being obtained both by pumping from
numerous artesian wells and by conducting surface water through
canals and ditches. The sugar farms are mostly on the islands
of Hawaii, Oahu, Maui and Kauai, at the bases of mountains; those
on the leeward side have the better soil, but require much more
irrigating. The product increased from 26,072,429 Ib in 1876
to 259,789,462 ID in 1890, 542,098,500 ft in 1899 and about
1,060,000,000 Ib (valued at more than 840,000,000) in 1909. Nearly
all of it is exported to the United States. Rice was the second
product in importance until competition with Japan, Louisiana and
Texas made the crop a poor investment; improved culture and
machinery may restore rice culture to its former importance. It is
grown almost wholly by Japanese and Chinese on small low farms
along the coasts, mostly on the islands of Kauai and Oahu. In
1899 the product amounted to 33,442,400 ft; in 1907 about 12,000
acres were planted, and the crop was estimated to be worth 82,500,000.
Coffee of good quality is grown at elevations ranging between 1000
to 3000 ft. above the sea; the Hawaiian product is called Kona
coffee from Kona, a district of the S. side of Hawaii island, where
much of it is grown. In 1909 about 4500 acres were in coffee,
the value of the crop was $350,000; and 1,763,119 ft of coffee,
valued at $211,535, were exported from Hawaii to the mainland of
the United States. A few bananas and (especially from Oahu)
pineapples of fine quality are exported; since 1901 the canning of
3 The entomological department of the Hawaii Experiment
Station undertakes " mosquito control," and in 1905-1906 imported
top-minnows (Poeciliidae) to destroy mosquito larvae.
4 These and other title-holders received corresponding rights to
the use of irrigation ditches, and to fish in certain sea areas adjacent
to their holdings.
HAWAII
87
pineapples has been successfully carried on, and in the year ending
May 31, 1907, 186,700 cases were exported, being packed in nine
canneries. Oranges, lemons, limes, figs, mangoes, grapes and
peaches, besides a considerable variety of vegetables, are raised
in small quantities for local consumption. In 1909 the exports of
fruits and nuts to the continental United States were valued at
$1,457,644. An excellent quality of sisal is grown. Rubber trees
have been planted with some success, particularly on the eastern
part of the island of Maui; they were not tapped for commercial
use until 1909. In 1907 there were vanilla plantations in the islands
of Oahu and Hawaii. Tobacco of a high grade, especially for
wrappers, has been grown at the Agricultural Experiment Station's
farm at Hamakua, on the island of Hawaii, where the tobacco is
practically " shade grown " under the afternoon fogs from Mauna
Kea. Cotton and silk culture have been experimented with on the
islands; and the work of the Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment
Station is of great value, in introducing new crops, in improving
old, in studying soils and fertilizers and in entomological research.
Honey is a crop of some importance; in 1908 the yield was about
950 tons of honey and 15 tons of wax. The small islands of Lanai,
Niihau and Kahoolawe are devoted chiefly to the raising of sheep
and cattle Niihau is one large privately owned sheep-ranch.
There are large cattle-ranches on the islands supplying nearly all
the meat for domestic consumption, and cattle-raising is second in
importance to the sugar industry. It -was estimated in 1908 that
there were about 130,500 cattle and about 99,500 sheep on the
islands. The " native " cattle, descended from those left on the
islands by early navigators, are being improved by breeding with
imported Hereford, Shorthorn, Angus and Holstein bulls, the Here-
fords being the best for the purpose. In the fiscal year 1908,
359,413 ft of wool (valued at 858,133) and 928,599 ft of raw hides
(valued at $87,599) were shipped from the Territory to the United
States.
Minerals. The islands have large (unworked) supplies of pumice,
sandstone, sulphur, gypsum, alum and mineral-paint ochres, and
some salt, kaolin and sal-ammoniac, but otherwise they are without
mineral wealth other than lava rocks for building purposes.
Manufactures. The manufactures are chiefly sugar, fertilizers,
and such products of the foundry and machine shop as are required
for the machinery of the sugar factories. Most of the manufacturing
industries, indeed, are maintained for supplying the local market,
there being only three important exceptions the manufacture of
sugar, the cleaning of coffee and the cleaning and polishing of rice.
The manufacture of sugar, which began between 1830 and 1840,
has long been much the most important of the manufacturing in-
dustries: thus in 1900 the value of the sugar production was
$19,254,773, and the total value of all manufactures, including
custom work and repairing, was only $24,992,068. Next to sugar,
fertilizers were the most important manufactured product, their value
being $1,150,625; the products of the establishments for the
polishing and cleaning of rice were valued at $664,300. Of the total
product in 1900, only 18-5% (by value) is to be credited to the city
of Honolulu. The growth of manufacturing is much hampered by
the lack of labour. Excellent water power is utilized on the island
of Kauai in an electric plant.
Communications. There are good wagon roads on the islands,
some of them macadamized, built of the hard blue lava rock.
Hawaii had in 1909 about 200 m. of railway, of which the principal
line is that of the Oahu Railway & Land Company (about 89 m.),
extending from Honolulu W. and N. along the coast to Kahuku
about one-half the distance around Oahu; another line from
Kahuku Mill, the most northerly point of the island, S.E. to Hono-
lulu, was projected in 1905; on the island of Hawaii is the Hilo
Railroad (about 46 m.), carrying sugar, pineapples, rubber and
lumber; other railways are for the most part short lines on sugar
estates and in coffee-producing sections of the islands of Hawaii
and Maui. Each of the larger islands has one or more ports which a
local steamboat serves regularly, and Honolulu has the regular
service of seven trans-Pacific lines (the American-Hawaiian Steamship
Co., the Canadian-Australian Steamship Co., the Matson Navigation
Co., the Oceanic Steamship Co., the Pacific Mail Steamship Co., the
Mexican Oriental and the Toyo Kisen Kaisha); it is a midway
station for vessels between the United States (mainland) and Australia
and Southern Asia. In 1908 five steamship companies were engaged
in traffic between island ports and the mainland (including Mexico).
Honolulu has cable connexion with San Francisco and the East, and
the several islands of the group are served by wireless telegraph.
Commerce. The position of the archipelago, at the " cross-roads "
of the North Pacific, has made it commercially important since the
days of the whale fishery, and it has a practical monopoly of coaling,
watering and victualling. Its main disadvantage is the lack of
harbours Honolulu and Pearl Harbor are the only ones in the archi-
pelago; but under the River and Harbour Act of 1905 examinations
and surveys were made to improve Hilo Bay on the island of Hawaii.
Pearl Harbor is the U.S. naval station, and a great naval dock,
nearly 1200 ft. long, was projected for the station in 1908. Within
recent years commerce has grown greatly in volume; it has always
been almost entirely with the United States. In 1880 the value of
imports from the United States was $2,086,000, that of exports
to the United States was $4,606,000; in 1907 the value of shipments
of domestic merchandise from the United States to Hawaii was
$ I 5.357t97> .and the value of shipments of domestic merchandise
from Hawaii to the United States was $31,984,433, of which
1^0,111,524 was the value of brown sugar, $133,133 the value of
rice, $601,748 the value of canned fruits, $124,146 the value of
green, ripe or dried fruits, $117,403 the value of hides and skins,
and $105,515 the value of green or raw coffee. The shipments of
foreign merchandise each way are relatively insignificant. In the
fiscal year 1908 the exports from Hawaii to foreign countries were
valued at $597,640, ten times as much as in 1905 ($59,541); the
imports into Hawaii from foreign countries were valued at $4,682,399
in the fiscal year 1908, as against $3,014,964 in 1905.
Population. The total population of the islands in 1890 was
89,990; in 1900 it was 154,001, an increase within the decade
of 71-13%; in 1910 it was 191,909. In 1908 there were about
72,000 Japanese, 18,000 Chinese, 5000 Koreans, 23,000 Portu-
guese, 2000 Spanish, 2000 Porto Ricans, 35,000 Hawaiians and
part Hawaiians and 12,000 Teutons. Of the total for 1900
there were 61,111 Japanese, 25,767 Chinese and 233 negroes;
of the same total there were 90,780 foreign-born, of whom
56,234 were natives of Japan, and 6512 were natives of Portugal.
There were in all in 1900, 106,369 males (69-1%; a preponder-
ance due to the large number of Mongolian labourers, whose
wives are left in Asia) and only 47,632 females. About three-
fifths of the Hawaiians and nearly all of American, British or
North European descent are Protestants. Most of the Portuguese
and about one-third of the native Hawaiians are Roman Catholics.
The Mormons claim more than 4000 adherents, whose principal
settlement is at Laie, on the north-east shore of Oahu; the first
Mormon missionaries came to the islands in 1850. The popula-
tion of 1910 was distributed among the several islands as follows:
Oahu, 82,028; Hawaii, 55,382; Kauai and Niihau, 23,952; Kalawao,
785; and Maui, Lanai, Kahoolawe and Molokai, 29,762. The
population of Honolulu district , the entire urban population of the
Territory, was 22,907 in 1890, 39,306 in 1900, and 52,183 in 1910.
The aboriginal Hawaiians (sometimes called Kanakas, from
a Hawaiian word kanaka, meaning " man ") belong to the
Malayo-Polynesian race; they probably settled in
Hawaii in the loth century, having formerly lived in %*pula-
Samoa, and possibly before that in Tahiti and the tion.
Marquesas. Their reddish-brown skin has been com-
pared in hue to tarnished copper. Their hair is dark brown or
black, straight, wavy or curly; the beard is thin, the face broad,
the profile not prominent, the eyes large and expressive, the
nose somewhat flattened, the lips thick, the teeth excellent in
shape and of a pearly whiteness. The skull is sub-brachycephalic
in type, with an index of 82-6 from living " specimens " and 79
from a large collection of skulls; it is never prognathous. Most
of the people are of moderate stature, but the chiefs and the
women of their families have been remarkable for their height,
and 400 pounds was formerly not an unusual weight for one of
this class. This corpulence was due not alone to over-feeding but
to an almost purely vegetable diet; stoutness was a part of the
ideal of feminine beauty. The superiority in physique of the
nobles to the common people may have been due in part to a
system of massage, the lomi-lomi; it is certainly contrary
to the belief in the bad effects of inbreeding among the upper
classes marriage was almost entirely between near relatives.
The Rev. William Ellis, an early English missionary, described
the natives as follows: " The inhabitants of these islands are,
considered physically, amongst the finest races in the Pacific,
bearing the strongest resemblance to the New Zealanders in
stature, and in their well-developed muscular limbs. The tattoo-
ing of their bodies is less artistic than that of the New Zealanders,
and much more limited than among some of the other islanders.
They are also more hardy and industrious than those living
nearer the equator. This in all probability arises from their
salubrious climate, and the comparative sterility of their soil
rendering them dependent upon the cultivation of the ground
for the yam, the arum, and the sweet potato, their chief articles
of food. Though, like all undisciplined races, the Sandwich
Islanders [Hawaiians] have proved deficient in firm and steady
perseverance, they manifest considerable intellectual capability.
Their moral character, when first visited by Europeans, was not
88
HAWAII
superior to that of other islanders; and excepting when improved
and preserved by the influence of Christianity, it has suffered
much from the vices of intemperance and licentiousness
introduced by foreigners. Polygamy prevailed among the chiefs
and rulers, and women were subject to all the humiliations of
the tabu system, which subjected them to many privations, and
kept them socially in a condition of inferiority to the other sex.
Infanticide was practised to some extent, the children destroyed
being chiefly females. Though less superstitious than the
Tahitians, the idolatry of the Sandwich Islanders was equally
barbarous and sanguinary, as, in addition to the chief objects
of worship included in the mythology of the other islands, the
supernatural beings supposed to reside in the volcanoes and
direct the action of subterranean fires rendered the gods objects
of peculiar terror. Human sacrifices were slain on several
occasions, and vast offerings presented to the spirits supposed to
preside over the volcanoes, especially during the periods of
actual eruptions. The requisitions of their idolatry were severe
and its rites cruel and bloody. Grotesque and repulsive wooden
figures, animals and the bones of chiefs were the objects of
worship. Human sacrifices were offered whenever a temple
was to be dedicated, or a chief was sick, or a war was to be under-
taken; and these occasions were frequent. The apprehensions
of the people with regard to a future state were undefined, but
fearful. The lower orders expected to be slowly devoured by
evil spirits, or to dwell with the gods in burning mountains.
The several trades, such as that of fisherman, the tiller of the
ground, and the builder of canoes and houses, had each their pre-
siding deities. Household gods were also kept, which the natives
worshipped in their habitations. One merciful provision,
however, had existed from time immemorial, and that was
[the puuhonuas] sacred inclosures, places of refuge, into which
those who fled in time of war, or from any violent pursuer,
might enter and be safe. To violate their sanctity was one of
the greatest crimes of which a man could be guilty." The native
religion was an admixture of idolatry and hero-worship, of some
ethical hut little moral force. The king was war chief, priest and
god in 'one, and the shocking licence at the death of a king was
probably due to the feeling that all law or restraint was annulled
by the death of the king incarnate law. The mythic and
religious legends of the people were preserved in chants, handed
down from generati9n to generation; and in like poetic form
was kept the knowledge of the people of botany, medicine and
other sciences. Name-songs, written at the birth of a chief,
gave his genealogy and the deeds of his ancestors; dirges and
love-songs were common. These were without rhyme or rhythm,
but had alliteration and a parallelism resembling Hebrew poetry.
Drums, gourd and bamboo flutes,and a kind of guitar, were known
before Cook's day.
When the islands first became known to Europeans, the
Hawaiian family was in a stage including both polyandry
and polygyny, and, according to Morgan, older than either:
two or more brothers, with their wives, or two or more sisters
with their husbands, cohabited with seeming promiscuity.
This system called punalua (a word which in the modern verna-
cular means merely " dear friend ") was first brought to the
attention of ethnologists in 1871 by Lewis H. Morgan (who
was incorrect in many of his premises) and was made the basis
of his second stage, the punaluan, in the evolution of the family.
These conditions did not last long after the coming of the mission-
aries. Descent was more commonly traced through the female
line. As regard cannibalism, it appears that the heart and liver
of the human victims offered in the temples were eaten as a
religious rite, and that the same parts of any prominent warrior
slain in battle were devoured by the victor chiefs, who believed
that they would thereby inherit the valour of the dead man.
Under taboo as late as 1819 women were to be put to death if they
ate bananas, cocoa-nuts, pork, turtles or certain fish. In the
days of idolatry the only dress worn by the men was a narrow
strip of cloth wound around the loins and passed between the
legs. Women wore a short petticoat made of kapa cloth (already
referred to), which reached from the waist to the knee. But now
the common class of men wear a shirt and trousers; the better
class are attired in the European fashion. The women are clad
in the holoka, a loose white or coloured garment .with sleeves,
reaching from the neck to the feet. A coloured handkerchief
is twisted around the head or a straw hat is worn. Both sexes
delight in adorning themselves with garlands (Ids) of flowers and
necklaces of coloured seeds. The Hawaiians are a good-tempered,
light-hearted and pleasure-loving race. They have many games
and sports, including boxing, wrestling (both in and out of water),
hill-sliding, spear-throwing, and a game of bowls played with
stone discs. Both sexes are passionately fond of riding. They
delight to be in the water and swim with remarkable skill and
ease. In the exciting sport of surf-riding, which always astonishes
strangers, they balance themselves lying, kneeling or standing
on a small board which is carried landwards on the curling crest
of a great roller. All games were accompanied by gambling.
Dances, especially the indecent hula, " danse du ventre," were
favourite entertainments.
Even at the time when they were first known to Europeans,
they had stone and lava hatchets, shark's-tooth knives, hard-
wood spades, kapa cloth or paper, mats, fans, fish-hooks and nets,
woven baskets, &c., and they had introduced a rough sort ol
irrigation of the inland country with long canals from highlands
to plains. They derived their sustenance chiefly from pork
and fish (both fresh and dried), from seaweed (limu), and from
the kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, var. esculenta), the banana,
sweet potato, yam, bread-fruit and cocoa-nut. From the root
of the kalo is made the national dish called poi; after having been
baked and well beaten on a board with a stone pestle it is made
into a paste with water and then allowed to ferment for a few
days, when it is ready to be eaten. One of the table delicacies
of former days was a particular breed of dog which was fed
exclusively on poi before it was killed, cooked and served. Like
other South Sea Islanders they made an intoxicating drink,
awa or kava, from the roots of the Macropiper latifolium or
Piper methyslicum; in early times this could be drunk only by
nobles and priests. The native dwellings are constructed of
wood, or occasionally are huts thatched with grass at the sides
and top. What little cooking is undertaken among the poorer
natives is usually done outside. The oven consists of a hole
in the ground in which a fire is lighted and stones made hot;
and the fire having been removed, the food is wrapped up in
leaves and placed in the hole beside the hot stones and covered
up until ready; or else, as is now more common, the cooking
is done in an old kerosene-oil can over a fire.
The Hawaiian language is a member of the widely-diffused
Malayo-Polynesian group and closely resembles the dialect of
the Marquesas; Hawaiians and New Zealanders, although
occupying the most remote regions north and south at which
the race has been found, can understand each other without
much difficulty. Various unsuccessful attempts have been made
to prove the language Aryan in its origin. It is soft and har-
monious, being highly vocalic in structure. Every syllable is
open, ending in a vowel sound, and short sentences may be
constructed wholly of vocalic sounds. The only consonants are
k, I, m, n and p, which with the gently aspirated h, the five vowels,
and the vocalic w, make up all the letters in use. The letters r
and / have been discarded in favour of I and k, as expressing
more accurately the native pronunciation, so' that, for example,
taro, the former name of the Colocasia plant, is now kalo. The
language was not reduced to a written form until after the
arrival of the missionaries. A Hawaiian spelling book was
printed in 1822; in 1834 two newspapers were founded; and in
1839 the first translation of the Bible was published.
In spite of moral and material progress indeed largely because
of changes in their food, clothing, dwellings and of other " advan-
tages " of civilization the race is probably dying out. Captain
Cook estimated the number of natives at 400,000, probably an
over-estimate; in 1823 the American missionaries estimated
their number at 142,000; the census of 1832 showed the popula-
tion to be 130,313; the census of 1878 proved that the number
of natives was no more than 44,088. In 1890 they numbered
HAWAII
89
34,436; in 1900, 29,834, a decrease of 4602 or 13-3% within
the decade. To account for this it is said that the blood of the
race has become poisoned by the introduction of foreign dis-
eases. The women are much less numerous than the men; and
the married ones have few children at the most; two out of
three have none. Moreover, the mothers appear to have little
maternal instinct and neglect their offspring. It is, however,
thought by some that these causes are now diminishing in force,
and that the " fittest " of the race may survive. The part-
Hawaiians, the offspring of intermarriage between Hawaiian
women and men of other races, increased from 3420 in 1878 to
6186 in 1890 and 7835 in 1900.
The pressing demand for labour created by the Reciprocity Treaty
of 1875 with the United States led to great changes in the population
of the Hawaiian Islands. It became the policy of the
Immlgra- government to assist immigrants from different countries.
Uoa - In 1877 arrangements were made for the importation of
Portuguese families from the Azores and Madeira, and during the
next ten years about 7000 of these people were brought to the
islands; in 1906-1907 there was a second immigration from the
Azores and Madeira of 1325 people. In 1900 the total number of
Portuguese in the islands, including those born there, was not far
from 1 6,000, about 2400 of whom were employed in sugar plantations.
They have shown themselves to be industrious, thrifty and law-
abiding. In 1907 2201 Spanish immigrants from the sugar district
about Malaga arrived in Hawaii, and about the same number of
Portuguese immigrated in the same year. The Board of Immigration,
using funds contributed by planters, was very active in its efforts to
encourage the immigration of suitable labourers, but the general im-
migration law of 1907 prohibited the securing of such immigration
through contributions from corporations. Persistent efforts have
also been made to introduce Polynesian islanders, as being of a
cognate race with the Hawaiians, but the results have been wholly
unsatisfactory. About 2000, mainly from the Gilbert Islands,
were brought in at the expense of the government between 1878 and
1884; but they did not give satisfaction either as labourers or as
citizens, and most of them have been returned to their homes.
There never existed any treaty or labour convention between Hawaii
and China. In early days a limited number of Chinese settled in
the islands, intermarried with the natives and by their industry
and economy generally prospered. About 750 of them were natural-
ized under the monarchy. The first importation of Chinese labourers
was in 1852. In 1878 the number of Chinese had risen to 5916.
During the next few years there was such a steady influx of Chinese
free immigrants that in the spring of 1881 the Hawaiian government
sent a despatch to the governor of Hong Kong to stop this invasion.
Again, in April 1883, it was suddenly renewed, and within twenty
days five steamers arrived from Hong Kong bringing 2253 Chinese
passengers, followed the next month by noo more, with the news
that several thousand more were ready to embark. Accordingly,
the Hawaiian government sent another despatch to the governor of
Hong Kong, refusing to permit any further immigration of male
Chinese from that port. Various regulations restricting Chinese
immigration were enacted from time to time, until in 1886 the
landing of any Chinese passenger without a passport was prohibited.
The number of Chinese in the islands had then risen to 21,000.
The consent of the Japanese government to the immigration of its
subjects to Hawaii was obtained with difficulty in 1884, and in 1886
a labour convention was ratified. Subsequently the increase of
the Japanese element in the population was rapid. It rose from 1 16
in 1884 to 12,360 in 1890 and 24,400 in 1896. Most of these were
recruited from the lowest classes in Japan. Unlike the Chinese, they
show no inclination to intermarry with the Hawaiians. The effect
of making Hawaii a Territory of the United States was to put an
end to all assisted immigration, of whatever race, and to exclude
all Chinese labourers. No Chinese labourer is allowed to enter any
other Territory of the Union from Hawaii; and the act of Congress
of the 26th of February 1885, " to prohibit the importation and
migration of foreigners and aliens under contract or agreement to
perform labour in the United States, its Territories and the District
of Columbia," and the amending and supplementary acts, are
extended to it. But in the treaty of 1894 between the United States
and Japan there is nothing to limit the free immigration of Japanese ;
and several companies have been formed to promote it. The system
of contract labour, which was abolished by the act of Congress in
1900, and under which labourers had been restrained from leaving
their work before the end of the contract term, concerned few
labourers except the Japanese. Various methods of co-operation
or profit-sharing are in successful operation on some plantations.
An interesting sociological problem is raised by the presence of
the large Asiatic element in the population. The Japanese and
Koreans, and in less measure the Chinese, act as domestic servants,
work under white contractors on irrigating ditches and reservoirs,
do most of the plantation labour and compete successfully with
whites and native islanders in all save skilled urban occupations,
such as printing and the manufacture of machinery. The ' Yellow
Peril " is considered less dangerous in Hawaii than formerly, although
it was used as a political cry in the campaign for American annexa-
tion. No success met the apparently well-meaning efforts of the
Central Japanese League which was organized in November and
December 1903 to promote the observance of law and order by the
Japanese in the islands, who assumed a too independent attitude and
felt themselves free from governmental control whether Japanese
or American; indeed, after the League had been in operation
for a year or more, it almost seemed that it contributed to industrial
disorders among the Japanese. At about the same time Japanese
immigration to Hawaii fell off upon the opening of now fields for
colonization by the Russo-Japanese War, and Korean immigration
was promoted by employers on the islands. From the first of
January 1903 to the 3Oth of June 1905 Japanese immigrants num-
bered 18,027; Koreans 7388 (four Koreans to every ten Japanese);
but in the last twelve months of this same period there were 4733
Koreans to 5941 Japanese (eight Koreans to every ten Japanese).
Another fact which is possibly contributing to the solution of the
problem is that the Japanese are leaving the islands in large numbers
as compared with the Koreans. The Japanese leaving Hawaii
between the I4th of June 1900 and the jist of December 1905
numbered 42,313, o: 4284 more than the number of Japanese
immigrants arriving during the same period. The corresponding
figures for Koreans during the same period are as follows: number
leaving between the I4th of June 1900 and the 3lst of December
1905, 721, or 6673 less than the Korean immigrants for the same
period. The acceleration of the departure of the Japanese is shown
by the fact that in the eighteen months (July 1904 to January 1906)
occurred 19,114 of the 42,313 departures in the sixty-six months
from July 1900 to January 1906.' After 1906, owing to restrictions
by the Japanese government, immigration to Hawaii greatly de-
creased. At the same time the number of departures was decreasing
rapidly. The change in the character of the immigration of Japanese
is shown by the fact that in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the ratio of
female immigrants to males was as I to 8, in the fiscal year 1907-
1908 it was as I to 2, and in the latter year, of 4593 births in the
Territory, 2445 were Japanese.
Administration. The Hawaiian Islands are governed under
an Act of Congress, signed by the president on the 30th of April
1900, which first organized them as a Territory of the United
States. The legislature, which meets biennially at Honolulu,
consists of a Senate of 1 5 members holding office for four years,
and a House of Representatives of 30 members holding office
for two years. In order to vote for Representatives or Senators,
the elector must be a male citizen of the United States who has
attained the age of twenty-one years, has lived in the Territory
not less than one year preceding, and is able to speak, read and
write the English or Hawaiian language. No person is allowed
to vote by reason of being in or attached to the army or navy.
The executive power is vested in a governor, appointed by the
president and holding office for four years. He must not be
less than thirty-five years of age and must be a citizen of the
Territory. The secretary of the Territory is appointed in like
manner for a term of the same length. The governor appoints,
by and with the consent of the Senate of the Territory, an
attorney-general, treasurer, commissioner of public lands,
commissioner of agriculture and forestry, superintendent of
public works, superintendent of public instruction, commissioners
of public instruction, auditor and deputy-auditor, surveyor,
high sheriff, members of the board of health, board of prison
inspectors, board of registration, inspectors of election, &c.
All such officers are appointed for four years except the com-
missioners of public instruction and the members of the said
1 Large numbers of Japanese immigrants have used the Hawaiian
Islands merely as a means of gaining admission at the mainland
ports of the United States. For, as the Japanese government
would issue only a limited number of passports to the mainland but
would quite readily grant passports to Honolulu, the latter were
accepted, and after a short stay on some one of the islands the im-
migrants would depart on a " coastwise " voyage to some mainland
port. The increasing numbers arriving by this means, however,
provoked serious hostility in the Pacific coast states, especially in
San Francisco, and to remedy the difficulty Congress inserted a
clause in the general immigration act of the 2Oth of February 1907
which provides that whenever the president is satisfied that passports
issued by any foreign government to any other country than the
United States, or to any of its insular possessions, or to the Canal
Zone, " are being used for the purpose of enabling the holders to
come to the continental territory of the United States to the detri-
ment of labour conditions therein," he may refuse to admit them.
This provision has been successful in reducing the number of Japanese
coming to the mainland from Hawaii.
9
HAWAII
boards, whose terms are as provided by the laws of the Territory ;
all must be citizens of the Territory. The judicial power is
vested in a supreme court, 5 circuit courts, and 29 district
courts, each having a jurisdiction corresponding to similar
courts in each state in the Union; and, entirely distinct from
these territorial courts, Hawaii has a United States district
court. A Supplementary Act of the 3rd of March 1905 provides
that writs of error and appeals may be taken from the Supreme
Court of Hawaii to the Supreme Court of the United States
" in all cases where the amount involved exclusive of costs or
value exceeds the sum of five thousand dollars." The Territory
was without the forms of local government common to the
United States until 1905, when the Territorial legislature divided
it into five counties 1 without, however, giving to them the
usual powers of taxation. Each county has the following
officers: a board of supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, an auditor,
an assessor and tax-collector, a sheriff and coroner, and an
attorney. The members (from five to nine) of the board of
supervisors are elected by districts into which the county is
divided, usually only one from each. All county officers are
elected for a term of two years. The act of 1900 provides for
the election of a delegate to Congress, and prescribes that the
delegate shall have the qualifications necessary for membership
in the Hawaiian Senate, and shall be elected by voters qualified
to vote for members of the House of Representatives of Hawaii.
As usual, the delegate has a right to take part in the debates in
the national House of Representatives, but may not vote.
Charities. The principal public charity of the Territory is the leper
asylum on a peninsula almost 10 sq. ra. in area on the N. side of the
island of Molokai. A steep precipice forms a natural wall between
it and the rest of the island. The place became an asylum for lepers
and the caring for them began to be a charity under government
charge in 1866; but conditions here were at first unspeakably
unhygienic, their improvement being largely due to Father Damien,
who devoted himself to this work in 1873. The patients are almost
exclusively native Hawaiians, and their number is slowly but steadily
decreasing; in 1908 they numbered 791, and there were at Molokai
46 non-leprous helpers and 27 officers and assistants, including the
Roman Catholic brothers and sisters in charge of the homes. In
1905 the United States government appropriated $100,000 for a
hospital station and laboratory " for the study of the methods of
transmission, cause and treatment of leprosy," and $50,000 a year
for their maintenance; the station and laboratory to be established
when the territorial government should have ceded to the United
States a tract of I sq. m. on the leper reservation. The cession was
made soon afterward by the territorial government. In 1907-1908
a home for non-leprous boys of leprous parents was established at
Honolulu. Another public charity of Hawaii is the general free
dispensary maintained by the territorial government at Honolulu.
Education. Education is universal, compulsory and free. Every
child between the ages of six and fifteen must attend either a public
school or a duly authorized private school. Consequently the per-
centage of illiteracy is extremely low. The school system is essenti-
ally American in its text -books and in its methods, thanks to the
foundations laid by American missionaries. Between 1820 and 1824
the missionaries taught about 2000 natives to read. Several im-
portant schools were founded before 1840, when the first written
laws were published. Among these was a law providing for com-
pulsory education, and decreeing that no illiterate born after the
beginning of Liholiho's reign should hold office, and that no illiterate
man or woman, born after the same date, could marry. The first
Hawaiian minister of public instruction was the Rev. William
Richards (1792-1847), who held office from 1843 to 1847, and was
followed by Richard Armstrong (1805-1860), an American Presby-
terian missionary, the father of General S. C. Armstrong. He laid
stress on the importance of manual and industrial training during
his term of office (1847-1855), and was succeeded by a board of
education (1855-1865), of which he was first president; then an
inspector-general of schools was appointed, Judge Abraham For-
nander being the first inspector; in 1896 an executive department
was created under a minister of public instruction and six com-
1 These are: the county of Hawaii, consisting of the island of the
same name; the county of Maui, including the islands of Maui,
Lanai and Kahoolawe, and the greater part of Molokai; the county
of Kalawao, being the leper settlement on Molokai; the city and
county of Honolulu (created from the former county of Oahu by
an act of 1907, which came into effect in 1909), consisting of the
island of Oahu and various small islands, of which the only ones of
any importance are the Midway Islands, 1232 m. from Honolulu,
a Pacific cable relay station and a post of the U.S. navy marines;
and the county of Kauai, including Kauai and Niihau islands.
missioners; in 1900 a superintendent of public instruction was
first appointed. English is by law the medium of instruction in all
schools, both public and private, although other languages may be
taught in addition. Formal instruction in Hawaiian ceased in 1898.
The schools are in session forty weeks during the year. In 1908 there
were 154 public schools with 18,564 pupils (27-06% of whom were
Japanese, 20-89% Hawaiian, I3'54% part Hawaiian, 18-72%
Portuguese and 10-63% Chinese) and 51 private schools with
4881 pupils. A normal school has been established at Honolulu,
with a practice school attached to it. The territorial legislature of
1907 established the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the
Territory of Hawaii, and also founded a public library. The Hono-
lulu high school does excellent work and has beautiful buildings and
grounds. The Lahainaluna Seminary on west Maui, founded in
1831 as a training school for teachers, furnishes instruction to
Hawaiian boys in agriculture, carpentry, printing and mechanical
drawing. The boys in the industrial school (1902) at Waialee,
on the island of Oahu, are taught useful trades. The teaching of
sewing in the public schools has met with great success, and a simple
form of the Swedish sloid was introduced into many of the schools
in 1894. Lace work was introduced into the public schools in 1903.
But the best industrial instruction is furnished by the independent
schools, among which the Kamehameha schools take the first place.
They were founded by Mrs Bernice Pauahi Bishop (1831-1884),
the last lineal descendant of Kamehameha I., who left her* extensive
landed estates in the hands of trustees for their support. They furnish
a good manual and technical training to Hawaiian boys and girls,
in addition to a primary and grammar school course of study, and
exert a strong religious influence. There are six boarding schools for
Hawaiian girls, supported by private resources. The most advanced
courses of study are offered by Oahu College, which occupies a
beautiful site near the beach just E. of Honolulu; it was founded
in 1841 as the Punahou School for missionaries' children, and was
chartered as Oahu College in 1852. It is well equipped with build-
ings and apparatus, and has an endowment of about 8300,000.
Finance. The revenue of the Territory for the fiscal year ending
the 3Oth of June 1908 amounted to $2,669,748-32, of which
$640,051-42 was the proceeds of the tax on real estate, $635,265-81
was the proceeds of the tax on personal property ; and among the
larger of the remaining items were the income tax ($266,241-74),
waterworks ($141,898-04), public lands (sales, $37,585-75; revenue,
$122,541-71) and licences ($206,374-28). On the 3Oth of June 1908
the bonded debt of the Territory was $3,979,000; there was on hand
net cash, without floating debt, $677,648-48.
History. The history of the islands before their discovery
by Captain James Cook, in 1778, is obscure. 2 This famous
navigator, who named the islands in honour of the earl of Sand-
wich, was received by the natives with many demonstrations
of astonishment and delight; and offerings and prayers were
presented to him by their priest in one of the temples; and
though in the following year he was killed by a native when he
landed in Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii, his bones were preserved
by the priests and continued to receive offerings and homage
from the people until the abolition of idolatry. At the time of
Cook's visit the archipelago seems to have been divided into
three distinct kingdoms: Hawaii; Oahu and Maui; and Lanai
and Molokai. On the death of the chief who ruled Hawaii at
that time there succeeded one named Kamehameha (1736-1819),
who appears to have been a man of quick perception and great
force of character. When Vancouver visited the islands in 1792,
he left sheep and neat cattle, 3 protected by a ten years' taboo,
and laid down the keel of a European ship for Kamehameha.
Ten or twelve years later Kamehameha had 20 vessels (of 25
to 50 tons), which traded among the islands. He afterwards
purchased others from foreigners. Having encouraged a warlike
spirit in his people and having introduced firearms, Kamehameha
attacked and overcame the chiefs of the other kingdoms one after
another, until (in 1795) he became undisputed master of the whole
group. He made John Young (c. 1775-1835) and Isaac Davis,
Americans from one of the ships of Captain Metcalf which visited
the island in 1789, his advisers, encouraged trade with foreigners,
2 Their discovery in the i6th century (in 1542 or 1555 by Juan
Gaetan, or in 1528 when two of the vessels of Alvaro de Saavedra
were shipwrecked here and the captain of one, with his sister, sur-
vived and intermarried with the natives) seems probable, because
there are traces of Spanish customs in the islands; and they are
marked in their correct latitude on an English chart of 1687, which
is apparently based on Spanish maps; a later Spanish chart (1743)
gives a group of islands 10 E. of the true position of the Hawaiian
Islands.
The first horses were left by Captain R. J. Cleveland in 1803.
HAWAII
and derived from its profits a large increase of revenue as well
as the means of consolidating his power. He died in 1819, and
was succeeded by his son, Lilohilo, or Kamehameha II., a mild
and well-disposed prince, but destitute of his father's energy.
One of the first acts of Kamehameha II. was, for vicious and
selfish reasons, to abolish taboo and idolatry throughout the
islands. Some disturbances were caused thereby, but the
insurgents were defeated.
On the 3ist of March 1820 missionaries of the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions two clergymen, two
teachers, a physician, a farmer, and a printer, each with his
wife and three Hawaiians educated in the Cornwall (Con-
necticut) Foreign Missionary School, arrived from America
and began their labours at Honolulu. A short time afterwards
the British government presented a small schooner to the king,
and this afforded an opportunity for the Rev. William Ellis,
the well-known missionary, to visit Honolulu with a number
of Christian natives from the Society Islands. Finding the
language of the two groups nearly the same, Mr Ellis, who had
spent several years in the southern islands, was able to assist
the American missionaries in reducing the Hawaiian language
to a written form. In 1825 the ten commandments were recog-
nized by the king as the basis of a code of laws. In the years
1830-1845 the educational work of the American missionaries
was so successful that hardly a native was unable to read and
write. A law prohibiting drunkenness (1835) was followed in
1838 by a licence law and in 1839 by a law prohibiting the
importation of spirits and taxing wines fifty cents a gallon; in
1840 another prohibitory law was enacted; but licence laws
soon made the sale of liquor common. Missionary effort was
particularly fruitful in Hilo, where Titus Coan (1801-1882), sent
out in 1835 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions, worked in repeated revivals, induced most of his
church members to give up tobacco even, and received prior to
1880 more than 12,000 members into a church which became
self-supporting and sent missions to the Gilbert Islands and the
Marquesas. In 1823 Keopuolani, the king's mother, was baptized;
and on a single Sunday in 1838 Coan baptized 1705 converts at
Hilo. In 1864 the American Board withdrew its control of
evangelical work.
In 1824 the king and queen of the Hawaiian Islands paid a
visit to England, and both died there of measles. His successor,
Kamehameha III. ruled from 1825 to 1854. In 1839 Kame-
hameha III. signed a Bill of Rights and in 1840 he promulgated
the first constitution of the realm; in 1842 a code of laws was
proclaimed; by 1848 the feudal system of land tenure was
completely abolished; the first legislature met in 1845 and full
suffrage was granted in 1852, but in 1864 suffrage was restricted.
Progress was at times interrupted by the conduct of the officers
of foreign powers. On one occasion (July 1839) French officers
abrogated the laws (particularly against the importation of
liquor), dictated treaties, extorted $20,000 and by force of arms
procured privileges for Roman Catholic 1 priests in the country;
and at another time (February 1843) a British officer, Captain
Paulet of the " Carysfort," went so far as to take possession of
Oahu and establish a commission for its government. The act
of the British officer was disavowed by his superiors as soon as
known.
These incidents led to a representation on the part of the
native sovereign to the governments of Great Britain, France
and the United States, and the independence of the islands
(recognized by the United States in 1842) was recognized in
1844 by France and Great Britain. In 1844 John Ricord, an
American lawyer, became the first minister of foreign affairs.
A new constitution came into effect in 1852. It was the aim
of Kamehameha III. and his advisers to combine the native
and the foreign elements under one government; to make
the king the sovereign not of one race or class, but of all; and to
extend equal and impartial laws over all inhabitants of the
1 The first Roman Cathojic priests came in 1827 and were banished
in 1831, but returned in 1837. An edict of toleration in 1839 shortly
preceded the visit of the " Artemise."
country. Kamehameha IV. and his queen, Emma, ruled from
1855 to 1863 and were succeeded by his brother, Kamehameha
V., who died in 1872, and in whose reign a third (and a re-
actionary) constitution went into effect in 1864, by mere royal
proclamation. Lunalilo r a grandson of Kamehameha I., was
king for two years, and in 1874, backed by American influence,
Kalakaua was elected his successor, in preference to Queen
Emma, a member of the Anglican Church and the candidate
of the pro-British party. Kalakaua considered residents of
European or American descent as alien invaders, and he aimed
to restore largely the ancient system of personal government,
under which he should have control of the public treasury. On
the 2nd of July 1878, and again on the I4th of August 1880,
he dismissed a ministry without assigning any reason, after
it had been triumphantly sustained by a test vote of the legis-
lature. On the latter occasion he appointed C. C. Moreno,
who had come to Honolulu in the interest of a Chinese steam-
ship company, as Premier and minister of foreign affairs. This
called forth the protest of the representatives of Great Britain,
France and the United States, and aroused such opposition
on the part of both the foreigners and the better class of natives
that the king was obliged, after four days of popular excitement,
to remove the obnoxious minister. During the king's absence
on a tour round the world in 1881, his sister, Mrs Lydia Dominis
(b. 1838), also styled Liliuokalani, acted as regent. After his
return the contest was renewed between the so-called National
party, which favoured absolution, and the Reform party, which
sought to establish parliamentary gcjvernment. The king took
an active part in the elections, and used his patronage to the
utmost to influence legislation. For three successive sessions
a majority of the legislature was composed of office-holders,
dependent on the favour of the executive. Among the measures
urged by the king and opposed by the Reform party were the
project of a ten-million dollar loan, chiefly for military purposes;
the removal of the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquor to
Hawaiians, which was carried in 1882; the licensing of the sale
of opium; the chartering of a lottery company; the licensing
of kahunas, or medicine men, &c. Systematic efforts were
made to turn the constitutional question into a race issue, and
the party cry was raised of " Hawaii for Hawaiians." Adroit
politicians flattered the king's vanity, defended his follies and
taught him how to violate the spirit of the constitution while
keeping the letter of the law. From 1882 till 1887 his prime
minister was Walter Murray Gibson (1823-1888), a singular and
romantic genius, a visionary adventurer and a shrewd politician,
who had been imprisoned by the Dutch government in Batavia
in 1852 on a charge of inciting insurrection in Sumatra, and had
arrived at Honolulu in 1861 with the intention of leading a
Mormon colony to the East Indies. To exalt his royal dignity,
which was lowered, he thought, by his being only an elected
king, Kalakaua caused himself to be crowned with imposing
ceremonies on the ninth anniversary of his election (Feb. 12,
1883).
Kalakaua was now no longer satisfied with being merely
king of Hawaii, but aspired to what was termed the " Primacy
of the Pacific." Accordingly Mr Gibson addressed a protest to
the great powers, deprecating any further annexation of the
islands of the Pacific Ocean, and claiming for Hawaii the ex-
clusive right " to assist them in improving their political and
social condition." In pursuance of this policy, two commissioners
were sent to the Gilbert Islands in 1883 to prepare the way for
a Hawaiian protectorate. On the 23rd of December 1886 Mr
J. E. Bush was commissioned as minister plenipotentiary to the
king of Samoa, the king of Tonga and the other independent
chiefs of Polynesia. He arrived in Samoa on the 3rd of January
1887, and remained there six months, during which time he
concluded a treaty of alliance with Malietoa, which was ratified
by his government. The " Explorer," a steamer of 170 tons,
which had been employed in the copra trade, was purchased for
$20,000, and refitted as a man-of-war, to form the " nest-egg "
of the future Hawaiian navy. She was renamed the " Kaim-
iloa," and was despatched to Samoa on the i7th of May 1887
HAWAII
to strengthen the hands of the embassy. As R. L. Stevenson
wrote: " The history of the ' Kaimiloa ' is a story of debauchery,
mutiny and waste of government property." At length the
intrigues of the Hawaiian embassy gave umbrage to the German
government, and it was deemed prudent to recall it to Honolulu
in July 1887. Meanwhile a reform league had been formed to
stop the prevailing misrule and extravagance; it was supported
by a volunteer military force, the " Honolulu Rifles." The
king carried through the legislature of 1886 a bill for an opium
licence, as well as a Loan Act, under which a million dollars were
borrowed in London. Under his influence the Hale Naua
Society was organized in 1886 for the spread of idolatry and
king-worship; and in the same year a "Board of Health"
was formed which revived the vicious practices of the kahunas
or medicine-men.
The king's acceptance of two bribes one of $75,000 and
another of $80,000 for the assignment of an opium licence
precipitated the revolution of 1887. An immense mass meeting
was held on the 30th of June, which sent a committee to the
king with specific demands for radical reforms. Finding himself
without support, he yielded without a struggle, dismissed his
ministry and signed a constitution on the 7th of July 1887,
revising that of 1864, and intended to put an end to personal
government and to make the cabinet responsible only to
the legislature; this was called the " bayonet constitution,"
because it was so largely the result of the show of force made by
the Honolulu Rifles. By its terms office-holders were made
ineligible for seats in the legislature, and no member of the
legislature could be appointed to any civil office under the
government during the term for which he had been elected.
The members of the Upper House, instead of being appointed
by the king tor life, were henceforth to be elected for terms of
six years by electors possessing a moderate property qualification.
The remainder of Kalakaua's reign teemed with intrigues
and conspiracies to restore autocratic rule. One of these
came to a head on the 3oth of July 1889, but this " Wilcox
rebellion," led by R. W. Wilcox, a half-breed, educated in
Italy, and a friend of the king and of his sister, was promptly
suppressed. Seven of the insurgents were killed and a large
number wounded. For his health the king visited California
in the United States cruiser " Charleston " in November 1890,
and died on the 2Oth of January 1891 in San Francisco. On
the zgth of January at noon his sister, the regent, took the oath
to maintain the constitution of 1887, and was proclaimed queen,
under the title of Liliuokalani.
The history of her reign shows that it was her constant purpose
to restore autocratic government. The legislative session of
1892, during which four changes of ministry took place, was
protracted to eight months chiefly by her determination to
carry through the opium and lottery bills and to have a pliable
cabinet. She had a new constitution drawn up, practically
providing for an absolute monarchy, and disfranchising a large
class of citizens who had voted since 1887; this constitution
(drawn up, so the royal party declared, in reply to a petition
signed by thousands of natives) she undertook to force on the
country after proroguing the legislature on the i4th of January
1893, but her ministers shrank from the responsibility of so
revolutionary an act, and with difficulty prevailed upon her to
postpone the execution of her design. An uprising similar to
that of 1887 declared the monarchy forfeited by its own act.
A third party proposed a regency during the minority of the
heir-apparent, Princess Kaiulani, but in her absence this scheme
found few supporters. A Committee of Safety was appointed
at a public meeting, which formed a provisional government
and reorganized the volunteer military companies, which had
been disbanded in 1890. Its leading spirits were the " Sons of
Missionaries " (as E. L. Godkin styled them), who were accused
of using their knowledge of local affairs and their inherited
prestige among the natives for private ends of founding a
" Gospel Republic " which was actually a business enterprise.
The provisional government called a mass meeting of citizens,
which met on the afternoon of the 6th and ratified its action.
The United States steamer " Boston," which had unexpectedly
arrived from Hilo on the I4th, landed a small force on the
evening of the i6th, at the request of the United States minister,
Mr J. L. Stevens, and a committee of residents, to protect the
lives and property of American citizens in case of riot or in-
cendiarism. On the 1 7th the Committee of Safety took possession
of the government building, and issued a proclamation declaring
a monarchy to be abrogated, and establishing a provisional
government, to exist " until terms of union with the United
States of America shall have been negotiated and agreed upon."
Meanwhile two companies of volunteer troops arrived and
occupied the grounds. By the advice of her ministers, and to
avoid bloodshed, the queen surrendered under protest, in view
of the landing of United States troops, appealing to the govern-
ment of the United States to reinstate her in authority. A
treaty of annexation was negotiated with the United States
during the next month, just before the close of President
Benjamin Harrison's administration, but it was withdrawn
on the gth of March 1893 by President Harrison's successor,
President Cleveland, who then despatched James H. Blount
1837-1903) of Macon, Georgia, as commissioner paramount,
to investigate the situation in the Hawaiian Islands. On
receiving Blount's report to the effect that the revolution had
been accomplished by the aid of the United States minister
and by the landing of troops from the " Boston," President
Cleveland sent Albert Sydney Willis (1843-1897) of Kentucky
to Honolulu with secret instructions as United States minister.
Willis with much difficulty and delay obtained the queen's
promise to grant an amnesty, and made a formal demand on the
provisional government for her reinstatement on the igth of
December 1893. On the 23rd President Sanford B. Dole sent
a reply to Wiliis, declining to surrender the authority of the
provisional government to the deposed queen. The United
States Congress declared against any further intervention by
adopting on the 3 ist of May 1894 the Turpie Resolution. On the
3oth of May 1894 a convention was held to frame a constitution
for the republic of Hawaii, which was proclaimed on the ath of
July following, with S. B. Dole as its first president. Toward
the end of the same year a plot was formed to overthrow the
republic and to restore the monarchy. A cargo of arms and
ammunition from San Francisco was secretly landed at a point
near Honolulu, where a company of native royalists were
collected on the 6th of January 1895, intending to capture the
government buildings by surprise that night, with the aid of
their allies in the city. A premature encounter with a squad
of police alarmed the town and broke up their plans. There
were several other skirmishes during the following week, resulting
in the capture of the leading conspirators, with most of their
followers. The ex-queen, on whose premises arms and am-
munition and a number of incriminating documents were
found, was arrested and was imprisoned for nine months in the
former palace. On the 24th of January 1895 she formally
renounced all claim to the throne and took the oath of allegiance
to the republic. The ex-queen and forty-eight others were
granted conditional pardon on the 7th of September, and on
the following New Year's Day the remaining prisoners were
set at liberty.
On the inauguration of President McKinley, in March 1897,
negotiations with the United States were resumed, and on the
1 6th of June a new treaty of annexation was signed at Washington.
As its ratification by the Senate had appeared to be uncertain,
extreme measures were taken: the Newlands joint resolution,
by which the cession was "accepted, ratified and confirmed,"
was passed by the Senate by a vote of 42 to 21 and by the
House of Representatives by a vote of 209 to 91, and was
signed by the president on the 7th of July 1898. The formal
transfer of sovereignty took place on the i2th of August 1898,
when the flag of the United States (the same flag hauled down
by order of Commissioner Blount) was raised over the Executive
Building with impressive ceremonies.
The sovereigns of the monarchy, the president of the republic
and the governors of the Territory up to 1910 were as follows:
HAWARDEN HAWES, STEPHEN
93
Sovereigns: Kamehameha I., 1795-1819; Kamehameha II.,
1819-1824; Kaahumanu (regent), 1824-1832; Kamehameha
III., 1832-1854; Kamehameha IV., 1855-1863; Kamehameha
V., 1863-1872; Lunalilo, 1873-1874; Kalakaua, 1874-1891;
Liliuokalani, 1891-1893. President: Sanford B. Dole, 1893-
1898. Governors: S. B. Dole, 1898-1904; George R. Carter,
1904-1907; W. F. Frear, 1907.
AUTHORITIES. Consult the bibliography in Adolf Marcuse, Die
hawaiischen Inseln (Berlin, 1894); A. P. C. Griffen, List of Books
relating to Hawaii (Washington, 1898); C. E. Dutton, Hawaiian
Volcanoes, in the fourth annual report of the United States Geological
Survey (Washington, 1884); J. D. Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes
with Contribution of Facts and Principles from the Hawaiian Islands
(New York, 1890); W. H. Pickering, Lunar and Hawaiian Physical
Features compared (1906) ; C. H. Hitchcock, Hawaii and its Volcanoes
(Honolulu, 1909); Augustin Kramer, Hawaii, Ostmikronesien
und Samoa (Stuttgart, 1906); Sharp, Fauna (London, 1899);
Walter Maxwell, Lavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands
(Honolulu, 1898); W. Hillebrand, Flora of the Hawaiian Islands
(London, 1888); G. P. Wilder, Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands
(3 vols., Honolulu, 1907); H. W. Henshaw, Birds of the Hawaiian
Islands (Washington, 1902); A. Fornander, Account of the Poly-
nesian Race and the Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the
Times of Kamehameha I. (3 vols., London, 1878-1885); W. D.
Alexander, A Brief History of the Hawaiian People (New York,
1899) ; C. H.Forbes-Lindsay, American Insular Possessions (Phila-
delphia, 1906) ; Jos6 de Olivares, Our Islands and their People (New
York, 1899); J. A. Owen, Story of Hawaii (London, 1898); E. J.
Carpenter, America in Hawaii (Boston, 1899); W. F. Blackman,
The Making of Hawaii, a Study in Social Evolution (New York,
1899), with bibliography; T. G. Thrum, Hawaiian Almanac and
Annual (Honolulu); Lucien Young, The Real Hawaii (New York,
1899), written by a lieutenant of the " Boston," an ardent defender
of Stevens; Liliuokalani, Hawaii's Story (Boston, 1898); C. T.
Rodgers, Education in the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu, 1897);
Henry E. Chambers, Constitutional History of Hawaii (Baltimore,
1896), in Johns Hopkins University Studies; W. Ellis, Tour Around
Hawaii (London, 1829); J. J. Jarves, History of the Sandwich Islands
(Honolulu, 1847); H. Bingham, A Residence of Twenty-one Years
in the Sandwich Islands (Hartford, 1848); Isabella Bird, Six Months
in the Sandwich Islands (New York, 1881); Adolf Bastian, Zur
Kenntnis Hawaiis (Berlin, 1883) ; the annual Reports of the governor
of Hawaii, of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, of the
Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, of the Board of
Commissioners on Agriculture and Forestry, and of the Hawaii
Promotion Committee; and the Papers of the Hawaiian Historical
Society.
HAWARDEN (pronounced Harden, Welsh Penarldg), a
market-town of Flintshire, North Wales, 6 m. W. of Chester,
on a height commanding an extensive prospect; connected
by a branch with the London & North- Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 5372. It lies in a coal district, with clay beds near.
Coarse earthenware, draining tiles and fire-clay bricks are the
chief manufactures. The Maudes take the title of viscount
from the town. Hawarden castle built in 1752, added to and
altered in the Gothic style in 1814 stands in a fine wooded
park near the old castle of the same name, which William the
Conqueror gave to his nephew, Hugh Lupus. It was taken in
1282 by Dafydd, brother of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, destroyed
by the Parliamentarians in the Civil War, and came into the
possession of Sergeant Glynne, lord chief justice of England
under Cromwell. The last baronet, Sir Stephen R. Glynne,
dying in 1874, Castell Penarlag passed to his brother-in-law,
William Ewart Gladstone. St Deiniol church, early English,
was restored in 1857 and 1878. There are also a grammar
school (1606), a Gladstone golden-wedding fountain (1889), and
St Deiniol's Hostel (with accommodation for students and an
Anglican clerical warden); west of the church, on Truman's
hill, is an old British camp.
HAWAWIR (HAUHAUIN), an African tribe of Semitic origin,
dwelling in the Bayuda desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. They
are found along the road from Debba to Khartum as far as
Bir Gamr, and from Ambigol to Wadi Bishara. They have
adopted none of the negro customs, such as gashing the cheeks
or elaborate hairdressing. They own large herds of oxen, sheep
and camels.
HAWEIS, HUGH REGINALD (1838-1901), English preacher
and writer, was born at Egham, Surrey, on the 3rd of April
1838. On leaving Trinity College, Cambridge, he travelled in
Italy and served under Garibaldi in 1860. On his return to-
England he was ordained and held various curacies in London,
becoming in 1866 incumbent of St James's, Marylebone. His
unconventional methods of conducting the service, combined
with his dwarfish figure and lively manner, soon attracted
crowded congregations. He married Miss M. E. Joy in 1866,
and both he and Mrs Haweis (d. 1898) contributed largely to
periodical literature and travelled a good deal abroad. Haweis
was Lowell lecturer at Boston, U.S.A., in 1885, and represented
the Anglican Church at the Chicago Parliament of Religions in
1893. He was much interested in music, and wrote books on
violins and church bells, besides contributing an article to the
gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica on bell-ringing.
His best-known book was Music and Morals (3rd ed., 1873);
and for a time he was editor of Cassell's Magazine. He also
wrote five volumes on Christ and Christianity (a popular church
history, 1886-1887). Other writings include Trawl and Talk
(1896), and similar chatty and entertaining books. He died on
the 29th of January 1901.
HAWES, STEPHEN (fl. 1502-1521), English poet, was probably
a native of Suffolk, and, if his own statement of his age may be
trusted, was born about 1474. He was educated at Oxford,
and travelled in England, Scotland and France. On his return
his various accomplishments, especially his " most excellent
vein " in poetry, procured him a place at court, He was groom
of the chamber to Henry VII. as early as 1502. He could repeat
by heart the works of most of the English poets, especially the
poems of John Lydgate, whom he called his master. He was
still living in 1521, when it is stated in Henry VIII. 's household
accounts that 6, 135. 4d. was paid " to Mr Hawes for his
play," and he died before 1530, when Thomas Field, in his
" Conversation between a Lover and a Jay," wrote " Yong
Steven Hawse, whose soule God pardon, Treated of love so
clerkly and well." His capital work is The Passetyme of Pleasure,
or the History of Graunde Amour and la Bel Pucel, conteining
the knowledge of the Seven Sciences and the Course of Man's Life
in this Worlde, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, 1509, but finished
three years earlier. It was also printed with slightly varying
titles by the same printer in 1517, by J. Wayland in 1554, by
Richard Tottel and by John Waley in 1555. Tottel's edition
was edited by T. Wright and reprinted by the Percy Society
in 1845. The poem is a long allegory in seven-lined stanzas of
man's life in this world. It is divided into sections after the
manner of the Morte Arthur and borrows the machinery of
romance. Its main motive is the education of the knight,
Graunde Amour, based, according to Mr W. J. Courthope
{Hist, of Eng. Poetry, vol. i. 382), on the Marriage of Mercury and
Philology, by Martianus Capella, and the details of the description
prove Hawes to have been well acquainted with medieval systems
of philosophy. At the suggestion of Fame, and accompanied
by her two greyhounds, Grace and Governance, Graunde Amour
starts out in quest of La Bel Pucel. He first visits the Tower of
Doctrine or Science where he acquaints himself with the arts of
grammar, logic, rhetoric and arithmetic. After a long dis-
putation with the lady in the Tower of Music he returns to his
studies, and after sojourns at the Tower of Geometry, the Tower
of Doctrine, the Castle of Chivalry, &c., he arrives at the Castle
of La Bel Pucel, where he is met by Peace, Mercy, Justice,
Reason and Memory. His happy marriage does not end the
story, which goes on to tell of the oncoming of Age, with the
concomitant evils of Avarice and Cunning. The admonition
of Death brings Contrition and Conscience, and it is only when
Remembraunce has delivered an epitaph chiefly dealing with
the Seven Deadly Sins, and Fame has enrolled Graunde Amour's
name with the knights of antiquity, that we are allowed to part
with the hero. This long imaginative poem was widely read
and esteemed, and certainly exercised an influence on the genius
of Spenser.
The remaining works of Hawes are all of them bibliographical
rarities. The Conversyon of Swerers (1509) and A Joyfull Medy-
tacyon to all Englonde, a coronation poem (1509), was edited by
David Laing for the Abbotsford Club (Edinburgh, 1865). A
94
HA WES, WILLIAM HAWK
Compendyous Story . . . called the Example of Vertu (pr. 1512) and
the Comfort of Lovers (not dated) complete the list of his extant
work.
See also G. Saintsbury, The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of
Allegory (Edin. and Lond., 1897) ; the same writer's Hist, of English
Prosody (vol. i. 1906); and an article by W. Murison in the Cam-
bridge History of English Literature (vol. ii. 1908).
HAWES, WILLIAM (1785-1846), English musician, was born
in London in 1785, and was for eight years (1793-1801) a chorister
of the Chapel Royal, where he. studied music chiefly under Dr
Ayrton. He subsequently held various musical posts, being in
1817 appointed master of the children of the Chapel Royal.
He also carried on the business of a music publisher, and was
for many years musical director of the Lyceum theatre, then
devoted to English opera. In the last-named capacity (July
23rd, 1824), he introduced Weber's Der Freischiitz for the first
time in England, at first slightly curtailed, but soon afterwards
in its entirety. Winter's Interrupted Sacrifice, Mozart's Cosi
fan tulle, Marschner's Vampyre and other important works
were also brought out under his auspices. Hawes also wrote
or compiled the music for numerous pieces. Better were his
glees and madrigals, of which he published several collections.
He also superintended a new edition of the celebrated Triumph
of Oriana. He died on the i8th of February 1846.
HAWFINCH, a bird so called from the belief that the fruit
of the hawthorn (Crataegus Oxyacantha) forms its chief food,
the Loxia coccolhraustes of Linnaeus, and the Coccothraustes
vulgaris of modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the finch
family (Fringillidae), and found over nearly the whole of Europe,
in Africa north of the Atlas and in Asia from Palestine to Japan.
It was formerly thought to be only an autumnal or winter-
visitor to Britain, but later experience has proved that, though
there may very likely be an immigration in the fall of the year,
it breeds in nearly all the English counties to Yorkshire, and
abundantly in those nearest to London. In coloration it bears
some resemblance to a chaffinch, but its much larger size and
enormous beak make it easily recognizable, while on closer
inspection the singular bull-hook form of some of its wing-feathers
will be found to be very remarkable. Though not uncommonly
frequenting gardens and orchards, in which as well as in woods
it builds its nest, it is exceedingly shy in its habits, so as seldom
to afford opportunities for observation. (A. N.)
HAWICK, a municipal and police burgh of Roxburghshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1891), 19,204; (1901), 17,303. It is situated
at the confluence of the Slitrig (which flows through the town)
with the Teviot, 10 m. S.W. of Jedburgh by road and 52! m.
S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The name
has been derived from the O. Eng. heaih-wic, " the village on the
flat meadow," or haga-wic, " the fenced-in dwelling," the Gadeni
being supposed to have had a settlement at this spot. Hawick is
a substantial and flourishing town, the prosperity of which dates
from the beginning of the igth century, its enterprise having
won for it the designation of " The Glasgow of the Borders."
The municipal buildings, which contain the free library and
reading-room, stand on the site of the old town hall. The
Buccleuch memorial hall, commemorating the 5th duke of
Buccleuch, contains the Science and Art Institute and a museum
rich in exhibits illustrating Border history. The Academy
furnishes both secondary and technical education. The only
church of historical interest is that of St Mary's, the third of
the name, built in 1763. The first church, believed to have been
founded by St Cuthbert (d. 687), was succeeded by one dedicated
in 1214, which was the scene of the seizure of Sir Alexander
Ramsay of Dalhousie in 1342 by Sir William Douglas. The
modern Episcopal church of St Cuthbert was designed by Sir
Gilbert Scott. The Moat or Moot hill at the south end of the
town an earthen mound 30 ft. high and 300 ft. in circumference
is conjectured to have been the place where formerly the court
of the manor met; though some authorities think it was a
primitive form of fortification. The Baron's Tower, founded in
11 55 by the Lovels, lords of Branxholm and Hawick, and after-
wards the residence of the Douglases of Drumlanrig, is said to
have been the only building that was not burned down during
the raid of Thomas Radcliffe, 3rd earl of Sussex, in April 1570.
At a later date it was the abode of Anne, duchess of Buccleuch
and Monmouth, after the execution of her husband, James,
duke of Monmouth in 1585, and finally became the Tower Hotel.
Bridges across the Teviot connect Hawick with the suburb of
Wilton, in which a public park has been laid out, and St Leonard's
Park and race-course are situated on the Common, 2 m. S.W.
The town is governed by a provost, bailies and council, and
unites with Selkirk and Galashiels (together known as the
Border burghs) to send a member to parliament. The leading
industries are the manufacture of hosiery, established in 1771,
and woollens, dating from 1830, including blankets, shepherd's
plaiding and tweeds. There are, besides, tanneries, dye works,
oil-works, saw-mills, iron-founding and engineering works,
quarries and nursery gardens. The markets for live stock and
grain are also important.
In 1537 Hawick received from Sir James Douglas of Drum-
lanrig a charter which was confirmed by the infant Queen Mary
in 1545, and remained in force until 1861, when the corporation
was reconstituted by act of parliament. Owing to its situation
Hawick was often imperilled by Border warfare and maraud-
ing freebooters. Sir Robert Umfraville (d. 1436), governor of
Berwick, burned it about 1417, and in 1562 the regent Moray
had to suppress the lawless with a strong hand. Neither of
the Jacobite risings aroused enthusiasm. In 1715 the dis-
contented Highlanders mutinied on the Common, 500 of them
abandoning their cause, and in 1745 Prince Charles Edward's
cavalry passed southward through the town. In 1514, the year
after the battle of Flodden, in which the burghers had suffered
severely, a number of young men surprised an English force at
Hornshole, a spot on the Teviot 2 m. below the town, routed
them and bore away their flag. This event is celebrated every
June in the ceremony of " Riding the Common " in which a
facsimile of the captured pennon is carried in procession to the
accompaniment of a chorus " Teribus, ye Teri Odin," supposed
to be an invocation to Thor and Odin a survival of Northum-
brian paganism. Two of the most eminent' natives of the burgh
were Dr Thomas Somerville (1741-1830), the historian, and James
Wilson (1805-1860), founder of the Economist newspaper and
the first financial member of the council for India.
Minto House, 5 m. N.E., is the seat of the earl of Minto. Denholm,
about midway between Hawick and Jedburgh, was the birthplace
of John Leyden the poet. The cottage in which Leyden was born
is now the property of the Edinburgh Border Counties Association,
and a monument to his memory has been erected in the centre of
Denholm green. Cavers, nearer Hawick, was once the home of
a branch of the Douglases, and it is said that in Cavers House are
still preserved the pennon that was borne before the Douglas at
the battle of Otterburn (Chevy Chase), and the gauntlets that were
then taken from the Percy (1388). Two m. S.W. of Hawick is the
massive peel of Goldielands the " watch-tower of Branxholm," a
well-preserved typical Border stronghold. One mile beyond it,
occupying a commanding site on the left bank of the Teviot, stand?
Branxholm Castle, the Branksome Hall of The Lay of the Last
Minstrel, once owned by the Lovels, but since the middle of the I5th
century the property of the Scotts of Buccleuch, and up to 1756
the chief seat of the duke. It suffered repeatedly in English in-
vasions and was destroyed in 1570. It was rebuilt next year, the
peel, finished five years later, forming part of the modern mansion.
About 3 m. W. of Hawick, finely situated on high ground above
Harden Burn, a left-hand affluent of Borthwick Water, is Harden,
the home of Walter Scott (1550-1629), an ancestor of the novelist.
HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word,
cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, fiaf-, to hold,
cf. Lat. accipiter, from caper e), a word of somewhat indefinite
meaning, being often used to signify all diurnal birds-of-prey
which are neither vultures nor eagles, and again more exclusively
for those of the remainder which are not buzzards, falcons,
harriers or kites. Even with this restriction it is comprehensive
enough, and will include more than a hundred species, which have
been arrayed in genera varying in number from a dozen to above
a score, according to the fancy of the systematizer. Speaking
generally, hawks may be characterized by possessing compara-
tively short wings and long legs, a bill which begins to decurve
directly from the cere (or soft bare skin that covers its base),
and has the cutting edges of its maxilla (or upper mandible)
HAWKE, BARON
95
sinuated 1 but never notched. To these may be added as
characters, structurally perhaps of less value, but in other
respects quite as important, that the sexes differ very greatly in
size, that in most species the irides are yellow, deepening with
age into orange or even red, and that the immature plumage is
almost invariably more or less striped or mottled with heart-
shaped spots beneath, while that of the adults is generally much
barred, though the old males have in many instances the breast
and belly quite free from markings. Nearly all are of small
or moderate size the largest among them being the gos-hawk
(q.v.) and its immediate allies, and the male of the smallest,
Accipiter tinus, is not bigger than a song-thrush. They are all
birds of great boldness in attacking a quarry, but if foiled in
the first attempts they are apt to leave the pursuit. Thoroughly
arboreal in their habits, they seek their prey, chiefly consisting
of birds (though reptiles and small mammals are also taken),
among trees or bushes, patiently waiting for a victim to shew
European Sparrow-Hawk (Male and Female).
itself, and gliding upon it when it appears to be unwary with a
rapid swoop, clutching it in their talons, and bearing it away to
eat it in some convenient spot.
Systematic ornithologists differ as to the groups into which
the numerous forms known as hawks should be divided. There is
at the outset a difference of opinion as to the scientific name
which the largest and best known of these groups should bear
some authors terming it Nisus, and others, who seem to have the
most justice on their side, Accipiter. In Europe there are two
species first, A. nisus, the common sparrow-hawk, which has a
wide distribution from Ireland to Japan, extending also to
northern India, Egypt and Algeria, and secondly, A. brevipcs
(by some placed in the group Micronisus and by others called
an Astur), which only appears in the south-east and the adjoining
parts of Asia Minor and Persia. In North America the place of
the former is taken by two very distinct species, a small one,
A.fuscus, usually known in Canada and the United States as the
sharp-shinned hawk, and Stanley's or Cooper's hawk, A. cooperi
(by some placed in another genus, Cooperastur) , which is larger
and has not so northerly a range. In South America there are
four or five more, including A. tinus, before mentioned as the
smallest of all, while a species not much larger, A. minullus,
together with several others of greater size, inhabits South
Africa. Madagascar and its neighbouring islands have three
or four species sufficiently distinct, and India has A. badlus.
A good many more forms are found in south-eastern Asia,
in the Indo-Malay Archipelago, and in Australia three or four
species, of which A. cirrhocephalus most nearly represents the
sparrow-hawk of Europe and northern Asia, while A. radiatus
and A. approximans show some affinity to the gos-hawks (Astur)
1 In one form, Nisoides, which on that account has been generically
separated, they are said to be perfectly straight.
with which they are often classed. The differences between all
the forms above named and the much larger number here
unnamed are such as can be only appreciated by the specialist.
The so-called " sparrow-hawk " of New Zealand (Hieracidea)
does not belong to this group of birds at all, and by many
authors has been deemed akin to the falcons. For hawking
see FALCONRY. (A. N.)
HAWKE, EDWARD HAWKE, BARON (1705-1781), British
admiral, was the only son of Edward Hawke, a barrister. On
his mother's side he was the nephew of Colonel Martin Bladen
(1680-1746), a politician of some note, and was connected with
the family of Fairfax. Edward Hawke entered the navy on the
2oth of February 1720 and served the time required to qualify
him to hold a lieutenant's commission on the North American
and West Indian stations. Though he passed his examination
on the 2nd of June 1725, he was not appointed to a ship to act in
that rank till 1729, when he was named third lieutenant of the
" Portland " in the Channel. The continuance of peace allowed
him no opportunities of distinction, but he was fortunate in
obtaining promotion as commander of the " Wolf " sloop in
1733, and as post captain of the " Flamborough " (20) in 1734.
When war began with Spain in 1739, he served as captain of the
" Portland " (50) in the West Indies. His ship was old and rotten.
She nearly drowned her captain and crew, and was broken up
after she was paid off in 1742. In the following year Hawke was
appointed to the " Berwick " (70), a fine new vessel, and was
attached to the Mediterranean fleet then under the command
of Thomas Mathews. The " Berwick " was manned badly, and
suffered severely from sickness, but in the ill-managed battle of
Toulon on the nth of January 1744 Hawke gained great dis-
tinction by the spirit with which he fought his ship. The only
prize taken by the British fleet, the Spanish " Poder " (74),
surrendered to him, and though she was not kept by the admiral,
Hawke was not in any degree to blame for the loss of the only
trophy of the fight. His gallantry attracted the attention of
the king. There is a story that he was dismissed the service for
having left the line to engage the " Poder," and was restored
by the king's order. The legend grew not unnaturally out of the
confusing series of courts martial which arose out of the battle,
but it has no foundation. There is better reason to believe that
when at a later period the Admiralty intended to pass over
Hawke's name in a promotion of admirals, the king, George II.,
did insist that he should not be put on the retired list.
He had no further chance of making his energy and ability
known out of the ranks of his own profession, where they were
fully realized, till 1747. In July of that year he attained flag
rank, and was named second in command of the Channel fleet.
Owing to the ill health of his superior he was sent in command of
the fourteen ships detached to intercept a French convoy on its
way to the West Indies. On the i4th of October 1747 he fell in
with it in the Bay of Biscay. The French force, under M. Desher-
biers de 1'Etenduere, consisted of nine ships, which were, how-
ever, on the average larger than Hawke's. He attacked at once.
The French admiral sent one of his liners to escort the merchant
ships on their way to the West Indies, and with the other eight
fought a very gallant action with the British squadron. Six
of the eight French ships were taken. The French admiral did
for a time succeed in saving the trading vessels under his charge,
but most of them fell into the hands of the British cruisers in
the West Indies. Hawke was made a knight of the Bath for
this timely piece of service, a reward which cannot be said to
have been lavish.
In 1747 Hawke had been elected M.P. for Portsmouth, which
he continued to represent for thirty years, though he can seldom
have been in his place, and it does not appear that he often spoke.
A seat in parliament was always valuable to a naval officer at
that time, since it enabled him to be useful to ministers, and
increased his chances of obtaining employment. Hawke had
married a lady of fortune in Yorkshire, Catherine Brook, in 1737,
and was able to meet the expenses entailed by a seat in parlia-
ment, which were considerable at a time when votes were openly
paid for by money down. In the interval between the war of
9 6
HAWKE, BARON
the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, Hawke was
almost always on active service. From 1748 till 1752 he was
in command at home, and he rehoisted his flag in 1755 as admiral
in command of the Western Squadron. Although war was not
declared for some time, England and France were on very hostile
terms, and conflicts between the officers of the two powers in
America had already taken place. Neither government was
scrupulous in abstaining from the use of force while peace was
still nominally unbroken. Hawke was sent to sea to intercept a
French squadron which had been cruising near Gibraltar, but
a restriction was put on the limits within which he might cruise,
and he failed to meet the French. The fleet was much weakened
by ill-health. In June 1756 the news of John Byng's retreat
from Minorca reached England and aroused the utmost indigna-
tion. Hawke was at once sent out to relieve him in the Mediter-
ranean command, and to send him home for trial. He sailed
in the "Antelope," carrying, as the wits of the day put it, "a
cargo of courage " to supply deficiencies in that respect among
the officers then in the Mediterranean. Minorca had fallen,
from want of resources rather than the attacks of the French,
before he could do anything for the assistance of the garrison of
Fort St Philip. In winter he was recalled to England, and he
reached home on the I4th of January 1757. On the 24th of
February following he was promoted full admiral.
It is said, but on no very good authority, that he was not
on good terms with Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham) , and it is
certain that when Pitt's great ministry was formed in June
1757, he was not included in the Board of Admiralty. Yet as
he was continued in command of important forces in the Channel,
it is obvious that his great capacity was fully recognized. In
the late summer of 1757 he was entrusted with the naval side
of an expedition to the coast of France. These operations,
which were scoffingly described at the time as breaking windows
with guineas, were a favourite device of Pitt's for weakening
the French and raising the confidence of the country. The
expedition of 1757 was directed against Rochefort, and it
effected nothing. Hawke, who probably expected very little
good from it, did his own work as admiral punctually, but he
cannot be said to have shown zeal, or any wish to inspirit the
military officers into making greater efforts than they were
disposed naturally to make. The expedition returned to Spit-
head by the 6th of October. No part of the disappointment of
the public, which was acute, was visited on Hawke. During
the end of 1757 and the beginning of 1758 he continued cruising
in the Channel in search of the French naval forces, without
any striking success. In May of that year he was ordered to
detach a squadron under the command of Howe to carry out
further combined operations. Hawke considered himself as
treated with a want of due respect, and was at the time in bad
humour with the Admiralty. He somewhat pettishly threw
up his command, but was induced to resume it by the board,
which knew his value, and was not wanting in flattery. He re-
tired in June for a time on the ground of health, but happily
for his own glory and the service of the country he was able to
hoist his flag in May 1759, the " wonderful year " of Garrick's
song.
France was then elaborating a scheme of invasion which bears
much resemblance to the plan afterwards formed by Napoleon.
An army of invasion was collected at the Morbihan in Brittany,
and the intention was to transport it under the protection of a
powerful fleet which was to be made up by uniting the squadron
at Brest with the ships at Toulon. The plan, like Napoleon's,
had slight chance of success, since the naval part of the invading
force must necessarily be brought together from distant points
at the risk of interruption by the British squadrons. The
naval forces of England were amply sufficient to provide what-
ever was needed to upset the plans of the French government.
But the country was not so confident in the capacity of the
navy to serve as a defence as it was taught to be in later genera-
tions. It had been seized by a most shameful panic at the
beginning of the war in face of a mere threat of invasion. There-
fore the anxiety of Pitt to baffle the schemes of the French
decisively was great, and the country looked on at the develop-
ment of the naval campaign with nervous attention. The
proposed combination of the French fleet was defeated by the
annihilation of the Toulon squadron on the coast of Portugal by
Boscawen in May, but the Brest fleet was still untouched and
the troops were still at Morbihan. It was the duty of Hawke
to prevent attack from this quarter. The manner in which he
discharged his task marks an epoch in the history of the navy.
Until his time, or very nearly so, it was still believed that there
was rashness in keeping the great ships out after September.
Hawke maintained his blockade of Brest till far into November.
Long cruises had always entailed much bad health on the crews,
but by the care he took to obtain fresh food, and the energy he
showed in pressing the Admiralty for stores, he was able to keep
his men healthy. Early in November a series of severe gales
forced him off the French coast, and he was compelled to anchor
in Torbay. His absence was brief, but it allowed the French
admiral, M. de Conflans (i69o?-i777), time to put to sea,
and to steer for the Morbihan. Hawke, who had left Torbay
on the ijth of November, learnt of the departure of the French
at sea on the i7th from a look-out ship, and as the French
admiral could have done nothing but steer for the Morbihan, he
followed him thither. The news that M. de Conflans had got to sea
spread a panic through the country, and for some days Hawke
was the object of abuse of the most irrational kind. There was
in fact no danger, for behind Hawke's fleet there were ample
reserves in the straits of Dover, and in the North Sea. Following
his enemy as fast as the bad weather, a mixture of calms and
head winds would allow, the admiral sighted the French about
40 m. to the west of Belleisle on the morning of the 2oth of
November. The British fleet was of twenty-one sail, the French
of twenty. There was also a small squadron of British ships
engaged in watching the Morbihan as an inshore squadron,
which was in danger of being cut off. M. de Conflans had a
sufficient force to fight in the open sea without rashness, but
after making a motion to give battle, he changed his mind and
gave the signal to his fleet to steer for the anchorage at Quiberon.
He did not believe that the British admiral would dare to follow
him, for the coast is one of the most dangerous in the world,
and the wind was blowing hard from the west and rising to a
storm. Hawke, however, pursued without hesitation, though
it was well on in the afternoon before he caught up the rear of
the French fleet, and dark by the time the two fleets were in the
bay. The action, which was more a test of seamanship than of
gunnery, or capacity to manoeuvre in order, ended in the destruc-
tion of the French. Five ships only were taken or destroyed,
but others ran ashore, and the French navy as a whole lost all
confidence. Two British vessels were lost, but the price was
little to pay for such a victory. No more fighting remained to be
done. The fleet in Quiberon Bay suffered from want of food,
and its distress is recorded in the lines:
" Ere Hawke did bang
Mounseer Conflang
You sent us beef and beer;
Now Mounseer's beat
We've nought to eat,
Since you have nought to fear."
Hawke returned to England in January 1760 and had no
further service at sea. He was not made a peer till the 2oth of
May 1776, and then only as Baron Hawke of Towton. From
1776 to 1771 he was first lord of the Admiralty. His administra-
tion was much criticized, perhaps more from party spirit than
because of its real defects. Whatever his relations with Lord
Chatham may have been he was no favourite with Chatham's
partizans. It is very credible that, having spent all his life at
sea, his faculty did not show in the uncongenial life of the shore.
As an admiral at sea and on his own element Hawke has had
no superior. It is true that he was not put to the test of having
to meet opponents of equal strength and efficiency, but then
neither has any other British admiral since the Dutch wars of
the 1 7th century. On his death on the I7th of October 1781
his title passed to his son, Martin Bladen (1744-1805), and it is
HAWKER HAWKESWORTH
97
still held by his descendants, the 7th Baron (b. 1860) being
best known as a great Yorkshire cricketer.
There is a portrait of Hawke in the Painted Hall at Greenwich.
His Life by Montagu Burrows (1883) has superseded all other
authorities; it is supplemented in a few early particulars by Sir
J. K. Laughton's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (1891).
HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN (1803-1874), English anti-
quary and poet, was born at Stoke Damerel, Devonshire,
on the 3rd of December 1803. His father, Jacob Stephen
Hawker, was at that time a doctor, but afterwards curate and
vicar of Stratton, Cornwall. Robert was sent to Liskeard
grammar school, and when he was about sixteen was apprenticed
to a solicitor. He was soon removed to Cheltenham grammar
school, and in April 1823 matriculated at Pembroke College,
Oxford. In the same year he married Charlotte I'Ans, a lady
much older than himself. On returning to Oxford he migrated
to Magdalen Hall, where he graduated in 1828, having already
won the Newdigate prize for poetry in 1827. He became
vicar of Morwenstow, a village on the north Cornish coast,
in 1834. Hawker described the bulk of his parishioners as a
" mixed multitude of smugglers, wreckers and dissenters of
various hues." He was himself a high churchman, and carried
things with a high hand in his parish, but was much beloved
by his people. He was a man of great originality, and numerous
stories were told of his striking sayings and eccentric conduct.
He was the original of Mortimer Collins's Canon Tremaine in
Sweet and Twenty. His first wife died in 1863, and in 1864 he
married Pauline Kuczynski, daughter of a Polish exile. He died
in Plymouth on the ijth of August 1875. Before his death
he was formally received into the Roman Catholic Church, a
proceeding which aroused a bitter newspaper controversy.
The best of his poems is The Quest of the Sangraal: Chant the
First (Exeter, 1864). Among his Cornish Ballads (1869) the
most famous is on " Trelawny," the refrain of which, " And
shall Trelawny die," &c., he declared to be an old Cornish saying.
See The Vicar of Morwenstow (1875; later and corrected editions,
1876 and 1886), by the Rev. S. Baring-Gould, which was severely
criticized by Hawker's friend, W. Maskell, in the Athenaeum (March
26, 1876); Memorials of the late Robert Stephen Hawker (1876),
by the late Dr F. G. Lee. These were superseded in 1905 by The
Life and Letters of R. S. Hawker, by his son-in-law, C. E. Byles,
which contains a bibliography of his works, now very valuable to
collectors. See also Boase and Courtney, Bibliotheca Cornubiensis.
His Poetical Works (1879) and his Prose Works (1893) were edited
by J. G. Godwin. Another edition of his Poetical Works (1899) has
a preface and bibliography by Alfred Wallis, and a complete edition
of his poems by C. E. Byles, with the title Cornish Ballads and other
Poems, appeared in 1904.
HAWKERS and PEDLARS, the designation of itinerant
dealers who convey their goods from place to place to sell.
The word " hawker " seems to have come into English from the
Ger. Hoker or Dutch heukcr in the early i6th century. In an
act of 1533 (25 Henry VIII. c. 9, 6) ve find " Sundry evill
disposed persons which commonly beene called haukers . . .
buying and selling of Brasse and Pewter." The earlier word
for :uch an itinerant dealer is " huckster," which is found in
1200, " For that they have turned God's house intill hucksteress
bothe " (Ormulum, 15,817). The base of the two words is the
same, and is probably to be referred to German hocken, to squat,
crouch; cf. " hucklebone," the hip-bone; and the hawkers or
hucksters were so called either because they stooped under
their packs, or squatted at booths in markets, &c. Another
derivation finds the origin in the Dutch hock, a hole, corner.
It may be noticed that the termination of " huckster " is
feminine; though there are examples of its application to women
it was always applied indiscriminately to either sex.
" Pedlar " occurs much earlier than the verbal form " to
peddle," which is therefore a derivative from the substantive.
The origin is to be found in the still older word "pedder," one
who carries about goods for sale in a " ped," a basket or hamper.
This is now only used dialectically and in Scotland. In the
Ancren Riwle (c. 1225), peoddare is found with the meaning of
" pedlar," though the Promptorium parvulorum (c. 1440) defines
it as calathasius, i.e. a maker of panniers or baskets,
xin. 4
The French term for a hawker or pedlar of books, colporteur
(col, neck, porter, to carry), has been adopted by the Bible
Society and other English religious bodies as a name for itinerant
vendors and distributors of Bibles and other religious literature.
The occupation of hawkers and pedlars has been regulated in
the United Kingdom, and the two classes have also been technically
distinguished. The Pedlars Act 1871 defines a pedlar as " any
hawker, pedlar, petty chapman, tinker, caster of metals, mender
of chairs, or other person who, without any horse or other beast
bearing or drawing burden, travels and trades on foot and goes
from town to town or to other men's houses, carrying to sell or
exposing for sale any goods, wares or merchandise ... or selling or
offering for sale his skill in handicraft." Any person who acts as a
pedlar must have a certificate, which is to be obtained from the chief
officer of police of the police district in which the person applying
for the certificate has resided during one month previous to his
application. Hs must satisfy the officer that he is above seventeen
years of age, is of good character, and in good faith intends to carry
on the trade of a pedlar. The fee for a pedlar's certificate is five
shillings, and the certificate remains in force for a year from the
date of issue. The act requires a register of certificates to be kept
in each district, and imposes a penalty for the assigning, borrowing
or forging of any certificate. It does not exempt any one from
vagrant law, and requires the pedlar to show his certificate on
demand to certain persons. It empowers the police to inspect a
pedlar's pack, and provides for the arrest of an uncertificated pedlar
or one refusing to show his certificate. A pedlar's certificate is not
required by commercial travellers, sellers of vegetables, fish, fruit or
victuals, or sellers in fairs. The Hawkers Act 1888 defines a
hawker as " any one who travels with a horse or other beast of
burden, selling goods," &c. An excise licence (expiring on the 3ist
of March in each year) must be taken out by every hawker in the
United Kingdom. The duty imposed upon such licence is 2.
A hawker's licence is not granted, otherwise than by way of licence,
except on production of a certificate signed by a clergyman and two
householders of the parish or place wherein the applicant resides,
or by a justice of the county or place, or a superintendent or inspector
of police for the district, attesting that the person is of good character
and a proper person to be licenced as a hawker. There are certain
exemptions from taking out a licence commercial travellers,
sellers of fish, coal, &c., sellers in fairs, and the real worker or maker
of any goods. The act also lays down certain provisions to be
observed by hawkers and others, and imposes penalties for infringe-
ments. In the United States hawkers and pedlars must take out
licences under State laws and Federal laws.
HAWKESWORTH, JOHN (c. 1715-1773), English miscellaneous
writer, was born in London about 1715. He is said to have been
clerk to an attorney, and was certainly self-educated. In 1744
he succeeded Samuel Johnson as compiler of the parliamentary
debates for the Gentleman's Magazine, and from 1746 to 1749
he contributed poems signed Greville, or H. Greville, to that
journal. In company with Johnson and others he started a
periodical called The Adventurer, which ran to 140 numbers,
of which 70 were from the pen of Hawkesworth himself. On
account of what was regarded as its powerful defence of morality
and religion, Hawkesworth was rewarded by the archbishop
of Canterbury with the degree of LL.D. In 1754-1755 he pub-
lished an edition (12 vols.) of Swift's works, with a life prefixed
which Johnson praised in his Lives of the Poets. A larger edition
(27 vols.) appeared in 1766-1779. He adapted Dryden's
Amphitryon for the Drury Lane stage in 1756, and Southerne's
Oronooko in 1759. He wrote the "libretto of an oratorio Zimri
in 1760, and the next year Edgar and Emmeline: a Fairy Tale,
was produced at Drury Lane. His Almoran and Hamet (2 vols.,
1761) was first of all drafted as a play, and a tragedy founded
on it by S. J. Pratt, The Fair Circassian (1781), met with some
success. He was commissioned by the admiralty to edit Captain
Cook's papers relative to his first voyage. For this work, An
Account of the Voyages undertaken . . . for making discoveries
in the Southern Hemisphere and performed by Commodore Byrone,
Captain Wallis, Captain Carlerel and Captain Cook (from 1764
to 1771) drawn up from the Journals ... (3 vols., 1773),
Hawkesworth is said to have received from the pubb'shers the
sum of 6000. His descriptions of the manners and customs
of the South Seas were, however, regarded by many critics
as inexact and hurtful to the interests of morality, and the
severity of their strictures is said to have hastened his death,
which took place on the i6th of November 1773. He was buried
9 8
HAWKHURST HAWKINS, SIR J.
at Bromley, Kent, where he and his wife had kept a school.
Hawkesworth was a close imitator of Johnson both in style and
thought, and was at one time on very friendly terms with him.
It is said that he presumed on his success, and lost Johnson's
friendship as early as 1756.
HAWKHURST, a town in the southern parliamentary divi-
sion of Kent, England, 47 m. S.E. of London, on a branch
of the South -Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), 3136.
It lies mainly on a ridge above the valley of the Kent Ditch,
a tributary of the Rother. The neighbouring country is hilly,
rich and well wooded, and the pleasant and healthy situation
has led to the considerable extension of the old village as a
residential locality. The Kent Sanatorium and one of the
Barnardo homes are established here. The church of St Lawrence,
founded from Battle Abbey in Sussex, is Decorated and Per-
pendicular and its east window, of the earlier period, is specially
beautiful.
HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY (1798-1884), British surgeon,
son of the Rev. E. Hawkins and grandson of the Sir Caesar
Hawkins (1711-1786), who was Serjeant-surgeon to Kings
George II. and George III., was born at Bisley, Gloucestershire,
on the igthof September 1798, was educated at Christ's Hospital,
and entered St George's Hospital, London, in 1818. He was
surgeon to the hospital from 1829 to 1861, and in 1862 was made
Serjeant-surgeon to Queen Victoria. He was president of
the College of Surgeons in 1852, and again in 1861; and he
delivered the Hunterian oration in 1849. His success in complex
surgical cases gave him a great reputation. For long he was
noted as the only surgeon who had succeeded in the operation
of ovariotomy in a London hospital. This occurred in 1846,
when anaesthetics were unknown. He did much to popularize
colotomy. A successful operator, he nevertheless was attached
to conservative surgery, and was always more anxious to teach
his pupils how to save a limb than how to remove it. He re-
printed his contributions to the medical journals in two volumes,
1874, the more valuable papers being on Tumours, Excision of
the Ovarium, Hydrophobia and Snake-bites, Stricture of the Colon,
and The Relative Claims of Sir Charles Bell and Magendie to the
Discovery of the Functions of the Spinal Nerves. He died on the
20th of July 1884. His brother, Edward Hawkins (1789-1882),
was the well-known provost of Oriel, Oxford, who played so
great a part in the Tractarian movement.
HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR JOHN (1532-1595), British
admiral, was born at Plymouth in 1532, and belonged to a
family of Devonshire shipowners and skippers occupations
then more closely connected than is now usual. His father,
William Hawkins (d. 1553), was a prosperous freeman of Ply-
mouth, who thrice represented that town in parliament, and is
described by Hakluyt as one of the principal sea-captains in the
west parts of England; his elder brother, also called William
(d. 1589), was closely associated with him in his Spanish expedi-
tions, and took an active part in fitting out ships to meet the
Armada; and his nephew, the eldest son of the last named and
of the same name, sailed with Sir Francis Drake to the South
Sea in 1577, and served as lieutenant under Edward Fenton
(17.?.) in the expedition which started for the East Indies and
China in 1582. His son, Sir Richard Hawkins, is separately
noticed.
Sir John Hawkins was bred to the sea in the ships of his
family. When the great epoch of Elizabethan maritime
adventure began, he took an active part by sailing to the Guinea
coast, where he robbed the Portuguese slavers, and then smuggled
the negroes he had captured into the Spanish possessions in the
New World. After a first successful voyage in 1562-1563, two
vessels which he had rashly sent to Seville were confiscated by
the Spanish government. With the help of friends, and the
open approval of the queen, who hired one of her vessels to him,
he sailed again in 1564, and repeated his voyage with success,
trading with the Creoles by force when the officials of the king
endeavoured to prevent him. These two voyages brought him
reputation, and he was granted a coat of arms with a demi-Moor,
or negro, chained, as his crest. The rivalry with Spain was now
becoming very acute, and when Hawkins sailed for the third
time in 1567, he went in fact, though not technically, on a
national venture. Again he kidnapped negroes, and forced his
goods on the Spanish colonies. Encouraged by his discovery
that these settlements were small and unfortified, he on this
occasion ventured to enter Vera Cruz, the port of Mexico, after
capturing some Spaniards at sea to be held as hostages. He
alleged that he had been driven in by bad weather. The falsity
of the story was glaring, but the Spanish officers on the spot were
too weak to offer resistance. Hawkins was allowed to enter
the harbour, and to refit at the small rocky island of San Juan de
Ulloa by which it is formed. Unfortunately for him, and for a
French corsair whom he had in his company, a strong Spanish
force arrived, bringing the new viceroy. The Spaniards, who
were no more scrupulous of the truth than himself, pretended
to accept the arrangement made before their arrival, and then
when they thought he was off his guard attacked him on the
24th of September. Only two vessels escaped, his own, the
" Minion," and the " Judith," a small vessel belonging to his
cousin Francis Drake. The voyage home was miserable, and
the sufferings of all were great.
For some years Hawkins did not return to the sea, though he
continued to be interested in privateering voyages as a capitalist.
In the course of 1572 he recovered part of his loss by pretending
to betray the queen for a bribe to Spain. He acted with the
knowledge of Lord Burleigh. In 1573 he became treasurer of
the navy in succession to his father-in-law Benjamin Gonson.
The office of comptroller was conferred on him soon after, and
for the rest of his life he remained the principal administrative
officer of the navy. Burleigh noted that he was suspected of
fraud in his office, but the queen's ships were kept by him in
good condition. In 1588 he served as rear-admiral against the
Spanish Armada and was knighted. In 1590 he was sent to
the coast of Portugal to intercept the Spanish treasure fleet, but
did not meet it. In giving an account of his failure to the queen
he quoted the text " Paul doth plant, Apollo doth water, but
God giveth the increase," which exhibition of piety is said to
have provoked the queen into exclaiming, " God's death !
This fool went out a soldier, and has come home a divine." In
1595 he accompanied Drake on another treasure-hunting voyage
to the West Indies, which was even less successful, and he died
at sea off Porto Rico on the I2th of November 1595.
Hawkins was twice married, first to Katharine Gonson and
then to Margaret Vaughan. He was counted a puritan when
puritanism meant little beyond hatred of Spain and popery,
and when these principles were an ever-ready excuse for voyages
in search of slaves and plunder. In the course of one of his
voyages, when he was becalmed and his negroes were dying, he
consoled himself by the reflection that God would not suffer
His elect to perish. Contemporary evidence can be produced to
show that he was greedy, unscrupulous and rude. But if he had
been a more delicate man he would not have risked the gallows
by making piratical attacks on the Portuguese and by appearing
in the West Indies as an armed smuggler; and in that case he
would not have played an important part in history by setting
the example of breaking down the pretension of the Spaniards
to exclude all comers from the New World. His morality was
that of the average stirring man of his time, whether in England
or elsewhere.
See R. A. J. Walling, A Sea-dog of Devon (1907) ; and Southey in
his British Admirals, vol. iii. The original accounts of. his voyages
compiled by Hakluyt have been reprinted by the Hakluyt Society,
with a preface by Sir C. R. Markham.
HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (1719-1789), English writer on music,
was born on the 3oth of March 1719, in London, the son of an
architect who destined him for his own profession. Ultimately,
however, Hawkins took to the law, devoting his leisure hours
to his favourite study of music. A wealthy marriage in 1753
enabled him to indulge his passion for acquiring rare works of
music, and he bought, for example, the collection formed by
Dr Pepusch, and subsequently presented by Hawkins to the
British Museum. It was on such materials that Hawkins
HAWKINS, SIR R. HAWKSHAW
99
founded his celebrated work on the General History of the Science
and Practice of Music, in 5 vols. (republished in 2 vols., 1876).
It was brought out in 1776, the same year which witnessed the
appearance of the first volume of Burney's work on the same
subject. The relative merits of the two works were eagerly
discussed by contemporary critics. Burney no doubt is in-
finitely superior as a literary man, and his work accordingly
comes much nearer the idea of a systematic treatise on the
subject than Hawkins's, which is essentially a collection of rare
and valuable pieces of music with a more or less continuous
commentary. But by rescuing these from oblivion Hawkins has
given a permanent value to his work. Of Hawkins's literary
efforts apart from music it will be sufficient to mention his
occasional contributions to the Gentleman's Magazine, his
edition (1760) of the Complete Angler (1787) and his biography
of Dr Johnson, with whom he was intimately acquainted.
He was one of the original members of the Ivy Lane Club, and
ultimately became one of Dr Johnson's executors. If there were
any doubt as to his intimacy with Johnson, it would be settled
by the slighting way in which Boswell refers to him. Speaking
of the Ivy Lane Club, he mentions amongst the members " Mr
John Hawkins, an attorney," and adds the following footnote,
which at the same time may serve as a summary of the remaining
facts of Hawkins's life: " He was for several years chairman
of the Middlesex justices, and upon presenting an address to
the king accepted the usual offer of knighthood (1772). He
is the author of a History of Music in five volumes in quarto.
By assiduous attendance upon Johnson in his last illness he
obtained the office of one of his executors in consequence of
which the booksellers of London employed him to publish an
edition of Dr Johnson's works and to write his life." Sir John
Hawkins died on the 2ist of May 1789, and was buried in the
cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR RICHARD (c. 1562-1622),
British seaman, was the only son of Admiral Sir John Hawkins
(q.v.) by his first marriage. He was from his earliest days
familiar with ships and the sea, and in 1582 he accompanied
his uncle, William Hawkins, to the West Indies. In 1585 he was
captain of a galliot in Drake's expedition to the Spanish main,
in 1588 he commanded a queen's ship against the Armada, and in
1590 served with his father's expedition to the coast of Portugal.
In 1593 he purchased the " Dainty," a ship originally built for
his father and used by him in his expeditions, and sailed for the
West Indies, the Spanish main and the South Seas. It seems
clear that his project was to prey on the oversea possessions of
the king of Spain. Hawkins, however, in an account of the
voyage written thirty years afterwards, maintained, and by that
time perhaps had really persuaded himself, that his expedition
was undertaken purely for the purpose of geographical discovery.
After visiting the coast of Brazil, the " Dainty " passed through
the Straits of Magellan, and in due course reached Valparaiso.
Having plundered the town, Hawkins pushed north, and in June
1594, a year after leaving Plymouth, arrived in the bay of San
Mateo. Here the " Dainty " was attacked by two Spanish ships.
Hawkins was hopelessly outmatched, but defended himself with
great courage. At last, when he himself had been severely
wounded, many of his men killed, and the " Dainty " was nearly
sinking, he surrendered on the promise of a safe-conduct out of
the country for himself and his crew. Through no fault of the
Spanish commander this promise was not kept. In 1597 Hawkins
was sent to Spain, and imprisoned first at Seville and subse-
quently at Madrid. He was released in 1602, and, returning to
England, was knighted in 1603. In 1604 he became member of
parliament for Plymouth and vice-admiral of Devon, a post
which, as the coast was swarming with pirates, was no sinecure.
In 1620-1621 he was vice-admiral, under Sir Robert Mansell,
of the fleet sent into the Mediterranean to reduce the Algerian
corsairs. He died in London on the I7th of April 1622.
See his Observations in his Voiage into the South Sea (1622), re-
published by the Hakluyt Society.
HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866), American clergyman,
was born at Newbern, North Carolina, on the loth of June 1798,
and graduated at the university of his native state in 1815.
After practising law with some distinction he entered the
Episcopalian ministry in 1827 and proved a brilliant and im-
pressive preacher, holding livings in New Haven, Philadelphia,
New York and New Orleans, and declining several bishoprics.
On his appointment as historiographer of his church in 1835,
he went to England, and collected the abundant materials
afterwards utilized in his Contributions to the Ecclesiastical
History of U.S.A. (New York, 1836-1839). These two volumes
dealt with Maryland and Virginia, while two later ones (1863-
1864) were devoted to Connecticut. He was the first president
of the university of Louisiana (now merged in Tulane). He
died in New York on the 26th of September 1866.
HAWKSHAW, SIR JOHN (1811-1891), English engineer, was
born in Yorkshire in 1811, and was educated at Leeds grammar
school. Before he was twenty-one he had been engaged for six or
seven years in railway engineering and the construction of roads
in his native county, and in the year of his majority he obtained
an appointment as engineer to the Bolivar Mining Association
in Venezuela. But the climate there was more than his health
could stand, and in 1834 he was obliged to return to England.
He soon obtained employment under Jesse Hartley at the
Liverpool docks, and subsequently was made engineer in charge
of the railway and navigation works of the Manchester, Bury
and Bolton Canal Company. In 1845 he became chief engineer
to the Manchester & Leeds railway, and in 1847 to its successor,
the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway, for which he constructed a
large number of branch lines. In 1850 he removed to London
and began to practise as a consulting engineer, at first alone,
but subsequently in partnership with Harrison Hayter. 'In that
capacity his work was of an extremely varied nature, embracing
almost every branch of engineering. He retained his connexion
with the Lancashire & Yorkshire Company until his retirement
from professional work in 1888, and was consulted on all the
important engineering points that affected it in that long period.
In London he was responsible for the Charing Cross and Cannon
Street railways, together with the two bridges which carried
them over the Thames; he was engineer of the East London
railway, which passes under the Thames through Sir M. I.
Brunei's well-known tunnel; and jointly with Sir J. Wolfe
Barry he constructed the section of the Underground railway
which completed the " inner circle " between the Aldgate and
Mansion House stations. In addition, many railway works
claimed his attention in all parts of the world Germany,
Russia, India, Mauritius, &c. One noteworthy point in his
railway practice was his advocacy, in opposition to Robert
Stephenson, of steeper gradients than had previously been
thought desirable or possible, and so far back as 1838 he expressed
decided disapproval of the maintenance of the broad gauge on
the Great Western, because of the troubles he foresaw it would
lead to in connexion with future railway extension, and because
he objected in general to breaks of gauge in the lines of a country.
The construction of canals was another branch of engineering
in which he was actively engaged. In 1862 he became engineer
of the Amsterdam ship-canal, and in the succeeding year he may
fairly be said to have been the saviour of the Suez Canal. About
that time the scheme was in very bad odour, and the khedive
determined to get the opinion of an English engineer as to its
practicability, having made up his mind to stop the works if that
opinion was unfavourable. Hawkshaw was chosen to make the
inquiry, and it was because his report was entirely favourable that
M. de Lesseps was able to say at the opening ceremony that to
him he owed the canal. As a member of the International
Congress which considered the construction of an interoceanic
canal across central America, he thought best of the Nicaraguan
route, and privately he regarded the Panama scheme as im-
practicable at a reasonable cost, although publicly he expressed
no opinion on the matter and left the Congress without voting.
Sir John Hawkshaw also had a wide experience in constructing
harbours (e.g. Holyhead) and docks (e.g. Penarth, the Albert
Dock at Hull, and the south dock of the East and West India
Docks in London), in river-engineering, in drainage and sewerage,
IOO
HAWKSLEY HAWLEY, H.
in water-supply, &c. He was engineer, with Sir James Brunlees,
of the original Channel Tunnel Company from 1872, but many
years previously he had investigated for himsself the question of
a tunnel under the Strait of Dover from an engineering point of
view, and had come to a belief in its feasibility, so far as that
could be determined from borings and surveys. Subsequently,
however, he became convinced that the tunnel would not be to
the advantage of Great Britain, and thereafter would have
nothing to do with the project. He was also engineer of the
Severn Tunnel, which, from its magnitude and the difficulties
encountered in its construction, must rank as one of the most
notable engineering undertakings of the igth century. He died
in Londojt on the 2nd of June 1891.
HAWKSLEY, THOMAS (1807-1893), English engineer, was
born on the i2th of July 1807, at Arnold, near Nottingham.
He was at Nottingham grammar school till the age of fifteen, but
was indebted to his private studies for his knowledge of mathe-
matics, chemistry and geology. In 1822 he was articled to an
architect in Nottingham, subsequently becoming a partner in
the firm, which also undertook engineering work; and in 1852
he removed to London, where he continued in active practice
till he was well past eighty. His work was chiefly concerned with
water and gas supply and with main-drainage. Of water-
works he used to say that he had constructed 150, and a long
list might be drawn up of important towns that owe their water
to his skill, including Liverpool, Sheffield, Leicester, Leeds,
Derby, Darlington, Oxford, Cambridge and Northampton in
England, and Stockholm, Altona and Bridgetown (Barbados)
in other countries. To his native town of Nottingham he was
water engineer for fifty years, and the system he designed for
it was noteworthy from the fact that the principle of constant
supply was adopted for the first time. The gas-works at Notting-
ham, and at many other towns for which he provided water
supplies were also constructed by him. He designed main-
drainage systems for Birmingham, Worcester and Windsor among
other places, and in 1857 he was called in, together with G. P.
Bidder and Sir J. Bazalgette, to report on the best solution of the
vexed question of a main-drainage scheme for London. In 1872
he was president of the Institution of Civil Engineers an office
in which his son Charles followed him in 1901. He died in
London on the 2$rd of September 1893.
HAWKSMOOR, NICHOLAS (1661-1736), English architect, of
Nottinghamshire birth, became a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren
at the age of eighteen, and his name is intimately associated
with those of Wren and Sir J. Vanbrugh in the English archi-
tecture of his time. Through Wren's influence he obtained
various official posts, as deputy-surveyor at Chelsea hospital,
clerk of the works and deputy-surveyor at Greenwich hospital,
clerk of the works at Whitehall, St James's and Westminster,
and he succeeded Wren as surveyor-general of Westminster
Abbey. He took part in much of the work done by Wren and
Vanbrugh, and it is difficult often to assign among them the
credit for the designs of various features. Hawksmoor appears,
however, to have been responsible for the early Gothic designs
of the two towers of All Souls' (Oxford) north quadrangle, and
the library and other features at Queen's College (Oxford).
At the close of Queen Anne's reign he had a principal part in
the scheme for building fifty new churches in London, and
himself designed five or six of them, including St Mary Woolnoth
(1716-1719) and St George's, Bloomsbury (1720-1730). A
number of his drawings have been preserved. He died in
London on the 2 5th of March 1736.
HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN (d. 1394), an English adventurer
who attained great wealth and renown as a condottiere in the
Italian wars of the I4th century. His name is variously spelt
as Haccoude, Aucud, Aguto, &c., by contemporaries. It is said
that he was the son of a tanner of Hedingham Sibil in Essex,
and was apprenticed in London, whence he went, in the English
army, to France under Edward III. and the Black Prince. It
is said also that he obtained the favour of the Black Prince, and
received knighthood from King Edward III., but though it is
certain that he was of knightly rank, there is no evidence as to
the time or place at which he won it. On the peace of Bretigny
in 1360, he collected a band of men-at-arms, and moved south-
ward to Italy, where we find the White Company, as his men
were called, assisting the marquis of Monferrato against Milan
in 1362-63, and the Pisans against Florence in 1364. After
several campaigns in various parts of central Italy, Hawkwood
in 1368 entered the service of Bernabo Visconti. In 1369 he
fought for Perugia against the pope, and in 1370 for the Visconti
against Pisa, Florence and other enemies. In 1372 he defeated
the marquis of Monferrato, but soon afterwards, resenting the
interference of a council of war with his plans, Hawkwood
resigned his command, and the White Company passed into the
papal service, in which he fought against the Visconti in 1373-
1375. In 1375 the Florentines entered into an agreement with
him, by which they were to pay him and his companion 130,000
gold florins in three months on condition that he undertook
no engagement against them; and in the same year the priors
of the arts and the gonfalonier decided to give him a pension
of 1200 florins per annum for as long as he should remain in
Italy. In 1377, under the orders of the cardinal Robert of
Geneva, legate of Bologna, he massacred the inhabitants of
Cesena, but in May of the same year, disliking the executioner's
work put upon him by the legate, he joined the anti-papal league,
and married, at Milan, Donnina, an illegitimate daughter of
Bernabo Visconti. In 1378 and 1379 Hawkwood was constantly
in the field; he quarrelled with Bernabo in 1378, and entered
the service of Florence, receiving, as in 1375, 130,000 gold florins.
He rendered good service to the republic up to 1382, when for a
time he was one of the English ambassadors at the papal court.
He engaged in a brief campaign in Naples in 1383, fought for
the marquis of Padua against Verona in 1386, and in 1388 made
an unsuccessful effort against Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who had
murdered Bernabo. In 1390 the Florentines took up the war
against Gian Galeazzo in earnest, and appointed Hawkwood
commander-in-chief. His campaign against the Milanese army
in the Veronese and the Bergamask was reckoned a triumph
of generalship, and in 1392 Florence exacted a satisfactory
peace from Gian Galeazzo. His latter years were spent in a
villa in the neighbourhood of Florence. On his death in 1394
the republic gave him a public funeral of great magnificence, and
decreed the erection of a marble monument in the cathedral.
This, however, was never executed; but Paolo Uccelli painted
his portrait in terre-verte on the inner facade of the building,
where it still remains, though damaged by removal from the
plaster to canvas. Richard II. of England, probably at the
instigation of Hawkwood's sons, who returned to their native
country, requested the Florentines to let him remove the good
knight's bones, and the Florentine government signified its
consent.
Of his children by Donnina Visconti, who appears to have been
his second wife, the eldest daughter married Count Brezaglia
of Porciglia, podesta of Ferrara, who succeeded him as Florentine
commander-in-chief, and another a German condottiere named
Conrad Prospergh. His son, John, returned to England and
settled at Hedingham Sibil, where, it is supposed, Sir John
Hawkwood was buried. The children of the first marriage
were two sons and three daughters, and of the latter the youngest
married John Shelley, an ancestor of the poet.
AUTHORITIES. Muratori,RerumItalicarumscriptores,a.n<l supple-
ment by Tartinius and Manni; Archivio storico italio.no; Temple-
Leader and Marcotti, Giovanni Acuto (Florence, 1889; Eng. transl.,
Leader Scott, London, 1889); Nichol, Bibliotheca topographica
Britannica, vol. vi.; J. G. Alger in Register and Magazine of Bio-
graphy, v. I.; and article in Diet. Nat. Biog.
HAWLEY, HENRY (c. 1679-1759), British lieut.-general,
entered the army, it is said, in 1694. He saw service in the War
of Spanish Succession as a captain of Erie's (the igth) foot.
After Almanza he returned to England, and a few years later
had become lieut.-colonel of the igth. With this regiment he
served at Sheriff muir in 1 7 1 5 , where he was wounded . After this
for some years he served in the United Kingdom, obtaining pro-
motion in the usual course, and in 1739 he arrived at the grade
of major general. Four years later he accompanied Geroge II.
HAWLEY, J. R. HAWTHORN
101
and Stair to Germany, and, as a general officer of cavalry
under Sir John Cope, was present at Dettingen. Becoming
lieut.-general somewhat later, he was second-in-command of
the cavalry at Fontenoy, and on the 2oth of December 1745
became commander-in-chief in Scotland. Less than a month
later Hawley suffered a severe defeat at Falkirk at the hands of
the Highland insurgents. This, however, did not cost him his
command, for the duke of Cumberland, who was soon afterwards
sent north, was captain-general. Under Cumberland's orders
Hawley led the cavalry in the campaign of Culloden, and at that
battle his dragoons distinguished themselves by their ruthless
butchery of the fugitive rebels. After the end of the " Forty-
Five " he accompanied Cumberland to the Low Countries and led
the allied cavalry at Lauffeld (Val). He ended his career as
governor of Portsmouth and died at that place in 1759. James
Wolfe, his brigade-major, wrote of General Hawley in no flattering
terms. " The troops dread his severity, hate the man and hold
his military knowledge in contempt," he wrote. But, whether it
be true or false that he was the natural son of George II., Hawley
was always treated with the greatest favour by that king and
by his son the duke of Cumberland.
HAWLEY, JOSEPH ROSWELL (1826-1905), American
political leader, was born on the 3151 of October at Stewartsville,
Richmond county, North Carolina, where his father, a native of
Connecticut, was pastor of a Baptist church. Thefatherreturned
to Connecticut in 1837 and the son graduated at Hamilton
College (Clinton, N.Y.)in 1847. He was admitted to the bar in
1850, and practised at Hartford, Conn., for six years. An ardent
opponent of slavery, he became a Free Soiler, was a delegate
to the National Convention which nominated John P. Hale
for the presidency in 1852, and subsequently served as chairman
of the State Committee, having at the same time editorial control
of the Charter Oak, the party organ. In 1856 he took a leading
part in organizing the Republican party in Connecticut, and
in 1857 became editor of the Hartford Evening Press, a newly
established Republican newspaper. He served in the Federal
army throughout the Civil War, rising from the rank of captain
(April 22, 1861) to that of brigadier-general of volunteers (Sept.
1864); took part in the Port Royal Expedition, in the capture
of Fort Pulaski (April 1862), in the siege of Charleston and the
capture of Fort Wagner (Sept. 1863), in the battle of Olustee
(Feb. 20, 1864), in the siege operations about Petersburg, and
in General W. T. Sherman's campaign in the Carolinas; and
in September 1865 received the brevet of major-general of
volunteers. From April 1866 to April 1867 he was governor
of Connecticut, and in 1867 he bought the Hartford Courant,
with which he combined the Press, and which became under his
editorship the most influential newspaper in Connecticut and
one of the leading Republican papers in the country. He was
the permanent chairman of the Republican National Convention
in 1868, was a delegate to the conventions of 1872, 1876 and
1880, was a member of Congress from December 1872 until
March 1875 an d again in 1879-1881, and was a United States
senator from 1881 until the 3rd of March 1905, being one of the
Republican leaders both in the House and the Senate. From
1873 to 1876 he was president of the United States Centennial
Commission, the great success of the Centennial Exhibition
being largely due to him. He died at Washington, D.C., on the
t7th of March 1905.
HAWORTH, an urban district in the Keighley parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 10 m. N.W.
of Bradford, on a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901),
7492. It is picturesquely situated on a steep slope, lying high,
and surrounded by moorland. The Rev. Patrick Bronte (d.i86i)
was incumbent here for forty-one years, and a memorial near
the west window of St Michael's church bears his name and the
names of his gifted daughters upon it. The grave of Charlotte
and Emily Bronte is also marked by a brass. In 1895 a museum
was opened by the Bronte society. There is a large worsted
industry.
HAWSER (in sense and form as if from " hawse," which,
from the 16th-century form liaise, is derived from Teutonic
hals, neck, of which there is a Scandinavian use in the sense of
the forepart of a ship; the two words are not etymologically
connected; " hawser " is from an O. Fr. haucier, hausser, to
raise, tow, hoist, from the Late Lat. altiare, to lift, altus, high),
a small cable or thick rope used at sea for the purposes of mooring
or warping, in the case of large vessels made of steel. When a
cable or tow line is made of three or more small ropes it is said
to be " hawser-laid." The " hawse " of a ship is that part of the
bows where the " hawse-holes " are made. These are two holes
cut in the bows of a vessel for the cables to pass through, having
small cast-iron pipes, called " hawse-pipes," fitted into them to
prevent abrasion. In bad weather at sea these holes are plugged
up with " hawse-plugs " to prevent the water entering. The
phrase to enter the service by the " hawse-holes " is used of
those who have risen from before the mast to commissioned
rank in the navy. When the ship is at anchor the space between
her head and the anchor is called " hawse," as in the phrase
" athwart the hawse." The term also applies to the position
of the ship's anchors when moored; when they are laid out in a
line at right angles to the wind it is said to be moored with an
" open hawse "; when both cables are laid out straight to their
anchors without crossing, it is a " clear hawse."
HAWTHORN, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
45 m. by rail E. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901),
21,339. It is the seat of the important Methodist Ladies'*
College. The majority of the inhabitants are professional and
business men engaged in Melbourne, and their residences are
numerous at Hawthorn.
HAWTHORN (O. Eng. haga-, hag-, or hege-lhorn, i.e. " hedge-
thorn "), the common name for Cralaegus, in botany, a genus
of shrubs or small trees belonging to the natural order Rosaceae,
native of the north temperate regions, especially America. It
is represented in the British Isles by the hawthorn, white-thorn
or may (Ger. Hagedorn and Christdorn; Fr. aubepine), C.
Oxyacantha, a small, round-headed, much-branched tree, 10 to
20 ft. high, the branches often ending in single sharp spines.
The leaves, which are deeply cut, are i to 2 in. long and very
variable in shape. The flowers are sweet-scented, in flat-topped
clusters, and 5 to f in. in diameter, with five spreading white
petals alternating with five persistent green sepals, a large
number of stamens with pinkish-brown anthers, and one to three
carpels sunk in the cup-shaped floral axis. The fruit, or haw,
as in the apple, consists of the swollen floral axis, which is usually
scarlet, and forms a fleshy envelope surrounding the hard stone.
The common hawthorn is a native of Europe as far north as
6o 5 in Sweden, and of North Africa, western Asia and Siberia,
and has been naturalized in North America and Australia. It
thrives best in dry soils, and in height varies from 4 or 5 to 12, 15
or, in exceptional cases, as much as between 20 and 30 ft. It
may be propagated from seed or from cuttings. The seeds
must be from ripe fruit, and if fresh gathered should be freed
from pulp by maceration in water. They germinate only in the
second year after sowing; in the course of their first year the
seedlings attain a height of 6 to 12 in. Hawthorn has been for
many centuries a favourite park and hedge plant in Europe, and
numerous varieties have been developed by cultivation; these
differ in the form of the leaf, the white, pink or red, single or
double flowers, and the yellow, orange or red fruit. In England
the hawthorn, owing to its hardiness and closeness of growth,
has been employed for enclosure of land since the Roman occupa-
tion, but for ordinary field hedges it is believed it was generally
in use till about the end of the i7th century. James I. of
Scotland, in his Quair, ii. 14 (early I5th century), mentions the
" hawthorn hedges knet " of Windsor Castle. The first hawthorn
hedges in Scotland are said to have been planted by soldiers
of Cromwell at Inch Buckling Brae in East Lothian and Finlarig
in Perthshire. Annual pruning, to which the hawthorn is par-
ticularly amenable, is necessary if the hedge is to maintain its
compactness and sturdiness. When the lower part shows
a tendency to go bare the strong stems may be " plashed," i.e.
split, bent over and pegged to the ground so that new growths
may start. The wood of the hawthorn is white in colour, with
IO2
HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL
a yellowish tinge. Fresh cut it weighs 68 Ib 12 oz. per cubic foot,
and dry 57 Ib 3 oz. It can seldom be obtained in large portions,
and has the disadvantage of being apt to warp; its great hard-
ness, however, renders it valuable for the manufacture of various
articles, such as the cogs of mill-wheels, flails and mallets, and
handles of hammers. Both green and dry it forms excellent
fuel. The bark possesses tanning properties, and in Scotland
in past times yielded with ferrous sulphate a black dye for wool.
The leaves are eaten by cattle, and have been employed as a
substitute for tea. Birds and deer feed upon the haws, which are
used in the preparation of a fermented and highly intoxicating
liquor. The hawthorn serves as a stock for grafting other trees.
As an ornamental feature in landscapes, it is worthy of notice;
and the pleasing shelter it affords and the beauty of its blossoms
have frequently been alluded to by poets. The custom of
employing the flowering branches for decorative purposes on
the ist of May is of very early origin; but since the alteration
in the calendar the tree has rarely been in full bloom in England
before the second week of that month. In the Scottish Highlands
the flowers may be seen as late as the middle of June. The
hawthorn has been regarded as the emblem of hope, and its
branches are stated to have been carried by the ancient Greeks
in wedding processions, and to have been used by them to deck
the altar of Hymen. The supposition that the tree was the
source of Christ's crown of thorns gave rise doubtless to the
tradition current among the French peasantry that it utters
groans and cries on Good Friday, and probably also to the old
popular superstition in Great Britain and Ireland that ill-luck
attended the uprooting of hawthorns. Branches of the Glaston-
bury thorn, C. Oxyacantha, var. praecox, which flowers both in
December and in spring, were formerly highly valued in England,
on account of the legend that the tree was originally the staff of
Joseph of Arimathea.
The number of species in the genus is from fifty to seventy,
according to the view taken as to whether or not some of the
forms, especially of those occurring in the United States, repre-
sent distinct species. C. coccinea, a native of Canada and the
eastern United States, with bright scarlet fruits, was" introduced
into English gardens towards the end of the i7th century.
C. Crus-Galli, with a somewhat similar distribution and intro-
duced about the same time, is a very decorative species with
showy, bright red fruit, often remaining on the branches till
spring, and leaves assuming a brilliant scarlet and orange in the
autumn; numerous varieties are in cultivation. C. Pyracantha,
known in gardens as pyracantha, is evergreen and has white
flowers, appearing in May, and fine scarlet fruits of the size of
a pea which remain on the tree nearly all the winter. It is a
native of south Europe and was introduced into Britain early
in the lyth century.
HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL (1804-1864), American writer,
son of Nathaniel Hathorne (1776-1808), was born at Salem,
Massachusetts, on the 4th of July 1804. The head of the
American branch of the family, William Hathorne of Wilton,
Wiltshire, England, emigrated with Winthrop and his company,
and arrived at Salem Bay, Mass., on the izth of June 1630. He
had grants of land at Dorchester, where he resided for upwards
of six years, when he was persuaded to remove to Salem by the
tender of further grants of land there, it being considered a public
benefit that he should become an inhabitant of that town. He
represented his fellow-townsmen in the legislature, and served
them in a military capacity as a captain in the first regular troop
organized in Salem, which he led to victory through an Indian
campaign in Maine. Originally a determined " Separatist,"
and opposed to compulsion for conscience, he signalized himself
when a magistrate by the active part which he took in the Quaker
persecutions of the time (1657-1662), going so far on one occasion
as to order the whipping of Anne Coleman and four other Friends
through Salem, Boston and Dedham. He died, an old man, in
the odour of sanctity, and left a good property to his son John,
who inherited his father's capacity and intolerance, and was in
turn a legislator, a magistrate, a soldier and a bitter persecutor
of witches. Before the death of Justice Hathorne in 1717, the
destiny of the family suffered a sea-change, and they began to
be noted as mariners. One of these seafaring Hathornes figured
in the Revolution as a privateer, who had the good fortune to
escape from a British prison-ship; and another, Captain Daniel
Hathorne, has left his mark on early American ballad-lore.
He too was a privateer, commander of the brig " Fair American,"
which, cruising off the coast of Portugal, fell in with a British
scow laden with troops for General Howe, which scow the bold
Hathorne and his valiant crew at once engaged and fought for
over an hour, until the vanquished enemy was glad to cut the
Yankee grapplings and quickly bear away. The last of the
Hathornes with whom we are concerned was a son of this
sturdy old privateer, Nathaniel Hathorne. He was born in
1776, and about the beginning of the igth century married Miss
Elizabeth Clarke Manning, a daughter of Richard Manning of
Salem, whose ancestors emigrated to America about fifty years
after the arrival of William Hathorne. Young Nathaniel took
his hereditary place before the mast, passed from the forecastle
to the cabin, made voyages to the East and West Indies, Brazil
and Africa, and finally died of fever at Surinam, in the spring of
1808. He was the father of three children, the second of whom
was the subject of this article. The form of the family name was
changed by the latter to " Hawthorne " in his early manhood.
After the death of her husband Mrs Hawthorne removed to
the house of her father with her little family of children. Of
the boyhood of Nathaniel no particulars have reached us, except
that he was fond of taking long walks alone, and that he used to
declare to his mother that he would go to sea some time and
would never return. Among the books that he is known to have
read as a child were Shakespeare, Milton, Pope and Thomson,
The Castle of Indolence being an especial favourite. In the
autumn of 1818 his mother removed to Raymond, a town in
Cumberland county, Maine, where his uncle, Richard Manning,
had built a large and ambitious dwelling. Here the lad resumed
his solitary walks, exchanging the narrow streets of Salem for
the boundless, primeval wilderness, and its sluggish harbour
for the fresh bright waters of Sebago lake. He roamed the
woods by day, with his gun and rod, and in the moonlight nights
of winter skated upon the lake alone till midnight. When he
found himself away from home, and wearied with his exercise,
he took refuge in a log cabin where half a tree would be burning
upon the hearth. He had by this time acquired a taste for
writing, that showed itself in a little blank-book, in which he
jotted down his woodland adventures and feelings, and which
was remarkable for minute observation and nice perception of
nature.
After a year's residence at Raymond, Nathaniel returned
to Salem in order to prepare for college. He amused himself
by publishing a manuscript periodical, which he called the
Spectator, and which displayed considerable vivacity and talent.
He speculated upon the profession that he would follow, with a
sort of prophetic insight into his future. " I do not want to be
a doctor and live by men's diseases," he wrote to his mother,
" nor a minister to live by their sins, nor a lawyer and live by
their quarrels. So I don't see that there is anything left for me
but to be an author. How would you like some day to see a
whole shelf full of books, written by your son, with ' Hawthorne's
Works' printed on their backs?"
Nathaniel entered Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in
the autumn of 1821, where he became acquainted with two
students who were destined to distinction Henry W.Longfellow
and Franklin Pierce. He was an excellent classical scholar,
his Latin compositions, even in his freshman year, being remark-
able for their elegance, while his Greek (which was less) was good.
He made graceful translations from the Roman poets, and
wrote several English poems which were creditable to him.
After graduation three years later (1825) he returned to Salem,
and to a life of isolation. He devoted his mornings to study,
his afternoons to writing, and his evenings to long walks along
the rocky coast. He was scarcely known by sight to his towns-
men, and he held so little communication with the members
of his own family that his meals were frequently left at his
HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL
103
locked door. He wrote largely, but destroyed many of his
manuscripts, his taste was so difficult to please. He thought
well enough, however, of one of his compositions to print it
anonymously in 1828. / A crude melodramatic story, entitled
Fanshawe, it was unworthy even of his immature powers, and
should never have been rescued from the oblivion which speedily
overtook it. The name of Nathaniel Hawthorne finally became
known to his countrymen as a writer in The Token, a holiday
annual which was commenced in 1828 by Mr S. G. Goodrich
(better known as "Peter Parley "), by whom it was conducted
for fourteen years. This forgotten publication numbered among
its contributors most of the prominent American writers of the
time, none of whom appear to have added to their reputation
in its pages, except the least popular of all Hawthorne, who
was for years the obscurest man of letters in America, though
he gradually made admirers in a quiet way. His first public
recognition came from England, where his genius was discovered
in 1835 by Henry F. Chorley, one of the editors of the Athenaeum,
in which he copied three of Hawthorne's most characteristic
papers from The Token. He had but little encouragement to
continue in literature, for Mr Goodrich was so much more a
publisher than an author that he paid him wretchedly for his
contributions, and still more wretchedly for his work upon an
American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge, which
he persuaded him to edit. This author-publisher consented,
however, at a later period (1837) to bring out a collection of
Hawthorne's writings under the title of Twice-told Tales. . A
moderate edition was got rid of, but the great body of the reading
public ignored the book altogether. It was generously reviewed
in the North American Review by his college friend Longfellow,
who said it came from the hand of a man of genius, and praised
it for the exceeding beauty of its style, which was as clear as
running waters.
The want of pecuniary success which had so far attended
his authorship led Hawthorne to accept a situation which was
tendered him by George Bancroft, the historian, collector of
the port of Boston under the Democratic rule of President
Van Buren. He was appointed a weigher in the custom-house
at a salary of about $1200 a year, and entered upon the duties
of his office, which consisted for the most part in measuring
coal, salt and other bulky commodities on foreign vessels.
It was irksome employment, but faithfully performed for two
years, when he was superseded through a change in the national
administration. Master of himself once more, he returned to
Salem, where he remained until the spring of 1841, when he
wrote a collection of children's stories entitled Grandfather's
Chair, and joined an industrial association at West Roxbury,
Mass. Brook Farm, as it was called, was a social Utopia,
composed of a number of advanced thinkers, whose object was
so to distribute manual labour as to give its members time for
intellectual culture. The scheme worked admirably on paper;
but it was suited neither to the temperament nor the taste of
Hawthorne, and after trying it patiently for nearly a year he
returned to the everyday life of mankind.
One of Hawthorne's earliest admirers was Miss Sophia Peabody ,
a lady of Salem, whom he married in the summer of 1842. He
made himself a new home in an old manse, at Concord, Mass.,
situated on historic ground, in sight of an old revolutionary
battlefield, and devoted himself diligently to literature. He
was known to the few by his Twice-told Tale!, and to the many
by his papers in the Democratic Review. He published in 1842
a further portion of Grandfather's Chair, and also a second
volume of Twice-told Tales. He also edited, during 1845,
the African Journals of Horatio Bridge, an officer of the navy,
who had been at college with him; and in the following year he
published in two volumes a collection of his later writings, under
the title of Mosses from an Old Manse. '
After a residence of nearly four years at Concord, Hawthorne
returned to Salem, having been appointed surveyor of the
custom-house of that port by a new Democratic administration.
He filled the duties of this position until the incoming of the
Whig administration again led to his retirement. He seems to
have written little during his official term, but, as he had leisure
enough and to spare, he read much, and pondered over subjects
for future stories. His next work, The Scarlet Letter, which was
begun after his removal from the custom-house, was published
in 1850. If there had been any doubt of his genius before, it
was settled for ever by this powerful romance.
Shortly after the publication of The Scarlet Letter Hawthorne
removed from Salem to Lenox, Berkshire, Mass., where he wrote
The House of the Seven Gables (1851) and The Wonder-Book
(1851). From Lenox he removed to West Newton, near Boston,
Mass., where he wrote The Blithedale Romance (1852) and The
Snow Image and other Twice-told Tales (1852). In the spring
of 1852 he removed back to Concord, where he purchased an
old house which he called The Wayside, and where he wrote a
Life of Franklin Pierce (1852) and Tanglewood Tales (1853).
Mr Pierce was the Democratic candidate for the presidency,
and it was only at his urgent solicitation that Hawthorne
consented to become his biographer. He declared that he
would accept no office in case he were elected, lest it might
compromise him ; but his friends gave him such weighty reasons
for reconsidering his decision that he accepted the consulate
at Liverpool, which was understood to be one of the best gifts
at the disposal of the president.
Hawthorne departed for Europe in the summer of 1853, and
returned to the United States in the summer of 1860. Of the
seven years which he passed in Europe five were spent in attending
to the duties of his consulate at Liverpool, and in little journeys
to Scotland, the Lakes and elsewhere, and the remaining two
in France and Italy. They were quiet and uneventful, coloured
by observation and reflection, as his note-books show, but
productive of only one elaborate work, Transformation, or The
Marble Faun, which he sketched out during his residence in
Italy, and prepared for the press at Leamington, England,
whence it was despatched to America and published in 1860.
Hawthorne took up his abode at The Wayside, not much richer
than when he left it, and sat down at his desk once more with a
heavy heart. He was surrounded by the throes of a great civil
war, and the political party with which he had always acted
was under a cloud. His friend ex-President Pierce was stig-
matized as a traitor, and when Hawthorne dedicated his next
book to him a volume of English impressions entitled Ou* Old
Home (1863) it was at the risk of his own popularity. His pen
was soon to be laid aside for ever; for, with the exception of
the unfinished story of Septimius Felton, which was published
after his death by his daughter Una (1872), and the fragment
of The Dolliver Romance, the beginning of which was published
in the Atlantic Monthly in July 1864, he wrote no more. His
health gradually declined, his hair grew white as snow, and
the once stalwart figure that in early manhood flashed along the
airy cliffs and glittering sands sauntered idly on the little hill
behind his house. In the beginning of April 1864 he made a short
southern tour with his publisher Mr William D.Ticknor, and was
benefited by the change of scene until he reached Philadelphia,
where he was shocked by the sudden death of Mr Ticknor.
He returned to The Wayside, and after a short season of rest
joined his friend ex-President Pierce. He died at Plymouth,
New Hampshire, on the ipth of May 1864, and five days later
was buried at Sleepy Hollow, a beautiful cemetery at Concord,
where he used to walk under the pines when he was living at the
Old Manse, and where his ashes moulder under a simple stone,
inscribed with the single word " Hawthorne."
The writings of Hawthorne are marked by subtle imagination,
curious power of analysis and exquisite purity of diction. He
studied exceptional developments of character, and was fond of
exploring secret crypts of emotion. His shorter stories are re-
markable for originality and suggestiveness, and his larger ones
are as absolute creations as Hamlet or Undine. Lacking the
accomplishment of verse, he was in the highest sense a poet.
His work is pervaded by a manly personality, and by an almost
feminine delicacy and gentleness. He inherited the gravity of
his Puritan ancestors without their superstition, and learned in
his solitary meditations a knowledge of the night-side of life
104
HAWTREY HAY, G.
which would have filled them with suspicion. A profound
anatomist of the heart, he was singularly free from morbidness,
and in his darkest speculations concerning evil was robustly
right-minded. He worshipped conscience with his intellectual
as well as his moral nature; it is supreme in all he wrote. Besides
these mental traits, he possessed the literary quality of style
a grace, a charm, a perfection of language which no other
American writer ever possessed in the same degree, and which
places him among the great masters of English prose.
His Complete Writings (22 vols., Boston, 1901) were edited, with
introduction, including a bibliography, by H. S. Scudder. The
standard authority for Hawthorne's biography is Nathaniel Haw-
thorne and his Wife (2 vols., Boston, 1884), by his son Julian Haw-
thorne (b. 1846), himself a novelist and critic of distinction. See
also Henry James, Hawthorne (London, 1879), in the " English Men
of Letters ' series; Julian Hawthorne, Hawthorne and his Circle
(New York, 1903); a paper in R. H. Hutton's Essays Theological
and Literary (London, 1871); George B. Smith, Poets and Novelists
(London, 1875) ; Moncure D. Conway, Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne
(London, 1890, in the "Great Writers" series); Horatio Bridge,
Personal Recollections of Nathaniel Hawthorne (New York, 1893);
Rose Hawthorne Lathrop, Memories of Hawthorne (Boston, 1897);
W. C. Lawton, The New England Poets (New York, 1898); Sir L.
Stephen, Hours in a Library (1874); Annie Fields, Nathaniel
Hawthorne (Boston, 1899); G. E. Woodberry, Life of Hawthorne
(1902) ; and bibliography by N. E. Browne (1905). (R. H. S.)
HAWTREY, CHARLES HENRY (1858- ), English actor,
was born at Eton, where his father was master of the lower
school, and educated at Rugby and Oxford. He took to the stage
in 1 88 1, and in 1883 adapted von Moser's Bibliothekar as The
Private Secretary, which had an enormous success. He then
appeared in London in a number of modern plays, in which he
was conspicuous as a comedian. He was unapproachable for
parts in which cool imperturbable lying constituted the leading
characteristic. Among his later successes A Message from Mars
was particularly popular in London and in America.
HAWTREY, EDWARD CRAVEN (1789-1862), English educa-
tionalist, was born at Burnham on the 7th of May 1789, the son
of the vicar of the parish. He was educated at Eton and King's
College, Cambridge, and in 1814 was appointed assistant master
at Eton under Dr Keate. In 1834 he became headmaster of the
college, and his administration was a vigorous one. New
buildings were erected, including the school library and the
sanatorium, the college chapel was restored, the Old Christopher
Inn was closed, and the custom of " Montem," the collection by
street begging of funds for the university expenses of the captain
of the school, was suppressed. He is supposed to have suggested
the prince consort's modern language prizes, while the prize for
English essay he founded himself. In 1852 he became provost of
Eton, and in 1854 vicar of Mapledurham. He died on the 27th
of January 1862, and was buried in the Eton College chapel.
On account of his command of languages ancient and modern,
he was known in London as " the English Mezzofanti," and
he was a book collector of the finest taste. Among his own books
are some excellent translations from the English into Italian,
German and Greek. He had a considerable reputation as
a writer of English hexameters and as a judge of Homeric
translation.
HAXO, FRANCOIS NICOLAS BENOIT, BARON (1774-1838),
French general and military engineer, was born at Luneville
on the 24th of June 1774, and entered the Engineers in 1793.
He remained unknown, doing duty as a regimental officer for
many years, until, as major, he had his first chance of distinction
in the second siege of Saragossa in 1809, after which Napoleon
made him a colonel. Haxo took part in the campaign of Wagram,
and then returned to the Peninsula to direct the siege operations
of Suchet's army in Catalonia and Valencia. In 1810 he was
made general of brigade, in 1811 a baron, and in the same year
he was employed in preparing the occupied fortresses of Germany
against a possible Russian invasion. In 1812 he was chief
engineer of Davout's I. corps, and after the retreat from Moscow
he was made general of division. In 1813 he constructed the
works around Hamburg which made possible the famous defence
of that fortress by Davout, and commanded the Guard Engineers
until he fell into the enemy's hands at Kulm. After the Restora-
tion Louis XVIII. wished to give Haxo a command in the Royal
Guards, but the general remained faithful to Napoleon, and in the
Hundred Days laid out the provisional fortifications of Paris
and fought at Waterloo. It was, however, after the second
Restoration that the best work of his career as a military engineer
was done. As inspector-general he managed, though not without
meeting considerable opposition, to reconstruct in accordance
with the requirements of the time, and the designs which he
had evolved to meet them, the old Vauban and Cormontaigne
fortresses which had failed to check the invasions of 1814 and
1815. For his services he was made a peer of France by Louis
Philippe (1832). Soon after this came the French intervention in
Belgium and the famous scientific siege of Antwerp citadel.
Under Marshal Gerard Haxo directed the besiegers and com-
pletely outmatched the opposing engineers, the fortress being
reduced to surrender after a siege of a little more than three weeks
(December 23, 1832). He was after this regarded as the first
engineer in Europe, and his latter years were spent in urging
upon the government and the French people the fortification of
Paris and Lyons, a project which was partly realized in his time
and after his death fully carried out. General Haxo died at
Paris on the 2Sth of June 1838. He wrote Mimoire sur le figure
du terrain dans les cartes topographiques (Paris, N.D.), and a
memoir of General Dejean (1824).
HAXTHAUSEN, AUGUST FRANZ LUDWIG MARIA,
FREIHERR VON (1792-1866), German political economist, was
born near Paderborn in Westphalia on the 3rd of February
1792. Having studied at the school of mining at Klausthal, and
having servedinthe Hanoverian army, he entered the university
of Gottingen in 1815. Finishing his course there in 1818 he was
engaged in managing his estates and in studying the land laws.
The result of his studies appeared in 1829 when he published
Uber die Agraroerfassung in den Fiirstentiimern Paderborn und
Coney, 'a work which attracted much attention and which
procured for its author a commission to investigate and report
upon the land laws of the Prussian provinces with a view to a new
code. After nine years of labour he published in 1839 an
exhaustive treatise, Die Idndliche Vcrfassung in der Provinz
Preussen, and in 1843, at the request of the emperor Nicholas,
he undertook a similar work for Russia, the fruits of his in-
vestigations in that country being contained in his Studicn iiber
die innern Zustande des Volkslebens, und insbesondere die land-
lichen Einrichtungen Russlands (Hanover, 1847-1852). He
received various honours, was a member of the combined diet
in Berlin in 1847 and 1848, and afterwards of the Prussian upper
house. Haxthausen died at Hanover on the 3ist of December
1866.
In addition to the works already mentioned he wrote Die land-
liche Verfassung Russlands (Leipzig, 1866). His Studien has been
translated into French and into English by R. Farie as The Russian
Empire (1856). Other works of his which have appeared in English
are : Transcaucasia ; Sketches of the Nations and Races between the
Black Sea and the Caspian (1854), and The Tribes of the Caucasus
(1855). Haxthausen edited Das konstitutionelle Pnnzip (Leipzig,
1864), a collection of political writings by various authors, which has
been translated into French (1865).
HAY, GEORGE (1729-1811), Scottish Roman Catholic divine,
was born at Edinburgh on the 24th of August 1729. He was
accused of sympathizing with the rebellion of 1745 and served
a term of imprisonment 1746-1747. He then entered the
Roman Catholic Church, studied in the Scots College at Rome,
and in 1759 accompanied John Geddes (1735-1799), afterwards
bishop of Morocco, on a Scottish mission. Ten years later
he was appointed bishop of Daulis in partibus and coadjutor
to Bishop James Grant (1706-1778). In 1778 he became vicar
apostolic of the lowland district. During the Protestant riots
in Edinburgh in 1779 his furniture and library were destroyed
by fire. From 1788 to 1793 he was in charge of the Scalan
seminary; in 1802 he retired to that of Aquhorties near Inverury
which he had founded in 1799. He died there on the isth of
October 1811.
His theological works, including The Sincere Christian, The Devout
Christian, The Pious Christian and The Scripture Doctrine of Miracles,
were edited by Bishop Strain in 1871-1873.
HAY, GILBERT HAY
105
HAY, GILBERT, or " SIR GILBERT THE HAVE " (fl. 1450),
Scottish poet and translator, was perhaps a kinsman of the house
of Errol. If he be the student named in the registers of the
university of St Andrews in 1418-1419, his birth may be fixed
about 1403. He was in France in 1432, perhaps some years
earlier, for a " Gilbert de la Haye " is mentioned as present at
Reims, in July 1430, at the coronation of Charles VII. He has
left it on record, in the Prologue to his Buke of the Law of Armys,
that he was " chaumerlayn umquhyle to the maist worthy
King Charles of France." In 1456 he was back in Scotland,
in the service of the chancellor, William, earl of Orkney and
Caithness, " in his castell of Rosselyn," south of Edinburgh.
The date of his death is unknown.
Hay is named by Dunbar (q.v.) in his Lament for the Makaris,
and by Sir David Lyndsay (q.v.) in his Testament and Complaynt
of the Papyngo. His only political work is The Buik of Alexander
the Conquer 'our, of which a portion, in copy, remains atTaymouth
Castle. He has left three translations, extant in one volume
(in old binding) in the collection of Abbotsford: (a) The Buke
of the Law of Armys or The Buke of Bataillis, a translation of
Honore Bonet's Arbre des balailles; (b) The Buke of the Order
of Knichthood from the Livre de I'ordre de chevalerie; and (c)
The Buke of the Governaunce of Princes, from a French version
of the pseudo-Aristotelian Secreta secretorunt. The second of
these precedes Caxton's independent translation by at least
ten years.
For the Buik of Alexander see Albert Herrmann's The Taymouth
Castle MS. of Sir Gilbert Hay's Buik, &c. (Berlin, 1898). The com-
plete Abbotsford MS. has been reprinted by the Scottish Text Society
(ed. J. H. Stevenson). The first volume, containing The Buke of
the Law of Armys, appeared in 1901. The Order of Knichthood was
rinted by David Laing for the Abbotsford Club (1847). See also
.T.S. edition (u.s.) " Introduction," and Gregory Smith's Specimens
of Middle Scots, in which annotated extracts are given from the
Abbotsford MS., the oldest known example of literary Scots prose.
HAY, JOHN (1838-1905), American statesman and author,
was born at Salem, Indiana, on the 8th of October 1838. He
graduated from Brown University in 1858, studied law in the
office of Abraham Lincoln, was admitted to the bar in Spring-
field, Illinois, in 1861, and soon afterwards was selected by
President Lincoln as assistant private secretary, in which
capacity he served till the president's death, being associated
with John George Nicolay (1832-1901). Hay was secretary of
the U.S. legation at Paris in 1865-1867, at Vienna in 1867-1869
and at Madrid in 1869-1870. After his return he was for five
years an editorial writer on the New York Tribune; in 1879-
1881 he was first assistant secretary of state to W. M. Evarts;
and in 1881 was a delegate to the International Sanitary Con-
ference, which met in Washington, D.C., and of which he was
chosen president. Upon the inauguration of President McKinley
in 1897 Hay was appointed ambassador to Great Britain, from
which post he was transferred in 1898 to that of secretary of
state, succeeding VV. R. Day, who was sent to Paris as a member
of the Peace Conference. He remained in this office until his
death at Newburg, New Hampshire, on the ist of July 1905.
He directed the peace negotiations with Spain after the war of
1898, and not only secured American interests in the imbroglio
caused by the Boxers in China, but grasped the opportunity
to insist on " the administrative entity " of China; influenced
the powers to declare publicly for the " open door " in China;
challenged Russia as to her intentions in Manchuria, securing
a promise to evacuate the country on the 8th of October 1903;
and in 1904 again urged " the administrative entity " of China
and took the initiative in inducing Russia and Japan to " localize
and limit " the area of hostilities. It was largely due to his tact
and good management, in concert with Lord Pauncefote, the
British ambassador, that negotiations for abrogating theClayton-
Bulwer Treaty and for making a new treaty with Great Britain
regarding the Isthmian Canal were successfully concluded at the
end of 1901; subsequently he negotiated treaties with Colombia
and with Panama, looking towards the construction by the
United States of a trans-isthmian canal. He also arranged the
settlement of difficulties with Germany over Samoa in December
1899, and the settlement, by joint commission, of the question
concerning the disputed Alaskan boundary in 1903. John Hay
was a man of quiet and unassuming disposition, whose training
in diplomacy gave a cool and judicious character to his states-
manship. As secretary of state under Presidents McKinley
and Roosevelt his guidance was invaluable during a rather critical
period in foreign affairs, and no man of his time did more to
create confidence in the increased interest taken by the United
States in international matters. He also represented, in another
capacity, the best American traditions namely in literature.
He published Pike County Ballads (1871) the most famous
being " Little Breeches " a volume worthy to rank with Bret
Harte, if not with the Lowell of the Biglow Papers; Castilian
Days (1871), recording his observations in Spain; and a volume
of Poems (1890); with John G. Nicolay he wrote Abraham Lincoln:
A History (10 vols., 1890), a monumental work indispensable
to the student of the Civil War period in America, and published
an edition of Lincoln's Complete Works (2 vols., 1894). The
authorship of the brilliant novel The Breadwinners (1883) is now
certainly attributed to him. Hay was an excellent public speaker ;
some of his best addresses are In Praise of Omar; On the
Unveiling of the Bust of Sir Walter Scott in Westminister
Abbey, May 21, 1897; and a memorial address in honourof
President McKinley.
The best of his previously unpublished speeches appeared in
Addresses of John Hay (1906).
HAY, a town of Waradgery county, New South Wales,
Australia, on the Murrumbidgee river, 454 m. by rail W.S.W. of
Sydney. Pop. (1901), 3012. It is the cathedral town of the
Anglican diocese of Riverina, the terminus of the South Western
railway, and the principal depot for the wool produced at the
numerous stations on the banks of the Murrumbidgee and
Lachlan rivers.
HAY, a market town and urban district of Breconshire,
south Wales, on the Hereford and Brecon section of the Midland
railway, 1645 m. from London, 20 m. W. of Hereford and
17 m. N.E. of Brecon by rail. Pop. (1901), 1680. The Golden
Valley railway to Pontrilas (i8f m.), now a branch of the Great
Western, also starts from Hay. The town occupies rising ground
on the south (right) bank of the Wye, which here separates
the counties of Brecknock and Radnor but immediately below
enters Herefordshire, from which the town is separated on the
E. by the river Dulas.
Leland and Camden ascribe a Roman origin to the town, and
the former states that quantities of Roman coin (called by the
country people " Jews' money ") and some pottery had been
found near by, but of this no other record is known. The
Wye valley in this district served as the gate between the present
counties of Brecknock and Hereford, and, though Welsh con-
tinued for two or three centuries after the Norman Conquest
to be the spoken language of the adjoining part of Herefordshire
south of the Wye (known as Archenfield), there must have been
a " burh " serving as a Mercian outpost at Glasbury, 4 m. W. of
Hay, which was itself several miles west of Offa's Dyke. But
the earliest settlement at Hay probably dates from the Norman
conquest of the district by Bernard Newmarch about 1088
(in which year he granted Glasbury, probably as the first fruits
of his invasion, to St Peter's, Gloucester). The manor of Hay,
which probably corresponded to some existing Welsh division,
he gave to Sir Philip Walwyn, but it soon reverted to the donor,
and its subsequent devolution down to its forfeiture to the
crown as part of the duke of Buckingham's estate in 1521, was
identical with that of the lordship of Brecknock (see BRECON-
SHIRE). The castle, which was probably built in Newmarch's
time and rebuilt by his great-grandson William de Breos, passed
on the latter's attainder to the crown, but was again seized by
de Breos's second son, Giles, bishop of Hereford, in 1215, and re-
taken by King John in the following year. In 1231 it was
burnt by Llewelyn ab lorwerth, and in the Barons' War it was
taken in 1263 by Prince Edward, but in the following year was
burnt by Simon Montfort and the last Llewelyn. From the
1 6th century the castle has been used as a private residence.
io6
HAY
The Welsh name of the town is Y Gelli (" the wood "), or
formerly in full (Y) Gelli ganddryll (literally " the wood all to
pieces "), which roughly corresponds to Sepes Inscissa, by which
name Walter Map (a native of the district) designates it. Its
Norman name, La Haia (from the Fr. haie, cf. English
" hedge "), was probably intended as a translation of Gelli.
The same word is found in Urishay and Oldhay, both between
Hay and the Golden Valley. The town is still locally called the
Hay, as it also is by Leland.
Even down to Leland's time Hay was surrounded by a " right
strong wall," which had three gates and a postern, but the town
within the wall has " wonderfully decayed," its ruin being
ascribed to Owen Glendower, while to the west of it was a
flourishing suburb with the church of St Mary on a precipitous
eminence overlooking the river. This was rebuilt in 1834. The
old parish church of St John within the walls, used as a school-
house in the i7th century, has entirely disappeared. The
Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists, Congregationalists and Primitive
Methodists have a chapel each. The other public buildings are
the market house (1833); a masonic hall, formerly the town hall,
its basement still serving as a cheese market; a clock tower
(18^4); parish hall (1890); and a drill hall. The Wye is here
crossed by an iron bridge built in 1864. There are also eighteen
almshouses for poor women, built and endowed by Miss Frances
Harley in 1832-1836, and Gwyn's almshouses for six aged
persons, founded in 1702 and rebuilt in 1878
Scarcely anything but provisions are sold in the weekly market,
the farmers of the district now resorting to the markets of Brecon
and Hereford. There are good monthly stock fairs and a hiring
fair in May. There is rich agricultural land in the district.
Hay was reputed to be a borough by prescription, but it never
had any municipal institutions. Its manor, like that of Talgarth,
consisted of an Englishry and a Welshery, the latter, known as
Haya Wallensis, comprising the parish of Llanigon with the
hamlet of Glynfach, and in this Welsh tenures and customs
prevailed. The manor is specially mentioned in the act of Henry
VIII. (1535) as one of those which were then taken to constitute
the new county of Brecknock. (D. LL. T.)
HAY (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages;
cf. Ger. Heu, Dutch hooi; the root from which it is derived,
meaning " to cut," is also seen in " to hew "; cf. " hoe "), grass
mown and dried in the sun and used as fodder for cattle. It is
properly applied only to the grass when cut, but is often also used
of the standing crop. (See Haymaking below). Another word
" hay," meaning a fence, must be distinguished; the root from
which it is derived is seen in its doublet " hedge," cf . " haw-thorn,"
i.e. " hedge thorn." In this sense it survives in legal history in
" hay bote," i.e. hedge-bote, the right of a tenant, copyholder,
&c. to take wood to repair fences, hedges, &c. (see ESTOVERS),
and also in " hayward," an official of a manor whose duty was
to protect the enclosed lands from cattle breaking out of the
common land.
Haymaking. The term " haymaking " signifies the process
of drying and curing grass or other herbage so as to fit it for
storage in stacks or sheds for future use. As a regular part of
farm work it was unknown in ancient times. Before its introduc-
tion into Great Britain the animals intended for beef and mutton
were slaughtered in autumn and salted down; the others were
turned out to fend for themselves, and often lost all the fat in
winter they had gained the previous summer. The introduction
of haymaking gave unlimited scope for the production of winter
food, and improved treatment of live stock became possible.
Though every country has its own methods of haymaking,
the principal stages in the process everywhere are: (i) mowing,
(2) drying or " making," (3) " carrying " and storage in stacks
or sheds.
In a wet district such as the west of Ireland the " making "
is a difficult affair and large quantities of hay are often spoiled,
while much labour has to be spent in cocking up, turning over,
ricking, &c., before it is fit to be stacked up. On the other hand,
in the dry districts of south-eastern England it is often possible
to cut and carry the hay without any special " making," as the
sun and wind will dry it quickly enough to fit it for stacking up
without the expenditure of much labour. This rule also applies
to dry countries like the United States and several of the British
colonies, and it is for this reason that most of the modern imple-
ments used for quickly handling a bulk of hay have been invented
or improved in those countries. Forage of all kinds intended for
hay should be cut at or before the flowering stage if possible.
The full growth and food value of the plant are reached then, and
further change consists in the formation and ripening of the seed
at the expense of the leaves and stems, leaving these hard and
woody and of less feeding value.
Grass or other forage, when growing, contains a large pro-
portion of water, and after cutting must be left to dry in the sun
and wind, a process which may at times be assisted by turning
over or shaking up. In fine weather in the south of England
grass is sufficiently dried in from two to four days to be stacked
straight away. In Scotland or other districts where the rainfall
is heavy and the air moist, it is first put into small field-
ricks or " pykes " of from 10 to 20 cwt. each. In the drying
process the 75% of water usually present in grass should be
reduced to approximately 15% in the hay, and in wet or broken
weather it is exceedingly difficult to secure this reduction. With
a heavy crop or in damp weather grass may need turning in the
swathe, raking up into " windrows," and then making up into
cocks or " quiles," i.e. round beehive-like heaps, before it can
be " carried." A properly made cock will stand bad weather
for a week, as only the outside straws are weathered, and there-
fore the hay is kept fresh and green. Indeed, it is a good rule
always to cock hay, for even in sunny weather undue exposure
ends in bleaching, which is almost as detrimental to its quality
as wet-weathering.
In the last quarter of the igth century the methods of hay-
making were completely changed, and even some of the principles
underlying its practice were revised. Generally speaking, before
that time the only implements used were the scythe, the rake
and the pitchfork; nowadays with the exception of the
pitchfork these implements are seldom used, except where
the work is carried on in a small way. Instead of the scythe, for
instance, the mowing machine is employed for cutting the crop,
and with a modern improved machine taking a swathe as wide
as 5 or 6 ft. some 10 acres per day can easily be mown by one
man and a pair of horses (figs, i and 2).
It will be seen from the figures that a mower consists of three
principal parts: (i) a truck or carriage on two high wheels carrying
the driving gear; (2) the cutting mechanism, comprising a reciprocat-
ing knife or sickle operating through slots in the guards or " fingers "
FlG. I. Mower (viewed from above) with enlarged detail of Blade.
(Harrison, M'Gregor & Co.)
fastened to the cutting .bar which projects to either the right or
left of the truck; and (3) the pole with whippletrees, by which the
horses are attached to give the motive power. The reciprocating
knife has a separate blade to correspond to each finger, and is driven
by a connecting rod and crank on the fore part of the truck. In
work the pointed " fingers " pass in between the stalks of grass
and the knives shear them off, acting against the fingers as the crank
drives them backwards and forwards. In the swathe of grass left
HAY
10
7
behind by the machine, the stalks are, in a manner, thatched over
one another, so that it is in the best position for drying in the sun,
or, per contra, for shedding off the rain if the weather is wet. This
is a great point in favour of the use of the machine, because the
swathe left by the scythe required to be " tedded " out, i.e. the grass
had to be shaken out or spread to allow it to be more easily dried.
After the grass has lain in the swathe a day or two till it is
partly dried, it is necessary to turn it over to dry the other side.
This used to be done with the hand rake, and a band of men or
women would advance in echelon across a field, each turning the
FIG. 2. Mower (side view).
swathe of hay by regular strokes of the rake at each step:
" driving the dusky wave along the mead " as described in
Thomson's Seasons. This part of the work was the act of
" haymaking " proper, and the subject of much sentiment in
both prose and poetry. The swathes as laid by the mowing
machine lent themselves to this treatment in the old days when
the swathe was only some 3 to 4 ft. wide, but with the wide cut
of the present day it becomes impracticable. If the hay is
turned and " made " at all, the operation is now generally
performed by a machine made for the purpose. There is a wide
selection of " tedders " or " kickers," and " swathe-turners "
on the market. The one illustrated in fig. 3 is the first prize
winner at the Royal Agricultural Society's trials (1907). It
upward and forward, then downward and rearward, in an
elliptical path, and kick the hay sharply to the rear, thus scatter-
ing and turning it.
It is a moot point, however, whether grass should be turned
at all, or left to " make " as it falls from the mowing machine. In
a dry sunny season and with a moderate crop it is only a waste
of time and labour to turn it, for it will be cured quite well as it
lies, especially if raked up into loose " windrows " a little before
carrying to the stack. On the other hand, where the crop is heavy
(say over 2 tons per acre) or the climate is wet, turning will be
necessary.
With heavy crops of clover, lucerne and similar forage crops,
turning may be an absolute necessity, because a thick swathe of
a succulent crop will be difficult to dry or " make " excepting in
hot sunny weather, but with ordinary meadow grass or with a
mixture of " artificial " grasses it may often be dispensed with.
It must be remembered, however, that the process of turning
breaks the stalks (thus letting out the albuminoid and saccharine
juices), and should be avoided as far as possible in order to save
both labour and the quality of the hay.
One of the earlier mechanical inventions in connexion with hay-
making was that of the horse rake (fig. 4). Before its introduction
the hay, after making, had to be gathered up by the hand rake
a tedious and laborious process but the introduction of this imple-
ment, whereby one horse and one man can do work before requiring
six or eight men, marked a great advance. The horse rake is a
framework on two wheels carrying hinged steel teeth placed 3 in.
apart, so that their points slide along the ground below the hay.
In work it gathers up the loose hay, and when full a tipping mechan-
ism permits the emptying of the load.
The tipping is effected by pulling down a handle which sets a
leverage device in motion, whereby the teeth are lifted up and the
load of hay dropped below and left behind. On some rakes a
FlG. 3. Swathe-turner. (Blackstone & Co., Ltd.).
takes two swathes at a time, and it will be seen that the working
part consists of a wheel or circle of prongs or tines, which revolves
across the line of the swathe. Each prong in turn catches the
edge of the swathe of grass and kicks it up and over, thus turning
it and leaving it loose for the wind to blow through.
The " kicker " is mounted on two wheels, and carries in
bearings at the rear of the frame a multiple-cranked shaft,
provided with a series of forks sleeved on the cranks and having
their upper ends connected by links to the frame. As the crank-
shaft is driven from the wheels by proper gearing the forks move
FIG. 4. Self-acting Horse Rake. (Ransomes, Sims
& Jefferies. Ltd.).
clutch is worked by the driver's foot, and this put in action causes
the ordinary forward revolving motion of the driving wheels to do
the tipping.
The loads are tipped end to end as the rake passes and repasses
at the work, and thus the hay is left loose in long parallel rows on
the field. Each row is termed a " windrow," the passage of the wind
through the hay greatly aiding the drying and " making " thereof.
When hay is in this form it may either be carried direct to the stack
if sufficiently " made," or else put into cocks to season a little longer.
The original width of horse rakes was about 8 ft., but nowadays
they range up to 16 and 18 ft. The width should be suited to that
of the swathes as left by the mower, and as the latter is now made
to cut 5 and 6 ft. wide, it is necessary to have a rake to cover two
widths. The very wide rakes are only suitable for even, level land;
those of less width must be used where the land has been laid down
in ridge and furrow. As the swathes lie in long parallel rows, it is a
great convenience in working for two to be taken in width at a time,
so that the horse can walk in the space between.
The side-delivery rake, a development of the ordinary horse rake,
is a useful implement, adapted for gathering and laying a quantity
of hay in one continuous windrow. It is customary with this to
go up the field throwing two swathes to one side, and then back
down on the adjacent swathes, so that thus four are thrown into one
central windrow. The implement consists of a frame carried on two
wheels with shafts for a horse; across the frame are fixed travelling
or revolving prongs of different varieties which pick up the hay off
the ground and pass it along sideways across the line of travel,
leaving it in one continuous line. Some makes of swathe-turners
are designed to do this work as well as the turning of the hay.
Perhaps the greatest improvement of modern times is the method
io8
HAY
of carrying the hay from the field to the stack. An American in-
vention known as the sweep rake was introduced by the writer into
England in 1894, and now in many modified forms is in very general
use in the Midlands and south of England, where the hay is carried
from the cock, windrow or swathe straight to the stack. This
implement consists of a wheeled framework fitted with long wooden
iron-pointed teeth which slide along the ground ; two horses are
yoked to it one at each side the driver directing from a central
seat behind the framework. When in use it is taken to the farther
end of a row of cocks, a windrow, or even to a row of untouched
swathes on the ground, and walked forward. As it advances it
scoops up a load, and when full is drawn to where the stack is being
erected (fig. 5). In ordinary circumstances the sweep rake will
FIG. 5. Sweep Rake.
pick up at a load two-thirds of an ordinary cart-load, but, where
the hay is in good order and it is swept down hill, a whole one-horse
cart-load can be carried each time. The drier the hay the better
will the sweep rake work, and if it is not working sweetly but has a
tendency to clog or make rolls of hay, it may be inferred that the
latter is not in a condition fit for stacking. Where the loads must
be taken through a gateway or a long distance to the stack, it is
necessary to use carts or wagons, and the loading of these in the field
out of the windrow is largely expedited by the use of the " loader,"
also an American invention of which many varieties are in the market.
Generally speaking, it consists of a frame carrying a revolving web
with tines or prongs. The implement is hitched on behind a cart
or wagon, and as it moves forward the web picks the loose hay off
the ground and delivers it on the top, where a man levels it with a
pitchfork and builds it into a load ready to move to the stack.
At the stack the most convenient method of transferring the hay
from a cart, wagon or sweep rake is the elevator, a tall structure
with a revolving web carrying teeth or spikes (fig. 6). The hay is
thrown in forkfuls on at the bottom, a pony-gear causes the web to
revolve, and the hay is carried in an ahnost continuous stream up the
elevator and dropped over the top on to the stack. The whole imple-
ment is made to fold down, and is provided with wheels so that it
can be moved from stack to stack. In the older forms there is a
" hopper " or box at the bottom into which the hay is thrown to
enable the teeth of the web to catch it, but in the modern forms
there is no hopper, the web reaching down to the ground so that hay
can be picked up from the ground level. Where the hay is brought
to the stack on carts or wagons it can be unloaded by means of the
horse fork. This is an adaptation of the principle of the ordinary
crane; a central pole and jib are supported by guy ropes, and from
the end of the jib a rope runs over a pulley. At the end of this
rope is a " fork " formed of two sets of prongs which open and shut.
This is lowered on to the load of hay, the prongs are forced into it,
a horse pulls at the other end of the rope, and the prongs close and
" grab " several cwt. of hay which are swung up and dropped on the
stack. In this way a large cart or wagon load is hoisted on to the
stack in three or four " forkfuls." The horse fork is not suited
for use with the sweep rake, however, because the hay is brought
up to the stack in a loose flat heap without sufficient body for the
fork to get hold of.
In northern and wet districts of England it is customary to
" make " the hay as in the south, but it is then built up into
little stacks in the field where it grew (ricks, pykes or tramp-
cocks are names used for these in different districts), each con-
taining about 10 to 15 cwt. These are made in the same
way as the ordinary stack one person on top building, another
on the grouud pitching up the hay and are carefully roped and
raked down. In these the hay gets a preliminary sweating or
tempering while at the same time it is rendered safe from the
weather, and; thus stored, it may remain for weeks before being
carried to the big stacks at the homestead. The practice of
putting up the hay into little ricks in the field has brought about
the introduction of another set of implements for carrying these
to the stackyard.
Various forms of rick-lifters are in use, the characteristic feature
of which is a tipping platform on wheels to which a horse is attached
between shafts. The vehicle is backed against a rick, and a chain
passed round the bottom of the latter, which is then pulled up the
slant of the tipped platform by means of a small windlass. When
the centre of the balance is passed, the platform carrying the rick
tips back to the level, and the whole is thus loaded ready to move.
Another variety of loader is formed of three shear-legs with block
and tackle. These are placed over a rick, under which the grab-
irons are passed, and the whole hauled up by a horse. When high
enough a cart is backed in below, the rick lowered, and the load is
ready to carry away.
When put into a stack the next stage in curing the hay begins
the heating or sweating. In the growing plants the tissues are
composed of living cells containing protoplasm. This continues
its life action as long as it gets sufficient moisture and air. As
life action involves the development of heat, the temperature in
a confined space like a stack where the heat is not dissipated may
rise to such a point that spontaneous combustion occurs. The
chemical or physical reasons for this are not very well under-
stood. The starch and sugar contents of the tissues are changed
in part into alcohol. In the analogous process of making silage
(i.e. stacking wet green grass in a closed building) the alcohol
develops into acetic acid, thus making " sour " silage. In a hay-
stack the intermediate body, acetaldehyde, which is both inflam-
mable and suffocating, is produced men having been suffocated
when sleeping on the top of a heating stack. The production of
this gas leads to slow combustion and ignition. One explanation
of the process is that the protoplasm of the cells acts as a ferment-
ing agent (like yeast) until a temperature sufficient to kill germ
life, say 150 F., is reached, beyond which the action which leads
up to the temperature of ignition must be purely chemical. If
the stack contains no air at all it does not heat, or if it has excess
FIG. 6. Hay Elevator. (Maldon Iron Works Co.).
of air it is safe. The danger-point in a stack is the centre at
about 6 ft. from the ground; below this the weight of the hay
itself squeezes out the air, ana at the sides and top the heat is
dissipated outwaids. If a stack shows signs of overheating
(a process that may take weeks or even months to develop) it
can be saved by cutting a gap in the side of it with the hay knife,
thus letting out the heat and fumes, and admitting fresh air to
the centre. The essential point in haymaking is that the hay
should be dried sufficiently to ensure the sweating process in the
stack reaching no further than the stage of the formation of
HAYASHI HAYDN
109
sugar. Good hay should come out green and with the odour of
coumarin to which is due the scent of new-mown hay. Only
part of a stack can ever attain to a perfect state: the tops,
bottom and outsides are generally wasted by the weather after
stacking, while there may be three or four intermediate qualities
present. In some markets hay that has been sweated till it is
brown in colour is desired, but for general purposes green hay is
the best.
Hay often becomes musty when the weather during " making "
has been too wet to allow of its getting sufficiently dry for stack-
ing. Mustiness is caused by the growth of various moulds
(Penicillium, Aspergillus, &c.) on the damp stems, with the
result that the hay when cut out for use is dusty and shows
white streaks and spots. Such hay is inferior to that which
has been overheated, and in practice it is found that a strong
heating will prevent mouldiness by killing the fungi.
Heavy lush crops especially those containing a large propor-
tion of clover or other leguminous plants are proportionately
more difficult to " make " than light grassy ones. Thus, if one
ton is taken as a fair yield off one acre, a two-ton crop will
probably require four times as much work in curing as the
smaller crop. In the treacherous climate of Great Britain hay
is frequently spoiled because the weather does not hold good long
enough to permit of its being properly " made." Consequently
many experienced haymakers regard a moderate crop as the
more profitable because it can be stacked in first-class condition,
whereas a heavy crop forced by " high farming " is grown at a
loss, owing to the weather waste and the heavier expenses in-
volved in securing it.
In handling or marketing out of the stack hay may be transported
loose on a cart or wagon, but it is more usual to truss or bale it.
A truss is a rectangular block cut out of the solid stack, usually
about 3 ft. long and 2 ft. wide, and of a thickness sufficient to give a
weight of 56 ft : thirty-six of these constitute a " load " of 18 cwt.
the unit of sale in many markets. A truss is generally bound with
two bands of twisted straw, but if it has to undergo much handling
it is compressed in a hay-press and tied with two string bands.
In some districts a baler is used : a square box with a compressible
lid. The hay is tumbled in loose, the lid forced down by a leverage
arrangement and the bale tied by three strings. It is usually made
to weigh from I to 1 1 cwt. The customs of different markets vary
very much in their methods of handling hay, and in the overseas
hay trade the size and style of the trusses or bales are adapted for
packing on ship-board.
HAYASHI, TADASU, COUNT (1850- ), Japanese states-
man, was born in Tokyo (then Yedo), and was one of the first
batch of students sent by the Tokugawa government to study
in England. He returned on the eve of the abolition of the
Shogunate, and followed Enomoto (q.v.) when the latter, sailing
with the Tokugawa fleet to Yezo, attempted to establish a
republic there in defiance of the newly organized government of
the emperor. Thrown into prison on account of this affair,
Hayashi did not obtain office until 1871. Thereafter he rose
rapidly, until, after a long period of service as vice-minister of
foreign affairs, he was appointed to represent his country first
in Peking, then in St Petersburg and finally in London, where
he acted an important part in negotiating the first Anglo-
Japanese Alliance, for which service he received the title of
viscount. He remained in London throughout the Russo-
Japanese War, and was the first Japanese ambassador at the
court of St James after the war. Returning to Tokyo in 1906
to take the portfolio of foreign affairs, he remained in office
until the resignation of the Saionji cabinet in 1908. He was raised
to the rank of count for eminent services performed during the
war between his country and Russia, and in connexion with
the second Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1905.
HAYDEN, FERDINAND VANDEVEER (1820-1887), American
geologist, was born at Westfield, Massachusetts, on the 7th of
September 1829. He graduated from Oberlin College in 1850 and
from the Albany Medical College in 1853, where he attracted
the notice of Professor James Hall, state geologist of New York,
through whose influence he was induced to join in an exploration
of Nebraska. In 1856 he was engaged under the United States
government, and commenced a series of investigations of the
Western Territories, one result of which was his Geological
Report of the Exploration of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers
in 1859-1860 (1869). During the Civil War he was actively
employed as an army surgeon. In 1867 he was appointed
geologist-in-charge of the United States Geological and Geo-
graphical Survey of the Territories, and from his twelve years
of labour there resulted a most valuable series of volumes in all
branches of natural history and economic science; and he issued
in 1877 his Geological and Geographical Atlas of Colorado. Upon
the reorganization and establishment of the United States
Geological Survey in 1879 he acted for seven years as one of the
geologists. He died at Philadelphia on the 22nd of December
1887.
His other publications were: Sun Pictures of Rocky Mountain
Scenery (1870); The Yellowstone National Park, illustrated by
chromolithographic reproductionsof water-colour sketches by Thomas
Moran (1876) ; The Great West : its Attractions and Resources (1880).
With F. B. Meek, he wrote (Smithsonian Institution Contributions,
v. 14. Art. 4) " Palaeontology of the Upper Missouri, Pt. I, Inverte-
brate." His valuable notes on Indian dialects are in The Transactions
of the American Philosophical Society (1862). in The American Journal
of Science (1862) and in The Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society (1869). With A. R. C. Selwyn he wrote North America (1883)
for Stanford's Compendium.
HAYDN, FRANZ JOSEPH (1732-1809), Austrian composer,
was born on the 3ist of March 1732 at Rohrau (Trstnik), a village
on the borders of Lower Austria and Hungary. There is sufficient
evidence that his family was of Croatian stock: a fact which
throws light upon the distinctively Slavonic character of much
of his music. He received the first rudiments of education from
his father, a wheelwright with twelve children, and at an early
age evinced a decided musical talent. This attracted the atten-
tion of a distant relative named Johann Mathias Frankh, who
was schoolmaster in the neighbouring town of Hainburg, and
who, in 1738, took the child and for the next two years trained
him as a chorister. In 1 740, on the recommendation of the Dean
of Hainburg, Haydn obtained a place in the cathedral choir of
St Stephen's, Vienna, where he took the solo-part in the services
and received, at the choir school, some further instruction on
the violin and the harpsichord. In 1 749 his voice broke, and the
director, Georg von Reutter, took the occasion of a boyish
escapade to turn him into the streets. A few friends lent him
money and found him pupils, and in this way he was enabled to
enter upon a rigorous course of study (he is said to have worked
for sixteen hours a day), partly devoted to Fux's treatise on
counterpoint, partly to the " Friedrich " and " Wiirttemberg "
sonatas of C. P. E. Bach, from which he gained his earliest
acquaintance with the principles of musical structure. The
first fruits of his work were a comic opera, Der neue .krumme
Teufel, and a Mass in F major (both written in 1751), the
former of which was produced with success. About the same
time he made the acquaintance of Metastasio, who was lodging
in the same house, and who introduced him to one or two patrons;
among others Senor Martinez, to whose daughter he gave lessons,
and Porpora, who, in 1753, took him for the summer to Manners-
dorf, and there gave him instruction in singing and in the Italian
language.
The turning-point of his career came in 1755, when he accepted
an invitation to the country-house of Freiherr von Fiirnberg,
an accomplished amateur who was in the habit of collecting
parties of musicians for the performance of chamber-works.
Here Haydn wrote, in rapid succession, eighteen divertimenti
which include his first symphony and his first quartet; the two
earliest examples of the forms with which his name is most
closely associated. Thenceforward his prospects improved.
On his return to Vienna in 1756 he became famous as teacher
and composer, in 1759 he was appointed conductor to the private
band of Count Morzin, for whom he wrote several orchestral
works (including a symphony in D major erroneously called
his first), and in 1760 he was promoted to the sub-directorship
of Prince Paul Esterhazy's Kapelle, at that time the best in
Austria. During the tenure of his appointment with Count
Morzin he married the daughter of a Viennese hairdresser named
Keller, who had befriended him in his days of poverty, but the
I IO
HAYDN
marriage turned out ill and he was shortly afterwards separated
from his wife, though he continued to support her until her death
in 1800. From 1760 to 1790 he remained with the Esterhazys,
principally at their country-seats of Esterhaz and Eisenstadt,
with occasional visits to Vienna in the winter. In 1762 Prince
Paul Esterhazy died and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas,
surnamed the Magnificent, who increased Haydn's salary,
showed him every mark of favour, and, on the death of Werner
in 1766, appointed him Oberkapellmeister . With the encourage-
ment of a discriminating patron, a small but excellent orchestra
and a free hand, Haydn made the most of his opportunity and
produced a continuous stream of compositions in every known
musical form. To this period belong five Masses, a dozen
operas, over thirty clavier-sonatas, over forty quartets, over a
hundred orchestral symphonies and overtures, a Stabat Mater,
a set of interludes for the service of the Seven Words, an Oratorio
Tobias written for the Tonkiinstler '-Societal of Vienna, and a
vast number of concertos, divertimenti and smaller pieces, among
which were no less than 175 for Prince Nicholas' favourite
instrument, the baryton.
Meanwhile his reputation was spreading throughout Europe.
A Viennese notice of his appointment as Oberkapellmeister spoke
of him as " the darling of our nation," his works were reprinted
or performed in every capital from Madrid to St Petersburg.
He received commissions from the cathedral of Cadiz, from the
grand duke Paul, from the king of Prussia, from the directors
of the Concert Spiriluel at Paris; beside his transactions with
Breitkopf and Hartel, and with La Chevardiere, he sold to one
English firm the copyright of no less than 129 compositions.
But the most important fact of biography during these thirty
years was his friendship with Mozart, whose acquaintance he
made at Vienna in the winter of 1781-1782. There can have been
little personal intercourse between them, for Haydn was rarely
in the capital, and Mozart seems never to have visited Eisenstadt ;
but the cordiality of their relations and the mutual influence
which they exercised upon one another are of the highest moment
in the history of 18th-century music. " It was from Haydn that
I first learned to write a quartet," said Mozart; it was from
Mozart that Haydn learned the richer style and the fuller
mastery of orchestral effect by which his later symphonies are
distinguished.
In 1790 Prince Nicholas Esterhazy died and the Kapelle was
disbanded. Haydn, thus released from his official duties, forth-
with accepted a commission from Salomon, the London concert-
director, to write and conduct six symphonies for the concerts in
the Hanover Square Rooms. He arrived in England at the
beginning of 1791 and was welcomed with the greatest enthusiasm,
receiving among other honours the degree of D Mus. from the
university of Oxford. In June 1792 he returned home, and,
breaking his journey at Bonn, was presented with a Cantata by
Beethoven, then aged two-and-twenty, whom he invited to come
to Vienna as his pupil. The lessons, which were not very success-
ful, lasted for about a year, and were then interrupted by Haydn's
second visit to England (January 1794 to July 1795), where he
produced the last six of his " Salomon " symphonies. From
1795 onward he resided in the Mariahilf suburb of Vienna, and
there wrote his last eight Masses, the last and finest of his chamber
works, the Austrian national anthem (1797), the Creation (1799)
and the Seasons (1801). His last choral composition which can
be dated with any certainty was the Mass in C minor, written
in 1802 for the name-day of Princess Esterhazy. Thence-
forward his health declined, and his closing years, surrounded
by the love of friends and the esteem of all musicians, were spent
almost wholly in retirement. On the 27th of March 1808 he
was able to attend a performance of the Creation, given in his
honour, but it was his last effort, and on the 3ist of May 1809
he died, aged seventy-seven. Among the mourners who followed
him to the grave were many French officers from Napoleon's
army, which was then occupying Vienna.
Haydn's place in musical history is best determined by his
instrumental compositions. His operas, for all their daintiness
and melody, no longer hold the stage; the Masses in which he
" praised God with a cheerful heart " have been condemned
by the severer decorum of our own day; of his oratorios the
Creation alone survives. In all these his work belongs mainly
to the style and idiom of a bygone generation: they are monu-
ments, not landmarks, and their beauty and invention seem
rather to close an epoch than to inaugurate its successor. Even
the naif pictorial suggestion, of which free use is made in the
Creation and in the Seasons, is closer to the manner of Handel
than to that of the igth century: it is less the precursor of
romance than the descendant of an earlier realism. But as the
first great master of the quartet and the symphony his claim
is incontestable. He began, half-consciously, by applying
through the fuller medium the lessons of design which he had
learned from C. P. E. Bach's sonatas; then the medium itself
began to suggest wider horizons and new possibilities of treat-
ment; his position at Eisenstadt enabled him to experiment
without reserve; his genius, essentially symphonic in character,
found its true outlet in the opportunities of pure musical structure.
The quartets in particular exhibit a wider range and variety of
structural invention than those of any other composer except
Beethoven. Again it is here that we can most readily trace
the important changes which he wrought in melodic idfbm.
Before his time instrumental music was chiefly written for the
Paradiesensaal, and its melody often sacrificed vitality of idea
to a ceremonial courtliness of phrase. Haydn broke through this
convention by frankly introducing his native folk-music, and
by writing many of his own tunes in the same direct, vigorous
and simple style. The innovation was at first received with
some disfavour; critics accustomed to polite formalism censured
it as extravagant and undignified; but the freshness and beauty
of its melody soon silenced all opposition, and did more than
anything else throughout the i8th century to establish the
principle of nationalism in musical art. The actual employment
of Croatian folk-tunes may be illustrated from the string
quartets Op. 17, No. i; Op. 33. No. 3; Op. 50, No. i; Op. 77,
No. i, and the Salomon Symphonies in D and Eb, while there
is hardly an instrumental composition of Haydn's in which his
own melodies do not show some traces of the same influence.
His natural idiom in short was that of a heightened and ennobled
folk-song, and one of the most remarkable evidences of his genius
was the power with which he adapted all his perfection and
symmetry of style to the requirements of popular speech. His
music is in this way singularly expressive; its humour and pathos
are not only absolutely sincere, but so outspoken that we cannot
fail to catch their significance.
In the development of instrumental polyphony Haydn's
work was almost as important as that of Mozart. Having at
his disposal a band of picked virtuosi he could produce effects
as different from the tentative experiments of C. P. E. Bach
as these were from the orchestral platitudes of Reutter or Hasse.
His symphony Le Midi (written in 1761) already shows a remark-
able freedom and independence in the handling of orchestral
forces, and further stages of advance were reached in the oratorio
of Tobias, in the Paris and Salomon symphonies, and above all
in the Creation, which turns to good account some of the debt
which he owed to his younger contemporary. The importance
of this lies not only in a greater richness of musical colour, but
in the effect which it produced on the actual substance and
texture of composition. The polyphony of Beethoven was
unquestionably influenced by it and, even in his latest sonatas
and quartets, may be regarded as its logical outcome.
The compositions of Haydn include 104 symphonies, 16 overtures,
76 quartets, 68 trios, 54 sonatas, 31 concertos and a large number of
divertimentos, cassations and other instrumental pieces ; 24 operas and
dramatic pieces, 16 Masses, a Stabat Mater, interludes for the " Seven
Words," 3 oratorios, 2 Te Deums and many smaller pieces for the
church, over 40 songs, over 50 canons and arrangements of Scottish
and Welsh national melodies.
His younger brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HAYDN (1737-1806),
was also a chorister at St Stephen's, and shortly after leaving
the choir-school was appointed Kapellmeister at Grosswardein
(1755) and at Salzburg (1762). The latter office he held for forty-
three years, during which time he wrote over 360 compositions
HAYDON, B. R.
in
for the church and much instrumental music, which, though
unequal, deserves more consideration than it has received.
He was the intimate friend of Mozart, who had a high opinion
of his genius, and the teacher of C. M. von Weber. His most
important works were the Missa hispanica, which he exchanged
for his diploma at Stockholm, a Mass in D minor, a Lauda
Sion, a set of graduals, forty-two of which are reprinted
in Diabelli's Ecclesiasticon, three symphonies (1785), and a
string quintet in C major which has been erroneously attri-
buted to Joseph Haydn. Another brother, JOHANN EVANGELIST
HAYDN (1743-1805), gained some reputation as a tenor vocalist,
and was for many years a member of Prince Esterhazy's
Kapelle.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. S. Mayr, Brevi notizie storiche della vita e dette
opere di Giuseppe Haydn (1809); Griesinger, Biographische Notizen
iiber Joseph Haydn (1810); Carpani, Le Haydeni (1812 and 1823);
Borabet (M. de Stendhal), Vies de Haydn, de Mozart et de Metastase
(Paris, 1854) ; Karajan, Joseph Haydn in London (1861) ; C. F. Pohl,
Mozart und Haydn in London (1867); Joseph Haydn (vol. i. 1875,
vol. ii. 1882 : this, the standard biography, was left unfinished at
Dr Pohl's death and needs a third volume to complete it) ; article
on Haydn in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians; Fr. S.
Kuhac, Josip Haydn i Hravatske Narodne Popievke (Joseph Haydn
and the Croatian Folk-songs) (Agram, 1880); A. Niggli, Joseph
Haydn, sein Leben und Werken (Basel, 1882); L. Nohl, Biographie
Haydns (Leipzig, Reclam) ; P. D. Townsend; Joseph Haydn
(London, 1884), Biography in H. Reimann's Beriihmte Musiker
(Berlin, 1898) ; J. C. Hadden, Joseph Haydn (Great Musicians series)
(London, 1902). To these should be added the list of Haydn's sym-
phonies printed in Alfred Wotquenne's Catalogue de la Bibliotheque
du Conservatoire Royal de Bruxelles, vol. ii. (1902). (W. H. HA.)
HAYDON, BENJAMIN ROBERT (1786-1846), English
historical painter and writer, was born at Plymouth on the
26th of January 1786. His mother was the daughter of the
Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector of Dodbrook, Devon, whose son,
General Sir Thomas Cobley, signalized himself in the Russian
service at the siege of Ismail. His father, a prosperous printer,
stationer and publisher, was a man of literary taste, and was
well known and esteemed amongst all classes in Plymouth.
Haydon, an only son, at an early date gave evidence of his
taste for study, which was carefully fostered and promoted by
his mother. At the age of six he was placed in Plymouth
grammar school, and at twelve in Plympton St Mary school.
He completed his education in this institution, where Sir Joshua
Reynolds also had acquired all the scholastic training he ever
received. On the ceiling of the school-room was a sketch by
Reynolds in burnt cork, which it used to be Haydon's delight
to sit and contemplate. Whilst at school he had some thought
of adopting the medical profession, but he was so shocked at
the sight of an operation that he gave up the idea. A perusal
of Albinus, however, inspired him with a love for anatomy;
and Reynolds's discourses revived within him a smouldering
taste for painting, which from childhood had been the absorbing
idea of his mind.
Sanguine of success, full of energy and vigour, he started from
the parental roof, on the I4th of May 1804, for London, and
entered his name as a student of the Royal Academy. He began
and prosecuted his studies with such unwearied ardour that
Fuseli wondered when he ever found time to eat. At the age
of twenty-one (1807) Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at
the Royal Academy, " The Repose in Egypt," which was bought
by Mr Thomas Hope the year after. This was a good start for
the young artist, who shortly received a commission from Lord
Mulgrave and an introduction to Sir George Beaumont. In
1809 he finished his well-known picture of " Dentatus," which,
though it brought him a great increase of fame, involved him
in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee
had hung the picture in a small side-room instead of the great
hall. In 1810 his difficulties began through the stoppage of an
allowance of 20x3 a year he had received from his father. His
disappointment was embittered by the controversies in which
he now became involved with Sir George Beaumont, for whom
he had painted his picture of " Macbeth," and Payne Knight,
who had denied the beauties as well as the money value of the
Elgin Marbles. " The Judgment of Solomon," his next pro-
duction, gained him 700, besides 100 voted to him by the
directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the
borough of Plymouth. To recruit his health and escape for a
time from the cares of London life, Haydon joined his intimate
friend Wilkie in a trip to Paris; he studied at the Louvre;
and on his return to England produced his " Christ's Entry into
Jerusalem," which afterwards formed the nucleus of the
American Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin, John
Haviland of Philadelphia. Whilst painting another large work,
the " Resurrection of Lazarus," his pecuniary difficulties
increased, and for the first time he was arrested but not im-
prisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance.
Amidst all these harassing cares he married in October 1821 a
beautiful young widow who had some children, Mrs Hyman, to
whom he was devotedly attached.
In 1823 Haydon was lodged in the King's Bench, where he
received consoling letters from the first men of the day. Whilst
a prisoner he drew up a petition to parliament in favour of the
appointment of " a committee to inquire into the state of en-
couragement of historical painting," which was presented by
Brougham. He also, during a second imprisonment in 1827,
produced the picture of the " Mock Election," the idea of which
had been suggested by an incident that happened in the prison.
The king (George IV.) gave him 500 for this work. Among
Haydon's other pictures were 1829, " Eucles " and " Punch ";
1 83 1, "Napoleon at St Helena," for Sir Robert Peel; "Xeno-
phon, on his Retreat with the ' Ten Thousand,' first seeing
the Sea "; and " Waiting for the Times," purchased by the
marquis of Stafford; 1832, " Falstaff " and "Achilles playing
the Lyre." In 1834 he completed the " Reform Banquet," for
Lord Grey this painting contained 197 portraits; in 1843,
" Curtius Leaping into the Gulf," and " Uriel and Satan."
There was also the " Meeting of the Anti-Slavery Society,"
energetically treated, now in the National Portrait Gallery.
When the competition took place at Westminster Hall, Haydon
sent two cartoons, " The Curse of Adam " and " Edward the
Black Prince," but, with some unfairness, he was not allowed
a prize for either. He then painted " The Banishment of Aris-
tides," which was exhibited with other productions under the
same roof where the American dwarf Tom Thumb was then
making his debut in London. The exhibition was unsuccessful;
and the artist's difficulties increased to such an extent that,
whilst employed on his last grand effort, " Alfred and the Trial
by Jury," overcome by debt, disappointment and ingratitude,
he wrote " Stretch me no longer on this rough world," and put
an end to his existence with a pistol-shot, on the 22nd of June
1 846, in the sixty-first year of his age. He left a widow and three
children (various others had died), who, by the generosity of
their father's friends, were rescued from their pecuniary diffi-
culties and comfortably provided for; amongst the foremost
of these friends were Sir Robert Peel, Count D'Orsay, Mr Justice
Talfourd and Lord Carlisle.
Haydon began his first lecture on painting and design in
1835, and afterwards visited all the principal towns in England
and Scotland. His delivery was energetic and imposing, his
language powerful, flowing and apt, and replete with wit and
humour; and to look at the lecturer, excited by his subject,
one could scarcely fancy him a man overwhelmed with difficulties
and anxieties. The height of Haydon's ambition was to behold
the chief buildings of his country adorned with historical repre-
sentations of her glory. He lived to see the acknowledgment
of his principles by government in the establishment of schools
of design, and the embellishment of the new houses of parliament ;
but in the competition of artists for the carrying out of this
object, the commissioners (amongst whom was one of his former
pupils) considered, or affected to consider, that he had failed.
Haydon was well versed in all points of his profession; and his
Lectures, which were published shortly after their delivery,
showed that he was as bold a writer as painter. It may be
mentioned in this connexion that he was the author of the long
and elaborate article, " Painting," in the 7th edition of the
Encyclopaedia Brilannica.
112
HAYES, R. B.
To form a correct estimate of Haydon it is necessary to read
his autobiography. This is one of the most natural books ever
written, full of various and abundant power, and fascinating
to the reader. The author seems to have daguerreotyped his
feelings and sentiments without restraint as they rose in his
mind, and his portrait stands in these volumes limned to the
life by his own hand. His love for his art was both a passion
and a principle. He found patrons difficult to manage; and,
not having the tact to lead them gently, he tried to drive them
fiercely. He failed, abused patrons and patronage, and inter-
mingled talk of the noblest independence with acts not always
dignified. He was self-willed to perversity, but his perseverance
was such as is seldom associated with so much vehemence and
passion. With a large fund of genuine self-reliance he combined
a considerable measure of vanity. To the last he believed in his
own powers and in the ultimate triumph of art. In taste he was
deficient, at least as concerned himself. Hence the tone of self-
assertion which he assumed in his advertisements, catalogues
and other appeals to the public. He proclaimed himself the
apostle and martyr of high art, and, not without some justice, he
believed himself to have on that account a claim on the sympathy
and support of the nation. It must be confessed that he often
tested severely those whom he called his friends. Every reader of
his autobiography will be struck at the frequency and fervour
of the short prayers interspersed throughout the work. Haydon
had an overwhelming sense of a personal, overruling and merciful
providence, which influenced his relations with his family,
and to some extent with the world. His conduct as a husband
and father entitles him to the utmost sympathy. In art his powers
and attainments were undoubtedly very great, although his
actual performances mostly fall short of the faculty which was
manifestly within him; his general range and force of mind
were also most remarkable, and would have qualified him to
shine in almost any path of intellectual exertion or of practical
work. His eager and combative character was partly his
enemy; but he had other enemies actuated by motives as
unworthy as his own were always high-pitched and on abstract
grounds laudable. Of his three great works the " Solomon,"
the " Entry into Jerusalem " and the " Lazarus " the second
has generally been regarded as the finest. The " Solomon " is
also a very admirable production, showing his executive power
at its loftiest, and of itself enough to place Haydon at the head
of British historical painting in his own time. The " Lazarus "
(which belongs to the National Gallery, but is not now on view
there) is a more unequal performance, and in various respects
open to criticism and censure; yet the head of Lazarus is so
majestic and impressive that, if its author had done nothing
else, we must still pronounce him a potent pictorial genius.
The chief authorities for the life of Haydon are Life of B. R.
Haydon, from his Autobiography and Journals, edited and compiled
by Tom Taylor (3 vols., 1853) ; and B. R. Haydon' s Correspondence
and Table Talk, with a memoir by his son, F. W. Haydon (2 vols.,
1876). (W. M. R.)
HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD (1822-1893), nine-
teenth president of the United States, was born in Delaware,
Ohio, on the 4th of October 1822. He received his first education
in the common schools, graduated in 1842 at Kenyon College,
Gambier, Ohio, and was a student at the law school of Harvard
University from 1843 until his graduation in 1845. He was
admitted to the bar in 1845, and practised law, first at Lower
Sandusky (now Fremont), and then at Cincinnati, where he won
a very respectable standing, and in 1858-1861 served as city
solicitor. In politics he was at first an anti-slavery Whig and
then from the time of its organization in 1854 until his death
was a member of the Republican party. In December 1852 he
married Lucy Ware Webb of Chillicothe, Ohio, who survived
him. After the breaking out of the Civil War the governor of
Ohio, on the 7th of June 1861, appointed him a major of a
volunteer regiment, and in July he was sent to western Virginia
lor active service. He served throughout the war, distinguished
himself particularly at South Mountain, Winchester, Fisher's Hill
and Cedar Creek, and by successive promotions became a
brigadier-general of volunteers and, by brevet, a major-general
of volunteers. While still in the field he was elected a member
of the National House of Representatives, and took his seat in
December 1865. He was re-elected in 1866, and supported the
reconstruction measures advocated by his party. From 1868 to
1872 he was governor of Ohio. In 1873 he removed from
Cincinnati to Fremont, his intention being to withdraw from
public life; but in 1875 the Republican party in Ohio once more
selected him as its candidate for the governorship. He accepted
the nomination with great reluctance. The Democrats adopted
a platform declaring in favour of indefinitely enlarging the
volume of the irredeemable paper currency which the Civil War
had left behind it. Hayes stoutly advocated the speediest
practicable resumption of specie payments, and carried the
election. The " sound-money campaign " in Ohio having
attracted the attention of the whole country, Hayes was marked
out as a candidate for the presidency, and he obtained the
nomination of the Republican National Convention of 1876, his
chief competitor being James G. Elaine. The candidate of the
Democratic party, Samuel J. Tilden, by his reputation as a states-
man and a reformer of uncommon ability, drew many Republican
votes. An excited controversy having arisen about the result of
the balloting in the states of South Carolina, Florida, Oregon
and Louisiana, the two parties in Congress in order to allay a
crisis dangerous to public peace agreed to pass an act referring
all contested election returns to an extraordinary commission,
called the " Electoral Commission " (q.v.), which decided each
contest by eight against seven votes in favour of the Republican
candidates. Hayes was accordingly on the 2nd of March 1877
declared duly elected.
During his administration President Hayes devoted his
efforts mainly to civil service reform, resumption of specie pay-
ments and the pacification of the Southern States, recently in
rebellion. In order to win the co-operation of the white people
in the South in maintaining peace and order, he put himself in
communication with their leaders. He then withdrew the
Federal troops which since the Civil War had been stationed at
the southern State capitals. An end was thus made of the
" carpet-bag governments " conducted by Republican politicians
from the North, some of which were very corrupt, and had been
upheld mainly by the Federal forces. This policy found much
favour with the people generally, but displeased many of the
Republican politicians, because it loosened the hold of the
Republican party upon the Southern States. Though it did not
secure to the negroes sufficient protection in the exercise of their
political rights, it did much to extinguish the animosities still
existing between the two sections of the Union and to promote
the material prosperity of the South. President Hayes en-
deavoured in vain to induce Congress to appropriate money
for a Civil Service Commission; and whenever he made
an effort to restrict the operation of the traditional " spoils
system," he met the strenuous opposition of a majority of the
most powerful politicians of his party. Nevertheless the
system of competitive examinations for appointments was
introduced in some of the great executive departments in
Washington, and in the custom-house and the post-office in
New York. Moreover, he ordered that " no officer should be
required or permitted to take part in the management of political
organizations, caucuses, conventions or election campaigns,"
and that " no assessment for political purposes on officers or
subordinates should be allowed "; and he removed from their
offices the heads of the post-office in St Louis and of the custom-
house in New York influential party managers on the ground
that they had misused their official positions for partisan ends.
In New York the three men removed were Chester A. Arthur,
the collector; Alonzo B. Cornell, the naval officer of the Port;
and George H. Sharpe, the surveyor of the customs. While these
measures were of limited scope and effect, they served greatly to
facilitate the more extensive reform of the civil service which
subsequently took place, though at the same time they alienated
a powerful faction of the Republican party in New York under
the leadership of Roscoe Conkling. Although the resumption
of specie payments had been provided for, to begin at a given
HAY FEVER HAYM
time by the Resumption Act of January 1875, opposition to it
did not cease. A bill went through both Houses of Congress
providing that a silver dollar should be coined of the weight of
412! grains, to be full legal tender for all debts and dues, public
and private, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the
contract. President Hayes returned this bill with his veto, but
the veto was overruled in both Houses of Congress. Meanwhile,
however, the preparations for the return to specie payments
were continued by the Administration with unflinching constancy
and on the ist of January 1879 specie payments were resumed
without difficulty. None of the evils predicted appeared. A
marked revival of business and a period of general prosperity
ensued. In his annual message of the ist of December 1879
President Hayes urged the suspension of the silver coinage and
also the withdrawal of the United States legal tender notes, but
Congress failed to act upon the recommendation. His ad-
ministration also did much to ameliorate the condition of the
Indian tribes and to arrest the spoliation of the public forest
lands.
Although President Hayes was not popular with the pro-
fessional politicians of his own party, and was exposed to bitter
attacks on the part of the Democratic opposition on account of
the cloud which hung over his election, his conduct of public
affairs gave much satisfaction to the people generally. In the
presidential election of 1880 the Republican party carried the
day after an unusually quiet canvass, a result largely due to
popular contentment with the then existing state of public
affairs. On the 4th of March 1881 President Hayes retired to his
home at Fremont, Ohio. Various universities and colleges con-
ferred honorary degrees upon him. His remaining years he
devoted to active participation in philanthropic enterprises;
thus he served as president of the National Prison Association
and of the Board of Trustees chosen to administer the John F.
Slater fund for the promotion of industrial education among the
negroes of the South, and was a member, also, of the Board of
Trustees of the Peabody Education fund for the promotion of
education in the South. He died at Fremont, after a short ill-
ness, on the 1 7th of January 1893.
There is no adequate biography, but three " campaign lives "
may be mentioned: Life, Public Services and Select Speeches of
Rutherford B. Hayes, by James Quay Howard (Cincinnati, 1876) ;
Life of R. B. Hayes, by William D. Howells (New York, 1876) ; and
a Life by Russell H. Conwell (Boston, 1876). See also Paul L.
Haworth, The Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election of 1876
(Cleveland, O., 1906). (C. S.)
HAY FEVER, HAY ASTHMA, or SUMMER CATARRH, a catarrhal
affection of the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract,
due to the action of the pollen of certain grasses. It is often
associated with asthmatic attacks. The disease affects certain
families, and is hereditary in about one-third of the cases. It
is more common among women than men, city than country
dwellers, and the educated and highly nervous than the lower
classes. It has no connexion with the coryzas that are produced
in nervous people by the odour of cats, &c. The complaint has
been investigated by Professor W. P. Dunbar of Hamburg,
who has shown that it is due to the pollens of certain grasses
(notably rye) and plants, and that the severity of the attack is
directly proportional to the amount of pollen in the air. He has
isolated an albuminoid poison which, when applied to the nose
of a susceptible individual, causes an attack, while there is no
result in the case of a normal person. By injecting the poison
into animals, he has obtained an anti-toxin, which is capable of
aborting an attack of hay fever. The symptoms are those
commonly experienced in the case of a severe cold, consisting of
headache, violent sneezing and watery discharge from the nostrils
and eyes, together with a hard dry cough, and occasionally severe
asthmatic paroxysms. The period of liability to infection
naturally coincides with the pollen season.
The radical treatment is to avoid vegetation. Local treat-
ment consisting of thorough destruction of the sensitive area
of the mucous membrane of the nose often produces good results.
There are various drugs, the best of which are cocaine and the
extract of the suprarenal body, which, when applied to the nose,
are sometimes effectual; in practice, however, it is found that
larger and larger doses are required, and that sooner or later they
afford no relief. The same remarks apply to a number of patent
specifics, of which the principal constituent is one of the above
drugs. An additional and stronger objection to the use of cocaine
is that a " habit " is often contracted, with the most disastrous
results. Finally Dunbar's serum may be applied to the nose and
eyes on rising, and on the slightest suggestion of irritation during
the day; it will, in the large majority of cases, be found to be
quite effectual.
HAYLEY, WILLIAM (1745-1820), English writer, the friend
and biographer of William Cowper, was born at Chichester on
the 9th of November 1745. He was sent to Eton in 1757, and
to Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in 1763; his connexion with the
Middle Temple, London, where he was admitted in 1766, was
merely nominal. In 1767 he left Cambridge and went to live in
London. Two years later he married Eliza, daughter of Thomas
Ball, dean of Chichester. His private means enabled Hayley to
live on his patrimonial estate at Eartham, Sussex, and he retired
there in 1774. He had already written many occasional poetical
pieces, when in 1771 his tragedy, The Afflicted Father, was
rejected by David Garrick. In the same year his translation of
Pierre Corneille's Rodogune as The Syrian Queen was also declined
by George Colman. Hayley won the fame he enjoyed amongst
his contemporaries by his poetical Essays and Epistles; a
Poetical Epistle to an Eminent Painter (1780), addressed to his
friend George Romney, an Essay on History (1780), in three
epistles, addressed to Edward Gibbon: Essay on Epic Poetry
({782) addressed to William Mason; A Philosophical Essay on
Old Maids (1785); and the Triumphs of Temper (1781). The last-
mentioned work was so popular as to run to twelve or fourteen
editions; together with the Triumphs of Music (Chichester,
1804) it was ridiculed by Byron in English Bards and Scotch
Reviewers. So great was Hayley 's fame that on Thomas Warton's
death in 1790 he was offered the laureateship, which he refused.
In 1792, while writing the Life of Milton (1794), Hayley made
Cowper's acquaintance. A warm friendship sprang up bet //sen
the two which lasted till Cowper's death in 1800. Hayley indeed
was mainly instrumental in getting Cowper his pension. In
1800 Hayley also lost his natural son, Thomas Alphonso Hayley,
to whom he was devotedly attached. He had been a pupil of
John Flaxman's, to whom Hayley's Essay on Sculpture (1800)
is addressed. Flaxman introduced William Blake to Hayley,
and after the latter had moved in iSooto his " marine hermitage "
at Felpham, Sussex, Blake settled near him for three years to
engrave the illustrations for the Life of Cowper. This, Hayley's
best known work, was published in 1803-1804 (Chichester) in
3 vols. In 1805 he published Ballads founded on Anecdotes of
Animals (Chichester), with illustrations by Blake, and in 1809
The Life of Romney. For the last twelve years of his life Hayley
received an allowance for writing his Memoirs. He died at
Felpham on the i2th of November 1820. Hayley's first wife
died in 1797; her mind had been seriously affected, and
since 1789 they had been separated. He married in 1809 Mary
Welford, but they also separated after three years. He left no
children.
Hayley's Poetical Works were published in 3 vols. (1785); his
Poems and Plays in 6 vols. (1788).
See Memoirs . . . of William Hayley . . . and Memoirs of his
son T. A. Hayley, ed. John Johnson (2 vols., 1823) (containing
many of Hayley's letters); an article on these memoirs by Robert
Southey in the Quarterly Review, vol. xxxi., 1825; William Blake,
by A. C. Swinburne (2nd ed., 1868, pp. 28 et seq.) ; Life of William
Blake, by Alexander Gilchrist (vol. i., 1880), with some of Blake's
letters to Hayley ; The Correspondence of William Cowper, arranged
by Thomas Wright (vol. iv., 1904), containing many letters to Hayley.
HAYM, RUDOLF (1821-1901), German publicist and philo-
sopher, was born at Grunberg, in Silesia, on the sth of October
1821, and died at St Anton (Arlberg) on the 27th of August 1901.
He studied philosophy and theology at Halle and Berlin, and
lived at Halle during 1846 and 1847. He was a member of the
National Assembly at Frankfort in 1848, and wrote an account
of the proceedings from the standpoint of the Right Centre.
HAYNAU HAYTON
From 1851 he lectured in literature and philosophy at the uni-
versity of Halle, and became professor in 1860. His writings are
biographical and critical, devoted mainly to modern German
philosophy and literature. In 1870 he published a masterly
history of the Romantic school. He also wrote biographies of
W. von Humboldt (1856), Hegel (1857), Schopenhauer (1864),
Herder (1877-1885), Max Duncker (1890). In 1901 he published
Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben.
HAYNAU, JULIUS JACOB (1786-1853), Austrian general,
was the natural son of the landgrave afterwards elector of
Hesse-Cassel, William IX. He entered the Austrian army as
an infantry officer in 1801, and saw much service in the
Napoleonic wars. He was wounded at Wagram , and distinguished
during the operations in Italy in 1813 and 1814. Between 1815
and 1847 he rose to the rank of field marshal lieutenant. A
violent temper, which he made no attempt to control or conceal,
led him into trouble with his superiors. His hatred of revolu-
tionary principles was fanatical. When the insurrectionary move-
ments of 1848 broke out in Italy, his known zeal for the cause
of legitimacy, as much as his reputation as an officer, marked
him out for command. He fought with success in Italy, but was
chiefly noted for the severity he showed in suppressing and
punishing a rising in Brescia. It ought to be remembered that
the mob of Brescia had massacred invalid Austrian soldiers in
the hospital, a provocation which always leads to reprisals.
In June 1849 Haynau was called to Vienna to command first an
army of reserve, and then in the field against the Hungarians.
His successes against the declining revolutionary cause were
numerous and rapid. In Hungary, as in Italy, he was accused
of brutality. It was, for instance, asserted that he caused women
who showed any sympathy with the insurgents to be whipped.
His ostentatious hatred of the revolutionary parties marked him
out as the natural object for these accusations. On the restora-
tion of peace he was appointed to high command in Hungary.
His temper quickly led him into quarrels with the minister of
war, and he resigned his command in 1850. He then travelled
abroad. The refugees had spread his evil reputation. In London
he was attacked and beaten by Messrs Barclay & Perkins' dray-
men when visiting the brewery, and he was saved from mob
violence in Brussels with some difficulty. He died on the I4th
of March 1853. On the nth of October 1808 Haynau had
married Therese von Weber, the daughter of Field Marshal
Lieutenant Weber, who was slain at Aspern. She died, leaving
one daughter, in 1850.
See R. v. Schonhals, Biographic des K. K. Feldzeugmeisters Julius
Freikerrn von Haynau (Vienna, 1875).
HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG (1791-1839), American political
leader, born in St Paul's parish, Colleton district, South Carolina,
on the loth of November 1791. He studied law in the office of
Langdon Cheves( 1 7 76-1 85 7)in Charleston, S.C., and in November
1812 was admitted to the bar there, soon obtaining a large
practice. For a short time during the War of 1812 against
Great Britain, he was captain in the Third South Carolina
Regiment. He was a member of the lower house of the state
legislature from 1814 to 1818, serving as speaker in the latter
year; was attorney-general of the state from 1818 to 1822,
and in 1823 was elected, as a Democrat, to the United States
Senate. Here he was conspicuous as an ardent free-trader
and an uncompromising advocate of " States Rights," opposed
the protectionist tariff bills of 1824 and 1828, and consistently
upheld the doctrine that slavery was a domestic institution and
should be dealt with only by the individual states. In one of his
speeches opposing the sending by the United States of repre-
sentatives to the Panama Congress, he said, " The moment the
federal government shall make the unhallowed attempt to inter-
fere with the domestic concerns of the states, those states will
consider themselves driven from the Union." Hayne is best
remembered, however, for his great debate with Daniel Webster
(q.v.) in January 1830. The debate arose over the so-called
" Foote's Resolution," introduced by Senator Samuel A. Foote
(1780-1846) of Connecticut, calling for the restriction of the sale
of public lands to those already in the market, but was con-
cerned primarily with the relation to one another and the respect-
ive powers of the federal government and the individual states,
Hayne contending that the constitution was essentially a com-
pact between the states, and the national government and the
states, and that any state might, at will, nullify any federal law
which it considered to be in contravention of that compact. He
vigorously opposed the tariff of 1832, was a member of the
South Carolina Nullification Convention of November 1832,
and reported the ordinance of nullification passed by that body
on the 24th of November. Resigning from the Senate, he was
governor of the state from December 1832 to December 1834,
and as such took a strong stand against President Jackson,
though he was more conservative than many of the nullifica-
tionists in the state. He was intendant (mayor) of Charleston,
S.C., from 1835 to 1837, and was president of the Louisville,
Cincinnati & Charleston railway from 1837 to 1839. He died at
Asheville, N.C., on the 24th of September 1839. His son, Paul
Hamilton Hayne (1830-1886), was a poet of some distinction, and
in 1878 published a life of his father.
See Theodore D. Jervey, Robert Y. Hayne and his Times (New
York, 1909).
HAYTER, SIR GEORGE (1792-1871), English painter, was
the son of a popular drawing-master and teacher of perspective
who published a well-known introduction to perspective and
other works. He was born in London, and in his early youth
went to sea. He afterwards studied in the Royal Academy,
became a miniature-painter, and was appointed in 1816
miniature-painter to the princess Charlotte. He passed some
years in Italy, more especially in Rome, between 1816 and 1831,
returned to London in the last-named year, resumed portrait-
painting, now chiefly in oil-colour, executed many likenesses
of the royal family, and attained such a reputation for finish
and refinement in his work that he received the appointment
of principal painter to Queen Victoria and teacher of drawing
to the princesses. In 1842 he was knighted. He painted
various works on a large scale of a public and semi-historical
character, but essentially works of portraiture; such as " The
Trial of Queen Caroline " (189 likenesses), " The Meeting of the
First Reformed Parliament," now in the National Portrait
Gallery, " Queen Victoria taking the Coronation Oath "
(accounted his finest production), " The Marriage of the Queen,"
and the " Trial of Lord William Russell." The artistic merits
of Hayter's works are not, however, such as to preserve to him
with posterity an amount of prestige corresponding to that
which court patronage procured him.
He is not to be confounded with a contemporary artist, John
Hayter, who produced illustrations for the Book of Beauty, &c.
HAYTON (HAITHON, HETHUM), king of Little Armenia or
Cilicia from 1224 to 1269, traveller in western and central
Asia, Mongolia, &c., was the son of Constantine Rupen, and
became heir to the throne of Lesser Armenia by his marriage
with Isabella, daughter and only child of Leo II. After a reign of
forty-five years he abdicated (1269) in favour of his son Leo III.,
became a monk and died in 1271. Before his accession he had
been " constable," or head of the Armenian army, and " bailiff "
of the realm. Throughout his reign he followed the policy of
friendship and alliance with the overwhelming power of the
Mongols. In about 1248 he sent his brother Sempad, who was
now constable in his place, on a mission to Kuyuk Khan, the
supreme Mongol emperor. Sempad was well received and
returned home in 1250, bringing letters from Kuyuk. After
Mangu's accession in 1251, Batu (the most powerful of the
Mongol princes and generals, and the conqueror in name at
least of eastern Europe, now commanding on the line of the
Volga) summoned Hayton to the court of the new grand khan.
Carefully disguised, so as to pass safely through the Turkish
states in the interior of eastern Asia Minor (where he was hated
as an ally of the Mongols against Islam), Hayton made his way
to Kars, the central Mongol camp in Great Armenia, where the
famous general Bachu, or Baiju, commanded. Here he reported
himself, and was permitted to remain some time in the Ararat
region, at the foot of Mt Alagoz, near the metropolitan church of
HAYWARD, ABRAHAM
Echmiadzin. Being joined by his suite, especially the clerical
diplomatists Basil the Priest, and James the Abbot, Hayton next
passed through eastern Caucasia, threading the pass of the
Iron Gates of Derbent, and so reached the camp of Batu on the
Volga, where he was cordially welcomed. Thence he set out
(May I3th, 1254) on the " very long road beyond the Caspian
Sea " to the residence of Mangu at or near Karakorum, south of
Lake Baikal. After passing the Ural river, we only hear of his
arrival at Or, probably the present Hi province, east of Balkhash,
and of his reaching the Irtish, entering the Naiman country,
and passing through " Karakhitai " (apparently the capital
of the ruined Karakhitai empire is intended, a place perhaps
situated on the Chu, mentioned out of its proper place inHayton's
record). On the i3th of September the travellers entered
Mongolia, and on the I4th (?) of September were received by
Mangu. Here the king remained till the ist of November,
when he left with diplomas, seals and letters of enfranchisement
which promised great things for the Armenian state, church
and people. His return journey was by very unusual and
interesting routes through the Urumtsi region, the basin of
" the sea of milk," Lake Sairam, the valley of the Hi, the neigh-
bourhood of Kulja, and so over mountains, which probably
answer to certain outliers of the Alexander range, to Talas
near the present Aulie Ata, midway between the Syr Daria and
the Chu. Here he met and conferred with Hulagu Khan,
Mangu's brother, the future conqueror of Bagdad: probably
Hayton was expected to aid in the coming forward movement
of the Mongol armies against the Moslem world. From Talas
Hayton made a detour to the north-west to meet another Mongol
prince, Sartach the son of Batu; after which he ascended the
valley of the Syr Daria, crossed into Trans-Oxiana, visited
Samarkand and Bokhara, and passed the Oxus apparently
near Charjui. By way of Merv and Sarakhs he then entered
Khorasan and traversed north Persia, passing through Rai
near Tehran, Kazvin and Tabriz, and so returning to the camp
of Bachu in Armenia, now at Sisian near Lake Gokcha (July 1255).
Thanks to his powerful friends, Hayton's journey was unusually
rapid. Eight months after quitting Mangu's horde, he was
back in Great Armenia. The narrative of this journey, which
was written by a member of the king's suite, one Kirakos of
Gandsak (the modern Eliza vetpol), concludes with some interest-
ing references to Buddhist tenets, to Chinese habits, to various
monstrous races and to certain " women endowed with reason "
dwelling " beyond Cathay." It also gives some notes, com-
pounded of truth and legend, on the wild tribes and animals of
the Gobi and adjoining regions.
The record drawn up by Kirakos Gandsaketsi was in Armenian.
A MS. of his, dated 1616, was found in the Sanahin monastery in
Georgia, and translated into Russian by Prince Argutinsky in the
Sibirsky Vyestnik for 1822, pp. 69, &c. This Russian version was
again translated into French by Klaproth in the Nouveau Journal
asiatique for 1833 (vol. xii. 'pp. 273, &c.). Another French trans-
lation was made direct from the Armenian by M. Brosset in the
Memoires de I' Academic des Sciences de St Petersbourg for 1870; a
fresh Russian version of the original, by Professor Patkanov, appeared
in 1874. See also E. Bretschneider, Medieval Researches from
Eastern Asiatic Sources, i. 164-172 (London, 1888, " Triibner's
Oriental " Series); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii.
381-391 (1901). (C. R. B.)
HAYWARD, ABRAHAM (1801-1884), English man of letters,
son of Joseph Hay ward, of an old Wiltshire family, was born
at Wilton, near Salisbury, on the 22nd of November 1801.
After education at Blundell's school, Tiverton, he entered the
Inner Temple in 1824, and was called to the bar in June 1832.
He took part as a conservative in the discussions of the London
Debating Society, where his opponents were J. A. Roebuck
and John Stuart Mill. The editorship of the Law Magazine;
or, Quarterly Review of Jurisprudence, which he held from 1829
to 1844, brought him into connexion with John Austin, G.
Cornewall Lewis, and such foreign jurists as Savigny, whose
tractate on contemporary legislation and jurisprudence he
rendered into English. In 1833 he travelled abroad, and on his
return printed privately a translation of Goethe's Faust into
English prose (pronounced by Carlyle to be the best version
extant in his time). A second and revised edition was published
after another visit to Germany in January 1834, in the course of
which Hayward met Tieck, Chamisso, De La Motte Fouque,
Varnhagen von Ense and Madame Goethe. In 1878 he con-
tributed the rather colourless volume on Goethe to Blackwood's
Foreign Classics. A successful translation was in those days
a first-rate credential for a reviewer, and Hayward began con-
tributing to the New Monthly, the Foreign Quarterly, the Quarterly
Review and the Edinburgh Review. His first successes in this
new field were won in 1835-1836 by articles on Walker's
" Original " and on " Gastronomy." The essays were reprinted
to form one of his best volumes, The Art of Dining, in 1852.
In February 1835 he was elected to the Athenaeum Club under
Rule II., and he remained for nearly fifty years one of its most
conspicuous and most influential members. He was also a
subscriber to the Carlton, but ceased to frequent it when he be-
came a Peelite. At the Temple, Hayward, whose reputation
was rapidly growing as a connoisseur not only of a bill of fare
but also (as Swift would have said) of a bill of company, gave
recherche dinners, at which ladies of rank and fashion appreciated
the wit of Sydney Smith and Theodore Hook, the dignity of
Lockhart and Lyndhurst and the oratory of Macaulay. At the
Athenaeum and in political society he to some extent succeeded
to the position of Croker. He and Macaulay were commonly
said to be the two best-read men in town. Hayward got up every
important subject of discussion immediately it came into pro-
minence, and concentrated his information in such a way that
he habitually had the last word to say on a topic. When Rogers
died, when Vanity Fair was published, when the Greville Memoirs
was issued or a revolution occurred on the continent, Hayward,
whose memory was as retentive as his power of accumulating
documentary evidence was exhaustive, wrote an elaborate essay
on the subject for the Quarterly or the Edinburgh. He followed
up his paper by giving his acquaintances no rest until they either
assimilated or undertook to combat his views. Political ladies
first, and statesmen afterwards, came to recognize the advantage
of obtaining Hayward's good opinion. In this way the " old
reviewing hand " became an acknowledged link between society,
letters and politics. As a professional man he was less successful ;
his promotion to be Q.C. in 1845 excited a storm of opposition,
and, disgusted at not being elected a Bencher of his Inn in the
usual course, Hayward virtually withdrew from legal practice.
In February 1848 he became one of the chief leader-writers for
the Peelite organ, the Morning Chronicle. The morbid activity
of his memory, however, continued to make him many enemies.
He alienated Disraeli by tracing a purple patch in his official
eulogy of Wellington to a newspaper translation from Thiers's
funeral panegyric on General St Cyr. His sharp tongue made
an enemy of Roebuck, and he disgusted the friends of Mill by
the stories he raked up for an obituary notice of the great
economist (The Times, loth May 1873). He broke with Henry
Reeve in 1874 by a venomous review of the Greville Memoirs,
in which Reeve was compared to the beggarly Scot deputed to let
off the blunderbuss which Bolingbroke (Greville) had charged.
His enemies prevented him from enjoying a well-selected quasi-
sinecure, which both Palmerston and Aberdeen admitted to be
his due. Samuel Warren attacked him (very unjustly, for
Hayward was anything but a parasite) as Venom Tuft in Ten
Thousand a Year; and Disraeli aimed at him partially in Ste
Barbe (in Endymion), though the satire here was directed
primarily against Thackeray. After his break with Reeve,
Hayward devoted himself more exclusively to the Quarterly.
His essays on Chesterfield and Selwyn were reprinted in 1854.
Collective editionsof his articles appeared in volume form in 1858,
1873 and 1874, and Selected Essays in two volumes, 1878. In
his useful but far from flawless edition of the Autobiography,
Letters and Literary Remains of Mrs (Thrale) Piozzi (1861),
he again appears as a supplementer and continuator of J. W.
Croker. His Eminent Statesmen and Writers (1880) commemo-
rates to a large extent personal friendships with such men
as Dumas, Cavour and Thiers, whom he knew intimately. As
a counsellor of great ladies and of politicians, to whom he
n6
HAYWARD, SIR J. HAZARA
held forth with a sense of all-round responsibility surpassing
that of a cabinet minister, Hayward retained his influence to
the last years of his life. But he had little sympathy with modern
ideas. He used to say that he had outlived every one that he
could really look up to. He died, a bachelor, in his rooms at
8 St James's Street (a small museum of autograph portraits and
reviewing trophies) on the 2nd of February 1884.
Two volumes of Hayward's Correspondence (edited by H. E.
Carlisle) were published in 1886. In Vanity Fair (27th November
1875) he may be seen as he appeared in later life. (T. SE.)
HAYWARD, SIR JOHN (c. 1560-1627), English historian,
was born at or near Felixstowe, Suffolk, where he was educated,
and afterwards proceeded to Pembroke College, Cambridge,
where he took the degrees of B.A., M.A. and LL.D. In 1599 he
published The First Part of the Life and Raigne of King Henrie I V.
dedicat ed to Robert Devereux, earl of Essex. This was reprinted
in 1642. Queen Elizabeth and her advisers disliked the tone
of the book and its dedication, and the queen ordered Francis
Bacon to search it for " places in it that might be drawn within
case of treason." Bacon reported " for treason surely I find
none, but for felony very many," explaining that many of th*
sentences were stolen from Tacitus; but nevertheless Hayward
was put in prison, where he remained until about 1601. On the
accession of James I. in 1603 he courted the new king's favour
by publishing two pamphlets " An Answer to the first part of a
certaine conference concerning succession," and " A Treatise
of Union of England and Scotland." The former pamphlet,
an argument in favour of the divine right of kings, was reprinted
in 1683 as " The Right of Succession " by the friends of the duke
of York during the struggle over the Exclusion Bill. In 1610
Hayward was appointed one of the historiographers of the college
which James founded at Chelsea; in 1613 he published his
Lives of the Three Norman Kings of England, written at the re-
quest of James's son, Prince Henry; in i6i6h_- became a member
of the College of Advocates; and in 1619 he was knighted. He
died in London on the 27th of June 1627. Among his manu-
scripts was found The Life and Raigne of King Edward VI.,
first published in 1630, and Certain Yeres of Queen Elizabeth's
Raigne, the beginning of which was printed in an edition of his
Edward VI., published in 1636, but which was first published in
a complete form in 1840 for the Camden Society under the editor-
ship of John Bruce, who prefixed an introduction on the life and
writings of the author. Hayward was conscientious and diligent
in obtaining information, and although his reasoning on questions
of morality is often childish, his descriptions are generally
graphic and vigorous. Notwithstanding his imprisonment under
Elizabeth, his portrait of the qualities of the queen's mind and
person is flattering rather than detractive. He also wrote
several works of a devotional character.
HAYWOOD, ELIZA (c. 1693-1756), English writer, daughter
of a London tradesman named Fowler, was born about 1693.
She made an early and unhappy marriage with a man named
Haywood, and her literary enemies circulated scandalous
stories about her, possibly founded on her works rather than her
real history. She appeared on the stage as early as 1715, and
in 1721 she revised for Lincoln's Inn Fields The Fair Captive,
by a Captain Hurst. Two other pieces followed, but Eliza
Haywood made her mark as a follower of Mrs Manley in writing
scandalous and voluminous novels. To Memoirs of a certain
Island adjacent to Utopia, written by a celebrated author of that
country. Now translated into English (1725), she appended
a key in which the characters were explained by initials denoting
living persons. The names are supplied to these initials in the
copy in the British Museum. The Secret History of the Present
Intrigues of the Court of Caramania (1727) was explained in a
similar manner. The style of these productions is as extravagant
as their matter. Pope attacked her in a coarse passage in The
Dunciad (bk. ii. n. 157 et seq.), which is aggravated by a
note alluding to the " profligate licentiousness of those shameless
scribblers (for the most part of that sex which ought least to be
capable of such malice or impudence) who in libellous Memoirs
and Novels reveal the faults or misfortunes of both sexes, to
the ruin of public fame, or disturbance of private happiness."
Swift, writing to Lady Suffolk, says, "Mrs Haywocd I have heard
of as a stupid, infamous, scribbling woman, but have not seen
any of her productions." She continued to be a prolific writer
of novels until her death on the 25th of February 1756, but her
later works are characterized by extreme propriety, though an
anonymous story of The Fortunate Foundlings (1744), purporting
to be an account of the children of Lord Charles Manners, is
generally ascribed to her.
A collected edition of her novels, plays and poems appeared in
1724, and her Secret Histories, Novels and Poems in 1725. See also
an article by S. L. Lee in the Dictionary of National Biography.
HAZARA, a race of Afghanistan. The Hazaras are of
Mongolian origin, speak a dialect of Persian, and belong to the
Shiah sect of Mahommedans. They are of middle size but
stoutly made, with small grey eyes, high cheek bones and
smooth faces. They are descendants of military colonists
introduced by Jenghiz Khan, who occupy all the highlands of
the upper Helmund valley, spreading through the country
between Kabul and Herat, as well as into a strip of territory
on the frontier slopes of the Hindu Kush north of Kabul. In the
western provinces they are known as the Chahar Aimak (Hazaras,
Jamshidis, Taimanis and Ferozkhois), and in other districts
they are distinguished by the name of the territory they occupy.
They are pure Mongols, intermixing with no other races (chiefly
for the reason that no other races will intermix with them),
preserving their language and their Mongol characteristics
uninfluenced by their surroundings, having absolutely displaced
the former occupants of the Hazarajat and Ghor. They make
good soldiers and excellent pioneers. The amir's companies of
engineers are recruited from the Hazaras, and they form perhaps
the most effective corps in his heterogeneous army. They are
now recruited into the British service in India.
HAZARA, a district of British India, in the Peshawar
division of the North-West Frontier Province, with an area
of 3391 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by the Black Moun-
tain, the Swat country, Kohistan and Chilas; on the E. by
the native state of Kashmir; on the S. by Rawalpindi
district; and on the W. by the river Indus. On the creation
of the North-West Frontier Province in 1901 the district was
reconstituted,theTahsilof AttockbeingtransferredtoRawalpindi.
The district forms a wedge of .territory extending far into the
heart of the outer Himalayas, and consisting of a long narrow
valley, shut in on both sides by lofty mountains, whose peaks
rise to a height of 17,000 ft. above sea level. Towards the
centre of the district the vale of Kagan is bounded by mountain
chains, which sweep southward still maintaining a general
parallel direction, and send off spurs on every side which divide
the country into numerous minor dales. The district is well
watered by the tributaries of the Indus, the Kunhar, which
flows through the Kagan Valley into the Jhelum, and many
rivulets. Throughout the scenery is picturesque. To the north
rise the distant peaks of the snow-clad ranges; midway, the
central mountains stand clothed to their rounded summits with
pines and other forest trees, while grass and brushwood spread
a green cloak over the nearer hills, and cultivation covers every
available slope. The chief frontier tribes on the border are
the cis-Indus Swatis, Hassanzais, Akazais, Chagarzais, Pariari
Syads, Madda Khels, Amazais and Umarzais. Within the
district Pathans are not numerous.
The name Hazara possibly belonged originally to a Turki
family which entered India with Timur in the i4th century,
and subsequently settled in this remote region. During the
prosperous period of the Mogul dynasty the population included
a number of mixed tribes, which each began to assert its inde-
pendence, so that the utmost anarchy prevailed until Hazara
attracted the attention of the rising Sikh monarchy. Ranjit
Singh first obtained a footing here in 1818, and, after eight years
of constant aggression, became master of the whole country.
During the minority of the young maharaja Dhuleep Singh, the
Sikh kingdom fell into a state of complete disorganization; the
people seized the opportunity for recovering their independence,
HAZARD HAZEL
117
and rose in 1845 in rebellion. They stormed the Sikh forts,
laid siege to Haripur, and drove the governor across the
borders. After the first Sikh War it was proposed to transfer
Hazara with Kashmir to Gulab Singh, but it remained under
the Lahore government in charge of James Abbott, who pacified
it in less than a year and held it single-handed throughout the
troubles of the second Sikh War. It was also undisturbed
during the Mutiny. The population in 1901 was 560, 288, showing
an increase of 8-52% in the decade. The headquarters are at
Abbotabad; pop. (1901) 7764. Through the Kagan valley and
over the Babusar pass at its head lies the most direct route
from the Punjab to Chilas and Gilgit.
HAZARD (0. Fr. hazard, from Span, azar, unlucky throw at
dice, misfortune, from Arab, al, and zar, dice), a game of dice
(called Craps in America), once very popular in England and
played for large stakes at the famous rooms of Crockford (St
James's Street, London) and Almack (Pall Mall, London). The
player or " caster " calls a " main " (that is, any number from
five to nine inclusive). He then throws with two dice. If he
" throws in," or " nicks," he wins the sum played for from the
banker or " setter." Five is a nick to five, six and twelve are
nicks to six, seven and eleven to seven, eight and twelve to eight
and nine to nine. If the caster " throws out " by throwing
aces, or deuce-ace (called crabs or craps), he loses. When the
main is five or nine the caster throws out with 1 1 or 12; when
the main is six or eight he throws out with 1 1 ; when the main
is seven he throws out with 12. If the caster neither nicks nor
throws out, the number thrown is his "chance," and he keeps
on throwing till either the chance comes up, when he wins, or
till the main comes up, when he loses. When a chance is thrown
the " odds " for or against the chance are laid by the setter to
the amount of the original stake. Seven is the best main for
the caster to call, as it can be thrown in six different ways out
of the thirty-six casts which are possible with dice. Supposing
seven to be the main; then the caster wins if he throws 7 or
ii ; he loses if he throws crabs or 12. If he throws any other
number, 4 for example, that is his chance. The odds against
him are two to one, as 7 can be thrown in six ways, but 4 only
in three; hence six to three, or two to one, are the correct odds,
and if the original stake was i, the setter now lays 2 to i in
addition. It is useful to remember that 2 and 1 2 can be thrown
in one way; 3 and n in two ways; 4 and 10 in three ways;
5 and 9 in four ways; 6 and 8 in five ways. The odds against
the caster are thus given by Hoyle: If 7 is the main and 4
the chance, two to one; 6 and 4, five to three; 5 and 4, four
to three; 7 and 9, three to two; 7 and 6, six and five; 7 and 5,
three to two; 6 and 5, five to four; 8 and 5, five to four, &c.
HAZARIBAGH, a town and district of British India, in the
Chota Nagpur division of Bengal. The town is well situated at
an elevation of 2000 ft. Pop. (1901) 15,799. Hazaribagh has
ceased to be a military cantonment since the European peni-
tentiary was abolished. There are a central jail and a reform-
atory school. The Dublin University Mission maintains a
First Arts college.
The DISTRICT comprises an area of 7021 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 1,177,961, showing an increase of i% in the
decade. The physical formation of Hazaribagh exhibits three
distinct features: (i) a high central plateau occupying the
western section, the surface of which is undulating and cultivated;
(2) a lower and more extensive plateau stretching along the north
and eastern portions; to the north, the land is well cultivated,
while to the east the country is of a more varied character, the
elevation is lower, and the character of a plateau is gradually
lost; (3) the central valley of the Damodar river occupying the
entire southern section. Indeed, although the characteristics
of the district are rock, hill and wide-spreading jungle, fine
patches of cultivation are met with in all parts, and the scenery
is generally pleasing and often striking. The district forms a
part of the chain of high land which extends across the continent
of India, south of the Nerbudda on the west, and south of the
Sone river on the east. The most important river is the Damodar,
with its many tributaries, which drains an area of 2480 sq. m.
The history of the district is involved in obscurity until 1755,
about which time a certain Mukund Singh was chief of the
country. In a few years he was superseded by Tej Singh, who
had gained the assistance of the British. In 1780 Hazaribagh,
along with the surrounding territory, passed under direct British
rule.
The district contains an important coal-field at Giridih which
supplies the East Indian railway. There are altogether six
mines. There are also mica mines which are gaining in import-
ance. Rice and oilseeds are the principal crops. Tea cultivation
has been tried but does not flourish, and is almost extinct. The
only railways are the branch of the East Indian to the coal-
field at Giridih, where there is a technical school maintained
by the railway company, and the newly-opened Gaya-Katrasgarh
chord line; but the district is traversed by the Grand Trunk
road. Parasnath hill is annually visited by large numbers of
Jain worshippers.
HAZEBROUCK, a town of northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Nord, on the canalized
Bourre, 29 m. W.N.W. of Lille, on the Northern railway, between
that town and St Omer. Pop. (1906), town, 8798; commune,
12,819. With the exception of the church of St. Eloi, a building
of the i6th century with a spire of fine open work 260 ft. high,
and the hospice, occupying a convent built in the i6th and i?th
centuries, there is- little of architectural interest in the town.
Hazebrouck is the seat of a sub prefect, and has a tribunal of first
instance and a board of trade arbitration. It is the market for
a fertile agricultural district, and has trade in live-stock, grain and
hops. Cloth-weaving is the chief industry. Hazebrouck is an
important junction, and railway employes form a large part of
its population.
HAZEL (0. Eng. hcesel 1 ; cf. Ger. Hasel, Swed. and Dan.
hassel, &c.,; Fr. noisetier, coudrier), botanically corylus, a genus of
shrubs or low trees of the natural order Corylaceae. The common
hazel, Corylus Avellana (fig. i), occurs throughout Europe, in
North Africa and in
central and Russian
Asia, except the
northernmost parts.
It is commonly found
in hedges and coppices,
and as an undergrowth
in woods, and reaches
a height of some 12
ft.; occasionally, as at FlG ^Hazel (Corylus Avellana}. i,
Eastwell Park, Kent, Female catkin (enlarged) ; 2, Pair of fruits
it may attain to 30 ft. (nuts) each enclosed in its involucre
According to Evelyn (reduced).
(Sylva, p. 35, 1664),
hazels " above all affect cold, barren, dry, and sandy soils; also
mountains, and even rockie ground produce them; but more
plentifully if somewhat moist, dankish, and mossie." In Kent they
flourish best in a calcareous soil. The bark of the older stems is
of a bright brown, mottled with grey, that of the young twigs is
ash-coloured, and glandular and hairy. The leaves are alternate,
from 2 to 4 in. in length, downy below, roundish heart-shaped,
pointed and shortly stalked. In the variety C. purpurea, the
leaves, as also the pellicle of the kernel and the husk of the nut,
are purple, and in C. heterophylla they are thickly clothed with
hairs. In autumn the rich yellow tint acquired by the leaves
of the hazel adds greatly to the beauty of landscapes. The
flowers are monoecious, and appear in Great Britain in February
and March, before the leaves. The cylindrical drooping yellow
male catkins (fig. 2) are i to z\ in. long, and occur 2 to 4 in a
raceme; when in unusual numbers they may be terminal in
position. The female flowers are small, sub-globose and sessile,
1 It has been supposed that the origin is to be found in O. Eng.
has, a behest, connected with hatan = Ger. heissen, to give orders:
the hazel-wand was the sceptre of authority of the shepherd
chieftain (iroi.ii.tiv Xawi-) of olden times, see Grimm, Gesch. d. deulsch.
Sprache, p. 1016, 1848. The root is kas-, cf. Lat. corulas, corylus;
and the original meaning is unknown.
n8
HAZLETON
FIG. 2. Catkin of
Hazel (Corylus Avel-
lana), consisting of an
axis covered with bracts
in the form of scales,
each of which covers
a male flower, the
stamens of which are
seen projecting beyond
the scale. The catkin
falls off entire, separ-
ating from the branch
by an articulation.
resembling leaf -buds, and have protruding crimson stigmas;
the minute inner bracts, by their enlargement, form the palmately
lobed and cut involucre or husk of the nut. The ovary is not
visible till nearly midsummer, and is not fully developed before
autumn. The nuts have a length of from 5 to in., and grow in
clusters. Double nuts are the result of
the equal development of the two carpels
of the original flower, of which ordinarily
one becomes abortive; fusion of two or
more nuts is not uncommon. From the
light-brown or brown colour of the nuts
the terms hazel and hazelly, i.e. " in hue
as hazel nuts " (Shakespeare, Taming of
the Shrew, ii. i), derive their significance. 1
The wood of the hazel is whitish-red,
close in texture and pliant, and has
when dry a weight of 49 lb per cub. ft.;
it has been used in cabinet-making, and
for toys and turned articles. Curiously
veined veneers are obtained from the
roots; and the root-shoots are largely
employed in the making of crates, coal-
corves or baskets, hurdles, withs and
bands, whip-handles and other objects.
The rods are reputed to be most durable
when from the driest ground, and to be
especially good where the bottom is
chalky. The light charcoal afforded by
the hazel serves well for crayons, and
is valued by gunpowder manufacturers.
An objection to the construction of
hedges of hazel is the injury not in-
frequently done to them by the nut-
gatherer, who " with active vigour crushes down the tree "
(Thomson's Seasons, " Autumn "), and otherwise damages it.
The filbert, 2 among the numerous varieties of Corylus Avellana,
is extensively cultivated, especially in Kent, for the sake of its
nuts, which are readily distinguished from cob-nuts by their
ample involucre and greater length. It may be propagated by
suckers and layers, by grafting and by sowing. Suckers afford
the strongest and earliest-bearing plants. Grafted filberts are
less liable than others to be encumbered by suckers at the root.
By the Maidstone growers the best plants are considered to be
obtained from layers. These become well rooted in about a
twelvemonth, and then, after pruning, are bedded out in the
nursery for two or three years. The filbert is economically grown
on the borders of plantations or orchards, or in open spots in
woods. It thrives most in a light loam with a dry subsoil; rich
and, in particular, wet soils are unsuitable, conducing to the
formation of too much wood. Plantations of filberts are made
in autumn, in well-drained ground, and a space of about 10 ft.
by 8 has to be allowed for each tree. In the third year after
planting the trees may require root-pruning; in the fifth or sixth
they should bear well. The nuts grow in greatest abundance on
the extremities of second year's branches, where light and air
have ready access. To obtain a good tree, the practice in Kent is
to select a stout upright shoot 3 ft. in length; this is cut down
to about 18 in. of which the lower 12 are kept free from out-
growth. The head is pruned to form six or eight strong offsets;
and by judicious use of the knife, and by training, preferably on
a hoop placed within them, these are caused to grow outwards and
upwards to a height of about 6 ft. so as to form a bowl-like shape.
Excessive luxuriance of the laterals may be combated by root-
pruning, or by checking them early in the season, and again later,
and by cutting back to a female blossom bud, or else spurring
nearly down to the main branch in the following spring.
Filbert nuts required for keeping must be gathered only when
quite ripe; they may then be preserved in dry sand, or, after
drying, by packing with a sprinkling of salt in sound casks or new
On the expression " hazel eyes," see Notes and Queries, 2nd ser.
337. ar >d 3rd ser. iii. 18, 39.
For derivations of the word see Latham's Johnson's Dictionary.
flower-pots. Their different forms include the Cosford, which are
thin-shelled and oblong; the Downton, or large square nut, having
a lancinatcd husk; the white or Wrotham Park filbert; and the
red hazel or filbert, the kernel of which has a red pellicle. The last
two, on account of their elongated husk, have been distinguished
as a species, under the name Corylus tubulosa. Like these, appar-
ently, were the nuts of Abella, or Avella, in the Campania (cf. Fr.
aveline, filbert), said by Pliny to have been originally designated
" Pontic," from their introduction into Asia and Greece from
Pontus (see Nat Hist. xv. 2$, xxiii. 78). Hazel-nuts, under the
name of Barcelona or Spanish nuts, are largely exported from
France and Portugal, and especially Tarragona and other places in
Spain. They afford 60% of a colourless or pale-yellow, sweet-
tasting, non-drying oil, which has a specific gravity of 0-92 nearly,
becomes solid at 19 C. (Cloez), and consists approximately of
carbon 77, and hydrogen and oxygen each 11-5%. Hazel nuts
formed part of the food of the ancient lake-dwellers of Switzerland
and other countries of Europe (see Keller, Lake Dwellings, trans.
Lee, 2nd ed., 1878). By the Romans they were sometimes eaten
roasted. Kaltenbach (Pflanzenfeinde, pp. 633-638, 1874) enumerates
ninety-eight insects which attack the hazel. Among these the beetle
Balaninus nucum, the nut-weevil, seen on hazel and oak stems
from the end of May till July, is highly destructive to the nuts.
The female lays an egg in the unripe nut, on the kernel of which
the larva subsists till September, when it bores its way through the
shell, and enters the earth, to undergo transformation into a chrysalis
in the ensuing spring. The leaves of the hazel are frequently
found mined on the upper and under side respectively by the larvae
of the moths Lithocolletis coryli and L. Nicelii. Squirrels and
dormice are very destructive to the nut crop, as they not only take
for present consumption but for a store for future supply. Parasitic
on the roots of the hazel is found the curious leafless Lathraea
Squamaria or toothwort.
The Hebrew word luz, translated " hazel " in the authorized
version of the English Bible (Gen. xxx. 37), is believed to signify
" almond " (see Kitto, Cycl. of Bill. Lit. ii. 869, and iii. 811, 1864).
A belief in the efficacy of divining-rods of hazel for the discovery of
concealed objects is probably of remote origin (cf. Hosea iv. 12).
G. Agricola, in his treatise Vom Bergwerck (pp. xxix.-xxxi., Basel,
'557)> gives an account, accompanied by a woodcut, of their em-
ployment in searching for mineral veins. By certain persons, who
for different metals used rods of various materials, rods of hazel,
he says, were held serviceable simply for silver lodes, and by the
skilled miner, who trusted to natural signs of mineral veins, they
were regarded as of no avail at all. The virtue of the hazel wand
was supposed to be dependent on its having two forks; these were
to be grasped in the fists, with the fingers uppermost, but with
moderate firmness only, lest the free motion of the opposite end
downwards towards the looked-for object should be interfered with.
According to Cornish tradition, the divining or dowsing rod is
guided to lodes by the pixies, the guardians of the treasures of the
earth. By Vallemont, who wrote towards the end of the 1 7th
century, the divining-rod of hazel, or " baguette divinatoire," is
described as instrumental in the pursuit of criminals. The Jesuit
Vaniere, who flourished in the early part of the i8th century, in
the Praedium rusticum (pp. 12, 13, new ed., Toulouse, 1742) amus-
ingly relates the manner in which he exposed the chicanery of one
who pretended by the aid of a hazel divining-rod to point out
hidden water-courses and gold. The burning of hazel nuts for the
magical investigation of the future is alluded to by John Gay in
Thursday, or the Spell, and by Burns in Halloween. The hazel is very
frequently mentioned by the old French romance writers. Corylus
rostrata and C. americana of North America have edible fruits like
those of C. Avellana.
The witch hazel is quite a distinct plant, Hamamelis virginica, of
the natural order Hamamalideae, the astringent bark of which is
used in medicine. It is a hardy deciduous shrub, native of North
America, which bears a profusion of rich yellow flowers in autumn
and winter when the plant is feafless.
HAZLETON, a city of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
about 25 m. S. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890) 11,872; (1900)
14,230, of whom 2732 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 25,452.
It is served by the Lehigh Valley, the Pennsylvania (for freight),
and the Wilkes-Barre & Hazleton (electric) railways. The
city is built on a broad tableland on Nescopeck or Buck
Mountain, a spur of the Blue Mountains, about 1620 ft. above
sea-level. It has a park and a number of handsome residences;
and its agreeable climate and picturesque situation make it
attractive as a summer resort. The city has a public library.
Hazleton is near the centre of one of the richest coal regions (the
Lehigh or " Eastern Middle Coal Field ") of the state, and its
principal industry is the mining and shipping of anthracite coal.
It has silk mills, knitting mills, shirt factories, breweries, maca-
roni factories, lumber and planing mills, important iron works,
a casket factory and a large electric power plant. The value of
HAZLITT, WILLIAM
119
the city's factory products increased from $998,823 in 1900 to
$2, 185,876 in 1905, or 118-8%, only three other cities in the state
having a population of 8000 or more in 1900 showing a greater
rate of increase. There is a state hospital here for the treatment
of persons injured in mines. Hazleton was settled in 1820, was
laid out in 1836, was incorporated as a borough in 1856 and
received a city charter in 1891. The local coal industry dates
from 1837.
HAZLITT, WILLIAM (1778-1830), British literary critic and
essayist, was born on the loth of April 1778 at Maidstone, where
his father, William Hazlitt, was minister of a Unitarian con-
gregation. The father took the side of the Americans in their
struggle with the mother-country, and during a residence at
Bandon, Co. Cork, interested himself in the welfare of some
American prisoners at Kinsale. In 1783 he migrated with his
family to America, but in the winter of 1786-1787 returned to
England, and settled at Wem in Shropshire, where he ministered
to a small congregation. There his son William went to school,
till in 1793 he was sent to the Hackney theological college in the
hope that he would become a dissenting minister. For this
career, however, he had no inclination, and returned, probably
in 1794, to Wem, where he led a desultory life until 1802, and then
decided to become a portrait painter. His elder brother John
was already established as a miniature painter in London. The
monotony of life at Wem was broken in January 1798 by the
visit of Samuel Taylor Coleridge to Shrewsbury, where young
Hazlitt went to hear him preach. Coleridge encouraged William
Hazlitt's interest in metaphysics, and in the spring of the next
year Hazlitt visited Coleridge at Nether Stowey and made the
acquaintance of William Wordsworth. The circumstances of
this early intercourse with Coleridge are related with in-
imitable skill in a paper in Hazlitt's Literary Remains (1839).
On visits to his brother in London he made many acquaint-
ances, the most important being a friendship with Charles
Lamb, said to have been founded on a remark of Lamb's
interpolated in a discussion between Coleridge, Godwin and
Holcroft, " Give me man as he is not to be." He also formed
an acquaintance with John Stoddart, whose sister Sarah he
married in 1808. In October 1802 he went to Paris to copy
portraits in the Louvre, and spent four happy months in Paris.
When he returned to London he undertook commissions for
portraits, but soon found he was not likely to excel in his art;
his last portrait, one of Charles Lamb as a Venetian senator
'(now in the National Portrait Gallery), was executed in 1805.
In that year he published his first book, An Essay on the
Principles of Human Action: being an argument in favour of
the Natural Disinterestedness of the Human Mind, which had
occupied him at intervals for six or seven years. It attracted
little attention, but remained a favourite with its author. Other
works belonging to this period are: Free Thoughts on Public
Affairs (1806); An Abridgment of the Light of Nature Revealed,
by Abraham Tucker. . . (1807); The Eloquence of the British
Senate ... (2 vols., 1807); A Reply to Malthus, on his Essay
on Population (1807); A New and Improved Grammar of the
English Tongue . . . (1810).
Hazlitt married in 1808. His domestic life was unhappy.
His wife was an unromantic, business-like woman, while he him-
self was fitful and moody, and impatient of restraint. The
dissolution of the ill-assorted union was nevertheless deferred
for fourteen years, during which much of Hazlitt's best literary
work had been produced. Mrs Hazlitt had inherited a small
estate at Winterslow near Salisbury, and here the Hazlitts lived
until 1812, when they removed to 19 York Street, Westminster,
a house that was once Milton's. Hazlitt delivered in 1812 a
course of lectures at the Russell Institution on the Rise and
Progress of Modern Philosophy. He soon abandoned philosophy,
however, to give his whole attention to journalism. He was
parliamentary reporter and subsequently dramatic critic for the
Morning Chronicle; he also contributed to the Champion and
The Times; but his closest connexion was with the Examiner,
owned by John and Leigh Hunt. In conjunction with Leigh
Hunt he undertook the series of articles called The Round Table,
a collection of essays on literature, men and manners which
were originally contributed to the Examiner, To this time
belong his View of the English Stage (1818), and Lectures on the
English Poets (1818), on the English Comic Writers (1819), and on
the Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth (1821). By these
works, together with his Characters of Shakespeare's Plays
( 1 8 1 7) , and his Ta ble Talk; or Original Essays on Men and Man ners
(1821-1822), his reputation as a critic and essayist was established.
Next to Coleridge, Hazlitt was perhaps the most powerful ex-
ponent of the dawning perception that Shakespeare's art was no
less marvellous than his genius; and Hazlitt's criticism did not,
like Coleridge's, remain in the condition of a series of brilliant
but fitful glimpses of insight, but was elaborated with steady
care. His lectures on the Elizabethan dramatists performed a
similar service for the earlier, sweeter and simpler among them,
such as Dekker, till then unduly eclipsed by later writers like
Massinger, better playwrights but worse poets. Treating of the
contemporary drama, he successfully vindicated for Edmund
Kean, whose genius he recognized from the first, the high place
which he has retained as an actor, and his enthusiasm for Mrs
Siddons knew no bounds. His criticisms on the English comic
writers and men of letters in general are masterpieces of inge-
nious and felicitous exposition, though rarely, like Coleridge's,
penetrating to the inmost core of the subject. Moreover, at
the time when the lectures were written, Hazlitt's views, orthodox
as they may seem now, were novel enough.
As an essayist Hazlitt is even more effective than as a critic.
Being enabled to select his own subjects, he escapes dependence
upon others either for his matter or his illustrations, and presents
himself by turns as a metaphysician, a moralist, a humorist, a
painter of manners and characteristics, but always, whatever
his ostensible theme, deriving the essence of his commentary
from himself. This combination of intense subjectivity with
strict adherence to his subject is one of Hazlitt's most distinctive
and creditable traits. Intellectual truthfulness is a passion with
him. He steeps his topic in the hues of his own individuality,
but never uses it as a means of self-display. The first reception
of his admirable essays was by no means in accordance with
their deserts. Hazlitt's political sympathies and antipathies were
vehement, and he had taken the unfashionable side. The
Quarterly Review attacked him with deliberate malignity, stopped
the sale of his writings for a time and blighted his credit with
publishers. Hazlitt retaliated by his Letter to William Gijford
(1819), accusing the editor of deliberate misrepresentation.
In downright abuse and hard-hitting, Hazlitt proved himself
more than a match even for Gifford. By the writers in Black-
wood's Magazine Hazlitt was also scurrilously treated. 1 He had
become estranged from his early friends, the Lake poets, by what
he uncharitably but not unnaturally regarded as their political
apostasy; and he had no scruples about recording his often very
unfavourable opinions of his contemporaries. He displayed,
moreover, an exasperating facility in grounding his criticisms
on facts that his victims were unabls to deny. His inequalities
of temper separated him for a time even from Leigh Hunt and
Charles Lamb, and on the whole the period of his most brilliant
literary success was that when he was most soured and broken.
Domestic troubles supervened; he had gone to live in South-
ampton Buildings in September 1819, and his marriage, long
little more than nominal, was dissolved in consequence of the
infatuated passion he had conceived for his landlord's daughter,
Sarah Walker, a most ordinary person in the eyes of every one
else. It is impossible to regard Hazlitt as a responsible agent
while he continued subject to this influence. His own record
of the transaction, published by himself under the title of Liber
Amoris, or the New Pygmalion (1823), is an unpleasant but
remarkable psychological document. It consists of conversations
between Hazlitt and Sarah Walker, drawn up in the spring of
1822, of a correspondence between Hazlitt and his friend P. G.
Patmore between March and July, and an account of the rupture
of his relations with Sarah. The business-like dissolution of
his marriage under the law of Scotland is related with amazing
1 For some quotations see Alexander Ireland's bibliography.
120
HEAD, SIR E. W.
nalvet6 by the family biographer. Rid of his wife and cured
of his mistress, he shortly afterwards astonished his friends by
marrying a widow. " All I know," says his grandson, " is that
Mrs Bridgewater became Mrs Hazlitt." They travelled on the
continent for a year and then parted finally. Hazlitt's study of
the Italian masters during this tour, described in a series of letters
contributed to the Morning Chronicle, had a deep effect upon him,
and perhaps conduced to that intimacy with the cynical old
painter Northcote which, shortly after his return, engendered
a curious but eminently readable volume of The Conversations
of James Northcote, R.A. (1830). The respective shares of author
and artist are not always easy to determine. During the recent
agitations of his life he had been writing essays, collected in 1826
under the title of The Plain Speaker: opinions on Books, Men
and Things (1826). The Spirit of the Age; or Contemporary
Portraits (1825), a series of criticisms on the leading intellectual
characters of the day, is in point of style perhaps the most
splendid and copious of his compositions. It is eager and ani-
mated to impetuosity, though without any trace of careless-
ness or disorder. He now undertook a work which was to have
crowned his literary reputation, but which can hardly be said
to have even enhanced it The Life of Napoleon Buonaparte
(4 vols., 1828-1830). The undertaking was at best premature,
and was inevitably disfigured by partiality to Napoleon as
the representative of the popular cause, excusable in a Liberal
politician writing in the days of the Holy Alliance. Owing to
the failure of his publishers Hazlitt received no recompense for
this laborious work. Pecuniary anxieties and disappointments
may have contributed to hasten his death, which took place
on the i8th of September 1830. Charles Lamb was with him
to the last.
Hazlitt had many serious defects of temper. His consistency
was gained at the expense of refusing to revise his early impres-
sions and prejudices. His estimate of a man's work was too
apt to be decided by sympathy or the reverse with his politics.
For Scott, however, he had a great admiration, although they
were far enough apart in politics. He was a compound of in-
tellect and passion, and the refinement of his critical analysis
is associated with vehement eloquence and glowing imagery.
He was essentially a critic, a dissector and, as Bulwer justly
remarks, a much better judge of men of thought than of men of
action. The paradoxes with which his works abound never
spring from affectation; they are in general the sallies of a mind
so agile and ardent as to overrun its own goal. His style is
perfectly natural, and yet admirably calculated for effect. His
diction, always rich and masculine, seems to kindle as he pro-
ceeds; and when thoroughly animated by his subject, he advances
with a succession of energetic, hard-hitting sentences, each
carrying his argument a step further, like a champion dealing
out blows as he presses upon the enemy. Although, however,
his grasp upon his subject is strenuous, his insight into it is
rarely profound. He can amply satisfy men of taste and culture ;
he cannot, like Coleridge or Burke, dissatisfy them with them-
selves by showing them how much they would have missed
without him. He is a critic who exhibits, rather than reveals,
the beauties of an author. But all shortcomings are forgotten
in the genuineness and fervour of the writer's self-portraiture.
The intensity of his personal convictions causes all he wrote to
appear in a manner autobiographic. Other men have been said
to speak like books, Hazlitt's books speak like men. To read
his works in connexion with Leigh Hunt's and Charles Lamb's
is to be introduced into one of the most attractive of English
literary circles, and this alone will long preserve them from
oblivion.
His son, WILLIAM HAZLITT (1811-1893), was born on the
26th of September 1811. The separation between his parents
did not prevent him from being on affectionate terms with both
of them. He early began to write for the Morning Chronicle,
and in 1833 married Caroline Reynell. He was the author of
many translations, chiefly from the French, and of some works
on the law of bankruptcy. He was called to the bar at the
Middle Temple in 1844, and became registrar in the court of
bankruptcy. He held this position for more than thirty years,
retiring two years before his death, which took place at Addle-
stone, Surrey, on the 23rd of February 1893.
Hazlitt's grandson, WILLIAM CARF.W HAZLITT, the biblio-
grapher, was born on the 2 2nd of August 1 834. He was educated
at the Merchant Taylors' school and was called to the bar of the
Inner Temple in 1861. Among his many publications may be
noted his invaluable Handbook to the Popular, Poetical and
Dramatic Literature of Great Britain, from the Invention of
Printing to the Restoration (1867), supplemented in 1876, 1882',
1887 and 1880, a General Index by J. G. Gray appearing in 1893.
He published further contributions to the subject in Biblio-
graphical Collections and Notes on Early English Literature made
during the years 1893-1(103 (1903), and a Manual for the Collector
and Amateur of Old English Plays . . . (1892). He was the chief
editor of the useful 1871 edition of Warton's History of English
Poetry, and compiled the Catalogue of the Huth Library
(1880).
The list of the first William Hazlitt's works also includes: Political
Essays, -with Sketches of Public Characters (1819); Sketches of the
Principal Picture Galleries in England . . . (1824); Characteristics;
in the Manner of Rochefoucauld's Maxims (1823); Select Poets of
Great Britain: to -which are prefixed Critical Notices of each Author
(1825); Notes of a Journey through France and Italy . . . (1826);
The Life of Titian; with Anecdotes of the Distinguished Persons of his
Time (1830), nominally by James Northcote; an article on the
Fine Arts " contributed to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica; and posthumous collections made by his son.
A comprehensive edition of The Collected Works of William Hazlitt
(12 vols., 1902-1904) does not include the life of Napoleon. It
contains an introduction by W. E. Henley, and was issued under the
superintendence of A. R. Waller and Arnold Glover, and there are
many modern reprints of isolated works. The most copious source
of information respecting Hazlitt is the Memoirs of William Hazlitt,
with Portions of his Correspondence (2 vols., 1867), by his grandson,
W. C. Hazlitt, a medley rather than a memoir, yet full of interest.
A slight but appropriate sketch had previously been prefixed by
his son to his Literary Remains ... (2 vols., 1836), accompanied
by estimates of his intellectual character by Bulwer and by Talfourd,
who had been his fast friend. There is an excellent monograph on
William Hazlitt (1902) by Mr Augustine Birrell, in the '' English
Men of Letters " series, and one in French by J. Donady (Paris, 1907),
who also published a bibliography of his works. Valuable bio-
graphical particulars have been preserved in. Barry Cornwall's
memoirs of Lamb; in the My Friends and Acquaintances (1854)
of Mr P. G. Patmore, Hazlitt's most intimate associate in his later
years; in Crabb Robinson's Diary; and in Lamb's correspondence.
A full bibliographical list of his writings, with a collection of the
most remarkable critical judgments upon them from all quarters,
was prepared by Alexander Ireland (1868). Further information
on the Hazlitt family is to be found in Mr W. C. Hazlitt's Four
Generations of a Literary Family (2 vols., 1897). The chief interest
of this desultory book is the considerable extracts from the diary of
Margaret [Peggy] Hazlitt, which describes the Hazlitt experiences
in America. See also " William Hazlitt " in Sir L. Stephen's Hours
in a Library (ed. 1892, vol. ii.), and Lamb and Hazlitt, further Letters
and Records hitherto unpublished (1900), by W. C. Hazlitt.
HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART. (1805-1868), English
colonial governor and writer on art, was the son of the Rev.
Sir John Head, Bart., rector of Rayleigh, Essex. He was educated
at Winchester school and Orial College, Oxford, and taking his
degree with first-class honours in classics, he became fellow of
Merton College. On his father's death in 1838, he succeeded
to the baronetcy as 8th baronet. His services as poor-law
commissioner, to which post he was appointed in 1841 after
five years as assistant-commissioner, procured for him in 1847
the office of lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, whence
he passed in 1854 to the governor-generalship of Canada, which
he retained till 1861. The following year, having returned to
England, Head was nominated a civil service commissioner.
In 1857 he was sworn of the Privy Council, and in 1860 was
decorated as K.C.B., while in the course of his career he received
the degrees of D.C.L. at Oxford and LL.D. at Cambridge. He
died in London on the 28th of January 1868, the baronetcy
becoming extinct, as his only son had died in 1859.
Sir Edmund Head wrote the article " Painting " in the Penny
Cyclopaedia; A Handbook of the Spanish and French Schools of
Painting (1845) ; Shall and Will, or two Chapters on Future Auxiliary
Verbs (1856); and Ballads and other Poems, Original and Translated
(1868). He also edited F. T. Kugler's Handbook of Painting of the
HEAD, SIR F. B. HEALTH
121
German Flemish, Dutch, Spanish, and French Schools (1854) and the
Essavs on the Administrations of Great Britain (1864), written by
his lifelong friend, Sir George Cornewall Lewis. His translation
from the Icelandic of Viga Glum's Saga appeared in 1866.
HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART. (1793-1875), English
soldier, traveller and author, son of James Roper Head of the
Hermitage, Higham, Kent, was born there on the ist of January
1793. He was educated at Rochester grammar school and the
Royal Military Academy, whence in 1811 he was commissioned
to the Royal Engineers. He was for some years stationed in
the Mediterranean, and he served in the campaign of 1815,
being present at the battle of Waterloo. He went on half-pay
in 1825, when he accepted the charge of an association formed
to work the gold and silver mines of Rio de La Plata. In
connexion with this enterprise he made several rapid journeys
across the Pampas and among the Andes, his Rough Notes of
which, published in 1826, and written in a clear and spirited
style, obtained for him the name of " Galloping Head." On
his return in 1827, he became involved in a controversy with
the directors of his company, and in defence of his conduct he
published Reports of the La Plata Mining Association (London,
1827). He was soon afterwards restored to the active list of
the army as a major unattached, mainly owing to his efforts
to introduce the South American lasso into the British service
for auxiliary draught. In 1830 he published a life of Bruce,
the African traveller, and in 1834 Bubbles from the Brunnens
of Nassau, by an Old Man. In 1835 he was knighted, and in
the following year created a baronet. In 1835 he was appointed
lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, and in this capacity he
had to deal with a political situation of great difficulty, being
called upon in 1837 to suppress a serious insurrection. Shortly
afterwards, in consequence of a dispute with the home govern-
ment, he resigned his post and returned to England, via New
York (see Quarterly Review, vols. 63-64). Thereafter he devoted
himself to writing, chiefly for the Quarterly Review, and to hunting.
He rode to hounds until he was seventy-five. In 1869 Sir Francis
Head was made a privy councillor. He died on the 2oth of July
1875, at Duppas Hall, Croydon.
Head was the author of a considerable number of works, chiefly
of travel, written in a clever, amusing and graphic fashion, and
displaying both acute observation and genial humour. His principal
works beside those mentioned above, and a narrative of his Canadian
administration (1839), were The Emigrant (. 1 846) ; Highways and
Dryways, the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges (1849) ; Stokers
and Pokers, a sketch of the working of a railway line (1849); 1 he
Defenceless Stale of Great Britain (1850); A Faggot of French Sticks
(1852); A Fortnight in Ireland (1852); Descriptive Essays (1856).!
comments on Kinglake's Crimean War (1853); The Horse and his
Rider (1860); The Royal Engineer (1870); and a sketch ot the lite
of Sir John Burgoyne (1872).
His brother, SIR GEORGE HEAD (1782-1855), was educated
at the Charterhouse. In 1808 he received an appointment in
the commissariat of the British army in the Peninsula, where
he was a witness of many exciting scenes and important battles,
of which he gave an interesting account in " Memoirs of an
Assistant Commissary-General " attached to the second volume
of his Home Tour, published in 1837. In 1814 he was sent to
America to take charge of the commissariat in a naval establish-
ment on the Canadian lakes, and he subsequently held appoint-
ments at Halifax and Nova Scotia. Some of his Canadian
experiences were narrated by him in Forest Scenery and Incidents
in the Wilds of North America (1829). In 1831 he was knighted.
He published in 1835 A Home Tour through the Manufacturing
Districts of England, and in 1837 a sequel to it, entitled A Home 1 our
through various parts of the United Kingdom. Both works are
amusing and instructive, but his Rome, a Tour of many Days, pub-
lished in 1849, is somewhat dull and tedious. He also translated
Historical Memoirs of Cardinal Pacca (1850), and the Metamorphoses
of Apuleius (1851).
HEAD (in O. Eng. hlafod; the word is common to Teutonic
languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be
in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. Ke<aXi7), the upper
portion of the body in man, consisting of the skull with its
integuments and contents, &c., connected with the trunk by
the neck (see ANATOMY, SKULL and BRAIN); also the anterior
or fore part of other animals. The word is used in a large
number of transferred and figurative senses, generally with
reference to the position of the head as the uppermost part,
hence the leading, chief portion of anything.
HEAD-HUNTING, or HEAD-SNAPPING, as the Dutch call it,
a custom once prevalent among all Malay races and surviving
even to-day among the Dyaks (q.v.) of Borneo and elsewhere.
Martin de Rada, provincial of the Augustinians, reported its
existence in Luzon (Philippine Islands) as early as 1577. The
practice is believed to have had its origin in religious motives,
the worship of skulls being universal among the Malays. Severe
repressive measures have Jed to its decrease. Among the
Igorrotes all that remains is the dance, accompanied by singing,
around the bare pole on which the head was formerly fixed.
With the Ilongotes a bridegroom must bring his bride a number
of heads, those of Christians being preferred. The chief examples
of head-hunters are the Was, a hill-tribe on the north-eastern
frontier of India, and the Nagas and Kukis of Assam.
See Bock, Headhunters of Borneo (1881); W. H. Furness, Home
Life of Borneo Head-hunters (Philadelphia, 1902); T. C. Hodson,
" Head-hunting in Assam," in Folk-Lore, xx, 2. 132.
HEALTH, a condition of physical soundness or well-being,
in which an organism discharges its functions efficiently; also
in a transferred sense a state of moral or intellectual well-being
(see HYGIENE, THERAPEUTICS and PUBLIC HEALTH) . " Health "
represents the O. Eng. ha&lh, the condition or state of being hal,
safe or sound. This word took in northern dialects the form
" hale," in southern or midland English hole, hence " whole,"
with the addition of an initial w, as in " whoop," and in the
pronunciation of " one." " Hail," properly an exclamation of
greeting, good health to you, hence, to greet, to call out to,
is directly Scandinavian in origin, from Old Norwegian heill,
cognate with the O. Eng. hdl, used also in this sense. " To heal "
(O. Eng. halari), to make in sound health, to cure, is also cognate.
Drinking of Healths. The custom of drinking " health " to
the living is most probably derived from the ancient religious
rite of drinking to the gods and the dead. The Greeks and
Romans at meals poured out libations to their gods, and at
ceremonial banquets drank to them and to the dead. The
Norsemen drank the " minni " of Thor, Odin and Freya, and of
their kings at their funeral feasts. With the advent of Christianity
the pagan custom survived among the Scandinavian and Teutonic
peoples. Such festal formulae as " God's minne!" "A bowl
to God in Heaven!" occur, and Christ, the Virgin and the
Saints were invoked, instead of heathen gods and heroes. The
Norse " minne " was at once love, memory and thought of
the absent one, and it survived in medieval and later England
in the " minnying " or " mynde " days, on which the memory
of the dead was celebrated by services and feasting. Intimately
associated with these quasi-sacrificial drinking customs must
have ever been the drinking to the health of living men. The
Greeks drank to one another and the Romans adopted the
custom. The Goths pledged each other with the cry " Hails ! "
a greeting which had its counterpart in the Anglo-Saxon " waes
hael " (see WASSAIL). Most modern drinking-usages have had
their equivalents in classic times. Thus the Greek practice of
drinking to the Nine Muses as three times three survives to-day
in England and elsewhere. The Roman gallants drank as many
glasses to their mistresses as there were letters in each one's
name. Thus Martial:
" Six cups to Naevia's health go quickly round,^
And be with seven the fair Justina's crown'd.
The English drinking phrase a "toast," to "toast" anyone-
net older than the iyth century, had reference at first to this
custom of drinking to the ladies. A toast was at first invariably
a woman, and the origin of the phrase is curious. In Stuart
days there appears to have been a time-honoured custom of
putting a piece of toast in the wine-cup before drinking, from
a fanciful notion that it gave the liquor a better flavour. In
the Taller No. 24 the connexion between this sippet of toast and
the fair one pledged is explained as follows: " It happened that
on a publick day " (speaking of Bath m Charles II. 's reign)
122
HEALY HEARING
" a celebrated beauty of those times was in the cross bath, and
one of the crowd of her admirers took a glass of the water in which
the fair one stood, and drank her health to the company. There
was in the place a gay fellow, half fuddled, who offered to jump
in, and swore, though he liked not the liquor, he would have the
toast. He was opposed in his resolution; yet this whim gave
foundation to the present honour which is done to the lady we
mention in our liquor, who has ever since been called a toast."
Skeat adds (Etym. Diet., 1908), "whether the story be true or
not, it may be seen that a ' toast,' i.e. a health, easily took its
name from being the usual accompaniment to liquor, especially
in loving cups," &c.
Health drinking had by the beginning of the iyth century
become a very ceremonious business in England. At Christmas
1623 the members of the Middle Temple, according to one of the
Harleian MSS. quoted in The Life of Sir Simonds D'Ewes, drank
to the health of the princess Elizabeth, who, with her husband
the king of Bohemia, was then suffering great misfortunes, and
stood up, one after the other, cup in one hand, sword in the other,
and pledged her, swearing to die in her service. Toasts were
often drunk solemnly on bended knees; according to one
authority, Samuel Ward of Ipswich, in his Woe to Drunkards
(1622), on bare knees. In 1668 at Sir George Carteret's at
Cranbourne the health of the duke of York was drunk by all in
turn, each on his knees, the king, who was a guest, doing the like.
A Scotch custom, still surviving, was to drink a toast with one
foot on the table and one on the chair. Healths, too, were drunk
in a definite order. Braithwaite says: " These cups proceed
either in order or out of order. In order when no person trans-
gresseth or drinkes out of course, but the cup goes round according
to their manner of sitting: and this we call a health-cup, because
incur wishing or confirming of any one's health, bare headed and
standing, it is performed by all the company " (Laws of Drinking,
1617). Francis Douce's MSS. notes say: " It was the custom
in Beaumont and Fletcher's time for the young gallants to stab
themselves in the arms or elsewhere, in order to drink the health
of their mistresses." Pepys, in his Diary for the igth of June
1663, writes: " To the Rhenish wine house, where Mr Moore
showed us the French manner when a health is drunk, to bow
to him that drunk to you, and then apply yourself to him, whose
lady's health is drunk, and then to the person that you drink to,
which I never knew before; but it seems it is now the fashion."
A Frenchman visiting England in Charles II. 's time speaks of
the custom of drinking but half your cup, which is then filled
up again and presented to him or her to whose health you drank.
England's divided loyalty in the i8th century bequeathed to
modern times a custom which possibly yet survives. At dinners
to royalties, until the accession of Edward VII., finger-glasses
were not placed on the table, because in early Georgian days
those who were secretly Jacobites passed their wine-glasses over
the finger-bowls before drinking the loyal toasts, in allusion to
the royal exiles " over the water," thus salving their consciences.
Lord Cockburn (1779-1854), in his Memorials of his Time (1856),
states that in his day the drinking of toasts had become a perfect
social tyranny; "every glass during dinner had to be dedicated
to some one. It was thought sottish and rude to take wine
without this, as if forsooth there was nobody present worth
drinking with. I was present about 1803 when the late duke of
Buccleuch took a glass of sherry by himself at the table of Charles
Hope, then lord advocate, and this was noticed afterwards as a
piece of direct contempt." In Germany to-day it is an insult
to refuse to drink with any one; and at one time in the west of
America a man took his life in his hands by declining to pledge
another. All this is a survival of that very early and universal
belief that drinking to one another was a proof of fair play,
whether it be in a simple bargain or in matters of life and death.
The ceremony surrounding the Loving Cup to-day is reminiscent
of the perils of those times when every man's hand was raised
against his fellow. This cup, known at the universities as the
Grace Cup, was originated, says Miss Strickland in her Lives of
the Queens of Scotland, by Margaret Atheling, wife of Malcolm
Canmore, who, in order to induce the Scots to remain at table for
grace had a cup of the choicest wine handed round immediately
after it had been said. The modern "loving cup" sometimes
has a cover, and in this case each guest rises and bows to his
immediate neighbour on the right, who, also rising, removes
and holds the cover with his right hand while the other drinks;
the little comedy is a survival of the days when he who drank
was glad to have the assurance that the right or dagger hand of
his neighbour was occupied in holding the lid of the chalice.
When there is no cover it is a common custom for both the left-
and the right-hand neighbour to rise while the loving cup is
drunk, with the similar object of protecting the drinker from
attack. The Stirrup Cup is probably the Roman poculum boni
genii, the last glass drunk at the banquet to a general " good
night."
See Chambers, Book of Days; Valpy, History of Toasting (1881) ;
F. W. Hackwood, Inns, Ales, and Drinking Customs (London, 1909).
HEALY, GEORGE PETER ALEXANDER (1808-1894),
American painter, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the
iSth of July 1808. Going to Europe in 1835 Healy studied
under Baron Gros in Paris and in Rome. He received a third-
class medal in Paris in 1840, and one of the second class in 1855,
when he exhibited his " Franklin urging the claims of the
American Colonies before Louis XVI." Among his portraits
of eminent men are those of Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Guyot,
Seward, Louis Philippe, and the presidents of the United States
from John Quincy Adams to Grant this series being painted
for the Corcoran Gallery, Washington. His large group,
" Webster replying to Hayne," containing 150 portraits, is in
Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass. He was one of the most prolific and
popular painters of his day. He died in Chicago, Illinois, on the
24th of June 1894.
HEANOR, an urban district in the Ilkeston parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Nottingham,
on the Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. (1901)
16,249. Large hosiery works employ many of the inhabitants,
and collieries are worked in the parish. The urban district
includes Codnor-cum-Loscoe. Shipley Hall, to the south of
Heanor, is a mansion built on a hill, amidst fine gardens. The
ruin of the ancient moated castle of Codnor stands, overlooking
the vale of the Erewash, on land which was once Codnor Park,
and is now the site of large ironworks.
HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran,
heran, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. hb'ren, Dutch
hooren, &c.; the O. Teut. form is seen in Goth, hausjan; the
initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr.
a.Kovu> very doubtful), in physiology, the function of the ear
(q.v.), and the general term for the sense or special sensation, the
cause of which is an excitation of the auditory nerves by the
vibrations of sonorous bodies. The anatomy of the ear is
described in the separate article on that organ. A description of
sonorous vibrations is given in the article SOUND; here we shall
consider the transmission of such vibrations from the external
ear to the auditory nerve, and the physiological characters of
auditory sensation.
i. Transmission in External Ear. The external ear consists
of the pinna, or auricle, and the external auditory mealus, or
canal, at the bottom of which we find the membrana tym-
pani, or drum head. In many animals the auricle is trumpet-
shaped, and, being freely movable by muscles, serves to collect
sonorous waves coming from various directions. The auricle
of the human ear presents many irregularities of surface. If
these irregularities are abolished by filling them up with a soft
material such as wax or oil, leaving the entrance to the canal free,
experiment shows that the intensity of sounds is weakened, and
that there is more difficulty in judging of their direction. When
waves of sound strike the auricle, they are partly reflected
outwards, while the remainder, impinging at various angles,
undergo a number of reflections so as to be directed into the
auditory canal. Vibrations are transmitted along the auditory
canal, partly by the air it contains and partly by its walls, to
the membrana tympani. The absence of the auricle, as the
result of accident or injury, does not cause diminution of hearing.
HEARING
123
In the auditory canal waves of sound are reflected from side
to side until they reach the membrana tympani. P'rom the
obliquity in position and peculiar curvature of this membrane,
most of the waves strike it nearly perpendicularly, and in the
most advantageous direction.
2. Transmission in Middle Ear. The middle ear is a small
cavity, the walls of which are rigid with the exception of the
portions consisting of the membrana tympani, and the membrane
of the round window and of the apparatus filline; the oval window.
This cavity communicates with the pharynx by the Eustachian
tube, which forms an air-tube between the pharynx and the
tympanum for the purpose of regulating pressure on the mem-
brana tympani. During rest the tube is open, but it is closed
during the act of deglutition. As this action is frequently
taking place, not only when food or drink is introduced, but when
saliva is swallowed, it is evident that the pressure of the air in
the tympanum will be kept in a state of equilibrium with that
of the external air on the outer surface of the membrana tym-
pani, and that thus the membrana tympani will be rendered
independent of variations of atmospheric pressure such as occur
when we descend in a diving bell or ascend in a balloon. By a
forcible expiration, the oral and nasal cavities being closed, air
may be driven into the tympanum, while a forcible inspiration
(Valsalva's experiment) will draw air from that cavity. In the
first case, the membrana tympani will bulge outwards, in the
second case inwards, and in both, from excessive stretching of
the membrane, there will be partial deafness, especially for
sounds of high pitch. Permanent occlusion of the tube is one of
the most common causes of deafness.
The membrana tympani is capable of being set into vibration
by a sound of any pitch included in the range of perceptible
sounds. It responds exactly as to number of vibrations (pitch),
intensity of vibrations (intensity), and complexity of vibration
(quality or timbre). Consequently we can hear a sound of any
given pitch, of a certain intensity, and in its own specific timbre
or quality. Generally speaking, very high tones are heard more
easily than low tones of the same intensity. As the membrana
tympani is not only fixed by its margin to a ring or tube of bone,
but is also adherent to the handle of the malleus, which follows
its movements, its vibrations meet with considerable resistance.
This diminishes the intensity of its vibrations, and prevents also
the continued vibration of the membrane after an external
pressure has ceased, so that a sound is not heard much longer
than its physical cause lasts. The tension of the membrane
may be affected (i) by differences of pressure on the two surfaces
of the membrana tympani, as may occur during forcible expira-
tion or inspiration, and (2) by muscular action, due to con-
traction of the tensor tympani muscle. This small muscle arises
from the apex of the petrous temporal and the cartilage of the
Eustachian tube, enters the tympanum at its anterior wall, and
is inserted into the malleus near its root. The handle of the
malleus is inserted between the layers of the membrana tympani,
and, as the malleus and incus move round an axis passing
through the neck of the malleus from before backwards, the
action of the muscle is to pull the membrana tympani inwards
towards the tympanic cavity in the form of a cone, the meridians
of which are not straight but curved, with convexity outwards.
When the muscle contracts, the handle of the malleus is drawn
still farther inwards, and thus a greater tension of the tympanic
membrane is produced. On relaxation of the muscle, the mem-
brane returns to its position of equilibrium by its elasticity and
by the elasticity of the chain of bones. This power of varying
the tension of the membrane is an accommodating mechanism
for receiving and transmitting sounds of different pitch. With
different degrees of tension it will respond more readily to sounds
of different pitch. Thus, when the membrane is tense, it will
readily respond to high sounds, while relaxation will be the
condition most adapted for low tones. In addition, 'increased
tension of the membrane, by increasing the resistance, will
diminish the intensity of vibrations. This is especially the case
for sounds of low pitch.
The vibrations of the membrana tympani are transmitted to
the internal ear partly by the air which the middle ear or tyrn-
panum contains, and partly by the chain of bones, consisting
of the malleus, incus and stapes. Of these, transmission by the
chain of bones is by far the most important. In birds and in the
amphibia, this chain is represented by a single rod-like ossicle,
the columella, but in man the two membranes the membrana
tympani and the membrane filling the fenestra ovalis are con-
nected by a compound lever consisting of three bones, namely,
the malleus, or hammer, inserted into the membrana tympani,
the incus, or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup, the base of which is
attached to a membrane covering the oval window. It must
also be noted that in the transmission of vibrations of the mem-
brana tympani to the fluid in the labyrinth or internal ear,
through the oval window, the chain of ossicles vibrates as a whole
and acts efficiently, although its length may be only a fraction
of the wave-length of the sound transmitted. The chain is a
lever in which the handle of the malleus forms the long arm,
the fulcrum is where the short process of the incus abuts against
the wall of the tympanum, while the long process of the incus,
carrying the stapes, forms the short arm. The mechanism is a
lever of the second order. Measurements show that the ratio
of the lengths of the two arms is as 1-5:1; the ratio of the
resulting force at the stapes is therefore as 1:1-5; while the
amplitudes of the movements at the tip of the handle of the
malleus and the stapes is as 1-5:1. Hence, while there is a
diminution in amplitude there is a gain in power, and thus the
pressures are conveyed with great efficiency from the membrana
tympani to the labyrinth, while the amplitude of the oscillation
is diminished so as to be adapted to the small capacity of the
labyrinth. As the drum-head is nearly twenty times greater in
area than the membrane covering the oval window, with which
the base of the stapes is connected, the energy of the movements
of the membrana tympani is concentrated on an area twenty
times smaller; hence the pressure is increased thirtyfold
(1-5X20) when it acts at the base of the stapes. Experiments
on the human ear have shown that the movement of greatest
amplitude was at the tip of the handle of the malleus, 0-76 mm.;
the movement of the tip of the long arm process of the incus
was 0-21 mm.; while the greatest amplitude at the base of the
stapes was only -07 id mm. Other observations have shown,
the movements at the stapes to have a still smaller amplitude,
varying from o-coi to 0-032 mm. With tones of feeble intensity
the movements must be almost infinitesimal. There may also
be very minute transverse movements at the base of the stapes.
3. Transmission in the Internal Ear. The internal ear is
composed of the labyrinth, formed of the vestibule or central
part, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea, each of which
consists of an osseous and a membranous portion. The osseous
labyrinth may be regarded as an osseous mould in the petrous
portion of the temporal bone, lined by tesselated endothelium,
and containing a small quantity of fluid called the pcrilymph.
In this mould, partially surrounded by, and to some extent
floating in, this fluid, there is the membranous labyrinth, in
certain parts of which we find the terminal apparatus in connexion
with the auditory nerve, immersed in another fluid called the
endolymph. The membranous labyrinth consists of a vestibular
portion formed by two small sac-like dilatations, called the
saccule and the utricle, the latter of which communicates with the
semicircular canals by five openings. Each canal consists of
a tube, bulging out at each extremity so as to form the so-called
ampulla, in which, on a projecting ridge, called the crista acuslica,
there are cells bearing long auditory hairs, which are the peripheral
end-organs of the vestibular branches of the auditory nerve.
The cochlear division of the membranous labyrinth consists of
the ductus cochlearis, a tube of triangular form fitting in between
the two cavities in the cochlea, called the scala vestibuli, because
it commences in the vestibule, and the scala tympani, because it
ends in the tympanum, at the round window. These two scalae
communicate at the apex of the cochlea. The roof of the ductus
cochlearis is formed by a thin membrane called the membrane
of Reissner, while its floor consists of the basilar membrane,
on which we find the remarkable organ ofCorti, which constitutes
124
HEARING
the terminal organ of the cochlear division of the auditory
nerve. It is sufficient to state here that this organ consists
essentially of an arrangement of epithelial cells bearing hairs
which are in communication with the terminal filaments of this
portion of the auditory nerve, and that groups of these hairs
pass through holes in a closely investing membrane, membrana
reticidaris, which may act as a damping apparatus, so as quickly
to stop their movements. The ductus cochlearis and the two
scalae are filled with fluid. Sonorous vibrations may reach the
fluid in the labyrinth by three different ways (i) by the osseous
walls of the labyrinth, (2) by the air in the tympanum and the
round window, and (3) by the base of the stapes inserted into
the oval window.
When the head is plunged into water, or brought into direct
contact with any vibrating body, vibrations must be transmitted
directly. Vibrations of the air in the mouth and in the nasal
passages are also communicated directly to the walls of the
cranium, and thus pass to the labyrinth. In like manner, we
may experience auditive sensations, such as blowing, rubbing
and hissing sounds, due to muscular contraction or to the passage
of blood in vessels close to the auditory organ. It is doubtful
whether any vibrations are communicated to the fluid in the
labyrinth by the round window. Vibrations which cause hearing
are communicated by the chain of bones. When the base of the
stirrup is pushed into the oval window, the pressure in the laby-
rinth increases, and, as the only mobile part of the wall of the
labyrinth is the membrane covering the round window, this
membrane is forced outwards; when the base of the stirrup
moves outwards a reverse action takes place. Thus the fluid
of the labyrinth receives a series of pulses isochronous with the
movements of the base of the stirrup, and these pulses affect
the terminal apparatus in connexion with the auditory nerve.
The sacs of the internal ear, known as the utricle and saccule,
receive the impulses of the base of the stapes. They are organs
connected with the perception of sounds as sounds, without
reference to pitch or quality. For the analysis of tone a cochlea
is necessary. Even in mammals all the parts of the ear may
be destroyed or affected by disease, except these sacs, without
causing complete deafness.
It has been suggested by Lee (Amer. Jour, of Physiol. vol. i.
No. i, p. 128) that in fishes the sac has nothing to do with
hearing, but serves for the perception of movements, such as
those of rotation and translation through space, movements much
coarser than those that form the physical basis of sound. He
considers, also, that as fishes, with few exceptions, are dumb,
they are also deaf. In the fish there are peculiar organs along the
lateral line which are known to be connected with the perception
of movements of the body as a whole, and Beard (Zool. Anz.
Leipzig, 1884, Bd. vii. S. 140) has attempted to trace a phylo-
genetic connexion between the sacs of the internal ear and the
organs in the lateral line. According to this view, when animals
became air-breathers, a part of the ear (the papilla acustica
basilaris) was gradually evolved for the perception of delicate
vibrations of sound. (See EQUILIBRIUM.)
It is by means of the cochlea that we discriminate pitch,
hear beats, and are affected by quality of tone.
Since the size of the membranous labyrinth is so small, measur-
ing, in man, not more than 5 in. in length by | in. in diameter
at its widest part, and since it is a chamber consisting partly of
conduits of very irregular form, it is impossible to state accurately
the course of vibrations transmitted to it by impulses com-
municated from the base of the stirrup. In the cochlea vibrations
must pass from the saccule along the scala vestibuli to the apex,
thus affecting the membrane of Reissner, which forms its roof;
then, passing through the opening at the apex (the helicotrema) ,
they must descend by the scala tympani to the round window,
and affect in their passage the membrana basilaris, on which the
organ of Corti is situated. From the round window impulses
must be reflected backwards, but how they affect the advancing
impulses is not known. But the problem is even more complex
when we take into account the fact that impulses are trans-
mitted simultaneously to the utricle and to the semicircular
canals communicating with it by five openings. The mode of
action of these vibrations or impulses upon the nervous termina-
tions is still unknown ; but to appreciate critically the hypothesis
which has been advanced to explain it, it is necessary, in the first
place, to refer to some of the general characters of auditory
sensation.
4. General Characters of Auditory Sensations. Certain con-
ditions are necessary for excitation of the auditory nerve sufficient
to produce a sensation. In the first place, the vibrations must
have a certain amplitude and energy; if too feeble, no impression
will be produced.
Various physicists have attempted to measure the sensitiveness
of the ear by estimating the amplitude of the molecular move-
ments necessary to call forth the feeblest audible sound. Thus
A. Topler and L. Boltzmann, on data founded on experiments
with organ pipes, state that the ear is affected by vibrations
of molecules of the air not more in amplitude than -0004 mm.
at the ear, or o-i of the wave-length of green light, and that the
energy of such a vibration on the drum-head is not more than
5^3 billionth kilog., or i^th of that produced upon an equal
surface of the retina by a single candle at the same distance
(Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., Leipzig. 1870, Bd. cxli. S. 321). Lord
Rayleigh, by two other methods, arrived at the conclusion
" that the streams of energy required to influence the eye and ear
are of the same order of magnitude." He estimated the ampli-
tude of the movement of the aerial particles, with a sound just
audible, as less than the ten-millionth of a centimetre, and the
energy emitted when the sound was first becoming audible, at
42-1 ergs per second. He also states that in considering the
amplitude or condensation in progressive aerial waves, at a
distance of 27-4 metres from a tuning-fork, the maximum con-
densation was = 6-oXio~ 9 cm., a result showing "that the ear
is able to recognize the addition or subtraction of densities far
less than those to be found in our highest vacua " (Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1877, vol. xxvi. p. 248; Land. Edin. and Dub. Phil. Mag.,
1894, vol. xxxviii. p. 366).
In the next place, vibrations must have a certain duration to
be perceived; and lastly, to excite a sensation of a continuous
musical sound, a certain number of impulses must occur in a given
interval of time. The lower limit is about 30, and the upper
about 30,000 vibrations per second. Below 30, the individual
impulses may be observed, and above 30,000 few ears can detect
any sound at all. The extreme upper limit is not more than
35,000 vibrations per second. Auditory sensations are of two
kinds noises and musical sounds. Noises are caused by
impulses which are not regular in intensity or duration, or are
not periodic, or they may be caused by a series of musical sounds
occurring instantaneously so as to produce discords, as when we
place our hand at random on the key-board of a piano. Musical
tones are produced by periodic and regular vibrations. In musical
sounds three characters are prominent intensity, pitch and
quality. Intensity depends on the amplitude of the vibration,
and a greater or lesser amplitude of the vibration will cause a
corresponding movement of the transmitting apparatus, and a
corresponding intensity of excitation of the terminal apparatus.
Pitch, as a sensation, depends on the length of time in which
a single vibration is executed, or, in other words, the number
of vibrations in a given interval of time. The ear is capable of
appreciating the relative pitch or height of a sound as compared
with another, although it may not ascertain precisely the absolute
pitch of a sound. What we call an acute or high tone is produced
by a large number of vibrations, while a grave or low tone is
caused by few. The musical tones which can be used with
advantage range between 40 and 4000 vibrations per second,
extending thus from 6 to 7 octaves. According to E. H. Weber,
practised musicians can perceive a difference of pitch amounting
to only the jVth of a semitone, but this is far beyond average
attainment. In a few individuals, and especially in early life,
there may be an appreciation of absolute pitch. Quality or timbre
(or Klang) is that peculiar characteristic of a musical sound by
which we may identify it as proceeding from a particular instru-
ment or from a particular human voice. It depends on the fact
HEARING
125
Funda-
mental Tone.
Notes ... do 1
Partial tones . t
Number of )
vibrations $ 33
that many waves of sound that reach the ear are compound wave
systems, built up of constituent waves, each of which is capable of
exciting a sensation of a simple tone if it be singled out and
reinforced by a resonator (see SOUND), and which may sometimes
be heard without a resonator, after special practice and tuition.
Thus it appears that the ear must have some arrangement by which
it resolves every wave system, however complex, into simple
pendular vibrations. When we listen to a sound of any quality
we recognize that it is of a certain pitch. This depends on the
number of vibrations of one tone, predominant in intensity over
the others, called the fundamental or ground tone, or first partial
tone. The quality, or timbre, depends on the number and
intensity of other tones added to it. These are termed harmonic
or partial tones, and they are related to the first partial or funda-
mental tone in a very simple manner, being multiples of the
fundamental tone: thus
Upper Partials or Harmonics.
do 2 sol 2 do 3 mi 3 sol 3 sit> 3 do 4 re 4 mi 4
234567 89 10
66 99 132 165 198 231 264 297 330
When a simple tone, or one free from partials, is heard, it
gives rise to a simple, soft, somewhat insipid sensation, as may
be obtained by blowing across the mouth of an open bottle or
by a tuning-fork. The lower partials added to the fundamental
tone give softness combined with richness; while the higher,
especially if they be very high, produce a brilliant and thrilling
effect, as is caused by the brass instruments of an orchestra.
Such being the facts, how may they be explained physiologically ?
Little is yet known regarding the mode of action of the vibra-
tions of the fluid in the labyrinth upon the terminal apparatus
connected with the auditory nerve. There can be no doubt
that it is a mechanical action, a communication of impulses to
delicate hair-like processes, by the movements of which the
nervous filaments are irritated. In the human ear it has been
estimated that there are about 3000 small arches formed by the
rods of Corti. Each arch rests on the basilar membrane, and
supports rows of cells having minute hair-like processes. It
would appear also that the filaments of the auditory nerve
terminate in the basilar membrane, and possibly they may be
connected with the hair-cells. At one time it was supposed by
Helmholtz that these fibres of Corti were elastic and that they
were tuned for particular sounds, so as to form a regular series
corresponding to all the tones audible to the human ear. Thus
2800 fibres distributed over the tones of seven octaves would give
400 fibres for each octave, or nearly 33 for a semitone. Helmholtz
put forward the hypothesis that, when a pendular vibration
reaches the ear, it excites by sympathetic vibration the fibre of
Corti which is tuned for its proper number of vibrations. If,
then, different fibres are tuned to tones of different pitch, it is
evident that we have here a mechanism which, by exciting
different nerve fibres, will give rise to sensations of pitch. When
the vibration is not simple but compound, in consequence of the
blending of vibrations corresponding to various harmonics or
partial tones, the ear has the power of resolving this compound
vibration into its elements. It can orjy do so by different fibres
responding to the constituent vibrations of the sound one for
the fundamental tone being stronger, and giving the sensation
of a particular pitch to the sound, and the others, corresponding
to the upper partial tones, being weaker, and causing undefined
sensations, which are so blended together in consciousness as to
terminate in a complex sensation of a tone of a certain quality
or timbre. It would appear at first sight that 33 fibres of Corti
for a semitone are not sufficient to enable us to detect all the
gradations of pitch in that interval, since, as has been stated
above, trained musicians may distinguish a difference of i^j-th
of a semitone. To meet this difficulty, Helmholtz stated that if
a sound is produced, the pitch of which may be supposed to come
between two adjacent fibres of Corti, both of these will be set
into sympathetic vibration, but the one which comes nearest
to the pitch of the sound will vibrate with greater intensity than
the other, and that consequently the pitch of that sound would be
thus appreciated. These theoretical views of Helmholtz have
derived much support from experiments of V. Hensen, who
observed that certain hairs on the antennae of My sis, a Crustacean,
when seen with a low microscopic power, vibrated with certain
tones produced by a keyed horn. It was seen that certain tones
of the horn set some hairs into strong vibration, and other tones
other hairs. Each hair responded also to several tones of the
horn. Thus one hair responded strongly to d% and d'#, more
weakly to g, and very weakly to G. It was probably tuned to
some pitch between d" and d"%. (Studien iiber das Cehororgan
der Dccapoden, Leipzig, 1863.)
Histological researches have led to a modification of this
hypothesis. It has been found that the rods or arches of Corti
are stiff structures, not adapted for vibrating, but apparently
constituting a support for the hair-cells. It is also known that
there are no rods of Corti in the cochlea of birds, which are
capable nevertheless of appreciating pitch. Hensen and Helm-
holtz suggested the view that not only may the segments of the
membrana basilaris be stretched more in the radial than in the
longitudinal direction, but different segments may be stretched
radially with different degrees of tension so as to resemble a
series of tense strings of gradually increasing length. Each
string would then respond to a vibration of a particular pitch
communicated to it by the hair-cells. The exact mechanism
of the hair-cells and of the membrana reticularis, which looks
like a damping apparatus, is unknown.
5. Physiological Characters of Auditory Sensation. Under
ordinary circumstances auditory sensations are referred to the
outer world. When we hear a sound, we associate it with some
external cause, and it appears to originate in a particular place
or to come in a particular direction. This feeling of exteriority
of sound seems to require transmission through the membrana
tympani. Sounds which are sent through the walls of the
cranium, as when the head is immersed in, and the external
auditory canals are filled with, water, appear to originate in
the body itself.
An auditory sensation lasts a short time after the cessation
of the exciting cause, so that a number of separate vibrations,
each capable of exciting a distinct sensation if heard alone,
may succeed each other so rapidly that they are fused into a
single sensation. If we listen to the puffs of a syren, or to
vibrating tongues of low pitch, the single sensation is usually
produced by about 30 or 35 vibrations per second; but when
we listen to beats of considerable intensity, produced by two
adjacent tones of sufficiently high pitch, the ear may follow
as many as 132 intermissions per second.
The sensibility of the ear for sounds of different pitch is not
the same. It is more sensitive for acute than for grave sounds,
and it is probable that the maximum degree of acuteness is for
sounds produced by about 3000 vibrations per second, that
is near /a 5 ^. Sensibility as to pitch varies much with the
individual. Thus some musicians may detect a difference of
roVffth of the total number of vibrations, while other persons
may have difficulty in appreciating a semitone.
6. Analytical Power of the Ear. When we listen to a compound
tone, we have the power of picking out these partials from the
general mass of sound. It is known that the frequencies of the
partials as compared with that of the fundamental tone are simple
multiples of the frequency of the fundamental, and also that physic-
ally the waves of the partials so blend with each other as to produce
waves of very complicated forms. Yet the ear, or the ear and the
brain together, can resolve this complicated wave-form into its
constituents, and this is done more easily if we listen to the sound
with resonators, the pitch of which corresponds, or nearly corre-
sponds, to the frequencies of the partials. Much discussion has taken
place as to how the ear accomplishes this analysis. All are agreed
that there is a complicated apparatus in the cochlea which may
serve this purpose; but while some arc of opinion that this structure
is sufficient, others hold that the analysis takes place in the brain.
When a complicated wave falls on the drum-head, it must move out
and in in a way corresponding to the variations of pressure, and these
variations will, in a single vibration, depend on the greater or less
degree of complexity of the wave. Thus a single tone will cause a
movement like that of a pendulum, a simple pendular vibration,
126
HEARING
while a complex tone, although occurring in the same duration of
time, will cause the drum-head to move out and in in a much more
complicated manner. The complex movement will be conveyed to
the base of the stapes, thence to the vestibule, and thence to the
cochlea, in which we find the ductus cochlearis containing the organ
of Cord. It is to be noted also that the parts in the cochlea are so
small as to constitute only a fraction of the wave-length of most
tones audible to the human ear. Now it is evident that the cochlea
must act either as a whole, all the nerve fibres being affected by any
variations of pressure, or the nerve fibres may have a selective action,
each fibre being excited by a wave of a definite period, or there may
exist small vibratile bodies between the nerve filaments and the
pressures sent into the organ. The last hypothesis gives the most
rational explanation of the phenomena, and on it is founded a theory
generally accepted and associated with the names of Thomas
Young and Hermann Helmholtz. It may be shortly stated as
follows :
" (i) In the cochlea there are vibrators, tuned to frequencies
within the limits of hearing, say from 30 to 40,000 or 50,000 vibs.
per second. (2) Each vibrator is capable of exciting its appropriate
nerve filament or filaments, so that a nervous impulse, correspond-
ing to the frequency of the vibrator, is transmitted to the brain
not corresponding necessarily, as regards the number of nervous
impulses, but in such a way that when the impulses along a particular
nerve filament reach the brain, a state of consciousness is aroused
which does correspond with the number of the physical stimuli
and with the period of the auditory vibrator. (3) The mass of
each vibrator is such that it will be easily set in motion, and after
the stimulus has ceased it will readily come to rest. (4) Damping
arrangements exist in the ear, so as quickly to extinguish movements
of the vibrators. (5) If a simple tone falls on the ear, there is a
pendular movement of the base of the stapes, which will affect
all the parts, causing them to move; but any part whose natural
period is nearly the same as that of the sound will respond on the
principle of sympathetic resonance, a particular nerve filament or
nerve filaments will be affected, and a sensation of a tone of definite
pitch will be experienced, thus accounting for discrimination in
pitch. (6) Intensity or loudness will depend on the amplitude of
movement of the vibrating body, and consequently on the intensity
of nerve stimulation. (7) If a compound wave of pressure be com-
municated by the base of the stapes, it will be resolved into its
constituents by the vibrators corresponding to tones existing in it,
each picking out its appropriate portion of the wave, and thus
irritating corresponding nerve filaments, so that nervous impulses
are transmitted to the brain, where they are fused in such a way as
to give rise to a sensation of a particular quality or character,
but still so imperfectly fused that each constituent, by a strong effort
of attention, may be specially recognized " (article " Ear," by
M'Kendrick, Schafer's Text-Book, he. cit.).
The structure of the ductus cochlearis meets the demands of this
theory, it is highly differentiated, and it can be shown that in it
there are a sufficient number of elements to account for the delicate
appreciation of pitch possessed by the human ear, and on the basis
that the highly trained ear of a violinist can detect a difference of
s^th of a semitone (M'Kendrick, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1896, vol.
xxxviii. p. 780; also Schafer's Text-Book, loc. cit.). Measurements
of the cochlea have also shown such differentiation as to make it
difficult to imagine that it can act as a whole. A much less complex
organ might have served this purpose (M'Kendrick, op. cit.). The
following table, given by Retzius (Das Gehororgan der Wirbelthiere,
Bd. ii. S. 356), shows differentiations in the cochlea of man, the cat
and the rabbit, all of which no doubt hear tones, although in all
probability they have very different powers of discrimination:
Man. Cat. Rabbit.
Ear-teeth ....
Holes in habenula for nerves
Inner rods of Corti's organ
Outer rods of Corti's organ
Inner hair-cells (one row)
Outer hair-cells (several rows)
Fibres in basilar membrane
7. Dissonance. The theory can also be used to explain dissonance.
When two tones sufficiently near in pitch are simultaneously sounded,
beats are produced. If the beats are few in number they can be
counted, because they give rise to separate and distinct sensations;
but if they are numerous they blend so as to give roughness or dis-
sonance to the interval. The roughness or dissonance is most dis-
agreeable with about 33 beats falling on the ear per second. When
two compound tones are sounded, say a minor third on a harmonium
in the lower part of the keyboard, then we have beats not only
between the primaries, but also between the upper partials of each
of the primaries. The beating distance may, for tones of medium
pitch, be fixed at about a nvnor third, but this interval will expand
for intervals on low tones and contract for intervals on high ones.
This explains why the same interval in the lower part of the scale
may give slow beats that are not disagreeable, while in the higher
part it may cause harsh and unpleasant dissonance. The partials
up to the seventh are beyond beating distance, but above this they
2,490
2,430
1,550
3,985
2,780
1,650
5,590
4,700
2,800
3,848
3,300
1,900
3,487
2,600
1, 600
11,750
9,900
6,100
23,750
15,700
.10,500
come close together. Consequently instruments (such as tongues,
or reeds) that abound in upper partials cause an intolerable dissonance
if one of the primaries is slightly out of tune. Some intervals are
pleasant and satisfying when produced on instruments having few
partials in their tones. These are concords. Others are less so,
and they may give rise to an uncomfortable sensation. These are
discords. In this way unison, {, minor third f, major third !j,
fourth J, fifth I, minor sixth g, major sixth and octave f , are all
concords; while a second , minor seventh *f and major seventh >/,
are discords. Helmholtz compares the sensation of dissonance to
that of a flickering light on the eye. " Something similar I have
found to be produced by simultaneously stimulating the skin, or
margin of the lips, by bristles attached to tuning-forks giving forth
beats. If the frequency of the forks is great, the sensation is that
of a most disagreeable tickling. It may be that the instinctive effort
at analysis of tones close in pitch causes the disagreeable sensation "
(Schafer's Text-Book, op. cit. p. 1187).
8. Other Theories. In 1865 Rennie objected to the analysis
theory, and urged that the cochlea acted as a whole (Ztschr. f. rat.
Med., Dritte Reihe, Bd. xxiv. Heft I, S. 12-64). This view was
revived by Voltolini (Virchow's Archiv, Bd. c. S. 27) some years
later, and in 1886 it was urged by E. Rutherford (Rep. Brit. Assoc.
Ad. Sc., 1886), who compared the action of the cochlea to that of
a telephone plate. According to this theory, all the hairs of the
auditory cells vibrate to every note, and the hair-cells transform
sound vibrations into nerve vibrations or impulses, similar in fre-
quency, amplitude and character to the sound vibrations. There
is no analysis in the peripheral organ. A. D. Waller, in 1891 (Proc.
Physiol. Soc., Jan. 20, 1891) suggested that the basilar membrane
as a whole vibrates to every note, thus repeating the vibrations of
the membrana tympani; and since the hair-cells move with the
basilar membrane, they produce what may be called pressure patterns
against the tectorial membranes, and filaments of the auditory nerve
are stimulated by these pressures. Waller admits a certain degree
of peripheral analysis, but he relegates ultimate analysis to the brain.
These theories, dispensing with peripheral analysis, leave out of
account the highly complex structure of the cochlea, or, in other
words, they assign to that structure a comparatively simple function
which could be performed by a simple membrane capable of vibrating.
We find that the cochlea becomes more elaborate as we ascend the
scale of animals, until in man, who possesses greater powers of
analysis than any other being, the number of hair-cells, fibres of the
basilar membrane and arches of Corti are all much increased in
number (see Retzius's table, supra). The principle of sympathetic
resonance appears, therefore, to offer the most likely solution of the
problem. Hurst's view is that with each movement of the stapes
a wave is generated which travels up the scala vestibuli, through
the helicotrema into the scala tympani and down the latter to the
fenestra rotunda. The wave, however, is not merely a movement
of the basilar membrane, but an actual movement of fluid or a
transmission of pressure. As the one wave ascends while the other
descends, a pressure of the basilar membrane occurs at the point
where they meet; this causes the basilar membrane to move to-
wards the tectorial membrane, forcing this membrane suddenly
against the apices of the hair-cells, thus irritating the nerves. The
point at which the waves meet will depend on the time interval
between the waves (Hurst, " A New Theory of Hearing," Trans.
Biol. Soc. Liverpool, 1895, vol. ix. p. 321). More recently Max Mayer
has advanced a theory somewhat similar. He supposes that with
each movement of the stapes corresponding to a vibration, a wave
travels up the scala vestibuli, pressing the basilar membrane down-
wards. As it meets with resistance in passing upwards, its amplitude
therefore diminishes, and in this way the distance up the scala
through which the wave progresses will be determined by its ampli-
tude. The wave in its progress irritates a certain number of nerve
terminations, consequently feeble tones will irritate only those nerve
fibres that are near the fenestra ovalis, while stronger tones will pass
farther up and irritate a larger number of nerve fibres the same
number of times per unit of time. Pitch, according to this view,
depends on the number of stimuli per second, while loudness depends
on the number of nerve fibres irritated. Mayer also applies the
theory to the explanation of the powers of the cochlea as an analyser,
by supposing that with a compound tone these are at maxima and
minima of stimulation. As the compound wave travels up the scala,
portions of the wave corresponding to maxima and minima die away
in consecutive series, until only a maximum and minimum are left ;
and, finally, as the wave travels farther, these also disappear. With
each maximum and minimum different parts of the basilar membrane
are affected, and affected a different number of times per second,
according to the frequencies of the partials existing in the compound
tone. Thus with a fifth, 2 : 3, there are three maxima and three
minima ; but the compound tone is resolved into three tones having
vibration frequencies in the ratio of 3 : 2 : I. According to Mayer,
we actually hear when a fifth is sounded tones of the relationship of
3:2:1, the last (l) being the differential tone. He holds, also, that
combinational tones are entirely subjective (Max Mayer, Ztschr. f.
Psych, und Phys. d. Sinnesorgane, Leipzig, Bd. xvi. and xvii. ; also
Verhandl. d. physiolog. Gesellsch. zu Berlin, Feb. 18, 1898, S. 49).
Two fatal objections can be urged to these theories, namely, first, it
is impossible to conceive of minute waves following each other in
HEARING
127
rapid succession in the minute tubes forming the scalae the length
of the scala being only a very small part of the wave-length of the
sound; and, secondly, neither theory takes into account the differ-
entiation of structure found in the epithelium of the organ of Corti.
Each push in and out of the base of the stapes must cause a move-
ment of the fluid, or a pressure, in the scalae as a whole.
There are difficulties in the way of applying the resonance theory
to the perception of noises. Noises have pitch, and also each noise
has a special character; if so, if the noise is analysed into its con-
stituents, why is it that it seems impossible to analyse a noise,
or to perceive any musical element in it ? Helmholtz assumed that
a sound is noisy when the wave is irregular in rhythm, and he
suggested that the crista and macula acustica, structures that exist
.not in the cochlea but in the vestibule, have to do with the per-
ception of noise. These structures, however, are concerned rather
in the sense of the perception of equilibrium than of sound (see
EQUILIBRIUM).
9. Hitherto we have considered only the audition of a single
sound, but it is possible also to have simultaneous auditive sensa-
tions, as in musical harmony. It is' difficult to ascertain what is the
limit beyond which distinct auditory sensations may be perceiyed.
We have in listening to an orchestra a multiplicity of sensations
which produces a total effect, while, at the same time, we can with
ease single out and notice attentively the tones of one or two special
instruments. Thus the pleasure of music may arise partly
from listening to simultaneous, and partly from tha effect of
contrast or suggestion in passing through successive, auditory
sensations.
The ' principles of harmony belong to the subject of music (see
HARMONY), but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the
physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear
at the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is
experienced, which may be termed a concord or a discord, and it can
be shown by experiment with the syren that this depends upon the
vibrational numbers of the two tones. The octave (i : 2), the
twelfth (l : 3) and double octave (i : 4) are absolutely consonant
sounds; the fifth (2 : 3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then
follow, in the direction of dissonance, the fourth (3 : 4), major sixth
(3 : 5). major third (4 : 5), minor sixth (5 : 8) and the minor third
(5 : 6). Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the appli-
cation of his theory of beats.
Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are
produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to
the difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats
give rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation. The
maximum roughness of beats is attained by 33 per second; beyond
132 per second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform
auditory sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano,
not only may the first, fundamental or prime tones beat, but partial
tones of each of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference
of pitch of two simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats,
both of prime tones and of harmonics, augments also. The physio-
logical effect of beats, though these may not be individually dis-
tinguishable, is to give roughness to the ear. If harmonics or partial
tones of prime tones coincide, there are no beats; if they do not
coincide, the beats produced will give a character of roughness to
the interval. Thus in the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones
of the acute sound coincide with the partial tones of the grave
sound; in the fourth, major sixth and major third, only two pairs
of the partial tones coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third
and minor seventh only one pair of the harmonics coincide.
It is possible by means of beats to measure the sensitiveness of
the ear by determining the smallest difference in pitch that may
give rise to a beat. In no part of the scale can a difference smaller
than O'2 vibration per second be distinguished. The sensitiveness
varies with pitch. Thus at 120 vibs. per second 0-4 vib. per second,
at 500 about 0-3 vib. per second, and at 1000, 0-5 vib. per second
can be distinguished. This is a remarkable illustration of the
sensitiveness of the ear. When tones of low pitch are produced
that do not rapidly die away, as by sounding heavy tuning-forks,
not only may the beats be perceived corresponding to the difference
between the frequencies of the forks, but also other sets of beats.
Thus, if the two tones have frequencies of 40 and 74, a two-order
beat may be heard, one haying a frequency of 34 and the other
of 6, as 74 -1-40 = i +a positive remainder of 34, and 74-1-40 = 2-6,
or 80-74, a negative remainder of 6. The lower beat is heard most
distinctly when the number is less than half the frequency of the
lower primary, and the upper when the number is greater. The beats
we have been considering are produced when two notes are sounded
slightly differing in frequency, or at all events their frequencies are
not so great as those of two notes separated by a musical interval,
such as an octave or a fifth. But Lord Kelvin has shown that beats
may also be produced on slightly inharmonious musical intervals
(Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed. 1878, vol. ix. p. 602). Thus, take two tuning-
forks, w<2 = 256 and M/ 3 = 5I2; slightly flatten ut 3 so as to make its
frequency 510, and we hear, not a roughness corresponding to 254
beats, but a slow beat of 2 per second. The sensation also passes
through a cycle, the beats now sounding loudly and fading away in
intensity, again sounding loudly, and so on. One might suppose that
the beat occurred between 510 (the frequency of ut 3 flattened) and
512, the first partial of utt, namely uta, but this is not so, as the beat
is most audible when utt is sounded feebly. In a similar way, beats
may be produced on the approximate harmonies 2:3, 3:4, 4:5,
5 : 6, 6 : 7, 7 : 8, I : 3, 3 : 5, and beats may even be produced on the
major chord 4:5:6 by sounding uta, mis, sol 3 , with soli or mis
slightly flattened, " when a peculiar beat will be heard as if a wheel
were being turned against a surface, one small part of which was
rougher than the rest." These beats on imperfect harmonies
appear to indicate that the ear does distinguish between an increase
of pressure on the drum-head and a diminution, or between a push
and a pull, or, in other words, that it is affected by phase. This
was denied by Helmholtz.
10. Beat Tones. Considerable difference of opinion exists as to
whether beats can blend so as to give a sensation of tone; but
R. Konig, by using pure tones of high pitch, has settled the question.
These tones were produced by large tuning-forks. Thus M/ 6 = 2O48
and ^6 = 2304. Then the beat tone is ^3 = 256 (2304-2048). If
we strike the two forks, ut 3 sounds as a grave or lower beat tone.
Again, 2 6 = 2O48 and $16=3840. Then (2048)2-3840=256, a
negative remainder, ut 3 , as before, and when both forks are sounded
ut 3 will be heard. Again, ut e = 2048 and sol, = 3072, and 3072-2048 =
1024, or utt,, which will be distinctly heard when ut e and sole, are
sounded (Konig, Quelques experiences d'acoustique, Paris, 1882,
p. 87).
11. Combination Tones. Frequently, when two tones are sounded,
not only do we hear the compound sound, from which we can pick
out the constituent tones, but we may hear other tones, one of
which is lower in pitch than the lowest primary, and the other
is higher in pitch than the higher primary. These, known as
combination tones, are of two classes: differential tones, in which
the frequency is the difference of the frequencies of the generating
tones, and summational tones, having a frequency which is the
sum of the frequencies of the tones producing them. Differential
tones, first noticed by Sorge about 1740, are easily heard. Thus
an interval of a fifth, 2:3, gives a differential tone I , that is, an octave
below 2; a fourth, 3:4, gives I, a twelfth below 3; a major third,
4 : 5i gives i, two octaves below 4; a minor third, 5:6, gives I, two
octaves and a major third below 5; a major sixth, 3:5, gives 2,
that is, a fifth below 3 ; and a minor sixth, 5 : 8, gives 3, that is,
a major sixth below 5. Summational tones, first noticed by Helm-
holtz, are so difficult to hear that much controversy has taken
place as to their very existence. Some have contended that they
are produced by beats. It appears to be proved physically that
they may exist in the air outside of the ear. Further differential
tones may be generated in the, middle ear. Helmholtz also demon-
strated their independent existence, and he states that " whenever
the vibrations of the air or of other elastic bodies, which are set in
motion at the same time by two generating simple tones, are so
powerful that they can no longer be considered infinitely small,
mathematical theory shows that vibrations of the air must arise
which have the same vibrational numbers as the combination tones "
(Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone, p. 235). The importance of these
combinational tones in the theory of hearing is obvious. If the ear
can only analyse compound waves into simple pendular vibrations
of a certain order (simple multiples of the prime tone), how can it
detect combinational tones, which dp not belong to that order ?
Again, if such tones are purely subjective and only exist in the
mind of the listener, the fact would be fatal to the resonance theory.
There can be no doubt, however, that the ear, in dealing with
them, vibrates in some part of its mechanism with each generator,
while it also is affected by the combinational tone itself, according to
its frequency.
12. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to influence
auditive sensation, but probably the two organs are enabled, not
only to correct each other's errors, but also to aid us in determin-
ing the locality in which a sound originates. It is asserted by
G. T. Fechner that one ear may perceive the same tone at a slightly
higher pitch than the other, but this may probably be due to some
slight pathological condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by
two tuning-forks, of equal pitch, are produced one near each ear,
there is a uniform single sensation; if one of the tuning-forks be
made to revolve round its axis in such a way that its tone increases
and diminishes in intensity, neither fork is heard continuously, but
both sound alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the
revolving one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excitations
of corresponding elements in the two ears can be distinguished from
each other. It is probable that the resulting sensations may be
distinguished, provided one of the generating tones differs from the
other in intensity or quality, although it may be the same in pitch.
Our judgment as to the direction of sounds is formed mainly from
the different degrees of intensity with which they are heard by two
ears. Lord Rayleigh states that diffraction of the sound-waves
will occur as they pass round the head to the ear farthest from the
source of sound; thus partial tones will reach the two ears with
different intensities, and thus quality of tone may be affected
(Trans. Music. Soc., London, 1876). Silvanus P. Thompson advo-
cates a similar view, and he shows that the direction of a
complex tone can be more accurately determined than the
direction of a simple tone, especially if it be of low pitch (Phil.
Mag., 1882). (J- G. M.)
128
HEARN HEARSE
HEARN, LAFCADIO (1850-1904), author of books about
Japan, was born on the 27th of June 1850 in Leucadia (pro-
nounced Lefcadia, whence his name, which was one adopted
by himself), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He was the son
of Surgeon-major Charles Hearn, of King's County, Ireland,
who, during the English occupation of the Ionian Islands, was
stationed there, and who married a Greek wife. Artistic and
rather bohemian tastes were in Lafcadio Hearn's blood. His
father's brother Richard was at one time a well-known member
of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made no mark as a
painter through his lack of energy. Young Hearn had rather a
casual education, but was for a time (1865) at Ushaw Roman
Catholic College, Durham. The religious faith in which he was
brought up was, however, soon lost; and at nineteen, being
thrown on his own resources, he went to America and at first
picked up a living in the lower grades of newspaper work. The
details are obscure, but he continued to occupy himself with
journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading,
and meanwhile his erratic, romantic and rather morbid idio-
syncrasies developed. He was for some time in New Orleans,
writing for the Times Democrat, and was sent by that paper
for two years as correspondent to the West Indies, where he gath-
ered material for his Two Years in the French West Indies (1890).
At last, in 1891, he went to Japan with a commission as a news-
paper correspondent, which was quickly broken off. But here
he found his true sphere. The list of his books on Japanese
subjects tells its own tale: Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan
(1894); Out of the East (1895); Kokoro (1896); Gleanings in
Buddha Fields (1897); Exotics and Retrospections (1898); In
Ghostly Japan (1899); Shadowings (1900); A Japanese
Miscellany (1901); Kotto (1902); Japanese Fairy Tales and
Kwaidan (1903), and (published just after his death) Japan,
an Attempt at Interpretation (1904), a study full of knowledge
and insight. He became a teacher of English at the Uni-
versity of Tokyo, and soon fell completely under the spell
of Japanese ideas. He married a Japanese wife, became a
naturalized Japanese under the name of Yakumo Koizumi, and
adopted the Buddhist religion. For the last two years of his life
(he died on the 26th of September 1904) his health was failing,
and he was deprived of his lecturership at the University. But
he had gradually become known to the world at large by the
originality, power and literary charm of his writings. This
wayward bohemian genius, who had seen life in so many climes,
and turned from Roman Catholic to atheist and then to Buddhist,
was curiously qualified, among all those who were " interpreting "
the new and the old Japan to the Western world, to see it with
unfettered understanding, and to express its life and thought
with most intimate and most artistic sincerity. Lafcadio Hearn's
books were indeed unique for their day in the literature about
Japan, in their combination of real knowledge with a literary
art which is often exquisite.
See Elizabeth Bisland, The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn
(2 vols., 1906); G. M. Gould, Concerning Lafcadio Hearn (1908).
HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745-1792), English explorer, was born
in London. In 1756 he entered the navy, and was some time
with Lord Hood; at the end of the Seven Years' War (1763)
he took service with the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1768 he
examined portions of the Hudson's Bay coasts with a view to
improving the cod fishery, and in 1760-1772 he was employed
in north-western discovery, searching especially for certain
copper mines described by Indians. His first attempt (from
the 6th of November 1769) failed through the desertion of his
Indians; his second (from the 23rd of February 1770) through
the breaking of his quadrant; but in his third (December 1770
to June 1772) he was successful, not only discovering the copper
of the Coppermine river basin, but tracing this river to the
Arctic Ocean. He reappeared at Fort Prince of Wales on the
30th of June 1772. Becoming governor of this fort in 1775,
he was taken prisoner by the French under La Perouse in 1782.
He returned to England in 1787 and died there in 1792.
See his posthumous Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson's
'Bay to the Northern Ocean (London, 1795).
HEARNE, THOMAS (1678-1735), English antiquary, was
born in July 1678 at Littlefield Green in the parish of White
Waltham, Berkshire. Having received his early education from
his father, George Hearne, the parish clerk, he showed such taste
for study that a wealthy neighbour, Francis Cherry of Shottes-
brooke (c. 1665-1713), a celebrated nonjuror, interested himself
in the boy, and sent him to the school at Bray " on purpose to
learn the Latin tongue."' Soon Cherry took him into his own
house, and his education was continued at Bray until Easter
1696, when he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. At
the university he attracted the attention of Dr John Mill (1645-
1707), the principal of St Edmund Hall, who employed him to
compare manuscripts and in other ways. Having taken the
degree of B.A. in 1699 he was made assistant keeper of the
Bodleian Library, where he worked on the catalogue of books,
and in 1712 he was appointed second keeper. In 1715 Hearne
was elected architypographus and esquire bedell in civil law
in the university, but objection having been made to his holding
this office together with that of second librarian, he resigned
it in the same year. As a nonjuror he refused to take the oaths
of allegiance to King George I., and early in 1716 he was deprived
of his librarianship. However he continued to reside in Oxford,
and occupied himself in editing the English chroniclers. Having
refused several important academical positions, including the
librarianship of the Bodleian and the Camden professorship of
ancient history, rather than take the oaths, he died on the roth
of June 1735.
Hearne's most important work was done as editor of many of
the English chroniclers, and until the appearance of the " Rolls "scries
his editions were in many cases the only ones extant. Very carefully
prepared, they were, and indeed are still, of the greatest value to
historical students. Perhaps the most important of a long list are:
Benedict of Peterborough's (Benedictus Abbas) De vita et gestis
Henrici II. et Ricardi I. (1735); John of Fordun's Scotichronicon
(1722); the monk of Evesham's Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II.
(1729); Robert Mannyng's translation of Peter Langtoft's Chronicle
(1725); the work of Thomas Otterbourne and John Whethamstede
as Duo rerum Anglicarum scriptores veleres (1732); Robert of
Gloucester's Chronicle (1724); J. Sprptt's Chronica (1719); the
Vita et gesta Henrici V., wrongly attributed to Thomas Elmham
(1727); Titus Livy's Vita Henrici V. (1716); Walter of Heming-
burgh's Chronicon (1731); and William of Newburgh's Histcria
rerum Anglicarum (1719). He also edited John Leland's Itinerary
(1710-1712) and the same author's Collectanea (1715); W. Camden's
A nnales rerum A nglicarum et Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha (1717);
Sir John Spelman's Life of Alfred (1709); and W. Roper's Life of
Sir Thomas More (1716). He brought out an edition of Livy (1708) ;
one of Pliny's Epistolae et panegyricus (1703); and one of the Acts
of the Apostles (1715). Among his other compilations may be
mentioned: Ductor historicus, a Short System of Universal History
(1704, 1705, 1714, 1724); A Collection of Curious Discourses by
Eminent Antiquaries (1720); and Reliquiae Bodleianae (1703).
Hearne left his manuscripts to William Bedford, who sold them to
Dr Richard Rawlinson, who in his turn bequeathed them to the
Bodleian. Two volumes of extracts from his voluminous diary
were published by Philip Bliss (Oxford, 1857), and afterwards an
enlarged edition in three volumes appeared (London, 1869). A large
part of his diary entitled Remarks and Collections, 17051714, edited
by C. E. Doble and D. W. Rannie, has been published by the Oxford
Historical Society (1885-1898). Bibliotheca Hearniana, excerpts
from the catalogue of Hearne's library, has been edited by B.
Botfield (1848).
See Impartial Memorials of the Life and Writings of Thomas Hearne
by several hands (1736) ; and W. D. Macray, Annals of the Bodleian
Library (1890). Hearne's autobiography is published in W. Huddes-
ford's Lives of Leland, Hearne and Wood (Oxford, 1772). T. Ouvry's
Letters addressed to Thomas Hearne has been privately printed
(London, 1874).
HEARSE (an adaptation of Fr. herse, a harrow, from Lat.
hirpex, hirpicem, rake or harrow, Greek apira), a vehicle for
the conveyance of a dead body at a funeral. The most usual
shape is a four-wheeled car, with a roofed and enclosed body,
sometimes with glass panels, which contains the coffin. This is
the only current use of the word. In its earlier forms it is usually
found as " herse," and meant, as the French word did, a harrow
(q.v.). It was then applied to other objects resembling a harrow,
following the French. It was then used of a portcullis, and thus
becomes a heraldic term, the " herse " being frequently borne
as a " charge, " as in the arms of the City of Westminster. The
ANATOMY]
HEART
129
chief application of the word is, however, -to various objects
used in funeral ceremonies. A " herse " or " hearse " seems
first to have been a barrow-shaped framework of wood, to hold
lighted tapers and decorations placed on a bier or coffin; this
later developed into an elaborate pagoda-shaped erection of
woodwork or metal for the funerals of royal or other distinguished
persons. This held banners, candles, armorial bearings and
other heraldic devices. Complimentary verses or epitaphs
were often attached to the " hearse." An elaborate " hearse "
was designed by Inigo Jones for the funeral of James I. The
" hearse " is also found as a permanent erection over tombs.
It is generally made of iron or other metal, and was used,
not only to carry lighted candles, but also for the support
of a pall during the funeral ceremony. There is a brass
" hearse " in the Beauchamp Chapel at Warwick Castle, and
one over the tomb of Robert Marmion and his wife at Tanfield
Church near Ripon.
HEART, in anatomy. The heart 1 is a four-chambered
muscular bag, which lies in the cavity of the thorax between
the two lungs. It is surrounded by another bag, the pericardium,
for protective and lubricating purposes (see COELOM AND SEROUS
MEMBRANES). Externally the heart is somewhat conical, its
base being directed upward, backward and to the right, its
apex downward, forward and to the left. In transverse section
the cone is flattened, so that there is an anterior and a posterior
surface and a superior and inferior border. The superior border,
running obliquely downward and to the left, is very thick, and
so gains the name of margo obtusus, while the inferior border is
horizontal and sharp and is called margo acutus (see fig. i).
The divisions between the four chambers of the heart (namely,
the two auricles and two ventricles) are indicated on the surface
by grooves, and when these are followed it will be seen that the
FIG. I. The Thoracic Viscera. In this diagram the lungs are
turned to the side, and the pericardium removed to display the
heart, o, upper, a', lower lobe of left lung; b, upper, b', middle,
6', lower lobe of right lung; c, trachea; d, arch of aorta; e,
superior vena cava; /, pulmonary artery; g, left, and ft, right
auricle; k, right, and /, left ventricle; m, inferior vena cava; n,
descending aorta; I, innominate artery; 2, right, and 4, left
common carotid artery; 3, right, and 5, left subclayian artery;
6, 6, right and left innominate vein; 7 and 9, left and right internal
jugular veins; 8 and 10, left and right subclavian veins; II, 12, 13,
left pulmonary crtery, bronchus and vein; 14, 15, 16, right pulmonary
bronchus, artery and vein ; 17 and 18, left and right coronary arteries.
right auricle and ventricle lie on the front and right side, while
the left auricle and ventricle are behind and on the left.
The right auricle is situated at the base of the heart, and its
outline is seen on looking at the organ from in front. Into the
'In O. Eng. heorte; this is a common Teut. word, cf. Dut. hart,
(j-er. Herz, Goth, hairto; related by root are Lat. cor and Gr. KapSla:
ie ultimate root i; hard-, to quiver, shake.
xiii. 5
posterior part of it open the two venae cavae (see fig. 2), the
superior (a) above and the inferior (b) below. In front and to the
left of the superior vena cava is the right auricular appendage (e)
which overlaps the
front of the root of the
aorta, while running
obliquely from the
front of one vena cava
to the other is a shal-
low groove called the
sulcus terminalis, which
indicates the original
separation between the
true auricle in front
and the sinus venosus
behind. When the
auricle is opened by
turning the front wall
to the right as a flap
the following structures
are exposed:
1. A muscular ridge,
called the crista termin-
alis, corresponding to
the sulcus terminalis
on the exterior.
2. A series of ridges
on the anterior wall FIG. 2. Cavities of the Right Side of the
Heart. a, superior, and b, inferior vena
cava; c, arch of aorta; d, pulmonary
artery ; e, right, and/, left auricular append-
age; g, fossa ovalis; h, Eustachian valve;
k, mouth of coronary vein; /, m, n, cusps
of the tricuspid valve; o, o, papillary
muscles; p, semilunar valve; g, corpus
Arantii; r, lunula.
and in the appendage,
running downward
from the last and at
right angles to it, like
the teeth of a comb;
these are known as
musculi pectinati.
3. The orifice of the superior vena cava (fig. 2, a) at the upper
and back part of the chamber.
4. The orifice of the inferior vena cava (fig. 2, b) at the lower
and back part.
5. Attached to the right and lower margins of this opening
are the remains of the Eustachian valve (fig. 2, h), which in the
foetus directs the blood from the inferior vena cava, through the
joramen ovale, into the left auricle.
6. Below and to the left of this is the opening of the coronary
sinus (fig. 2, k), which collects most of the veins returning blood
from the substance of the heart.
7. Guarding this opening is the coronary valve or valve of
Thebesius.
8. On the posterior or septal wall, between the two auricles,
is an oval depression, called the fossa ovalis (fig. 2, g), the remains
of the original communication between the two auricles. In
about a quarter of all normal hearts there is a small valvular
communication between the two auricles in the left margin of
this depression (see " 7th Report of the Committee of Collective
Investigation," /. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxxii. p. 164).
9. The annulus ovalis is the raised margin surrounding this
depression.
10. On the left side, opening into the right ventricle, is the
right auricula-ventricular opening.
n. On the right wall, between the two caval openings, may
occasionally be seen a slight eminence, the tubercle of Lower,
which is supposed to separate the two streams of blood in the
embryo.
12. Scattered all over the auricular wall are minute depres-
sions, the foramina Thebesii, some of which receive small veins
from the substance of the heart.
The right ventricle is a triangular cavity (see fig. 2) the base of
which is largely formed by the auriculo-ventricular orifice. To
the left cf this it is continued up into the root of the pulmonary
artery, and this part is known as the infundibulum. Its anterior
wall forms part of the anterior surface of the heart, while its
posterior wall is chiefly formed by the septum ventriculorum,
S
130
HEART
[ANATOMY
between it and the left ventricle. Its lower border is the margo
acutus already mentioned. In transverse section it is crescentic,
since the septal wall bulges into its cavity. In its interior the
following structures are seen:
1. The tricuspid valve (fig. 2, /, m, n) guarding against reflux
of blood into the right auricle. This consists of a short cylindrical
curtain of fibrous tissue, which projects into the ventricle from
the margin of the auriculo-ventricular aperture, while from its
free edge three triangular flaps hang down, the bases of which
touch one another. These cusps are spoken of as septal, marginal
and infundibular, from their position.
2. The chordae tendineae are fine fibrous cords which fasten
the cusps to the musculi papillares and ventricular wall, and
prevent the valve being turned inside out when the ventricle
contracts.
3. The columnae carneae are fleshy columns, and are of three
kinds. The first are attached to the wall of the ventricle in
their whole length and are merely sculptured in relief, as it were;
the second are attached by both ends and are free in the middle;
while the third are known as the musculi papillares and are
attached by one end to the ventricular wall, the other end giving
attachment to the chordae tendineae. These musculi papillares
are grouped into three bundles (fig. 2, 0).
4. The moderator band is really one of the second kind of
columnae carneae which stretches from the septal to the anterior
wall of the ventricle.
5. The pulmonary valve (fig. 2, p) at the opening of the
pulmonary artery has three crescentiCj pocket-like cusps, which,
when the ventricle is filling, completely close the aperture, but
during the contraction of the ventricle fit into three small niches
known as the sinuses of Valsalva, and so are quite out of the way
of the escaping blood. In the middle of the free margin of each
is a small knob called the corpus Arantii (fig. 2, 17), and on each
side of this a thin crescent-shaped flap, thelunula (fig. 2, r), which
is only made of two layers of endocardium, whereas in the rest
of the cusp there is a fibrous backing between these two layers.
The left auricle is situated at the back of the base of the heart,
behind and to the left of the right auricle. Running down behind
it are the oesophagus and the thoracic aorta. When it is opened it
is seen to have a much lighter colour than the other cavities,
owing to the greater thickness of its endocardium obscuring the
red muscle beneath. There are no musculi pectinati except in
the auricular appendage. The openings of the four pulmonary,
veins are placed two on each side of the posterior wall, but
sometimes there may be three on the right side, and only one
on the left. On the septal wall is a small depression like the
mark of a finger-nail, which corresponds to the anterior part of
the fossa ovalis and often forms a valvular communication with
the right auricle. The auriculo-ventricular orifice is large and
oval, and is directed downward and to the left. Foramina
Thebesii and venae minimae cordis are found in this auricle,
as in the right, although the chamber is one for arterial or
oxidized blood.
At the lower part of the posterior surface of the unopened
auricle, lying in the left auriculo-ventricular furrow, is the
coronary sinus, which receives most of the veins returning the
blood from the heart substance; these are the right and left
coronary veins at each extremity and the posterior and left
cardiac veins from below. One small vein, called the oblique
vein of Marshall, runs down into it across the posterior surface
of the auricle, from below the left lower pulmonary vein, and
is of morphological interest.
The left ventricle is conical, the base being above, behind and
to the right, while the apex corresponds to the apex of the heart
and lies opposite the fifth intercostal space, 33 in. from the mid
line. The following structures are seen inside it:
1. The mitral valve guarding the auriculo-ventricular opening
has the same arrangement as the tricuspid, already described,
save that there are only two cusps, named marginal and aortic,
the latter of which is the larger.
2. The chordae tendineae and columnae carneae resemble
those of the right ventricle, though there are only two bundles
of musculi papillares instead of three. These are very large.
A moderator band has been found as an abnormality (see
/. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxx. p. 568).
3. The aortic valve has the same structure as the pulmonary,
though the cusps are more massive. From the anterior and left
posterior sinuses of Valsalva the coronary arteries arise. That
part of the ventricle just below the aortic valve, corresponding
to the infundibulum on the right, is known as the aortic vestibule.
The walls of the left ventricle are three times as thick as those
of the right, except at the apex, where they are thinner. The
septum ventriculorum is concave towards the left ventricle, so
that a transverse section of that cavity is nearly circular. The
greater part of it has nsarly the same thickness as the rest of the
left ventricular wall and is muscular, but a small portion of the
upper part is membranous and thin, and is called the pars
membranacea, septi; it lies between the aortic and pulmonary
orifices.
Structure of the Heart. The arrangement of the muscular
fibres of the heart is very complicated and only imperfectly
known. For details one of the larger manuals, such as Cunning-
ham's Anatomy (London, 1910), or Gray's Anatomy (London,
1 909) , should be consulted. The general scheme is that there are
superficial fibres common to the two auricles and two ventricles
and deeper fibres for each cavity. Until recently no fibres had
been traced from the auricles to the ventricles, though Gaskell
predicted that these would ba found, and the credit for first
demonstrating them is due to Stanley Kent, their details having
subsequently been worked out by W. His, Junr., and S. Tawara.
The fibres of this auriculo-ventricular bundle begin, in the right
auricle, below the opening of the coronary sinus, and run forward
on the right side of the auricular septum, below the fossa ovalis,
and close to the auriculo-ventricular septum. Above the septal
flap of the tricuspid valve they thicken and divide into two main
branches, one on either sid-e of the ventricular septum, which run
down to the bases of the anterior and posterior papillary muscles,
and so reach the walls of the ventricle, where their secondary
branches form the fibres of Purkinje. The bundle is best seen
in the hearts of young Ruminants, and it is presumably through
it that the wave of contraction passes from the auricles to the
ventricles (see article by A. Keith and M. Flack, Lancet, nth of
August 1906, p. 359).
The central fibrous body is a triangular mass of fibre-cartilage,
situated between the two auriculo-ventricular and the aortic
orifices. The upper part of the septum ventriculorum blends
with it. The endocardium is a delicate layer of endothelial cells
backed by a very thin layer of fibro-elastic tissue ; it is continuous
with the endothelium of the great vessels and lines the whole of
the cavities of the heart.
The heart is roughly about the size of the closed fist and weighs
from 8 to 12 oz.; it continues to increase in size up to about
fifty years of age, but the increase is more marked in the male
than in the female. Each ventricle holds about 4 f. oz. of blood,
and each auricle rather less. The nerves of the heart are derived
from the vagus, spinal accessory and sympathetic, through the
superficial and deep cardiac plexuses.
Embryology.
In the article on the arteries (q.v.) the formation and coal-
escence of the two primitive ventral aortas to form the heart are
noticed, so that we may here start with a straight median tube
lying ventral to the pharynx and being prolonged cephalad into
the ventral aortae and caudad into the vitelline veins. This
soon shows four dilatations, which, from the tiil towards the
head end, are called the sinus venosus, ths auricle, the ventricle
and the truncus 1 arteriosus. As the tubular heart grows more
rapidly than the pericardium which contains it, ic becomes bent
into the form of an S laid on its side (OT), the ventral convexity
being the ventricle and the dorsal the auricle. The passage
from the auricle to the ventricle is known as the auricular canal,
and in the dorsal and ventral parts of this appear two thickenings
1 This is often called bulbus arteriosus, but it will be seen that
the term is used rather differently in comparative anatomy.
ANATOMY]
HEART
known as endocardial cushions, which approach one another and
leave a transverse slit between them (fig. 3, E.G.). Eventually
these two cushions fuse in the middle line, obliterating the
central part of the slit, while the lateral parts remain as the two
auriculo-ventricular orifices; this fusion is known as the septum
intermedium. From the bottom (ventral convexity) of the
ventricle an antero-posterior median septum grows up, which is
the septum inferius or
septum ventriculorum
(fig. 3, V). Posteriorly
(caudally) this septum
fuses with the septum
intermedium, but ante-
riorly it is free at the
lower part of the truncus
arteriosus. On referring
to the development of the
arteries (see ARTERIES) it
will be seen that another
FIG. 3. Formation of Septa. Diagram septum starts between
of the formation of some of thi septa of t ne [ as t t wo pairs of
the heart (viewed from the right side).
S.V. Sinus venosus.
Au. Auricle.
aortic arches and grows
downward (caudad) until
B.C. Endocardial cushions forming it reaches and joins with
septum intermedium. the septum inferius just
V. Septum ventriculorum. mentioned. This septum
T.Ar. Septum^aorticum mtruncus ar- agrticum (formed by two
V.A. Ventral aorta. ingrowths from the wall
of the vessel which fuse
later) becomes twisted in such a way that the right ventricle
is continuous with the last pair of aortic arches (pulmonary
artery), while the left ventricle communicates with the other
arches (the permanent ventral aorta and its branches); it
joins the septum ventriculorum in the upper part of the
ventricular cavity and so forms the pars membranacea septi
(fig. 3, T. Ar).
The fate of the sinus venosus and auricle must now be followed.
Into the former, at first, only the two vitelline veins open, but
later, as they develop, the ducts of Cuvier and the umbilical
veins join in (see VEINS). As the ducts of Cuvier come from
each side the sinus spreads out to meet them and becomes
transversely elongated. The slight constriction, which at first
is the only separation between the sinus and the auricle, becomes
more marked, and later the opening is into the right part of
the auricle, and is guarded by two valvular folds of endocardium
(the venous valves) which project into that cavity, and are
continuous above with a temporary downgrowth from the
roof, known as the septum spurium. Later the right side of the
sinus enlarges, and so does the right part of the aperture, until
the back part of the right side of the auricle and the right part
of the sinus venosus are thrown into one, and the only remnants
of the partition are the crista terminalis and the Eustachian
and Thebesian valves. The left part of the sinus venosus,
which does not enlarge at the same rate as the right part, remains
as the coronary sinus. It will now be seen why, in the adult
heart, all the veins which open into the right auricle open into
its posterior part, behind the crista terminalis. The septum
spurium has been referred to as a temporary structure; the
real division between the two auricles occurs at a later date
than that between the ventricles and to the left of the septum
spurium. It is formed by two partitions, the first of which,
called the septum primum, grows down from the auricular roof.
At first it does not quite reach the endocardial cushions in the
auricular canal, already mentioned, but leaves a gap, called
the ostium primum, between. This has nothing to do with the
foramen oiiale, which occurs as an independent perforation higher
up, and at first is known as the ostium secundum. When it is
established the septum primum grows down and meets the
endocardial cushions, and so the ostium primum is obliterated.
The septum secundum grows down on the right of the septum
primum and is never complete; it grows round and largely
overlaps the foramen ovale and its edges form the annulus
ovalis, so that, in the later months of foetal life, the foramen
ovale is a valvular opening, the floor of which is formed by the
septum primum and the margins by the septum secundum.
The closure of the foramen is brought about by adhesion of the
two septa.
The pulmonary veins of the two sides at first join one another,
dorsal to the left auricle, and open into that cavity by a single
median trunk, but, as the auricle grows, this trunk and part of
the right and left veins are absorbed into its cavity.
The mitral and tricuspid valves are formed by the shortening
of the auricular canal which becomes telescoped into the ventricle,
and the cusps are the remnants of this telescoping process.
The columnae carneae and chordae tendineae are the remains
of a spongy network which originally filled the cavity of the
primary ventricle.
The aortic and pulmonary valves are laid down in the ventral
aorta, before it is divided into aorta and pulmonary artery,
as four endocardial cushions; anterior, posterior and two
lateral. The septum aorticum cuts the latter two into two, so
that each artery has the rudiments of three cusps.
Abnormalities of the heart are very numerous, and can
usually be explained by a knowledge of its development. They
often cause grave clinical symptoms. A clear and well-illustrated
review of the most important of them will be found in the chapter
on congenital disease of the heart in Clinical Applied Anatomy,
by C. R. Box and W. McAdam Eccles, London, 1906.
For further details of the embryology of the heart see Oscar
Hertwijj's Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere (Jena, 1902) ; G. Born,
" Entwicklung des Saugetierherzens," Archiv f. mik. Anal. Bd. 33
(1889); W. His, Anatomic mensMicher Embryonen (Leipzig, 1881-
l8 8s); Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (1908); C. S. Minot, Human
Embryology (New York, 1892); and A. Keith, Human Embryology
and Morphology (London, 1905).
Comparative A natomy.
In the Acrania (e.g. lancelet) there is no heart, though the
vessels are specially contractile in the ventral part of the pharynx.
In the Cyclostomata (lamprey and hag), and Fishes, the
heart has the same arrangement which has been noticed in the
human embryo. There is a smooth, thin-walled sinus venosus,
a thin reticulate-walled auricle, produced laterally into two
appendages, a thick-walled ventricle, and a conus arteriosus
containing valves. In addition to these the beginning of the
ventral aorta is often thickened and expanded to form a bulbus
arteriosus, which is non-contractile, and, strictly speaking,
should rather be described with the arteries than with the heart.
In relation to human embryology the smooth sinus venosus
and reticulated auricle are interesting. Between the auricle
and ventricle is the auriculo-ventricular valve, which primarily
consists of two cusps, comparable to the two endocardial cushions
of the human embryo, though in some forms they may be sub-
divided. In the interior of the ventricle is a network of muscular
trabeculae. The conus arteriosus in the Elasmobranchs (sharks
and rays) and Ganoids (sturgeon) is large and provided with
several rows of semilunar valves, but in the Cyclostomes (lamprey)
and Teleosts (bony fishes) the conus is reduced and only the
anterior (cephalic) row of valves retained. With the reduction of
the conus the bulbus arteriosus is enlarged. So far the heart is
a single tubular organ expanded into various cavities and having
the characteristic C/3-shaped form seen in the human embryo;
it contains only venous blood which is forced through the gills
to be oxidized on its way to the tissues. In the Dipnoi (mud
fish), in which rudimentary lungs, as well as gills, are developed,
the auricle is divided into two, and the sinus venosus opens
into the right auricle. The conus arteriosus too begins to be
divided into two chambers, and in Protopterus this division
is complete. This division of the heart is one instance in which
mammalian ontogeny does not repeat the processes of phylogeny,
because, in the human embryo, it has been shown that the
ventricular septum appears before the auricular. This want
of harmony is sometimes spoken of as the " falsification of the
embryological record."
In the Amphibia there are also two auricles and one ventricle,
132
HEART
[DISEASE
though in the Urodela (tailed amphibians) the auricular septum
is often fenestrated. The sinus venosus is still a separate
chamber, and the conus arteriosus, which may contain many
or few valves, is usually divided into two by a spiral fold.
Structurally the amphibian heart closely resembles the dipnoan,
though the increased size of the left auricle is an advance. In
the Anura (frogs and toads) the whole ventricle is filled with a
spongy network which prevents the arterial and venous blood
from the two auricles mixing to any great extent. (For the
anatomy and physiology of the frog's heart, see The Frog,
by Milnes Marshall.)
In the Reptiles the ventricular septum begins to appear;
this in the lizards is quite incomplete, but in the crocodiles,
which are usually regarded as the highest order of living reptiles,
the partition has nearly reached the top of the ventricle, and the
condition resembles that of the human embryo before the pars
membranacea septi is formed. The conus arteriosus becomes
included in the ventricular cavity, but the sinus venosus still
remains distinct, and its opening into the right ventricle is
guarded by two valves which closely resemble the two venous
valves in the auricle of the human embryo already referred to.
In the Birds the auricular and ventricular septa are complete;
the right ventricle is thin-walled and crescentic in section, as in
Man, and the musculi papillares are developed. The left auriculo-
ventricular valve has three membranous cusps with chordae
tendineae attached to them, but the right auriculo-ventricular
valve has a large fleshy cusp without chordae tendineae. The
sinus venosus is largely included in the right auricle, but remains
of the two venous valves are seen on each side of the orifice of the
inferior vena cava.
In the Mammals the structure of the heart corresponds closely
with the description of that of Man already given. In the
Ornithorynchus, among the Monotremes, the right auriculo-
ventricular valve has two fleshy and two membranous cusps,
thus showing a resemblance to that of the bird. In the Echidna,
the other member of the order, however, both auriculo-ventricular
valves are membranous. In the Edentates the remains of the
venous valves at the opening of the inferior vena cava are better
marked than in other orders. In the Ungulates the moderator
band in the right ventricle is especially well developed, and the
central fibrous body at the base of the heart is often ossified,
forming the os cordis so well known in the heart of the ox.
The position of the heart in the lower mammals is not so
oblique as it is in Man.
For further details, see C. Rose, Beitr. z. vergl. Anat. des Herzens
der Wirbelthiere Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xvi. (1890); R. Wiedersheim,
Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere (Jena, 1902) (for literature) ;
also Parker and Haswell's Zoology (London, 1897). (F. G. P.)
HEART DJSEASE. In the early ages of medicine, the absence
of correct anatomical, physiological and pathological knowledge
prevented diseases of the heart from being recognized with any
certainty during life, and almost entirely precluded them from
becoming the object of medical treatment. But no sooner did
Harvey (1628) publish his discovery of the circulation of the
blood, and its dependence on the heart as its central organ, than
derangements of the circulation began to be recognized as signs
of disease of that central organ. (See also under VASCULAR
SYSTEM.)
Among the earliest to profit by this discovery and to make
important contributions to the literature of diseases of the heart
and circulation were, R. Lower (1631-1691), R. Vieussens
(1641-1716), H. Boerhave (1668-1738) and the great patho-
logists at the beginning of the i8th century, G. M. Lancisi
(1654-1720), G. B. Morgagni (1682-1771) and J. B. Senac
(1693-1770). The works of these writers form very interesting
reading, and it is remarkable how careful were the observations
made, and how sound the conclusions drawn, by these pioneers
of scientific medicine. J. N. Corvisart (1755-1821) was one of the
earliest to make practical use of R. T. Auenbrugger's (1722-
1809) invention of percussion to determine the size of the heart.
R. T. H. Laennec (1781-1826) was the first to make a scientific
application of mediate auscultation to the diagnosis of disease of
the chest, by the invention of the stethoscope. J. Bouillaud
(1796-1881) extended its use to the diagnosis of disease of the
heart. ToJamesHope (1801-1841) we owe much of the precision
we have now attained in diagnosis of valvular disease from
abnormalities in the sounds produced during cardiac movements.
This short list by no means exhausts the earlier literature on the
subject, but each of these names marks an era in the progress of
the diagnosis of cardiac disease. In later years the literature on
this subject has become very copious.
The heart and great vessels occupy a position immediately to
the left of the centre of the thoracic cavity. The anterior surface
of the heart is projected against the chest wall and is surrounded
on either side by the lungs, which are resonant organs, so that
any increase in the size of the heart, " dilatation," can be de-
tected by percussion. By placing the hand on the chest, palpa-
tion, the impulse of the left ventricle, or apex beat, can normally
be felt just below and internal to the nipple. Deviations from
the normal in the position or force of the apex beat will afford
important information as to the nature of the pathological
changes in the heart. Thus, displacement downwards and out-
wards of the apex beat, with a forcible thrusting impulse,
will indicate hypertrophy, or increase of the muscular wall
and increased driving power of the left ventricle, whereas a
similar displacement with a feeble diffuse impulse will indicate
dilatation, or over-distension of its cavity from stretching of
the walls.
By auscultation, or listening with a suitable instrument named
a stethoscope over appropriate areas, we can detect any abnor-
mality in the sounds of the heart, and the presence of murmurs
indicative of disease of one or other of the valves of the heart.
The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac which loosely envelops the
heart and the origin of the great vessels. Inflammation of this
sac, or pericarditis, is apt to occur as a result of rheumatism,
more especially in children. It may also occur as a complication of
pneumonia. It is a serious affection associated with pain over
the heart, fever, shortness of breath, rapid pulse and dilatation
of the heart. As a result of the inflammation, fluid may accu-
mulate in the pericardial sac, or the walls of the sac may become
adherent to the heart and tend to embarrass its action. In
favourable cases, however, recovery may take place without any
untoward sequelae.
Diseases of the heart may be classified in two main groups,
(i) Disease of the valves, and (2) Disease of the walls of the
heart.
i. Valvular Disease. Inflammation of the valves of the heart,
or endocarditis, is one of the most common complications of
rheumatism in children and young adults. More severe types,
which are apt to prove fatal from a form of blood poisoning, may
result when the valves of the heart are attacked by certain
micro-organisms, such as the pneumccoccus, which is responsible
for pneumonia, the streptococcus and the staphylococcus
pyogenes, the gonococcus and the influenza bacillus.
As a result of endocarditis, one or more of the valves may be
seriously damaged, so that it leaks or becomes incompetent.
The valves of the left side of the heart, the aortic and mitral
valves, are affected far more commonly than those of the right
side. It is indeed comparatively rarely that the latter are
attacked. In the process of healing of a damaged valve, scar
tissue is formed which has a tendency to contract, so that in some
cases the orifice of the valve becomes narrowed, and the resulting
stenosis or narrowing gives rise to obstruction of the blood
stream. We may thus have incompetence or stenosis of a valve
or both combined.
Valvular lesions are detected on auscultation over appropriate
areas by the blowing sounds or murmurs to which they give rise,
which modify or replace the normal heart sounds. Thus, lesions
of the mitral valve give rise to murmurs which are heard at the
apex beat of the heart, and lesions of the aortic valves to murmurs
which are heard over the aortic area, in the second right inter-
costal space. Accurate timing of the murmurs in relation to the
heart sounds enables us to judge whether the murmur is due to
stenosis or incompetence of the valve affected.
DISEASE]
HEART
133
If the valvular lesion is severe, it is essential for the proper
maintenance of the circulation that certain changes should take
place in the heart to compensate for or neutralize the effects of
the regurgitation or obstruction, as the case may be. In affec-
tions of the aortic valve, the extra work falls on the left ventricle,
which enlarges proportionately and undergoes hypertrophy. In
affections of the mitral valve the effect is felt primarily by the
left auricle, which is a thin walled structure incapable of under-
going the requisite increase in power to resist the backward flow
through the mitral orifice in case of leakage, or to overcome the
effects of obstruction in case of stenosis. The back pressure is
therefore transmitted to the pulmonary circulation, and as the
right ventricle is responsible for maintaining the flow of blood
through the lungs, the strain and extra work fall on the right
ventricle, which in turn enlarges and undergoes hypertrophy.
The degree of hypertrophy of the left or right ventricle is thus,
up to a certain point, a measure of the extent of the lesion of the
aortic or mitral valve respectively. When the effects of the
valvular lesion are so neutralized by these structural changes in
the heart that the circulation is equably maintained, " com-
pensation " is said to be efficient.
When the heart gives way under the strain, compensation
is said to break down, and dropsy, shortness of breath, cough
and cyanosis, are among the distressing symptoms which may
set in. The mere existence of a valvular lesion does not call
for any special treatment so long as compensation is efficient,
and a large number of people with slight valvular lesions are
living lives indistinguishable from those of their neighbours.
It will, however, be readily understood that in the case of the
more serious lesions certain precautions should be observed
in regard to over-exertion, excitement, over-indulgence in
tobacco or alcohol, &c., as the balance is more readily upset
and any undue strain on the heart may cause a breakdown of
compensation. When this occurs treatment is required. A
period of rest in bed is often sufficient to enable 'the heart to
recover, and this may be supplemented as required by the
administration of mercurial and saline purgatives to relieve
the embarrassed circulation, and of suitable cardiac tonics,
such as digitalis and strychnin, to reinforce and strengthen
the heart's action.
2. Affections of the Muscular Wall of the Heart. Dilatation of
the heart, or stretching of the walls of the heart, is an incident,
as has already been stated, in pericarditis and in the earlier
stages of valvular disease antecedent to hypertrophy. Temporary
over-distension or dilatation of the cavities of the heart occurs
in violent and protracted exertion, but rapidly subsides and is
in no wise harmful to the sound and vigorous heart of the young.
It is otherwise if the heart is weak and flabby from a too sedentary
life or degenerative changes in its walls or during convalescence
from a severe illness, when the same circumstances which will
not injure a healthy heart, may give rise to serious dilatation
from which recovery may be very protracted.
Influenza is a common cause of cardiac dilatation, and is
liable to be a source of trouble after the acute illness has subsided,
if the patient goes about and resumes his ordinary avocations
too soon.
Fatty or fibroid degeneration of the heart wall may occur in
later life from impaired nutrition of the muscle, due to partial
obstruction of the blood-vessels supplying it, when they are
the seat of the degenerative changes known as arteriosclerosis
or atheroma. The affection known as angina pectoris (q.v.) may
be a further consequence of this defective blood-supply.
The treatment will vary according to the nature of the case.
In serious cases of dilatation, rest in bed, purgatives and cardiac
tonics may be required.
In commencing degenerative change the Oertel treatment,
consisting of graduated exercise up a gentle slope, limitation
of fluids and a special diet, may be indicated.
In cases of slight dilatation after influenza or recent illness,
the Schott treatment by baths and exercises as carried out at
Nauheim mav be sometimes beneficial. The change of air and
scene, the enforced rest, the placid life, together with freedom
from excitement and worry, are among the most important
factors which contribute to success in this class of case.
Disorders of Rhythm of the Heart's Action. Under this heading
may be grouped a number of conditions to which the name
" functional affections of the heart " has sometimes been applied,
inasmuch as the disturbances in question cannot usually be
attributed to definite organic disease of the heart. We must,
of course, exclude from this category the irregularity in the
force and frequency of the pulse, which is commonly associated
with incompetence of the mitral valve.
The heart is a muscular organ possessing certain properties,
rhythmicity, excitability, contractility, conductivity and ton-
icity, as pointed out by Gaskell, in virtue of which it is able
to maintain a regular automatic beat independently of nerve
stimulation. It is, however, intimately connected with the brain,
blood-vessels and the abdominal and thoracic viscera, by
innumerable nerves, through which impulses or messages are
being constantly sent to and received from these various portions
of the body. Such messages may give rise to disturbances of
rhythm with which we are all familiar. For instance, sudden
fright or emotion may cause a momentary arrest of the heart's
action, and excitement or apprehension may set up a rapid
action of the heart or palpitation. Palpitation, again, is often
the result of digestive disorders, the message in this case being
received from the stomach, instead of the brain as in emotional
disturbances. It may also result from over-indulgence in tobacco
and alcohol.
Tachycardia is the name applied to a more or less permanent
increase in the rate of the heart-beat. It is usually a prominent
feature in the affection known as Graves' disease or exophthalmic
goitre. It may also result from chronic alcoholism. In the
condition known as paroxysmal tachycardia there appears to
be no adequate explanation for its onset.
Bradycardia or abnormal slowness of the heart-beat, is the
converse of tachycardia. An abnormally slow pulse is met
with in melancholia, cerebral tumour, jaundice and certain
toxic conditions, or may follow an attack of influenza. There
is, however, a peculiar affection characterized by abnormal
slowness of pulse (often ranging as low as 30), and the onset,
from time to time, of epileptiform or syncopal attacks. To
this the name " Stokes-Adams disease " has been applied, as it
was first called attention to by Adams in 1827, and subsequently
fully described by Stokes in 1836. It is usually associated
with senile degenerative change of the heart and vascular system,
and is held to be due to impairment of conductivity in the
muscular fibres (bundle of His) which transmit the wave of
contraction from the auricle to the ventricle. It is of serious
significance in view of the symptoms associated with it.
Intermittency of the Pulse. By this is understood a pulse in
which a beat is dropped from time to time. The dropping of
a beat may occur at regular intervals every two, four or six
beats, &c., or occasionally at irregular intervals after a series
of normal beats. On examining the heart, it is found, as a rule,
that the cause of the intermission at the wrist is not actual
omission of a heart-beat, but the occurrence of a hurried imperfect
cardiac contraction which does not transmit a pulse-wave to
the wrist. It is' not characteristic of any special form of heart
affection, and is rarely of serious import. It may be due to
reflex digestive disturbances, or be associated with conditions
of nervous breakdown and irritability, or with an atonic
and relaxed condition of the heart muscle. The treatment of
these disorders of rhythm of the heart will vary greatly
according to the cause and is often a matter of considerable
difficulty. (J. F. H. B.)
Surgery of Heart and Pericardium. As the result of acute or
chronic inflammation of the lining membrane of the fibrous
sac which surrounds the heart and the neighbouring parts of
the large blood-vessels, a dropsical or a purulent collection may
form in it, or the sac may be quietly distended by a thin
watery fluid. In. either case, but especially in the latter, the
heart may be so embarrassed in its work that death seems
imminent. The condition is generally due to the cultivation
HEART-BURIALHEARTS
in the pericardium of the germs of rheumatism, influenza
or gonorrhoea, or of those of ordinary suppuration. Respiration
as well as circulation is embarrassed, and there is a marked
fulness and dulness of the front wall of the chest to the left of
the breast-bone. In that region also pain and tenderness are
complained of. By using the slender, hollow needle of an
aspirator great relief may be afforded, but the tapping may have
to be repeated from time to time. If the fluid drawn off is found
to be purulent, it may be necessary to make a trap-door opening
into the chest by cutting across the 4th and 5th ribs, incising
and evacuating the pericardium and providing for drainage.
In short, an abscess in the pericardium must be treated like an
abscess in the pleura.
Wounds of the heart are apt to be quickly fatal. If the
probability is that the enfeebled action of the heart is due to
pressure from blood which is leaking into, and is locked up
in the pericardium, the proper treatment will be to open
the pericardium, as described above, and, if possible, to
close the opening in the auricle, ventricle or large vessel, by
sutures. (E. O.*).
HEART-BURIAL, the burial of the heart apart from the body.
This is a very ancient practice, the special reverence shown
towards the heart being doubtless due to its early association
with the soul of man, His affections, courage arid conscience.
In medieval Europe heart-burial was fairly common. Some
of the more notable cases are those of Richard I., whose heart,
preserved in a casket, was placed in Rouen cathedral; Henry III.,
buried in Normandy; Eleanor, queen of Edward I., at Lincoln;
Edward I., at Jerusalem; Louis IX., Philip III., Louis XIII.
and Louis XIV., in Paris. Since the lyth century the hearts
of deceased members of the house of Habsburg have been buried
apart from the body in the Loretto chapel in the Augustiner
Kirche, Vienna. The most romantic story of heart-burial is
that of Robert Bruce. He wished his heart to rest at Jerusalem in
the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and on his deathbed entrusted
the fulfilment of his wish to Douglas. The latter broke his
journey to join the Spaniards in their war with the Moorish king
of Granada, and was killed in battle, the heart of Bruce enclosed
in a silver casket hanging round'his neck. Subsequently the
heart was buried at Melrose Abbey. The heart of James,
marquess of Montrose, executed by the Scottish Covenanters in
1650, was recovered from his body, which had been buried by
the roadside outside Edinburgh, and, enclosed in a steel box,
was sent to the duke of Montrose, then in exile. It was lost on
its journey, and years afterwards was discovered in a curiosity
shop in Flanders. Taken by a member of the Montrose family
to India, it was stolen as an amulet by a native chief, was once
more regained, and finally lost in France during the Revolution.
Of notable 17th-century cases there is that of James II., whose
heart was buried in the church of the convent of the Visitation
at Chaillot near Paris, and that of Sir William Temple, at Moor
Park, Farnham. The last ceremonial burial of a heart in England
was that of Paul Whitehead, secretary to the Monks of Med-
menham club, in 1775, the interment taking place in the Le
Despenser mausoleum at High Wycombe, Bucks. Of later cases
the most notable are those of Daniel O'Connell, whose heart is
at Rome, Shelley at Bournemouth, Louis XVII. at Venice,
Kosciusko at the Polish museum at Rapperschwyll, Lake Zurich,
and the marquess of Bute, taken by his widow to Jerusalem for
burial in 1900. Sometimes other parts of the body, removed in
the process of embalming, are given separate and solemn burial.
Thus the viscera of the popes from Sixtus V. (1590) onward have
been preserved in the parish church of the Quirinal. The custom
of heart-burial was forbidden by Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-
1303), but Benedict XI. withdrew the prohibition.
See Pettigrew, Chronicles of the Tombs (1857).
HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several
Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch haard, German Herd, in the sense
of " floor "), the part of a room where a fire is made, usually
constructed of stone, bricks, tiles or earth, beaten hard and
having a chimney above; the fire being lighted either on the
hearth itself, or in a receptacle placed there for the purpose.
Like the Latin focus, especially in the phrase for " hearth and
home " answering to pro aris etfocis, the word is used as equiva-
lent to the home or household. The word is also applied to the
fire and cooking apparatus on board ship; the floor of a smith's
forge; the floor of a reverberatory furnace on which the ore is
exposed to the flame; the lower part of a blast furnace through
which the metal goes down into the crucible; in soldering, a
portable brazier or chafing dish, and an iron box sunk in the
middle of a flat iron plate or table. An " open-hearth furnace "
is a regenerative furnace of the reverberatory type used in making
steel, hence "open-hearth steel" (see IRON AND STEEL).
Hearth-money, hearth tax or chimney-money, was a tax im-
posed in England on all houses except cottages at a rate of
two shillings for every hearth. It was first levied in 1662, but
owing to its unpopularity, chiefly caused by the domiciliary visits
of the collectors, it was repealed in 1689, although it was pro-
ducing 170,000 a year. The principle of the tax was not new
in the history of taxation, for in Anglo-Saxon times the king
derived a part of his revenue from a fumage or tax of smoke
farthings levied on all hearths except those of the poor. It
appears also in the hearth-penny or tax of a penny on every
hearth, which as early as the loth century was paid annually
to the pope (see PETER'S PENCE).
HEARTS, a game of cards of recent origin, though founded
upon the same principle as many old games, such as Slobber-
hannes, Four Jacks and Enfle, namely, that of losing instead of
winning as many tricks as possible. Hearts is played with a full
pack, ace counting highest and deuce lowest. In the fourhanded
game, which is usually played, the entire pack is dealt out as at
whist (but without turning up the last card, since there are no
trumps), and the player at the dealer's left begins by leading any
card he chooses, the trick being taken by the highest card of the
suit led. Each player must follow suit if he can; if he has no
cards of the suit led he is privileged to throw away any card he
likes, thus having an opportunity of getting rid of his hearts, which
is the object of the game. When all thirteen tricks have been
played each player counts the hearts he has taken in and pays
into the pool a certain number of counters for them, according
to an arrangement made before beginning play. In the four-
handed, or sweepstake, game the method of settling called
" Howell's," from the name of the inventor, has been generally
adopted, according to which each player begins with an equal
number of chips, say 100, and, after the hand has been played,
pays into the pool as many chips for each heart he had taken as
there are players besides himself. Then each player takes out
of the pool one chip for every heart he did not win. The pool
is thus exhausted with every deal. Hearts may be played by
two, three, four or even more players, each playing for himself.
Spot Hearts. In this variation the hearts count according to the
number of spots on the cards, excepting that the ace counts 14,
the king 13, queen 12 and knave n, the combined score of the
thirteen hearts being thus 104.
Auction Hearts.- In this the eldest hand examines his hand
and bids a certain number of counters for the privilege of naming
the suit to be got rid of, but without naming the suit. The other
players in succession have the privilege of outbidding him, and
whoever bids most declares the suit and pays the amount of his bid
into the pool, the winner taking it.
Joker Hearts. Here the deuce of hearts is discarded, and an extra
card, called the joker, takes its place, ranking in value between ten
and knave. It cannot be thrown away, excepting when hearts
are led and an ace or court card is played, though if an opponent
discards the ace or a court card of hearts, then the holder of the joker
may discard it. The joker is usually considered worth five chips,
which are either paid into the pool or to the player who succeeds
in discarding the joker.
Heartsette. In this variation the deuce of spades is deleted and
the three cards left after dealing twelve cards to each player are
called the widow (or kitty), and are left face downward on the table.
The winner of the first trick must take the widow without showing it
to his opponents.
Slobberhannes. The object of this older form of Hearts is to avoid
taking either the first or last trick or a trick containing the queen of
clubs. A euchre pack (thirty two-cards, lacking all below the 7) is
used, and each player is given 10 counters, one being forfeited to the
pool if a player takes the first or last trick, or that containing the
club queen. If he takes all three he forfeits four points.
HEAT
Four Jacks (Polignac or Quatre -Valets) is usually played with a
piquet pack, the cards ranking in France as at ecarte, but in Great
Britain and America as at piquet. There is no trump suit. Counters
are used, and the object of the game is to avoid taking any trick
containing a knave, especially the knave of spades, called Polignac.
The player taking such a trick forfeits one counter to the pool.
Enfle (or Schwellen) is usually played by four persons with a piquet
pack and for a pool. The cards rank as at Hearts, and there is no
trump suit. A player must follow suit if he can, but if he cannot
he may not discard, but must take up all tricks already won and add
them to his hand. Play is continued until one player gets rid of all
his cards and thus wins.
HEAT (O.E. hatlu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hdt, is from the
Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch,
hitte, heet, &c.), a general term applied to that branch of physical
science which deals with the effects produced by heat on material
bodies, with the laws of transference of heat, and with the
transformations of heat into other kinds of energy. The object
of the present article is to give a brief sketch of the historical
development of the science of heat, and to indicate the relation
of the different branches of the subject, which are discussed in
greater detail with reference to the latest progress in separate
articles.
1. Meanings -of the Term Heat. The term heat is employed in
ordinary language in a number of different senses. This makes it
a convenient term to employ for the general title of the science,
but the different meanings must be carefully distinguished in
scientific reasoning. For the present purpose, omitting meta-
phorical significations, we may distinguish four principal uses
of the term: (a) Sensation of heat; (b) Temperature, or
degree of hotness; (c) Quantity of thermal energy; (d) Radiant
heat, or energy of radiation.
(a) From the sense of heat, aided in the case of very hot bodies
by the sense of sight, we obtain our first rough notions of heat as
a physical entity, which alters the state of a body and its condition
in respect of warmth, and is capable of passing from one body to
another. By touching a body we can tell whether it is warmer or
colder than the hand, and, by touching two similar bodies in suc-
cession, we can form a rough estimate, by the acuteness of the
sensation experienced, of their difference in hotness or coldness
over a limited range. If a hot iron is placed on a cold iron plate,
we may observe that the plate is heated and the iron cooled until
both attain appreciably the same degree of warmth; and we infer
from similar cases that something which we call " heat " tends to
pass from hot to cold bodies, and to attain finally a state of equable
diffusion when all the bodies concerned are equally warm or cold.
Ideas such as these derived entirely from the sense of heat, are,
so to speak, embedded in the language of every nation from the
earliest times.
(6) From the sense of heat, again, we naturally derive the idea
of a continuous scale or order, expressed by such terms as summer
heat, blood heat, fever heat, red heat, white heat, in which all bodies
may be placed with regard to their degrees of hotness, and we speak
of the temperature of a body as denoting its place in the scale, in
contradistinction to the quantity of heat it may contain.
(c) The quantity of heat contained in a body obviously depends
on the size of the body considered. Thus a large kettleful of boiling
water will evidently contain more heat than a teacupful, though both
may be at the same temperature. The temperature does not depend
on the size of the body, but on the degree of concentration of the
heat in it, i.e. on the quantity of heat per unit mass, other things
being equal. We may regard it as axiomatic that a given body (say
a pound of water) in a given state (say boiling under a given
pressure) must always contain the same quantity of heat, and
conversely that, if it contains a given quantity of heat, and if it
is under conditions in other respects, it must be at a definite tempera-
ture, which will always be the same for the same given conditions.
(d) It is a matter of common observation that rays of the sun
or of a fire falling on a body warm it, and it was in the first instance
natural to suppose that heat itself somehow travelled across the
intervening space from the sun or fire to the body warmed, in
much the same way as heat may be carried by a current of hot air
or water. But we now know that energy of radiation is not the
same thing as heat, though it is converted into heat when the rays
strike an absorbing substance. The term " radiant heat," however,
is generally retained, because radiation is commonly measured
in terms of the heat it produces, and because the transference of
energy by radiation and absorption is the most important agency in
the diffusion of heat.
2. Evolution of the Thermometer. The first step in the develop-
ment of the science of heat was necessarily the invention of a
thermometer, an instrument for indicating temperature and
measuring its changes. The first requisite in the case of such an
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
instrument is that it should always give, at least approximately,
the same indication at the same temperature. The air-thermo-
scope of Galileo, illustrated in fig. i, which consisted of a
glass bulb containing air, connected to a glass tube of
small bore dipping into a coloured liquid, though very sensi-
tive to variations of temperature, was not satisfactory as
a measuring instrument, because it was also affected by varia-
tions of atmospheric pressure. The invention of the type of
thermometer familiar at the present day, containing a liquid
hermetically sealed in a glass bulb with a fine tube attached,
is also generally attributed to Galileo at
a slightly later date, about 1612. Alcohol
was the liquid first employed, and
the degrees, intended to represent
thousandths of the volume of the bulb,
were marked with small beads of enamel
fused on the stem, as shown in fig. 2.
In order to render the readings of such
instruments comparable with each other,
it was necessary to select a fixed point
or standard temperature as the zero or
starting-point of the graduations. In-
stead of making each degree a given
fraction of the volume of the bulb, which
would be difficult in practice, and would
give different values for the degree with
different liquids, it was soon found to
be preferable to take two fixed points,
and to divide the interval between
them into the same number of degrees. It was natural in the
first instance to take the temperature of the human body as one
of the fixed points. In 1701 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a scale
in which the freezing-point of water was taken as zero, and the
temperature of the human body as 12. About the same date
(1714) Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit proposed to take as zero the
lowest temperature obtainable with a freezing mixture of ice
and salt, and to divide the interval between this temperature and
that of the human body into 12. To obtain finer graduations
the number was subsequently increased to 06. The freezing-
point of water was at that time supposed to be somewhat variable,
because as a matter of fact it is possible to cool water several
degrees below its freezing-point in the absence of ice. Fahrenheit
showed, however, that as soon as ice began to form the tempera-
ture always rose to the same point, and that a mixture of ice
or snow with pure water always gave the same temperature.
At a later period he also showed that the temperature of boiling
water varied with the barometric pressure, but that it was always
the same at the same pressure, and might therefore be used
as the second fixed point (as Edmund Halley and others had
suggested) provided that a definite pressure, such as the average
atmospheric pressure, were specified. The freezing and boiling-
points on one of his thermometers, graduated as already ex-
plained, with the temperature of the body as 96, came out in
the neighbourhood of 32 and 212 respectively, giving an interval
of 1 80 between these points. Shortly after Fahrenheit's death
(1736) the freezing and boiling-points of water were generally
recognized as the most convenient fixed points to adopt, but
different systems of subdivision were employed. Fahrenheit's
scale, with its small degrees and its zero below the freezing-point,
possesses undoubted advantages for meteorological work, and
is still retained in most English-speaking countries. But for
general scientific purposes, the centigrade system, in which the
freezing-point is marked o and the boiling-point 100, is now
almost universally employed, on account of its greater simplicity
from an arithmetical point of view. For work of precision the
fixed points have been more exactly defined (see THERMOMETRY) ,
but no change has been made in the fundamental principle of
graduation.
3. Comparison of Scales based on Expansion. Thermometers
constructed in the manner already described will give strictly
comparable readings, provided that the tubes be of uniform
bore, and that the same liquid and glass be employed in their
136
HEAT
[CALORIMETRY
construction. But they possess one obvious defect from a theo-
retical point of view, namely, that the subdivision of the tem-
perature scale depends on the expansion of the particular liquid
selected as the standard. A liquid such as water, which, when con-
tinuously heated at a uniform rate from its freezing-pcint, first
contracts and then expands, at a rapidly increasing rate, would
obviously be unsuitable. But there is no a priori reason why other
liquids should not behave to some extent in a similar way. As
a matter of fact, it was soon observed that thermometers care-
fully constructed with different liquids, such as alcohol, oil and
mercury, did not agree precisely in their indications at points of
the scale intermediate between the fixed points, and diverged
even more widely outside these limits. Another possible method,
proposed in 1694 by Carlo Renaldeni (1615-1698), professor
of mathematics and philosophy at Pisa, would be to determine
the intermediate points of the scale by observing the temperatures
of mixtures of ice-cold and boiling water in varying proportions.
On this method, the temperature of 50 C. would be defined
as that obtained by mixing equal weights of water at o C. and
100 C.; 20 C., that obtained by mixing 80 parts of water at
o C. with 20 parts of water at 100 C. and so on. Each degree
rise of temperature in a mass of water would then represent
the addition of the same quantity of heat. The scale thus
obtained would, as a matter of fact, agree very closely with that
of a mercury thermometer, but the method would be very
difficult to put in practice, and would still have the disadvantage
of depending on the properties of a particular liquid, namely,
water, which is known to behave in an anomalous manner in
other respects. At a later date, the researches of Gay-Lussac
(1802) and Regnault (1847) showed that the laws of the expansion
of gases are much simpler than those of liquids. Whereas the
expansion of alcohol between o C. and 100 C. is nearly seven
times as great as that of mercury, all gases (excluding easily
condensible vapours) expand equally, or so nearly equally that
the differences between them cannot be detected without the
most refined observations. This equality of expansion affords
a strong a priori argument for selecting the scale given by the
expansion of a gas as the standard scale of temperature, but there
are still stronger theoretical grounds for this choice, which will
be indicated in discussing the absolute scale ( 21). Among
liquids mercury is found to agree most nearly with the gas scale,
and is generally employed in thermometers for scientific purposes
on account of its high boiling-point and for other reasons.
The differences of the mercurial scale from the gas scale having
been carefully determined, the mercury thermometer can be
used as a secondary standard to replace the gas thermometer
within certain limits, as the gas thermometer would be very
troublesome to employ directly in ordinary investigations.
For certain purposes, and especially at temperatures beyond
the range of mercury thermometers, electrical thermometers,
also standardized by reference to the gas thermometer, have
been very generally employed in recent years, while for still
higher temperatures beyond the range of the gas thermometer,
thermometers based on the recently established laws ofiradiation
are the only instruments available. For a further discussion of
the theory and practice of the measurement of temperature,
the reader is referred to the article THERMOMETRY.
4. Change of State. Among the most important effects of
heat is that of changing the state of a substance from solid to
liquid, or from liquid to vapour. With very few exceptions, all
substances, whether simple or compound, are known to be capable
of existing in each of the three states under suitable conditions
of temperature and pressure. The transition of any substance,
from the state of liquid to that of solid or vapour under the
ordinary atmospheric pressure, takes place at fixed temperatures,
the freezing and boiling-points, which are very sharply defined
for pure crystalline substances, and serve in fact as fixed points
of the ther mometric scale. A change of state cannot, however,
be effected in any case without the addition or subtraction of a
certain definite quantity of heat. If a piece of ice below the
freezing-point is gradually heated at a uniform rate, its tem-
perature may be observed to rise regularly till the freezing-point
is reached. At this point it begins to melt, and its temperature
ceases to rise. The melting takes a considerable time, during the
whole of which heat is being continuously supplied without
producing any rise of temperature, although if the same quantity
of heat were supplied to an equal mass of water, the temperature
of the water would be raised nearly 80 C. Heat thus absorbed
in producing a change of state without rise of temperature is
called "Latent Heat," a term introduced by Joseph Black, who
was one of the first to study the subject of change of state from
the point of view of heat absorbed, and who in many cases
actually adopted the comparatively rough method described
above of estimating quantities of heat by observing the time
required to produce a given change when the substance was
receiving heat at a steady rate from its surroundings. For
every change of state a definite quantity of heat is required,
without which the change cannot take place. Heat must be
added to melt a solid, or to vaporize a solid or a liquid, and
conversely, heat must be subtracted to reverse the change, i.e.
to condense a vapour or freeze a liquid. The quantity required
for any given change depends on the nature of the substance
and the change considered, and varies to some extent with the
conditions (as to pressure, &c.) under which the change is made,
but is always the same for the same change under the same
conditions. A rough measurement of the latent heat of steam
was made as early as 1 764 by James Watt, who found that steam
at 212 F., when passed from a kettle into a jar of cold water,
was capable of raising nearly six times its weight of water to
the boiling point. He gives the volume of the steam as about
1800 times that of an equal weight of water.
The phenomena which accompany change of state, and the
physical laws by which such changes are governed, are discussed
in a series of special articles dealing with particular cases. The
articles on FUSION and ALLOYS deal with the change from the
solid to the liquid state, and the analogous case of solution is dis-
cussed in the article on SOLUTION. The articles on CONDENSATION
OF GASES, LIQUID GASES and VAPORIZATION deal with the theory
of the change of state from liquid to vapour, and with the important
applications of liquid gases to other researches. The methods of
measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization are described in
the article CALORIMETRY, and need not be further discussed here
except as an introduction to the history of the evolution of knowledge
with regard to the nature of heat.
5. Calorimetry by Latent Heat. In principle, the simplest
and most direct method of measuring quantities of heat consists
in observing the effects produced in melting a solid or vaporizing
a liquid. It was, in fact, by the fusion of ice that quantities
of heat were first measured. If a hot body is placed in a cavity
in a block of ice at o C., and is covered by a closely fitting slab
of ice, the quantity of ice melted will be directly proportional to
the quantity of heat lost by the body in cooling to o C. None
of the heat can possibly escape through the ice, and conversely
no heat can possibly get in from outside. The body must cool
exactly to o C., and every fraction of the heat it loses must melt
an equivalent quantity of ice. Apart from heat lost in trans-
ferring the heated body to the ice block, the method is theoretic-
ally perfect. The only difficulty consists in the practical
measurement of the quantity of ice melted. Black estimated this
quantity by mopping out the cavity with a sponge before and
after the operation. But there is a variable film of water adhering
to the walls of the cavity, which gives trouble in accurate work.
In 1780 Laplace and Lavoisier used a double-walled metallic
vessel containing broken ice, which was in many respects more
convenient than the block, but aggravated the difficulty of the
film of water adhering to the ice. In spite of this practical
difficulty, the quantity of heat required to melt unit weight of
ice was for a long time taken as the unit of heat. This unit
possesses the great advantage that it is independent of the scale
of temperature adopted. At a much later date R. Bunsen
(Phil. Mag., 1871), adopting a suggestion of Sir John Herschel's,
devised an ice-calorimeter suitable for measuring small quan-
tities of heat, in which the difficulty of the water film was over-
come by measuring the change in volume due to the melting of
the ice. The volume of unit mass of ice is approximately 1-0920
times that of unit mass of water, so that the diminution of volume
WATT'S INDICATOR DIAGRAM]
HEAT
137
is 0-092 of a cubic centimetre for each gramme of ice melted.
The method requires careful attention to details of manipulation,
which are more fully discussed in the article on CALORIMETRY.
For measuring large quantities of heat, such as those produced
by the combustion of fuel in a boiler, the most convenient method
is the evaporation of water, which is commonly employed by
engineers for the purpose. The natural unit in this case is the
quantity of heat required to evaporate unit mass of water at the
boiling point under atmospheric pressure. In boilers working at
a higher pressure, or supplied with water at a lower temperature,
appropriate corrections are applied to deduce the quantity
evaporated in terms of this unit.
For laboratory work on a small scale the converse method of
condensation has been successfully applied by John Joly, in
whose steam-calorimeter the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of a body from the atmospheric temperature
to that of steam condensing at atmospheric pressure is observed
by weighing the mass of steam condensed on it. (See CALORI-
METRY.)
6. Thermometric Calorimetry.FoT the majority of purposes
the most convenient and the most readily applicable method
of measuring quantities of heat, is to observe the rise of tem-
perature produced in a known mass of water contained in a
suitable vessel or calorimeter. This method was employed from
a very early date by Count Rumford and other investigators,
and was brought to a high pitch of perfection by Regnault in his
extensive calorimetric researches (M6moires de I'lnstitut de Paris,
1847); but it is only within comparatively recent years that it
has really been placed on a satisfactory basis by the accurate
definition of the units involved. The theoretical objections to
the method, as compared with latent heat calorimetry, are that
some heat is necessarily lost by the calorimeter when its tem-
perature is raised above that of the surroundings, and that some
heat is used in heating the vessel containing the water. These are
small corrections, which can be estimated with considerable
accuracy in practice. A more serious difficulty, which has
impaired the value of much careful work by this method, is that
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a given
mass of water i C. depends on the temperature at which the
water is taken, and also on the scale of the thermometer employed.
It is for this reason, in many cases, impossible to say, at the
present time, what was the precise value, within % or even i %
of the heat unit, in terms of which many of the older results,
such as those of Regnault, were expressed. For many purposes
this would not be a serious matter, but for work of scientific
precision such a limitation of accuracy would constitute a very
serious bar to progress. The unit generally adopted for scientific
purposes is the quantity of heat required to raise i gram (or
kilogram) of water i C., and is called the calorie (or kilo-calorie).
English engineers usually state results in terms of the British
Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.), which is the quantity of heat required
to raise i Ib of water i F.
7. Watt's Indicator Diagram; Work of Expansion. The
rapid development of the steam-engine (q.v.) in England during
the latter part of the i8th century had a marked effect on the
progress of the science of heat. In the first steam-engines the
working cylinder served both as boiler and condenser, a very
wasteful method, as most of the heat was transferred directly
from the fire to the condensing water without useful effect.
The first improvement (about 1700) was to use a separate boiler,
but the greater part of the steam supplied was still wasted in
reheating the cylinder, which had been cooled by the injection
of cold water to condense the steam after the previous stroke.
In 1769 James Watt showed how to avoid this waste by using
a separate condenser and keeping the cylinder as hot as possible.
In his earlier engines the steam at full boiler pressure was
allowed to raise the piston through nearly the whole of its stroke.
Connexion with the boiler was then cut off, and the steam at
full pressure was discharged into the condenser. Here again
there was unnecessary waste, as the steam was still capable of
doing useful work. He subsequently introduced " expansive
working," which effected still further economy. The connexion
with the boiler was cut off when a fraction only, say }, of the
stroke had been completed, the remainder of 'the stroke being
effected by the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder
with continually diminishing pressure. By the end of the stroke,
when connexion was made to the condenser, the pressure was
so reduced that there was comparatively little waste from this
cause. Watt also devised an instrument called an indicator
(see STEAM ENGINE), in which a pencil, moved up and down
vertically by the steam pressure, recorded the pressure in the
cylinder at every point of the stroke on a sheet of paper moving
horizontally in time with the stroke of the piston. The diagram
thus obtained made it possible to study what was happening
inside the cylinder, and to deduce the work done by the steam
in each stroke. The method of the indicator diagram has since
proved of great utility in physics in studying the properties of
gases and vapours. The work done, or the useful effect obtained
from an engine or any kind of machine, is measured by the
product of the resistance overcome and the distance through
which it is overcome. The result is generally expressed in terms
of the equivalent weight raised through a certain height against
the force of gravity. 1 If, for instance, the pressure on a piston
1 Units of Work, Energy and Power. In English-speaking countries
work is generally measured in foot-pounds. Elsewhere it is generally
measured in kilogrammetres, or in terms of the work done in raising
I kilogramme weight through the height of I metre. In the middle
of the i gth century the terms " force " and " motive power " were
commonly employed in the sense of " power of doing work." The
term " energy " is now employed in this sense. A quantity of
energy is measured by the work it is capable of performing. A
body may possess energy in virtue of its state (gas or steam under
pressure), or in virtue of its position (a raised weight), or in various
other ways, when at rest. In these cases it is said to possess potential
energy. It may also possess energy in virtue of its motion or rotation
(as a fly-wheel or a cannon-ball). In this case it is said to possess
kinetic energy, or energy of motion. In many cases the energy (as
in the case of a vibrating body, like a pendulum) is partly kinetic
and partly potential, and changes continually from one to the other
throughout the motion. For instance, the energy of a pendulum
is wholly potential when it is momentarily at rest at the top of its
swing, but is wholly kinetic when the pendulum is moving with its
maximum velocity at the lowest point of its swing. The whole
energy at any moment is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy,
and this sum remains constant so long as the amplitude of the
vibration remains the same. The potential energy of a weight W Ib
raised to a height h ft. above the earth, is ~Wh foot-pounds. If
allowed to fall freely, without doing work, its kinetic energy on
reaching the earth would be W/f foot-pounds, and its velocity of
motion would be such that if projected upwards with the same
velocity it would rise to the height h from which it fell. We have
here a simple and familiar case of the conversion of one kind of energy
into a different kind. But the two kinds of energy are mechanically
equivalent, and they can both be measured in terms of the same
units. The units already considered, namely foot-pounds or kilo-
grammetres, are gravitational units, depending on the force of gravity.
This is the most obvious and natural method of measuring the
potential energy of a raised weight, but it has the disadvantage of
varying with the force of gravity at different places. The natural
measure of the kinetic energy of a moving body is the product of
its mass by half the square of its velocity, which gives a measure
in kinetic or absolute units independent of the force of gravity.
Kinetic and gravitational units are merely different ways of measur-
ing the same thing. Just as foot-pounds may be reduced to kilo-
grammetres by dividing by the number of foot-pounds in one kilo-
grammetre, so kinetic may be reduced to gravitational units by
dividing by the kinetic measure of the intensity of gravity, namely,
the work in kinetic units done by the weight of unit mass acting
through unit distance. For scientific purposes, it is necessary to
take account of the variation of gravity. The scientific unit of
energy is called the erg. The erg is the kinetic energy of a mass
of 2 gm. moving with a velocity of I cm. per sec. The work in
ergs done by a force acting through a distance of I cm. is the absolute
measure of the force. A force equal to the weight of I gm. (in
England) acting through a distance of I cm. does 981 ergs of work.
A force equal to the weight of 1000 gm. (i kilogramme) acting
through a distance of I metre (too cm.) does 98' I million ergs of
work. As the erg is a very small unit, for many purposes, a unit
equal to 10 million ergs, called a joule, is employed. In England,
where the weight of I gm. is 981 ergs per cm., a foot-pound is equal
to 1-356 joules, and a kilogrammetre is equal to 9-81 joules.
The term power is now generally restricted to mean " rate of work-
ing." Watt estimated that an average horse was capable of raising
550 Ib I ft. in each second, or doing work at the rate of 550 foot-
pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. This con-
ventional horse-power is the unit commonly employed for estimating
i 3 8
HEAT
[NATURE OF HEAT
is 50 ft per sq. in., and the area of the piston is 100 sq. in., the
force on the piston is 5000 Ib weight. If the stroke of the piston
is i ft., the work done per stroke is capable of raising a
weight of 5000 Ib through a height of i ft., or 50 Ib through a
height of 100 ft. and so on.
Fig. 3 represents an imaginary indicator diagram for a steam-
engine, taken from one of Watt s patents. Steam is admitted to
the cylinder when the piston is at the beginning of its stroke, at S.
ST represents the length of the stroke or the limit of horizontal
movement of the paper on which the diagram is drawn. The indicat-
ing pencil rises to the point A, representing the absolute pressure of
60 ft per sq. in. As the piston moves outwards the pencil traces
Ul
i
(0
V)
70
fl60
.50
~40
in 30
20
o.
Line
3
"SI 2 F 3 4 5 6 7 8 T
FIG. 3. Watt's Indicator Diagram. Patent of 1782.
the horizontal line AB, the pressure remaining constant till the point
B is reached, at which connexion to the boiler is cut off. The work
done so far is represented by the area of the rectangle ABSF, namely
AS X SF, multiplied by the area of the piston in sq. in. The
result is in foot-pounds if the fraction of the stroke SF is taken in
feet. After cut-off at B the steam expands under diminishing
pressure, and the pencil falls gradually from B to C, following the
steam pressure until the exhaust valve opens at the end of the stroke.
The pressure then falls rapidly to that of the condenser, which for
an ideal case may be taken as zero, following Watt. The work
done during expansion is found by dividing the remainder of the
stroke FT into a number of equal parts (say 8, Watt takes 20) and
measuring the pressure at the points i, 2, 3, 4, &c., corresponding
to the middle of each. We thus obtain a number of small rectangles,
the sum of which is evidently very nearly equal to the whole area
BCTF under the expansion curve, or to the remainder of the stroke
FT multiplied by the average or mean value of the pressure. The
whole work done in the forward stroke is represented by the area
ABCTSA, or by the average value of the pressure P over the whole
stroke multiplied by the stroke L. This area must be multiplied
by the area of the piston A in sq. in. as before, to get the
work done per stroke in foot-pounds, which is PLA. If the engine
repeats this cycle N times per minute, the work done per minute is
PLAN foot-pounds, which is reduced to horse-power by dividing
by 33,000. If the steam is ejected by the piston at atmospheric
pressure (15 ft per sq. in.) instead of being condensed at zero pressure,
the area COST under the atmospheric line CD, representing work
done against back-pressure on the return stroke must be subtracted.
If the engine repeats the same cycle or series of operations continu-
ously, the indicator diagram will be a closed curve, and the nett
work done per cycle will be represented by the included area, what-
ever the form of the curve.
8. Thermal Efficiency. The thermal efficiency of an engine
is the ratio of the work done by the engine to the heat supplied
to it. According to Watt's observations, confirmed later by
Clement and Desormes, the total heat required to produce
i Ib of saturated steam at any temperature from water at
o C. was approximately 650 times the quantity of heat required
to raise i Ib of water i C. Since i Ib of steam represented
on this assumption a certain quantity of heat, the efficiency
could be measured naturally in foot-pounds of work obtainable
per Ib of steam, or conversely in pounds of steam consumed
per horse-power-hour.
In his patent of 1782 Watt gives the following example of the
improvement in thermal efficiency obtained by expansive work-
the power of engines. The horse-power-hour, or the work done by one
horse-power in one hour, is nearly 2 million foot-pounds. For electrical
and scientific purposes the unit of power employed is called the watt.
The watt is the work per second done by an electromotive force of
i volt in driving a current of I ampere, and is equal to 10 million
ergs or I joule per second. One horse-power is 746 watts or nearly
f of a kilowatt. The kilowatt-hour, which is the unit by which
electrical energy is sold, is 3-6 million joules or 2-65 million foot-
pounds, or 366,000 kilogrammetres, and is capable of raising nearly
19 ft of water from the freezing to the boiling point.
ing. Taking the diagram already given, if the quantity of steam
represented by AB, or 300 cub. in. at 60 Ib pressure, were em-
ployed without expansion, the work realized, represented by the
area ABSF, would be 6000/4 = 1 500 foot-pounds. With expansion
to 4 times its original volume, as shown in the diagram by the
whole area ABCTSA, the mean pressure (as calculated by Watt,
assuming Boyle's law) would be 0-58 of the original pressure,
and the work done would be 6000X0-58 = 3480 foot-pounds for
the same quantity of steam, or the thermal efficiency would be
2-32 times greater. The advantage actually obtained would not
be so great as this, on account of losses by condensation, back-
pressure, &c., which are neglected in Watt's calculation, but the
margin would still be very considerable. Three hundred cub.
in. of steam at 60 Ib pressure would represent about -0245 of
i Ib of steam, or 28-7 B.Th.U., so that, neglecting all losses,
the possible thermal efficiency attainable with steam at this
pressure and four expansions ( j cut-off) would be 3480/28 7 , or 121
foot-pounds per B.Th.U. At a later date, about i82o,it was usual
to include the efficiency of the boiler with that of the engine,
and to reckon the efficiency or " duty " in foot-pounds per bushel
or cwt. of coal. The best Cornish pumping-engines of that date
achieved about 70 million foot-pounds per cwt., or consumed
about 3-2 Ib per horse-power-hour, which is roughly equivalent to
43 foot-pounds per B.Th.U. The efficiency gradually increased
as higher pressures were used, with more complete expansion,
but the conditions upon which the efficiency depended were
not fully worked out till a much later date. Much additional
knowledge with regard to the nature of heat, and the properties
of gases and vapours, was required before the problem could
be attacked theoretically.
9. Of the Nature of Heat. In the early days of the science it
was natural to ascribe the manifestations of heat to the action
of a subtle imponderable fluid called " caloric," with the power
of penetrating, expanding and dissolving bodies, or dissipating
them in vapour. The fluid was imponderable, because the most
careful experiments failed to show that heat produced any in-
crease in weight. The opposite property of levitation was often
ascribed to heat, but it was shown by more cautious investigators
that the apparent loss of weight due to heating was to be attri-
buted to evaporation or to upward air currents. The funda-
mental idea of an imaginary fluid to represent heat was useful
as helping the mind to a conception of something remaining
invariable in quantity through many transformations, but in
some respects the analogy was misleading, and tended greatly
to retard the progress of science. The caloric theory was very
simple in its application to the majority of calorimetric ex-
periments, and gave a fair account of the elementary phenomena
of change of state, but it encountered serious difficulties in
explaining the production of heat by friction, or the changes
of temperature accompanying the compression or expansion
of a gas. The explanation which the calorists offered of the
production of heat by friction or compression was that some
of the latent caloric was squeezed or ground out of the bodies
concerned and became " sensible." In the case of heat developed
by friction, they supposed that the abraded portions of the
material were capable of holding a smaller quantity of heat,
or had less " capacity for heat," than the original material.
From a logical point of view, this was a perfectly tenable
hypothesis, and one difficult to refute. It was easy to account
in this way for the heat produced in boring cannon and similar
operations, where the amount of abraded material was large.
To refute this explanation, Rumford (Phil. Trans., 1798) made
his celebrated experiments with a blunt borer, in one of
which he succeeded in boiling by friction 26-5 ft of cold
water in 2\ hours, with the production of only 4145 grains
of metallic powder. He then showed by experiment that the
metallic powder required the same amount of heat to raise its
temperature i, as an equal weight of the original metal, or that
its " capacity for heat " (in this sense) was unaltered by reducing
it to powder; and he argued that " in any case so small a
quantity of powder could not possibly account for all the heat
generated, that the supply of heat appeared to be inexhaustible.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF GASES]
HEAT
and that heat could not be a material substance, but must be
something of the nature of motion." Unfortunately Rumford's
argument was not quite conclusive. The supporters of the
caloric theory appear, whether consciously or unconsciously,
to have used the phrase " capacity for heat" in two entirely
distinct senses without any clear definition of the difference.
The phrase " capacity for heat " might very naturally denote
the total quantity of heat contained in a body, which we have
no means of measuring, but it was generally used to signify the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body
one degree, which is quite a different thing, and has no necessary
relation to the total heat. In proving that the powder and the
solid metal required the same quantity of heat to raise the
temperature of equal masses of either one degree, Rumford
did not prove that they contained equal quantities of heat,
which was the real point at issue in this instance. The metal
tin actually changes into powder below a certain temperature,
and in so doing evolves a measurable quantity of heat. A
mixture of the gases oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions
in which they combine to form water, evolves when burnt
sufficient heat to raise more than thirty times its weight of water
from the freezing to the boiling point; and the mixture of gases
may, in this sense, be said to contain so much more heat than
the water, although its capacity for heat in the ordinary sense
is only about half that of the water produced. To complete
the refutation of the calorists' explanation of the heat produced
by friction, it would have been necessary for Rumford to show
that the powder when reconverted into ths same state as the
solid metal did not absorb a quantity of heat equivalent to that
evolved in the grinding; in other words that the heat produced
by friction was not simply that due to the change of state of
the metal from solid to powder.
Shortly afterwards, in 1799, Davy 1 described an experiment
in which he melted ice by rubbing two blocks together. This
experiment afforded a very direct refutation of the calorists'
view, because it was a well-known fact that ice required to have
a quantity of heat added to it to convert it into water, so that
the water produced by the friction contained more heat than the
ice. In stating as the conclusion to be drawn from this experi-
ment that " friction consequently does not diminish the capacity
of bodies for heat," Davy apparently uses the phrase capacity
for heat in the sense of total heat contained in a body, because
in a later section of the same essay he definitely gives the phrase
this meaning, and uses the term " capability of temperature " to
denote what we now term capacity for heat.
The delay in the overthrow of the caloric theory, and in the
acceptance of the view that heat is a mode of motion, was no
doubt partly due to some fundamental confusion of ideas in the
use of the term " capacity for heat " and similar phrases. A
still greater obstacle lay in the comparative vagueness of the
motion or vibration theory. Davy speaks of heat as being
" repulsive motion," and distinguishes it from light, which is
" projective motion "; though heat is certainly not a substance
according to Davy in the essay under discussion and may not
even be treated as an imponderable fluid, light as certainly-w a
material substance, and is capable of forming chemical com-
pounds with ordinary matter, such as oxygen gas, which is not a
simple substance, but a compound, termed phosoxygen, of light
and oxygen. Accepting the conclusions of Davy and Rumford
that heat is not a material substance but a mode of motion,
there still remains the question, what definite conception is to be
attached to a quantity of heat? What do we mean by a quantity
of vibratory motion, how is the quantity of motion to be esti-
mated, and why should it remain invariable in many trans-
formations? The idea that heat was a " mode of motion "
was applicable as a qualitative explanation of many of the
effects of heat, but it lacked the quantitative precision of a
scientific statement, and could not be applied to the calculation
and prediction of definite results. The state of science at the
time of Rumford's and Davy's experiments did not admit of a
1 In an essay on " Heat, Light, and Combinations of Light,"
republished in Sir H. Davy's Collected Works, ii. (London, 1836).
more exact generalization. The way was paved in the first
instance by a more complete study of the laws of gases, to which
Laplace, Dalton, Gay-Lussac, Dulong and many others contri-
buted both on the experimental and theoretical side. Although
the development proceeded simultaneously along many parallel
lines, it is interesting and instructive to take the investigation
of the properties of gases, and to endeavour to trace the steps
by which the true theory was finally attained.
10. Thermal Properties of Cases. The most characteristic
property of a gaseous or elastic fluid, namely, the elasticity, or
resistance to compression, was first investigated scientifically
by Robert Boyle (1662), who showed that the pressure p of a
given mass of gas varied inversely as the volume v, provided that
the temperature remained constant. This is generally expressed
by the formula pv=C, where C is a constant for any given
temperature, and v is taken to represent the specific volume, or
the volume of unit mass, of the gas at the given pressure
and temperature. Boyle was well aware of the effect of heat
in expanding a gas, but he was unable to investigate this properly
as no thermometric scale had been defined at that date. Accord-
ing to Boyle's law, when a mass of gas is compressed by a small
amount at constant temperature, the percentage increase of
pressure is equal to the percentage diminution of volume (if the
compression is v/ioo, the increase of pressure is very nearly
/>/ioo). Adopting this law, Newton showed, by a most ingenious
piece of reasoning (Principia, ii., sect. 8), that the velocity of
sound in air should be equal to the velocity acquired by a body
falling under gravity through a distance equal to half the height
of the atmosphere, considered as being of uniform density equal
to that at the surface of the earth. This gave the result 918 ft.
per sec. (280 metres per sec.) for the velocity at the freezing
point. Newton was aware that the actual velocity of sound was
somewhat greater than this, but supposed that the difference
might be due in some way to the size of the air particles, of which
no account could be taken in the calculation. The first accurate
measurement of the velocity of sound by the French Academic
des Sciences in 1738 gave the value 332 metres per sec. as the
velocity at o C. The true explanation of the discrepancy was
not discovered till nearly 100 years later.
The law of expansion of gases with change of temperature was
investigated by Dalton and Gay-Lussac (1802), who found that
the volume of a gas under constant pressure increased by 1/2671!!
part of its volume at o C. for each i C. rise in temperature.
This value was generally assumed in all calculations for nearly
50 years. More exact researches, especially those of Regnault,
at a later date, showed that the law was very nearly correct for
all permanent gases, but that the value of the coefficient should
be T7~s r d- According to this law the volume of a gas at any
temperature f C. should be proportional to 273+^, i.e. to the
temperature reckoned from a zero 273 below that of the
Centigrade scale, which was called the absolute zero of the gas
thermometer. If T= 273+^, denotes the temperature measured
from this zero, the law of expansion of a gas may be combined
with Boyle's law in the simple formula
which is generally taken as the expression of the gaseous laws.
If equal volumes of different gases are taken at the same tempera-
ture and pressure, it follows that the constant R is the same for
all gases. If equal masses are taken, the value of the constant R
for different gases varies inversely as the molecular weight or as
the density relative to hydrogen.
Dalton also investigated the laws of vapours, and of mixtures
of gases and vapours. He found that condensible vapours
approximately followed Boyle's law when compressed, until the
condensation pressure was reached, at which the vapour lique-
fied without further increase of pressure. He found that when a
liquid was introduced into a closed space, and allowed to evaporate
until the space was saturated with the vapour and evaporation
ceased, the increase of pressure in the space was equal to the
condensation pressure of the vapour, and did not depend on the
volume of the space or the presence of any other gas or vapour
140
HEAT
[SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES
provided that there was no solution or chemical action. He
showed that the condensation or saturation-pressure of a vapour
depended only on the temperature, and increased by nearly the
same fraction of itself per degree rise of temperature, and that
the pressures of different vapours were nearly the same at equal
distances from their boiling points. The increase of pressure
per degree C. at the boiling point was about -j^th of 760 mm. or
27-2 mm., but increased in geometrical progression with rise of
temperature. These results of Dalton's were confirmed, and in
part corrected, as regards increase of vapour-pressure, by Gay-
Lussac, Dulong, Regnault and other investigators, but were found
to be as close an approximation to the truth as could be obtained
with such simple expressions. More accurate empirical ex-
pressions for the increase of vapour-pressure of a liquid with
temperature were soon obtained by Thomas Young, J. P. L. A.
Roche and others, but the explanation of the relation was not
arrived at until a much later date (see VAPORIZATION).
1 1 . Specific Heats of Gases. In order to estimate the quantities
of heat concerned in experiments with gases, it was necessary
in the first instance to measure their specific heats, which pre-
sented formidable difficulties. The earlier attempts by Lavoisier
and others, employing the ordinary methods of calorimetry,
gave very uncertain and discordant results, which were not
regarded with any confidence even by the experimentalists
themselves. Gay-Lussac (Memoires d'Arcueil, 1807) devised
an ingenious experiment, which, though misinterpreted at the
time, is very interesting and instructive. With the object of
comparing the specific heats of different gases, he took two equal
globes A and B connected by a tube with a stop-cock. The globe
B was exhausted, the other A being filled with gas. On opening
the tap between the vessels, the gas flowed from A to B and the
pressure was rapidly equalized. He observed that the fall of
temperature in A was nearly equal to the rise of temperature in
B, and that for the same initial pressure the change of tempera-
ture was very nearly the same for all the gases he tried, except
hydrogen, which showed greater changes of temperature than
other gases. He concluded from this experiment that equal
volumes of gases had the same capacity for heat, except hydrogen,
which he supposed to have a Jarger capacity, because it showed
a greater effect. The method does not in reality afford any
direct information with regard to the specific heats, and the
conclusion with regard to hydrogen is evidently wrong. At
a later date (Ann. de Chim., 1812, 81, p. 98) Gay-Lussac adopted
A. Crawford's method of mixture, allowing two equal streams
of different gases, one heated and the other cooled about 20 C.,
to mix in a tube containing a thermometer. The resulting
temperature was in all cases nearly the mean of the two, from
which he concluded that equal volumes of all the gases tried,
namely, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, air, oxygen and nitrogen,
had the same thermal capacity. This was correct, except as
regards carbon dioxide, but did not give any information as to
the actual specific heats referred to water or any known substance.
About the same time, F. Delaroche and J. E. Berard (Ann. de
chim., 1813, 85, p. 72) made direct determinations of the specific
heats of air, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide and ethylene, by passing a stream of gas heated
to nearly 100 C. through a spiral tube in a calorimeter containing
water. Their work was a great advance on previous attempts,
and gave the first trustworthy results. With the exception of
hydrogen, which presents peculiar difficulties, they found that
equal volumes of the permanent gases, air, oxygen and carbon
monoxide, had nearly the same thermal capacity, but that the
compound condensible gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide
and ethylene, had larger thermal capacities in the order given.
They were unable to state whether the specific heats of the gases
increased or diminished with temperature, but from experiments
on air at pressures of 740 mm. and 1000 mm., they found the
specific heats to be -269 and -245 respectively, and concluded
that the specific heat diminished with increase of pressure.
The difference they observed was really due to errors of experi-
ment, but they regarded it as proving beyond doubt the truth
of the calorists' contention that the heat disengaged on the
compression of a gas was due to the diminution of its thermal
capacity.
Dalton and others had endeavoured to measure directly the
rise of temperature produced by the compression of a gas.
Dalton had observed a rise of 50 F. in a gas when suddenly com-
pressed to half its volume, but no thermometers at that time
were sufficiently sensitive to indicate more than a fraction of
the change of temperature. Laplace was the first to see in this
phenomenon the probable explanation of the discrepancy between
Newton's calculation of the velocity of sound and the observed
value. The increase of pressure due to a sudden compression,
in which no heat was allowed to escape, or as we now call it an
" adiabatic " compression, would necessarily be greater than the
increase of pressure in a slow isothermal compression, on account
of the rise of temperature. As the rapid compressions and
rarefactions occurring in the propagation of a sound wave were
perfectly adiabatic, it was necessary to take account of the rise
of temperature due to compression in calculating the velocity.
To reconcile the observed and calculated values of the velocity,
the increase of pressure in adiabatic compression must be 1-410
times greater than in isothermal compression. This is the ratio
of the adiabatic elasticity of air to the isothermal elasticity.
It was a long time, however, before Laplace saw his way to any
direct experimental verification of the value of this ratio. At
a later date (Ann. de chim., 1816, 3, p. 238) he stated that he
had succeeded in proving that the ratio in question must be the
same as the ratio of the specific heat of air at constant pressure
to the specific heat at constant volume.
In the method of measuring the specific heat adopted by Delaroche
and Berard, the gas under experiment,, while passing through a tube
at practically constant pressure, contracts in cooling, as it gives up
its heat to the calorimeter. Part of the heat surrendered to the
calorimeter is due to the contraction of volume. If a gramme of
gas at pressure p, volume v and temperature T abs. is heated I C.
at constant pressure p, it absorbs a quantity of heat S = -238 calorie
(according to Regnault) the specific heat at constant pressure. At
the same time the gas expands by a fraction I/T of v, which is the
same as 1/273 f its volume at o C. If now the air is suddenly
compressed by an amount ti/T, it will be restored to its original
volume, and its temperature will be raised by the liberation of a
quantity of heat R', the latent heat of expansion for an increase of
volume zi/T. If no heat has been allowed to escape, the air will now
be in the same state as if a quantity of heat S had been communicated
to it at its original volume v without expansion. The rise of tempera-
ture above the original temperature T will be S/j degrees, where s
is the specific heat at constant volume, which is obviously equal to
S-R'. Since p/T is the increase of pressure for iC. rise of tempera-
ture at constant volume, the increase of pressure for a rise of S/j
degrees will be yp/T, where 7 is the ratio S/s. But this is the rise
of pressure produced by a sudden compression ti/T, and is seen to be
y times the rise of pressure p/T produced by the same compression
at constant temperature. The ratio of the adiabatic to the iso-
thermal elasticity, required for calculating the velocity of sound, is
therefore the same as the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure
to that at constant volume.
12. Experimental Verification of the Ratio of Specific Heats. This
was a most interesting and- important theoretical relation to dis-
cover, but unfortunately it did not help much in the determination
of the ratio required, because it was not practically possible at that
time to measure the specific heat of air at constant volume in a
closed vessel. Attempts had been made to do this, but they had
signally failed, on account of the small heat capacity of the gas as
compared with the containing vessel. Laplace endeavoured to
extract some confirmation of his views from the values given by
Delaroche and Beiard for the specific heat of air at 1000 and 740
mm. pressure. On the assumption that the quantities of heat con-
tained in a given mass of air increased in direct proportion to its
volume when heated at constant pressure, he deduced, by some rather
obscure reasoning, that the ratio of the specific heats S and J should
be about 1-5 to I, which he regarded as a fairly satisfactory agree-
ment with the value 7 = 1-41 deduced from the velocity of sound.
The ratio of the specific heats could not be directly measured,
but a few years later, Clement and DSsormes (Journ. de Phys., Nov.
1819) succeeded in making a direct measurement of the ratio of
the elasticities in a very simple manner. They took a large globe
containing air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, and re-
moved a small quantity of air. They then observed the defect of
pressure pt> when the air had regained its original temperature.
By suddenly opening the globe, and immediately closing it, the
pressure was restored almost instantaneously to the atmospheric,
the rise of pressure pa corresponding to the sudden compression
produced. The air, having been heated by the compression, was
CARNOT'S AXIOM]
HEAT
141
allowed to regain its original temperature, the tap remaining closed,
and the final defect of pressure p l was noted. The change of pressure
for the same compression performed isothermally is then p<,p l .
The ratio poKpo p 1 ) is the ratio of the adiabatic and isothermal
elasticities, provided that p, is small compared with the whole atmo-
spheric pressure. In this way they found the ratio 1-354, which is
not much smaller than the value 1-410 required to reconcile the
observed and calculated values of the velocity of sound. Gay-
Lussac and J. J. Welter (Ann. de Mm., 1822) repeated the experi-
ment with slight improvements, using expansion instead of com-
pression, and found the ratio 1-375. The experiment has often been
repeated since that time, and there is no doubt that the value of the
ratio deduced from the velocity of sound is correct, the defect of the
value obtained by direct experiment being due to the fact that the
compression or expansion is not perfectly adiabatic. Gay-Lussac
and Welter found the ratio practically constant for a range of pressure
144 to 1460 mm., and for a range of temperature from 20 to
+40 C. The velocity of sound at Quito, at a pressure of 544 mm.
was found to be the same as at Paris at 760 mm. at the same tempera-
ture. Assuming on this evidence the constancy of the ratio of the
specific heats of. air, Laplace (Mecanigue celeste, v. 143) showed
that, if the specific heat at constant pressure was independent of
the temperature, the specific heat per unit volume at a pressure p
must vary as pi, according to the caloric theory. The specific
i
heat per unit mass must then vary as pi IF which he found agreed
precisely with the experiment of Delaroche and Berard already cited.
This was undoubtedly a strong confirmation of the caloric theory.
Poisson by the same assumptions (Ann. de Mm., 1823, 23, p. 337)
obtained the same results, and also showed that the relation between
the pressure and the volume of a gas in adiabatic compression or
expansion must be of the form pa 1 = constant.
P. L. Dulong (Ann. de Mm., 1829, 41, p. 156), adopting a method
due to E. F. F. Chladni, compared the velocities of sound in different
gases by observing the pitch of the note given by the same tube
when filled with the gases in question. He thus obtained the values
of the ratios of the elasticities or of the specific heats for the gases
employed. For oxygen, hydrogen and carbonic oxide, these ratios
were the same as for air. But for carbonic acid, nitrous oxide and
olefiant gas, the values were much smaller, showing that these gases
experienced a smaller change of temperature in compression. On
comparing his results with the values of the specific heats for the
same gases found by Delaroche and Berard, Dulong observed that
the changes of temperature for the same compression were in the
inverse ratio of the specific heats at constant volume, and deduced
the important conclusion that " Equal volumes of all gases under
the same conditions evolve on compression the same quantity of heat."
This is equivalent to the statement that the difference of the specific
heats, or the latent heat of expansion R' per I , is the same for all
gases if equal volumes are taken. Assuming the ratio y = 1-410,
and taking Delaroche and BeVard's value for the specific heat of air
at constant pressure S = -267, we have $ = 8/1-41 =-189, and the
difference of the specific heats per unit mass of air S i = R' = -O78.
Adopting Regnauit's value of the specific heat of air, namely, S = -238,
we should have S ^ = -069. This quantity represents the heat
absorbed by unit mass of air in expanding at constant temperature
T b y a fraction i/T of its volume v, or by ^ s rd of its volume o C.
If, instead of taking unit mass, we take a volume = 22-30 litres
at o C. and 760 mm. being the volume of the molecular weight of
the gas in grammes, the quantity of heat evolved by a compression
equal to v/T will be approximately 2 calories, and is the same for
all gases. The work done in this compression is pv/T = R, and is also
the same for all gases, namely, 8-3 joules. Dulong's experimental
result, therefore, shows that the heat evolved in the compression of
a gas is proportional to the work done. This result had previously
been deduced theoretically by Carnot (1824). At a later date it
was assumed by Mayer, Clausius and others, on the evidence of these
experiments, that the heat evolved was not merely proportional
to the work done, but was equivalent to it. The further experimental
evidence required to justify this assumption was first supplied by
Joule.
Latent heat of expansion R' = -069 calorie per gramme of air,
peri'C.
= 2-0 calories per gramme-molecule
of any gas.
Work done in expansion R = -287 joule per gramme of air per
iC.
= 8-3 joules per gramme-molecule
of any gas.
13. Carnal: On the Motive Power of Heat A. practical and
theoretical question of the greatest importance was first answered
by Sadi Carnot about this time in his Reflections on the Motive
Power of Heat (1824). How much motive power (defined by
Carnot as weight lifted through a certain height) can be obtained
from heat alone by means of an engine repeating a regular succes-
sion or " cycle " of operations continuously ? Is the efficiency
limited, and, if so, how is it limited ? Are other agents preferable
to steam for developing motive power from heat ? In discussing
this problem, we cannot do better than follow Carnot's reasoning
which, in its main features, could hardly be improved at the
present day.
Carnot points out that in order to obtain an answer to this
question, it is necessary to consider the essential conditions of
the process, apart from the mechanism of the engine and the
working substance or agent employed. Work cannot be said
to be produced from heat alone unless nothing but heat is supplied,
and the working substance and all parts of the engine are at
the end of the process in precisely the same state as at the
beginning. 1
Carnot's Axiom. Carnot here, and throughout his reasoning,
makes a fundamental assumption, which he states as follows:
" When a body has undergone any changes and after a certain
number of transformations is brought back identically to its
original state, considered relatively to density, temperature
and mode of aggregation, it must contain the same quantity
of heat as it contained originally." 2
Heat, according to Carnot, in the type of engine we are con-
sidering, can evidently be a cause of motive power only by virtue
of changes of volume or form produced by alternate heating and
cooling. This involves the existence of cold and hot bodies to
act as boiler and condenser, or source and sink of heat, respec-
tively. Wherever there exists a difference of temperature, it
is possible to have the production of motive power from heat;
and conversely, production of motive power, from heat alone,
is impossible without difference of temperature. In other words
the production of motive power from heat is not merely a question
of the consumption of heat, but always requires transference
of heat from hot to cold. What then are the conditions which
enable the difference of temperature to be most advantageously
employed in the production of motive power, and how much
motive power can be obtained with a given difference of tempera-
ture from a given quantity of heat?
Carnot's Rule for Maximum Effect. In order to realize the
.maximum effect, it is necessary that, in the process employed,
there should not be any direct interchange of heat between
bodies at different temperatures. Direct transference of heat
by conduction or radiation between bodies at different tempera-
tures is equivalent to wasting a difference of temperature which
might have been utilized to produce motive power. The working
substance must throughout every stage of the process be in
equilibrium with itself (i.e. at uniform temperature and pressure)
and also with external bodies, such as the boiler and condenser,
at such times as it is put in communication with them. In the
actual engine there is always some interchange of heat between
the steam and the cylinder, and some loss of heat to external
bodies. There may also be some difference of temperature
between the boiler steam and the cylinder on admission, or
between the waste steam and the condenser at release. These
differences represent losses of efficiency which may be reduced
indefinitely, at least in imagination, by suitable means, and
designers had even at that date been very successful in reducing
1 For instance a mass of compressed air, if allowed to expand in a
cylinder at the ordinary temperature, will do work, and will at the
same time absorb a quantity of heat which, as we now know, is the
thermal equivalent of the work done. But this work cannot be said
to have been produced solely from the heat absorbed in the process,
because the air at the end of the process is in a changed condition,
and could not be restored to its original state at the same temperature
without having work done upon it precisely equal to that obtained
by its expansion. The process could not be repeated indefinitely
without a continual supply of compressed air. The source of the
work in this case is work previously done in compressing the air,
and no part of the work is really generated at the expense of heat
alone, unless the compression is effected at a lower temperature than
the expansion.
1 Clausius (Pogg. Ann. 79, p. 369) and others have misinterpreted
this assumption, and have taken it to mean that the quantity of heat
required to produce any given change of state is independent of the
manner in which the change is effected, which Carnot does not here
assume.
142
HEAT
ICARNOT'S PRINCIPLE
them. All such losses are supposed to be absent in deducing the
ideal limit of efficiency, beyond which it would be impossible
to go.
14. Garnet's Description of his Ideal Cycle. Carnot first gives
a rough illustration of an incomplete cycle, using steam much in
the same way as it is employed in an ordinary steam-engine.
After expansion down to condenser pressure the steam is
completely condensed to water, and is then returned as cold water
to the hot boiler. He points out that the last step does not
conform exactly to the condition he laid down, because although
the water is restored to its initial state, there is direct passage of
heat from a hot body to a cold body in the last process. He
points out that this difficulty might be overcome by supposing
the difference of temperature small, and by employing a series
of engines, each working through a small range, to cover a finite
interval of temperature. Having established the general notions
of a perfect cycle, he proceeds to give a more exact illustration,
employing a gas as the working substance. He takes as the
basis of his demonstration the well-established experimental
fact that a gas is heated by rapid compression and cooled by
rapid expansion, and that if compressed or expanded slowly in
contact with conducting bodies, the gas will give out heat in
compression or absorb heat in expansion while its temperature
remains constant. He then goes on to say:
" This preliminary notion being settled, let us imagine an elastic
fluid, atmospheric air for example, enclosed in a cylinder abed, fig. 4,
fitted with a movaWe diaphragm or piston cd. Let there also be
two bodies A, B, each maintained at a
constant temperature, that of A being
more elevated than that of B. Let us now
suppose the following series of operations
to be performed:
" I. Contact of the body A with the air
contained in the space abed, or with the
bottom of the cylinder, which we will
suppose to transmit heat easily. The air is
now at the temperature of the body A, and
cd is the actual position of the piston.
" 2. The piston is gradually raised, and
takes the position ef. The air remains in
contact with the body A, and is thereby
maintained at a constant temperature during
the expansion. The body A furnishes the
heat necessary to maintain the constancy
of temperature.
" 3. The body A is removed, and the air
no longer being in contact with any body
capable of giving it heat, the piston con-
tinues nevertheless to rise, and passes from
the position ef to gh. The air expands
without receiving heat and its temperature
falls. Let us imagine that it falls until it
is just equal to that of the body B. At
this moment the piston is stopped and
occupies the position gh.
" 4. The air is placed in contact with the
body B; it is compressed by the return of
e
FIG. 4.
Carnot's Cylinder.
the piston, which is brought from the position gh to the position cd.
The air remains meanwhile at a constant temperature, because of its
contact with the body B to which it gives up its heat.
" 5. The body B is removed, and the compression of the air is
continued. The air being now isolated, rises in temperature. The
compression is continued until the air has acquired the temperature
of the body A. The piston passes meanwhile from the position cd
to the position ik.
" 6. The air is replaced in contact with the body A, and the
piston returns from the position ik to the position ef, the temperature
remaining invariable.
" 7. The period described under (3) is repeated, then successively
the periods (4), (5), (6) ; (3), (4), (5), (6) ; (3), (4), (5), (6) ; and so on.
" During these operations the air enclosed in the cylinder exerts
an effort more or less great on the piston. The pressure of the air
varies both on account of changes of volume and on account of changes
of temperature; but it should be observed that for equal volumes,
that is to say, for like positions of the piston, the temperature is
higher during the dilatation than during the compression.. Since the
pressure is greater during the expansion, the quantity of motive
power produced by the dilatation is greater than that consumed by
the compression. We shall thus obtain a balance of motive power,
which may be employed for any purpose. The air has served as
working substance in a heat-engine; it has also been employed in
the most advantageous manner possible, since no useless re-establish-
ment of the equilibrium of heat has been allowed to occur.
" All the operations above described may be executed in the
reverse order and direction. Let us imagine that after the sixth
period, that is to say, when the piston has reached the position ef,
we make it return to the position ik, and that at the same time we
keep the air in contact with the hot body A; the heat furnished
by this body during the sixth period will return to its source, that
is, to the body A, and everything will be as it was at the end of the
fifth period. If now we remove the body A, and if we make the piston
move from ik to cd, the temperature of the air will decrease by just
as many degrees as it increased during the fifth period, and will
become that of the body B. We can evidently continue in this way
a series of operations the exact reverse of those which were previously
described ; it suffices to place oneself in the same circumstances and
to execute for each period a movement of expansion in place of a
movement of compression, and vice versa.
" The result of the first series of operations was the production
of a certain quantity of motive power, and the transport of heat from
the body A to the body B ; the result of the reverse operations is the
consumption of the motive power produced in the first case, and the
return of heat from the body B to the body A, in such sort that these
two series of operations annul and neutralize each other.
" The impossibility of producing by the agency of heat alone a
quantity of motive power greater than that which we have obtained
in our first series of operations is now easy to prove. It is demon-
strated by reasoning exactly similar to that which we have already
given. The reasoning will have in this case a greater degree of
exactitude; the air of which we made use to develop the motive
power is brought back at the end of each cycle of operations precisely
to its initial state, whereas this was not quite exactly the case for the
vapour of water, as we have already remarked."
15. Proof of Carnot's /Vzn'/>/e. Carnot considered the proof
too obvious to be worth repeating, but, unfortunately, his
previous demonstration, referring to an incomplete cycle, is not
so exactly worded that exception cannot be taken to it. We
will therefore repeat his proof in a slightly more definite and
exact form. Suppose that a reversible engine R, working in
the cycle above described, takes a quantity of heat H from the
source in each cycle, and performs a quantity of useful work W r .
If it were possible for any other engine S, working with the same
two bodies A and B as source and refrigerator, to perform a
greater amount of useful work W, per cycle for the same quantity
of heat H taken from the source, it would suffice to take a portion
W r of this motive power (since W, is by hypothesis greater than
W r ) to drive the engine R backwards, and return a quantity of
heat H to the source in each cycle. The process might be re-
peated indefinitely, and we should obtain at each repetition a
balance of useful work W,-W r , without taking any heal from the
source, which is contrary to experience. Whether the quantity
of heat taken from the condenser by R is equal to that given to
the condenser by S is immaterial. The hot body A might be a
comparatively small boiler, since no heat is taken from it. The
cold body B might be the ocean, or the whole earth. We might
thus obtain without any consumption of fuel a practically
unlimited supply of motive power. Which is absurd.
Carnot's Statement of his Principle. 1 If the above reasoning
be admitted, we must conclude with Carnot that the motive
power obtainable from heat is independent of the agents employed
to realize it. The efficiency is fixed solely by the temperatures of the
bodies between -which, in the last resort, the transfer oj heat is
effected. " We must understand here that each of the methods
of developing motive power attains the perfection of which it
is susceptible. This condition is fulfilled if, according to our rule,
there is produced in the body no change of temperature that is
not due to change of volume, or in other words, if there is no
direct interchange of heat between bodies of sensibly different
temperatures."
It is characteristic of a state of frictionless mechanical equili-
brium that an indefinitely small difference of pressure suffices
to upset the equilibrium and reverse the motion. Similarly in
thermal equilibrium between bodies at the same temperature,
an indefinitely small difference of temperature suffices to reverse
the transfer of heat. Carnot's rule is therefore the criterion of
the reversibility of a cycle of operations as regards transfer
of heat. It is assumed that the ideal engine is mechanically
1 Carnot's description of his cycle and statement of his principle
have been given as nearly as possible in his own words, because some
injustice has been done him by erroneous descriptions and statements.
CARNOT'S FUNCTION]
HEAT
reversible, thdt there is not, for instance, any communication
between reservoirs of gas or vapour at sensibly different pressures,
and that there is no waste of power in friction. If there is
equilibrium both mechanical and thermal at every stage of the
cycle, the ideal engine will be perfectly reversible. That is to say,
all its operations will be exactly reversed as regards transfer of
heat and work, when the operations are performed in the reverse
order and direction. On this understanding Carnot's principle
may be put in a different way, which is often adopted, but is really
only the same thing put in different words: The efficiency of, a
perfectly reversible engine is the maximum possible, and is a
function solely of the limits of temperature between which it works.
This result depends essentially on the existence of a state of
thermal equilibrium denned by equality of temperature, and
independent, in the majority of cases, of the state of a body in
other respects. In order to apply the principle to the calculation
and prediction of results, it is sufficient to determine the manner
in which the efficiency depends on the temperature for one
particular case, since the efficiency must be the same for all
reversible engines.
16. Experimental Verification of Carnot's Principle. Carnot en-
deavoured to test his result by the following simple calculations.
Suppose that we have a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston,
containing I gram of water at 100 C., and that the pressure of the
steam, namely 760 mm., is in equilibrium with the external pressure
on the piston at this temperature. Place the cylinder in connexion
with a boiler or hot body at 101 C. The water will then acquire
the temperature of 101 C., and will absorb I gram-calorie of heat.
Some waste of motive power occurs here because heat is allowed to
pass from one body to another at a different temperature, but the
waste in this case is so small as to be immaterial. Keep the cylinder
in contact with the hot body at 101 C. and allow the piston to rise.
It may be made to perform useful work as the pressure is now 27-7
mm. (or 37-7 grams per sq. cm.) in excess of the external pressure.
Continue the process till all the water is converted into steam.
The heat absorbed from the hot body will be nearly 540 gram-
calories, the latent heat of steam at this temperature. The increase
of volume will be approximately 1620 c.c., the volume of I gram of
steam at this pressure and temperature. The work done by the
excess pressure will be 37-7X1620 = 61,000 gram-centimetres or
0-61 of a kilogrammetre. Remove the hot body, and allow the
steam to expand further till its pressure is 760 mm. and its tempera-
ture has fallen to 100 C. The work which might be done in this
expansion is less than jVooth part of a kilogrammetre, and may be
neglected for the present purpose. Place the cylinder in contact
with the cold body at 100 C., and allow the steam to condense at
this temperature. No work is done on the piston, because there is
equilibrium of pressure, but a quantity of heat equal to the latent
heat of steam at 100 C. is given to the cold body. The water is
now in its initial condition, and the result of the process has been to
gain 0-61 of a kilogrammetre of work by allowing 540 gram-calories
of heat to pass from a body at 101 C. to a body at 100 C. by means
of an ideally simple steam-engine. The work obtainable in this
way from 1000 gram-calories of heat, or I kilo-calorie, would evidently
be 1-13 kilogrammetre (=0-61 XV&)-
Taking the same range of temperature, namely 101 to lop C.,
we may perform a similar series of operations with air in the cylinder,
instead of water and steam. Suppose the cylinder to contain I
gramme of air at 100 C. and 760 mm. pressure instead of water.
Compress it without loss of heat (adiabatically), so as to raise its
temperature to 101 C. Place it in contact with the hot body at
ioiC., and allow it to expand at this temperature, absorbing heat
from the hot body, until its volume is increased by f^fth part (the
expansion per degree at constant pressure). The quantity of heat
absorbed in this expansion, as explained in 14, will be the difference
of the specific heats or the latent heat of expansion R' = -069 calorie.
Remove the hot body, and allow the gas to expand further without
gain of heat till its temperature falls to 100 C. Compress it at
100 C. to its original volume, abstracting the heat of compression by
contact with the cold body at 1 00 C. The air is now in its original
state, and the process has been carried out in strict accordance with
Carnot's rule. The quantity of external work done in the cycle
is easily obtained by the aid of the indicator diagram ABCD (fig. 5),
which is approximately a parallelogram in this instance. The area
of the diagram is equal to that of the rectangle BEHG, being the
product of the vertical height BE, namely, the increase of pressure
per i at constant volume, by the increase of volume BG, which is
5 J B rd of the volume at o C. and 760 mm., or 2-83 c.c. The increase
of pressure BE is ?!J, or 2-03 mm., which is equivalent to 2-76
gm. per sq. cm. The work done in the cycle is 2-76X2-83 = 7-82
gm. cm., or -0782 gram-metre. The heat absorbed at 101 C. was
069 gram-calorie, so that the work obtained is -O782/-O69 or 1-13
gram-metre per gram-calorie, or 1-13 kilogrammetre per kilogram-
calorie. This result is precisely the same as that obtained by using
steam with the same range of temperature, but a very different kind
of cycle. Carnot in making the same calculation did not obtain quite
so good an agreement, because the experimental data at that time
available were not so accurate. He used the value ffa for the
coefficient of expansion, and -267 for the specific heat of air. More-
over, he did not feel justified in assuming, as above, that the difference
of the specific heats was the
same at 100 C. as at the
ordinary temperature of
I5to 20C., at which ithad
been experimentally deter-
mined. He made similar
calculations for the vapour
of alcohol which differed
slightly from the vapour of
water. But the agreement
he found was close enough
to satisfy him that his theor-
etical deductions were cor-
rect, and that the resulting
ratio of work to heat should
be the same for all substances
at the same temperature.
17. Carnot's Function.
Variation of Efficiency with
Temperature. By means of
those given above, Carnot endeavoured
AXIS OF VOLUME
F IG. 5. Elementary Carnot Cycle
for Gas.
calculations, similar to _._
to find the amount of motive power obtainable from one unit of
heat per degree fall at various temperatures with various sub-
stances. The value found above, namely 1-13 kilogrammetre
per kilo-calorie per I fall, is the value of the efficiency per I fall at
100 C. He was able to show that the efficiency per degree fall
probably diminished with rise of temperature, but the experimental
data at that time were too inconsistent to suggest the true relation.
He took as the analytical expression of his principle that the efficiency
W/H of a perfect engine taking in heat H at a temperature t C.,
and rejecting heat at the temperature o C., must be some function
Ft of the temperature t, which would be the same for all substances.
The efficiency per degree fall at a temperature / he represented by
F't, the derived function of Ft. The function F't would be the same
for all substances at the same temperature, but would have different
values at different temperatures. In terms of this function, which
is generally known as Carnot's function, the results obtained in the
previous section might be expressed as follows :
" The increase of volume of a mixture of liquid and vapour per
unit-mass vaporized at any temperature, multiplied by the increase
of vapour-pressure per degree, is equal to the product of the function
F't by the latent heat of vaporization.
" The difference of the specific heats, or the latent heat of ex-
pansion for any substance multiplied by the function F /, is equal
to the product of the expansion per degree at constant pressure by
the increase of pressure per degree at constant volume."
Since the last two coefficients are the same for all gases it equal
volumes are taken, Carnot concluded that: " The difference of the
specific heats at constant pressure and volume is the same for equal
volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure.
Taking the expression W = RT log r for the whole work done by a
is obeying the gaseous laws pv = RT in expanding at a temperature
from a volume I (unity) to a volume r, or for a ratio of expansion
r, and putting W = R log ,r for the work done in a cycle of range I ,
Carnot obtained the expression for the heat absorbed by a gas in
isothermal expansion
H = Rlogr/F'/ . . (2)
He gives several important deductions which follow from this formula,
which is the analytical expression of the experimental result already
quoted as having been discovered subsequently by Dulong. Employ-
ing the above expression for the latent heat of expansion, Carnot
deduced a general expression for the specific heat of a gas at constant
volume on the basis of the caloric theory. He showed that if the
specific heat was independent of the temperature (the hypothesis
already adopted by Laplace and Poisson) the function F t must be
of the form
F'/ = R/C(/+fc) - (3)
where C and fc are unknown constants. A similar result follows
from his expression for the difference of the specific heats. If this is
assumed to be constant and equal to C, the expression for F't becomes
R/CT, which is the same as the above if fc = 273. Assuming the
specific heat to be also independent of the volume, he shows that the
function F't should be constant. But this assumption is inconsistent
with the caloric theory of latent heat of expansion, which requires
the specific heat to be a function of the volume. It appears in fact
impossible to reconcile Carnot's principle with the caloric theory
on any simple assumptions. As Carnot remarks: The mam prin-
ciples on which the theory of heat rests require most careful examina-
tion. Many experimental facts appear almost inexplicable in the
present state of this theory."
Carnot's work was subsequently put in a more complete
analytical form by B. P. E. Clapeyron (Journ. del'ec. polytechn.,
144
HEAT
[MECHANICAL THEORY OF HEAT
Paris, 1832, 14, p. 153), who also made use of Watt's indicator
diagram for the first time in discussing physical problems.
Clapeyron gave the general expressions for the latent heat of a
vapour, and for the latent heat of isothermal expansion of any
substance, in terms of Carnot's function, employing the notation
of the calculus. The expressions he gave are the same in form as
those in use at the present day. He also gave the general
expression for Carnot's function, and endeavoured to find its
variation with temperature; but having no better data, he
succeeded no better than Carnot. Unfortunately, in describing
Carnot's cycle, he assumed the caloric theory of heat, and made
some unnecessary mistakes, which Carnot (who, we now know,
was a believer in the mechanical theory) had been very careful
to avoid. Clapeyron directs one to compress the gas at the lower
temperature in contact with the body B until the heat disengaged
is equal to that which has been absorbed at the higher temperature. 1
He assumes that the gas at this point contains the same quantity
of heat as it contained in its original state at the higher tempera-
ture, and that, when the body B is removed, the gas will be
restored to its original temperature, when compressed to its
initial volume. This mistake is still attributed to Carnot, and
regarded as a fatal objection to his reasoning by nearly all
writers at the present day.
18. Mechanical Theory of Heat. Accordingto the caloric theory,
the heat absorbed in the expansion of a gas became latent,
like the latent heat of vaporization of a liquid, but remained
in the gas and was again evolved on compressing the gas. This
theory gave no explanation of the source of the motive power
produced by expansion. The mechanical theory had explained
the production of heat by friction as being due to transformation
of visible motion into a brisk agitation of the ultimate molecules,
but it had not so far given any definite explanation of the con-
verse production of motive power at the expense of heat. The
theory could not be regarded as complete until it had been
shown that in the production of work from heat, a certain
quantity of heat disappeared, and ceased to exist as heat; and
that this quantity was the same as that which could be generated
by the expenditure of the work produced. The earliest complete
statement of the mechanical theory from this point of view
is contained in some notes written by Carnot, about 1830, but
published by his brother (Life of Sadi Carnot, Paris, 1878).
Taking the difference of the specific heats to be -078, he estimated
the mechanical equivalent at 370 kilogrammetres. But he
fully recognized that there were no experimental data at that
time available for a quantitative test of the theory, although
it appeared to afford a good qualitative explanation of the
phenomena. He therefore planned a number of crucial experi-
ments such as the " porous plug " experiment, to test the
equivalence of heat and motive power. His early death in 1836
put a stop to these experiments, but many of them have since
been independently carried out by other observers.
The most obvious case of the production of work from heat
is in the expansion of a gas or vapour, which served in the first
instance as a means of calculating the ratio of equivalence, on
the assumption that all the heat which disappeared had been
transformed into work and had not merely become latent.
Marc Seguin, in his De I 'influence des chemins de fer (Paris,
1839), made a rough estimate in this manner of the mechanical
equivalent of heat, assuming that the loss of heat represented
by the fall of temperature of steam on expanding was equivalent
to the mechanical effect produced by the expansion. He also
remarks (loc. cit. p. 382) that it was absurd to suppose that " a
finite quantity of heat could produce an indefinite quantity of
mechanical action, and that it was more natural to assume
that a certain quantity of heat disappeared in the very act of
producing motive power." J. R. Mayer (Liebig's Annalen,
1842, 42, p. 233) stated the equivalence of heat and work more
1 It was for this reason that Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
stated (Phil. Mag., 1852, 4) that " Carnot's original demonstration
utterly fails," and that he introduced the " corrections " attributed
to James Thomson and Clerk Maxwell respectively. In reality
Carnot's original demonstration requires no correction.
definitely, deducing it from the old principle, causa aequat
efectum. Assuming that the sinking of a mercury column by
which a gas was compressed was equivalent to the heat set free
by the compression, he deduced that the warming of a kilo-
gramme of water i C. would correspond to the fall of a weight
of one kilogramme from a height of about 365 metres. But
Mayer did not adduce any fresh experimental evidence, and
made no attempt to apply his theory to the fundamental
equations of thermodynamics. It has since been urged that the
experiment of Gay-Lussac (1807), on the expansion of gas from
one globe to another (see above, n), was sufficient justification
for the assumption tacitly involved in Mayer's calculation.
But Joule was the first to supply the correct interpretation of
this experiment, and to repeat it on an adequate scale with suit-
able precautions. Joule was also the first to measure directly
the amount of heat liberated by the compression of a gas, and to
prove that heat was not merely rendered latent, but disappeared
altogether as heat, when a gas did work in expansion.
19. Joule's Determinations of the Mechanical Equivalent. The
honour of placing the mechanical theory of heat on a sound
experimental basis belongs almost exclusively to J. P. Joule,
who showed by direct experiment that in all the most important
cases in which heat was generated by the expenditure of
mechanical work, or mechanical work was produced at the
expense of heat, there was a constant ratio of equivalence
between the heat generated and the work expended and vice
versa. His first experiments were on the relation of the chemical
and electric energy expended to the heat produced in metallic
conductors and voltaic and electrolytic cells; these experiments
were described in a series of papers published in the Phil. Mag.,
1840-1843. He first proved the relation, known as Joule's
law, that the heat produced in a conductor of resistance R by
a current C is proportional to C 2 R per second. He went on to
show that the total heat produced in any voltaic circuit was
proportional to the electromotive force E of the battery and
to the number of equivalents electrolysed in it. Faraday had
shown that electromotive force depends on chemical affinity.
Joule measured the corresponding heats of combustion, and
showed that the electromotive force corresponding to a chemical
reaction is proportional to the heat of combustion of the electro-
chemical equivalent. He also measured the E.M.F. required
to decompose water, and showed that when part of the electric
energy EC is thus expended in a voltameter, the heat generated
is less than the heat of combustion corresponding to EC by a
quantity representing the heat of combustion of the decomposed
gases. His papers so far had been concerned with the relations
between electrical energy, chemical energy and heat which
he showed to be mutually equivalent. The first paper in which
he discussed the relation of heat to mechanical power was entitled
" On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and on the
Mechanical Value of Heat " (Brit. Assoc., 1843; Phil. Mag.,
23, p. 263). In this paper he showed that the heat produced
by currents generated by magneto-electric induction followed
the same law as voltaic currents. By a simple and ingenious
arrangement he succeeded in measuring the mechanical power
expended in producing the currents, and deduced the mechanical
equivalent of heat and of electrical energy. The amount of
mechanical work required to raise i ft of water i F. (i
B.Th.U.), as found by this method, was 838 foot-pounds. In
a note added to the paper he states that he found the value
770 foot-pounds by the more direct method of forcing water
through fine tubes. In a paper " On the Changes of Tempera-
ture produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation of Air " (Phil.
Mag., May 1845), he made the first direct measurements of
the quantity of heat disengaged by compressing air, and also
of the heat absorbed when the air was allowed to expand against
atmospheric pressure; as the result he deduced the value 798
foot-pounds for the mechanical equivalent of i B.Th.U. He also
showed that there was no appreciable absorption of heat when
air was allowed to expand in such a manner as not to develop
mechanical power, and he pointed out that the mechanical
equivalent of heat could not be satisfactorily deduced from
JOULE'S DETERMINATIONS]
HEAT
the relations of the specific heats, because the knowledge of
the specific heats of gases at that time was of so uncertain a
character. He attributed most weight to his later determina-
tions of the mechanical equivalent made by the direct method
of friction of liquids. He showed that the results obtained with
different liquids, water, mercury and sperm oil, were the same,
namely, 782 foot-pounds; and finally repeating the method with
water, using all the precautions and improvements which his ex-
perience had suggested, he obtained the value 772 foot-pounds,
which was accepted universally for many years, and has only
recently required alteration on account of the more exact defini-
tion of the heat unit, and the standard scale of temperature (see
CALORIMETRY). The great value of Joule's work for the general
establishment of the principle of the conservation of energy
lay in the variety and completeness of the experimental evidence
he adduced. It was not sufficient to find the relation between
heat and mechanical work or other forms of energy in one
particular case. It was necessary to show that the same relation
held in all cases which could be examined experimentally, and
that the ratio of equivalence of the different forms of energy,
measured in different ways, was independent of the manner in
which the conversion was effected and of the material or working
substance employed.
As the result of Joule's experiments, we are justified in con-
cluding that heat is a form of energy, and that all its transforma-
tions are subject to the general principle of the conservation
of energy. As applied to heat, the principle is called the first
law of thermo-dynamics, and may be stated as follows:
When heat is transformed into any other kind of energy, or vice
versa, the total quantity of energy remains invariable; that is to
say, the quantity of heat which disappears is equivalent to the
quantity of the other kind of energy produced and vice versa.
The number of units of mechanical work equivalent to one unit
of heat is generally called the mechanical equivalent of heat, or
Joule's equivalent, and is denoted by the letter J. Its numerical
value depends on the units employed for heat and mechanical
energy respectively. The values of the equivalent in terms of
the units most commonly employed at the present time are as
follows:
777 foot-pounds (Lat.45)are equivalent to i B.Th. U.(ftdeg.Fahr.)
1399 foot-pounds ,, I ft deg. C.
426-3 kilogrammetres I kilogram-deg.C. or kilo-
calorie.
426-3 grammetres ,, I gram-deg. C. or calorie.
4-180 joules I gram-deg. C. or calorie.
The water for the heat units is supposed to be taken at 20 C.
or 68 F., and the degree of temperature is supposed to be
measured by the hydrogen thermometer. The acceleration of
gravity in latitude 45 is taken as 980-7 C.G.S. For details of
more recent and accurate methods of determination, the reader
should refer to the article CALORIMETRY, where tables of the
variation of the specific heat of water with temperature are also
given.
The second law of thermodynamics is a title often used to
denote Carnot's principle or some equivalent mathematical
expression. In some cases this title is not conferred on Carnot's
principle itself, but on some axiom from which the principle
may be indirectly deduced. These axioms, however, cannot
as a rule be directly applied, so that it would appear preferable
to take Carnot's principle itself as the second law. It may be
observed that, as a matter of history, Carnot's principle was
established and generally admitted before the principle of the
conservation of energy as applied to heat, and that from this point
of view the titles, first and second laws, are not particularly
appropriate.
20. Combination of Carnot's Principle with the Mechanical
Theory. A very instructive paper, as showing the state of the
science of heat about this time, is that of C. H. A. Holtzmann,
" On the Heat and Elasticity of Gases and Vapours " (Mannheim,
1845; Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, iv. 189). He points out
that the theory of Laplace and Poisson does not agree with
facts when applied to vapours, and that Clapeyron's formulae,
though probably correct, contain an undetermined function
(Carnot's F'/, Clapeyron's i/C) of the temperature. He deter-
mines the value of this function to be J/T by assuming, with
Seguin and Mayer, that the work done in the isothermal expan-
sion of a gas is a measure of the heat absorbed. From the then
accepted value -078 of the difference of the specific heats of air,
he finds the numerical value of J to be 374 kilogrammetres per
kilo-calorie. Assuming the heat equivalent of the work to remain
in the gas, he obtains expressions similar to Clapeyron's for the
total heat and the specific heats. In consequence of this assump-
tion, the formulae he obtained for adiabatic expansion were
necessarily wrong, but no data existed at that time for testing
them. In applying his formulae to vapours, he obtained an
expression for the saturation-pressure of steam, which agreed with
the empirical formula of Roche, and satisfied other experimental
data on the supposition that the co-efficient of expansion of steam
was -00423, and its specific heat 1-69 values which are now
known to be impossible, but which appeared at the time to give
a very satisfactory explanation of the phenomena.
The essay of Hermann Helmholtz, On the Conservation of
Force (Berlin, 1847), discusses all the known cases of the trans-
formation of energy, and is justly regarded as one of the chief
landmarks in the establishment of the energy-principle. Helm-
holtz gives an admirable statement of the fundamental principle
as applied to heat, but makes no attempt to formulate the correct
equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical theory. He
points out the fallacy of Holtzmann's (and Mayer's) calculation
of the equivalent, but admits that it is supported by Joule's
experiments, though he does not seem to appreciate the true
value of Joule's work. He considers that Holtzmann's formulae
are well supported by experiment, and are much preferable to
Clapeyron's, because the value of the undetermined function
F't is found. But he fails to notice that Holtzmann's equations
are fundamentally inconsistent with the conservation of energy,
because the heat equivalent of the external work done is supposed
to remain in the gas.
That a quantity of heat equivalent to the work performed
actually disappears when a gas does work in expansion, was first
shown by Joule in the paper on condensation and rarefaction
of air (1845) already referred to. At the conclusion of this paper
he felt justified by direct experimental evidence in reasserting
definitely the hypothesis of Seguin (loc. cit. p. 383) that " the
steam while expanding in the cylinder loses heat in quantity
exactly proportional to the mechanical force developed, and that
on the condensation of the steam the heat thus converted into
power is not given back." He did not see his way to reconcile
this conclusion with Clapeyron's description of Carnot's cycle.
At a later date, in a letter to Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
(1848), he pointed out that, since, according to his own experi-
ments, the work done in the expansion of a gas at constant
temperature is equivalent to the heat absorbed, by equating
Carnot's expressions (given in 17) for the work done and the
heat absorbed, the value of Carnot's function F't must be equal to
J/T, in order to reconcile his principle with the mechanical
theory.
Professor W. Thomson gave an account of Carnot's theory
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Jan. 1849), in which he recognized the
discrepancy between Clapeyron's statement and Joule's experi-
ments, but did not see his way out of the difficulty. He there-
fore adopted Carnot's principle provisionally, and proceeded
to calculate a table of values of Carnot's function F'/, from
the values of the total-heat and vapour-pressure of steam then
recently determined by Regnault (Memoires de I'lnstitut de Paris,
1847). In making the calculation, he assumed that the specific
volume v of saturated steam at any temperature T and pressure
p is that given by the gaseous laws, />=RT. The results are
otherwise correct so far as Regnault's data are accurate, because
the values of the efficiency per degree F't are not affected by any
assumption with regard to the nature of heat. He obtained the
values of the efficiency F'/ over a finite range from I to o C., by
adding up the values of F't for the separate degrees. This latter
proceeding is inconsistent with the mechanical theory, but is the
146
HEAT
[ABSOLUTE SCALE OF TEMPERATURE
correct method on the assumption that the heat given up to the
condenser is equal to that taken from the source. The values he
obtained for F't agreed very well with those previously given by
Carnot and Clapeyron, and showed that this function diminishes
with rise of temperature roughly in the inverse ratio of T, as
suggested by Joule.
R. J. E. Clausius (Pogg. Ann., 1850, 79, p. 369) and W. J. M.
Rankine (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1850) were the first to develop
the correct equations of thermodynamics on the mechanical
theory. When heat was supplied to a body to change its tempera-
ture or state, part remained in the body as intrinsic heat energy
E, but part was converted into external work of expansion W
and ceased to exist as heat. The part remaining in the body was
always the same for the same change of state, however performed,
as required by Carnot's fundamental axiom, but the part corre-
sponding to the external work was necessarily different for
different values of the work done. Thus in any cycle in which
the body was exactly restored to its initial state, the heat
remaining in the body would always be the same, or as Carnot
puts it, the quantities of heat absorbed and given out in its
diverse transformations are exactly " compensated," so far as
the body is concerned. But the quantities of heat absorbed and
given out are not necessarily equal. On the contrary, they differ
by the equivalent of the external work done in the cycle. Apply-
ing this principle to the case of steam, Clausius deduced a fact
previously unknown, that the specific heat of steam maintained
in a state of saturation is negative, which was also deduced by
Rankine (loc. cit.) about the same time. In applying the principle
to gases Clausius assumes (with Mayer and Holtzmann) that the
heat absorbed by a gas in isothermal expansion is equivalent
to the work done, but he does not appear to be acquainted with
Joule's experiment, and the reasons he adduces in support of
this assumption are not conclusive. This being admitted, he
deduces from the energy principle alone the propositions already
given by Carnot with reference to gases, and shows in addition
that the specific heat of a perfect gas must be independent
of the density. In the second part of his paper he introduces
Carnot's principle, which he quotes as follows: " The perform-
ance of work is equivalent to a transference of heat from a hot
to a cold body without the quantity of heat being thereby
diminished." This is not Carnot's way of stating his principle
(see 15), but has the effect of exaggerating the importance of
Clapeyron's unnecessary assumption. By equating the expres-
sions given by Carnot for the work done and the heat absorbed
in the expansion of a gas, he deduces (following Holtzmann)
the value J/T for Carnot's function F't (which Clapeyron
denotes by i/C). He shows that this assumption gives values of
Carnot's function which agree fairly well with those calculated
by Clapeyron and Thomson, and that it leads to values of the
mechanical equivalent not differing greatly from those of Joule.
Substituting the value J/T for C in the analytical expressions
given by Clapeyron for the latent heat of expansion and vaporiza-
tion, these relations are immediately reduced to their modern
form (see THERMODYNAMICS, 4). Being unacquainted with
Carnot's original work, but recognizing the invalidity of
Clapeyron's description of Carnot's cycle, Clausius substituted
a proof consistent with the mechanical theory, which he based
on the axiom that " heat cannot of itself pass from cold to hot."
The proof on this basis involves the application of the energy
principle, which does not appear to be necessary, and the axiom
to which final appeal is made does not appear more convincing
than Carnot's. Strange to say, Clausius did not in this paper
give the expression for the efficiency in a Carnot cycle of finite
range (Carnot's Ft) which follows immediately from the value
J/T assumed for the efficiency F'/ of a cycle of infinitesimal range
at the temperature / C or T Abs.
Rankine did not make the same assumption as Clausius
explicitly, but applied the mechanical theory of heat to the
development of his hypothesis of molecular vortices, and deduced
from it a number of results similar to those obtained by Clausius.
Unfortunately the paper (loc. cit.) was not published till some
time later, but in a summary given in the Phil. Mag. (July 1851)
the principal results were detailed. Assuming the value of
Joule's equivalent, Rankine deduced the value 0-2404 for the
specific heat of air at constant pressure, in place of 0-267 as
found by Delaroche and Berard. The subsequent verification
of this value by Regnault (Comptes rendus, 1853) afforded strong
confirmation of the accuracy of Joule's work. In a note appended
to the abstract in the Phil. Mag. Rankine states that he has
succeeded in proving that the maximum efficiency of an engine
working in a Carnot cycle of finite range t\ to to is of the form
(t\-to)l(t\-k), where k is a constant, the same for all substances.
This is correct if t represents temperature Centigrade, and
=273.
Professor W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in a paper " On the
Dynamical Theory of Heat " (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1851,
first published in the Phil. Mag., 1852) gave a very clear state-
ment of the position of the theory at that time. He showed
that the value F'< = J/T, assumed for Carnot's function by
Clausius without any experimental justification, rested solely
on the evidence of Joule's experiment, and might possibly not
be true at all temperatures. Assuming the value J/T with this
reservation, he gave as the expression for the efficiency over a
finite range ti to t a C., or TI to To Abs., the result,
W/H = (h -M/Ci+273) = (T t -T )/T, .
(4)
which, he observed, agrees in form with that found by Rankine.
21. The Absolute Scale of Temperature. Since Carnot's
function is the same for all substances at the same temperature,
and is a function of the temperature only, it supplies a means of
measuring temperature independently of the properties of any
particular substance. This proposal was first made by Lord
Kelvin (Phil. Mag., 1848), who suggested that the degree of
temperature should be chosen so that the efficiency of a perfect
engine at any point of the scale should be the same, or that
Carnot's function F't should be constant. This would give the
simplest expression for the efficiency on the caloric theory, but
the scale so obtained, when the values of Carnot's function were
calculated from Regnault's observations on steam, was found to
differ considerably from the scale of the mercury or air-thermo-
meter. At a later date, when it became clear that the value
of Carnot's function was very nearly proportional to the re-
ciprocal of the temperature T measured from the absolute zero
of the gas thermometer, he proposed a simpler method (Phil.
Trans., 1854), namely, to define absolute temperature 6 as
proportional to the reciprocal of Carnot's function. On this
definition of absolute temperature, the expression (0i-0o)/0i
for the efficiency of a Carnot cycle with limits 61 and 0<> would
be exact, and it became a most important problem to determine
how far the temperature T by gas thermometer differed from
the absolute temperature 6. With this object he devised a very
delicate method, known as the " porous plug experiment "
(see THERMODYNAMICS) of testing the deviation of the gas
thermometer from the absolute scale. The experiments were
carried out in conjunction with Joule, and finally resulted in
showing (Phil. Trans., 1862, "On the Thermal Effects of
Fluids in Motion ") that the deviations of the air thermometer
from the absolute scale as above defined' are almost negligible,
and that in the case of the gas hydrogen the deviations are
so small that -a thermometer containing this gas may be
taken for all practical purposes as agreeing exactly with the
absolute scale at all ordinary temperatures. For this reason
the hydrogen thermometer has since been generally adopted as
the standard.
22. Availability of Heat of Combustion. Taking the value
1-13 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie for i C. fall of temperature
at 100 C., Carnot attempted to estimate the possible perform-
ance of a steam-engine receiving heat at 160 C. and rejecting
it at 40 C. Assuming the performance to be simply proportional
to the temperature fall, the work done for 120 fall would be
134 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie. To make an accurate
calculation required a knowledge of the variation of the function
F't with temperature. Taking the accurate formula of 20, the
work obtainable is 118 kilogrammetres per kilo-calorie, which is
INTERNAL COMBUSTION]
HEAT
H7
28% of 426, the mechanical equivalent of the kilo-calorie in
kilogrammetres. Carnot pointed out that the fall of 120 C.
utilized in the steam-engine was only a small fraction of the
whole temperature fall obtainable by combustion, and made an
estimate of the total power available if the whole fall could be
utilized, allowing for the probable diminution of the function
F't with rise of temperature. His estimate was 3-9 million
kilogrammetres per kilogramme of coal. This was certainly
an over-estimate, but was surprisingly close, considering the
scanty data at his disposal.
In reality the fraction of the heat of combustion available,
even in an ideal engine and apart from practical limitations, is
much less than might be inferred from the efficiency formula of
the Carnot cycle. In applying this formula to estimate the
availability of the heat it is usual to take the temperature
obtainable by the combustion of the fuel as the upper limit of
temperature in the formula. For carbon burnt in air at constant
pressure without any loss of heat, the products of combustion
might be raised 2300 C. in temperature, assuming that the
specific heats of the products were constant and that there was
no dissociation. If all the heat could be supplied to the working
fluid at this temperature, that of the condenser being 40 C.,
the possible efficiency by the formula of 20 would be 89%.
But the combustion obviously cannot maintain so high a tem-
perature if heat is being continuously abstracted by a boiler.
Suppose that 6' is the maximum temperature of combustion as.
above estimated, 6" the temperature of the boiler, and that
of the condenser. Of the whole heat supplied by combustion
represented by the rise of temperature 6' 60, the fraction
(0'-0")/(0'-0) is the maximum that could be supplied to the
boiler, the fraction (0"-0)/(0'-0) being carried away with the
waste gases. Of the heat supplied to the boiler, the fraction
(0*-0)/0* might theoretically be converted into work. The
problem in the case of an engine using a separate working fluid,
like a steam-engine, is to find what must be the temperature 0"
of the boiler in order to obtain the largest possible fraction of the
heat of combustion in the form of work. It is easy to show that 0"
must be the geometric mean of 0' and 0, or 0"= V0'0o- Taking
0'-0 = 2 3 oo C., and = 3i3 Abs. as before, we find 0" =
903 Abs. or 630 C. The heat supplied to the boiler is then
74-4% of the heat of combustion, and of this 65-3 % is converted
into work, giving a maximum possible efficiency of 49% in
place of 89%. With the boiler at 160 C., the possible efficiency,
calculated in a similar manner, would be 26-3%, which shows
that the possible increase of efficiency by increasing the tem-
perature range is not so great as is usually supposed. If the
temperature of the boiler were raised to 300 C., corresponding
to a pressure of 1 260 Ib per sq. in., which is occasionally surpassed
in modern flash-boilers, the possible efficiency would be 40%.
The waste heat from the boiler, supposed perfectly efficient,
would be in this case 1 1 %, of which less than a quarter could
be utilized in the form of work. Carnot foresaw that in order
to utilize a larger percentage of the heat of combustion it would
be necessary to employ a series of working fluids, the waste heat
from one boiler and condenser serving to supply the next in the
series. This has actually been effected in a few cases, e.g.
steam and SO2, when special circumstances exist to compensate
for the extra complication. Improvements in the steam-engine
since Carnot's time have been mainly in the direction of reducing
waste due to condensation and leakage by multiple expansion,
superheating, &c. The gain by increased temperature range
has been comparatively small owing to limitations of pressure,
and the best modern steam-engines do not utilize more than 20%
of the heat of combustion. This is in reality a very respectable
fraction of the ideal limit of 40% above calculated on the
assumption of i26olb initial pressure, with a perfectly efficient
boiler and complete expansion, and with an ideal engine which
does not waste available motive power by complete condensation
of the steam before it is returned to the boiler.
23. Advantages of Internal Combustion. As Carnot pointed
out, the chief advantage of using atmospheric air as a working
fluid in a heat-engine lies in the possibility of imparting heat to
it directly by internal combustion. This avoids the limitation
imposed by the use of a separate boiler, which as we have seen
reduces the possible efficiency at least 50%. Even with internal
combustion, however, the full range of temperature is not
available, because the heat cannot conveniently in practice
be communicated to the working fluid at constant temperature,
owing to the large range of expansion at constant temperature
required for the absorption of a sufficient quantity of heat.
Air-engines of this type, such as Stirling's or Ericsson's, taking
in heat at constant temperature, though theoretically the most
perfect, are bulky and mechanically inefficient. In practical
engines the heat is generated by the combustion of an explosive
mixture at constant volume or at constant pressure. The heat
is not all communicated at the highest temperature, but over
a range of temperature from that of the mixture at the beginning
of combustion to the maximum temperature. The earliest
instance of this type of engine is the lycopodium engine of
M.M. Niepce, discussed by Carnot, in which a combustible
mixture of air and lycopodium powder at atmospheric pressure
was ignited in a cylinder, and did work on a piston. The
early gas-engines of E. Lenoir (1860) and N. Otto and E.
Langen (1866), operated in a similar manner with illuminating
gas in place of lycopodium. Combustion in this case is effected
practically at constant volume, and the maximum efficiency
theoretically obtainable is i-log e r/(r-i), where r is the ratio
of the maximum temperature 0' to the initial temperature 0.
In order to obtain this efficiency it would be necessary to follow
Carnot's rule, and expand the gas after ignition without loss
or gain of heat from 0' down to 0, and then to compress it
at to its initial volume. If the rise of temperature in com-
bustion were 2300 C., and the initial temperature were o C.
or 273 Abs., the theoretical efficiency would be 73-3%, which
is much greater than that obtainable with a boiler. But in
order to reach this value, it would be necessary to expand the
mixture to about 270 times its initial volume, which is obviously
impracticable. Owing to incomplete expansion and rapid
cooling of the heated gases by the large surface exposed, the
actual efficiency of the Lenoir engine was less than 5 %, and of
the Otto and Langen, with more rapid expansion, about 10%.
Carnot foresaw that in order to render an engine of this type
practically efficient, it would be necessary to compress the
mixture before ignition. Compression is beneficial in three
ways: (i) it permits a greater range of expansion after ignition;
(2) it raises the mean effective pressure, and thus improves the
mechanical efficiency and the power in proportion to size and
weight; (3) it reduces the loss of heat during ignition by reducing
the surface exposed to the hot gases. In the modern gas or
petrol motor, compression is employed as in Carnot's cycle,
but the efficiency attainable is limited not so much by considera-
tions of temperature as by limitations of volume. It is impractic-
able before combustion at constant volume to compress a rich
mixture to much less than -Jth of its initial volume, and, for
mechanical simplicity, the range of expansion is made equal
to that of compression. The cycle employed was patented
in 1862 by Beau de Rochas (d. 1892), but was first successfully
carried out by Otto (1876). It differs from the Carnot cycle
in employing reception and rejection of heat at constant volume
instead of at constant temperature. This cycle is not so efficient
as the Carnot cycle for given limits of temperature, but, for the
given limits of volume imposed, it gives a much higher efficiency
than the Carnot cycle. The efficiency depends only on the
range of temperature in expansion and compression, and is
given by the formula (0'-0")/0', where 0' is the maximum
temperature, and 0" the temperature at the end of expansion.
The formula is the same as that for the Carnot cycle with the
same range of temperature in expansion. The ratio 6' 16" is
1 , where r is the given ratio of expansion or compression,
and -y is the ratio of the specific heats of the working fluid.
Assuming the working fluid to be a perfect gas with the same
properties as air, we should have 7 = 1-41. Taking r=s, the
formula gives 48% for the maximum possible efficiency. The
actual products of combustion vary with the nature of the fuel
148
HEAT
[TRANSFERENCE OF HEAT
employed, and have different properties from air, but the
efficiency is found to vary with compression in the same manner
as for air. For this reason a committee of the Institution of Civil
Engineers in 1905 recommended the adoption of the air-standard
for estimating the effects of varying the compression ratio,
and defined the relative efficiency of an internal combustion
engine as the ratio of its observed efficiency to that of a perfect
air-engine with the same compression.
24. Effect of Dissociation, and Increase of Specific Heat. One
of the most important effects of heat is the decomposition or
dissociation of compound molecules. Just as the molecules
of a vapour combine with evolution of heat to form the more
complicated molecules of the liquid, and as the liquid molecules
require the addition of heat to effect their separation into
molecules of vapour; so in the case of molecules of different
kinds which combine with evolution of heat, the reversal of the
process can be effected either by the agency of heat, or indirectly
by supplying the requisite amount of energy by electrical or
other methods. Just as the latent heat of vaporization diminishes
with rise of temperature, and the pressure of the dissociated
vapour molecules increases, so in the case of compound molecules
in general the heat of combination diminishes with rise of tempera-
ture, and the pressure of the products of dissociation increases.
There is evidence that the compound carbon dioxide, C02, is
partly dissociated into carbon monoxide and oxygen at high
temperatures, and that the proportion dissociated increases
with rise of temperature. There is a very close analogy between
these phenomena and the vaporization of a liquid. The laws
which govern dissociation are the same fundamental laws of
thermodynamics, but the relations involved are necessarily
more complex on account of the presence of different kinds of
molecules, and present special difficulties for accurate investiga-
tion in the case where dissociation does not begin to be appreciable
until a high temperature is reached. It is easy, however, to
see that the general effect of dissociation must be to diminish
the available temperature of combustion, and all experiments
go to show that in ordinary combustible mixtures the rise of
temperature actually attained is much less than that calculated
as in 22, on the assumption that the whole heat of combustion
is developed and communicated to products of constant specific
heat. The defect of temperature observed can be represented
by supposing that the specific heat of the products of combustion
increases with rise of temperature. This is the case for CO2
even at ordinary temperatures, according to Regnault, and
probably also for air and steam at higher temperatures. Increase
of specific heat is a necessary accompaniment of dissociation,
and from some points of view may be regarded as merely another
way of stating the facts. It is the most convenient method to
adopt in the case of products of combustion consisting of a
mixture of COz and steam with a large excess of inert gases,
because the relations of equilibrium of dissociated molecules
of so many different kinds would be too complex to permit of
any other method of expression. It appears from the researches
of Dugald Clerk, H. le Chatelier and others that the apparent
specific heat of the products of combustion in a gas-engine
may be taken as approximately -34 to -33 in place of -24 at
working temperatures between 1000 C. and 1700 C., and that
the ratio of the specific heats is about 1-29 in place of 1-41.
This limits the availability of the heat of combustion by reducing
the rise of temperature actually obtainable in combustion at
constant volume by 30 or 40%, and also by reducing the range
of temperature ff 19* for a given ratio of expansion r from r' 41 to
r- 29 . The formula given in 21 is no longer quite exact, because
the ratio of the specific heats of the mixture during compression is
not the same as that of the products of combustion during
expansion. But since the work done depends principally on the
expansion curve, the ratio of the range of temperature in ex-
pansion (0'-0") to the maximum temperature 6' will still give
a very good approximation to the possible efficiency. Taking
r = 5, as before, for the compression ratio, the possible efficiency
is reduced from 48% to 38%, if 7=1-29 instead of 1-41. A
large gas-engine of the present day with r=s may actually
realize as much as 34% indicated efficiency, which is 90% of
the maximum possible, showing how perfectly all avoidable heat
losses have been minimized.
It is often urged that the gas-engine is relatively less efficient
than the steam-engine, because, although it has a much higher
absolute efficiency, it does not utilize so large a fraction of its
temperature range, reckoning that of the steam-engine from the
temperature of the boiler to that of the condenser, and that of
the gas-engine from the maximum temperature of combustion
to that of the air. This is not quite fair, and has given rise to the
mistaken notion that " there is an immense margin for improve-
ment in the gas-engine," which is not the case if the practical
limitations of volume are rightly considered. If expansion could
be carried out in accordance with Carnot's principle of maximum
efficiency, down to the lower limit of temperature , with
rejection of heat at during compression to the original volume
o, it would no doubt be possible to obtain an ideal efficiency of
nearly 80%. But this would be quite impracticable, as it would
require expansion to about 100 times , or 500 times the com-
pression volume. Some advantage no doubt might be obtained
by carrying the expansion beyond the original volume. This
has been done, but is not found to be worth the extra complica-
tion. A more practical method, which has been applied by
Diesel for liquid fuel, is to introduce the fuel at the end of
compression, and adjust the supply in such a manner as to give
combustion at nearly constant pressure. This makes it possible
to employ higher compression, with a corresponding increase
in the ratio of expansion and the theoretical efficiency. With a
compression ratio of 14, an indicated efficiency of 40% has been
obtained in this way, but owing to additional complications the
brake efficiency was only 31%, which is hardly any improve-
ment on the brake efficiency of 30% obtained with the ordinary
type of gas-engine. Although Carnot's principle makes it possible
to calculate in every case what the limiting possible efficiency
would be for any kind of cycle if all heat losses were abolished,
it is very necessary, in applying the principle to practical cases,
to take account of the possibility of avoiding the heat losses
which are supposed to be absent, and of other practical limita-
tions in the working of the actual engine. An immense amount
of time and ingenuity has been wasted in striving to realize
impossible margins of ideal efficiency, which a close study of
the practical conditions would have shown to be illusory. As
Carnot remarks at the conclusion of his essay: " Economy of
fuel is only one of the conditions a heat-engine must satisfy;
in many cases it is only secondary, and must often give way to
considerations of safety, strength and wearing qualities of the
machine, of smallness of space occupied, or of expense in erecting.
To know how to appreciate justly in each case the considerations
of convenience and economy, to be able to distinguish the
essential from the accessory, to balance all fairly, and finally
to arrive at the best result by the simplest means, such must be
the principal talent of the man called on to direct and co-ordinate
the work of his fellows for the attainment of a useful object of
any kind."
TRANSFERENCE or HEAT
25. Modes of Transference. There are three principal modes
of transference of heat, namely (i) convection, (2) conduction,
and (3) radiation.
(i) In convection, heat is carried or conveyed by the motion
of heated masses of matter. The most familiar illustrations of
this method of transference are the heating of buildings by the
circulation of steam or hot water, or the equalization of tem-
perature of a mass of unequally heated liquid or gas by convection
currents, produced by natural changes of density or by artificial
stirring. (2) In conduction, heat is transferred by contact
between contiguous particles of matter and is passed on from
one particle to the next without visible relative motion of the
parts of the body. A familiar illustration of conduction is the
passage of heat through the metal plates of a boiler from the
fire to the water inside, or the transference of heat from a soldering
bolt to the solder and the metal with which it is placed in contact.
NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING]
HEAT
149
(3) In radiation, the heated body gives rise to a motion of
vibration in the aether, which is propagated equally in all
directions, and is reconverted into heat when it encounters any
obstacle capable of absorbing it. Thus radiation differs from
conduction and convection in taking place most perfectly in the
absence of matter, whereas conduction and convection require
material communication between the bodies concerned.
In the majority of cases of transference of heat all three
modes 'of transference are simultaneously operative in a greater
or less degree, and the combined effect is generally of great
complexity. The different modes of transference are subject
to widely different laws, and the difficulty of disentangling their
effects and subjecting them to calculation is often one of the
most serious obstacles in the experimental investigation of heat.
In space void of matter, we should have pure radiation, but it
is difficult to obtain so perfect a vacuum that the effects of the
residual gas in transferring heat by conduction or convection
are inappreciable. In the interior of an opaque solid we should
have pure conduction, but if the solid is sensibly transparent
in thin layers there must also be an internal radiation,
while in a liquid or a gas it is very difficult to eliminate the effects
of convection. These difficulties are well illustrated in the
historical development of the subject by the experimental
investigations which have been made to determine the laws of
heat-transference, such as the laws of cooling, of radiation
and of conduction.
26. Newton's Law of Cooling. There is one essential condition
common to all three modes of heat-transference, namely, that
they depend on difference of temperature, that the direction
of the transfer of heat is always from hot to cold, and that the
rate of transference is, for small differences, directly proportional
to the difference of temperature. Without difference of tem-
perature there is no transfer of heat. When two bodies have been
brought to the same temperature by conduction, they are also in
equilibrium as regards radiation, and vice versa. If this were
not the case, there could be no equilibrium of heat defined by
equality of temperature. A hot body placed in an enclosure of
lower temperature, e.g. a calorimeter in its containing vessel,
generally loses heat by all three modes simultaneously in different
degrees. The loss by each mode will depend in different ways
on the form, extent and nature of its surface and on that of the
enclosure, on the manner in which it is supported, on its relative
position and distance from the enclosure, and on the nature of
the intervening medium. But provided that the difference of
temperature is small, the rate of loss of heat by all modes will
be approximately proportional to the difference of temperature,
the other conditions remaining constant. The rate of cooling
or the rate of fall of temperature will also be nearly proportional
to the rate of loss of heat, if the specific heat of the cooling body
is constant, or the rate of cooling at any moment will be pro-
portional to the difference of temperature. This simple relation
is commonly known as Newton's law of cooling, but is limited
in its application to comparatively simple cases such as the
foregoing. Newton himself applied it to estimate the temperature
of a red-hot iron ball, by observing the time which it -took to
cool from a red heat to a known temperature, and comparing
this with the time taken to cool through a known range at
ordinary temperatures. According to this law if the excess of
temperature of the body above its surroundings is observed
at equal intervals of time, the observed values will form a
geometrical progression with a common ratio. Supposing, for
instance, that the surrounding temperature were o C., that the
red-hot ball took 25 minutes to cool from its original temperature
to 20 C., and 5 minutes to cool from 20 C. to 10 C., the original
temperature is easily calculated on the assumption that the excess
of temperature above o C. falls to half its value in each interval
of 5 minutes. Doubling the value 20 at 25 minutes five times,
we arrive at 640 C. as the original temperature. No other method
of estimation of such temperatures was available in the time of
Newton, but, as we now know, the simple law of proportionality
to the temperature difference is inapplicable over such large
ranges of temperature. The rate of loss of heat by radiation,
and also by convection and conduction to the surrounding air,
increases much more rapidly than in simple proportion to the
temperature difference, and the rate of increase of each follows
a different law. At a later date Sir John Herschel measured the
intensity of the solar radiation at the surface of the earth, and
endeavoured to form an estimate of the temperature of the sun
by comparison with terrestrial sources on the assumption that
the intensity of radiation was simply pioportional to the tem-
perature difference. He thus arrived at an estimate of several
million degrees, which we now know would be about a thousand
times too great. The application of Newton's law necessarily
leads to absurd results when the difference of temperature is
very large, but the error will not in general exceed 2 to 3% if
the temperature difference does not exceed 10 C., and the
percentage error is proportionately much smaller for smaller
differences.
27. Didong and Pelit's Empirical Laws of Cooling. One of the
most elaborate experimental investigations of the law of cooling
was that of Dulong and Petit (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1817, 7, pp.
225 and 337), who observed the rate of cooling of a mercury
thermometer from 300 C. in a water-jacketed enclosure at
various temperatures from o C. to 80 C. In order to obtain the
rate of cooling by radiation alone, they exhausted the enclosure
as perfectly as possible after the introduction of the thermometer,
but with the imperfect appliances available at that time they
were not able to obtain a vacuum better than about 3 or 4 mm.
of mercury. They found that the velocity of cooling V in a
vacuum could be represented by a formula of the type
A(o'-o' )
(5)
in which t is the temperature of the thermometer, and /o that of
the enclosure, a is a constant having the value 1-0075, an d t ne
coefficient A depends on the form of the bulb and the nature
of its surface. For the ranges of temperature they employed,
this formula gives much better results than Newton's, but it
must be remembered that the temperatures were expressed on
the arbitrary scale of the mercury thermometer, and were not
corrected for the large and uncertain errors of stem-exposure
(see THERMOMETRY). Moreover, although the effects of cooling
by convection currents are practically eliminated by exhausting
to 3 or 4 mm. (since the density of the gas is reduced to i/2ooth
while its viscosity is not appreciably affected), the rate of cooling
by conduction is not materially diminished, since the conductivity,
like the viscosity, is nearly independent of pressure. It has
since been shown by Sir William Crookes (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1881,
21, p. 239) that the rate of cooling of a mercury thermometer
in a vacuum suffers a very great diminution when the pressure
is reduced from i mm. to -ooi mm., at which pressure the effect
of conduction by the residual gas has practically disappeared.
Dulong and Petit also observed the rate of cooling under the
same conditions with the enclosure filled with various gases.
They found that the cooling effect of the gas could be represented
by adding to the term already given as representing radiation,
an 'expression of the form
V' = B/>(/-fc) i:fM .... (6)
They found that the cooling effect of convection, unlike that of
radiation, was independent of the nature of the surface of the
thermometer, whether silvered or blackened, that it varied as
some power c of the pressure p, and that it was independent
of the absolute temperature of the enclosure, but varied as the
excess temperature (t-l a ) raised to the power 1-233. This
highly artificial result undoubtedly contains some elements of
truth, but could only be applied to experiments similar to those
from which it was derived. F. Herv6 de la Provostaye and
P. Q. Desains (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1846, 16, p. 337), in repeating
these experiments under various conditions, found that the
coefficients A and B were to some extent dependent on the
temperature, and that the manner in which the cooling effect
varied with the pressure depended on the form and size of the
enclosure. It is evident that this should be the case, since the
cooling effect of the gas depends partly on convective currents.
HEAT
[DIFFUSION OF TEMPERATURE
which are necessarily greatly modified by the form of the
enclosure in a manner which it would appear hopeless to
attempt to represent by any general formula.
28. Surface Emissivity. The same remark applies to many
attempts which have since been made to determine the general
value of the constant termed by Fourier and early writers the
" exterior conductibility," but now called the surface emissivity.
This coefficient represents the rate of loss of heat from a body
per unit area of surface per degree excess of temperature, and
includes the effects of radiation, convection and conduction.
As already pointed out, the combined effect will be nearly
proportional to the excess of temperature in any given case
provided that the excess is small, but it is not necessarily pro-
portional to the extent of surface exposed except in the case of
pure radiation. The rate of loss by convection and conduction
varies greatly with the form of the surface, and, unless the
enclosure is very large compared with the cooling body, the effect
depends also on the size and form of the enclosure. Heat is
necessarily communicated from the cooling body to the layer
of gas in contact with it by conduction. If the linear dimensions
of the body are small, as in the case of a fine wire, or if it is
separated from the enclosure by a thin layer of gas, the rate
of loss depends chiefly on conduction. For very fine metallic
wires heated by an electric current, W. E. Ayrton and H.
Kilgour (Phil. Trans., 1892) showed that the rate of loss is
nearly independent of the surface, instead of being directly
proportional to it. This should be the case, as Porter has shown
(Phil. Mag., March 1895), since the effect depends mainly on
conduction. The effects of conduction and radiation may be
approximately estimated if the conductivity of the gas and the
nature and forms of the surfaces of the body and enclosure are
known, but the effect of convection in any case can be determined
only by experiment. It has been found that the rate of cooling
by a current of air is approximately proportional to the velocity
of the current, other things being equal. It is obvious that this
should be the case, but the result cannot generally be applied
to convection currents. Values which are commonly given for
the surface emissivity must therefore be accepted with great
reserve. They can be regarded only as approximate, and as
applicable only to cases precisely similar to those for which they
were experimentally obtained. There cannot be said to be any
general law of convection. The loss of heat is not necessarily
proportional to the area of the surface, and no general value of
the coefficient can be given to suit all cases. The laws of con-
duction and radiation admit of being more precisely formulated,
and their effects predicted, except in so far as they are complicated
by convection.
29. Conduction of Heat. The laws of transference of heat in
the interior of a solid body formed one of the earliest subjects
of mathematical and experimental treatment in the theory of
heat. The law assumed by Fourier was of the simplest possible
type, but the mathematical application, except in the simplest
cases, was so difficult as to require the development of a new
mathematical method. Fourier succeeded in showing how,
by his method of analysis, the solution of any given problem
with regard to the flow of heat by conduction in any material
could be obtained in terms of a physical constant, the thermal
conductivity of the material, and that the results obtained by
experiment agreed in a qualitative manner with those predicted
by his theory. But the experimental determination of the actual
values of these constants presented formidable difficulties which
were not surmounted till a later date. The experimental methods
and difficulties are discussed in a special article on CONDUCTION
OF HEAT. It will suffice here to give a brief historical sketch,
including a few of the more important results by way of
illustration.
30. Comparison of Conducting Powers. That the power of
transmitting heat by conduction varied widely in different
materials was probably known in a general way from prehistoric
times. Empirical knowledge of this kind is shown in the con-
struction of many articles for heating, cooking, &c., such as the
copper soldering bolt, or the Norwegian cooking-stove. One
of the earliest experiments for making an actual comparison of
conducting powers was that suggested by Franklin, but
carried out by Jan Ingenhousz (Journ. de phys., 1789, 34,
pp. 68 and 380). Exactly similar bars of different materials,
glass, wood, metal, &c., thinly coated with wax, were fixed
in the side of a trough of boiling water so as to project for equal
distances through the side of the trough into the external air.
The wax coating was observed to melt as the heat travelled along
the bars, the distance from the trough to which the wax was
melted along each affording an approximate indication of
the distribution of temperature. When the temperature of each
bar had become stationary the heat which it gained by conduction
from the trough must be equal to the heat lost to the surrounding
air, and must therefore be approximately proportional to the
distance to which the wax had melted along the bar. But the
temperature fall per unit length, or the temperature-gradient,
in each bar at the point where it emerged from the trough would
be inversely proportional to the same distance. For equal
temperature-gradients the quantities of heat conducted (or the
relative conducting powers of the bars) would therefore be
proportional to the squares of the distances to which the wax
finally melted on each bar. This was shown by Fourier and
Despretz (Ann. Mm. phys., 1822, 19, p. 97).
31. Diffusion of Temperature. It was shown in connexion
with this experiment by Sir H. Davy, and the experiment was
later popularized by John Tyndall, that the rate at which wax
melted along the bar, or the rate of propagation of a given
temperature, during the first moments of heating, as distinguished
from the melting-distance finally attained, depended on the
specific heat as well as the conductivity. Short prisms of iron
and bismuth coated with wax were placed on a hot metal plate.
The wax was observed to melt first on the bismuth, although its
conductivity is less than that of iron. The reason is that its
specific heat is less than that of iron in the proportion of 3 to n.
The densities of iron and bismuth being 7-8 and 9-8, the thermal
capacities of equal prisms will be in the ratio -86 for iron to -29
for bismuth. If the prisms receive heat at equal rates, the bis-
muth will reach the temperature of melting wax nearly three
times as quickly as the iron. It is often stated on the strength
of this experiment that the rate of propagation of a temperature
wave, which depends on the ratio of the conductivity to the
specific heat per unit volume, is greater in bismuth than in iron
(e.g. Preston, Heat, p. 628). This is quite incorrect, because the
conductivity of iron is about six times that of bismuth, and the
rate of propagation of a temperature wave is therefore twice
as great in iron as in bismuth. The experiment in reality is
misleading because the rates of reception of heat by the prisms
are limited by the very imperfect contact with the hot metal
plate, and are not proportional to the respective conductivities.
If the iron and bismuth bars are properly faced and soldered to
the top of a copper box (in order to ensure good metallic contact,
and exclude a non-conducting film of air), and the box is then
heated by steam, the rates of reception of heat will be nearly
proportional to the conductivities, and the wax will melt nearly
twice as fast along the iron as along the bismuth. A bar of lead
similarly treated will show a faster rate of propagation than
iron, because, although its conductivity is only half that of iron,
its specific heat per unit volume is 2-5 times smaller.
32. Bad Conductors. Liquids and Gases. Count Rumford
(1792) compared the conducting powers of substances used in
clothing, such as wool and cotton, fur and down, by observing
the time which a thermometer took to cool when embedded in a
globe filled successively with the different materials. The times
of cooling observed for a given range varied from 1300 to 900
seconds for different materials. The low conducting power of
such materials is principally due to the presence of air in the
interstices, which is prevented from forming convection currents
by the presence of the fibrous material. Finely powdered silica
is a very bad conductor, but in the compact form of rock crystal
it is as good a conductor as some of the metals. According to the
kinetic theory of gases, the conductivity of a gas depends on
molecular diffusion. Maxwell estimated the conductivity of
HEATING BY CONDENSATION]
HEAT
air at ordinary temperatures at about 20,000 times less than that
of copper. This has been verified experimentally by Kundt and
Warburg, Stefan and Winkelmann, by taking special precautions
to eliminate the effects of convection currents and radiation.
It was for some time doubted whether a gas possessed any true
conductivity for heat. The experiment of T. Andrews, repeated
by Grove, and Magnus, showing that a wire heated by an electric
current was raised to a higher temperature in air than in
hydrogen, was explained by Tyndall as being due to the greater
mobility of hydrogen which gave rise to stronger convection
currents. In reality the effect is due chiefly to the greater
velocity of motion of the ultimate molecules of hydrogen, and is
most marked if molar (as opposed to molecular) convection is
eliminated. Molecular convection or diffusion, which cannot be
distinguished experimentally from conduction, as it follows the
same law, is also the main cause of conduction of heat in liquids.
Both in liquids and gases the effects of convection currents are
so much greater than those of diffusion or conduction that the
latter are very difficult to measure, and, except in special cases,
comparatively unimportant as affecting the transference of heat.
Owing to the difficulty of eliminating the effects of radiation
and convection, the results obtained for the conductivities of
liquids are somewhat discordant, and there is in most cases great
uncertainty whether the conductivity increases or diminishes
with rise of temperature. It would appear, however, that liquids,
such as water and glycerin, differ remarkably little in conduc-
tivity in spite of enormous differences of viscosity. ' The viscosity
of a liquid diminishes very rapidly with rise of temperature,
without any marked change in the conductivity, whereas the
viscosity of a gas increases with rise of temperature, and is
always nearly proportional to the conductivity.
33. Difficulty of Quantitative Estimation of Heat Transmitted.
The conducting powers of different metals were compared by
C. M. Despretz, and later by G. H. Wiedemann and R. Franz,
employing an extension of the method of Jan Ingenhousz, in
which the temperatures at different points along a bar heated
at one end were measured by thermometers or thermocouples
let into small holes in the bars, instead of being measured at one
point only by means of melting wax. These experiments un-
doubtedly gave fairly accurate relative values, but did not permit
the calculation of the absolute amounts of heat transmitted.
This was first obtained by J. D. Forbes (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1852;
Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1862, 23, p. 133) by deducing the amount
of heat lost to the surrounding air from a separate experiment in
which the rate of cooling of the bar was observed (see CONDUC-
TION OF HEAT). Clement (Ann. Mm. phys., 1841) had pre-
viously attempted to determine the conductivities of metals by
observing the amount of heat transmitted by a plate with one
side exposed to steam at 100 C., and the other side cooled by
water at 28 C. Employing a copper plate 3 mm. thick, and
assuming that the two surfaces of the plate were at the same
temperatures as the water and the steam to which they were
exposed, or that the temperature-gradient in the metal was
72 in 3 mm., he had thus obtained a value which we_now know
to be nearly 200 times too small. The actual temperature
difference in the metal itself was really about 0-36 C. The
remainder of the 72 drop was in the badly conducting films
of water and steam close to the metal surface. Similarly in a
boiler plate in contact with flame at 1500 C. on one side and
water at, say, 150 C. on the other, the actual difference of
temperature in the metal, even if it is an inch thick, is only a
few degrees. The metal, unless badly furred with incrustation,
is but little hotter than the water. It is immaterial so far as
the transmission of heat is concerned, whether the plates are
iron or copper. The greater part of the resistance to the passage
of heat resides in a comparatively quiescent film of gas close
to the surface, through which film the heat has to pass mainly
by conduction. If a Bunsen flame, preferably coloured with
sodium, is observed impinging on a cold metal plate, it will be
seen to be separated from the plate by a dark space of a millimetre
or less, throughout which the temperature of the gas is lowered
by its own conductivity below the temperature of incandescence.
There is no abrupt change of temperature in passing from the gas
to the metal, but a continuous temperature-gradient from the
temperature of the metal to that of the flame. It is true that
this gradient may be upwards of 1000 C. per mm., but there
is no discontinuity.
34. Resistance of a Gas Film to the Passage of Heat. It is possible
to make a rough estimate of the resistance of such a film to the
passage of heat through it. Taking the average conductivity of
the gas in the film as 10,000 times less than that of copper
(about double the conductivity of air at ordinary temperatures)
a millimetre film would be equivalent to a thickness of 10 metres
of copper, or about 1-2 metres of iron. Taking the temperature-
gradient as 1000 C. per mm. such a film would transmit i
gramme-calorie per sq. cm. per sec., or 36,000 kilo-calories per
sq. metre per hour. With an area of 100 sq. cms. the heat
transmitted at this rate would raise a litre of water from 20 C.
to 100 C. in 800 sees. By experiment with a strong Bunsen
flame it takes from 8 to 10 minutes to do this, which would
indicate that on the above assumptions the equivalent thickness
of quiescent film should be rather less than i mm. in this case.
The thickness of the film diminishes with the velocity of the
burning gases impinging on the surface. This accounts for
the rapidity of heating by a blowpipe flame, which is not due
to any great increase in temperature of the flame as compared
with a Bunsen. Similarly the efficiency of a' boiler is but slightly
reduced if half the tubes are stopped up, because the increase
pf draught through the remainder compensates partly for the
diminished heating surface. Some resistance to the passage
of heat into a boiler is also due to the water film on the inside.
But this is of less account, because the conductivity of water
is much greater than that of air, and because the film is continu-
ally broken up by the formation of steam, which abstracts
heat very rapidly.
35. Heating by Condensation of Steam. It is often stated that
the rate at which steam will condense on a metal surface at a
temperature below that corresponding to the saturation pressure
of the steam is practically infinite (e.g. Osborne Reynolds,
Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1873, p. 275), and conversely that the rate
at which water will abstract heat from a metal surface by the
formation of steam (if the metal is above the temperature of
saturation of the steam) is limited only by the rate at which
the metal can supply heat by conduction to its surface layer.
The rate at which heat can be supplied by condensation of
steam appears to be much greater than that at which heat can
be supplied by a flame under ordinary conditions, but there is
no reason to suppose that it is infinite, or that any discontinuity
exists. Experiments by H. L. Callendar and j. T. Nicolson
by three independent methods (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 1898,
131, p. 147; Brit. Assoc. Rep. p. 418) appear to show that the
rate of abstraction of heat by evaporation, or that of communica-
tion of heat by condensation, depends chiefly on the difference
of temperature between the metal surface and the saturated
steam, and is nearly proportional to the temperature difference
(not to the pressure difference, as suggested by Reynolds) for
such ranges of pressure as are common in practice. The rate
of heat transmission they observed was equivalent to about
8 calories per sq. cm. per sec., for a difference of 20 C. between
the temperature of the metal surface and the saturation tempera-
ture of the steam. This would correspond to a condensation
of 530 kilogrammes of steam at 100 C. per sq. metre per hour,
or 109 Ib per sq. ft. per hour for the same difference of temperature,
values which are many times greater than those actually obtained
in ordinary' surface condensers. The reason for this is that there
is generally some air mixed with the steam in a surface condenser,
which greatly retards the condensation. It is also difficult to
keep the temperature of the metal as much as 20 C. below the
temperature of the steam unless a very free and copious circula-
tion of cold water is available. For the same difference of
temperature, steam can supply heat by condensation about a
thousand times faster than hot air. This rate is not often
approached in practice, but the facility of generation and
transmission of steam, combined with its high latent heat
152
HEAT
[THEORY OF EXCHANGES
and the accuracy of control and regulation of temperature
afforded, render it one of the most convenient agents for the
distribution of large quantities of heat in all kinds of manu-
facturing processes.
36. Spheroidal Slate. An interesting contrast to the extreme
rapidity with which heat is abstracted by the evaporation of a
liquid in contact with a metal plate, is the so-called spheroidal
state. A small drop of liquid thrown on a red-hot metal plate
assumes a spheroidal form, and continues swimming about for
some time, while it slowly evaporates at a temperature somewhat
below its boiling-point. The explanation is simply that the
liquid itself cannot come in actual contact with the metal plate
(especially if the latter is above the critical temperature), but
is separated from it by a badly conducting film of vapour,
through which, as we have seen, the heat is comparatively slowly
transmitted even if the difference of temperature is several
hundred degrees. If the metal plate is allowed to cool gradually,
the drop remains suspended on its cushion of vapour, until, in
the case of water, a temperature of about 200 C. is reached,
at which the liquid comes in contact with the plate and boils
explosively, reducing the temperature of the plate, if thin,
almost instantaneously to 100 C. The temperature of the metal
is readily observed by a thermo-electric method, employing a
platinum dish with a platinum-rhodium wire soldered with gold
to its under side. The absence of contact between the liquid
and the dish in the spheroidal state may also be shown by
connecting one terminal of a galvanometer to the drop and the
other through u battery to the dish, and observing that no
current passes until the drop boils.
37. Early Theories of Radiation. It was at one time supposed
that there were three distinct kinds of radiation thermal,
luminous and actinic, combined in the radiation from a luminous
source such as the sun or a flame. The first gave rise to heat,
the second to light and the third to chemical action. The three
kinds were partially separated by a prism, the actinic rays
being generally more refracted, and the thermal rays less re-
fracted than the luminous. This conception arose very naturally
from the observation that the feebly luminous blue and violet
rays produced the greatest photographic effects, which also
showed the existence of dark rays beyond the violet, whereas the
brilliant yellow and red were practically without action on the
photographic plate. A thermometer placed in the blue or violet
showed no appreciable rise of temperature, and even in the yellow
the effect was hardly discernible. The effect increased rapidly
as the light faded towards the extreme red, and reached a
maximum beyond the extreme limits of the spectrum (Herschel),
showing that the greater part of the thermal radiation was al-
together non-luminous. It is now a commonplace that chemical
action, colour sensation and heat are merely different effects
of one and the same kind of radiation, the particular effect
produced in each case depending on the frequency and intensity
of the vibration, and on the nature of the substance on which
it falls. When radiation is completely absorbed by a black
substance, it is converted into heat, the quantity of heat produced
being equivalent to the total energy of the radiation absorbed,
irrespective of the colour or frequency of the different rays.
The actinic or chemical effects, on the other hand, depend essenti-
ally on some relation between the period of the vibration and
the properties of the substance acted on. The rays producing
such effects are generally those which are most strongly absorbed.
The spectrum of chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of plants,
shows two very strong absorption bands in the red. The red
rays of corresponding period are found to be the most active
in promoting the growth of the plant. The chemically active
rays are not necessarily the shortest. Even photographic
plates may be made to respond to the red rays by staining them
with pinachrome or some other suitable dye.
The action of light rays on the retina is closely analogous to
the action on a photographic plate. The retina, like the plate,
is sensitive only to rays within certain restricted limits of
frequency. The limits of sensitiveness of each colour sensation
are not exactly defined, but vary slightly from one individual
to another, especially in cases of partial colour-blindness, and
are modified by conditions of fatigue. We are not here concerned
with these important physiological and chemical effects of
radiation, but rather with the question of the conversion of energy
of radiation into heat, and with the laws of emission and absorp-
tion of radiation in relation to temperature. We may here also
assume the identity of visible and invisible radiations from a
heated body in all their physical properties. It has been abund-
antly proved that the invisible rays, like the visible, (i) are
propagated in straight lines in homogeneous media; (2) are
reflected and diffused from the surface of bodies according to the
same law; (3) travel with the same velocity in free space, but
with slightly different velocities in denser media, being subject
to the same law of refraction; (4) exhibit all the phenomena
of diffraction and interference which are characteristic of wave-
motion in general; (5) are capable of polarization and double
refraction; (6) exhibit similar effects of selective absorption.
These properties are more easily demonstrated in the case of
visible rays on account of the great sensitiveness of the eye.
But with the aid of the thermopile or other sensitive radiometer,
they may be shown to belong equally to all the radiations from
a heated body, even such as are thirty to fifty times slower in
frequency than the longest visible rays. The same physical
properties have also been shown to belong to electromagnetic
waves excited by an electric discharge, whatever the frequency,
thus including all kinds of aetherial radiation in the same category
as light.
38. Theory of Exchanges. The apparent concentration of
cold by a concave mirror, observed by G. B. Porta and redis-
covered by M. A. Pictet, led to the enunciation of the theory
of exchanges by Pierre Prevost in 1791. Prevost's leading idea
was that all bodies, whether cold or hot, are constantly radiating
heat. Heat equilibrium, he says, consists in an equality of ex-
change. When equilibrium is interfered with, it is re-established
by inequalities of exchange. If into a locality at uniform
temperature a refracting or reflecting body is introduced, it has
no effect in the way of changing the temperature at any point
of that locality. A reflecting body, heated or cooled in the
interior of such an enclosure, will acquire the surrounding
temperature more slowly than would a non-reflector, and will
less affect another body placed at a little distance, but will not
affect the final equality of temperature. Apparent radiation of
cold, as from a block of ice to a thermometer placed near it, is
due to the fact that the thermometer being at a higher tempera-
ture sends more heat to the ice than it received back from it.
Although Prevost does not make the statement in so many words,
it is clear that he regards the radiation from a body as depending
only on its own nature and temperature, and as independent of
the nature and presence of any adjacent body. Heat equilibrium
in an enclosure of constant temperature such as is here postulated
by Prevost, has often been regarded as a consequence of Carnot's
principle. Since difference of temperature is required for
transforming heat into work, no work could be obtained from
heat in such a system, and no spontaneous changes of tempera-
ture can take place, as any such changes might be utilized for the
production of work. This line of reasoning does not appear
quite satisfactory, because it is tactitly assumed, in the reasoning
by which Carnot's principle was established, as a result of
universal experience, that a number of bodies within the same
impervious enclosure, which contains no source of heat, will
ultimately acquire the same temperature, and that difference of
temperature is required to produce flow of heat. Thus although
we may regard the equilibrium in such an enclosure as being
due to equal exchanges of heat in all directions, the equal and
opposite streams of radiation annul and neutralize each other in
such a way that no actual transfer of energy in any direction
takes place. The state of the medium is everywhere the same
in such an enclosure, but its energy of agitation per unit volume
is a function of the temperature, and is such that it would not
be in equilibrium with any body at a different temperature.
39. " Full " and Selective Radiation. Correspondence of
Emission and Absorption. The most obvious difficulties in the
DIATHERMANCY]
HEAT
way of this theory arise from the fact that nearly all radiation
is more or less selective in character, as regards the quality
and frequency of the rays emitted and absorbed. It was shown
by J. Leslie, M. Melloni and other experimentalists that many
substances such as glass and water, which are very transparent to
visible rays, are extremely opaque to much of the invisible
radiation of lower frequency; and that polished metals, which
are perfect reflectors, are very feeble radiators as compared
with dull or black bodies at the same temperature. If two
bodies emit rays of different periods in different proportions,
it is not at first sight easy to see how their radiations can balance
each other at the same temperature. The key to all such
difficulties lies in the fundamental conception, so strongly insisted
on by Balfour Stewart, of the absolute uniformity (qualitative
as well as quantitative) of the full or complete radiation stream
inside an impervious enclosure of uniform temperature. It
follows from this conception that the proportion of the full
radiation stream absorbed by any body in such an enclosure
must be exactly compensated in quality as well as quantity
by the proportion emitted, or that the emissive and absorptive
powers of any body at a given temperature must be precisely
equal. A good reflector, like a polished metal, must also be a
feeble radiator and absorber. Of the incident radiation it absorbs
a small fraction and reflects the remainder, which together with
the radiation emitted (being precisely equal to that absorbed)
makes up the full radiation stream. A partly transparent material,
like glass, absorbs part of the full radiation and transmits part.
But it emits rays precisely equal in quality and intensity to
those which it absorbs, which together with the transmitted
portion make up the full stream. The ideal black body or perfect
radiator is a body which absorbs all the radiation incident on it.
The rays emitted from such a body at any temperature must be
equal to the full radiation stream in an isothermal enclosure at
the same temperature. Lampblack, which may absorb between
98 to 99% of the incident radiation, is generally taken as the
type of a black body. But a closer approximation to full radia-
tion may be obtained by employing a hollow vessel the internal
walls of which are blackened and maintained at a uniform
temperature by a steam jacket or other suitable means. If
a relatively small hole is made in the side of such a vessel, the
radiation proceeding through the aperture will be the full radia-
tion corresponding to the temperature. Such a vessel is also a
perfect absorber. Of radiation entering through the aperture an
infinitesimal fraction only could possibly emerge by successive
reflection even if the sides were of polished metal internally.
A thin platinum tube heated by an electric current appears
feebly luminous as compared with a blackened tube at the same
temperature. But if a small hole is made in the side of the
polished tube, the light proceeding through the hole appears
brighter than the blackened tube, as though the inside of the tube
were much hotter than the outside, which is not the case to any
appreciable extent if the tube is thin. The radiation proceeding
through the hole is nearly that of a perfectly black body if the
hole is small. If there were no hole the internal stream of radiation
would be exactly that of a black body at the same temperature
however perfect the reflecting power, or however low the
emissive power of the walls, because the defect in emissive power
would be exactly compensated by the internal reflection.
Balfour Stewart gave a number of striking illustrations of the
qualitative identity of emission and absorption of a substance.
Pieces of coloured glass placed in a fire appear to lose their colour
when at the same temperature as the coals behind them, because
they compensate exactly for their selective absorption by
radiating chiefly those colours which they absorb. Rocksalt
is remarkably transparent to thermal radiation of nearly all
kinds, but it is extremely opaque to radiation from a heated
plate of rocksalt, because it emits when heated precisely those
rays which it absorbs. A plate of tourmaline cut parallel to
the axis absorbs almost completely light polarized in a plane
parallel to the axis, but transmits freely light polarized in a
perpendicular plane. When heated its radiation is polarized
in the same plane as the radiation which it absorbs. In the case
of incandescent vapours, the exact correspondence of emission '
and absorption as regards wave-length of frequency of the light
emitted and absorbed forms the foundation of the science of
spectrum analysis. Fraunhofer had noticed the coincidence of
a pair of bright yellow lines seen in the spectrum of a candle
flame with the dark D lines in the solar spectrum, a coincidence
which was afterwards more exactly verified by W. A. Miller.
Foucault found that the flame of the electric arc showed the same
lines bright in its spectrum, and proved that they appeared as
dark lines in the otherwise continuous spectrum when the light
from the carbon poles was transmitted through the arc. Stokes
gave a dynamical explanation of the phenomenon and illustrated
it by the analogous case of resonance in sound. KirchhofI
completed the explanation (Phil. Mag., 1860) of the dark lines
in the solar spectrum by showing that the reversal of the spectral
lines depended on the fact that the body of the sun giving the
continuous spectrum was at a higher temperature than the
absorbing layer of gases surrounding it. Whatever be the nature
of the selective radiation from a body, the radiation of light of
any particular wave-length cannot be greater than a certain
fraction E of the radiation R of the same wave-length from a
black body at the same temperature. The fraction E measures
the emissive power of the body for that particular wave-length,
and cannot be greater than unity. The same fraction, by the
principle of equality of emissive and absorptive powers, will
measure the proportion absorbed of incident radiation R'. If
the black body emitting the radiation R' is at the same tempera-
ture as the absorbing layer, R = R', the emission balances the
absorption, and the line will appear neither bright nor dark. If
the source and the absorbing layer are at different temperatures,
the radiation absorbed will be ER', and that transmitted will be
R'-ER'. To this must be added the radiation emitted by the
absorbing layer, namely ER, giving R'-E(R'-R). The lines
will appear darker than the background R' if R' is greater than
R, but bright if the reverse is the case. The D lines are dark in
the sun because the photosphere is much hotter than the reversing
layer. They appear bright in the candle-flame because the outside
mantle of the flame, in which the sodium burns and combustion
is complete, is hotter than the inner reducing flame containing
the incandescent particles of carbon which give rise to the con-
tinuous spectrum. This qualitative identity of emission and
absorption as regards wave-length can be most exactly and easily
verified for luminous rays, and we are justified in assuming that
the relation holds with the same exactitude for nob-luminous
rays, although in many cases the experimental proof is less
complete and exact.
40. Diathermancy. A great array of data with regard to the
transmissive power or diathermancy of transparent substances
for the heat radiated from various sources at different tempera-
tures were collected by Melloni, Tyndall, Magnus and other
experimentalists. The measurements were chiefly of a qualitative
character, and were made by interposing between the source
and a thermopile a layer or plate of the substance to be examined.
This method lacked quantitative precision, but led to a number
of striking and interesting results, which are admirably set forth
in Ty ndall's Heal. It also gave rise to many curious discrepancies,
some of which were recognized as being due to selective
absorption, while others are probably to be explained by im-
perfections in the methods of experiment adopted. The general
result of such researches was to show that substances, like water,
alum and glass, which are practically opaque to radiation from
a source at low temperature, such as a vessel filled with boiling
water, transmit an increasing percentage of the radiation when
the temperature of the source is increased. This is what would
be expected, as these substances are very transparent to visible
rays. That the proportion transmitted is not merely a question
of the temperature of the source, but also of the quality of the
radiation, was shown by a number of experiments. For instance,
K. H. Knoblauch (Pogg. Ann., 1847) found that a plate of glass
interposed between a spirit lamp and a thermopile intercepts a
larger proportion of the radiation from the flame itself than
of the radiation from a platinum spiral heated in the flame,
HEAT
(DIATHERMANCY
' although the spiral is undoubtedly at a lower temperature than
the flame. The explanation is that the spiral is a fairly good
radiator of the visible rays to which the glass is transparent,
but a bad radiator of the invisible rays absorbed by the glass
which constitute the greater portion of the heat-radiation from
the feebly luminous flame.
Assuming that the radiation from the source under investiga-
tion is qualitatively determinate, like that of a black body at a
given temperature, the proportion transmitted by plates of
various substances may easily be measured and tabulated for
given plates and sources. But owing to the highly selective char-
acter of the radiation and absorption, it is impossible to give
any general relation between the thickness of the absorbing plate
or layer and the proportion of the total energy absorbed. For
these reasons the relative diathermancies of different materials
do not admit of any simple numerical statement as physical
constants, though many of the qualitative results obtained are
very striking. Among the most interesting experiments were
those of Tyndall, on the absorptive powers of gases and vapours,
which led to a good deal of controversy at the time, owing to
the difficulty of the experiments, and the contradictory results
obtained by other observers. The arrangement employed by
Tyndall for these measurements is shown in Fig. 6. A brass
7
FIG. 6. Tyndall's Apparatus for observing absorption of heat by
gas and vapours.
tube AB, polished inside, and closed with plates of highly
diathermanous rocksalt at either end, was fitted with stopcocks
C and D for exhausting and admitting air or other gases or
vapours. The source of heat S was usually a plate of copper heated
by a Bunsen burner, or a Leslie cube containing boiling water
as shown at E. To obtain greater sensitiveness for differential
measurements, the radiation through the tube AB incident on
one face of the pile P was balanced against the radiation from
a Leslie cube on the other face of the pile by means of an adjust-
able screen H. The radiation on the two faces of the pile being
thus balanced with the tube exhausted, Tyndall found that the
admission of dry air into the tube produced practically no absorp-
tion of the radiation, whereas compound gases such as carbonic
acid, ethylene or ammonia absorbed 20 to 90%, and a trace
of aqueous vapour in the air increased its absorption 50 to 100
times. H. G. Magnus, on the other hand, employing a thermopile
and a source of heat, both of which were enclosed in the same
exhausted receiver, in order to avoid interposing any rocksalt
or other plates between the source and the pile, found an absorp-
tion of 11% on admitting dry air, but could not detect any
difference whether the air were dry or moist. Tyndall suggested
that the apparent absorption observed by Magnus may have
been due to the cooling of his radiating surface by convection,
which is a very probable source of error in this method of experi-
ment. Magnus considered that the remarkable effect of aqueous
vapour observed by Tyndall might have been caused by con-
densation on the polished internal walls of his experimental
tube, or on the rocksalt plates at either end. 1 The question of
1 In reference to this objection, Tyndall remarks (Phil. Mag.,
1862, p. 422; Heat, p. 385); " In the first place the plate of salt
nearest the source of heat is never moistened, unless the experiments
are of the roughest character. Its proximity to the source enables
the heat to chase away every trace of humidity from its surface."
He therefore took precautions to dry only the circumferential por-
tions of the plate nearest the pile, assuming that the flux of heat
through the central portions would suffice to keep them dry. This
reasoning is not at all satisfactory, because rocksalt is very hygro-
scopic and becomes wet, even in unsaturated air, if the vapour
pressure is greater than that of a saturated solution of salt at the
the relative diathermancy of air and aqueous vapour for radiation
from the sun to the earth and from the earth into space is one
of great interest and importance in meteorology. Assuming
with Magnus that at least 10% of the heat from a source at
100 C. is absorbed in passing through a single foot of air, a very
moderate thickness of atmosphere should suffice to absorb
practically all the heat radiated from the earth into space. This
could not be reconciled with well-known facts in regard to
terrestrial radiation, and it was generally recognized that the
result found by Magnus must be erroneous. Tyndall's experi-
ment on the great diathermancy of dry air agreed much better
with meteorological phenomena, but he appears to have
exaggerated the effect of aqueous vapour. He concluded from
his experiments that the water vapour present in the air absorbs
at least 10% of the heat radiated from the earth within 10 ft.
of its surface, and that the absorptive power of the vapour is
about 17,000 times that of air at the same pressure. If the
absorption of aqueous vapour were really of this order of magni-
tude, it would exert a far greater effect in modifying climate
than is actually observed to be the case. Radiation is observed
to take place freely through the atmosphere at times when the
proportion of aqueous vapour is such as would practically stop
all radiation if Tyndall's results were correct. The very careful
experiments of E. Lecher and J. Pernter (Phil. Mag., Jan. 1881)
confirmed Tyndall's observations on the absorptive powers of
gases and vapours satisfactorily in nearly all cases with the
single exception of aqueous vapour. They found that there was
no appreciable absorption of heat from a source at 100 C. in
passing through i ft. of air (whether dry or moist), but that
CO and CO 2 at atmospheric pressure absorbed about 8%, and
ethylene (olefiant gas) about 50% in the same distance; the
vapours of alcohol and ether showed absorptive powers of the
same order as that of ethylene. They confirmed Tyndall's
important result that the absorption does not diminish in pro-
portion to the pressure, being much greater in proportion for
smaller pressures in consequence of the selective character of
the effect. They also supported his conclusion that absorptive
power increases with the complexity of the molecule. But they
could not detect any absorption by water vapour at a pressure
of 7 mm., though alcohol at the same pressure absorbed 3%
and acetic acid 10%. Later researches, especially those of
S. P. Langley with the spectre-bolometer on the infra-red
spectrum of sunlight, demonstrated the existence of marked
absorption bands, some of which are due to water vapour.
From the character of these bands and the manner in which
they vary with the state of the air and the thickness traversed,
it may be inferred that absorption by water vapour plays an
important part in meteorology, but that it is too small to be
temperature of the plate. Assuming that the vapour pressure of
the saturated salt solution is only half that of pure water, it would
require an elevation of temperature of 10 C. to dry the rocksalt
plates in saturated air at 15 C. It is only fair to say that the laws
of the vapour pressures of solutions were unknown in Tyndall's
time, and that it was usual to assume that the plates would not
become wetted until the dew-point was reached. The writer has
repeated Tyndall's experiments with a facsimile of one of Tyndall's
tubes in the possession of the Royal College of Science, fitted with
plates of rocksalt cut from the same block as Tyndall's, and therefore
of the same hygroscopic quality. Employing a reflecting galvano-
meter in conjunction with a differential bolometer, which is quicker
in its action than Tyndall's pile, there appears to be hardly any
difference between dry and moist air, provided that the latter is not
more than half saturated. Using saturated air with a Leslie cube
as source of heat, both rocksalt plates invariably become wet in a
minute or two and the absorption rises to 10 or 20% according to
the thickness of the film of deposited moisture. Employing the open
tube method as described by Tyndall, without the rocksalt plates,
the absorption is certainly less than I % in 3 ft. of air saturated at
20 C., unless condensation is induced on the walls of the tube. It
is possible that the walls of Tyndall's tube may have become covered
with a very hygroscopic film from the powder of the calcium chloride
which he was in the habit of introducing near one end. Such a film
would be exceedingly difficult to remove, and would account for thfi
excessive precautions which he found necessary in drying the air
in order to obtain the same transmitting power as a vacuum. It is
probable that Tyndall's experiments on aqueous vapour were effected
by experimental errors of this character.
WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW]
HEAT
readily detected by laboratory experiments in a 4 ft. tube, with-
out the aid of spectrum analysis.
41. Relation between Radiation and Temperature. Assuming, in
accordance with the reasoning of Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff,
that the radiation stream inside an impervious enclosure at a
uniform temperature is independent of the nature of the walls
of the enclosure, and is the same for all substances at the same
temperature, it follows that the full stream of radiation in such
an enclosure, or the radiation emitted by an ideal black body
or full radiator, is a function of the temperature only. The form
of this function may be determined experimentally by observing
the radiation between two black bodies at different temperatures,
which will be proportional to the difference of the full radiation
streams corresponding to their several temperatures. The law
now generally accepted was first proposed by Stefan as an
empirical relation. Tyndall had found that the radiation from
a white hot platinum wire at 1 200 C. was 11-7 times its radiation
when dull red at 525 C. Stefan (Wien. Akad. Ber., 1879, 79,
p. 421) noticed that the ratio 11-7 is nearly that of the fourth
power of the absolute temperatures as estimated by Tyndall.
On making the somewhat different assumption that the radiation
between two bodies varied as the difference of the fourth powers
of their absolute temperatures, he found that it satisfied approxi-
mately the experiments of Dulong and Petit and other observers.
According to this law the radiation between a black body at
a temperature 6 and a black enclosure or a black radiometer
at a temperature should be proportional to (0 4 -0 4 ). The
law was very simple and convenient in form, but it rested so far
on very insecure foundations. The temperatures given by
Tyndall were merely estimated from the colour of the light
emitted, and might have been some hundred degrees in error.
We now know that the radiation from polished platinum is
of a highly selective character, and varies more nearly as the
fifth power of the absolute temperature. The agreement of the
fourth power law with Tyndall's experiment appears therefore
to be due to a purely accidental error in estimating the tempera-
tures of the wire. Stefan also found a very fair agreement with
Draper's observations of the intensity of radiation from a
platinum wire, in which the temperature of the wire was deduced
from the expansion. Here again the apparent agreement was
largely due to errors in estimating the temperature, arising
from the fact that the coefficient of expansion of platinum
increases considerably with rise of temperature. So far as the
experimental results available at that time were concerned,
Stefan's law could be regarded only as an empirical expression
of doubtful significance. But it received a much greater import-
ance from theoretical investigations which were even then in
progress. James Clerk Maxwell (Electricity and Magnetism,
1873) had shown that a directed beam of electromagnetic
radiation or light incident normally on an absorbing surface
should produce a mechanical pressure equal to the energy of the
radiation per unit volume. A. G. Bartoli (1875) took up this idea
and made it the basis of a thermodynamic treatment of radiation.
P. N. Lebedew in 1900, and E. F. Nichols and G.,F. Hull in 1901,
proved the existence of this pressure by direct experiments.
L. Boltzmann (1884) employing radiation as the working sub-
stance in a Carnot cycle, showed that the energy of full
radiation at any temperature per unit volume should be pro-
portional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
This law was first verified in a satisfactory manner by Heinrich
Schneebeli (Wied. Ann., 1884, 22, p. 30). He observed the
radiation from the bulb of an air thermometer heated to known
temperatures through a small aperture in the walls of the furnace.
With this arrangement the radiation was very nearly that of a
black body. Measurements by J.T. Bottomley, August Schleier-
, macher, L. C. H. F. Paschen and others of the radiation from
electrically heated platinum, failed to give concordant results
on account of differences in the quality of the radiation, the
importance of which was not fully realized at first. Later
researches by Paschen with improved methods verified the law,
and greatly extended our knowledge of radiation in other
directions. One of the most complete series of experiments on
the relation between full radiation and temperature is that of
O. R. Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim (Ann. Phys., 1897, 63,
P- 395)- They employed an aperture in the side of an enclosure
at uniform temperature as the source of radiation, and compared
the intensities at different temperatures by means of a bolometer.
The fourth power law was well satisfied throughout the whole
range of their experiments from -190 C. to 2300 C. According
to this law, the rate of loss of heat by radiation R from a body
of emissive power E and surface S at a temperature 6 in an
enclosure at is given by the formula
where a is the radiation constant. The absolute value of a was
determined by F. Kurlbaum using an electric compensation
method (Wied. Ann., 1898, 65, p. 746), in which the radiation re-
ceived by a bolometer from a black body at a known temperature
was measured by finding the electric current required to produce
the same rise of temperature in the bolometer. K. Angstrom
employed a similar method for solar radiation. Kurlbaum gives
thevalue<r= 5-32 X 10 ~ 6 ergs per sq. cm. per sec. C.Christiansen
(Wied. Ann., 1883, 19, p. 267) had previously found a value
about 5 % smaller, by observing the rate of cooling of a copper
plate of known thermal capacity, which is probably a less accurate
method.
42. Theoretical Proof of the Fourth Power Law. The proof given
by Boltzmann may be somewhat simplified if we observe that full
radiation in an enclosure at constant temperature behaves exactly
like a saturated vapour, and must therefore obey Carnot's or Clapey-
ron's equation given in section 17. The energy of radiation per unit
volume, and the radiation-pressure at any temperature, are functions
of the temperature only, like the pressure of a saturated vapour.
If the volume of the enclosure is increased by any finite amount,
the temperature remaining the same, radiation is given off from the
walls so as to fill the space to the same pressure as before. The
heat absorbed when the volume is increased corresponds with the
latent heat of vaporization. In the case of radiation, as in the case
of a vapour, the latent heat consists partly of internal energy of
formation and partly of external work of expansion at constant
pressure. Since in the case of full or undirected radiation the pres-
sure is one-third of the energy per unit volume, the external work
for any expansion is one-third of the internal energy added. The
latent heat absorbed is, therefore, four times the external work of
expansion. Since the external work is the product of the pressure P
and the increase of volume V, the latent heat per unit increase of
volume is four times the pressure. But by Carnot's equation the
latent heat of a saturated vapour per unit increase of volume is
equal to the rate of increase of saturation-pressure per degree divided
by Carnot's function or multiplied by the absolute temperature.
Expressed in symbols we have,
where (dP/d9) represents the rate of increase of pressure. This
equation shows that the percentage rate of increase of pressure is
four times the percentage rate of increase of temperature, or that if
the temperature is increased by I %, the pressure is increased by
4%. This is equivalent to the statement that the pressure varies
as the fourth power of the temperature, a result which is mathematic-
ally deduced by integrating the equation.
43. Wien's Displacement Law. Assuming that the fourth
power law gives the quantity of full radiation at any tempera-
ture, it remains to determine how the quality of the radiation
varies with the temperature, since as we have seen both quantity
and quality are determinate. This question may be regarded
as consisting of two parts, (i) How is the wave-length or
frequency of any given kind of radiation changed when its
temperature is altered? (2) What is the form of the curve
expressing the distribution of energy between the various wave-
lengths in the spectrum of full radiation, or what is the distribu-
tion of heat in the spectrum? The researches of Tyndall,
Draper, Langley and other investigators had shown that while
the energy of radiation of each frequency increased with rise
of temperature, the maximum of intensity was shifted or dis-
placed along the spectrum in the direction of shorter wave-
lengths or higher frequencies. W. Wien (Ann. Phys., 1898,
58, p. 662), applying Doppler's principle to the adiabatic com-
pression of radiation in a perfectly reflecting enclosure, deduced
that the wave-length of each constituent of the radiation should
be shortened in proportion to the rise of temperature produced
156
HEAT
[CURVE IN SPECTRUM
by the compression, in such a manner that the product X0 of
wave-length and the absolute temperature should remain
constant. According to this relation, which is known as Wien's
Displacement Law, the frequency corresponding to the maximum
ordinate of the energy curve of the normal spectrum of full
radiation should vary directly (or the wave-length inversely)
as the absolute temperature, a result previously obtained by
H. F. Weber (1888). Paschen, and Lummer and Pringsheim
verified this relation by observing with a bolometer the intensity
at different points in the spectrum produced by a fluorite prism.
The intensities were corrected and reduced to a wave-length
scale with the aid of Paschen's results on the dispersion formula
of fluorite (Wied Ann., 1894, 53, p. 301). The curves in fig. 7
illustrate results obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim (Ber.
deut. phys. Ges., 1899, i, p. 34) at three different temperatures,
namely 1377, 1087 and 836 absolute, plotted on a wave-
length base with a scale of microns (/i) or millionths of a metre.
The wave-lengths Oa, 06, Oc, corresponding to the maximum
ordinates of each curve, vary inversely as the absolute tempera-
tures given. The constant value of the product X<? at the
maximum point is found to be 2920 Thus for a temperature
of 1000 Abs. the maximum is at wave-length 2-92/4; at 2000
the maximum is at 1-46 p.
44. Form of the Curve representing the Distribution of Energy
in the Spectrum. Assuming Wien's displacement law, it follows
that the form of the curve representing the distribution of
energy in the spectrum of full radiation should be the same
for different temperatures with the maximum displaced in
proportion to the absolute temperature, and with the total area
increased in proportion to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature. Observations taken with a bolometer along the
length of a normal or wave-length spectrum, would give the
form of the curve plotted on a wave-length base. The height of
the ordinate at each point would represent the energy included
between given limits of wave-length, depending on the width
of the bolometer strip and the slit. Supposing that the bolometer
strip had a width corresponding to -oi/i, and were placed at
i-o/i in the spectrum of radiation at 2000 Abs., it would receive
the energy corresponding to wave-lengths between i-oo and
i -oi p. At a temperature of 1000 Abs. the corresponding part
of the energy, by Wien's displacement law, would lie between
the limits 2-00 and 2-02 p, and the total energy between these
limits would be 16 times smaller. But the bolometer strip
placed at 2-0 fj. would now receive only half of the energy, or the
energy in a band -01 /i wide, and the deflection would be 32 times
less. Corresponding ordinates of the curves at different tempera-
tures will therefore vary as the fifth power of the temperature,
when the curves are plotted on a wave-length base. The
maximum ordinates in the curves already given are found to
vary as the fifth powers of the corresponding temperatures.
The equation representing the distribution of energy on a wave-
length base must be of the form
E = CX- 5 F(X9)=C9 6 (X0)- 6 F(X0)
where F(X0) represents some function of the product of the
wave-length and temperature, which remains constant for
corresponding wave-lengths when 9 is changed. If the curves
were plotted on a frequency base, owing to the change of scale,
the maximum ordinates would vary as the cube of the temperature
instead of the fifth power, but the form of the function F would
remain unaltered. Reasoning on the analogy of the distribution
of velocities among the particles of a gas on the kinetic theory,
which is a very similar problem, Wien was led to assume that
the function F should be of the form e-"/, where e is the base
of Napierian logarithms, and c is a constant having the value
14,600 if the wave-length is measured in microns ft. This
expression was found by Paschen to give a vtry good approxima-
tion to the form of the curve obtained experimentally for those
portions of the visible and infra-red spectrum where observations
could be most accurately made. The formula was tested in
two ways: (i) by plotting the curves of distribution of energy
in the spectrum for constant temperatures as illustrated in
fig. 7; (2) by plotting the energy corresponding to a given wave-
length as a function of the temperature. Both methods gave
very good agreement with Wien's formula for values of the
product X0 not much exceeding 3000 A method of isolating
rays of great wave-length by successive reflection was devised
by H. Rubens and E.
F. Nichols (Wied. Ann.,
1897, 60, p. 418). They
found that quartz and
fluorite possessed the
property of selective
reflection for rays of
wave-length 8-8/t and 10
24/1 to 32/1 respec-
tively, so that after
four to six reflections "" a
these rays could be
isolated from a source
at any temperature in
a state of considerable
purity. The residual
impurity at any stage
could be estimated
by interposing a thin
k3 c 4 S 61".
FIG. 7. Distribution of energy in the
spectrum of a black body.
plate of quartz or fluorite which
completely reflected or absorbed the residual rays, but
allowed the impurity to pass. H. Beckmann, under the
direction of Rubens, investigated the variation with tempera-
ture of the residual rays reflected from fluorite employing
sources from -80 to 600 C., and found the results could not
be represented by Wien's formula unless the constant c were
taken as 26,000 in place of 14,600. In their first series of observa-
tions extending to 6 ju O.R. Lummer and E. Pringsheim (Dcut.
phys. Ges., 1899, i,p. 34) found systematic deviations indicating
an increase in the value of the constant c for long waves and
high temperatures. In a theoretical discussion of the subject,
Lord Rayleigh (Phil. Mag., 1900, 49, p. 539) pointed out that
Wien's law would lead to a limiting value CX~ 5 , of the radiation
corresponding to any particular wave-length when the tempera-
ture increased to infinity, whereas according to his view the
radiation . of great wave-length should ultimately increase in
direct proportion to the temperature. Lummer and Pringsheim
(Deut. phys. Ges., 1900, 2. p. 163) extended the range of their
observations to 18/1 by employing a prism of sylvine in place of
fluorite. They found deviations from Wien's formula increasing
to nearly 50% at 18/1, where, however, the observations were
very difficult on account of the smallness of the energy to be
measured. Rubens and F. Kurlbaum (Ann. Phys., 1901. 4,
p. 649) extended the residual reflection method to a temperature
range from 190 to 1500 C., and employed the rays reflected
from quartz 8-8/t,
and rocksalt 51 /*, in
addition to those
from fluorite. It ap-
peared from these
researches that the
rays of great wave-
length from a source
at a high temperature
tended to vary in the
limit directly as the
absolute temperature
of the source, as
suggested by Lord
*
Jl\
\
m=
FlG - 8 -" Distribution of energy in the
T, , . , *. , , spectrum of full radiation at 2000 Abs.
Rayleigh, and could a cordlng to f ormu i ae O f Planck & Wien.
not be represented
by Wien's formula with any value of the constant c. The
simplest type of formula satisfying the required conditions
is that proposed by Max Planck (Ann. Phys., 1901, 4, p. 553)
namely,
which agrees with Wien's formula when 6 is small, where Wien's
formula is known to be satisfactory, but approaches the limiting
HEATH, B. HEATH, N.
157
form E = CX-^/c, when 6 is large, thus satisfying the condition
proposed by Lord Rayleigh. The theoretical interpretation of
this formula remains to some extent a matter of future investiga-
tion, but it appears to satisfy experiment within the limits of
observational error. In order to compare Planck's formula
graphically with Wien's, the distribution curves corresponding
to both formulae are plotted in fig. 8 for a temperature of 2000
abs., taking the value of the constant
c= 14,600 with a scale of wave-length
in microns /i. The curves in fig. 9
illustrate the difference between the
two formulae for the variation of the
intensity of radiation corresponding to
a fixed wave-length 30 p. Assuming
Wien's displacement law, the curves
may be applied to find the energy for
any other wave-length or temperature,
by simply altering the wave-length
scale in inverse ratio to the tempera-
ture, or vice versa. Thus to find the
distribution curve for 1000 abs., it is
only necessary to multiply all the
numbers in the wave-length scale of
fig. 8 by 2; or to find the variation
FIG. 9. Variation of
energy of radiation cor-
responding to wave-
length 30 it, with tem-
perature of source.
curve for wave-length 60 n, the numbers on the temperature scale
of fig. 9 should be divided by 2. The ordinate scales must be
increased in proportion to the fifth power of the temperature, or
inversely as the fifth power of the wave-length respectively
in figs. 8 and 9 if comparative results are required for different
temperatures or wave-lengths. The results hitherto obtained
for cases other than full radiation are not sufficiently simple and
definite to admit of profitable discussion in the present article.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. It would not be possible, within the limits of an
article like the present, to give tables of the specific thermal properties
of different substances so far as they have been ascertained by ex-
periment. To be of any use, such tables require to be extremely
detailed, with very full references and explanations with regard to
the value of the experimental evidence, and the limits within which
the results may be relied on. The quantity of material available
is so enormous and its value so varied, that the most elaborate tables
still require reference to the original authorities. Much information
will be found collected in Landolt and Bornstein's Physical and
Chemical Tables (Berlin, 1905). Shorter tables, such as Everett's
Units and Physical Constants, are useful as illustrations of a system,
but are not sufficiently complete for use in scientific investigations.
Some of the larger works of reference, such as A. A. Winkelmann's
Handbuch der Physik, contain fairly complete tables of specific
properties, but these tables occupy so much space, and are so mis-
leading if incomplete, that they are generally omitted in theoretical
textbooks.
Among older textbooks on heat, Tyndall's Heat may be Recom-
mended for its vivid popular interest, and Balfour Stewart's Heat
for early theories of radiation. Maxwell's Theory of Heat and Tail's
Heat give a broad and philosophical survey of the subject. _ Among
modern textbooks, Preston's Theory of Heat and Poynting and
Thomson's Heat are the best known, and have been brought well
up to date. Sections on heat are included in all the general text-
books of Physics, such as those of Deschanel (translated by Everett),
Ganot (translated by Atkinson), Daniell, Watson, &c. Of the original
investigations on the subject, the most important have already been
cited. Others will be found in the collected papers of Joule, Kelvin
and Maxwell. Treatises on special branches of the subject, such as
Fourier's Conduction of Heat, are referred to in the separate articles
in this encyclopaedia dealing with recent progress, of which the
following is a list: CALORIMETRY, CONDENSATION OF GASES, CON-
DUCTION OF HEAT, DIFFUSION, ENERGETICS, FUSION, LIQUID GASES,
RADIATION, RADIOMETER, SOLUTION, THERMODYNAMICS, THERMO-
ELECTRICITY, THERMOMFTRY, VAPORIZATION. For the practical
aspects of heating see HEATING. (H. L. C.)
HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766), English classical scholar
and bibliophile, was born at Exeter on the 2oth of April 1704.
He was the son of a wealthy merchant, and was thus able to
devote himself mainly to travel and book-collecting. He became
town cleik of his native city in 1752, and held the office till his
death on the i3th of September 1766. In 1763 he had published
a pamphlet advocating the repeal of the cider tax in Devonshire,
and his endeavours led to success three years later. As a classical
scholar he made his reputation by his critical and metrical notes
on the Greek tragedians, which procured him an honorary
D.C.L. from Oxford (315! of March 1752). He also left MS.
notes on Burmann's and Martyn's editions of Virgil, on Euripides,
Catullus, Tibullus, and the greater part of Hesiod. In some of
these he adopts the whimsical name Dexiades Ericius. His
Revisal of Shakespear's Text (1765) was an answer to the " in-
solent dogmatism " of Bishop Warburton. The Essay towards a
Demonstrative Proof of the Divine Existence, Unity and Attributes
(1740) was intended to combat the opinions of Voltaire, Rousseau
and Hume. Two of his sons (among a family of thirteen) were
Benjamin, headmaster of Harrow (1771-1785), and George,
headmaster of Eton (1796). His collection of rare classical works
formed the nucleus of his son Benjamin's famous library (Biblio-
theca Heathiana).
An account of the Heath family will be found in Sir W. R. Drake's
Heathiana (1882).
HEATH, NICHOLAS (c. 1501-1578), archbishop of York and
lord chancellor, was born in London about 1501 and graduated
B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He then migrated to Christ's College,
Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1520, M.A. in 1522, and
was elected fellow in 1524. After holding minor preferments
he was appointed archdeacon of Stafford in 1534 and graduated
D.D. in 1535. He then accompanied Edward Fox (?..), bishop
of Hereford, on his mission to promote a theological and political
understanding with the Lutheran princes of Germany. His
selection for this duty implies a readiness on Heath's part to
proceed some distance along the path of reform; but his dealings
with the Lutherans did not confirm this tendency, and Heath's
subsequent career was closely associated with the cause of re-
action. In 1539, the year of the Six Articles, he was made bishop
of Rochester, and in 1543 he succeeded Latimer at Worcester.
His Catholicism, however, was of a less rigid type than Gardiner's
and Bonner's; he felt something of the force of the national
antipathy to foreign influence, whether ecclesiastical or secular,
and was always impressed by the necessity of national unity,
so far as was possible, in matters of faith. Apparently he made
no difficulty about carrying out the earlier reforms of Edward VI.,
and he accepted the first book of common prayer after it had
been modified by the House of Lords in a Catholic direction.
His definite breach with the Reformation occurred on the
grounds, on which four centuries later Leo XIII. denied the
Catholicity of the reformed English Church, namely, on the
question of the Ordinal drawn up in February 1550. Heath
refused to accept it, was imprisoned, and in 1551 deprived of his
bishopric. On Mary's accession he was released and restored,
and made president of the council of the Marches and Wales.
In 1555 he was promoted to the archbishopric of York, which he
did much to enrich after the Protestant spoliation; he built
York House in the Strand. After Gardiner's death he was
appointed lord chancellor, probably on Pole's recommendation;
for Heath, like Pole himself, disliked the Spanish party in
England. Unlike Pole, however, he seems to have been averse
from the excessive persecution of Mary's reign, and no Protestants
were burnt in his diocese. He exercised, however, little influence
on Mary's secular or ecclesiastical policy.
On Mary's death Heath as chancellor at once proclaimed
Elizabeth. Like Sir Thomas More he held that it was entirely
within the competence of the national state, represented by
parliament, to determine questions of the succession to the
throne; and although Elizabeth did not renew his commission
as lord chancellor, he continued to sit in the privy council for
two months until the government had determined to complete
the breach with the Roman Catholic Church; and as late as
April 1559 he assisted the government by helping to arrange
the Westminster Conference, and reproving his more truculent
co-religionists. He refused to crown Elizabeth because she
would not have the coronation service accompanied with the
elevation of the Host; and ecclesiastical ceremonies and doctrine
could not, in Heath's view, be altered or abrogated by any mere
national authority. Hence he steadily resisted Elizabeth's acts
of supremacy and uniformity, although he had acquiesced in the
acts of 1534 and 1549. Like others of Henry's bishops, he had
been convinced by the events of Edward VI. 's reign that Sir
i 5 8
HEATH, W. HEATH
Thomas More was right and Henry VIII. was wrong in their
attitude towards the claims of the papacy and the Catholic
Church. He was therefore necessarily deprived of his arch-
bishopric in ISS9, but he remained loyal to Elizabeth; and after
a temporary confinement he was suffered to pass the remaining
nineteen years of his life in peace and quiet, never attending
public worship and sometimes hearing mass in private. The
queen visited him more than once at his house at Chobham,
Surrey; he died and was buried there at the end of 1578.
AUTHORITIES. Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Acts of the
Privy Council ; Cal. State Papers, Domestic, Addenda, Spanish and
Venetian; Kemp's Loseley MSS. ; Froude's History; Burnet,
Collier, Dixon and Frere's Church Histories- Strype's Works (General
Index); Parker Soc. Publications (Gough's Index); Birt's Eliza-
bethan Settlement. ( A. F. P.)
HEATH, WILLIAM (1737-1814), American soldier, was born
in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of March 1737 (old
style). He was brought up as a farmer and had a passion for
military exercises. In 1 765 he entered the Ancient and Honour-
able Artillery Company of Boston, of which he became commander
in 1770. In the same year he wrote to the Boston Gazette letters
signed " A Military Countryman, " urging the necessity of
military training. He was a member of the Massachusetts
General Court from 1770 to 1774, of the provincial committee of
safety, and in 1774-1775 of the provincial congress. He was
commissioned a provincial brig. -general in December 1774,
directed the pursuit of the British from Concord (April 19, 1775),
was promoted to be provincial major-general on the 2oth of June
1775, and two days later was commissioned fourth brig.-general
in the Continental Army. He became major-general on the pth
of August 1776, and was in active service around New York
until early the next year. In January 1777 he attempted to
take Fort Independence, near Spuyten Duyvil, then garrisoned
by about 2000 Hessians, but at the first sally of the garrison his
troops became panic-stricken and a few days later he withdrew.
Washington reprimanded him and never again entrusted to him
any important operation in the field. Throughout the war,
however, Heath was very efficient in muster service and in the
barracks. From March 1777 to October 1778 he was in command
of the Eastern Department with headquarters at Boston, and
had charge (Nov. i777~Oct. 1778) of the prisoners of war from
Burgoyne's army held at Cambridge, Massachusetts. In May 1779
he was appointed a commissioner of the Board of War. He was
placed in command of the troops on the E. side of the Hudson
in June 1779, and of other troops and posts on the Hudson in
November of the same year. In July 1780 he met the French
allies under Rochambeau on their arrival in Rhode Island; in
October of the same year he succeeded Arnold in command of
West Point and its dependencies; and in August 1781, when
Washington went south to meet Cornwallis, Heath was left in
command of the Army of the Hudson to watch Clinton. After
the war he retired to his farm at Roxbury, was a member of the
state House of Representatives in 1788, of the Massachusetts
convention which ratified the Federal Constitution in the same
year, and of the governor's council in 1780-1790, was a state
senator (1791-1793), and in 1806 was elected lieutenant-governor
of Massachusetts but declined to serve. He died at Roxbury on
the 24th of January 1814, the last of the major-generals of the
War of American Independence.
See Memoirs of Major-General Heath, containing Anecdotes, Details
of Skirmishes, Battles and other Military Events during the American
War, written by Himself (Boston, 1798; frequently reprinted, perhaps
the best edition being that published in New York in 1901 by William
Abbatt), particularly valuable for the descriptions of Lexington
and Bunker Hill, of the fighting around New York, of the contro-
versies with Burgoyne and his officers during their stay in Boston,
and of relations with Rochambeau; and his correspondence, iThe
Heath Papers, vols. iv.-v., seventh series, Massachusetts Historical
Society Collections (Boston, 1904-1905).
HEATH, the English form of a name given in most Teutonic
dialects to the common ling or heather (Calluna valgaris), but
now applied to all species of Erica, an extensive genus of mono-
petalous plants, belonging to the order Ericaceae. The heaths
are evergreen shrubs, with small narrow leaves, in whorls usually
FIG. i.
Calluna vulgaris.
set rather thickly on the shoots; the persistent flowers have 4
sepals, and a 4-cleft campanulate or tubular corolla, in many
species more or less ventricose or inflated; the dry capsule is
4-celled, and opens, in the true Ericae, in 4 segments, to the
middle of which the partitions adhere, though in the ling the
valves separate at the dissepiments. The plants are mostly of
low growth, but several African kinds reach the size of large
bushes, and a common South European species, E. arborea,
occasionally attains almost the aspect and dimensions of a tree.
One of the best known and most interesting of the family is
the common heath, heather or ling, Calluna vulgaris (fig. i),
placed by most botanists in a separate
genus on account of the peculiar dehiscence
of the fruit, and from the coloured calyx,
which extends beyond the corolla, having
a whorl of sepal-like bracts beneath. This
shrub derives some economic importance
from its forming the chief vegetation on
many of those extensive wastes that occupy
so large a portion of the more sterile lands
of northern and western Europe, the usually
desolate appearance of which is enlivened
in the latter part of summer by its abundant
pink blossoms. When growing erect to the
height of 3 ft. or more, as it often does in
sheltered places, its purple stems, close-
leaved green shoots and feathery spikes
of bell-shaped flowers render it one of the
handsomest of the heaths; but on the
bleaker elevations and more arid slopes it
frequently rises only a few inches above the
ground. In all moorland countries the ling
is applied to many rural purposes; the
larger stems are made into brooms, the
shorter tied up into bundles that serve as
brushes, while the long trailing shoots are
woven into baskets. Pared up with the peat about its roots
it forms a good fuel, often the only one obtainable on the
drier moors. The shielings of the Scottish Highlanders were
formerly constructed of heath stems, cemented together with
peat-mud, worked into a kind of mortar with dry grass or
straw; hovels and sheds for temporary purposes are still
sometimes built in a similar way, and roofed in with ling.
Laid on the ground, with the flowers above, it forms a soft
springy bed, the luxurious couch of the ancient Gael, still gladly
resorted to at times by the hill shepherd or hardy deer-stalker.
The young shoots were in former days employed as a substitute
for hops in brewing, while their astringency rendered them
valuable as a tanning material in Ireland and the Western Isles.
They are said also to have been used by the Highlanders for
dyeing woollen yarn yellow, and other colours are asserted to
have been obtained from them, but some writers appear to con-
fuse the dyer's-weed, Genista tincloria, with the heather. The
young juicy shoots and the seeds, which remain long in the
capsules, furnish the red grouse of Scotland with the larger portion
of its sustenance; the ripe seeds are eaten by many birds. The
tops of the ling afford a considerable part of the winter fodder of
the hill flocks, and are popularly supposed to communicate the
fine flavour to Welsh and Highland mutton, but sheep seldom crop
heather while the mountain grasses and rushes are sweet 'and
accessible. Ling has been suggested as a material for paper,
but the stems are hardly sufficiently fibrous for that purpose.
The purple or fine-leaved heath, E. cinerea (fig. 2), one of the most
beautiful of the genus, abounds on the lower moors and commons
of Great Britain and western Europe, in such situations being
sometimes more prevalent than the ling. The flowers of both
these species yield much honey, furnishing a plentiful supply
to the bees in moorland districts; from this heath honey the
Picts probably brewed the mead said by Boetius to have been
made from the flowers themselves.
The genus contains about 420 known species, by far the greater
part being indigenous to the western districts of South Africa,
HEATHCOAT HEATHFIELD
FIG. 2.
Erica cinerea.
but it is also a characteristic genus of the Mediterranean region,
while several species extend into northern Europe. No species is
native in America, but ling occurs as an introduced plant on the
Atlantic side from Newfoundland to New Jersey. Five species
occur in Britain: E. cinerea, E. letralix (cross-leaved heath),
both abundant on heaths and commons,
E. iiagans, Cornish heath, found only in
West Cornwall, E. ciliaris in the west of
England and Ireland and E. mediterranea
in Ireland. The three last are south-west
European species which reach the northern
limit of their distribution in the west of
England and Ireland. E. scoparia is a
common heath in the centre of France
and elsewhere in the Mediterranean
region, forming a spreading bush several
feet high. It is known as bruyere, and
its stout underground rootstocks yield
the briar-wood used for pipes.
The Cape heaths have long been
favourite objects of horticulture. In the
warmer parts of Britain several will bear
exposure to the cold of ordinary winters
in a sheltered border, but most need the
protection of the conservatory. They are
sometimes raised from seed, but are chiefly
multiplied by cuttings " struck " in sand,
and afterwards transferred to pots filled
with a mixture of black peat and sand; the peat should be dry
and free from sourness. Much attention is requisite in watering
heaths, as they seldom recover if once allowed to droop, while
they will not bear much water about their roots: the heath-
house should be light and well ventilated, the plants requiring
sun, and soon perishing in a close or permanently damp atmo^
sphere; in England little or no heat is needed in ordinary seasons.
The European heaths succeed well in English gardens, only
requiring a peaty soil and sunny situation to thrive as well as in
their native localities: E. carnea, mediterranea, ciliaris, iiagans,
and the pretty cross-leaved heath of boggy moors, E. Tetralix,
are among those most worthy of cultivation. The beautiful large-
flowered St Dabeoc's heath, belonging to the closely allied genus
Dabeocia, is likewise often seen in gardens. It is found in boggy
heaths in Connemara and Mayo, and is also native in West
France, Spain and the Azores.
A beautiful work on heaths is that by H. C. Andrews, containing
coloured engravings of nearly 300 species and varieties, with descrip-
tions in English and Latin (4 vols., 1802-1805).
HEATHCOAT, JOHN (1783-1861), English inventor, was born
at Duffield near Derby on the 7th of August 1783. During his
apprenticeship to a framesmith near Lough borough, he made
an improvement in the construction of the warp-loom, so as to
produce mitts of a lace-like appearance by means of it. He
began business on his own account at Nottingham, but finding
himself subjected to the intrusion of competing inventors he
removed to Hathern. There in 1808 he constructed a machine
capable of producing an exact imitation of real pillow-lace.
This was by far the most expensive and complex textile apparatus
till then existing; and in describing the process of his invention
Heathcoat said in 1836, " The single difficulty of getting the
diagonal threads to twist in the allotted space was so great that,
if now to be done, I should probably not attempt its accomplish-
ment." Some time before perfecting his invention, which he
patented in 1809, he removed to Loughborough, where he
entered into partnership with Charles Lacy, a Nottingham
manufacturer; but in 1816 their factory was attacked by the
Luddites and their 3 5 lace frames destroyed. The damages
were assessed in the King's Bench at 10,000; but as Heathcoat
declined to expend the money in the county of Leicester he never
received any part of it. Undaunted by his loss, he began at
once to construct new and greatly improved machines in an
unoccupied factory at Tiverton, Devon, propelling them by
water-power and afterwards by steam. His claim to the inven-
tion of the twisting and traversing lace machine was disputed,
and a patent was taken out by a clever workman for a similar
machine, which was decided at a trial in 1816 to be an infringe-
ment of Heathcoat's patent. He followed his great invention by
others of much ability, as, for instance, contrivances for orna-
menting net while in coutse of manufacture and for making
ribbons and platted and twisted net upon his machines, improved
yarn spinning-frames, and methods for winding raw silk from
cocoons. He also patented an improved process for extracting
and purifying salt. An offer of 10,000 was made to him in
1833 for the use of his processes in dressing and finishing silk nets,
but he allowed the highly profitable secret to remain undivulged.
In 1832 he patented a steam plough. Heathcoat was elected
member of parliament for Tiverton in 1832. Though he seldom
spoke in the House he was constantly engaged on committees,
where his thorough knowledge of business and sound judgment
were highly valued. He retained his seat until 1859, and after
two years of declining health he died on the i8th of January
1861 at Bolham House, near Tiverton.
HEATHCOTE, SIR GILBERT (c. 1651-1733), lord mayor of
London, belonged to an old Derbyshire family and was educated
at Christ's College, Cambridge, afterwards becoming a merchant
in London. His .trading ventures were very successful; he
was one of the promoters of the new East India company and
he emerged victorious from a contest between himself and the
old East India company in 1693; he was also one of the founders
and first directors of the bank of England. In 1 702 he became
an alderman of the city of London and was knighted; he served
as lord mayor in 1711, being the last lord mayor to ride on horse-
back in his procession. In 1700 Heathcote was sent to parlia-
ment as member for the city of London, but he was soon expelled
for his share in the circulation of some exchequer bills; however,
he was again elected for the city later in the same year, and
he retained his seat until 1710. In 1714 he was member for
Helston, in 1722 for New Lymington, and in 1727 for St
Germans. He was a consistent Whig, and was made a baronet
eight days before his death. Although extremely rich, Heath-
cote's meanness is referred to by Pope; and it was this trait
that accounts largely for his unpopularity with the lower classes.
He died in London on the 251)1 of January 1733 and was buried
at Normanton, Rutland, a residence which he had purchased
from the Mackworths.
A descendant, Sir Gilbert John Heathcote, Bart. (1795-1867),
was created Baron Aveland in 1856; and his son Gilbert Henry,
who in 1888 inherited from his mother the barony of Willoughby
de Eresby, became ist earl of Ancaster in 1892.
HEATHEN, a term originally applied to all persons or races
who did not hold the Jewish or Christian belief, thus including
Mahommedans. It is now more usually given to polytheistic
races, thus excluding Mahommedans. The derivation of the
word has been much debated. It is common to all Germanic
languages ; cf . German Heide, Dutch heiden. It is usually ascribed
to a Gothic hafyi, heath. In Ulfilas' Gothic version of the
Bible, the earliest extant literary monument of the Germanic
languages, the Syrophoenician woman (Mark vii. 26) is called
hafyno, where the Vulgate has gentilis. " Heathen," i.e. the
people of the heath or open country, would thus be a translation
of the Latin paganus, pagan, i.e. the people of the pagus or
village, applied to the dwellers in the country where the worship
of the old gods still lingered, when the people of the towns were
Christians (but see PAGAN for a more tenable explanation of that
term). On the other hand it has been suggested (Prof. S.
Bugge, Indo-German. Forschungen, v. 178, quoted in the New
English Dictionary) that Ulfilas may have adopted the word
from the Armenian heianos, i.e. Greek Wvrj, tribes, races, the
word used for the " Gentiles " in the New Testament. Gentilis
in Latin, properly meaning " tribesman," came to be used of
foreigners and non-Roman peoples, and was adopted in eccle-
siastical usage for the non-Christian nations and in the Old
Testament for non- Jewish races.
HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT, BARON (1717-
1790), British general, a younger son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, Bart.,
i6o
HEATING
of Stobs, Roxburghshire, was born on the 25th of December
1717, and educated abroad for the military profession. As a
volunteer he fought with the Prussian army in 1735 and 1736,
and then entered the Grenadier Guards. He went through the
war of the Austrian Succession, and was wounded at Dettingen,
rising to be lieutenant-colonel in 1 7 54. In 1 7 59 he became colonel
of a new regiment of light horse (afterwards the isth Hussars)
and became well known for the efficiency which it displayed in
the subsequent campaigns. He became lieutenant-general in
1765. In 1775 he was selected to be governor of Gibraltar (q.v.),
and it is in connexion with his magnificent defence in the great
siege of 1779 that his name is famous. His portrait by Sir
Joshua Reynolds is in the National Gallery. In 1787 he was
created Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar, but died on the 6th of
July 1790. He had married in 1748 the heiress of the Drake
family, to which Sir Francis Drake belonged. His son, the
2nd baron, died in 1813 and the peerage became extinct, but
the estates went to the family of Eliott-Drake (baronetcy of
1821) through his sister.
HEATING. In temperate latitudes the climate is generally
such as to necessitate in dwellings during a great portion of the
year a temperature warmer than that out of doors. The object
of the art of heating is to secure this required warmth with the
greatest economy and efficiency. For reasons of health it may
b assumed that no system of heating is advisable which does
not provide for a constant renewal of the air in the locality
warmed, and on this account there is a difficulty in treating as
separate matters the subjects of heating and ventilation, which
in practical schemes should be considered conjointly. (See
VENTILATION).
The object of all heating apparatus is the transference of heat
from the fire to the various parts of the building it is intended
to warm, and this transfer may be effected by radiation, by con-
duction or by convection. An open fire acts by radiation; it
warms the air in a room by first warming the walls, floor, ceiling
and articles in the room, and these in turn warm the air. There-
fore in a room with an open fire the air is, as a rule, less heated
than the walls. In many forms of fireplaces fresh air is brought
in and passed around the back and sides of the stove before being
admitted into the room. A closed stove acts mainly by con-
vection; though when heated to a high temperature it gives
out radiant heat. Windows have a chilling effect on a room,
and in calculations extra allowance should be made for window
areas.
There are a number of methods available for adoption in the
heating of buildings, but it is a matter of considerable difficulty
to suit the method of warming to the class of building to be
warmed. Heating may be effected by one of the following
systems, or installations may be so arranged as to combine the
advantages of more than one method: open fires, closed stoves,
hot-air apparatus, hot water circulating in pipes at low or at high
pressure, or steam at high or low pressure.
The open grate still holds favour in England, though in
America and on the continent of Europe it has been superseded
by the closed stove. The old form of open fire is
tin". certainly wasteful of fuel, and the loss of heat up the
chimney and by conduction into the brickwork
backing of the stove is considerable. Great improvements,
however, have been effected in the design of open fireplaces,
and many ingenious contrivances of this nature are now in the
market which combine efficiency of heating with economy of
fuel. Unless suitable fresh air inlets are provided, this form
of stove will cause the room to be draughty, the strong current
of warm air up the flue drawing cold air in through the crevices
in the doors and windows. The best form of open fireplace is
the ventilating stove, in which fresh air is passed around the
back and sides of the stove before being admitted through
convenient openings into the room. This has immense advantages
over the ordinary type of fireplace. The illustrations show
two forms of ventilating fireplace, one (fig. i) similar in appearance
to the ordinary domestic grate, the other (fig. 2) with descending
smoke flue suitable for hospitals and public rooms, where it
might be fixed in the middle of the apartment. The fixing of
stoves of this kind entails the laying of pipes or ducts from the
open to convey fresh air to the back of the stove.
With closed stoves much less heat is wasted, and consequently
less fuel is burned, than with open grates, but they often cause
an unpleasant sensation of dryness in the air, and the
products of combustion also escape to some extent,
rendering this method of heating not only unpleasant
but sometimes even dangerous. The method in Great Britain
is almost entirely confined to places of public assembly, but in
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
America and on the continent of Europe it is much used for
domestic heating. If the flue pipe be carried up a considerable
distance inside the apartment to be warmed before being turned
into the external air, practically the whole of the heat generated
will be utilized. Charcoal, coke or anthracite coal are the fuels
generally used in slow combustion heating stoves.
Gas fires, as a substitute for the open coal fire, have many
points in their favour, for they are conducive to cleanliness, they
need but little attention, and the heat is easily controlled.
On the other hand, they may give off unhealthy
fumes and produce unpleasant odours. They usually
take the form of cast iron open stoves fitted with a number of
Bunsen burners which heat perforated lumps of asbestos. The
best form of stove is that with which perfect combustion is
most nearly attained, and to which a pan of water is affixed to
supply a desirable humidity to the air, the gas having the effect
of drying the atmosphere. With another form of gas stove
coke is used in place of the perforated asbestos; the fire is
started with the gas, which, when the coke is well alight, may
be dispensed with, and the fire kept up with coke in the usual
way.
Electrical heating appliances have only recently passed the
experimental stage; there is, however, undoubtedly a great
future for electric heating, and the perfecting of the
stove, together with the cheapening of the electric
current, may be expected to result in many of the
other stoves and convectors being superseded. Hitherto the
large bill for electric energy has debarred the general use of
electrical heating, in spite of its numerous advantages.
Oils are powerful fuels, but the high price of refined petroleum ,
the oil generally preferred, precludes its widespread use for
many purposes for which it is suitable. In small
stoves for warming and for cooking, petroleum presents stoves
some advantages over other fuels, in that there is no
chimney to sweep, and if well managed no unpleasant fumes,
and the stoves are easily portable. On the other hand, these
stoves need a considerable amount of attention in filling, trimming
and cleaning, and there is some risk of explosion and damage by
accidental leaking and smoking. Crude or unrefined petroleum
needs a special air-spray pressure burner for its use, and this
suffers from the disadvantage of being noisy. Gas and oil
radiators would be more properly termed " convectors," since
they warm mainly by converted currents. They are similar
in appearance to a hot-water or steam radiator, and, indeed,
some are designed to be filled with water and used as such.
They should always be fitted with a pan of water to supply the
necessary humidity to the warmed air, and a flue to carry off
any disagreeable fumes.
HEATING
161
Warm
air.
Ouerflt
Combined feed &
tupunlion tank
Heating by warmed air, one of the oldest methods in use,
has been much improved by attention to the construction of
the apparatus, and if properly installed will give as
good effects as it is possible to obtain. The system
is especially suitable for churches, assembly halls and
large rooms. A stove of special design is placed in a chamber
in the basement or cellar, and cold fresh air is passed through
it, and led by means of flues to the various apartments for dis-
tribution by means of easily regulated inlet valves. To prevent
the atmosphere from becoming unduly dry a pan of water is
fitted to the stove; this serves to moisten the air before it
passes into the distributing flues. If each distributing flue is
connected by means of a mixing valve with a cold-air flue, the
warmth of the incoming air can be regulated to a nicety (see
VENTILATION).
There are many different systems of heating by hot water
circulating in pipes. The oldest and best known is the " two
Low P'P e " svs tem, others being the " one pipe " or " simple
pressure circuit," and the " drop " or " overhead." The high
hot pressure system is of later invention, having been
first put to practical use by A. M. Perkins in 1845.
All these methods warm chiefly by means of convected heat,
the amount of true radiation from the pipes being small. The
manner in which the circulation of hot water takes place in the
tubes is as follows. Fire heats the water in a boiler from the top
of which a " flow " pipe communicates with the rooms to be
warmed (fig. 3). As the water is heated it becomes lighter,
r rises to the top of the boiler,
/ and passes along the flow
/coid metir pipe. It is followed by
*"""""" more and more hot water,
and so travels along the flow
pipe, which is rising all the
time, to the farthest point
of the circuit, by which
time it has in aU proba-
bility cooled considerably.
From this point the " re-
turn " pipe drops, usually at
the same rate as the flow
pipe rises; and in due course
the water reaches its start-
ing point, the boiler, and is
again heated and again cir-
culated through the system.
The connexion of the return
pipe is made with the lower
part of the boiler. Branches
may be made from the main
pipes by means of smaller
pipes arranged in the same
manner as the mains, the
branch flow pipe being con-
nected with the main flow
pipe and returning into the
FIG. 3. main return. To obtain a
larger heating surface than
a pipe affords, radiators are connected with the pipes where
desired, and the water passing through them warms the sur-
rounding air.
The " one pipe " system (fig. 4) acts on precisely the
same principle, but in place of two pipes being placed
in adjacent positions one large main makes a complete
circuit of the area to be warmed, starting from and return-
ing to the boiler, and from this main flow and return branches
are taken and connected with radiators and other heating
appliances.
In the " drop " or " overhead " system (fig. 5) a rising main
is taken directly from the boiler to the topmost floor of the
building, and from this branches are dropped to the lower floors,
and connected by means of smaller branches to radiators or
coils. The vertical branches descend to the basement and
xui. 6
f. denotes radiator
V. ,, regulating value
generally merge in a single return pipe which is connected to
the lower part of the boiler.
The rate of circulation in the ordinary low pressure hot-water
system may be considerably accelerated by means of steam
injections. The water after being heated passes into a circulating
ft. denotty radiator
V. .. regulating Mint
syttem
FIG. 4.
tank into which steam is introduced; this, mixing with the hot
water, gives it additional motive power, resulting in a faster
circulation. This steam condensing adds to the water in the
pipe and naturally causes an overflow, which is led back to the
boiler and re-used. In districts where the water is hard, this
arrangement considerably lengthens the life of the boiler, as
E
Alternative method
with separate
return pipe
X. devotee radiator
V. regulating I
FIG. 5.
the same water is used over and over again, and no fresh deposit
of fur occurs. Owing to the very rapid movement and the
consequent increased rate of transmission of heat, the pipes and
radiators may be reduced in size, in many circumstances a very
desirable thing to achieve. With this system the temperature
l62
HEATING
hot
water.
Expansion
chamber
Lavatory
basin
s ""faL'
'.Stated by coil .
can be quickly raised and easily controlled. If the weather is
mild, a moderate heat may be obtained by using the apparatus
as an ordinary hot water system, and shutting off the steam
injectors.
The cold-water supply and expansion tank (fig. 3) are often
combined in one tank placed at a point above the level of circula-
tion. The tank should be of a size to hold not less than a
twentieth part of the total amount of water held in the system.
The automatic inlet of cold water to the hot water system from
the main house tank or other source is controlled by a ball valve,
which is so fixed as to allow the water to rise no more than an
inch above the bottom of the tank, thus leaving the remainder
of the space clear for expansion. An overflow is provided,
discharging into the open air to allow the water to escape should
the ball valve become defective.
The " Perkins " or " small bore high pressure " system
(fig. 6) has many advantages, for it is safe, the boiler is small
High and is easily managed, the temperature is well under
pressure control and may be regulated to suit the changing
. weather, and the small pipes present a neat appearance
in a room. The whole system is constructed of wrought
iron pipe of small diameter, strong enough to resist a testing
pressure of 2000 to 2500 Ib per sq. in. The boiler consists of
similar pipe coiled up to form
a fire-box, inside which the
furnace is lighted. The coil
' s encased with firebricks
and brickwork, and the
smoke from the fire is carried
off b y a flue in the ordinary
wa y- Tne flow PiP e of similar
:; iron* o/ntw section (usually having an
internal diameter of about i
in., the metal being nearly \ in.
thick) continues from the top
of the coil, and after travel-
ling round the various apart-
ments returns to, and is
connected with, the lowest
part of the boiler coil. The
joints take a special form to
enable them to withstand the
great strain to which they
are subjected (fig. 7). One
end of a pipe is finished flat,
the end of the other pipe
being brought to a conical
edge. On one end also a
right-handed, and on the
other a left-handed, screw-
thread is turned. A coupling
collar, tapped in the same
manner, is screwed on, and causes the conical edge to impress
itself tightly on the flat end, giving a sound and lasting joint.
The system is hermetically sealed after being pumped full of
water, an expansion chamber in the shape of a pipe of larger
dimensions being provided at the top of the system above
the highest point of circulation. Upon the application of heat
to the fire-box coil the water
naturally expands and forces its
way up into the expansion
chamber; but there it encounters
the pressure of the confined air,
and ebullition is consequently
prevented. Thus at no time
can steam form in the system.
This system is trustworthy and safe in working. The smallness
of the pipes renders it liable to damage by frost, but this accident
may be prevented by always keeping in frosty weather a small
fire in the furnace. If this course is inconvenient, some liquid
of low freezing-point, such as glycerine, may be mixed with the
water.
C. cftnotes radtrttincj coll
V, regulating vatvt
FIG. 6.
FIG. 7.
For large public buildings, factories, &c., heating by steam
is generally adopted on account of the rapidity with which heat
is available, and the great distance from the boiler at
which warming is effected. In the case of factories Bating
the exhaust steam from the engines used for driving
the working machinery is made use of and forms the most
economical method of heating possible. There are several
different systems of heating by steam low pressure, high
pressure and minus pressure.
In the low pressure two pipe system the flow pipe is carried
to a sufficient height directly above the boiler to allow of its
gradual fall to a little beyond the most distant point at which
connexion is to be made with the return pipe, which thence
slopes towards the boiler. Branches are taken off the flow pipe,
and after circulating through coils or radiators are connected
with the return pipe. In a well-proportioned system the pres-
sure need not exceed 2 or 3 Ib per sq. in. for excellent
results to be obtained. The one-pipe system is similar in prin-
ciple, the pipe rising to its greatest height above the boiler
and being then carried around as a single pipe falling all the
while. It resembles in many points the one-pipe low pressure
hot-water system. Radiators are fed directly from the main.
Where, as in factories or workshops, there are already in-stalled
engines working at a high steam pressure, say 120 to 180 Ib per
sq. in., a portion of the steam generated in the boilers may be
utilized for heating by the aid of a reducing valve. The steam
is passed through the valve and emerges at the pressure required
generally from 3 Ib upwards. It is then used for one of the
systems described above.
High-pressure steam-heating, compared with the heating by
low pressure, is little used. The principles are the same as those
applied to low-pressure work, but all fittings and appliances
must, of course, be made to stand the higher strain to which
they are subjected.
The " minus pressure " steam system, sometimes termed
" atmospheric " or " vacuum," is of more recent introduction
than those just described. It is certainly the most scientific
method of steam-heating, and heat can be made to travel a
greater distance by its aid than by any other means. The heat
of the pipes is great, but can be easily regulated. The system
is economical in fuel, but needs skilled attendance to keep the
appliances and fittings in order. The steam is introduced into
the pipes at about the pressure of the atmosphere, and is sucked
through the system by means of a vacuum pump, which at the
same operation frees the pipes from air and from condensation
water. This pumping action results in an extremely rapid
circulation of the heating agent, enabling long distances to be
traversed without much loss of heat.
Compared with heating by hot water, steam-heating requires
less piping, which, further, may be of much smaller diameter
to attain a similar result, because of the higher temperature
of the heat yielding surface. A drawback to the use of steam
is the fact that the high temperature of the pipes and radiators
attracts and spreads a great deal of dust. There is also a risk
that woodwork near the pipes may warp and split. The apparatus
needs constant attention, since neglect in stoking would result
in stopping the generation of steam, and the whole system
would almost immediately cool. To regulate the heat it is
necessary either to instal a number of small radiators or to
divide the radiators into sections, each section controlled by
distinct valves; steam may then be admitted to all the sections
of the radiator or to any less number of sections as desired.
In a hot-water system the heat is given off at a lower temperature
and is consequently more agreeable than that yielded by a
steam-heating apparatus. The joint most commonly used for
hot-water pipes is termed the " rust " joint, which is cheap to
make, but unfortunately is inefficient. The materials required
are iron borings, sal-ammoniac and sulphur; these are mixed
together, moistened with water, and rammed into the socket,
which is previously half filled with yarn, well caulked. The
materials mixed with the iron borings cause them to rust into a
solid mass, and in doing so a slight expansion takes place. On
HEATING
163
this account it is necessary to exercise some skill in forming the
joint, or the socket of the pipe will be split; numbers of pipes
are undoubtedly spoilt in this way. Suitable proportions of
materials to form a rust joint are 90 parts by weight of iron
borings well mixed with 2 parts of flowers of sulphur, and i
part of powdered sal-ammoniac. Another joint, less rigid but
sound and durable, is made with yarn and white and red lead.
The white and red lead are mixed together to form a putty, and
are filled into the socket alternately with layers of well-caulked
yarn, starting with yarn and finishing off with the lead mixture.
Iron expands when heated to the temperature of boiling
water (212 F.) about i part in 900, that is to say, a pipe
100 ft. long would expand or increase in length when
heated to this temperature about i^ in., an amount
which seems small but which would be quite sufficient
to destroy one or more of the joints if provision were not made
to prevent damage. The amount of expansion increases as the
temperature is raised; at 340 F. it is 2j in.
in 100 ft. With wrought iron pipes bends
may be arranged, as shown in fig. 8, to take
up this expansion. With cast iron pipe this
cannot be done, and no length of piping over
40 ft. should be without a proper expansion
joint. The pipes are best supported on rollers
which allow of movement without straining
the joints.
There are several joints in general use for the
best class of work which are formed with the aid of india-rubber
rings or collars, any expansion being divided amongst the whole
number of joints. In the rubber ring joint an india-rubber ring is
used ; slightly less in diameter than the pipe. The rubber is circular
in section, and about 5 in. thick, and is stretched on the extreme
end of a pipe which is then forced into the next socket. This
joint is durable, secure and easily made; it allows for expansion
and by its use the risk of pipe sockets being cracked is avoided.
It is much used for greenhouse heating works. Richardson's
FIG. 8.
Ktibbe:
ring
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
patent joint (fig. 9) is a good form of this class of joint. The
pipes have specially shaped ends between which a rubber collar
is placed, the joint being held together by clips. The result
is very satisfactory and will stand heavy water pressure.
Messenger's joint (fig. 10) is designed to allow more freedom of
expansion and at the same time to withstand considerable
pressure; one loose cast iron collar is used, and another is
formed as a socket on the end of the pipe itself. One end of
each pipe is plain, so that it may be cut to any desired length;
pipes with shaped ends obviously
must be obtained in the exact lengths
required. Jones's expansion joint
(fig. n) is somewhat similar to
Messenger's but it is not capable
of withstanding so great a pressure.
In this case both collars of cast
iron are loose.
Radiators (really convectors) were in their primitive design
coils of pipe, used to give a larger heating area than the single
pipe would afford. They are now usually of special
'' design, and may be divided into three classes indirect
radiators, direct radiators and direct ventilating radiators.
Indirect radiators are placed beneath the floor of the apartment
to be heated and give off heat through a grating. This method
is frequently adopted in combined schemes of heating and
ventilating; the fresh air is warmed by being passed over their
surfaces previously to being admitted through the gratings into
the room. Direct radiators are a development of the early coil
Rulibti
ring
FIG. ii.
Hai '
I
of pipe; they are made in various types and designs and are
usually of cast iron. Ventilating radiators are similar, but have
an inlet arrangement at the base to allow external air to pass
over the heating surface before passing out through the perfora-
tions. Radiators should not be fixed directly on to the main
heating pipe, but always on branches of smaller diameter leading
from the flow pipe to one end of the radiator and back to the
main return pipe from the other end; they may then be easily
controlled by a valve placed on the branch from the flow pipe.
To each radiator should be fitted an air tap, which when opened
will permit the escape of any air that has accumulated in the
coil; otherwise free circulation is impossible, and the full
benefit of the heat is not obtained.
A plentiful supply of hot water is a necessity in every house
for domestic and hygienic purposes. In small houses all require-
ments may be satisfied with a boiler heated by the
kitchen fire. For large buildings where large quantities
of hot water are used an independent boiler of suitable
size should be installed. Every installation is made
up of a boiler or other water heater, a tank or cylinder to contain
the water when heated, and a cistern of cold water, the supply
from which to the system is regulated automatically by a ball
valve. These containers, proportioned to the required supply
of hot water, are connected with each other by means of pipes,
a " flow " and a " return " connecting the boiler with the
cylinder or tank (fig. 12). The flow pipe starts from the top
of the boiler and is connected near the top of the cylinder, the
return pipe joining the
lower portions of the - WOPCOC*.
cylinder and boiler. The
supply from the cold water
cistern enters the bottom
of the cylinder, and thence
travels by way of the re-
turn pipe to the boiler,
where it is heated, and
back through the flow
pipe to the cylinder, which
is thus soon filled with hot
water. A flow pipe which
serves also for expansion
is taken from the top of
the cylinder to a point
above the cold - water
supply and turned down
to prevent the ingress of
dirt. From this pipe at
various points are taken
the supply pipes to baths, p IG I2
lavatories, sinks and other
appliances. It will be observed that in fig. 12 the cylinder
is placed in proximity to the boiler; this is the usual and
most effective method, but it may be placed some distance
away if desired. The tank system is of much earh'er date than
this cylinder system, and although the two resemble each other
in many respects, the tank system is in practice the less effective.
The tank is placed above the level of the topmost draw off, and
often in a cupboard which it will warm sufficiently to permit
of its being, used as a linen airing closet. An expansion pipe is
taken from the top of the tank to a point above the roof. All
draw off services are taken off from the flow pipe which connects
the boiler with the tank. This method differs from that adopted
in the cylinder system, where all services are led from the top
of the cylinder. A suitable proportion between the size of the
tank or cylinder and that of the boiler is 8 or 10 to i. Water
may also be heated by placing a coil of steam or high-pressure
hot- water pipes in a water tank (fig. 6), the water heated in this
way circulating in the manner already described. An alternative
plan is to pass the water through pipes placed in a steam chest.
Cylinders, tanks and independent boilers should be encased
in a non-conducting material such as silicate cotton, thick felt
or asbestos composition. The two first mentioned are affixed
Iraq
Bran a*
164
HEATING
Boilers.
FIG. 13.
heating.
by means of bands or straps or stitched on; the asbestos is laid
on in the form of a plaster from 2 to 6 in. thick.
Taps to baths and lavatories should be connected to the main
services by a flow and return pipe so that hot water is constantly
flowing past the tap, thus enabling hot water to be obtained
immediately. Frequently a single pipe is led to the tap, but the
water in this branch cools and must therefore be drawn off before
hot water can be obtained.
Two classes of boilers are chiefly used in hot-water heating
installations, viz. those heated by the fire of the kitchen range,
and those heated separately or independently. Of
the first class there are two varieties in common use
a form of " saddle " boiler (fig. 13) and the " boot " boiler
(fig. 14). Independent boilers are made in every conceivable
size and form of construction, and many of
them are capable of doing excellent work. In
the choice of a boiler of this description it
should be remembered that rapid heating,
economical combustion of fuel, and facilities
for cleaning, are requisites, the absence of
any of which considerably lowers the efficiency
of the apparatus. Boilers set in brickwork
are sometimes used in domestic work, although
they are more favoured for horticultural
The shape mostly used is the " saddle " boiler, or
some variation upon this very old pattern. The coiled pipe fire-
box of the high-pressure hot-water system previously described
may be also classed with boilers.
A notable feature of modern boiler construction is the mode of
building the apparatus of cast iron in either horizontal or vertical
sections. Both the types intended to be set in brickwork and
those working independently are formed on the sectional
principle, which has many good points. The parts are easy of
transport and can be handled without difficulty through narrow
doorways and in confined situations. The size of the boiler may
be increased or diminished by the addition or subtraction of one
or more sections; these, being simple in design, are easily fitted
together, and should a section become defective it is a simple
matter to insert a new one in its place. Should a defect occur
with a wrought iron boiler it is usually necessary for the purpose
of repair to disconnect and remove the
whole apparatus, the heating system of
which it forms a part being in the
meantime useless. In a type built with
vertical sections each division is complete
in itself, and is not directly connected
with the next section, but communicates
I with flow and return drums. A defective
section may thus be left in position and
stopped off by means of plugs from the
drums until it is convenient to fit a new
one in its place. A boiler with horizontal
sections is shown in fig. 15; it will be
seen that each of the upper sections has a number of cross
waterways which form a series of gratings over the fire-box
and intercept most of the heat generated, effecting great
economy of fuel.
In the ordinary working of a hot-water apparatus the expansion
pipe already referred to will prevent any overdue pressure
occurring in the boiler; should, however, the pipes
become blocked in any way while the apparatus is
in use, or the water in them become frozen, the lighting
of the fire would cause the water to expand, and having no outlet
it would in all probability burst the boiler. To prevent this a
safety valve should be fitted on the top of the boiler, or be con-
nected thereto with a large pipe so as to be visible. The valve
may be of the dead weight (fig. 16), lever weight, spring (fig. 17)
or diaphragm variety. The three first named are largely used.
In the diaphragm valve a thin piece of metal is fixed to an outlet
from the boiler, and when a moderate pressure is exceeded this
gives way, allowing the water and steam to escape.
Fusible plugs are little used; they consist of pieces of softer
FIG. 14.
metal inserted on the side of the boiler, which melt should the
heat of the water rise above a certain temperature.
A " Geyser " is a very convenient form of apparatus for heat-
ing a quantity of water in a short time. A water pipe of copper
or wrought iron is passed through a cylinder in which Qe Kn
gas or oil heating burners are placed. The piping
takes a winding or zigzag course, and by the time the outlet is
reached, the water it contains has reached a high temperature.
// pip.
Flo, ata.
FIG. 15.
By this means a continuous stream of hot water is obtained,
greater or smaller in proportion to the size and power of the
apparatus. The improved types of gas geysers are provided
with a single control to both gas and water supplies, with a
small " pilot " burner to ignite the gas. A flue should in all cases
be provided to carry off the fumes of the fuel.
In districts where the water is of a " hard nature," that is,
contains bicarbonate of lime in solution, the interior of the
boiler, cylinders, tanks and pipes of a hot water
system will become incrusted with a deposit of lime JJJJJJ 1
which is gradually precipitated as the water is heated
to boiling point. With " very hard " water this deposit
may require removal every three months; in London it is
usual to clean out the boiler every six months and the cylinders
and tanks at longer intervals. For this
purpose manlids must be provided (figs.
13 and 14), and pipes should be fitted
with removable caps at the bends to
allow for periodical cleaning. The lime
deposit or " fur " is a poor conductor of
heat, and it is therefore most detrimental
to the efficiency of the system to allow
the interior of the boiler or any other
portion to become furred up. Further, if
not removed, the fur will in a short time
FIG. 16. FIG. 17.
bring about a fracture in'the boiler. The use of soft water entails
a disadvantage of another character that of corroding iron and
lead work, soft water exercising a very vigorous chemical action
HEAVEN HEBBEL
165
upon these metals. In districts supplied with soft water, copper
should be employed to as large an extent as possible.
The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the
radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent
required when the external air is at freezing point (32 Fahr.):
Description of Building
to be heated.
Temperature
required.
Cubic Feet of Air heated by
I sq. ft. of Radiator or
Pipe Surface.
Low Pressure
Water.
Low Pressure
Steam.
Dwelling rooms
Schools
Churches and chapels ....
Offices and shops . . . .
Public halls, workshops, waiting-rooms
Warehouses, stores ....
55-6o
60
55-6o
55-6o
55
50^-55
85-90
90-100
IOO-I2O
I2O-I25
130-150
I4O-I6O
115-125
120-130
135-160
160-170
175-200
190-220
In closing this account of heating and the practical methods
of application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show
the great capabilities of a carefully planned system.
steam fa tne c j t y o f L oc kport m New York state, America,
*Lockport. an interesting example of the direct application of
steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out
under the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses
within a radius of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with
superheated steam at a pressure of 35 Ib to the in. The mains,
the largest of which are 4 in. in diameter, and the smallest
2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and other non-conducting
materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid under ground
like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are 15 in.
in diameter, and f-in. pipes are used inside the houses. The
steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe
radiators, for heating water by steam injections, and for all
cooking purposes. The steam mains to the houses are laid by
the supply company; the internal .pipes and fittings are paid
for or rented by the occupier, costing for an installation from
30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to 100 or more for
larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view
it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance
has not been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.
The principal publications on heating are: Hood, Practical Treatise
on Warming Buildings by Hot Water; Baldwin, Hot Water Heating
and Fittings; Baldwin, Steam Heating for Buildings; Billings,
Ventilation and Heating; Carpenter, Heating and Ventilating
Buildings; Jones, Heating by Hot Water, Ventilation and Hot Water
Supply; Dye, Hot Water Supply. Q. BT.)
HEAVEN (O. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears
in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel,
Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between
the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is
unknown; the suggestion that it is connected with " to heave, "
in the sense of something " lifted up," is erroneous), properly
the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault above the
earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be placed,
the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the
space immediately above the earth,' the atmospheric region
of winds, rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven
and the earth together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers,
and still in poetical language, make up the universe. In the
cosmogonies of many ancient peoples there was a plurality of
heavens, probably among the earlier Hebrews, the idea being
elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the Babylonians and
in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the higher
transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven.
Heaven, as in the Hebrew shamayim, the Greek o&pawfc, the
Latin caelum, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian
eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see
ESCHATOLOGY and PARADISE).
HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1813-1863), German
poet and dramatist, was born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen,
Holstein, on the i8th of March 1813. Though only the son of a
poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for poetry, which was
first displayed to the world by the publication, in the Hamburg
Modezeitung, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe
(1791-1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery
tales. Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several
of her friends on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg
and there prepare himself for the university.
A year later he went to Heidelberg to study
law, but finding this uncongenial he passed
on to the university of Munich, where he
devoted himself to philosophy, history and
literature. In 1839 Hebbel left Munich and
wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where
he resumed his relations with Elsie Lensing,
whose self-sacrificing assistance had helped
him over the darkest days in Munich. In
the same year he wrote his first tragedy
Judith (published 1841), which in the
following year was performed in Hamburg
and Berlin and made his name known throughout Germany.
In 1840 he wrote the tragedy Genoveva, and the following year
finished a comedy, Der Diamant, which he had begun at Munich,
In 1842 he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the
king of Denmark a small travelling studentship, which enabled
him to spend some time in Paris and two years (1844-1846) in
Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine " tragedy of common life,"
Maria Magdalene (1844). On his return from Italy Hebbel
met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di
Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to
remain, and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best
intellectual society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted
life of ease had its effect. The old precarious existence became
a horror to him, he made a deliberate breach with it by marrying
(in 1846) the beautiful and wealthy actress Christine Enghaus,
ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who had given up all for him and
who remained faithful till her death, on the ground that " a
man's first duty is to the most powerful force within him, that
which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the
world": in his case the poetical faculty, which would have
perished " in the miserable struggle for existence." This "deadly
sin," which, " if peace of conscience be the test of action," was,
he considered, the best act of his life, established his fortunes.
Elise, however, still provided useful inspiration for his art. As
late as 1855, shortly after her death, he wrote the little epic
Mutter und Kind, intended to show that the relation of parent
and child is the essential factor which makes the quality of
happiness among all classes and under all conditions equal.
Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German sovereigns
bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he
was fted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From
the grand-duke of Saxe- Weimar he received a flattering invitation
to take up his residence at Weimar, where several of his plays
were first performed. He remained, however, at Vienna unyi
his death on the i3th of December 1863.
Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel's principal
tragedies are Herodes und Mariamne (1850); Julia (1851);
Michel Angelo (1851); Agnes Bernauer (1855); Gyges und sein
Ring (1856), and the magnificently conceived trilogy Die
Nibelungen (1862), his last work (consisting of a prologue, Der
gehornte Siegfried, and the tragedies, Siegfrieds Tod and Kriem-
hilds Rache), which won for the author the Schiller prize. Of
his comedies Der Diamant (1847), Der Rubin (1850), and the
tragi-comedy Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien (1845), are the more
important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity.
All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in character-
ization, great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic
situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by
extravagances which border on the grotesque, and by the intro-
duction of incidents the unpleasant character of which is not
sufficiently relieved. In many of his lyric poems, and especially
in Mutter und Kind, published in 1859, Hebbel showed that his
poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.
His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols.,
i66
HEBBURN HEBER, REGINALD
Hamburg, 1866-1868); revised by H. Krumm (12 vols., Hamburg,
1892). The best critical edition is that by R. M. Werner (12 vols.,
1901-1903), to which have been added Hebbel's Diaries (4 vols.)
and Correspondence (6 vols.). Hebbel's Briehvechsel mil Freunden
und beruhmten Zeitgenossen was issued by F. Bamberg (1890-1892).
The chief biographies of Hebbel are those by E. Kuh (1877) and
R. M. Werner (1905). See also L. A. Frankl, Zur Biographie F.
Hebbels (1884); T. Poppe, F. Hebbel und sein Drama (1900); A.
Scheunert, Der Pantragismus als System der Weltanschauung und
Asthetik Hebbels (1903); E. A. Georgy, Die Tragodie F. Hebbels
nach ihrem Ideengehalt (1904).
HEBBURN, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary
division of Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne,
45 m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern
railway. Pop. (1881), 11,802; (1901), 20,901. It has extensive
shipbuilding and engineering works, rope and sail factories,
chemical, colour and cement works, and collieries.
HEBDEN BRIDGE, an urban district in the Sowerby parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
on the Calder and Hebden rivers, 7 m. W. by N. of Halifax
by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 7536.
The town has cotton factories, dye-works, foundries and manu-
factories of shuttles. The upper Calder valley, between Halifax
and Todmorden, is walled with bold hills, the summits of which
consist of wild moorland. The vale itself is densely populated,
but its beauty is not destroyed, and the contrast with its desolate
surroundings is remarkable.
HEBE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus and Hera, the
goddess of youth. In the Homeric poems she is the female
counterpart of Ganymede, and acts as cupbearer to the gods
(Iliad, iv. 2). She was the special attendant of her mother,
whose horses she harnessed (Iliad, v. 722). When Heracles
was received amongst the gods, Hebe was bestowed upon him in
marriage (Odyssey, xi. 603). When the custom of the heroic
age, which permitted female cupbearers, fell into disuse, Hebe
was replaced by Ganymede in the popular mythology. To
account for her retirement from her office, it was said that she
fell down in the presence of the gods while handing the wine,
and was so ashamed that she refused to appear before them
again. Hebe exhibits many striking points of resemblance with
the pure Greek goddess Aphrodite. She is the daughter of Zeus
and Hera, Aphrodite of Zeus and Dione; but Dione and Hera
are often identified. Hebe is called Dia, a regular epithet of
Aphrodite; at Phlius, a festival called KWO-OTOJUOI (the days of
ivy-cutting) was annually celebrated in her honour (Pausanias,
ii. 13); and ivy was sacred also to Aphrodite. The apotheosis
of Heracles and his marriage with Hebe became a favourite
subject with poets and painters, and many instances occur on
vases. In later art she is often represented, like Ganymede,
caressing the eagle.
See R. Kekule', Hebe (1867), mainly dealing with the represen-
tations of Hebe in art ; and P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio's
Dictionnaire des antiquites.
f The meaning of the word Hebe tended to transform the
goddess into a mere personification of the eternal youth that
belongs to the gods, and this conception is frequently met with.
Then she becomes identical with the Roman Juventas, who is
simply an abstraction of an attribute of Jupiter Juventus,
the god of increase and blessing and youth. To Juventas, as
personifying the eternal youth of the Roman state, a chapel
was dedicated in very early times in the cella of Minerva in
the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. With this temple is connected
the legend of Juventas and Terminus, who alone of all the gods
refused to give way when it was being built an indication of the
eternal solidity and youth of Rome. The cult of Juventas did
not, however, become firmly established until the time of the
second Punic war. In 218 the Sibylline books ordered a lecti-
sternium in honour of Juventas and a supplicatio in honour of
Hercules, and in 191 a temple was dedicated in her honour in
the Circus Maximus. In later times Juventas became the
personification, not of the Roman youth, but of the emperor,
who assumed the attributes of a god (Livy v. 54, xxi. 62,
xxxvi. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 69; G. Wissowa in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie).
HEBEL, JOHANN PETER (1760-1826), German poet and
popular writer, was born at Basel on the loth of May 1760.
The father dying when the child was little over a year old, he
was brought up amidst poverty-stricken conditions in the village
of Hausen in the Wiesental, where he received his earliest
education. Being of brilliant promise, he found friends who
enabled him to complete his school education and to study
theology (1778-1780) at Erlangen. At the end of his university
course he was for a time a private tutor, then became teacher at
the Gymnasium in Karlsruhe, and in 1808 was appointed director
of the school. He was subsequently appointed member of the
Consistory and " evangelical prelate." He died at Schwetzingen,
near Heidelberg, on the 22nd of September 1826. Hebel is one
of the most widely read of all German popular poets and writers.
His poetical narratives and lyric poems, written in the " Alemanic"
dialect, are " popular " in the best sense. His Allemannische
Gedichte (1803) " bucolicize," in the words of Goethe, " the
whole world in the most attractive manner " (verbauert das ganze
Universum auf die anmuligste Weise). Indeed, few modern
German poets surpass him in fidelity, naivete, humour, and in the
freshness and vigour of his descriptions. His poem, Die Wiese,
has been described by Johannes Scherr as the " pearl of German
idyllic poetry"; while his prose writings, especially the narra-
tives and essays contained in the Schatzkastlein des rheinischen
Hausfreundes (Tubingen, 1811; new edition, Stuttg. 1869,
1888), belong to the best class of German stories, and according
to August Friedrich Christian Vilmar (1800-1868) in his Geschichte
der deutschen Lileratur are " worth more than a cartload of
novels " (wiegen ein ganzes Fuder Romane auf). Memorials
have been erected to him at Karlsruhe, Basel and Schwetzingen.
A complete edition of Hebel's works Samtliche Werke was
first published at Stuttgart in 8 vols. (1832-1834); subsequent
editions appeared in 1847 (3 vols.), 1868 (2 vols.), 1873 (edited by
G. Wendt, 2 vols.), 1883-1885 (edited by O. Behaghel, 2 vols.) and
1905 (edited by E. Keller, 5 vols.), as well as innumerable reprints.
Hebel's correspondence has been edited by O. Behaghel (1883).
See G. Langin, J. P. Hebel, ein Lebensbild (1894), and the introduction
to Behaghel's edition.
HEBER, REGINALD (1783-1826), English bishop and hymn-
writer, was born at Malpas in Cheshire on the 2ist of April
1783. His father, who belonged to an old Yorkshire family,
held a moiety of the living of Malpas. Reginald Heber early
showed remarkable promise, and was entered in November 1800
at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he proved a distinguished
student, carrying off prizes for a Latin poem entitled Carmen
seculare, an English poem on Palestine, and a prose essay on
The Sense of Honour. In November 1804 he was elected a
fellow of All Souls College; and, after finishing his distinguished
university career, he made a long tour in Europe. He was
admitted to holy orders in 1807, and was then presented to the
family living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In 1809 Heber married
Amelia, daughter of Dr Shipley, dean of St Asaph. He was
made prebendary of St Asaph in 1812, appointed Bampton
lecturer for 1815, preacher at Lincoln's Inn in 1822, and bishop
of Calcutta in January 1823. Before sailing for India he received
the degree of D.D. from the university of Oxford. In India
Bishop Heber laboured indefatigably, not only for the good of
his own diocese, but for the spread of Christianity throughout
the East. He undertook numerous tours in India, consecrating
churches, founding schools and discharging other Christian
duties. His devotion to his work in a trying climate told severely
on his health. At Trichinopoly he was seized with an apoplectic
fit when in his bath, and died on the 3rd of April 1826. A
statue of him, by Chantrey, was erected at Calcutta.
Heber was a pious man of profound learning, literary taste
and great practical energy. His fame rests mainly on his
hymns, which rank among the best in the English language.
The following may be instanced: " Lord of mercy and of
might"; "Brightest and best of the sons of the morning ";
" By cool Siloam's shady rill "; " God, that madest earth
and heaven"; "The Lord of might from Sinai's brow";
" Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty "; " From Greenland's
icy mountains "; " The Lord will come, the earth shall quake ";
HEBER, RICHARD HEBREW LANGUAGE
167
" The Son of God goes forth to war." Heber's hymns and other
poems are distinguished by finish of style, pathos and soaring
aspiration; but they lack originality, and are rather rhetorical
than poetical in the strict sense.
Among Heber's works are: Palestine: a Poem, to which is added
the Passage of the Red Sea (1809) ; Europe: Lines on the Present War
(1809); a volume of poems in 1812; The Personality and Office of
the Christian Comforter asserted and explained (being the Bampton
Lectures for 1815); The Whole Works of Bishop Jeremy Taylor, with
aLifeof the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings (1822);
Hymns written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year,
principally by Bishop Heber (1827) ; A Journey through India (1828) ;
Sermons preached in England, and Sermons preached in India (1829) ;
Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle for every Sunday in
the Year (1837). The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber were collected
in 1841.
See the Life of Reginald Heber, D.D . . . ., by his widow, Amelia
Heber (1830), which also contains a number of Heber's miscellaneous
writings; The Last Days of Bishop Heber, by Thomas Robinson,
A.M., archdeacon of Madras (1830) ; T. S. Smyth, The Character
and Religious Doctrine of Bishop Heber (1831), and Memorials of a
Quiet Life, by Augustus J. C. Hare (1874).
HEBER, RICHARD (1773-1833), English book-collector,
the half-brother of Reginald Heber, was born in London on
the 5th of January 1773. As an undergraduate at Brasenose
College, Oxford, he began to collect a purely classical library,
but his taste broadening, he became interested in early English
drama and literature, and began his wonderful collection of rare
books in these departments. He attended continental book-
sales, purchasing sometimes single volumes, sometimes whole
libraries. Sir Walter Scott, whose intimate friend he was, and
who dedicated to him the sixth canto of Marmion, classed
Heber's library as " superior to all others in the world ";
Campbell described him as " the fiercest and strongest of all the
bibliomaniacs." He did not confine himself to the purchase
of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. " No gentleman,"
he remarked, " can be without three copies of a book, one for
show, one for use, and one for borrowers." To such a size did
his library grow that it over-ran eight houses, some in England,
some on the Continent. It is estimated to have cost over 100,000,
and after his death the sale of that part of his collection stored
in England realized more than 56,000. He is known to have
owned 1 50,000 volumes, and probably many more. He possessed
extensive landed property in Shropshire and Yorkshire, and was
sheriff of the former county in 1821, was member of Parliament
for Oxford University from 1821-1826, and in 1822 was made
a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the
Athenaeum Club, London. He died in London on the 4th of
October 1833.
HEBERDEN, WILLIAM (1710-1801), English physician, was
born in London in 1710. In the end of 1724 he was sent to St
John's College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship
about 1730, became master of arts in 1732, and took the degree
of M.D. in 1739. He remained at Cambridge nearly ten years
longer practising medicine, and gave an annual course of lectures
on materia medica. In 1746 he became a fellow 6f the Royal
College of Physicians in London; and two years later he settled
in London, where he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1749, and enjoyed an extensive medical practice for more
than thirty years. At the age of seventy-two he partially
retired, spending his summers at a house which he had taken
at Windsor, but he continued to practise in London during the
winter for some years longer. In 1778 he was made an honorary
member of the Paris Royal Society of Medicine. He died in
London on the I7th of May 1801. Heberden, who was a good
classical scholar, published several papers in the Phil. Trans.
of the Royal Society, and among his noteworthy contributions
to the Medical Transactions (issued, largely at his suggestion, by
the College of Physicians) were papers on chicken-pox (1767)
and angina pectoris (1768). His Commentarii de morborum
historia et curatione, the result of careful notes made in his
pocket-book at the bedside of his patients, were published in
1802; in the following year an English translation appeared,
believed to be from the pen of his son, William Heberden (1767-
1845), also a distinguished scholar and physician, who attended
King George III. in his last illness.
HEBERT, EDMOND (1812-1890), French geologist, was
born at Villefargau, Yonne, on the i2th of June 1812. He was
educated at the College de Meaux, Auxerre, and at the Ecole
Normale in Paris. In 1836 he became professor at Meaux,
in 1838 demonstrator in chemistry and physics at the Ecole
Normale, and in 1841 sub-director of studies at that school and
lecturer on geology. In 1857 thedegree of D.es Sc. wasconferred
upon him, and he was appointed professor of geology at the
Sorbonne. There he was eminently successful as a teacher,
and worked with great zeal in the field, adding much to the
knowledge of the Jurassic and older strata. He devoted, how-
ever, special attention to the subdivisions of the Cretaceous
and Tertiary formations in France, and to their correlation with
the strata in England and in southern Europe. To him we owe
the first definite arrangement of the Chalk into palaeontological
zones (see Table in Geol. Mag., 1869, p. 200). During his later
years he was regarded as the leading geologist in France. He
was elected a member of the Institute in 1877, Commander
of the Legion of Honour in 1885, and he was three times president
of the Geological Society of France. He died in Paris on the
4th of April 1890.
HUBERT, JACQUES RENE (1757-1794), French Revolutionist,
called " Pere Duchesne," from the newspaper he edited, was
born at Alen^on, on the i5th of November 1757, where his
father, who kept a goldsmith's shop, had held some municipal
office. His family was ruined, however, by a lawsuit while
he was still young, and Hebert came to Paris, where in his
struggle against poverty he endured great hardships; the
accusations of theft directed against him later by Camille
Desmoulins were, however, without foundation. In 1790 he
attracted attention by some pamphlets, and became a prominent
member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791. On the loth of
August 1792 he was a member of the revolutionary Commune
of Paris, and became se'cond substitute of the procureur of the
Commune on the 2nd of December 1792'. His violent attacks
on the Girondists led to his arrest on the 24th of May 1793, but
he was released owing to the threatening attitude of the mob.
Henceforth very popular, Hebert organized with P. G. Chaumette
(q.v.) the "worship of Reason," in opposition to the theistic
cult inaugurated by Robespierre, against whom he tried to excite
a popular movement. The failure of this brought about the
arrest of the Hebertists, or enrages, as his partisans were called.
Hebert was guillotined on the 24th of March 1794. His wife,
who had been a nun, was executed twenty days later. Hubert's
influence was mainly due to his articles in his journal Le Pere
Duchesne, 1 which appeared from 1790 to 1794. These articles,
while not lacking in a certain cleverness, were violent and
abusive, and purposely couched in foul language in order to
appeal to the mob.
See Louis Duval, " Hubert chez lui," in La Revolution Fran$aise,
revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, t. xii. and t. xiii. ; D. Mater,
J. R. Hebert, I'auteur du Pbre Duchesne avant lajournee du 10 aout
1792 (Bpurges, Comm. Hist, du Cher, 1888); F. A. Aulard, Le Culte
de la raison et de Vetre supreme (Paris, 1892).
HEBREW LANGUAGE. The name " Hebrew " is derived,
through the Greek 'E/3p<uos, from 'ibhray, the Aramaic equivalent
of the Old Testament word 'ibhri, denoting the people who
commonly spoke of themselves as Israel or Children of Israel
from the name of their common ancestor (see JEWS). The
later derivative Yisra'eli, Israelite, from Yisra'el, is not found
in the Old Testament. 2 Other names used for the language of
Israel are speech of Canaan (Isa. xix. 18) and Yehtidhith, Jewish,
(2 Kings xviii. 26). In later times it was called the holy tongue.
The real meaning of the word 'ibhri must ultimately be sought
in the root 'abhar, to pass across, to go beyond, from which is
derived the noun 'ebher, meaning the " farther bank " of a river.
The usual explanation of the term is that of Jewish tradition
1 There were several journals of this name, the best known of the
others being that edited by Lemaire.
1 In 2 Sam. xvii. 25 Israelite should be Ishmaelite, as in, the
parallel passage I Chron. ii. 17.
i68
HEBREW LANGUAGE
that 'ibhrl means the man " from the other side," i.e. either of
the Euphrates or the Jordan. Hence the Septuagint in Gen.
xiv. 13 render Abram ha-'ibhri by 6 Trepon/s, the " Grosser,"
and Aquila, following the same tradition, has 6 TrepaiTTjs, the
man " from beyond." This view of course implies that the term
was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a people
living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has
been suggested that the root 'abhar is to be taken in the sense
of " travelling," and that Abram the wandering Aramaean
(Deut. xxvi. 5) was called ha-'ibhri because he travelled about
for trading purposes, his language, 'ibhri, being the lingua
franca of Eastern trade. The use of the term e/3pai'<m for
biblical Hebrew is first found in the Greek prologue to Ecclesi-
asticus (c. 130 B.C.). In the New Testament it denotes the native
language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being popularly
confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name
Hebrew is applied to that branch of the northern part of the
Semitic family of languages which was used by the Israelites
during most of the time of their national existence in Palestine,
and in which nearly all their sacred writings are composed. As
to its characteristics and relation to other languages of the same
stock, see SEMITIC LANGUAGES. It also includes the later forms
of the same language as used by Jewish writers after the close
of the Canon throughout the middle ages (Rabbinical Hebrew)
and to the present day (New Hebrew).
Before the rise of comparative philology it was a popular
opinion that Hebrew was the original speech of mankind, from
which all others were descended. This belief, derived from the
Jews (cf. Pal. Targ. Gen. xi. i), was supported by the etymologies
and other data supplied by the early chapters of Genesis. But
though Hebrew possesses a very old literature, it is not, as we
know it, structurally as early as, e.g. Arabic, or, in other words,
it does not come so near to that primitive Semitic speech which
may be pre-supposed as the common parent of all the Semitic
languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet,
which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of
expressing vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the
development of the language. In its earliest form it was no
doubt most closely allied to the Canaanite or Phoenician stock,
to the language of Moab, as revealed by the stele of Mesha
(c. 850 B.C.), and to Edomite. The vocalization of Canaanite,
as far as it is known to us, e.g. from glosses in the Tell-el-Amarna
tablets (isth century B.C.) 1 and much later from the Punic
passages in the Poenulus of Plautus, differs in many respects
from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the
Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity,
however, of the Old Testament text is due to the labours of
successive schools of grammarians who elaborated the Massorah
(see HEBREW LITERATURE), thereby obliterating local or dialectic
differences, which undoubtedly existed, and establishing the
pronunciation current in the synagogues about the 7th century
A.D. The only mention of such differences in the Old Testament
is in Judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites pro-
nounced & (sh) as iff or D (s). In Neh. xiii. 24, the "speech
of Ashdod " is more probably a distinct (Philistine) language.
Certain peculiarities in the language of the Pentateuch (KII for
K-.I, tyi for tryn), which used to be regarded as archaisms,
are to be explained as purely orthographical. 2 In a series of
writings, however, extending over so long a period as those of
the Old Testament, some variation or development in language
is to be expected apart from the natural differences between the
poetic (or prophetic) and prose styles. The consonantal text
sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In general,
the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking,
a greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency
to Aramaisms. For some centuries after the Exile, the people
of Palestine must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for
ordinary purposes, but still at least understanding Hebrew.
Not that they forgot their own tongue in the Captivity and learnt
Aramaic in Babylon, as used to be supposed. In the western
1 See Zimmern, in Ztsch. fur Assyriol. (1891), p. 154.
2 See Gesenius-Kautzsch, Hebr. Gram. 17 c.
provinces of the Persian empire Aramaic was the official lan-
guage, spoken not only in Palestine but in all the surrounding
countries, even in Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the
Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should influence and
finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that translations even
of the Old Testament eventually appear in it (TARGUMS) . Mean-
while Hebrew did not become a dead language indeed it can
hardly be said ever to have died, since it has continued in use
till the present day for the purposes of ordinary life among
educated Jews in all parts of the world. It gradually became a
literary rather than a popular tongue, as appears from the style
of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., Dan., Eccles.),
and from the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (c. 170 B.C.). During
the ist century B.C. and the ist century A.D. we have no direct
evidence of its characteristics. After that period there is a great
development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living
Hebrew r although mainly confined to the schools, with very
clear differences from the biblical language. In the Old Testa-
ment the range of subjects was limited. In the Mishna it was
very much extended. Matters relating to daily life had to be
discussed, and words and phrases were adopted from what was
no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A great
many foreign words were also introduced. The language being
no longer familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definite-
ness of expression became necessary in the written style. In
order to avoid the uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels
to distinguish forms consisting of the same consonants (for
the vowel-points were not yet invented), the aramaising use of
the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa'el, Nithpa'el) for the internal
passives (Pu'al, Hoph'al) became common; particles were used
to express the genitive and other relations, and in general there
was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely consonantal
writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be
used in Midrash for some centuries. The language of both
Talmuds, which, roughly speaking, were growing contem-
poraneously with Midrash, is a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic
(Eastern Aram, in the Babylonian, Western in the Jerusalem
Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators. As the
popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread
of Arabic as the vernacular (from the 7th century onwards),
while the dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew
again came to be the natural standard both of East and West.
The cultivation of it is shown and was no doubt promoted by
the many philological works (grammars, lexicons and masorah)
which are extant from the ipth century onward. In Spain,
under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of that
period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic
writers both on language and method may be seen in con-
temporaneous Hebrew compositions. No other vernacular
(except, of course, Aramaic) ever had the same influence upon
Hebrew, largely because no other bears so close a relation to it.
At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews else-
where, Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is
widely used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds
of subjects are produced in various countries, periodicals flourish,
and Hebrew is the vehicle of correspondence between Jews in
all parts of the world. Naturally its quality varies with the
ability and education of the writer. In the modern pronunciation
the principal differences are between the Ashkenazim (German
and Polish Jews) and the Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese
Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also certain con-
sonants, and in some cases probably go back to early times. As
regards writing, it is most likely that the oldest Hebrew records
were preserved in some form of cuneiform script. The alphabet
(see WRITING) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form
on the stele of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications,
by the Samaritans. According to Jewish tradition Ezra in-
troduced the Assyrian character ("WK 3n3 ), a much-debated
statement which no doubt means that the Aramaic hand in use
in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about the sth century
B.C. Another form of the same hand, allowing for differences of
material, is found in Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the gth and 4th
HEBREW LITERATURE
169
centuries B.C. From this were developed (a) the square character
used in MSS. of the Bible or important texts, and in most printed
books, (b) the Rabbinic(or Rashi) character, used in commentaries
and treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed books,
(c)the Cursive character, used in letters and for informal purposes,
not as a rule printed. In the present state of Hebrew palaeo-
graphy it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a
MS., but it is easy to recognize the country in which it was written.
The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish,
French, German, Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including
Egyptian), Yemenite, Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the
Rabbinic and Cursive characters that the differences are most
noticeable. The Hebrew alphabet is also used, generally with
the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to write other
languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar (by
Qaraites) and in later times German.
The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described
below, under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral
part. Among Christian scholars there was no independent
school of Hebraists before the revival of learning. In the Greek
and Latin Church the few fathers who, like Origen and Jerome,
knew something of the language, were wholly dependent on their
Jewish teachers, and their chief value for us is as depositaries
of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the Syriac version
of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the syna-
gogue, and the homilies of Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic
lore. In the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was pre-
served in the Church by converted Jews and even by non-Jewish
scholars, of whom the most notable were the Dominican con-
troversialist Raymundus Martini (in his Pugio fidei) and the
Franciscan Nicolaus of Lyra, on whom Luther drew largely in
his interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of
Hebrew study apart from the Jews, and in the isth century
when an interest in the subject was awakened, only the most
ardent zeal could conquer the obstacles that lay in the way.
Orthodox Jews refused to teach those who were not of their
faith, and on the other hand many churchmen conscientiously
believed in the duty of entirely suppressing Jewish learning.
Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty,
at least north of the Alps. In Italy things were somewhat
better. Jews expelled from Spain received favour from the popes.
Study was facilitated by the use of the printing-press, and some
of the earliest books printed were in Hebrew. The father of
Hebrew study among Christians was the humanist Johann
Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of the Rudimenta Hebraica
(Pforzheim, 1506), whose contest with the converted Jew
Pfefferkorn and the Cologne obscurantists, established the claim
of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the
subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin's own pupils were
Melanchthon, Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while Sebastian
Miinster in Heidelberg (afterwards professor at Basel), and
Buchlein (Fagius) at Isny, Strasburg and Cambridge, were
pupils of the liberal Jewish scholar Elias Levita. France
drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of Lucca was at
Lyons; and the trilingual college of Francis I. at Paris, with
Vatablus and le Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners,
Giustiniani, bishop of Nebbio, the editor of the Genoa psalter
of 1516. In Rome the converted Jew Felix Pratensis taught
under the patronage of Leo X., and did useful work in connexion
with the great Bomberg Bibles. In Spain Hebrew learning
was promoted by Cardinal Ximenes, the patron of the Com-
plutensian Polyglot. The printers, as J. Froben at Basel and
Etienne at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time
Christian scholars still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more
independent spirit soon arose, of which le Mercier in the i6th,
and Drusius early in the i7th century, may be taken as repre-
sentatives. In the 1 7th century too the cognate languages were
studied by J. Selden, E. Castell (Heptaglott lexicon) and E.
Pococke (Arabic) in England, Ludovicus de Dieu in Holland.
S. Bochart in France, J. Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. Hottinger
(Syriac) in Germany, with advantage to the Hebrew grammar
and lexicon. Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at
Basel by the elder Buxtorf who was the author of grammatical
works and a lexicon. With the rise of criticism Hebrew philology
soon became a necessary department of theology. Cappellus
(d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against Buxtorf, the
late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in which
the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was
supported by J. Morin and R. Simon in France. In the i8th
century in Holland A. Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the
comparative method, with great success, relying mainly on
Arabic. In Germany there was the meritorious J. D. Michaelis
and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In the ipth century
the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius, at Halle,
whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first published in
1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which
his pupil E. Rodiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised
and enlarged it. Important work was also done by G. H. A.
Ewald, J. Olshausen and P. A. de Lagarde, not to mention
later scholars who have utilized the valuable results of Assyrio-
logical research.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among the numerous works dealing with the
study of Hebrew, the following are some of the most practically
useful.
Grammars.Introductory. DavidsonJntroductoryHebrewGrammar
(9th ed., Edinburgh, 1888); and Syntax (Edinburgh, 1894). Ad-
vanced: Gesenius's Hebrdische Grammatik, ed. Kautzsch (28th ed.,
Leipzig, 1909; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1910); also Driver, Treatise on
the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew (jrd ed., Oxford, 1892). For post-
biblical Hebrew, Strack and Siegfried, Lehrbuch d. neuhebrdischen
Sprache (Leipzig, 1884).
Comparative Grammar. Wright, Lectures on the Comp. Grammar
of the Sem. Lang. (Cambridge, 1890); Brockelmann, Grundriss der
vergleichenden Grammatik (Berlin, 1907, &c.).
Lexicons. Gesenius's Thesaurus philologicus(Le\\iz\g, 1829-1858),
and his Hebrdisches Handwprterbuch (i Jjth ed. by Zimmern and Buhl,
Leipzig, 1910) ; Brown, Briggs and Driver, Hebrew and Eng. Lexicon
(Oxford, 1892-1906). For later Hebrew: Levy, Neuhebrdisches
Worterbuch (Leipzig, 1876-1889); Jastrow, Dictionary of the Tar-
gumi, &c. (NewYork, 1886, &c.) ; Dalman, Aramaisches neuhebrdisches
Worterbuch (Frankfort a. M., 1897); Kohut, Aruch completum
(Vienna, 1878-1890) (in Hebrew) is valuable for the language of the
Talmud. (A. CY.)
HEBREW LITERATURE. Properly speaking, " Hebrew
Literature " denotes all works written in the Hebrew language.
In catalogues and bibliographies, however, the expression is now
generally used, conveniently if incorrectly, as synonymous with
Jewish literature, including all works written by Jews in Hebrew
characters, whether the language be Aramaic, Arabic or even
some vernacular not related to Hebrew.
The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon,
the Old Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times
popular songs orally transmitted and perhaps books ou -j-etta-
of annals and laws, but except in so far as remnants ment-
al them are embedded in the biblical books, they have Soif
entirely disappeared. Thus the Book of the Wars of tuns '
the Lord is mentioned in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of Jashar
in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the Song of the Well is quoted in
Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon and Moab, ib. 27-30;
of Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of Moses, Exod. xv. As in other
literatures, these popular elements form the foundation on which
greater works are gradually built, and it is one function of literary
criticism to show the way in which the component parts were
welded into a uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses
was the author of the Pentateuch in its present form, would
make this the earliest monument of Hebrew literature. Modern
inquiry, however, has arrived at other conclusions (see BIBLE,
Old Testament), which may be briefly summarized as follows:
the Pentateuch is compiled from various documents, the earliest
of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii. 4) from the fact
that its author regularly uses the divine name Jehovah (Yahweh).
Its date is now usually given as about 800 B.C. 1 In the next
century the document E was composed, so called from its using
1 The dating of these documents is extremely difficult, since it is
based entirely on internal evidence. Various scholars, while agreeing
on the actual divisions of the text, differ on the question of priority.
The dates here given are those which seem to be most generally
accepted at the'present time. They are not put forward as the result
of an independent review of the evidence.
170
HEBREW LITERATURE
Elohlm (God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are
considered to have originated in the Northern kingdom, Israel,
where also in the 8th century appeared the prophets Amos and
Hosea. To the same period belong the book of Micah, the earlier
parts of the books of Samuel, of Isaiah and of Proverbs, and
perhaps some Psalms. In 722 B.C. Samaria was taken and the
Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is
not until a century later that any important literary activity
is again manifested. The main part of the book of Deuteronomy
was " found " shortly before 621 B.C. and about the same time
appeared the prophets Jeremiah and Zephaniah, and perhaps
the book of Ruth. A few years later (about 600) the two Penta-
teuchal documents J and E were woven together, the books of
Kings were compiled, the book of Habakkuk and parts of the
Proverbs were written. Early in the next century Jerusalem
was taken by Nebuchadrezzar, and the prophet Ezekiel was
among the exiles with Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (c. 550) the
combined document JE was edited by a writer under the influence
of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the books of Samuel were
written, parts of Isaiah, the books of Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah
and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the exile, but probably after
500 B.C., an important section of the Hexateuch, usually called
the Priest's Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the
same century are to be placed the book of Job, the post-exilic
parts of Isaiah, the books of Joel, Jonah, Malachi and the Song
of Songs. The Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed
in its present form at some time before 400 B.C. The latest parts
of the Old Testament are the books of Chronicles, Ezra and
Nehemiah (c. 330 B.C.), Ecclesiastes and Esther (3rd century)
and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or according
to some views as late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (c. 168
B.C.). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence,
from the nature of the case, leads to few results which are con-
vincing. The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection
was formed gradually and that the process was going on during
most of the period sketched above.
It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testa-
ment were immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were
ever all regarded as being on the same level. The
Apocry- Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held among the
4th century B.C. as it holds now, a pre-
eminent position. The inclusion of other books in the
Canon was gradual, and was effected only after centuries of
debate. The Jews have always been, however, an intensely
literary people, and the books ultimately accepted as canonical
were only a selection from the literature in existence at the
beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving
little attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have
survived only in translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha.
Hence from the composition of the latest canonical books to the
redaction of the Mishna (see below) in the 2nd century A.D., the
remains of Hebrew literature are very scanty. Of books of this
period which are known to have existed in Hebrew or Aramaic
up to the time of Jerome (and even later) we now possess most
of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) in a
somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a re-
cension of theTestaments of theTwelve Patriarchs,both discovered
within recent years. Besides definite works of this kind, there
was also being formed during this period a large body of ex-
egetical and legal material, for the most part orally transmitted,
which only received its literary form much later. As Hebrew
became less familiar to the people, a system of translating
the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular verse by verse,
was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed
to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt
originally extemporary, and varied with the individual trans-
lators, but its form gradually became fixed and was ultimately
written down. It was called Tar gum, from the
Aramaic targem, to translate. The earliest to be thus
edited was the Targum of Onkelos (Onqelos), the proselyte, on
the Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the
3rd century A.D. The Samaritan Targum, of about the same
literatim. J ews f
date, clearly rests on the same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos
was another Targum on the Law, generally called pseudo-
Jonathan, which was edited in the 7th century in Palestine, and
is based on the same system of interpretation but is fuller and
closer to the original tradition. There is also a fragmentary
Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is
obscure. It may be only a series of disconnected glosses on
Onkelos. For the other books, the recognized Targum on the
Prophets is that ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel (4th century ?),
which originated in Palestine, but was edited in Babylonia, so
that it has the same history and linguistic character as Onkelos.
Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law parallel to the
Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum (called
Yemshalmi) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel, but
of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being
alone used in the services of the synagogue, there was no author-
ized version of the rest of the Canon. There are, however,
Targumim on the Psalms and Job, composed in the 5th century,
on Proverbs, resembling the Peshitta version, on the five
Meghilloth, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in character,
and on Chronicles all Palestinian. There is also a second
Targum on Esther. There is none on Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah.
We must now return to the 2nd century. During the period
which followed the later canonical books, notonlywas translation,
and therefore exegesis, cultivated, but even more the
amplification of the Law. According to Jewish teach- Ha/a ** a *-
ing (e.g. Abhoth i. i) Moses received on Mount Sinai not
only the written Law as set down in the Pentateuch, but also
the Oral Law, which he communicated personally to the 70
elders and through them by a " chain of tradition" to succeeding
ages. The application of this oral law is called Halakhah, the
rules by which a man's daily " walk " is regulated. The halakhah
was by no means inferior in prestige to the written Law. Indeed
some teachers even went so far as to ascribe a higher value to it,
since it comes into closer relation with the details of everyday
life. It was not independent of the written Law, still less could
it be in opposition to it. Rather it was implicitly contained
in the Torah, and the duty of the teacher was to show
this. It was therefore of the first importance that the chain of
tradition should be continuous and trustworthy. The line is
traced through biblical teachers to Ezra, the first of the Sopherlm
or scribes, who handed on the charge to the " men of the Great
Synagogue," a much-discussed term for a body or succession of
teachers inaugurated by Ezra. The last member of it, Simon the
Just (either Simon I., who died about 300 B.C., or Simon II., who
died about 200 B.C.), was the first of the next series, called Elders,
represented in the tradition by pairs of teachers, ending with
Hillel and Shammai about the beginning of the Christian era.
Their pupils form the starting-point of the next series, the
Tannalm (from Aram, tend to teach), who occupy the first two
centuries A.D.
By this time the collection of halakhic material had become
very large and various, and after several attempts had been made
to reduce it to uniformity, a code of oral tradition was Mishaab
finally drawn up in the 2nd century by Judah ha-Nasi,
called Rabbi par excellence. This was the Mishnah. Its name
is derived from the Hebrew shanah, corresponding to the Aramaic
tena, and therefore a suitable name for a tannaitic work, meaning
the repetition or teaching of the oral law. It is written in the
Hebrew of the schools (leshon hakhamim) which differs in
many respects from that of the Old Testament (see HEBREW
LANGUAGE). It is divided into six "orders," according to
subject, and each order is subdivided into chapters. In making
his selection of halakhoth, Rabbi used the earlier compilations,
which are quoted as " words of Rabbi 'Aqlba " or of R. Me'Ir,
but rejected much which was afterwards collected under the
title of Tosefta (addition) and Baraita (outside the Mishnah).
Traditional teaching was, however, not confined to halakhah.
As observed above, it was the duty of the teachers to show the
connexion of practical rules with the written Law,
the more so since the Sadducees rejected the authority
of the oral law as such. Hence arises Midrash, exposition, from
HEBREW LITERATURE
171
darash to " investigate " a scriptural passage. Of this halakhic
Midrash we possess that on Exodus, called Mekhilta, that on
Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on Numbers and Deuteronomy,
called Sifre. All of these were drawn up in the period of the
Amoraim, the order of teachers who succeeded the Tannaim,
from the close of the Mishnah to about A.D. 500. The term
Midrash, however, more commonly implies agada, i.e. the
homiletical exposition of the text, with illustrations designed
to make it more attractive to the readers or hearer. Picturesque
teaching of this kind was always popular, and specimens of it
are familiar in the Gospel discourses. It began, as a method,
with the Sopherlm (though there are traces in the Old Testament
itself), and was most developed among the Tannaim and Amor-
aim, rivalling even the study of halakhah. As the existing
halakhoth were collected and edited in the Mishnah, so the
much larger agadic material was gathered together and arranged
in the Midrashlm. Apart from the agadic parts of the earlier
Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre, the most important of these collections
(which are anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary
on various books of the Bible. They were called Rabboth (great
Midrashlm) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collec-
tions. Bereshlth Rabba, on Genesis, and Rkhah Rabbati, on Lamen-
tations, were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same
character and of about the same date are the Pesiqla, on the
lessons for Sabbaths and feast-days, and Wayyiqra R. on Leviti-
cus. A century perhaps later is the Tanhuma, on the sections of
the Pentateuch, and later still the Pesiqta Rabbati, Shemoth R.
(on Exodus), Bemidhbar R. (on Numbers), Debharim R. (on
Deuteronomy). There are also Midrashlm on the Canticle,
Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to this
later period, the Pirqe R. Eliezer, of the 8th or gth century, a
sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the Tanna
debe Eliyahu (an ethical work of the icth century but containing
much that is old), besides a large number of minor compositions. 1
In general, these performed very much the same function as
the lives of saints in the early and medieval church. Very
important for the study of Midrashic literature are the Yalqut
(gleaning) Shim'oni, on the whole Bible, the Yalqiit Mekhlri,
on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the Midrash
ha-gadhol? all of which are of uncertain but late date and
preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in MSS.
from Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent
tradition.
Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries
following the redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah
Talmud was ^ v no means neglected. As the discussion of the
Law led up to the compilation of the Mishnah, so the
Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further discussion.
The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic,
forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah,
was eventually written down under the name of Gemara (from
gemar, to learn completely), the two together forming the
Talmud (properly " instruction "). The tradition, as in the case
of the Targums, was again twofold; that which had grown up
in the Palestinian Schools and that of Babylonia. The founda-
tion, however, the Mishnah, was the same in both. Both works
were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about A.D. 500,
though the date at which they were actually committed to
writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections
were from time to time written down to help in teaching and
learning the immense mass of material, in spite of the fact that
even in Sherira's time (nth century) such aids to memory were
not officially recognized. Both Talmuds are arranged according
to the six orders of the Mishnah, but the discussion of the
Mishnic text often wanders off into widely different topics.
Neither is altogether complete. In the Palestinian Talmud
(Yerushalmi) the gemara of the sth order (Qodashim) and of
nearly all the 6th (Tohoroth) is missing, besides smaller parts.
1 See especially A. Jellinek's Bet-ha-Midrasch (Leipzig, 1853), for
these lesser midrashim.
* That on Genesis was edited for the first time by Schechter
(Cambridge, 1902).
In the Babylonian Talmud (Babhli) there is no gemara to the
smaller tractates of Order i, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The
language of both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular
(western Aramaic in Yerushalmi, eastern in Babhli), but early
halakhic traditions (e.g. of Tannaitic origin) are given in their
original form, and the discussion of them is usually also in
Hebrew. Babhli is not only greater in bulk than Yerushalmi,
but has also received far greater attention, so that the name
Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a constant object of
study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud
from the earliest times till the present. The most important of
them for the understanding of the gemara (Babhli) is that of
Rashi 3 (Solomon ben Isaac, d. 1 104) with the Tosafoth (additions,
not to be confused with the Tosefta) chiefly by the French school
of rabbis following Rashi. These are always printed in the
editions on the same page as the Mishnah and Gemara, the whole,
with various other matter, filling generally about 1 2 folio volumes.
Since the introduction of printing, the Talmud is always cited by
the number of the leaf in the first edition (Venice, 1320, &c.),
to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to facilitate
the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that abridge-
ments of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned
which are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac
Alfasi (i.e. of Fez) in the nth century, often cited in the Jewish
manner as Rif; and that by Asher ben Yehiel (d. 1328) of
Toledo, usually cited as Rabbenu Asher. The object of both was
to collect all halakhoth having a practical importance, omitting
all those which owing to circumstances no longer possess more
than an academic interest, and excluding the discussions on them
and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of their own,
and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries.
With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature
may be considered to end. Henceforward important works
are produced not by schools but by particular teachers, ., h
who, however, no doubt often represent the opinions
of a school. There are two branches of work which partake
of both characters, the Masorah and the Liturgy. The name
Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from masar, to hand on,
and explained as " tradition." According to others * it is the word
found in Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a " fetter." Its object was to
fix the biblical text unalterably. It is generally divided into the
Great and the Small Masorah, forming together an apparatus
criticus which grew up gradually in the course of centuries and
now accompanies the text in most MSS. and printed editions to a
greater or less extent. There are also separate masoretic treat-
ises. Some system of the kind was necessary to guard against
corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon it no doubt
reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text. Many
apparent puerilities, such as the counting of letters and the
marking of the middle point of books, had a practical use in
enabling copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work
done. The registration of anomalies, such as the suspended
letters, inverted nuns and larger letters, enabled any one to test
the accuracy of a copy. But the work of the Masoretes was much
greater than this. Their long lists of the occurrences of words
and forms fixed with accuracy the present (Masoretic) text,
which they' had produced, and were invaluable to subsequent
lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and accents
not only gives us the pronunciation and manner of reading
traditional about the 7th century A.D., but frequently serves
also the purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further
under BIBLE.) Most of the Masorah is anonymous, including
the Massekheth Soferlm (of various dates from perhaps the 6th
to the 9th century) and the Okhlah we-Okhlah, but when the
period of anonymous literature ceases, there appear (in the loth
century) Ben Asher of Tiberias, the greatest authority on the
subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on, Jacob
8 In Hebrew 'en, from the initial letters of Rabbi Shelomoh
Yijhaqi, a convenient method used by Jewish writers in referring
to well-known authors. The name Jarchi, formerly used for Rashi,
rests on a misunderstanding.
So Bacher in J.Q.R. iii. 785 sqq.
172
HEBREW LITERATURE
ben Hayyim arranged the Masorah for the great Bomberg Bible
of 1524. Elias Levita's Massoreth ha-Massoreth (1538) and
Buxtorf's Tiberias (1620) are also important.
We must now turn back to a most difficult subject the
growth of the Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indica-
tions of the ritual used in the Temple. Of the prayer-
book as it is at present, the earliest parts are the
Shema" (Deut. vi. 4, &c.) and the anonymous blessings commonly
called Shemoneh 'Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain
Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haphtarah]
also formed part of the service.) To this framework were fitted,
from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially,
numerous hymns. The earliest existing codification of the prayer-
book is the Siddur (order) drawn up by Amram Gaon of Sura
about 850. Half a century later the famous Gaon Seadiah, also
of Sura, issued his Siddur, in which the rubrical matter is in
Arabic. Besides the Siddur, or order for Sabbaths and general
use, there is the Mahzor (cycle) for festivals and fasts. In both
there are ritual differences according to the Sephardic (Spanish),
Ashkenazic (German-Polish), Roman (Greek and South Italian)
and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The
Mahzor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (piyyutlm)
composed by authors (payyetanim) of the district. The most
important writers are Yoseh ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th
century, chiefly known for his compositions for the day of Atone-
ment, Eleazar Qalir, the founder of the payyetanic style, perhaps
in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish school consisting
of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac Gayyath,
Moses ben Ezra, Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-levi, who will
be mentioned below; later, Moses ben Nahman and Isaac Luria
the Kabbalist. 1
The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the
Talmud (A.D. 500), was succeeded by that of the Saboralm, who
merely continued and explained the work of their
Qelaim. predecessors, and these again were followed by the
Geonim, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pum-
beditha in Babylonia. The office of Gaon lasted for something
over 400 years, beginning about A.D. 600, and varied in import-
ance according to the ability of the holders of it. Individual
Geonim produced valuable works (of which later), but what is
perhaps most important from the point of view of the develop-
ment of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa or answers
to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them from
various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of
particular Geonim; others were an official summary -of the
discussion of the subject by the members of the School. They
begin with Mar Rab Sheshna (7th century) and continue to
Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and are full of historical and literary
interest. 2 The She'iltoth (questions) of Rab Ahai (8th century)
also belong probably to the school of Pumbeditha, though their
author was not Gaon. Besides the Responsa, but closely related
to them, we have the lesser Halakhoth of Yehudai Gaon of Sura
(8th century) and the great Halakhoth of Simeon Qayyara of
Sura (not Gaon) in the 9th century. In a different department
there is the first Talmud lexicon ('Arukh) now lost, by emah ben
Paltoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the gth century. The Siddur
of Amram ben Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these
writers, however, are entirely eclipsed by the commanding
personality of the most famous of the Geonim, SEADIAH ben
Joseph (q.v.) of Sura, often called al-Fayyuml (of the Fayum in
Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish learning
of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the office
were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was
the author of the famous "Letter" (in the form of a Responsum
to a question addressed to him by residents in Kairawan), an
historical document of the highest value and the foundation of
our knowledge of the history of tradition. His son Hai, last
Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide learning, wrote
1 For the history of the very extensive literature of this class,
Zunz, Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie (Berlin, 1865), is
indispensable.
* See the edition of them in Harkavy, Studien, iv. (Berlin, 1885).
(partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also treatises
on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, a lexicon
called in Arabic al-JJ.awl, and poems such as the Musar Haskel,
but most of them are now lost or known only from translations
or quotations. Though his teaching was largely directed against
superstition, he seems to have been inclined to mysticism, and
perhaps for this reason various kabbalistic works were ascribed
to him in later times. His father-in-law Samuel ben Hophni,
last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer on law,
translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of
the Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud,
of which the existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid)
is perhaps a translation. Most of his works are now lost.
In the Geonic period there came into prominence the sect of
the Karaites (Bene miqra, " followers of the Scripture ", the pro-
testants of Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority,
basing their doctrine and practice exclusively on
the Bible. The sect was founded by 'Anan in the 8th
century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their litera-
ture, with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical
and to a great extent deals with grammar and exegesis. Of
their first important authors, Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel
al-QumisI (both in the gth century), little is preserved. In the
loth century Jacob al-Qirqisani wrote his Kitab al-anwar, on
law, Solomon ben Yeruham (against Seadiah) and Yefet ben
'All wrote exegetical works; in the nth century Abu'l-faraj
Furqan, exegesis, and Yusuf al-BasIr against Samuel ben Hophni.
Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the i2th century and in
S. Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his Eshkol ha-Kopher, a
great theological compendium in the form of a commentary on
the Decalogue. Other writers are Aaron (the elder) ben Joseph,
I3th century, who wrote the commentary Sepher ha-mibhhar;
Aaron (the younger) of Nicomedia (i4th century), author of
'? Ifayyim, on philosophy, Can 'Eden, on law, and the com-
mentary Kether Torah; in the isth century Elijah Bashyazi,
on law (Addereth Eliyahu), and Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and
theologian; in the i6th century Moses Bashyazi, theologian.
From the i2th century onward the sect gradually declined,
being ultimately restricted mainly to the Crimea and Lithuania,
learning disappeared and their literature became merely popular
and of little interest. Much of it in later times was written in
a curious Tatar dialect. Mention need only be made further
of Isaac of Troki, whose anti-Christian polemic flizzuq Emunah
(1593) was translated into English by Moses Mocatta under the
title of Faith Strengthened (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose
Appiryon, an account of Karaism, was written at the request of
Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite
of his impostures, did much for the literature of his people about
the middle of the igth century. (See also QARAITES.)
To return to the period of the Geonim. While the schools
of Babylonia were flourishing as the religious head of Judaism,
the West, and especially Spain under Moorish rule,
was becoming the home of Jewish scholarship. On the Medieval
breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives fled s^/p."'
to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning
there. The communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. Africa were in
close relation with those of Spain, and as early as the beginning
of the gth century Judah ben Quraish of Tahort had composed
his Risolah (letter) to the Jews of Fez on grammatical subjects
from a comparative point of view, and a dictionary now lost.
His work was used in the icth century by Menahem ben Saruq,
of Cordova, in his Mahbereth (dictionary). Menahem's system
of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by
Dunash ibn Labrat, and as violently defended by the author's
pupils. Among these was Judah H a yyuj of Cordova, the father
of modern Hebrew grammar, who first established the principle
of tri-literal roots. His treatises on the verbs, written in
Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses Giqatilla
(nth century), himself a considerable grammarian and com-
mentator, and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by
Abu'I-walld ibn Jannah, of Saragossa (died early in the nth
century), in his lexicon (Kitab al-usul, in Arabic) and other works.
HEBREW LITERATURE
In Italy appeared the invaluable Talmud-lexicon ('Arukh) by
Nathan b. Yehiel, of Rome (d. 1106), who was indirectly
indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not strictly follow
the system of Hayyuj. Other works of a different kind also
originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history
of the Jews, called Josippon (probably of the loth or even pth
century), ascribed to Joseph ben Gorion (Gorionides) 1 ; the
medical treatises of Shabbethai Donnolo (loth century) and his
commentary on the Sepher Ye$irah, the anonymous and earliest
Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to the patriarch Abraham.
In North Africa, probably in the gth century, appeared the
book known under the name of Eldad ha-Danl, giving an account
of the ten tribes, from which much medieval legend was derived; 2
and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of Isaac
Israeli, who died in 932.
The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was
ultimately exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the
sis East. In the gth century Hivi of Balkh wrote a
rationalistic treatise 3 on difficulties in the Bible,
which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the Geonim
have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the
West came also from Babylonia. In the loth century Hushiel,
one of four prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is
doubtful, was ransomed and settled at Kairawan, where he
acquired great reputation as a Talmudist. His son Hananeel
(d. 1050) wrote a commentary on (probably all) the Talmud, and
one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel's contemporary Nisslm
ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai Gaon of
Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nagld in Spain, likewise
wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection
of Maasiyyoth or edifying stories, besides works now lost.
The activity in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most
prominent figure was that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela),
generally known as Samuel the Nagld or head of the Jewish
settlement, who died in 1055. As vizier to the Moorish king
at Granada, he was not only a patron of learning, but himself
a man of wide knowledge and a considerable author. Some
of his poems are extant, and an Introduction to the Talmud
mentioned above. In grammar he followed Hayyuj, whose
pupil he was. Among others he was the patron of Solomon
ibn Gabirol (q.v.), the poet and philosopher. To this period
belong Haf? al-Qutl (the Goth?) who made a version of the
Psalms in Arabic rhyme, and Bahya (more correctly Behai)
ibn Paquda, dayyan at Saragossa, whose Arabic ethical treatise
has always had great popularity among the Jews in its Hebrew
translation, flobhoth ha-lebhabhoth. He also composed liturgical
poems. At the end of the nth century Judah ibn Bal'am
wrote grammatical works and commentaries (on the Pentateuch,
Isaiah, &c.) in Arabic; the liturgist Isaac Gayyath (d. in 1089
at Cordova) wrote on ritual. Moses Giqatilla has been already
mentioned.
The French school of the nth century was hardly less im-
portant. Gershom ben Judah, the " Light of the Exile " (d.
Rash! * n I04 at Mainz), a famous Talmudist and com-
mentator, his pupil Jacob ben Yaqar, and Moses of
Narbonne, called ha-Darshan, the " Exegete," were the fore-
runners of the greatest of all Jewish commentators, Solomon
ben Isaac (Rashi) , who died at Troyes in 1 105. Rashi was a pupil
of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at Worms and Mainz. Unlike
his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have confined himself
wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of Arabic
or other languages except his native French. Yet no commentator
is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study
1 Two different texts of it exist : (i) in the ed. pr. (Mantua, 1476) ;
(2) ed. by Seb. Munster (Basel, 1541). There is also an early Arabic
recension, but its relation to the Hebrew and to the Arabic
2 Maccabees is still obscure. See /. Q. R., xi. 355 sqq. The Hebrew
text was edited with a Latin translation by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1707).
" On the various recensions of the text see D. H. Miiller in the
Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy (Phil.-hist. Cl., xli. I, p. 41) and
Epstein's ed. (Pressburg, 1891).
3 A fragment of such a work, probably emanating from the school
of yivi, was found by Schechter and published in J.Q.R., xiii. 345 sqq.
of the Talmud he is even now indispensable. He commented
on all the Bible and on nearly all the Talmud, has been himself
the text of several super-commentaries, and has exercised great
influence on Christian exegesis. The biblical commentary was
translated into Latin by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1710-1714), that on
the Pentateuch rather freely into German by L. Dukes (Prag,
1838, in Hebrew-German characters, with the text), and parts
by others. Closely connected with Rashi, or of his school, are
Joseph Qara, of Troyes (d. about 1130), the commentator,
and his teacher Menahem ben Helbo, Jacob ben Me'Ir, called
Rabbenu Tarn (d. 1171), the most important of the Tosaphists
(. sup.) , and later in the 1 2th century the liberal and rationalizing
Joseph Bekhor Shor, and Samuel ben Me'Ir (d. about 1174) of
Ramerupt, commentator and Talmudist.
In the 1 2th and i3th centuries literature maintained a high
level in Spain. Abraham bar Hiyya, known to Christian scholars
as Abraham Judaeus (d. about 1136), was a mathematician,
astronomer and philosopher much studied in the middle ages.
Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140), wrote in Arabic
a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well as
Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation
as 'Arugath ha-bosem, and the Kitab al-Mahadarah, of great
value for literary history. He is even better known as a poet,
for his Dlwan and the 'Anaq, and as a hymn-writer. His
relative Abraham ben Ezra, generally called simply Ibn Ezra, 4
was still more distinguished. He was born at Toledo, spent
most of his life in travel, wandering even to England and to the
East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his great
commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible,
treatises on philosophy (as the Yesodh mom), astronomy,
mathematics, grammar (translation of Hayyu j) , besides a Dlwan.
The man, however, who shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place
in Jewish poetry is Judah Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in
Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both secular and religious,
contained in his Dlwan and scattered in the liturgy, are all in
Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic he
wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation
Sepher ha-Kuzari, a defence of revelation as against non- Jewish
philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable
knowledge of Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph
ibn Mlgash (d. 1141 at Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi
and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa and Hiddushin (annota-
tions) on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere mention must
be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after 1173),
whose Massa'oth are of great value for the history and geography
of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah of
Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his
journeys. Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180),
in philosophy an Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the
precursor of Maimonides, is chiefly known for his Sepher ha-
qabbalah, written as a polemic against Karaism, but valuable
for the history of tradition.
The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben
Maim5n (Rambam), called Maimonides by Christians. He was
born at Cordova in 1135, fled with his parents from
persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in 1160, passing Ue*.
there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165,
and finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was dis-
tinguished in his profession as a physician, and wrote a number
of medical works in Arabic (including a commentary on the
aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which were translated into
Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the text-books
of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests mainly
on his theological works. Passing over the less important,
these are the Moreh Nebhukhim (so the Hebrew translation of
the Arabic original), an endeavour to show philosophically the
reasonableness of the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin,
were studied by the Christian schoolmen, and the Mishneh
Torah, also called Yad hahazaqah ( r =i4, the number of the
parts), a classified compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew
4 See M. Friedliinder in Publications of the Society of Hebrew Lit.,
1st ser. vol. i., and 2nd ser. vol. iv.
174
HEBREW LITERATURE
Maimo-
alsts.
and early translated into Arabic. The latter of these, though
generally accepted in the East, was much opposed in the West,
especially at the time by the Talmudist Abraham ben David
of Posquieres (d. 1198). Maimonides also wrote an Arabic
commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into
Maimo- Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now
nistsand lost), and a treatise on Logic. His breadth of view
aati- and his Aristotelianism were a stumbling-block to the
orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly
classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even
his friend Joseph ibn 'Aqnin (d. 1226), author of a philosophical
treatise in Arabic and of a commentary on the Song of Solomon,
found so much difficulty in the new views that the Moreh
Nebhukhim was written in order to convince him. Maimonides'
son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in Arabic
Ma'aseh Yerushalmi, on oaths, and Kitab al-Kifdyah, theology.
His grandson David was also an author. A very different person
was Moses ben Nahman (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born
at Gerona in 1194 and died in Palestine about 1270. His whole
tendency was as conservative as that of Maimonides was liberal,
and like all conservatives he may be said to represent a lost
though not necessarily a less desirable cause. Much of his life
was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in 1293
before the king of Aragon), but also with his own people and on
the views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary
on the Pentateuch in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra.
He had a strong inclination to mysticism, but whether certain
kahbalistic works are rightly attributed to him is doubtful.
It is, however, not a mere coincidence that the two great kabbal-
istic text-books, the Bahir and the Zohar (both meaning " bright-
ness "), appear first in the i3th century. If not due to his teaching
they are at least in sympathy with it. The Bahir, asort of outline
of the Zohar, and traditionally ascribed to Nehunya (ist century),
is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the Blind ben Abraham
of Posquieres (d. early in the I3th century), the founder of the
modern Kabbalah and the author of the names for the 10
Sephlroth. The Zohar, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yohai
(2nd century), is now generally attributed to Moses of Leon
(d. 1305), who, however, drew his material in part from earlier
written or traditional sources, such as the Sepher Yezlrah.
At any rate the work was immediately accepted by thekabbalists,
and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the subject.
Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch,
it is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe,
and incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the
natural science of the time. A pupil, though not a follower of
Nahmanides, was Solomon Adreth (not Addereth), of Barcelona
(d. 1310), a prolific writer of Talmudic and polemical works
(against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as well as of responsa.
He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291) and his
pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous
kabbalistic works. Solomon's pupil Bahya ben Asher, of
Saragossa (d. 1340) was the author of a very popular com-
mentary on the Pentateuch and of religious discourses entitled
Kad ha-qemah, in both of which, unlike his teacher, he made
large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies, however, were not
neglected. In the first half of the I3th century, Abraham ibn
Hasdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or
adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic,
among them being the Sepher ha-tappuah, based on Aristotle's
de Anima, and theMozene Zedeq of Ghazzali on moral philosophy,
of both of which the originals are lost. Another Maimonist was
Shem Tobh ben Joseph Falaquera (d. after 1290), philosopher
(following Averroes), poet and author of a commentary on the
Moreh. A curious mixture of mysticism and Aristotelianism
is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose Menorath ha-Ma'dr,
a collection of agadoth, attained great popularity and has been
frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the i3th
century lived Judah al-Harizi, who belongs in spirit to the time
of Ibn Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous transla-
tions, of Galen, Aristotle, Hariri, Hunain ben Isaac and
Maimonides, as well as several original works, a Sepher 'Anaq
in imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and treatises on grammar and
medicine (Rephuath geviyyah), but he is best known for his
Tahkemonl, a diwan in the style of Hariri's Maqdmdt.
Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its
effect on those of France. The fact that many of the most
important works were written in Arabic, the vernacular of the
Spanish Jews under the Moors, which was not understood in
France, gave rise to a number of translations into Hebrew,
chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibbon (or Tabbon). The first of
them, Judah ibn Tibbon, translated works of Bahya ibn Paqudah,
Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abu'lwalid and Ibn Gabirol, besides
writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but
migrated to Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His
son Samuel, who died at Marseilles about 1230, was equally
prolific. He translated the Moreh Nebhukhim during the life
of the author, and with some help from him, so that this may
be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides' commentary
on the Mishnah tractate Pirqe Abhoth, and some minor works;
treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original
works are mostly biblical commentaries and some additional
matter on the Moreh. His son Moses, who died about the end
of the I3th century, translated the rest of Maimonides, much of
Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna, Euclid's Elements
(from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzar's Viaticum, medical
works of Hunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi (Rhazes),
besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works
are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immortality. His
nephew Jacob ben Makhir, of Montpellier (d. about 1304),
translated Arabic scientific works, such as parts of Averroes and
Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the Greek, as Euclid's Data,
Autolycus, Menelaus (ovS-c) and Theodosius on the Sphere,
and Ptolemy's Almagest. He also compiled astronomical tables
and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance of these
translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered
into Latin, 1 thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning
accessible to medieval Europe. Another important family
about this time is that of Qimhi (or Qamhi). It also originated
in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac Qimhi was born, who migrated
to S. France, probably for the same reason which caused the
flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He wrote on
grammar (Sepher ha-galui and Sepher Zikkaron), commentaries
on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work,
Sepher ha-berith, and a translation of Bahya's Hobhoth
ha-lebhabhoth. His son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on
grammar and some commentaries, wrongly attributed to Ibn
Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne (d. 1235)
is the most famous of the name. His great work, the Mikhlol,
consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various
parts of the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his
anti-Christian remarks, have been widely used by Christian
theologians and largely influenced the English authorized version
of the Bible. A friend of Joseph Qimhi, Jacob ben Me'Ir, known
as Rabbenu Tarn of Ramerupt (d. 1171), the grandson of
Rashi, wrote the Sepher ha-yashar (hiddushin and responsa) and
was one of the chief Tosaphists. Of the same school were
Menahem ben Simeon of Posquieres, a commentator, who died
about the end of the 1 2th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy
(i3th century), author of the Semag (book of precepts, positive
and negative) a very popular and valuable halakhic work. A
younger contemporary of David Qirnhi was Abraham ben Isaac
Bedersi (i.e. of Beziers), the poet, and some time in the i3th
century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose ethical poem,
Qe'arath Yoseph, was translated by Reuchlin and later by
others. Berachiah, 2 the compiler of the " Fox Fables " (which
have much in common with the " Ysopet " of Marie de France),
is generally thought to have lived in Provence in the i3th century,
but according to others in England in the i2th century. In
Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d. 1238), besides being
1 The fullest account of them is to be found in Steinschneider's
Hebraische Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1893).
2 See H. Gollancz, The Ethical Treatises of Berachya (London,
1902).
HEBREW LITERATURE
'75
a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic studies.
Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France,
wrote the famous Or Zarua' (from which he is often called),
an halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides' Mishneh
Torah, but more diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he
settled for a time at Wiirzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'Ir
of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The latter was a prolific writer of
great influence, chiefly known for his Responsa, but also for his
halakhic treatises, hiddushln and tosaphoth. He also composed
a number of piyyutim. Me'ir's pupil, Mordecai ben Hillel of
Niirnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his
halakhic work, usually known as the Mordekhai. This is a codi-
fication of halakhoth, based on all the authorities then known,
some of them now lost. Owing to the fact that the material
collected by Mordecai was left to his pupils to arrange, the work
was current in two recensions, an Eastern (in Austria) and a
Western (in Germany, France, &c.). In the East, Tanhum ben
Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not to be
confounded with the Midrash Tanhuma) on many books of the
Bible, and of an extensive lexicon (Kitdb al-Murshid) to the
Mishnah, all in Arabic.
With the i3th century Hebrew literature may be said to have
reached the limit of its development. Later writers to a large
extent used over again the materials of their predecessors, while
secular works tend to be influenced by the surrounding civiliza-
tion, or even are composed in the vernacular languages. From
the i4th century onward only the most notable names can be men-
tioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome (d. about
1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante,
wrote his diwan, of which the last part, " Topheth ve-'Eden,"
is suggested by the Divina Commedia. In Spain Israel Israeli, of
Toledo (d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic
work on ritual and a commentary on Pirqe Abhoth. About the
same time Isaac Israeli wrote his Yesodh 'Olam and other astro-
nomical works which were much studied. Asher ben Jehiel,
a pupil of Me'Ir of Rothenburg, was the author of the popular
Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as Rabbenu Asher, on
the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He migrated
from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328.
His son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the Tur
(or the four Turlm), a most important manual of Jewish law,
serving as an abridgement of the Mishneh Torah brought up to
date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of Seville (d. after 1340),
wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the I4th and isth
centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy, as
by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Tobh ibn Shaprut
(about 1380), who translated St Matthew's gospel into Hebrew.
In France Jedaiah Bedersi, i.e. of Beziers (d. about 1340), wrote
poems (Behinalh ha-olam), commentaries on agada and a defence
of Maimonides against Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom
(d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great commentator on the Bible and
Talmud, in philosophy a follower of Aristotle and Averroes,
known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also many works
on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi,
i.e. of Largentiere (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises
on grammar and philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries
and piyyutim. In the first half of the i4th century lived the
two translators Qalonymos ben David and Qalonymos ben
Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of Galen
and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing
original works, e.g, one against Kaspi, and an ethical work
entitled Eben Bohan. At the end of the century Isaac ben
Moses, called Profiat Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-
Christian controversialist (letter to Me'Ir Alguadez), but also
wrote on grammar (Ma'aseh Efod) and a commentary on the
Moreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian. About the same
time in Spain controversy was very active. Hasdai Crescas
(d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his Or Adonai
against the Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph
Albo in his 'Iqqarim had the same two objects. On the side of
the Maimonists was Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his
Magen Abhoth and in his numerous commentaries. Shem Tobh
ibn Shem Tobh, the kabbalist, was a strong anti-Maimonist,
as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a commentator with
kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle, Averroes and
Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem T6bh was, on the contrary,
a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other
subjects, Saadyah ibn Danan, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473),
is chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic;
Judah ibn Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician
and astronomer; Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote
Shebet Yehudah, of doubtful value historically; Abraham
Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after 1510), astronomer,
wrote the Sepher Yuhasin. an historical work of importance.
In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his very
useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi
and Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are
also of great interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote com-
mentaries (not of the first rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets
and on the Moreh, philosophical treatises and apologetics, such as
the Yeshu'oth Meshiho, all of which had considerable influence.
Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a strong opponent of
Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical treatise Behinalh
ha-dalh, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in Latin.
The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book,
Rashi, Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly
compositors and proof-readers, some of whom were
also authors, such as Jacob ben Hayylm of Tunis
(d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly
known for his masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic
Bible and his introduction to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549),
also proof-reader to Bomberg, author of the Massoreth ha-
Massoreth and other works on grammar and lexicography; and
Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In the
East, Joseph Karo (Qaro) wrote his Beth Yoseph (Venice, 1550),
a commentary on the jur, and his Shulhan 'Arukh (Venice,
1564) an halakhic work like the fur, which is still a standard
authority. The influence of non- Jewish methods is seen in the
more modern tendency of Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed
by Joseph Karo. In his Me'or 'Enayim (Mantua, 1573) Dei
Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish history in a scientific
spirit, with the aid of non- Jewish authorities, and even criticizes
Talmudic and traditional statements. Another historian living
also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose Dibhre ha-yamim
(Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his 'Emeq
ha-bakhah an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In
Germany David Cans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical
work Zemah David (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was
promoted and the practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria
in Palestine (d. 1572). Numerous works, representing the
extreme of mysticism, were published by his pupils as the result
of his teaching. Foremost among these was Hayylm Vital,
author of the 'Ez hayylm, and his son Samuel, who wrote an
introduction to the Kabbalah, called Shemoneh She'arim. To
the same school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697),
poet and kabbalist. Contemporary with Luria and also living
at Safed, was Moses Cordovero (d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose
chief work was the Pardes Rimmonim (Cracow, 1591). In the
1 7th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his Beth Yehudah,
and probably Qol Sakhal, against traditionalism, besides many
controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of
Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects.
Also connected with Prag was Yom Tobh Lipmann Heller, a
voluminous author, best known for the Tosaphoth Yom Tobh
on the Mishna (Prag, 1614; Cracow, 1643). Another important
Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'Ir, of Wilna (d. 1662), commented
on the Shulhan 'Arukh. In the East, David Conforte (d. about
1685) wrote the historical work Qore ha-doroth (Venice, 1746),
using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Hayylm Zemah,
kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote Qol be-ramah, a com-
mentary on the Zohar and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayeklnl,
kabbalist, chiefly remembered as a supporter of the would-be
Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhl, wrote Hod Malkulh (Constantinople,
1655) and sermons. In the i8th century the study of the
HEBREW RELIGION
kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Hayyim Luzzatto (d. 1747)
and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d. 1797),
who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic
and kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards
mysticism he was a strong opponent of the Hasidlm, a mystical
sect founded by Israel Ba'al Shem Tobh (Besht) and promoted
by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah's son Abraham (d. 1808), the com-
mentator, is valuable for his work on Midrash. An historical
work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the Seder
ha-doroth of Yehiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong in
spirit to the previous century.
The characteristic of the i8th and iQth centuries is the en-
deavour, connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to
Modern- bring Judaism more into relation with external
learning, and in using the Hebrew language to purify
an< ^ develop it m accordance with the biblical standard.
The result, while linguistically more uniform and
pleasing, often lacks the spontaneity of medieval literature. It
was Moses Mendelssohn's German translation of the Pentateuch
(1780-1793) which marked the new spirit, while the views of
his opponents belong to a bygone age. In fact the controversy
of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the
earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists.
One of the most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was
Mendelssohn's friend N. H. Wessely, of Hamburg (d. 1805),
author of Shire Tiphe'reth, a long poem on the Exodus, Dibhre
Shalom, a plea for liberalism, Sepher ha-middoth, on ethics,
besides philological works and commentaries. A curious com-
bination of new and old was Hayyim Azulai (d. 1807) , a kabbalist ,
but also the author of Shem ha-gedhottm, a valuable contribution
to literary history.
In the i gth century the modernizing tendency continued to
grow, though always side by side with a strong conservative
opposition, and the most prominent names on both sides are
those of scholars rather than literary men. Among them may
be mentioned, Akiba ('Aqlbha) Eger (d. 1837), Talmudist of
the orthodox, conservative school; W. Heidenheim (d. 1832), a
liberal, and editor of the Pentateuch and Mahzor; N. Krochmal,
of Galicia (d. 1840), author of Moreh Nebhukhe ha-zeman, on
Jewish history and literature; his son Abraham (d. 1895),
conservative commentator and philosopher. One consequence
of the Mendelssohn movement was that many writers used their
vernacular language besides or instead of Hebrew, or translated
from one to the other. Thus Isaac Samuel Reggio (d. 1855),
a strong liberal, wrote both in Hebrew and Italian; Joseph
Almanzi, of Padua (d. 1860), a poet, translated Italian poems
into Hebrew; S. D. Luzzatto, of Padua (d. 1865), a distinguished
scholar and opponent of the philosophy of Maimonides, wrote
much in Italian; M. H. Letteris, of Vienna (d. 1871), translated
German poems into Hebrew; S. Bacher, of Hungary (d. 1891),
was a poet and moderate liberal; L. Gordon (d. 1892), poet and
prose-writer in Hebrew and Russian, of liberal views; A.
Jellinek, of Vienna (d. 1893), preacher and scholar; Jacob
Reifmann (d. 1895), scholar, wrote only in Hebrew. The
endeavour to bring Judaism into relation with the modern
world and to change the current impressions about Jews by
making their teaching accessible to the rest of the world, is
connected chiefly with the names of Z. Frankel (d. 1875), the
first Jewish scholar to study the Septuagint; Abraham Geiger
(d. 1874), critic of the first rank; L. Zunz (d. 1884) and L. Dukes
(d. 1891), both scholarly investigators of Jewish literary history.
Their most important works are in German. The question of
the use of the vernacular or of Hebrew is bound up with the
differences between the orthodox and the liberal or reform parties,
complicated by the many problems involved. Patriotic efforts
are made to encourage the use of Hebrew both for writing and
speaking, but the continued existence of it as a literary language
depends on the direction in which the future history of the Jews
will develop.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Only the more comprehensive works are men-
tioned here, omitting those relating to particular authors, and those
already cited.
Introductory: Abrahams, Short History of Jewish Literature
(London, 1906) ; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature (London, 1857);
Winter and Wiinsche, Die jiidische Literatur (Leipzig, 1893-1895)
(containing selections translated into German).
For further study: Graetz, Geschichle der Juden (Leipzig, 1853,
&c.) (the volumes are in various editions), with special reference to
the notes; English translation by B. Lowy (London, 1891-1892)
(without the notes) ; Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortrdge der Juden
(new ed., Frankfort-on-Main, 1892) ; Zur Geschichte und Literatur
(Berlin, 1845). The Synagogale Poesie has been mentioned above.
Steinschneider, Arabische Literatur der Juden (Frankfort-on-Main,
1902) ; Hebraische Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1893).
On particular authors and subjects there are many excellent
monographs in the Jewish Encyclopaedia (New York, 1901-6), to which
the present article is much indebted.
Bibliographies of printed books: Steinschneider, Catalogus libr.
Hebr. in Bibl. Bodleiana (Berlin, 1852-1860) (more than a catalogue) ;
Zedner, Catalogue of the Hebr. Books in the British Museum (London,
1867; continued by van Straalen, London, 1894). Of manuscripts:
Neubauer, Catal. of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian Library (Oxford,
1886), vol. ii. by Neubauer and Cowley (Oxford, 1906); G. Margo-
liouth, Catal. of the Hebr. . . . MSS. in the British Museum (London,
1899, &c.). Of both: Benjacob, Ozar ha-sepharim (Wilna, 1880) (in
Hebrew; arranged by titles).
Periodicals: Jewish Quarterly Review; Revue des etudes juives;
Hebraische Bibliographic. (A. CY.)
HEBREW RELIGION (i) Introductory. To trace the
history of the religion of the Hebrews is a complex task, because
the literary sources from which our knowledge of that history is
derived are themselves complex and replete with problems as
to age and authorship, some of which have been solved according
to the consensus of nearly all the best scholars, but some of
which still await solution or are matters of dispute. Even if
the analysis of the literature into component documents were
complete, we should still possess a most imperfect record, since
the documents themselves have passed through many re-
dactions, and these redactions have proceeded from varying
standpoints of religious tradition, successively eliminating
or modifying certain elements deemed inconsistent with the
canons of religious usage or propriety which prevailed in the age
when the redaction took place. Lastly it should be recollected
that the entire body of the fragments of tradition and literature
belonging to northern Israel has come down to us through the
channel of Judaean recensions.
The influence of the Deuteronomic tradition in redaction is
seen in such passages as Genesis xxxiii. 20 (cf. xxxi. 45 fol.);
Josh. iv. 9-20, xxiv. 26 fol.; i Sam. vii. 12, where the mas$ebhah
or stone symbol of deity (forbidden in Deut. xii. 3, xvi. 22)
is in some way got rid of (in Gen. xxxiii. 20 the word " altar "
in Hebrew is substituted). Similarly in Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 13,
xviii. i, the Septuagint shows that the singular form " tere-
binth " stood in the original text. But the Massoretes altered
this to the plural as this form was less suggestive of tree-worship
(see Smend, A.Tliche Religionsgesch. i. p. 134, footnote i;
Nowack, Heb. Archaol. p. 12, footnote i). Many other examples
might be cited, as the " suspended nun " which transforms
the pronunciation of the original Mosheh (Moses) into Menashsheh
(Manasseh) owing to the irregular practices of his descendant,
Jonathan ben Gershom (Jud. xviii. 30). It is not improbable
that in 2 Kings iii. 27 the words " from Kemosh " stood after
" great wrath " in the original document, as the phraseology
seems bald without them, and the motives for their suppression
are obvious.
So far as concerns the critical problems which stand at the
threshold of our task, it must suffice to say that the main con-
clusions reached by the school of Kuenen and Wellhausen as
to the literary problems of the Old Testament are assumed
throughout this sketch of the evolution of Hebrew religion.
The documents underlying the Pentateuch and book of Joshua,
represented by the ciphers J, E, D and P, are assumed to have
been drawn up in the chronological order in which those ciphers
are here set down, and the period of their composition extends
from the 9th century B.C., in which the earlier portions of J
were written, to the 5th century B.C., in which P finally took
shape. The view of Professor Dillmann, who placed P before
D in the regal period (though he admitted exilic and post-
exilic additions in Exod., Levit. and Numb.), a view which he
HEBREW RELIGION
177
maintained in his commentary on Genesis (edition of 1892), has
now been abandoned by nearly all scholars of repute. In the
following pages we shall not attempt to do more than to sketch
in very succinct outline the general results of investigation into
the origins and growth of Hebrew religion.
2. Pre-Mosaic Religion. Can any clear indications be found
to guide us as to the religion of the Hebrew clans before the time
of Moses? That Moses united the scattered tribes, probably
consisting at first mainly of the Josephite, under the common
worship of Yahweh, and that upon the religion of Yahweh a
distinctly ethical character was impressed,is generally recognized.
The tradition of the earliest document J ascribes the worship of
Yahweh to much earlier times, in fact to the dawn of human life.
A close survey of the facts, however, would lead us to regard it
as probable that some at least of the Hebrew clans had patron-
deities of their own.
(a) Both Moab and Ammon as well as Edom had their separate
tribal deities, viz. Chemosh (Moab) and Milk (Milcom), the god
of Ammon, and in the case of Edom a deity known from the
inscriptions as Kos (in Assyrian Kaus). 1 From the patriarchal
narratives and genealogies in Genesis we infer that these races
were closely allied to Israel. That in early pre-Mosaic times
parallel cults existed among the various Hebrew tribes is by
no means improbable. It would be reasonable to assume that
Moab, Ammon, Edom and kindred tribes of Israel in the isth
and preceding centuries were included in the generic term
Habirl (or Hebrews) mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna inscriptions
as forming predatory bands that disturbed the security of the
Canaanite dwellers west of the Jordan. Lastly pre-Mosaic poly-
theism seems to be impb'ed in the Mosaic prohibition Ex. xx.
3, xxii. 20.
(b) The tribal names Gad and Asher are suggestive of the
worship of a deity of fortune (Gad) and of the male counterpart
of the goddess, Asherah. Under the name Shaddai (which
Noldeke suggests 2 was originally Shedi " my demon ") it is
possible to discern the name of a deity who in later times came
to be identified with Yahweh. On the other hand, the connexion
of the name Samson with sun-worship throws light on the period
of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan and not on pre-Mosaic
times. Nor is it possible to agree with Baudissin (Studien zur
semit. Religionsgcsch. i. 55) that Elohim as a plural form
for the name of the Hebrew deity " can hardly be understood
otherwise than as a comprehensive expression for the multitude
of gods embraced in the One God of Old Testament religion,"
in other words that it presupposes an original polytheism. For
(i) Elohim is also applied in Judges xi. 24 to the Moabite Chemosh
(Kemosh); in i Sam. v. 7 to Dagon; in i Kings xi. 5 to Ash-
toreth; in 2 Kings i. 2, iii. 6, 16 to Ba'al Zebul of Ekron. (2)
It is merely a plural of dignity (pluralis majestatis) parallel to
adonim (applied to a king in i Kings xviii. 8, whereas in the
previous verse the singular form adoni is applied to the prophet
Elijah). (3) The Tell el-Amarna inscriptions indicate that the
term Elohim might even be applied in abject homage to an
Egyptian monarch as the use of the term Hani in this connexion
obviously implies. 3
The religion of the Arabian tribes in the days of Mahomet,
of which a picture is presented to us by Wellhausen in his
Remains of Arabic Heathendom, furnishes some suggestive indica-
tions of the religion that prevailed in nomadic Israel before as
well as during the lifetime of Moses. It is true that Arabian
polytheism in the time of Mahomet was in a state of decay.
Nevertheless the life of ths desert changes but slowly. We may
therefore infer that ancient Israel during the period when they
1 See Bathgen, Beitrage zur semit. Religions gesch. p. 1 1 (Edom) ;
and cf. Schrader, C.O.T. i. 137; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), p. 472 foil. See
also Beitrage, pp. 13-15; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), pp. 469-472.
2 Z.D.M.G. (1886). It is impossible to discuss the other theories
of the origin of this name. See Driver, Commentary on Genesis,
excursus i. pp. 404-406.
* The Tell el-Amarna despatches are crowded with evidences of
Canaanite forms and idioms impressed on the Babylonian language
of these cuneiform documents. Ilani here simply corresponds to the
Canaanite Elohim. See opening of the letters of Abimelech of Tyre,
Bezold's Oriental Diplomacy, Nos. 28, 29, 30.
inhabited the negebh (S. of Canaan) stood in awe of the demons
(Jinn) of the desert, just as the Arabs at the present day described
in Doughty's Arabia deserla. We know that diseases were attri-
buted by the Israelites to malignant demons which they, like the
Arabs, identified with serpents. The counterspell took the form
of a bronze image of the serpent-demon; see Frazer, Golden
Bough, ii. 426 ; and i Sam. v. 6, vi. 4, 5 (LXX. and Heb.) as well
as Buchanan Gray's instructive note in Numbers, p. 276. The
slaughter of a lamb at the Passover or Easter season, whose blood
was smeared on the door-post, as described in Ex. xii. 21-23,
probably points back to an immemorial custom. In this case
the counterspell assumed a different form. Westermarck has
shown from his observations in Morocco that the blood of the
victim was considered to visit a curse upon the object to whom
the sacrifice is offered and thereby the latter is made amenable
to the sacrificer. 4 It is hardly possible to doubt that in the
original form of the rite described in Exodus the blood offering
was made to the plague demon (" the destroyer ") and possessed
over him a magic power of arrest.
It is therefore certain that belief in demons and magic spells
prevailed in pre-Mosaic times 5 among the Israelite clans. And it
is also probable that certain persons combined in their own
individuality the functions of magician and sacrificer as well as
soothsayer. For we know that in Arabic the Kahin, or soothsayer,
is the same participial form that we meet with in the Hebrew
Kohen, or priest, and in the early period of Hebrew history (e.g.
in the days of Saul and David) it was the priest with the ephod
or image of Yahweh who gave answers to those who consulted
him. How far totemism, or belief in deified animal ancestors,
existed in prehistoric Israel, as evidenced by the tribal names
Simeon (hyena, wolf), Caleb (dog), Hamor (ass), Rahel (ewe)
and Leah (wild cow), &c., 6 as well as by the laws respecting
clean and unclean animals, is too intricate and speculative
a problem to be discussed here. That the food-taboo against
eating the flesh of a particular animal would prevail in the
clan of which that animal was the deified totem-ancestor is
obvious, and it would be a plausible theory to hold that the
laws in question arose when the Israelite tribes were to be con-
solidated into a national unity (i.e. in the time of David and
Solomon), but the application of this theory to the list of unclean
foods in Deut. xiv. (Lev. xi.) seems to present insuperable
difficulties. In fact, while Robertson Smith (in Kinsnip and
Marriage in Early Arabia, as well as his Religion of the Semites,
followed by Stade and Benzinger) strongly advocated the view
that clear traces of totemism can be'found in early Israel, later
"writers, such as Marti, Gesch. der israelit. Religion, 4th ed., p. 24,
Kautzsch in his Religion of Israel already cited, p. 613, and
recently Addis in his Hebrew Religion, p. 33 foil., have abandoned
the theory as applied to Israel. 7 On the other hand, the evidence
for the existence of ancestor-worship in primitive Israel cannot
be so easily disposed of as Kautzsch (ibid. p. 615) appears to
think. We have examples (i Sam. xxviii. 13) in which Elohim
is the term which is applied to departed spirits. Oracles were
received from them (Isa. viii. 19, xxviii. 15, 18; Deut. xviii.
10 foil.). At the graves of national heroes or ancestors worship
was paid. In Gen. xxxv. 20 we read that a ma^ebah or sacred
pillar was erected at Rahel's tomb. That the Teraphlm, which
we know to have resembled the human form (i Sam. xix. 13, 16),
were ancestral images is a reasonable theory. That they were
employed in divination is consonant with the facts already
noted. Lastly, the rite of circumcision (q.v.), which the Hebrews
practised in common with their Semitic neighbours as well as the
Egyptians, belonged to ages long anterior to the time of Moses.
This is a fact which has long been recognized ; cf . Gen. xvii. 10 foil.,
* " Magic and Social Relations " in Sociological Papers, ii.
1 60.
6 See Kautzsch, " Religion of Israel," in Hastings's Diet, of the
Bible, extra vol., p. 614.
8 See Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 152, 297 foil. (1st ed.).
7 The theory was opposed by Noldeke, 1886 (Z.D.M.G. p. 157 foil.),
as well as Wellhausen, and since then by Jacobs and Zapletal (Der
Totemismus u. die Religion Israels). See Stanley A. Cook, " Israel
and Totemism," in J.Q.R. (April, 1902).
i 7 8
HEBREW RELIGION
Herod, ii. 104, and Barton, Semitic Origins, pp. 98-100. Probably
the custom was of African origin, and came from eastern Africa
along with the Semitic race. Respecting Arabia, see Doughty,
Arabia deserta, i. 340 foil.
It is necessary here to advert to a subject much debated during
recent years, viz. the effects of Babylonian culture in western
Asia on Israel and Israel's religion in early times even preceding
the advent of Moses. The great influence exercised by Babylonian
culture over Palestine between 2000 and 1400 B.C. (circa), which
has been clearly revealed to us since 1887 by the discovery of the
Tell el Amarna tablets, is now universally acknowledged. The
subsequent discovery of a document written in Babylonian
cuneiform at Lachish (Tell el Hesy), and more recently still
of another in the excavations at Ta'annek, have established
the fact beyond all dispute. The last discovery had tended to
confirm the views of Fried. Delitzsch, Jeremias (Monotheistische
Strijmungeri) and Baentsch, that monotheistic tendencies are
to be found in the midst of Babylonian polytheism. Page
Renouf, in his Hibbert lectures, Origin and Growth of Religion
as illustrated by that of Ancient Egypt (1879), p. 89 foU., pointed
out this monotheistic tendency in Egyptian religion, as did
de Rouge before him. Baentsch draws attention to this feature
in his monograph Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus
(1906). This tendency, however, he, unlike the earlier conserva-
tive writers, rightly considers to have emerged out of polytheism.
He ventures into a more disputable region when he penetrates
into the obscure realm of the Abrahamic migration and finds in
the \brahamic traditions of Genesis the higher Canaanite mono-
theistic tendencies evolved out of Babylonian astral religion,
and reflected in the name El'Elyon (Gen. xiv. 18, 22). Further
discoveries like Sellin's find at Ta'annek may elucidate the
problem. See Baudissin in Theolog. lit. Zeitung (27th October
1906).
3. The Era of Moses. We are now on safer ground though
still obscure. Moses was the first historic individuality who can
be said to have welded the Israelite clans into a whole. This
could never have been accomplished without unity of worship.
The object of this worship was Yahweh. As we have already
indicated, the document J assumes that Yahweh was worshipped
by the Hebrew race from the first. On the other hand, according
to P (Ex. vi. 2), God spake to Moses and said to him: " I am
Yahweh. But I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as El
Shaddai and by my name Yah well I did not make myself known to
them." According to this later tradition Yahweh was unknown
till the days of Moses, and under the aegis of His power the
Hebrew tribes were delivered from Egyptian thraldom. The
truth probably lies somewhere between these two sharply con-
trasted traditions. So much is clear. Yahweh now becomes the
supreme deity of the Hebrew people, and an ark analogous to the
Egyptian and Babylonian arks portrayed on the monuments 1
was constructed as embodiment of the numen of Yahweh and was
borne in front of the Hebrew army when it marched to war. It
was the signal victory won by Moses at the exodus against the
Egyptians and in the subsequent battle at Rephldlm against
'Amalek (Ex. xvii.) that consolidated the prestige of Yahweh,
Israel's war-god. Indications in the Old Testament itself clearly
point to the celestial or atmospheric character of the Yahweh of
the Hebrews. The supposition that the name originally con-
tained the notion of permanent or eternal being, and was derived
from the verbal root signifying " to be," involves too abstract a
conception to be probable, though it is based on Ex. iii. 15 (E)
representing a tradition which may have prevailed in the 8th
century B.C. Kautzsch, however, supports it (Hastings's D.B.,
extra vol. " Rel. of Isr." p. 625 foil.) against the other derivations
proposed by recent scholars (see JEHOVAH). That the name also
prevailed as that of a god among other Semitic races (or even
1 These sacred arks were carried in procession accompanied by
symbolic figures. We note in this connexion the form of a sacred
bark represented in Meyer's Hist, of Egypt (Oncken scries), p. 257,
viz._the procession carrying the sacred ark and the bark of the god
Amon belonging to the reign of Rameses II. (Lepsius, Denkmaler, iii.
iSgb). See also Birch, Egypt (S.P.C.K.), p. 151 (ark of Khonsu) ; cf.
Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lichte des alien Orients (2nd ed.), pp. 436-441.
non-Semitic) is rendered certain by the proper names Jau-bi'-di
( = Ilu-bi'di) of Hamath in Sargon's inscriptions, Ahi-jawi (mi)
in Sellin's discovered tablet at Ta'annek, to say nothing of those
which have been found in the documents of Khammurabi's reign.
It has generally been held that Stade's supposition has much to
recommend it, that it was derived by Moses from the Kenites, and
should be connected with the Sinai-Horeb region. The name
Sinai suggests moon-worship and the moon-god Sin; and it also
suggests Babylonian influence (cf . also Mount Nebo, which was a
place-name both in Moab and in Judah, and naturally connects
itself with the name of the Babylonian deity). Several indica-
tions favour the view of the connexion in the age of Moses between
the Yahweh-cult at Sinai and the moon-worship of Babylonian
origin to which the name Sinai points (Sin being the Babylonian
moon-god). We note (a) that in the worship of Yahweh the
sacred seasons of new moon and Sabbath are obviously lunar.
Recent investigations have even been held to disclose the fact
that the Sabbath coincided originally, i.e. in early pre-exilian
days, with the full moon. 2 (b) It also accords with the name
bestowed on Yahweh as " Lord of Hosts " (s.ebddth) or stars,
which were regarded as personified beings (Job xxxviii. 7) and
attendants on the celestial Yahweh, constituting His retinue
(i Kings xxii. 19) which fought on high while the earthly armies
of Israel, His people, contended below (Judges v. 20). .
The atmospheric and celestial character which belonged from
the first to the Hebrew conception of Yahweh explains to us the
ease with which the idea of His universal sovereignty arose,
which the Yahwistic creation account (belonging to the earlier
stratum of J, Gen. ii. 4^ foil.) presupposes. How this came to be
overlaid by narrow local limitations of His power and province
will be shown later. It is probable that Moses held the larger
rather than the narrower conception of Yahweh's sphere of
influence. While the ark carried with Israel's host symbolized
His presence in their midst, He was also known to be present in
the cloud which hovered before the host and in the lightning
('esh Yahweh or " fire of Yahweh ") and the thunder (kol Yahweh
or " voice of Yahweh ") which played around Mount Sinai.
Moreover, it is hardly probable that a great leader like Moses
remained unaffected by the higher conceptions tending towards
monotheism which prevailed in the great empires on the Nile and
on the Euphrates. In Egypt we know that Amenophis IV.
came under this monotheistic movement, and attempted to
suppress all other cults except that of the sun-deity, of which he
2 Cf. Zimmern in Z.D.M.G. (1904), pp. 199 foil., 458 foil. This
view is based on Dr Pinches's discovered list in which Sapatti is called
the isth day (Proc. of the Soc. of Biblical Arch., p. 51 foil.). See
A. Jeremias, Das A. T. im Lichte des alien Orients (2nd ed.), pp. 182-
187. Marti, in his stimulating work Religion des A.T., pp. 5, 72,
advocates the exclusive reference of the word Sabbath to the full
moon until the time of Ezekiel on the basis of Meinhold's arguments
in Sabbat u. Woche im A.T. The latter regards Ezekiel as the
organizer of the Jewish community and the originator of the sanctity
of the Sabbath as a seventh day (Ezek. xlvi. i ; cf. Ezek. xx. 12, 13,
16, 20, 24, xxii. 8, 26, xxiii. 38, in which the reproaches for the
profanation or neglect of the Sabbath in no way sustain Meinhold's
view). In opposition to Meinhold, see Lotz in P.R.E. (3rd ed., art.
" Sabbath," vol. xvii. pp. 286-289). To this Meinhold replies in
Z.A.T.W. (1909), p. 81 f. Cf. also Hehn, Siebenzahl und Sabbat.
While admitting that a special significance may have been attached
in pre-exilian times to the full-moon Sabbath, and that the latter
may have been specially intended in the combination " new moon
and Sabbath" in the 8th-century prophets (Hos. ii. 13; Amos
viii. 5 ; Lsa. i. 13), we are not prepared to deny that the institution of
a seventh-day Sabbath was an ancient pre-exilian tradition. The
sacredness of the number seven is based on the seven planetary
deities to whom each day of the week was respectively dedicated,
i.e. was astral in origin. Cf. C.O.T. i. 18 foil., and Winckler,
Religionsgeschichtlicher u. geschichtlicher Orient, p. 39. See also K.A.T.
(3rd ed.), pp. 620-626. In the Old Testament the sanctity of the
number seven is clearly fundamental (e.g. in the Nif'al form nisba',
" to swear," in the derivative subst. for " oath," in Beer-sheba", &c.).
The seventh day of rest was parallel to the seventh year of release
and of the fallow field. It is, therefore, impossible to detach Ex.
xxiii. 12 from Ex. xxi. 2, xxiii. 10 foil.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 21. We
therefore hold that the law of the seventh-day Sabbath goes back
to the Mosaic age. The general coincidence of the Sabbath or
seventh day with the easily recognized first quarter and full moon
established its sacred character as lunar as well as planetary.
HEBREW RELIGION
179
was a devoted worshipper. We also know that between 2000
and 1400 B.C. the Babylonian language as well as Babylonian
civilization and ideas spread over Palestine (as the Tell el Amarna
tables clearly testify). The ancient Babylonian psalms clearly
reveal that the highest minds were moving out of polytheism to a
monotheistic identification of various deities as diverse phases of
one underlying essence. A remarkable Babylonian tablet dis-
covered by Dr Pinches represents Marduk. the god of light, as
identified in his person with all the chief deities of Babylonia,
who are evidently regarded as his varying manifestations. 1
Through the influence of Mosaic teaching and law a definitely
ethical character was ascribed to Yahweh. It was His " finger "
that wrote the brief code which has come down to us in the
decalogue. At first, as Erdmanns suggests, it may have con-
sisted of only seven commands. So also Kautzsch, ibid. p. 634.
The most strongly distinguishing feature of the code is the rigid
exclusion of the worship of other gods than Yahweh. Moreover,
the definitely ethical character of the religion of Yahweh estab-
lished by Moses is exhibited in the strict exclusion of all sexual
impurity in His worship. Unlike the Canaanite Baal, Yahweh
hasnofemale consort, and this remained throughouta distinguish-
ing trait of the original and unadulterated Hebrew religion (see
Bathgen, Beitrdge, p. 265). Indeed, Hebrew, unlike Assyrian
or Phoenician, has no distinctive form for " goddess.-" From
first to last the true religion of Yahweh was pure of sexual taint.
The kedeshlm and kedeshoth, the male and female priest attend-
ants in the Baal and 'Ashtoreth shrines (cf. the kadishtu of the
temples of the Babylonian Ishtar) were foreign Canaanite
elements which became imported into Hebrew worship during
the period of the Hebrew settlement in Canaan.
Lastly, the earliest codes of Hebrew legislation (Ex. xxi.-
xxiii.) bear the distinct impress of the high ethical character of
Yahweh's requirements originally set forth by Moses. Of this
tradition the Naboth incident in the time of Ahab furnishes a
clear example which brings to light the contrast between the
Tyrian Baal-cult, which was scarcely ethical, and of which
Jezebel and Ahab were devotees, and the moral requirements of
the religion of Yahweh of which Elijah was the prophet and im-
passioned exponent. It was this definite basis of ethical Mosaic
religion to which the prophets of the 8th century appealed, and
apart from which their denunciations become meaningless. To
this early standard of life and practice Ephraim was faithless in
the days of the prophet Hosea (see his oracles passim especially
chaps, i.-iv. and xiv.), and Judah in the time of Isaiah turned a
deaf ear (Isa. i. 2-4, 21).
4. Influence of Canaan. The entrance of Israel into Canaan
marks the beginning of a new epoch in the development of
Israel's religious life. For it involved a transition from the simple
nomadic relations to those of the agricultural and more highly
civilized Canaanite life. This subject has been recently treated
with admirable clearness by Marti in his useful treatise Die
Religion des A.T. (1006), pp. 25-41.
It is in the festivals of the annual calendar that this agricultural
impress is most fully manifested. To the original nomadic
Pesah (Passover) sacrifice of a lamb there was attached a
distinct and agricultural festival of unleavened cakes (massoth)
which marks the beginning of the corn harvest in the middle of
the month Abib (the name of which points to its Canaanite and
1 The tablet is neo- Babylonian and published by Dr Pinches in the
Transactions of the Victoria Institute, and is cited by Professor Fried.
Delitzsch in the notes appended to his first lecture Babel u. Bibel
(5th German ed., p. 81 ad fin. and p. 82). On this subject of Baby-
lonian influence over Israel see Jeremias, Monotheistische Stromungen
innerhalb der babylonischen Religion, and E. Baentsch, Altorienta-
lischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus. The text and rendering of
the passage are doubtful in the cuneiform letter discovered by
Sellin in Ta'annek (biblical Ta'anach, near Megiddo) addressed by
Alji-jawi (? Aljijah) to Ishtar-wasur, in which the following remark-
able phrases are read: " May the Lord of the gods protect thy life.
. . . Above thy head is one who is above the towns. See now
whether he will show thee good. When he reveals his face, then
will they be put to shame and the victory will be complete." The
letter appears to belong to about 1400 B.C. See A. Jeremias, Das
A.T. int Lichte des alien Orients (2nd ed.), pp. 315, 316, 323. Sellin,
Ertrag der Ausgrabungen im Orient.
agricultural origin). The close of the corn-harvest was marked
by the festival Shabhuoth (weeks) or Kd;ir (harvest) held seven
weeks after massoth. The last and most characteristic
festival of Canaanite life was that of Asiph or " ingathering "
which after the Deuteronomic reformation (621 B.C.) had made
a single sanctuary and therefore a considerable journey with a
longer stay necessary, came to be called Succdth or booths.
This was the autumn festival held at the close of September or
beginning of October. It marked the close of the year's agricul-
tural operations when the olives and grapes had been gathered
[Ex. xxiii. 14-17 (E), xxxiv. 18, 22, 23 (])]; see FEASTS,
PASSOVER, PENTECOST and TABERNACLES. Another special
characteristic of Israel's religion in Canaan was the considerable
increase of sacrificial offerings. Animal sacrifices became much
more frequent, and included not only the bloody sacrifice
(Zebah) but also burnt offerings (kalil, 'olah) whereby the whole
animal was consumed (see SACRIFICE). But we have in addition
to the animal sacrifices, vegetable offerings of meal, oil and cakes
(massoth, ashlshah and kawwan, which last is specially connected
with the 'Ashtoreth cult: Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 19), as well as the
" bread of the Presence " (lehem happanim), i Sam. xxi. 6.
Whether the primitive rite of water-o/erings (i Sam. vii. 6;
2 Sam. xxiii. 16) belonged to early nomadic Israel (as seems
probable) it is not possible to determine with any certainty.
Again, the conception of Yahweh suffered modification.
In the desert he was worshipped as an atmospheric deity, who
manifested himself in thunder and lightning, whose abode was
in the sky, whose sanctuary was on the mountain summit of
Horeb-Sinai, and whose movable palladium was the ark of the
covenant. But when the nomadic clans of Israel came to occupy
the settled abodes of the agricultural Canaanites who had a
stake in the soil which they cultivated, these conditions evidently
reacted on their religion. Now the local Baal was the divine
owner of the fertile spot where his sanctuary (qodesh) was marked
by the upright stone pillar, the symbol of his presence, on which
the blood of the slaughtered victim was smeared. To this Baal
the productiveness of the soil was due. Consequently it was
needful to secure his favour, and in order to gain this, gifts were
made to him by the local resident population who depended
on the produce of the land (see BAAL, especially ad init.). Now
when the Hebrews succeeded to these agricultural conditions
and acquired possession of the Canaanite abodes, they naturally
fell into the same cycle of religious ideas and tradition. Yahweh
ceased to be exclusively regarded as god of the atmosphere,
worshipped in a distant mountain, Horeb-Sinai, situated in the
south country (negebh) ,and moving in the clouds of heaven before
the Israelites in the desert, but he came to be associated with
Israel's life in Canaan. He manifested His presence either by a
signal victory over Israel's foes (Josh. x. 10, n ; i Sam. vii. 10-12)
or by a thunderstorm (i Sam. xii. 18) or through a dream (Gen.
xxviii. 16 foil. ; cf. i Kings iii. 5 foil.) at a sacred spot like Bethel.
Accordingly, whenever His presence and power were displayed in
places where the Canaanite Baal had been worshipped, they came
to be attached to these spots. He had " put his name," i.e.
power and presence (numen) there, and the same festivals and
sacrifices which had previously been devoted to the cult of
the Canaanite Baal were now annexed to the service of Yahweh,
the war-god of the conquering race. The process of transference
was facilitated by two potent causes: (a) Both Canaanite and
Hebrew spoke a common language; (b) the name Baal is not in
reality an individual proper name like Kemosh (Chemosh),
Ramman or Hadad, but is, like El (Ilu )" god," an appellative
meaning " lord," " owner " or " husband." The name Baal
might therefore be used for any deity such as Milk (Milcom)
or Shemesh (" sun ") who was the divine owner of the spot.
It was simply a covering epithet, and like the word " god "
could be transferred from one deity to another. In this way
Yahweh came to be called the Baal or " lord " of any sacred
place where the armies of Israel by their victories attested
" his mighty hand and outstretched arm." (See Kautzsch in
Hastings's D.B., extra vol., p. 645 foil.)
Such was the path of syncretism, and it was fraught with
i8o
HEBREW RELIGION
peril to the older and purer faith. For when Yahweh gradually
became Israel's local Baal he became worshipped like the old
Canaanite deity, and all the sensuous accompaniments of
Kedeshoth, 1 as well as the presence of the asherah or sacred
pole, became attached to his cult. But the symbol carried
with it the numen of the goddess symbolized, and there can be
little doubt that Asherah came to be regarded as Yahweh's
consort. In the days of Manasseh syncretism went on unchecked
even in the Jerusalem temple and its precincts, and it was not
till the year of Josiah's reformation (621 B.C.) that the Kedeshlm
and Kedeshoth as well as the Asherah were banished for ever
from Yahweh's sanctuary (2 Kings xxi. 7, xxiii. 7), which their
presence had profaned.
Now local worship means the differentiation of the personality
worshipped in the varied local shrines, in other words Baalim
or Baals. Just as we have in Assyria an Ishtar of Arbela and
an Ishtar of Nineveh (treated in Assur-bani-pal's (Rassam)
cylinder 2 like two distinct deities), as we have local Madonnas
in Roman Catholic countries, so must it have been with the cults
of Yahweh in the regal period carried on in the numerous high
places, Bethel, Shechem, Shiloh (till its destruction in the
days of EH) and Jerusalem. Each in turn claimed that Yahweh
had placed his name (i.e. personal presence and power or numen)
there. Each had a Yahweh of its own.
On the other hand, old deities still lurked in old spots which
had been for centuries their abode. It was no easy task to
establish Yahweh in permanent possession of the new lands
conquered by the Hebrew settlers. The old gods were not to
be at once discrowned of might. Of this we have a vivid example
in the episode 2 Kings xviii. 24-28. The inhabitants of Babylonia
and other regions whom the Assyrian kings had settled in
Ephraim after 721 B.C. (cf. Ezra iv. 10) are described as suffering
from the depredations of lions, and a priest from the deported
Ephraimites is sent to them to teach them the worshipof Yahweh,
the god of the land. Similarly in the earlier pre-exilian period
of Israel's occupation of Canaanite territory the Hebrews were
always subject to this tendency to worship the old Baal or
'Ashtoreth (the goddess who made the cattle and flocks prolific). 3
A few years of drought or of bad seasons would make a Hebrew
settler betake himself to the old Canaanite gods. Even in the
days of Hosea the rivalry between Yahweh and the old Canaanite
Baal still continued. The prophet reproaches his Ephraimite
countrymen for going after their " lovers," the old local Baals
who were supposed to have bestowed on them the bread, water,
wool, flax and oil, and for not knowing that " it is I (Yahweh)
who have bestowed on her (i.e. Israel) the corn, the new wine
and the oil, and have bestowed on her silver and gold in abund-
ance which they have wrought into a Baal image " (Hos. ii. 10).
External danger from a foreign foe, such as Midian or the
Philistines, at once brought into prominence the claim and power
of Yahweh, Israel's national war-god since the great days of
the exodus. The religion of Yahweh (as Wellhausen said)
meant patriotism, and in war-time tended to weld the participat-
ing tribes into a national unity. The book of Judges with its
" monotonous tempo religious declension, oppression, repent-
ance, peace," to which Wellhausen 4 refers as its ever-recurring
cycle, makes us familiar with these alternating phases of action
and reaction. Times of peace meant national disintegration
and the lapse of Israel into the Canaanite local cults, which is
interpreted by the redactor as the prophets of the 8th century
would have interpreted it, viz. as defection from Yahweh. On
the other hand, times of war against a foreign foe meant on
the religious side the unification, partial or complete, of the
1 The allusion in Amos ii. 7; Hos. iv. 13, 14 is sufficiently explicit;
cf. Jer. ii. 20-23, >" 6-n, v. 7, 8. The practice is prohibited in
Deut. xxiii. 17.
1 Column i. 15, 16, 42, 43, ii. 128, iii. 30, 31, iv. 47, 48, &c.
Probably we should regard them as differentiated hypostases.
* Hence the 'Ashtaroth or offspring of flocks in Deut. vii. 13,
xxviii. 18. A like function belonged to the Babylonian Ishtar.
See " Descent of Ishtar to Hades," Rev. lines 6-10, where universal
non-intercourse of sexes follows Ishtar's departure from earth to
Hades.
4 Proleg. Gesch. Israels (2nd ed.), p. 240 foil., cf . p. 258.
Israelite tribes by the rallying cry " the sword of Yahweh "
(Judges vii. 20). In this way 'Ophrah became the centre of
the coalition under Gideon in the tribe of Manasseh. Its im-
portance is attested by Judges viii. 22-28, and we may disregard
the " snare " which the Deuteronomic writer condemns in
accordance with the later canons of orthodoxy. What 'Ophrah
became on a small scale in the days of Gideon, Jerusalem became
on a larger scale in the days of David and his successors. It was
the religious expression of the unity of Israel which the life and
death struggle with the Philistines had gradually wrought out.
Despite the capture of the ark after the disastrous battle
of Shiloh, Yahweh had in the end shown himself through a
destructive plague superior in might to the Philistine Dagon.
There are indeed abundant indications that prove that in the
prevalent popular religion of the regal period monotheistic
conceptions had no place. Yahweh was god only of Israel and
of Israel's land. An invasion of foreign territory would bring
Israel under the power of its patron-deity. The wrath with
which the Israelite armies believed themselves to be visited
(probably an outbreak of pestilence) when the king of Moab
was reduced to his last extremity, was obviously the wrath of
Chemosh the god of Moab, which the king's sacrifice of his only
son had awakened against the invading army (2 Kings iii. 27).
In other. words, the ordinary Israelite worshipper of Yahweh
was at this time far removed from monotheism, and still remained
in the preliminary stage of henotheism, which regarded Yahweh
as sole god of Israel and Israel's land, but at the same time
recognized the existence and power of the deities of other lands
and peoples. Of this we have recurring examples in pre-exilian
Hebrew history. See i Sam. xxvi. 19; Judges xi. 23, 24;
Ruth i. 16.
5. Characteristics and Constituent Elements. It is only possible
here to refer in briefest enumeration to the material and external
objects and forms of popular Hebrew religion. These
were of the simplest character. The upright stone
(or massebah) was the material symbol of deity
on which the blood of sacrifice was smeared, and in which the
numen of the god resided. It is probable that in some primitive
sanctuaries no real distinction was made between this stone-
pillar and the altar or place where the animal was slaughtered.
In ordinary pre-exilian high places the custom described in the
primitive compend of laws (Ex. xx. 24) would be observed.
A mound of earth was raised which would serve as a platform
on which the victim would be slaughtered in the presence of
the concourse of spectators. In the more important shrines,
as at Jerusalem or Samaria, there would be an altar of stone
or of bronze. Another accompaniment of the sanctuary would
be the sacred tree most frequently a terebinth (cf. Judges ix.
37 " terebinth of soothsayers "), or it might be a palm tree
(cf. " palm tree of Deborah " in Judges iv. 5), or a tamarisk
('eshel), or pomegranate(rwwon),as at the high place in Gibeah
where Saul abode. Moreover, we have frequent' references to
sacred springs, as that of Beer-sheba, ' Enharod ('eyn-harod)
(Judges vii. i; cf. also Judges 19, ' En-ha^ore ['eyn-haqqore']).
(On this subject of holy trees, holy waters and holy stones,
consult article TREE- WORSHIP, and Robertson Smith's Religion
of the Semites, 2nd ed., pp. 165-197.)
The wide prevalence of magic and soothsaying may be
illustrated from the historical books of the Old Testament
as well as from the pre-exilian prophets. The latter indeed
tolerated the qosem (soothsayer) as they did the seer (ro'eh).
The rhabdomancy denounced by Hosea (iv. 12) was associated
with idolatry at the high places. But the arts of the necromancer
were always and without exception treated as foreign to the
religion of Yahweh. The necromancer of ba'al 'obh' was held
to be possessed of the spirit who spoke through him with a
hollow voice. Indeed both necromancer and the spirit that
possessed him were sometimes identified, and the former was
simply called obh. It is probable that necromancy, like the
worship of Asherah and 'Ashtoreth, as well as the cult of graven
images, was a Canaanite importation into Israel's religious
practices. (See Marti, Religion des A.T., p. 32.)
HEBREW RELIGION
181
Priest-
hood.
The history of the rise of the priesthood in Israel is exceedingly
obscure. In the nomadic period and during the earlier years of
the settlement of Israel in Canaan the head of every
family could offer sacrifices. In the primitive codes,
Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19 (E), xxxiv. 10-28 (J), we have
no allusion to any separate order of men who were qualified to
offer sacrifices. In Ex. xxiv. 5 (E) we read that Moses simply
commissioned young men to offer sacrifices. On the other hand
the addendum to the book of Judges, chaps, xvii., xviii. (which
Budde, Moore and other critics consider to belong to the two
sources of the narratives in Judges, viz. J 1 as well as E), makes
reference to a Levite of Bethlehem-Judah, expressly stated
in xvii. 7 as belonging to a clan of Judah. This man Micah took
into his household as priest. This narrative has all the marks
of primitive simplicity. There can be no reasonable doubt that
the Levite here was member of a priestly tribe or order, and this
view is confirmed by the discovery of what is really the same
word in south Arabian inscriptions. 2 The narrative is of some
value as it shows that while it was possible to appoint any one
as a priest, since Micah, like David, appointed one of his own
sons (xvii. 5), yet a special priest-tribe or order also existed,
and Micah considered that the acquisition of one of its members
was for his household a very exceptional advantage: " Now
1 know that Yahweh will befriend me because I have the Levite
as priest." 3 In other words a priest who was a Levite possessed
a superior professional qualification. He is paid ten shekels
per annum, together with his food and clothing, and is dignified
by the appellation " father " (cf. the like epithet of " mother "
applied to the prophetess Deborah, Judges v. 7; see also
2 Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14). This same narrative dwells upon
the graven images, ephod and teraphim, as forming the apparatus
of religious ceremonial in Micah's household. Now the ephod
and teraphim are constantly mentioned together (cf. Hos. iii. 4)
and were used in divination. The former was the plated image
of Yahweh (cf. Judges viii. 26, 27) and the latter were ancestral
images (see Marti, op. cit. pp. 27, 29; Harper, Int. Comm.
" Amos and Hosea," p. 222). In other words the function of
the priest was not merely sacrificial (a duty which Kautzsch
unnecessarily detaches from the services which he originally
rendered), nor did he merely bear the ark of the covenant and
take charge of God's house; but he was also and mainly (as the
Arabic name kahin shows) the soothsayer who consulted the ephod
and gave the answers required on the field of battle (see i Sam.
and 2 Sam. passim) and on other occasions. This is clearly
shown in the " blessing of Moses " (Deut. xxxiii. 8), where the
Levite is specially associated with another apparatus of inquiry,
viz. the sacred lots, Urim and Thummim. The true character
of Urim (as expressing " aye ") and Thummim (as expressing
" nay " ) is shown by the reconstructed text of i Sam. xiv. 41
on the basts of the Septuagint. See Driver ad loc.
The chief and most salient characteristic of the worship of
the high places was geniality. The sacrifice was a feast of social
communion between the deity and his worshippers,
and knit botn deitv and clan-members together in
ship. the bonds of a close fellowship. This genial aspect
of Hebrew worship is nowhere depicted more graphic-
ally than in the old narrative (a J section = Budde's G) i Sam.
ix. 19-24, where a day of sacrifice in the high place is described.
Saul and his attendant are invited by the seer-priest Samuel
into the banqueting chamber (lishkah) where thirty persons
partake of the sacrificial meal. It was the 'dsiph or festival
of ingathering, when the agricultural operations were brought
to a close, which exhibited these genial features of Canaanite-
Hebrew life most vividly. References to them abound in pre-
exilian literature: Judges xxi. 21 (cf. ix. 27); Amos viii. i foil.;
Hos. ix. i foil., Jer. xxxi. 4; Isa. xvi. 10 (Jer. xlviii. 33).
These festivals formed the veins and arteries of ancient Hebrew
1 Internal. Crit. Commentary, Judges, Introd. p. xxx., also p. 367
foil.
2 m 1 ? "priest," nm 1 ? "priestess"; see Hommel, Sud-arabische
Chrestomathie, p. 127; Ancient Hebrew Tradition, p. 278 foil.
3 Moore regards this verse as belonging to the J or older document,
op. cit. p. 367.
clan and tribal life. 4 Wellhausen's characterization of the
Arabian hajj & applies with equal force to the Hebrew hagg
(festival) : " They formed the rendezvous of ancient life. Here
came under the protection of the peace of God the tribes and
clans which otherwise lived apart from one another and only
knew peace and security within their own frontiers." i Sam.
xx. 28 foil, indicates the strong claims on personal attendance
exercised on each individual member by the local clan festival
at Bethlehem-Judah.
It is easy to discern from varied allusions in the Old Testament
that the Canaanite impress of sensuous life clung to the autumnal
vintage festivals. They became orgiastic in character and
scenes of drunkenness, cf. Judges ix. 27; i Sam. 14-16; Isa.
xxviii. 7, 8. Against this tendency the Nazirite order and
tradition was a protest. Cf. Amos ii. n foil.; Judges xiii. 7, 14.
As certain sanctuaries, Shiloh, Shechem, Bethel, &c., grew in
importance, the priesthoods that officiated at them would acquire
special prestige. Eli, the head priest at Shiloh in the early youth
of Samuel, held an important position in what was then the
chief religious and political centre of Ephraim; and the office
passed by inheritance to the sons in ordinary cases. In the regal
period the royal residence gave the priesthood of that place an
exceptional position. Thus Zadok, who obtained the priestly
office at Jerusalem in the reign of Solomon and was succeeded
by his sons, was regarded in later days as the founder of the true
and legitimate succession of the priesthood descended from Levi
(Ezek. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xliv. 15; cf. i Kings ii. 27, 35). His
descent, however, from Eleazar, the elder brother of Aaron,
can only be regarded as the later artificial construction of the
post-exilian chronicler (i Chron. vi. 4-15, 50-53, xxiv. i foil.),
who was controlled by the traditions which prevailed in the 4th
century B.C. and after.
6. The Prophets. The rise of the order of prophets, who
gradually emerged out of and became distinct from the old
Hebrew " seer " or augur (i Sam. ix. g), 6 marks a new epoch
in the religious development of the Hebrews. Over the successive
stages of this growth we pass lightly (see PROPHET). The life-
and-death struggle between Israel and the Philistines in the reign
of Saul called forth under Samuel's leadership a new order of
" men of God," who were called " prophets " or divinely inspired
speakers. 7 These men were distributed in various settlements,
and their exercises were usually of an ecstatic character. The
closest modern analogy would be the orders of dervishes in
Islam. Probably there was little externally to distinguish the
prophet of Yahweh in the days of Samuel from the Canaanite-
Phoenician prophets of Baal and Asherah (i Kings xviii. 19, 26,
28), for the practices of both were ecstatic and orgiastic (cf.
i Sam. x. 5 foil., xviii. 10, xix. 23 foil.). The special quality which
distinguished these prophetic gilds or companies was an intense
patriotism combined with enthusiastic devotion to the cause
of Yahweh. This necessarily involved in that primitive age an
extreme jealousy of foreign importations or innovations in
ritual. It is obvious from numerous passages that these pro-
phetic gilds recognized the superior position and leadership of
Samuel, or of any other distinguished prophet such as Elijah
or Elisha. Thus i Sam. xix. 20, 23 et seq. show that Samuel
was regarded as head of the prophetic settlement at Naioth.
With reference to Elijah and Elisha, see 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 15,
iv. i, 38 et seq., vi. i et seq. There cannot be any doubt that
4 Similarly in ancient Greece. See the instructive passage in
Aristotle, Nic. Eth. viii. q (4, 5), on the relation of Greek sacrifices
and festivals to Koivwvlai and politics: oj yap dpxeuat Ovalat xal
(Hivo&oi <t>alvovr(u ylyvfoOai /j-d rds TUT Kapruv <rvynt>ni5as olov drapxai ;
cf. Grote on Pan-Hellenic festivals, History of Greece, vol. iiij ch.
28.
6 Wellhausen, Reste arabischtn Heidentums (2nd ed.), p. 89.
' Though this be an interpolated gloss (Thenius, Budde), it states
a significant truth as Kautzsch clearly shows, op. cit. p. 672. _In
Micah iii. 7 the fyozeh is mentioned in a sense analogous totnero'eft
or " seer," and coupled with the qosem or " soothsayer," viz. as
spurious; cf. Deut. xviii. 10.
7 No better derivation is forthcoming of the word nabhi ,
" prophet," than that it is a Ka^fl form of the root ndM = Assyr.
nabii, " speak."
182
HEBREW RELIGION
such enthusiastic devotees of Yahweh, in days when religion
meant patriotism, did much to keep alive the flame of Israel's
hope and courage in the dark period of national disaster. It is
significant that Saul in his last unavailing struggle against the
overwhelming forces of the Philistines sought through the medium
of a sorceress for an interview with the deceased prophet Samuel.
It was the advice of Elisha that rescued the armies of Jehoram
and Jehoshaphat in their war against Moab when they were
involved in the waterless wastes that surrounded them (2 Kings
iii. 14 foil.). We again find Elisha intervening with effect on
behalf of Israel in the wars against Syria, so that his fame spread
to Syria itself (2 Kings v.-viii. 7 foil.). Lastly it was the fiery
counsels of the dying prophet, accompanied by the acted magic
of the arrow shot through the open window, and also of the
thrice smitten floor, that gave nerve and courage to Joash, king
of Israel, when the armies of Syria pressed heavily on the northern
kingdom (2 Kings xiii. 14-19).
We see that the prophet had now definitely emerged from the
old position of " seer." Prophetic personality now moved in a
larger sphere than that of divination, important though that
function be in the social life of the ancient state 1 as instrumental
in declaring the will of the deity when any enterprise was on
foot. For the prophet's function became in an increasing degree
a function of mind, and not merely of traditional routine or
mechanical technique, like that of the diviner with his arrows
or his lots which he cast in the presence of the ephod or plated
Yahweh image. The new name nabhi' became necessary to
express this function of more exalted significance, in which human
personality played its larger role. Even as early as the time of
David it would seem that Nathan assumed this more developed
function as interpreter of Yahweh's righteous will to David.
But both in 2 Sam. xii. 1-15 as well as in 2 Sam. vii. we have
sections which are evidently coloured by the conceptions of a
later time. We stand on safer ground when we come to Elijah's
bold intervention on behalf of righteousness when he declared
in the name of Yahweh the divine judgment on Ahab and his
house for the judicial murder of Naboth. We here observe a
great advance in the vocation of the prophet. He becomes the
interpreter and vindicator of divine justice, the vocal exponent
of a nation's conscience. For Elijah was in this case obviously
no originator or innovator. He represents the old ethical
Mosaism, which had not disappeared from the national con-
sciousness, but still remained as the moral pre-supposition on
which the prophets of the following century based their appeals
and denunciations. It is highly significant that Elijah, when
driven from the northern kingdom by the threats of the Tyrian
Jezebel, retreats to the old sanctuary at Horeb, whence Moses
derived his inspiration and his Torah.
We have hitherto dealt with isolated examples of prophetism
and its rare and distinguished personalities. The ordinary
Hebrew nabhi' still remained not the reflective visionary, stirred
at times by music into strange raptures (2 Kings iii. 15), but the
ecstatic and orgiastic dervish who was meshuggah or " frenzied,"
a term which was constantly applied to him from the days of
Elisha to those of Jeremiah (2 Kings ix. n; in Hos. ix. 7 and
Jer. xxix. 26 it is regarded as a term of reproach). It is only in
rare instances that some exalted personality is raised to a higher
level. Of this we have an interesting example in the vivid
episode that preceded the battle of Ramoth-Gilead described
in i Kings xxii., when Micaiah appears as the true prophet of
Yahweh, who in his rare independence stands in sharp contrast
with the conventional court prophets, who prophesied then, as
their descendants prophesied more than two centuries later,
smooth things.
It is not, however, till the 8th ceijtury that prophecy attained
its highest level as the interpreter of God's ways to men. This
is due to the fact that it for the first time unfolded the true
character of Yahweh, implicit in the old Mosaic religion and
submerged in the subsequent centuries of Israel's life in Canaan,
but now at length made clear and explicit to the mind of the
1 In Isa. iii. 2 the soothsayer is placed on a level with the judge,
prophet and elder.
nation. It became now detached from the limitations of nation-
alism and local association with which it had been hitherto
circumscribed.
Even Elisha, the greatest prophet of the gth century, had
remained within these national limitations which characterized
the popular conceptions of Yahweh. Yahweh was Israel's war-
god. His power was asserted in and from Canaanite soil. If
Naaman was to be healed, it could only be in a Palestinian river,
and two mules' load of earth would be the only permanent
guarantee of Yahweh's effective blessing on the Syrian general
in his Syrian home.
That larger conceptions prevailed in some of the loftier minds
of Israel, and may be held to have existed even as far back as
the age of Moses, is a fact which the Yahwistic cosmogony in
Gen. ii. 46-9 (which may have been composed in the 9th century
B.C.) clearly suggests, and it is strongly sustained by the over-
whelming evidence of the powerful influence of Babylonian
culture in the Palestinian region during the centuries 2000-
1400 B.C. 2 Probably in our modern construction of ancient
Hebrew history sufficient consideration has not been given to the
inevitable coexistence of different types and planes of thought,
each evolved from earlier and more primordial forms. In other
words we have to deal not with one evolution but with
evolutions.
The existence of the purer and larger conception of Yahweh's
character and power before the advent of Amos indicates that
the transition from the past was not so sudden as Wellhausen's
graphic portrayal in the gth edition of this Encyclopaedia (art.
ISRAEL) would have led us to suppose. There were pre-existent
ideas upon which that prophet's epoch-making message was
based. Yet this consideration should in no way obscure the fact
that the prophet lived and worked in the all-pervading atmosphere
of the popular syncretic Yahweh religion, intensely national
and local in its character. In Wellhausen's words, each petty
state " revolved on its own axis " of social-religious life till the
armies of Tiglath-Pileser III. broke up the security within the
Canaanite borders. According to the dominating popular
conception, the destruction of the national power by a foreign
army meant the overthrow of the prestige of the national deity
by the foreign nation's god. If Assyria finally overthrew Israel
and carried off Yahweh's shrine, Assur (Asur), the tutelary
deity of Assyria, was mightier than Yahweh. This was precisely
what was happening among the northern states, and Amos
foresaw that this might eventually be Israel's doom. Rabshakeh's
appeal to the besieged inhabitants of Jerusalem was based on
these same considerations. He argued from past history that
2 Kautzsch, in his profoundly learned article on the " Religion
of Israel," to which frequent reference has been made, exhibits (pp.
669-671) an excess of scepticism, in our opinion, towards the views
propounded by Gunkel in 1895 (Schopfung und Chaos) respecting
the intimate connexion between the early Hebrew cosmogonic ideas
and those of Babylonia. Stade indeed (Z.A.T.W., 1903, pp. 176-
178) maintained that the conception of Yahweh as creator of the
world could not have arisen till after the middle of the 8th century
as the result of prophetic teaching, and that it was not till the time
of Ezekiel that Babylonian conceptions entered the world of Hebrew
thought in any fulness. Such a theory appears to ignore the remark-
able results of archaeology since 1887. At that time Stade's position
might have appeared reasonable. It was the conclusion to which
Wellhausen's brilliant literary analysis, when not supplemented
by the discoveries at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi, appeared to
many scholars (by no means all) inevitably to conduct us. But the
years 1887 to 1891 opened many eyes to the fact that the Hebrews
lived their life on the great highways of intercourse between Egypt
on the one hand, and Babylonia, Assyria and the N. Palestinian
states on the other, and that they could scarcely have escaped the
all-pervading Babylonian influences of 2000-1400 B.C. It is now
becoming clearer every day, especially since the discovery of the
laws of Khammurabi, that, if we are to think sanely about Hebrew
history before as well as after the exile, we can only think of Israel
as part of the great complex of Semitic and especially Canaanite
humanity that lived its life in western Asia between 2000 and 600
B.C.; and that while the Hebrew race maintained by the aid of
prophetism its own individual and exalted place, it was not less
susceptible then, than it has been since, to the moulding influences of
great adjacent civilizations and ideas. Cf. C. H. W. Johns in Inter-
preter, pp. 300-304 (in April 1906), on prophetism in Babylonia.
HEBREW RELIGION
183
Yahweh would be powerless in the presence of Ashur (2 Kings
xviii. 33-35)-
This problem of religion was solved by Amos and by the
prophets who succeeded him through a more exalted conception
of Yahweh and His sphere of working, which tended to detach
Him from His limited realm as a national deity. Amos exhibited
Him to his countrymen as lord of the universe, who made the
seven stars and Orion and turns the deep midnight darkness into
morning. He calls to the waters of the sea and pours them on
the earth's surface (chap. v. 8). Such a universal God of the
world would hardly make Israel His exclusive concern. Thus
He not only brought the Israelites out of Egypt, but also the
Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir (ix. 7). But
Amos went beyond this. Yahweh was not only the lord of the
universe and possessed of sovereign power. The prophet also
emphasized with passionate earnestness that Yahweh was a God
whose character was righteous, and God's demand upon His
people Israel was not for sacrifices but for righteous conduct.
Sacrifice, as this prophet, like his successor Jeremiah, insisted
(Amos v. 25; cf. Jer. vii. 22) played no part in Mosaic religion.
In words which evidently impressed his younger contemporary
Isaiah (cf. esp. Is. chap. i. 11-17), Amos denounced the non-
ethical ceremonial formalism of his countrymen which then
prevailed (chap. v. 21 foil.):
" I hate, I contemn your festivals and in your feasts I delight not;
for when you offer me your burnt-offerings and gifts, I do not regard
them with favour and your fatted peace-offerings I will not look at.
Take away from me the clamour of your songs; and the music of
your viols I will not hear. But let judgment roll down like waters
and justice like a perennial brook."
In the younger contemporary prophet of Ephraim, Hosea,
the stress is laid on the relation of love (hesed) between Yahweh,
the divine husband, and Israel, the faithless spouse. Israel's
faithlessness is shown in idolatry and the prevailing corruption
of the high places in which the old Canaanite Baal was worshipped
instead of Yahweh. It is shown, moreover, in foreign alliances.
Compacts with a powerful foreign state, under whose aegis
Israel was glad to shelter, involved covenants sealed by sacrificial
rites in which the deity or deities of the foreign state were involved
as well as Yahweh, the god of the weaker vassal-state. And so
Yahweh's honour was compromised. While these aspects of
Israel's relation to Yahweh are emphasized by the Ephraimite
prophet, the larger conceptions of Yahweh's character as universal
Lord and the God of righteousness, whose government of the
world is ethical, emphasized by the prophet of Tekoah, are
scarcely presented.
In Isaiah both aspects divine universal sovereignty and
justice, taught by Amos, and divine loving-kindness to Israel
and God's claims on His people's allegiance, taught by Hosea
are fully expressed. Yahweh's relation of love to Israel is
exhibited under the purer symbol of fatherhood (Isa. i. 2-4), a
conception which was as ancient and familiar as that of husband,
though perhaps the latter recurs more frequently in prophecy
(Isa. i. 21 ; Ezek. xvi. &c.). Even more insistently does Isaiah
present the great truth of God's universal sovereignty. As with
his elder contemporary, the foreign peoples (but in Isaiah's
oracles Assyria and Egypt as well as the Palestinian races)
come within his survey. The ' ' fullness of the earth " is Yahweh 's
glory (vi. 3) and the nations of the earth are the instruments of His
irresistible and righteous will. Assyria is the " bee " and Egypt
the " fly " for which Yahweh hisses. Assyria is the " hired razor "
(Isa. vii. 18, 19), or the " rod of His wrath," for the chastise-
ment of Israel (x. 5). But the instrument unduly exalts itself,
and Assyria itself shall suffer humiliation at the hands of the
world's divine sovereign (x. 7-15).
And so the old limitations of Israel's popular religion, the
same limitations that encumbered also the religions of all the
neighbouring races that succumbed in turn to Assyria's in-
vincible progress, now began to disappear. Therefore, while
every other religion which was purely national was extinguished
in the nation's overthrow, the religion of Israel survived even
amid exile and dispersion. For Amos and Isaiah were able to
single out those loftier spiritual and ethical elements which lay
implicit in Mosaism and to lift them into their due place of
prominence. National sacra and the ceremonial requirements
were made to assume a secondary r61e or were even ignored. 1
The centre of gravity in Hebrew religion was shifted from
ceremonial observance and local sacra to righteous conduct.
Religion and righteousness were henceforth welded into an
indissoluble whole. The religion of Yahweh was no longer to
rest upon the narrow perishable basis of locality and national
sacra, but on the broad adamantine foundations of a universal
divine sovereignty over all mankind and of righteousness as
the essential element in the character of Yahweh and in his
claims on man. This was the " corner-stone of precious solid
foundation ": "I will make judgment the measuring-line and
righteousness the plummet " (Isa.xxviii. 16, 17). The religion of
the Hebrew race properly the Jews now enters on a new
stage, for it should be observed that it was Amos, Isaiah and
Micah prophets of Judah who laid the actual foundations.
The latter half of the 8th century, which witnessed a rapid
succession of reigns in the northern kingdom accompanied by
dismemberment of its territory and final overthrow, witnessed
also the humiliating vassalage and religious decline of the kingdom
of Judah. Unlike Amos and Micah, Isaiah was not only the
prophet of denunciation but also the prophet of hope. Though
Yahweh's chastisements on Ephraim and Judah would continue
to fall till scarcely a remnant was left (Isa. vi. 13, LXX.), yet all
was not to be lost. A remnant of the people was to return, i.e.
bs converted to Yahweh. The name given to an infant child
Immanuel was to become the mystic symbol of a growing hope.
God's presence was to abide in Jerusalem, and, as the century
drew near its close, " Immanuel " became the watchword and
talisman of a strong faith that God would never permit Jerusalem
to be captured by the Assyrians. In fact it is not improbable
that the words of consolation uttered by the prophet (Isa. viii.
9-10) in the dark days of Ahaz (735-734 B.C.) were among the
oracles which God commanded Isaiah " to seal up among his
disciples " (verse 16), and that they were quoted once more with
effect as the armies of Sennacherib closed around Jerusalem.
The talismanic name Immanuel became the nucleus out of which
the later Messianic prophecies of Isaiah grew. To this age alone
can we probably assign Isa. Lx. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1-3. The hopes
expressed in the word Immanuel, " God with us," were to become
embodied in a personality of the royal seed of David, an ideal
righteous ruler who was to bring peace to the war-distraught
realm. Thus Isaiah became in that troubled age the true founder
of Messianic prophecy. The strange contrast between the succes-
sion of dynasties and kings cut off by assassination in the northern
kingdom, ending in the tragic overthrow of 721 B.C., and the
persistent succession through three centuries of the seed of David
on the throne of Jerusalem, as well as the marvellous escape
of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. from the fate of Samaria, must have
invested the seed of David in the eyes of all thoughtful observers
with a mysterious and divine significance. The Messianic
prophecies of Isaiah, the prophet of faith and deliverance, were
destined to reverberate through all subsequent centuries. We
hear the echoes in Jeremiah and Ezekiel and lastly in Haggai
in ever feebler tones, and they were destined to reawaken in
the Psalter (Pss. ii. and Ixxii.), in the psalms of Solomon and in
the days of Christ. See MESSIAH (and also the article " Messiah "
in Hastings 's Diet, of Christ and the Gospels).
The next notable contribution to the permanent growth of
Hebrew prophetic religion was made about a century after the
lifetime of Isaiah by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The reaction into
idolatry and Babylonian star worship in the long reign of
Manasseh synchronized and was connected with vassalage
'There is some danger in too strictly construing the language
of the prophets and also the psalmists. It is not to be supposed
that either Amos or Isaiah would have countenanced the total
suppression of all sacrificial observance. It was the existing cere-
monial observance divorced from the ethical piety that they denounced.
The speech of prophecy is poetical and rhetorical, not strictly defined
and logical like that of a modern essayist. See Moore in Encyc.
Bibl., '"Sacrifice," col. 4222.
184
HEBREW RELIGION
to Assyria, while the reformation in the reign of Josiah (621 B.C.)
is conversely associated with the decay of Assyrian power after
the death of Assur-bani-pal. That reformation failed to effect
its purifying mission. The hurt of the daughter of God's people
was but lightly healed (Jer. vi. 14, 15; cf. viii. u, 12). No
possibility of recovery now remained to the diseased Hebrew
state. The outlook appeared indeed far darker to Jeremiah
than it seemed more than a century before to Isaiah in the
evil days of Jotham and Ahaz, " when the whole head was sick
and the whole heart faint " (Isa. i. 5). Jeremiah foresaw
that there was now no possibility of recovery. The Hebrew
state was doomed and even its temple was to be destroyed. This
involved an entire reconstruction of theological ideas which
went beyond even the reconstructions of Amos and Isaiah. In
the old religion the race or clan was the unit of religion as well
as of social life. Properly speaking, the individual was related
to God only through the externalities of the clan or tribal life,
its common temple and its common sacra. But now that these
external bases of the old religion were to be swept away, a
reconstruction of religious ideas became necessary. For the
external supports which had vanished Jeremiah substituted a
basis which was internal, personal and spiritual (i.e. ethical).
In place of the old covenant based on external observance,
which had been violated, there was to be a new covenant which
was to consist not in outward prescription, but in the law which
God would place in the heart (Jer. xxxi. 30-33). This was to
take place by an act of divine grace (Jer. xxiv. 5 foil.) : " I
will give them an heart to know me that I am the Lord " (verse
7). Ezekiel, who borrowed both Jeremiah's language and
ideas, expresses the same thought in the well-known words that
Yahweh would give the people instead of a heart of stone a heart
of flesh (Ezek. xi. 19, 20, xx. 40 foil., xxxvi. 25-27), and would
shame them by his loving-kindness into repentance, and there
" shall ye remember your ways and all your doings wherein
ye have been denied and ye shall loathe yourselves in your
own sight " (xx. 43).
Personal religion now became an important element in Hebrew
piety and upon this there logically followed the idea of personal
responsibility. The solidarity of race or family was expressed
in the old tradition reflected in Deut. v. 9, 10, that God would
visit the sins of the fathers upon the children, and it lived on
in later Judaism under exaggerated forms. The hopes of the
individual Jew were based on the piety of holy ancestors. " We
have Abraham as our father." But Ezekiel expressed the strong
reaction which had set in against this belief in its older forms.
He denies that the individual ever dies for the sins of the father.
" The soul that sinneth, it (the pronoun emphasized in the
original) shall die " (Ezek. xviii. 4). Neither Noah, Daniel
nor Job could have rescued by his righteousness any but his
own soul (xiv. 14). And as a further consequence individual
freedom is strongly asserted. It is possible for every sinner
to turn to God and escape punishment, and conversely for a
righteous man to backslide and fall. In the presence of these
awful truths which Ezekiel preached of individual freedom and
of impending judgment, the prophet is weighted with a heavy
responsibility. It is his duty to warn every individual, for no
sinner is to be punished without warning (Ezek. iii. 16 foil,
xxxiii.).
The closing years of the Judaean kingdom and the final
destruction of the temple (586 B.C.) shattered the Messianic
ideals cherished in the evening of Isaiah's lifetime and again in
the opening years of the reign of Josiah. The untimely death
of that monarch upon the battlefield of Megiddo (608 B.C.),
followed by the inglorious reigns of the kings who succeeded
him, who became puppets in turn of Egypt or of Babylonia,
silenced for a while the Messianic hopes for a future king or line
of kings of Davidic lineage who would rule a renovated kingdom
in righteousness and peace. Even in the darkness of the exile
period hopes did not die. Yet they no longer remained the same.
In the Deutero-Isaiah (chaps, xl.-lv.) we have no longer a
Jewish but a foreign messiah. The onward progress of the
Persian Cyrus and his anticipated conquest of Babylonia marked
him out as Yahweh's anointed instrument for effecting the
deliverance of exiled Israel and their restoration to their old home
and city (Isa. xli. 2, xliv. 24, xlv.). This was, however, but a
subsidiary issue and possesses no permanent spiritual significance.
Of far more vital importance is the conception of Israel as God's
suffering servant. This is not the place to enter into the pro-
longed controversy as to the real significance of this term,
whether it signifies the nation Israel or the righteous community
only, or finally an idealized prophetic individual who, like the
prophet Jeremiah, was destined to suffer for the well-being of
his people. Duhm, in his epoch-making commentary, distin-
guishes on the grounds of metre and contents the four servant-
passages, in the last of which (Iii. i3-liii. 12) the ideal suffering
servant of Yahweh is portrayed most definitely as an individual.
In the " servant-passages " he is innocent, while in the rest of
the Deutero-Isaiah he appears as by no means faultless, and
the personal traits are not prominent. These views of Duhm,
in which a severe distinction is thus drawn between the repre-
sentation of Yahweh's servant in the servant-passages, and that
which meets us in the rest of the Deutero-Isaiah, have been
challenged by a succession of critics. 1 It is only necessary for
us to take note of the ideal in its general features. It probably
arose from the fact that the calamities from which Israel had
suffered both before and during the exile had drawn the reflective
minds of the race to the contemplation of the problem of suffering.
The " servant of Yahweh " presents one aspect of the problem
and its attempted solution, the book of Job another, while in
the Psalms, e.g. Pss. xxii., xlii.-xliii., Ixxiii., Ixxvii., other
phases of the problem are presented. In the Deutero-Isaiah
the meaning of Israel's sufferings is exhibited as vicarious. Israel
is suffering for a great end. He suffers, is despised, rejected,
chastened and afflicted that others may be blessed and be at
peace through his chastisement. This noble conception of
Israel's great destiny is conveyed in Isa. xlix. 6, in words which
may be regarded as perhaps the noblest utterance in Hebrew
prophecy: " To establish the tribes of Jacob and bring back
the preserved of Israel is less important than being my servant.
Yea, I will make you a light to the Gentiles that my salvation
may be unto the end of the earth." 2 This passage, which
belongs to the second of the brief " servant-songs," sets the
mission of Israel in its true relation to the world. It is the
necessary corollary to the teaching of Amos, that God is the
righteous lord of all the world. If Jerusalem has been chosen
as His sanctuary and Israel as His own people, it is only that
Israel may diffuse God's blessings in the world even at the cost
of Israel's own humiliation, exile and dispersion.
The Deutero-Isaiah closes a great prophetic succession, which
begins with Amos, continues in Isaiah in even greater splendour
with the added elements of hope and Messianic expectation, and
receives further accession in Jeremiah with his special teaching
on inward spiritual and personal religion which constituted the
new covenant of divine grace. Finally the Deutero-Isaiah
conveyed to captive Israel the message of Yahweh's unceasing
love and care, and the certainty of their return to Judaea and
the restoration of the national prosperity which Ezekiel had
already announced in the earlier period of the exile. To this
is united the noble ideal of the suffering servant, which serves
both as a contribution to the great problem of suffering as
purifying and vicarious and as the interpretation to the mind
of the nation itself of that nation's true function in the future,
a lesson which the actual future showed that Israel was slow
to receive. Nowhere in the Old Testament does the doctrine
taught by Amos of Yahweh's universal power and sovereignty
1 Viz. Budde in Die so-genannten Ebed-Jahweh Lieder u. die
Bedeutung des Knechtes Jahwehs in Jes. xl.-lv. (Giessen, 1900); Karl
Marti in his well-known commentary on Isaiah, and F. Giesebrecht,
Der Knecht Jahives des Deuterojesaja. The special servant-songs
which Duhm asserts can be readily detached from the texture of the
Deutero-Isaiah without disturbance to its integrity are Isa. xlii. 1-4,
xlix. 1-6, i. 4-9, Hi. 13-liii. 12.
2 We have here followed Dillmann's construction of a difficult
passage which Duhm attempts to simplify by omission of the com-
plicating clause without altering the general sense.
HEBREW RELIGION
185
receive ampler and more splendid exposition than in the great
lyrical passages of chap. xl. It marks the highest point to which
the Hebrew race attained in its progress from henotheism to
monotheism. Here again we see the wholesome influences of the
exile. The Jew had passed from the narrow confines of his
homeland into a wider world, and this larger vision of human
life reacted on the prophet's theology. This closes the evolution
of Hebrew prophetism. What immediately follows is on a
descending slope with some striking exceptions, e.g. the book
of Job and the book of Jonah.
7. Deuteronomic Legalism. The book of Deuteronomy was
the product of prophetic teaching operating on traditional
custom, which was represented in its essential features by
the two codes of legislation contained in Ex. xx. 24-xxiii. 19
(E) and Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 (J), but had also become tainted
and corrupted by centuries of Canaanite influence and practice
which especially infected the cult of the high places. The
existence of " high places " is presupposed in those two ancient
codes and is also presumed in the narratives of the documents
E and J which contain them. But the prevalence of the worship
of " other gods " and of graven images in these " high places,"
and the moral debasement of life which accompanied these cults,
made it clear that the " high places " were sources of grave
injury to Israel's social life. In all probability the reformation
instituted in the reign of Hezekiah, to which 2 Kings xviii. 4
(cf. verse 22) refers, was only partial. It is hardly possible that
all the high places were suppressed. The idolatrous reaction
in the reign of Manasseh appears to have restored all the evils
of the past and added to them. Another and more drastic
reform than that which had been previously initiated (probably
at the instigation of Isaiah and Micah) now became necessary
to save the state. It is universally held by critics that our present
book of Deuteronomy (certainly chaps, xii.-xxvi.) is closely
connected with the reformation in the reign of Josiah. It is
quite clear that many provisions in the old codes of J and E
expanded lie at the basis of the book of Deuteronomy. But
new features were added. We note for the first time definite
regulations respecting Passover and the close union of that
celebration with Massoth or " unleavened bread." We note
the laws respecting the clean and unclean animals (certainly
based on ancient custom). Moreover, the prohibitions are
strengthened and multiplied. In addition to the bare interdict
of the sorceress (Ex. xxii. 18), of stone pillars to the Canaanite
Baal, of the Asherah-pole, molten images and the worship of
other gods than Yahweh (Ex. xxxiv. 13-17), we now have the
strict prohibition of any employment whatever of the stone-
symbol (Mas$ebhah), and of all forms of sorcery, soothsaying
and necromancy (Deut. xviii. 10, n. Respecting the stone-
pillar see xvi. 22). But of much more far-reaching importance
was the law of the central sanctuary which constantly meets us
in Deuteronomy in the reference to " the place (i.e. Jerusalem)
which Yahweh you,r God shall choose out of all your tribes to
put His name there " (xii. 5, xvi. 5, n, 16, xxvi. 2). There
alone all offerings of any kind were to be presented (xii. 6, 7,
xvi. 7). By this positive enactment all the high places outside
the one sanctuary in Jerusalem became illegitimate. A further
consequence directly followed from the limitation as to sanctuary,
viz. limitation as to the officiating ministers of the sanctuary.
In the " book of the covenant " (Ex. xx. 22-xxii. 19), as we
have already seen, and in the general practice of the regal
period, there was no limitation as to the priesthood, but a definite
order of priesthood, viz. Levites, existed, to whom a higher
professional prestige belonged. As it was impossible to find a
place for the officiating priests of the high places, non-levitical
as well as levitical, in the single sanctuary, it became necessary
to restrict the functions of sacrifice to the Levites only as well
as to the existing official priesthood of the Jerusalem temple
(see PRIEST). Doubtless such a reform met with strong resistance
from the disestablished and vested interests, but it was firmly
supported by royal influence and by the Jerusalem priesthood
as well as by the true prophets of Yahweh who had protested
against the idolatrous usages and corruptions of the high places.
The strong impress of Hebrew prophecy is to be found in
the deeply marked ethical spirit of the Deuteronomic legislation.
Love to God and love to man is stamped on a large number
of its provisions. Love to God is emphasized in Deut. vi. 5,
while love to man meets us in the constant reference to the
fatherless and the widow (cf. especially Deut. xvi.). This note
of philanthropy is frequently found as a mitigating element
(e.g. in the laws respecting slavery and war)' that subdues or
even removes the harshness of earlier laws or usages. It should
be noted, however, that the spirit of brotherly love was confined
within national barriers. It did not operate as a rule beyond
the limits of race.
The book of Deuteronomy, in conjunction with the reformation
of Josiah's reign (which synchronizes with the rapid decline
of Assyria and the reviving prestige of Yahweh), appeared to
mark the triumph of the great prophetic movement. It became
at once a codified standard of purer religious life and ultimately
served as a beacon of light for the future. But there was shadow
as well as light. We note (a) that though the book of Deuteronomy
bears the prophetic impress, the priestly impress is perhaps more
marked. The writer " evinces a warm regard for the priestly
tribe; he guards its privileges (xviii. 1-8), demands obedience
for its decisions (xxiv. 8; cf. xvii. 10-12) and earnestly commends
its members to the Israelites' benevolence (xii. 18-19, xiv. 27-29,
&c.)." 2 (b) In many passages Jewish particularism is painfully
manifest. Yahweh's care for other peoples does not appear.
The flesh of a dead (unslaughtered) beast is not to be eaten, but
it may be given to the " stranger within the gates "! (Deut.
xiv. 2i). s (c) Prophetic religion was a religion of the spirit
which came to the messenger (Isa. Ixi. i) and expressed itself
as a word of instruction of Yahweh (torah) ; see Isa. i. 10. Now
when the Hebrew religion was reduced to written form it began to
be a book-religion, and since the book consisted of fixed rules and
enactments, religion began to acquire a stereotyped character.
It will be seen in the sequel that this was destined to be the grow-
ing tendency of Jewish religious life to conform itself to
prescribed rules, in other words, it became legalism. (d) Lastly,
the old genial life of the high places, in which the " new moon "
or Sabbath or the annual festival was a sacrificial feast of com-
munion, in which the members of the local community or clan
enjoyed fellowship with one another all this picturesque
life ceased to be. And though there was positive gain in the
removal of idolatrous and corrupt modes of worship, there was
also positive loss in the disappearance of this old genial phase
of Hebrew social life and worship. It involved a vast difference
to many a Judaean village when the festival pilgrimage was no
longer made to the familiar local sanctuary with its hoary
associations of ancient heroic or patriarchal story, but to a
distant and comparatively unfamiliar city with its stately
shrine and priesthood.
8. Ezekiel's System. Ezekiel was the successor of Jeremiah
and inherited his conceptions. But though the younger prophet
adopted the ideas respecting personal religion and individual
responsibility from the elder, the characters of the two men
were very different. Jeremiah, when he foretold the destruction
of the external state and temple ritual, found no resource save
in a reconstruction that was internal and spiritual. In this
he was true to his prophetic impulse and genius. But Ezekiel
was, as Wellhausen well describes him, " a priest in prophet's
mantle." While Jeremiah's tendency was spiritual and ideal,
Ezekiel's was constructive and practical. He was the first to
foretell with clearness the return of his people from captivity
foreshadowed by Jeremiah, and he set himself the task even in
1 Thus in comparison with the " book of the covenant," Deuter-
onomy adds the stipulation in reference to the release of the slave;
that his master was to provide him liberally from his flocks, his corn
and his wine (Deut. xv. 13, 14). See Hastings's D.B., arts. " Ser-
vant," " Slave," p. 464, where other examples may be found. In
war fruit-trees are to pe spared (Deut. xx. 19 foil.), whereas the
old universal practice is the barbarous custom Elisha commended
(2 Kings iii. 19) of ruthlessly destroying them.
1 Drivers .Internal. Commentary on Deuteronomy, Introd. p. xxx.
1 It should be noted that in P (Code of Holiness) Lev. xvii. 15 foil
the resident alien (ger) is placed on an equality with the Jew.
i86
HEBREW RELIGION
the midnight darkness of Israel's exile to prepare for the nation's
renewed life. The external bases of Israel's religion had been
swept away, and in exchange for these Jeremiah had led his
countrymen to the more permanent internal grounds of a
spiritual renewal. But a religion could not permanently subsist
in this world of space and time without some external concrete
embodiment. It was the task of Ezekiel to take up once more
the broken threads of Israel's religious traditions, and weave
them anew into statelier forms of ritual and national polity.
The priest-prophet's keen eye for detail, manifested in the
elaborate vision of the wheels and living creatures (Ezek. i.)
and in his lamentation on Tyre (chap, xxvii.), is also exhibited
in the visions contained in chaps, xl.-xlviii., which describe the
ideal reconstructed temple and theocracy of the restored Israel.
The foreground is filled by the temple and its precincts. The
officiating priests are now the descendants of the line of Zadok
belonging to the tribe of Levi. Thus the priesthood is still
further restricted as compared with the restriction already
noted in the Deuteronomic legislation. It is the sons of Zadok
only that have any right to offer sacrifice at the altar of burnt
offering (xliii. 19, xliv. 15 foil.). The Levites, who formerly
ministered in the high places, now discharge the subordinate
offices of gate-keepers and slaughterers of the sacrificial
victims.
Another element in this ideal scheme which comes into
prominence is the sharp distinction between holy and profane.
The word holiness (qodesh) in primitive Hebrew usage partook
of the nature of taboo, and came to be applied to whatever,
whether thing or person, stood in close relation to deity and
belonged to him, and could not, therefore, be used or treated like
other objects not so related, and so was separated or stood apart.
The idea underlying the word, which to us is invested with deep
ethical meaning, had only this non-ethical, ritual significance
in Ezekiel. Unlike the old temple and city, the ideal temple
of Ezekiel is entirely separate from the city of Jerusalem. In
the immediate surroundings of the temple there is an open space.
Then come two concentric forecourts of the temple. The temple
stands in the midst of what is called the gizrah or space severed
off. The outer court lies higher than the open space, the inner
court higher still, and the temple-building in the centre highest
of all. No heathen may tread the outer court, no layman the
inner court, while the holiest of all may not be trodden even
by the priest Ezekiel but only by the angel who accompanies
him. " The temple-house has a graduated series of compartments
increasing in sanctity inwards " (Davidson). In the innermost
the presence of Yahweh abides.
We are here moving in a realm of ideas prevailing in
ancient Israel respecting holiness, uncleanness and sin, which are
ceremonial and not ethical; see especially Robertson Smith's
Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed., p. 446 foil, (additional note B.)
on holiness, uncleanness and taboo. It is, of course, true that
the ethical conception of sin as violation of righteousness and
an act of rebellion against the divine righteous will had been
developed since the days of Amos and Isaiah; but, as we have
already observed, cultus and prophetic teaching were separated
by an immense gulf, and in spite of the reformation of 621 B.C.
still remain separated. In the sacrificial system of sin-offerings
(haltdlh and 1 'ashdni) we have to do with sin as ceremonial violation
and neglect (frequently involuntary), or violation of holiness in
the old sense of the term or as personal uncleanness (touching a
corpse, eating unclean food, sexual impurity, &c.). In the
historical evolution of Hebrew sacrifice it is remarkable how
long this non-ethical and primitive survival of old custom still
survived, even far into post-exilian times. (See SACRIFICE;
also Moore's art. " Sacrifice " in Ency. Bibl.)
One conspicuous feature of Ezekiel's system is the predomin-
ance of piacular sacrifice. It undoubtedly existed in pre-exilian
Israel, especially in times of crisis or calamity, for the appease-
ment of an offended deity (2 Sam. xxiv. 18 foil.), and in Deut.
xxi. 1-9, we have details of the purificatory rite which was
necessary when human blood was shed; but now and in the
future propitiatory sacrifice and ideas of propitiation began to
overshadow all the other forms of sacrifice and their ideas.
Ezekiel prescribes a half-yearly ritual of sin-offering whereby
atonement was to be made (xlv. 18-20). We shall see subsequently
to what great institution this led the way.
Ezekiel's system constituted an ecclesiastical in place of a
political organization, a church-state in place of a nation. We
clearly discern how this reacted on his Messianic conceptions.
In his earlier oracles (xxxiv. 23 foil.) we find one shepherd ruling
over united Israel, viz. Yahweh's servant David, whereas in the
ideal scheme detailed in chap. xl. et seq. the r61e of the prince
as a ruler is a very shadowy one. The prince, it is true, has a
central domain, but his functions are ecclesiastical and sub-
ordinate and his powers strictly limited (xlvi. 3-8, 12, 16-18).
Thus the exile period marks the parting of the ways in the
development of Hebrew religion. In the Deutero-Isaiah we
reach the highest point in the evolution of prophetism. It is
true that we have some noble resounding echoes in the lyrical
passages Ix.-lxii. in the Trito-Isaiah during the post-exilian
period, and in such psalm literature as Pss. xxii., xxxvii., 1.,
Ixii., cvii., cxlv. 9-12 and others; and also in Isa. xxxv., which
is obviously a lyrical reproduction of earlier literature. But
it cannot be said that we possess in later literature any fresh
contribution to the conception of God or any presentation of a
higher ideal of human life 1 or national destiny than that which
meets us in chap. xl. or in the servant-passages of the Deutero-
Isaiah. It may with truth be said that after Jeremiah we
discern the parting of the ways. The first is represented by the
Deutero-Isaiah, who constitutes the climax and close of Hebrew
prophetism, which is henceforth (with the possible exception
of the Trito-Isaiah, Malachi and Jonah, who reproduce some
features of the earlier prophecy) a virtually arrested development.
The second path is that which is traced out by the priest-prophet
Ezekiel, and is that of legalism. which was destined to secure a
permanent place in the life and literature of the Jewish people.
It is essentially the path which may be summed up in the word
Judaism, though, as will be shown in the sequel, Judaism came
to include many other factors. The statement, however, remains
virtually true, since Judaism is mainly constituted by the body
of legal precepts called the Torah, and, moreover, by the post-
exilian Torah.
p. Post-exilian Law The Priestercodex? The oracles of
Malachi clearly reveal the continued influence of the book of
Deuteronomy in his day. But the new conditions created by
the return of the exiles and the germinating influence of Ezekiel's
ideas developed a process of new legislative construction. The
code of holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) is the most obvious product
of that influence. The ideas of expiation and atonement so
prevalent in Ezekiel's scheme, which there find expression in the
half-yearly sacrificial celebrations, are expressed in Lev. xvi. in
the single annual great fast of atonement. It is impossible to enter
here into the numerous details of that impressive ceremonial.
Two special features, however, which characterize the celebration
should here be noted: (a) The person of the high priest, who is
throughout the entire drama the chief and indeed the sole actor.
This supreme official, who was destined ultimately to take the
place of the king in the church-nation of post-exilian Judaism,
is mentioned for the first time in Zech. iii. i 3 (in the person of
Joshua) . In the Priestercodex he stands at the head of the priests,
who are, in the post-exilian system, the sons of Aaron and
possessed the sole right to offer the temple sacrifices. On the
great day of atonement the high priest appears in a vicarious
and representative capacity, and offers on behalf of the whole
nation which he was considered to embody in his sacred person.
(b) The rite of the goal devoted to Azazel. There can be little
1 We shall have to note the emergence of the doctrine of the
resurrection of the righteous in later Judaism, which is obviously a
fresh contribution of permanent value to Hebrew doctrine. On
the other hand, the doctrine of pre-existence is speculative rather than
religious, and applies to institutions rather than persons.
2 The legislative portions are mainly comprised in Ex. xxxv.-
end, Leviticus entire and Num. i.-x.
3 But this term (literally the chief priest) was already in use
during the regal period to designate the head priest of an important
sanctuary such as Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. n).
HEBREW RELIGION
187
doubt that Azazel was an evil demon (like an Arabic Jinn) of
the desert. The goat set apart for Azazel was in the concluding
part of the ceremonial brought before the high priest, who laid
both his hands upon it and confessed over it the sins of the
people. It was then carried off by an appointed person to a
lonely spot and there set free.
In later post-exilian times this great day of atonement became
to an increasing degree a day of humiliation for sin and penitent
sorrow, accompanied by confession; and the sins confessed were
not only of a purely ceremonial character, whether voluntary
or inadvertent, but also sins against righteousness and the
duties which we owe to God and man. This element of public
confession for sin became more prominent in the days when
synagogal worship developed, and prayer took the place of the
sacrificial offerings which could only be offered in the Jerusalem
temple. The development of the priestly code of legislation
(Priestercodex) was a gradual process, and probably occupied
a considerable part of the sth century B.C. The Hebrew race
now definitely entered upon the new path of organized Jewish
legalism which had been originally marked out for it by Ezekiel
in the preceding century. It became a holy people on holy
ground. Circumcision and Sabbath, separation from marriage
with a foreigner, which rendered a Jew unclean, as well as strict
conformity to the precepts of the Torah, constituted hence-
forth an adamantine bond which was to preserve the Jewish
communities from disintegration.
10. The later Post-exilian Developments in Jewish Religion.
These may be briefly referred to under the following aspects:
(a) Codified law and the written record of the patriarchal
history, as well as the life and work of the lawgiver Moses (to
whom the entire body of law came to be ascribed), assumed an
ever greater importance. The reverence felt for the canonized
Torah or law (the Pentateuch or so-called five books of Moses)
grew even into worship. Of this spirit we find clear expression
in some of the later psalms, e.g. the elaborate alphabetic Ps. cxix.
and the latter portion of Ps. xix. There were various causes
which combined to enhance the importance of the written Torah
(the " instruction " par excellence communicated by God through
Moses). Chief among these were (i) The conception of God as
transcendent. We have taken due note of Amos, who unfolded
the character of Yahweh as universal righteous sovereign; and
also the sublime portrayal of His exalted nature in Isa. xl.
(verse 15; cf. 22-26, and Job xxxvi. 22-xlii. 6). The intellectual
influence of Greece, manifested in Alexandrian philosophy,
tended to remove God still further from the human world of
phenomena into that of an inaccessible transcendental abstrac-
tion. Little, therefore, was possible for the Jew save strict per-
formance of the requirements of the Torah, once for all given
to Moses on Sinai, and, in his approach to the awful and unknown
mystery, to rely on ceremonial and ascetic performances (see
Wendt's Teaching of Jesus, i. 55 foil.). The same tendency
led the pious worshippers to avoid His awful name and to sub-
stitute Adonai in their scriptures or to use in the Mishna the
term " name " (shem) or " heaven." (2) The Maccabean conflic
(165 B.C.) tended to accentuate the national sentiment of anta
gonism to Hellenic influence. The Hasldim or pious devotees
who arose at that time, were the originators of the Pharisaic
movement which was conservative as well as national, and laic
stress on the strict performance of the law.
(b) Eschatology in the Judaism of the Greek period began ti
assume a new form. The pre-exilian prophets (especially Isaiah
spoke of the forthcoming crisis in the world's history as a daj
of the Lord." These were usually regarded as visitations o
chastisement for national sins and vindications of divin
righteousness or judgments, i.e. assertions of God's power a
judge (shophet). By the older prophets this judgment of Go<
or " day of Yahweh " was never held to be far removed fron
the horizon of the present or the world in which they lived. Bu
now as we enter the Greek period (320 B.C. and onwards) ther
is a gradual change from prophecy to apocalyptic. " It may b
asserted in general terms that whereas prophecy foretells
definite future which has its foundation in the present, apoca
yptic directs its anticipations solely and simply to the future,
o a new world-period which stands sharply contrasted with the
resent. The classical model for all apocalyptic is to be found in
Dan. vii. It is only after a great war of destruction, a day of
Yahweh's great judgment, that the dominion of God will begin "
Bousset) . Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix. clearly bear the apocalyptic
haracter; so also Isa. xxxiv. and notably Isa. xxiv.-xxvii.
Apocalyptic, as Baldensperger has shown, formed a counterpoise
o the normal current of conformity to law. It arose from a
piritual movement in answer to the yearning of the heart:
' O that Thou mightest rend the heavens and come down and
he mountains quake at Thy presence!" (Isa. Ixiv. i [Heb.
xiii. 19]); and it was intended to meet the craving of souls sick
with waiting and disappointment. The present outlook was
wpeless, but in the enlarged horizon of time as well as space the
houghts of some of the most spiritual minds in Judaism were
directed to the transcendent and ultimate. The present world
was corrupt and subject to Satan and the powers of darkness.
This they called " the present aeon " (age). Their hopes were
herefore directed to " the coming aeon." Between the two
aeons there would take place the advent of the Messiah, who
would lead the struggle with evil powers which was called " the
agonies of the Messiah." This terrible intermezzo was no longer
terrestrial, but was a cosmic and universal crisis in which the
Messiah would emerge victorious from the final conflict with the
icathen and demonic powers. This victory inaugurates the
entrance of the " aeon to come," in which the faithful Jews
would enter their inheritance. In this way we perceive the
transformation of the old Messianic doctrine through apocalyptic.
3f apocalyptic literature we have numerous examples extending
Tom the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. (See especially
Charles's Book of Enoch.)
The doctrine of the resurrection of the righteous to life in the
tieavenly world became engrafted on to the old doctrine of Sheol,
or the dark shadowy underworld (Hades), where life was joyless
and feeble, and from which the soul might be for a brief space
summoned forth by the arts of the necromancer. The most
vivid portraiture of Sheol is to be found in the exilian passage
Isa. xiv. 9-20 (cf. Job x. 21-22). With this also compare the
Babylonian Descent of Ishtar to Hades. The added conception
of the resurrection of the righteous does not appear in the world
of Jewish thought till the early Greek period in Isa. xxvi. 19.
R. H. Charles thinks that in this passage the idea of resurrection
is of purely Jewish and not of Mazdaan (or Zoroastrian) origin,
but it is otherwise with Dan. xii. 2 ; see his Eschatology, Hebrew,
Jewish and Christian. Corresponding to heaven, the abode of
the righteous, we have Ce-henna (originally Ce-Hinnom, the
scene of the Moloch rites of human sacrifice), the place of punish-
ment after death for apostate Jews.
(c) Doctrine of Angels and of Hyposlases. In the writings
of the pre-exilian period we have frequent references to super-
natural personalities good and bad. It is only necessary to
refer to them by name. Sebaoth, or " hosts," attached to the
name of Yahweh, denoted the heavenly retinue of stars. The
seraphim were burning serpentine forms who hovered above
the enthroned Yahweh and chanted the Trisagion in Isaiah's
consecration vision (Isa. vi.). We have also constant references
to " angels " (malachlm) of God, divine messengers who represent
Him and may be regarded- as the manifestation of His power
and presence. This especially applies to the " angel of Yahweh "
or angel of His Presence [Ex. xxiii. 20, 23 (E). Note in Ex.
xxxiii. 14 (J) he is called "my face" or "presence" 1 (cf.
Isa. Ixiii. 9)]. We also know that from earliest times Israel
believed in the evil as well as good spirits. Like the Arabs they
held that demons became incorporate in serpents, as in Gen. iii.
The nephUlm were a monstrous brood begotten of the inter-
course of the supernatural beings called " sons of God " with the
women of earth. We also read of the " evil spirit " that came
upon Saul. Contact with Babylonia tended to stimulate the
1 Cf. the Phoenician parallel of " Face of Baal," worshipped as
Tanit, "queen of Heaven" (Bathgen, Beitrdge zur Semit. Religions-
geschichte, p. 55 foil.); also the place Penuel (face of God).
i88
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
angelology and demonology of Israel. The Hebrew word shed or
" demon " is no more than a Babylonian loan word, and came
to designate the deities of foreign peoples degraded into the
position of demons. 1 LUith, the blood-sucking night-hag of
the post-exilian Isa. xxxiv. 14, is the Babylonian Lildtu.
Whether the se'irim or shaggy satyrs (Isa. xiii. 31; Lev. xvii. 7)
and Azazel were of Babylonian origin it is difficult to determine.
The emergence of Satan as a definite supernatural personality,
the head or prince of the world of evil spirits, is entirely a pheno-
menon of post-exilian Judaism. He is portrayed as the arch-
adversary and accuser of man. It is impossible to deny Persian
influence in the development of this conception, and that the
Persian Ahriman (Angromainyu) , the evil personality opposed to
the good, Ahura Mazda, moulded the Jewish counterpart, Satan.
But in Judaism monotheistic conceptions reigned supreme, and
the Satan of Jewish belief as opposed to God stops short of the
dualism of Persian religion. Of this we see evidence in the
multiplication of Satans in the Book of Enoch. In the Book of
Jubilees he is called maslema.'J J.Q later Judaism Sammael is
the equivalent of Satan. Persian influence is also responsible
for the vast multiplication of good spirits or angels, Gabriel,
Raphael, Michael, &c., who play their part in apocalyptic works,
such as the Book of Daniel and the Book of Enoch.
Probably the transcendent nature of the deity in the Judaism
of this later period made the interposition of mediating spirits an
intellectual necessity (cf. Ps. civ. 4). It also stimulated the
creation of divine hypostases. First among these may be men-
tioned Wisdom. The roots of this conception belong to pre-exilian
times, in which the " word " of divine denunciation was regarded
as a quasi-material thing. (It is hurled against offending
Israel, Isa. ix. 8.) In the post-exilian cosmogony it is the divine
word or fiat that creates the world (Gen. i.; cf. Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9).
Out of these earlier conceptions the idea of the divine wisdom
(Heb. hokhmah) gradually arose during the Persian period.
The expression " wisdom," as it is employed in the locus classicus,
Prov. viii., connotes the contents of the Divine reason His
conscious life, out of which created things emerge. This wisdom
is personified. It dwelt with God (Prov. viii. 22 foil.) before the
world was made. It is the companion of His throne, and by it
He made the world (Prov. iii. 19, viii. 27; cf. Ps. civ. 24). It,
moreover, enters into the life of the world and especially man
(Prov. viii. 31). This conception of wisdom became still further
hypostatized. It becomes redemptive of man. In the Wisdom
of Solomon it is the sharer of God's throne (irapeSpos), the
effulgence of the eternal light and the outflow of His glory
(Wisd. vii. 25, viii. 3 foil., ix. 4, 9); " Them that love her the
Lord doth love " (Ecclesiasticus iv. 14). This group of ideas
culminated in the Logos of Philo, expressing the world of divine
ideas which God first of all creates and which becomes the
mediating and formative power between the absolute and trans-
cendent deity and passive formless matter, transmuted thereby
into a rational, r ordered universe.
In later Jewish literature we meet with further examples of
similar hypostases in the form of Memra, Melatron, Shechinah,
Holy Spirit and Bath kol.
(d) The doctrine of pre-existence is another product of the
speculative tendency of the Jewish mind. The Messiah's pre-
existent state before the creation of the world is asserted in the
Book of Enoch (xlviii. 6, 7). Pre-existence is also asserted of
Moses and of sacred institutions such as the New Jerusalem, the
Temple, Paradise, the Torah, &c. (Apocal. of Baruch iv. 3-lix. 4;
Assumptio Mosis i. 14, 17) Edersheim's Life and Times of the
Messiah, i. 175 and footnote i.
ii. Christ resumes the Broken Tradition of Prophelism. The
Psalms of Solomon and the synoptic Gospels (70 B.C.-A.D. 100)
clearly reveal the powerful revival of Messianic hopes of a
national deliverer of the seed of David. This Messianic expecta-
tion had been a fermenting leaven since the great days of Judas
Maccabaeus. The conceptions of Jesus of Nazareth, however,
were not the Messianic conceptions of his fellow-countrymen, but
1 Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. Baal Zebub of the Philistine
Ekron became the Beelzebub who was equivalent to Satan.
of the spiritual " son of man " destined to found a kingdom of
God which was righteousness and peace. The Torah of Jesus was
essentially prophetic and in no sense priestly or legal. The
arrested prophetic movement of Jeremiah and Deutero-Isaiah
reappears in John the Baptist and Jesus after an interval of more
than five centuries. The new covenant of redeeming grace the
righteousness which is in the heart and not in externalities of
legal observance or ceremonial are once more proclaimed, and
the exalted ideals of the suffering servant of Isa. xlix. 6 and
Isa. liii. (nearly suppressed in the Targum of Jonathan) are
reasserted and vindicated by the words and life of Jesus. Like
Jeremiah He foretold the destruction of the temple and suffered
the extreme penalties of anti-patriotism. And thus Israel's old
prophetic Torah was at length to achieve its victory, for after Jesus
came St Paul. " Many shall come from the east and the west
and sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of
heaven " (Matt. viii. n, 12). The fetters of nationalism were to
be broken, and the Hebrew religion in its essential spiritual
elements was to become the heritage of all humanity.
AUTHORITIES. i. On Semitic religion generally: Wellhausen's
Reste des arabischen Heidentums (2nd ed.) and Robertson Smith's
Religion of the Semites (2nd ed.) are chiefly to be recommended.
Barton's Semitic Origins is extremely able, but his doctrine of the
derivation, of male from original female deities is pushed to an
extreme. Bathgen's Beitrage zur semitischen Religions geschichte
(1888) is most useful, and contains valuable epigraphic material.
Baudissin's Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1876) is still
valuable. See also Kuenen's National Religions and Universal
Religions (Hibbert lectures) and Lagrange's Etudes surles religions
semitiques (2nd ed.).
2. On Hebrew religion in particular : specially full and helpful is
Kautzsch's article " Religion of Israel " in Hastings's D.B., extra
vol.; Marti's recent Religion des A.T. (1906) and his Geschichte der
israelitischen Religion, are clear, compact and most serviceable,
and the former work presents the subject in fresh and suggestive
aspects. Wellhausen's Prolegomena, and Judische Geschichte should
be read both for criticism and Hebrew history generally. Duhm's
Theologie der Propheten and Robertson Smith's Prophets of Israel
should also be consulted. Strongly to be recommended are Smend,
Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgzschichte Bennett, Theo-
logy of the Old Testament and Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets;
A. B. Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament, as well as the
sections devoted to " Sacralaltertiimer " in the Hebrdische Archdo-
logie both of Benzinger and also of Nowack. Budde's Die Religion
des Volkes Israel bis zur Verbannung, as well as Addis's recent
Hebrew Religion (1906), is a most careful and scholarly compendium.
Harper's Introd. to his Commentary on Amos and Hosea (I. and T.
Clark) contains a useful survey of the history of Hebrew religion
before the 8th century. Buchanan Gray's Divine Discipline of
Israel, and A. S. Peake's Problem of Suffering in the O. T. , are sugges-
tive. See also S. A. Cook, Religion of A ncient Palestine.
3. On the history of Judaism till the time of Christ, Schurer's
Geschichte des judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Christi (3rded.), vol. ii. and
in part vol. iii., are indispensable. Bousset's Religion des Judentums
(2nd ed.), and Volz, Die judische Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba,
are highly to be commended. Weber's Judische Theologie is a usef ul
compendium of the theology of later Judaism.
4. On the special department of eschatology the standard works
are R. H. Charles, Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian, and
Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode, as well as Gressmann's suggestive
work Der Ursprung der israelitisch-jiidischen Eschatologie, which
contains, however, much that is speculative. On apocalyptic
generally the introductions to Charles's Book of Enoch, Apocalypse
of Baruch, Ascension of Isaiah and Book of Jubilees, should be
carefully noted. See also ESCHATOLOGY.
5. On the religion of Babylonia, Jastrow's work is the standard
one. Zimmern's Heft ii. in K.A.T. (3rd ed.) is specially important
to the Old Testament student. See also W. Schrank, Babylonische
Suhnriten. (O. C. W.)
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New
Testament. In the oldest MSS. it bears no other title than " To
Hebrews." This brief heading embraces all that on which
Christian tradition from the end of the 2nd century was un-
animous; and it says no more than that the readers addressed
were Christians of Jewish extraction. This would be no sufficient
address for an epistolary writing (xiii. 22) directed to a definite
circle of readers, to whose history repeated reference is made,
and with whom the author had personal relations (xiii. 19, 23).
Probably, then, the original and limited address, or rather saluta-
tion, was never copied when this treatise in letter form, like the
epistle to the Romans, passed into the wider circulation which
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
189
its contents merited. In any case the Roman Church, where the
first traces of the epistle occur, about A.D. 96 (i Clement), had
nothing to contribute to the question of authorship except the
negative opinion that it was not by Paul (Euseb. Red. Hist.
iii. 3) : yet this central church was in constant connexion with
provincial churches.
The earliest positive traditions belong to Alexandria and N.
Africa. The Alexandrine tradition can be traced back as far as a
teacher of Clement, presumably Pantaenus (Euseb. Ecd. Hist.
vi. 14), who sought to explain why Paul did not name himself as
usual at the head of the epistle. Clement himself, taking it for
granted that an epistle to Hebrews must have beeen written in
Hebrew, supposes that Luke translated it for the Greeks. Origen
implies that " the men of old " regarded it as Paul's, and that
some churches at least in his own day shared this opinion. But
he feels that the language is un-PauIine, though the " admirable "
thoughts are not second to those of Paul's unquestioned writings.
Thus he is led to the view that the ideas were orally set forth by
Paul, but that the language and composition were due to some one
giving from memory a sort of free interpretation of his teacher's
mind. According to some this disciple was Clement of Rome;
others name Luke; but the truth, says Origen, is known to
God alone (Euseb. vi. 25, cf. iii. 38). Still from the time of
Origen the opinion that Paul wrote the epistle became prevalent
in the East. The earliest African tradition, on the other hand,
preserved by Tertullian 1 (De pudicilia, c. 20), but certainly not
invented by him, ascribed the epistle to Barnabas. Yet it was
perhaps, like those named by Origen, only an inference from the
epistle itself, as if a " word of exhortation " (xiii. 22) by the Son
of Exhortation (Acts iv. 36 ; see BARNABAS). On the whole, then,
the earliest traditions in East and West alike agree in effect, viz.
that our epistle was not by Paul, but by one of his associates.
This is also the twofold result reached by modern scholarship
with growing clearness. The vacillation of tradition and the
dissimilarity of the epistle from those of Paul were brought out
with great force by Erasmus. Luther (who suggests Apollos)
and Calvin (who thinks of Luke or Clement) followed with the
decisive argument that Paul, who lays such stress on the fact that
his gospel was not taught him by man (Gal. i.), could not have
written Heb. ii. 3. Yet the wave of reaction which soon over-
whelmed the freer tendencies of the first reformers, brought
back the old view until the revival of biblical criticism more than
a century ago. Since then the current of opinion has set irrevoc-
ably against any form of Pauline authorship. Its type of thought
is quite unique. The Jewish Law is viewed not as a code of
ethics or " works of righteousness," as by Paul, but as a system
of religious rites (vii. n) shadowing forth the way of access to
God in worship, of which the Gospel reveals the archetypal
realities (ix. i, n, 15, 23 f., x. i ff., 19 ff.). The Old and the
New Covenants are related to one another as imperfect (earthly)
and perfect (heavenly) forms of the same method of salvation,
each with its own type of sacrifice and priesthood. Thus the
conception of Christ as High Priest emerges, for the first time,
as a central point in the author's conception pf Christianity.
The Old Testament is cited after the Alexandrian version more
exclusively than by Paul, even where the Hebrew is divergent.
Nor is this accidental. There is every appearance that the
author was a Hellenist who lacked knowledge of the Hebrew
text, and derived his metaphysic and his allegorical method
from the Alexandrian rather than the Palestinian schools.
Yet the epistle has manifest Pauline affinities, and can hardly
have originated beyond the Pauline circle, to which it is referred
not only by the author's friendship with Timothy (xiii. 23),
but by many echoes of the Pauline theology and even, it seems,
of passages in Paul's epistles (see Holtzmann, Einleitung in das
N.T., 1892, p. 298). These features early suggested Paul as the
author of a book which stood in MSS. immediately after the
epistles of that apostle, and contained nothing in its title to
'Also in Codex Claromontanus, the Tractatus de libris (x.),
Philastrius of Brescia (c. A.D. 380), and a prologue to the Catholic
Epistles (Revue benedictinc, xxiii. 82 ff.). It is defended in a mono-
graph by H. H. B. Ayles (Cambridge, 1899).
distinguish it from the preceding books with like headings,
" To the Romans," " To the Corinthians," and the like. A
similar history attaches to the so-called Second Epistle of Clement
(see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE).
Everything turns, then, on internal criticism of the epistle,
working on the distinctive features already noticed, together
with such personal allusions as it affords. As to its first readers,
with whom the author stood in close relations (xiii. 19, 23, cf. vi.
10, x. 32-34), it used generally to be agreed that they were
" Hebrews " or Christians of Jewish birth. But, for a generation
or so, it has been denied that this can be inferred simply from
the fact that the epistle approaches all Christian truth through
Old Testament forms. This, it is said, was the common method
of proof, since the Jewish scriptures were the Word of God to
all Christians alike. Still it remains true that the exclusive
use of the argument from Mosaism, as itself implying the Gospel
of Jesus the Christ as final cause (reXos), does favour the view
that the readers were of Jewish origin. Further there is no
allusion to the incorporation of " strangers and foreigners " (Eph.
11. 19) with the people of God. Yet the readers are not to be
sought in Jerusalem (see e.g. ii. 3), nor anywhere in Judaea
proper. The whole Hellenistic culture of the epistle (let alone
its language), and the personal references in it, notably that to
Timothy in xiii. 23, are against any such view: while the doubly
emphatic " all " in xiii. 24 suggests that those addressed were
but part of a community composed of both Jews and Gentiles.
Caesarea, indeed, as a city of mixed population and lying just
outside Judaea proper a place, moreover, where Timothy might
have become known during Paul's two years' detention there
would satisfy many conditions of the problem. Yet these very
conditions are no more than might exist among intensely Jewish
members of the Dispersion, like " the Jews of Asia " (cf . Sir W.M.
Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches, 155 f.), whose zeal for
the Temple and the Mosaic ritual customs led to Paul's arrest in
Jerusalem (Acts xix. 27 f., cf. 20 f.), in keeping both with his
former experiences at their hands and with his forebodings re-
sultingtherefrom(xx. 19, 22-24). Our"Hebrews" hadobviously
high regard for the ordinances of Temple worship. But this was
the case with the dispersed Jews generally, who kept in touch
with the Temple, and its intercessory worship for all Israel, in
every possible way; in token of this they sent with great care
their annual contribution to its services, the Temple tribute.
This bond was doubtless preserved by Christian Hellenists,
and must have tended to continue their reliance on the Temple
services for the forgiveness of their recurring " sins of ignorance "
subsequent to the great initial Messianic forgiveness coming
with faith in Jesus. Accordingly many of them, while placing
their hope for the future upon Messiah and His eagerly expected
return in power, might seek assurance of present forgiveness
of daily offences and cleansing of conscience in the old mediatorial
system. In particular the annual Day of Atonement would be
relied on, and that in proportion as the expected Parousia
tarried, and the first enthusiasm of a faith that was largely
eschatological died away, while ever-present temptation pressed
the harder as disappointment and perplexity increased.
Such was the general situation of the readers of this epistle,
men who rested partly on the Gospel and partly on Judaism.
For lack of a true theory as to the relation between the two,
they were now drifting away (ii. i) from effective faith in the
Gospel, as being mainly future in its application, while Judaism
was a very present, concrete, and impressive system of religious
aids to which also their sacred scriptures gave constant witness.
The points at which it chiefly touched them may be inferred
from the author's counter-argument, with its emphasis in the
spiritual ineffectiveness of the whole Temple-system, its high-
priesthood and its supreme sacrifice on the Day of Atonement.
With passionate earnestness he sets over against these his
constructive theory as to the efficacy, the heavenly yet unseen
reality, of the definitive " purification of sins " (i. 3) and per-
fected access to God's inmost presence, secured for Christians as
such by Jesus the Son of God (x. 9-22), and traces their moral
feebleness and slackened zeal to want of progressive insight
i go
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE
into the essential nature of the Gospel as a " new covenant,"
moving on a totally different plane of religious reality from the
now antiquated covenant given by Moses (viii. 13).
The following plan of the epistle may help to make apparent
the writer's theory of Christianity as distinct from Judaism,
which is related to it as " shadow " to reality:
Thesis: The finality of the form of religion mediated in God's
Son, i. 1-4.
i. The supreme excellence of the Son's Person (i. 5-iii. 6), as
compared with (a) angels, (6) Moses.
Practical exhortation, iii. 7-iv. 13, leading up to:
ii. The corresponding efficacy of the Son's High-priesthood
(iv. I4~ix.).
(1) The Son has the qualifications of all priesthood, especially
sympathy.
Exhortation, raising the reader's thought to the height
of the topic reached (v. ll-vi. 20).
(2) The Son as absolute high priest, in an order transcending
the Aaronic (vii.) and relative to a Tabernacle of ministry
and a Covenant higher than the Mosaic in point of reality
and finality (viii., ix.).
(3) His Sacrifice, then, is definitive in its effects (T-Xeiu),
and supersedes all others (x. 1-18).
iii. Appropriation of the benefits of the Son's high-priesthood, by
steadfast faith, the paramount duty (x. icj-xii.). More
personal epilogue (xiii.).
As lack of insight lay at the root of their troubles, it was not
enough simply to enjoin the moral fidelity to conviction which
is three parts of faith to the writer, who has but little sense
of the mystical side of faith, so marked in Paul. There was
need of a positive theory based on real insight, in order to inspire
faith for more strenuous conflict with the influences tending to
produce the apostasy from Christ, and so from " the living
God," which already threatened some of them (iii. 12). Such
" apostasy " was not a formal abjuring of Jesus as Messiah,
but the subtler lapse involved in ceasing to rely on relation to
Him for daily moral and religious needs, summed up in purity
of conscience and peace before God (x. 19-23, xiii. 20 f.). This
" falling aside " (vi. 5, cf. xii. 12 f.), rather than conscious
" turning back," is what is implied in the repeated exhortations
which show the intensely practical spirit of the whole argument.
These exhortations are directed chiefly against the dullness of
spirit which hinders progressive moral insight into the genius
of the New Covenant (v. n-vi. 8), and which, in its blindness
to the full work of Jesus, amounts to counting His blood as devoid
of divine efficacy to consecrate the life (x. 26, 29), and so to a
personal " crucifying anew " of the Son of God (vi. 6). The
antidote to such " profane " negligence (ii. i, 3, xii. 12 f., 15-17)
is an earnestness animated by a fully-assured hope, and sustained
by a " faith " marked by patient waiting (/taKpodvuia) for
the inheritance guaranteed by divine promise (x. ii f.). The
outward expression of such a spirit is " bold confession," a
glorying in that Hope, and mutual encouragement therein
(iii. 6,12 f .) ; while the sign of its decay is neglect to assemble
together for mutual stimulus, as if it were not worth the odium
and opposition from fellow Jews called forth by a marked
Christian confession (x. 23-25, xii. 3) a very different estimate
of the new bond from that shown by readiness in days gone by to
suffer for it (x. 32 ff.). Their special danger, then, the sin which
deceived(iii. 13) the more easily that it represented the line of least
resistance (perhaps the best paraphrase of eiwepioraTOS djuaprta
in xii. i), was the exact opposite of " faith " as the author uses
it, especially in the chapter devoted to its illustration by Old
Testament examples. His readers needed most the moral
heroism of fidelity to the Unseen, which made men "despise
shame " due to aught that sinners in their unbelief might do to
them (xii. 2-11, xiii. 5 f.) and of which Jesus Himself
was at once the example and the inspiration. To quicken this
by awakening deeper insight into the real objects of " faith,"
as these bore on their actual life, he develops his high argument
on the lines already indicated.
Their situation was so dangerous just because it combined
inward debility and outward pressure, both tending to the same
result, viz. practical disuse of the distinctively Christian means
of grace, as compared with those recognized by Judaism, and
such conformity to the latter as would make the reproach oi
the Cross to cease (xiii. 13, cf. xi. 26). This might, indeed,
relieve the external strain of the contest (&yuiv xii. i), which
had become well-nigh intolerable to them. But the practical
surrender of what was distinctive in their new faith meant a
theoretic surrender of the value once placed on that element, when
it was matter of a living religious experience far in advance of
what Judaism had given them (vi. 4 ff., x. 26-29). This twofold
infidelity, in thought and deed, God, the " living " God of pro-
gress from the " shadow " to the substance, would require at
their hands (x. 30 f., xii. 22-29). For it meant turning away
from an appeal that had been known as " heavenly," for some-
thing inferior and earthly (xii. 25); from a call sanctioned by
the incomparable authority of Him in whom it had reached
men, a greater than Moses and all media of the Old Covenant,
even the Son of God. Thus the key of the whole exhortation
is struck in the opening words, which contrast the piecemeal
revelation " to the fathers " in the past, with the complete and
final revelation to themselves in the last stage of the existing
order of the world's history, in a Son of transcendent dignity
(i. i ff., cf. ii. i ff., x. 28 f., xii. 18 ff.). This goes to the root
of their difficulty, ambiguity as to the relation of the old and
the new elements in Judaeo-Christian piety, so that there was
constant danger of the old overshadowing the new, since national
Judaism remained hostile. At a stroke the author separates
the new from the old, as belonging to a new " covenant " or
order of God's revealed will. It is a confusion, resulting in loss,
not in gain, as regards spiritual power, to try. to combine the
two types of piety, as his readers were more and more apt to do.
There is no use, religiously, in falling back upon the old forms,
in order to avoid the social penalties of a sectarian position
within Judaism, when the secret of religious " perfection " or
maturity (vi. i, cf. the frequent use of the kindred verb) lies
elsewhere. Hence the moral of his whole argument as to the
two covenants, though it is formulated only incidentally amid
final detailed counsels (xiii. 13 f.) is to leave Judaism, and adopt
a frankly Christian standing, on the same footing with their
non-Jewish brethren in the local church. For this the time
was now ripe; and in it lay the true path of safety eternal
safety as before God, whatever man might say or do (xiii. 5 f.).
The obscure section, xiii. 9 f.,is to be taken as "only a symptom
of the general retrogression of religious energy " (Julicher),
and not as bearing directly on the main danger of these
" Hebrews." The " foods " in question probably refer neither
to temple sacrifices nor to the Levitical laws of clean and unclean
foods, nor yet to ascetic scruples (as in Rom. xiv., Col. ii. 20 ff.),
but rather to some form of the idea, found also among the
Essenes, that food might so be partaken of as to have the value
of a sacrifice (see verse 15 foil.) and thus ensure divine favour.
Over against this view, which might well grow up among the
Jews of the Dispersion as a sort of substitute for the possibility
of offering sacrifices in the Temple but which would be a lame
addition to the Christianity of their own former leaders (xiii.
7 f.) the author first points his readers to its refutation from
experience, and then to the fact that the Christian's " altar "
or sacrifice (i.e. the supreme sin-offering) is of the kind which
the Law itself forbids to be associated with " eating." If
Christians wish to offer any special sacrifice to God, let it be that
of grateful praise or deeds of beneficence (15 f.).
In trying further to define the readers addressed in the epistle,
one must note the stress laid on suffering as part of the divinely
appointed discipline of sonship (ii. 10, v. 8, xii. 7 f.), and the way
in which the analogy in this respect between Jesus, as Messianic
Son, and those united to Him by faith, is set in relief. He is
not only the inspiring example for heroic faith in the face of
opposition due to unbelievers (xii. 3 ff.), but also the mediator
qualified by his very experience of suffering to sympathize with
His tried followers, and so to afford them moral aid (ii. 17 f.,
v. 8 f., cf. iv. 15). This means that suffering for Christianity,
at least in respect of possessions (xiii. 5 f., cf. x. 34) and social
standing, was imminent for those addressed: and it seems
as if they were mostly men of wealth and position (xiii. 1-6,
HEBRIDES
191
vi. 10 f., x. 34), who would feel this sort of trial acutely (cf.
Jas. i. 10). Such men would also possess a superior mental
culture (cf. v. n f.), capable of appreciating the form of an
epistle " far too learned for the average Christian " (Julicher),
yet for which its author apologizes to them as inadequate
(xiii. 22). It was now long since they themselves had suffered
seriously for their faith (x. 32 f.); but others had recently been
harassed even to the point of imprisonment (xiii. 3); and the
writer's very impatience to hurry to their side implies that the
crisis was both sudden and urgent. The finished form of the
epistle's argument is sometimes urged to prove that it was
not originally an epistle at all, written more or less on the spur
of the moment, but a literary composition, half treatise and half
homily, to which its author as an afterthought gave the
suggestion of being a Pauline epistle by adding the personal
matter in ch. xiii. (so W. Wrede, Das literarische Rdtsel des
Hebriierbriefs, 1906, pp. 70-73). The latter part of this theory
fails to explain why the Pauline origin was not made more
obvious, e.g. in an opening address. But even the first part
of it overlooks the probability that our author was here only
fusing into a fresh form materials often used before in his oral
ministry of Christian instruction.
Many attempts have been made to identify the home of the
Hellenistic Christians addressed in this epistle. For Alexandria
little can be urged save a certain strain of " Alexandrine "
idealism and allegorism, mingling with the more Palestinian
realism which marks the references to Christ's sufferings, as well
as the eschatology, and recalling many a passage in Philo.
But Alexandrinism was a mode of thought diffused throughout
the Eastern Mediterranean, and the divergences from Philo's
spirit are as notable as the affinities (cf. Milligan, ut infra, 203 ff.).
For Rome there is more to be said, in view of the references to
Timothy and to " them of Italy " (xiii. 23 f.) ; and the theory
has found many supporters. It usually contemplates a special
Jewish-Christian house-church (so Zahn), like those which Paul
salutes at the end of Romans, e.g. that meeting in the house of
Prisca and Aquila (xvi. 5); and Harnack has gone so far as to
suggest that they, and especially Prisca, actually wrote our
epistle. There is, however, really little that points to Rome in
particular, and a good deal that points away from it. The
words in xii. 4, " Not yet unto blood have ye resisted," would
ill suit Rome after the Neronian "bath of blood" in A.D. 64
(as is usually held), save at a date too late to suit the reference
to Timothy. Nor does early currency in Rome prove that the
epistle was written to Rome, any more than do the words " they
of Italy salute you." This clause must in fact be read in the
light of the reference to Timothy, which suggests that he had
been in prison in Rome and was about to return, possibly in the
writer's company, to the region which was apparently the
headquarters of both. Now this in Timothy's case, as far as
we can trace his steps, was Ephesus; and it is natural to ask
whether it will not suit all the conditions of the problem. It
suits those of the readers, 1 as analysed above; and it has the
merit of suggesting to us as author the very person of all those
described in the New Testament who seems most capable of the
task, Apollos, the learned Alexandrian (Acts xviii. 24 ff.),
connected with Ephesus and with Paul and his circle (cf. i Cor.
xvi. 12), yet having his own distinctive manner of presenting
the Gospel (i Cor. iv. 6). That Apollos visited Italy at any rate
once during Paul's imprisonment in Rome is a reasonable
inference from Titus iii. 13 (see PAUL); and if so, it is quite
natural that he should be there again about the time of Paul's
martyrdom. With that event it is again natural to connect
Timothy's imprisonment, his release from which our author
records in closing; while the news of Jewish success in Paul's
case would enhance any tendency among Asian Jewish Christians
to shirk " boldness " of confession (x. 23, 35, 38 f.), in fear of
1 i.e. a house-church of upper-class Jewish Christians, not fully
in touch with the attitude even of their own past and present
" leaders " (xiii. 7, 17), as distinct from the local church generally
(xiii. 24). The Gospel had reached them, as also the writer himself
(cf. Acts xviii. 25), through certain hearers of the Lord (ii. 3), not
necessarily apostles.
further aggression from their compatriots. On the chronology
adopted in the article PAUL, this would yield as probable date
for the epistle A.D. 61-62. The place of writing would be some
spot in Italy (" they of Italy salute you ") outside Rome, probably
a port of embarkation for Asia, such as Brundisium.
Be this as it may, the epistle is of great historical importance,
as reflecting a crisis inevitable in the development of the Jewish-
Christian consciousness,when a definite choice between the old and
the new form of Israel's religion had to be made, both for internal
and external reasons. It seems to follow directly on the situation
implied by the appeal of James to Israel in dispersion, in view
of Messiah's winnowing-fan in their midst (i. 1-4, ii. 1-7, v. 1-6,
and especially v.7-n). It may well be the immediate antecedent
of that revealed in i Peter, an epistle which perhaps shows
traces of its influence (e.g. in i. 2, " sprinkling of the blood of
Jesus Christ," cf. Heb. ix. 13 f., x. 22, xii. 24). It is also of
high interest theologically, as exhibiting, along with affinities
to several types of New Testament teaching (see STEPHEN), a
type all its own, and one which has had much influence on
later Christian thought (cf. Milligan, ut infra, ch. ix.). Indeed,
it shares with Romans the right to be styled " the first treatise
of Christian theology."
Literature. The older literature may be seen in the great work of
F. Bleek, Der Brief an die Hebraer (1828-1840), still a valuable
storehouse of material, while Bleek's later views are to be found in
a posthumous work (Elberfeld, 1868); also in Franz Delitzsch's
Commentary (Edinburgh, 1868). The more recent literature is given
in G. Milligan, The Theology of the Epistle of the Hebrews (1899), a
useful summary of all bearing on the epistle, and in the large New
Testament Introductions and Biblical Theologies. See also Hast-
ings's Diet, of the Bible, the Encycl. Biblica and T. Zahn's article in
Hauck's Realencyklopadie. (J. V. B.)
HEBRIDES, THE, or WESTERN ISLES, a group of islands off
the west coast of Scotland. They are situated between 55 3 5'
and 58 30' N. and 5 26' and 8 40' W. Formerly the term
was held to embrace not only all the islands off the Scottish
western coast, including the islands in the Firth of Clyde, but
also the peninsula of Kintyre, the Isle of Man and the Isle of
Rathlin, off the coast of Antrim. They have been broadly
classified into the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, the
Minch and Little Minch dividing the one group from the other.
Geologically, they have also been differentiated as the Gneiss
Islands and the Trap Islands. The Outer Hebrides being almost
entirely composed of gneiss the epithet suitably serves them,
but, strictly speaking, only the more northerly of the Inner
Hebrides may be distinguished as Trap Islands. The chief
islands of the Outer Hebrides are Lewis-with-Harris (or Long
Island), North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, the Shiants,
St Kilda and the Flannan Isles, or Seven Hunters, an unin-
habited group, about 20 m. N.W. of Gallon Head in Lewis.
Of these the Lewis portion of Long Island, the Shiants and
the Flannan belong to the county of Ross and Cromarty, and
the remainder to Inverness-shire. The total length of this
group, from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis, is 130 m., the
breadth varying from less than i m. to 30 m. The Inner Hebrides
are much more scattered and principally include Skye, Small
Isles (Canna, Sanday, Rum, Eigg and Muck), Coll, Tyree,
Lismore, Mull, Ulva, Staffa, lona, Kerrera, the Slate Islands
(Seil, Easdale, Luing, Shuna, Torsay), Colonsay, Oronsay,
Scarba, Jura, Islay and Gigha. Of these Skye and Small Isles
belong to Inverness-shire, and the rest to Argyllshire. The
Hebridean islands exceed 500 in number, of which one-fifth are
inhabited. Of the inhabited islands n belong to Ross and
Cromarty, 47 to Inverness-shire, and 44 to Argyllshire, but of
this total of 102 islands, one-third have a population of only
10 souls, or fewer, each. The population of the Hebrides in
1901 numbered 78,947 (or 28 to the sq. m.), of whom 41,031
were females, who thus exceeded the males by 10%, and 22,733
spoke Gaelic only and 47,666 Gaelic and English. The most
populous island is Lewis-with-Harris (32,160), and next to it
are Skye (13,883), Islay (6857) and Mull (4334>-
Of the total area of 1,800,000 acres, or 2812 sq. m., only
one-ninth is cultivated, most of the surface being moorland
and mountain. The annual rainfall, particularly in the Inner
192
HEBRON
Hebrides, is heavy (42^6 in. at Stornoway) but the temperature
is high, averaging for the year 47 F. Potatoes and turnips
are the only 'oot crops that succeed, and barley and oats are
grown in some of the islands. Sheep-farming and cattle-raising
are carried on very generally, and, with the fisheries, provide
the main occupation of the inhabitants, though they profit not
a little from the tourists who flock to many of the islands through-
out the summer. The principal industries include distilling,
slate-quarrying and the manufacture of tweeds, tartans and
other woollens. There are extensive deer forests in Lewis-with-
Harris, Skye, Mull and Jura. On many of the islands there are
prehistoric remains and' antiquities within the Christian period.
The more populous islands are in regular communication with
certain points of the mainland by means of steamers fromGlasgow,
Oban and Mallaig. The United Free Church has a strong hold
on the poeple, but in a few of the islands the Roman Catholics
have a great following. In the larger inhabited islands board
schools have been established. The islands unite with the
counties to which they belong in returning members to parliament
(one for each shire).
History. The Hebrides are mentioned by Ptolemy under the
name of "E/3ou5ai and by Pliny under that of Hebudes, the modern
spelling having, it is said, originated in a misprint. By the
Norwegians they were called Sudreyjar or Southern Islands.
The Latinized form was Sodorenses, preserved to modern times
in the title of the bishop of Sodor and Man. The original
inhabitants seem to have been of the same Celtic race as those
settled on the mainland. In the 6th century Scandinavian
hordes poured in with their northern idolatry and lust of plunder,
but in time they adopted the language and faith of the islanders.
Mention is made of incursions of the vikings as early as 793,
but the principal immigration took place towards the end of
the gth century in the early part of the reign of Harald Fairhair,
king of Norway, and consisted of persons driven to the Hebrides,
as well as to Orkney and Shetland, to escape from his tyrannous
rule. Soon afterwards they began to make incursions against
their mother-country, and on this account Harald fitted out an
expedition against them, and placed Orkney, Shetland, the
Hebrides and the Isle of Man under Norwegian government.
The chief seat of the Norwegian sovereignty was Colonsay.
About the year 1095 Godred Crovan, king of Dublin, Man and
the Hebrides, died in Islay. His third son, Olaf, succeeded to
the government about 1103, and the daughter of Olaf was
married to Somerled, who became the founder of the dynasty
known as Lords of the Isles. Many efforts were made by the
Scottish monarchs to displace the Norwegians. Alexander II.
led a fleet and army to the shores of Argyllshire in 1 249, but he
died on the island of Kerrera. On the other hand, Haakon IV.,
king of Norway, at once to restrain the independence of his
jarls and to keep in check the ambition of the Scottish kings,
set sail in 1263 on a great expedition, which, however, ended
disastrously at Largs. Magnus, son of Haakon, concluded in
1 266 a peace with the Scots, renouncing all claim to the Hebrides
and other islands except Orkney and Shetland, and Alexander
III. agreed to give him a sum of 4000 merks in four yearly
payments. It was also stipulated that Margaret, daughter of
Alexander, should be betrothed to Eric, the son of Magnus,
whom she married in 1281. She died two years later, leaving
an only daughter afterwards known as the Maid of Norway.
The race of Somerled continued to rule the islands, and from
a younger son of the same potentate sprang the lords of Lome,
who took the patronymic of Macdougall. John Macdonaldof
Islay, who died about 1386, was the first to adopt the title of
Lord of the Isles. He was one of the most potent of the island
princes, and was married to a daughter of the earl of Strathearn,
afterwards Robert II. His son, Donald of the Isles, was memor-
able for his rebellion in support of his claim to the earldom of
Ross, in which, however, he was unsuccessful. Alexander, son
of Donald, resumed the hereditary warfare against the Scottish
crown; and in 1462 a treaty was concluded between Alexander's
son and successor John and Edward IV. of England, by which
John, his son John, and his cousin Donald Balloch, became
bound to assist King Edward and James, earl of Douglas, in
subduing the kingdom of Scotland. The alliance seems to have
led to no active operations. In the reign of James V. another
John of Islay resumed the title of Lord of the Isles, but was
compelled to surrender the dignity. The glory of the lordship
of the isles the insular sovereignty had departed. From
the time of Bruce the Campbells had been gaining the ascendancy
in Argyll. The Macleans, Macnaughtons, Maclachlans, Laments,
and other ancient races had sunk before this favoured family.
The lordship of Lome was wrested from the Macdougalls by
Robert Bruce, and their extensive possessions, with Dunstaffnage
Castle, bestowed on the king's relative, Stewart, and his de-
scendants, afterwards lords of Lome. The Macdonalds of Sleat,
the direct representatives of Somerled,' though driven from
Islay and deprived of supreme power by James V., still kept a
sort of insular state in Skye. There were also the Macdonalds
of Clanranald and Glengarry (descendants of Somerled), with
the powerful houses of Macleod of Dunvegan and Macleod of
Harris, M'Neill of Barra and Maclean of Mull. Sanguinary
feuds continued throughout the i6th and I7th centuries among
these rival clans and their dependent tribes, and the turbulent
spirit was not subdued till a comparatively recent period. James
VI. made an abortive endeavour to colonize Lewis. William III.
and Queen Anne attempted to subsidize the chiefs in order to
preserve tranquillity, but the wars of Montrose and Dundee, and
the Jacobite insurrections of 1715 and 1745, showed how futile
were all such efforts. It was not till 1748, when a decisive
blow was struck at the power of the chiefs by the abolition of
heritable jurisdictions, and the appointment of sheriffs in the
different districts, that the arts of peace and social improvement
made way in these remote regions. The change was great, and
at first not unmixed with evil. A new system of management
and high rents were imposed, in consequence of which numbers
of the tacksmen, or large tenants, emigrated to North America.
The exodus continued for many years. Sheep-farming on a large
scale was next introduced, and the crofters were thrust into
villages or barren corners of the land. The result was that,
despite the numbers who entered the army or emigrated to
Canada, the standard of civilization sank lower, and the popula-
tion multiplied in the islands. The people came to subsist
almost entirely on potatoes and herrings; and in 1846, when
the potato blight began its ravages, nearly universal destitution
ensued embracing, over the islands generally, 70% of the
inhabitants. Temporary relief was administered in the shape
of employment on roads and other works; and an emigration
fund being raised, from 4000 to 5000 of the people in the most
crowded districts were removed to Australia. Matters, however,
were not really mended, and in 1884 a royal commission reported
upon the condition of the crofters of the islands and mainland.
As a result of their inquiry the Crofters' Holdings Act was passed
in 1886, and in the course of a few years some improvement was
evident and has since been sustained.
AUTHORITIES. Martin Martin's Description of the Western Islands
of Scotland (1703) ; T. Pennant's Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the
Hebrides (1774); James Boswell's Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel
Johnson, LL.D. (1898); John Macculloch's Geological Account of the
Hebrides (1819); Hugh Miller's Cruise of the " Betsy " (1858); W. A.
Smith's Lewisiana, or Life in the Outer Hebrides (1874); Alexander
Smith, A Summer in Skye (1865); Robert Buchanan, The Hebrid
Isles (1883) ; C. F. Gordon-Gumming, In the Hebrides (1883) ; Report
of the Crofters' Commission (1884); A. Goodrich-Freer, Outer Isles
(1902); and W. C. Mackenzie, History of the Outer Hebrides (1903).
Their history under Norwegian rule is given in the Chronica regum
Manniae et insularum, edited, with learned notes, from the MS. in
the British Museum by Professor P. A. Munch of Ghristiania (1860).
HEBRON (mod. Khultl er-Rahman, i.e. " the friend of the
Merciful One " an allusion to Abraham), a city of Palestine
some 20 m. S. by S.W. of Jerusalem. The city, which lies 3040 ft.
above the sea, is of extreme antiquity (see Num. xiii. 22, and
Josephus, War, iv. 9, 7) and until taken by the Calebites (Josh. xv.
13) bore the name Kirjath-Arba. Biblical traditions connect it
closely with the patriarch Abraham and make it a " city of
refuge." The town figures prominently under David as the
headquarters of his early rule, the scene of Abner's murder
HECATAEUS OF ABDERA HECATE
'93
and the centre of Absalom's rebellion. In later days the Edom
ites held it for a time, but Judas Maccabaeus recovered it
It was destroyed in the great war under Vespasian. In A.D. 1 16
Hebron became the see of a Latin bishop, and it was taken in
1187 by Saladin. In 1834 it joined the rebellion against Ibrahim
Pasha, who took the town and pillaged it. Modern Hebron rise
on the east slope of a shallow valley a long narrow town o
stone houses, the flat roofs having small stone domes. The
main quarter is about 700 yds. long, and two smaller groups o
houses exist north and south of this. The hill behind is terraced
and luxuriant vineyards and fruit plantations surround the place
which is well watered on the north by three principal springs
including the Well Sirah, now 'Ain Sara (2 Sam. iii. 26). Thre<
conspicuous minarets rise, two from the Haram, the other in
the north quarter. The population (10,000 ) includes Moslems
and about 500 Jews. The Bedouins bring wool and camel's
hair to the market; and glass bracelets, lamps and leather water-
skins are manufactured in the town. The most conspicuous
building is the Haram built over the supposed site of the cave o:
Machpelah. It is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west
by 198 north and south, surrounded with high rampart walls 01
masonry similiar in size and dressing to that of the Jerusalem
Haram walls. These ramparts are ascribed by architectural
authorities to the Herodian period. The interior area is partly
occupied by a 12th-century Gothic church, and contains six
modern cenotaphs of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca
and Leah. The cave beneath the platform has probably not
been entered for at least 600 years. The numerous traditional
sites now shown round Hebron are traceable generally to medieval
legendary topography; they include the Oak of Mamre (Gen. xiii.
18 R.V.) which has at various times been shown in different
positions from to 2 m. from the town.
There are a British medical mission, a German Protestant
mission with church and schools, and, near Abraham's Oak, a
Russian mission. Since 1880 several notices of the Haram,
within which are the tombs of the Patriarchs, have appeared.
See C. R. Conder, Pal. Exp. Fund, Memoirs, iii. 333, &c.; Riant,
Archives de I'orient latin, ii. 411, &c.; Dalton and Chaplin, P.E.F
Quarterly Statement (1897); Goldziher, "Das Patriarchengrab in
Hebron," in Zeitschrift d. Dn. Pal. Vereins, xvii. (R. A. S. M.)
HECATAEUS OF ABDERA (or of Teos), Greek historian and
Sceptic philosopher, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He
accompanied Ptolemy I. Soter in an expedition to Syria, and
sailed up the Nile with him as far as Thebes (Diogenes Laertius
ix. 61). The result of his travels was set down by him in two
works AiyuTma/cd and Ilept "Tirep^opeoiv, which were used
by Diodorus Siculus. According to Suidas, he also wrote a
treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding his
authorship of a work on the Jews (utilized by Josephus in Contra
Apionem), it is conjectured that portions of the AiymnaKa
were revised by a Hellenistic Jew from his point of view and
published as a special work.
Fragments in C. W. Miiller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum.
HECATAEUS OF MILETUS (6th- S th century B.C.), Greek
historian, son of Hegesander, flourished during the time of the
Persian invasion. After having travelled extensively, he settled
in his native city, where he occupied a high position, and devoted
his time to the composition of geographical and historical works.
When Aristagoras held a council of the leading lonians at
Miletus, to organize a revolt against the Persian rule, Hecataeus
in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the undertaking
(Herodotus v. 36, 125). In4Q4, when the defeated lonians were
obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the
Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the
constitution of the Ionic cities (Diod. Sic. x. 25). He is by some
credited with a work entitled TTJS irepioSos ("Travels round the
Earth "), in two books, one on Europe, the other on Asia, in
which were described the countries and inhabitants of the
known world, the account of Egypt being especially com-
prehensive; the descriptive matter was accompanied by a
map, based upon Anaximander's map of the earth, which he
corrected and enlarged. The authenticity of the work is, however,
xm. 7
strongly attacked by J. Wells in the Journal of Hellenic Studies,
xxix. pt. i. 1909. The only certainly genuine work of Hecataeus
was the Ttv(ri\oyiai or 'laropiai, a systematic account of the
traditions and mythology of the Greeks. He was probably the
first to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical
method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he
accepts Homer and the other poets as trustworthy authority.
Herodotus, though he once at least controverts his statements, is
indebted to Hecataeus not only for facts, but also in regard of
method and general scheme, but the extent of the debt depends
on the genuineness of the Fjjs irtpiodos.
See fragments in C. W. Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum,\. ;
H. Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen
(1903); E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, i.; W. Mure,
History of Greek Literature, iy. ; especially J. V. Prasek, Hekataios
als Herodots Quelle zur Geschichte Vorderasiens. Beitrage zur alien
Geschichte (Klio), iv. 193 seq. (1904), and J. Wells in Journ. Hell.
Stud., as above.
HECATE (Gr. "EKarf, " she who works from afar "'), a goddess
in Greek mythology. According to the generally accepted view,
she is of Hellenic origin, but Farnell regards her as a foreign
importation from Thrace, the home of Bendis, with whom Hecate
has many points in common. She is not mentioned in the Iliad
or the Odyssey, but in Hesiod (Theogony, 409) she is the daughter
of the Titan Perses and Asterie, in a passage which may be a
later interpolation by the Orphists (for other genealogies see
Steuding in Roscher's Lexikon). She is there represented as a
mighty goddess, having power over heaven, earth and sea;
hence she is the bestower of wealth and all the blessings of daily
life. The range of her influence is most varied, extending to war,
athletic games, the tending of cattle, hunting, the assembly of
the people and the law-courts. Hecate is frequently identified
with Artemis, an identification usually justified by the assump-
tion that both were moon-goddesses. Farnell, who regards
Artemis as originally an earth-goddess, while recognizing a
" genuine lunar element " in Hecate from the sth century,
considers her a chthonian rather than a lunar divinity (see also
Warr in Classical Review, ix. 390). He is of opinion that neither
borrowed much from, nor exercised much influence on, the cult
and character of the other.
Hecate is the chief goddess who presides over magic arts and
spells, and in this connexion she is the mother of the sorceresses
Circe and Medea. She is constantly invoked, in the well-known
.dyll (ii.) of Theocritus, in the incantation to bring back a woman's
Pithless lover. As a chthonian power, she is worshipped at the
Samothracian mysteries, and is closely connected with Demeter.
Alone of the gods besides Helios, she witnessed the abduction of
Persephone, and, torch in hand (a natural symbol for the moon's
light, but see Farnell), assisted Demeter in her search for her
daughter. On moonlight nights she is seen at the cross-roads
(hence her name rpioSIrw, Lat. Trivia) accompanied by the
dogs of the Styx and crowds of the dead. Here, on the last day
of the month, eggs and fish were offered to her. Black puppies
and she-Iambs (black victims being offered to chthonian deities)
were also sacrificed (Schol. on Theocritus ii. 12). Pillars
ike the Hermae, called Hecataea, stood, especially in Athens,
at cross-roads and doorways, perhaps to keep away the spirits
of evil. Like Artemis, Hecate is also a goddess of fertility,
presiding especially over the birth and the youth of wild animals,
nd over human birth and marriage. She also attends when the
oul leaves the body at death, and is found near graves, and on
he hearth, where the master of the house was formerly buried.
t is to be noted that Hecate plays little or no part in mythological
egend. Her worship seems to have flourished especially in the
wilder parts of Greece, such as Samothrace and Thessaly, in
Caria and on the coasts of Asia Minor. In Greece proper it
prevailed on the east coast and especially in Aegina, where
icr aid was invoked against madness.
In older times Hecate is represented as single-formed, clad in
1 J. B. Bury, in Classical Review, iii. p. 41 6, suggests that the name
leans " dog," against which see J. H. Vince, t'6. iv. p. 47. G. C.
Varr, ib. ix. 390, takes the Hesiodic Hecate to be a moon-goddess,
aughter of the sun-god Perseus.
HECATOMB HECKER
a long robe, holding burning torches; later she becomes triformis,
" triple-formed," with three bodies standing back to back
corresponding, according to those who regard her as a moon-
goddess, to the new, the full and the waning moon. In her six
hands are torches, sometimes a snake, a key (as wardress of the
lower world), a whip or a dagger; her favourite animal was
the dog, which was sacrificed to her an indication of her non-
Hellenic origin, since this animal very rarely fills this part in
genuine Greek ritual.
See H. Steuding in Roscher's Lexikun, where the functions of
Hecate are systematically derived from the conception of her as a
moon-goddess; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, ii., where this
view is examined ; P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiquites; O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. (1906) p. 1288.
HECATOMB (Gr. e/caro^Sr; from tKariv, a hundred, and
/Sow, an ox), originally the sacrifice of a hundred oxen in the
religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans; later a large
number of any kind of animals devoted for sacrifice. Figura-
tively, "hecatomb" is used to describe the sacrifice or destruc-
tion by fire, tempest, disease or the sword of any large number
of persons or animals; and also of the wholesale destruction of
inanimate objects, and even of mental and moral attributes.
HECATO OF RHODES, Greek Stoic philosopher and disciple
of Panaetius (Cicero, De officiis, iii. 15). Nothing else is known
of his life, but it is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics
of the period. He was a voluminous writer, but nothing remains.
A list is preserved by Diogenes, who mentions works on Duty,
Good, Virtues, Ends. The first, dedicated to Tubero, is eulogized
by Cicero in the De officiis, and Seneca refers to him frequently
in the De beneficiis. According to Diogenes Laertius, he divided
the virtues into two kinds, those founded on scientific intellectual
principles (i.e. wisdom and justice), and those which have no
such basis (e.g. temperance and the resultant health and vigour).
Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical questions,
as, for example, whether a good man who had received a coin
which he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another.
On the whole, his moral attitude is cynical, and he is inclined
to regard self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies
by explaining that self-interest is based on the relationships of
life; a man needs money for the sake of his children, his friends
and the state whose general prosperity depends on the wealth
of its citizens. Like the earlier Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus,
he held that virtue may be taught. (See STOICS and PANAETIUS.)
HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL (1811-1881), German
revolutionist, was born at Eichtersheim in the Palatinate on
the a8th of September 1811, his father being a revenue official.
He studied law with the intention of becoming an advocate,
but soon became absorbed in politics. On entering the Second
Chamber of Baden in 1842, he at once began to take part in the
opposition against the government, which assumed a more and
more openly Radical character, and in the course of which his
talents as an agitator and his personal charm won him wide
popularity and influence. A speech, denouncing the projected
incorporation of Schleswig and Holstein with Denmark, delivered
in the Chamber of Baden on the 6th of February 1845, spread his
fame beyond the limits of his own state, and his popularity was
increased by his expulsion from Prussia on the occasion of a
journey to Stettin. After the death of his more moderate-
minded friend Adolf Sander (March gth, 1845), Hecker's tone
towards the government became more and more bitter. In
spite cf the shallowness and his culture and his extremely weak
character, he enjoyed an ever-increasing popularity. Even before
the outbreak of the revolution he included Socialistic claims
in his programme. In 1847 he was temporarily occupied with
ideas of emigration, and with this object made a journey to
Algiers, but returned to Baden and resumed his former position
as the Radical champion of popular rights, later becoming
president of the Volksverein, where he was destined to fall still
further under the influence of the agitator Gustav von Strove.
In conjunction with Struve he drew up the Radical programme
carried at the great Liberal meeting held at Offenburg on the
1 2th of September 1847 (entitled " Thirteen Claims put forward
by the People of Baden"). In addition to the Offenburg pro-
gramme, the Sturmpetition of the ist of March 1848 attempted
to extort from the government the most far-reaching concessions.
But it was in vain that on becoming a deputy Hecker en-
deavoured to carry out its impracticable provisions. He had
to yield to the more moderate majority, but on this account was
driven still further towards the Left. The proof lies in the new
Offenburg demands of the igth of March, and in the resolution
moved by Hecker in the preliminary parliament of Frankfort that
Germany should be declared a republic. But neither in Baden
nor Frankfort did he at any time gain his point.
This double failure, combined with various energetic measures
of the government, which were indirectly aimed at him (e.g. the
arrest of the editor of the Constanzer Seeblatt, a friend of Hecker's,
in Karlsruhe station on the 8th of April), inspired Hecker with
the idea of an armed rising under pretext of the foundation of
the German republic. The pth tc the nth of April was secretly
spent in preliminaries. On the i2th of April Hecker and Struve
sent a proclamation to the inhabitants of the Seekreis and of the
Black Forest " to summon the people who can bear arms to
Donaueschingen at mid-day on the I4th, with arms, ammunition
and provisions for six days." They expected 70,000 men, but
only a few thousand appeared. The grand-ducal government
of the Seekreis was dissolved, and Hecker gradually gained
reinforcements. But friendly advisers also joined him, pointing
out the risks of his undertaking. Hecker, however, was not at
all ready to listen to them; on the contrary, he added to violence
an absurd defiance, and offered an amnesty to the German princes
on condition of their retiring within fourteen days into private
life. The troops of Baden and Hesse marched against him,
under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern, and on
the 2oth of April they met near Kandern, where Gagern was
killed, it is true, but Hecker was completely defeated.
Like many of the revolutionaries of that period, Hecker retired
to Switzerland. He was, it is true, again elected to the Chamber
of Baden by the circle of Thiengen, but the government, no
longer willing to respect his immunity as a deputy, refused its
ratification. On this account Hecker resolved in September
1848 to emigrate to North America, and obtained possession of
a farm near Belleville in the state of Illinois.
During the second rising in Baden in the spring of 1849 he
again made efforts to obtain a footing in his own state, but with-
out success. He only came as far as Strassburg, but had to
retreat before the victories of the Prussian troops over the Baden
insurgents.
On his return to America he won some distinction during the
Civil War as colonel of a regiment which he had himself got
together on the Federal side in 1861 and 1864. It was with
great joy that he heard of the union of Germany brought about
by the victory over France in 1870-71. It was then that
he made his famous festival speech at St Louis, in which he
gave an animated expression to the enthusiasm of the German
Americans for their newly-united fatherland. He received a
less favourable impression during a journey he made in Germany
in 1873. He died at St Louis on the 24th of March 1881.
Hecker was always very much beloved of all the German
democrats. The song and the hat named after him (the latter
a broad slouch hat with a feather) became famous as the symbols
of the middle-classes in revolt. In America, too, he had won
great esteem, not only on political grounds but also for his
personal qualities.
See F. Hecker, Die Erhebung des Volkes in Baden fur die deutsche
RepuUik (Baden, 1848); F. Hecker, Reden und Vorlesungen (Neer-
stadt a. d. H., 1872) ; F. v. Weech, Badische Biographien, iv. (1891) ;
L. Mathy, Aus dern NacUasse von K. Matty, Brief e aus den Jahren
1846-1848 (Leipzig, 1898). (J. HN.)
HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS (1810-1888), American Roman
Catholic priest, the founder of the "Paulist Fathers," was
born in New York City, of German immigrant parents, on the
1 8th of December 1819. When barely twelve years of age,
he had to go to work, and pushed a baker's cart for his elder
brothers, who had a bakery in Rutgers Street. But he studied
HECKMONDWIKE HECTOR
at every possible opportunity, becoming immersed in Kant's
Critique of Pure Reason, and while still a lad took part in certain
politico-social movements which aimed at the elevation of the
working man. It was at this juncture that he met Orestes
Brownson, who exercised a marked influence over him. Isaac
was deeply religious, a characteristic for which he gave much
credit to his prayerful mother, and remained so amid all the
reading and agitating in which he engaged. Having grown
into young manhood, he joined the Brook Farm movement,
and in that colony he tarried some six months. _ Shortly after
leaving it (in 1844) he wa s baptized into the Roman Catholic
Church by Bishop McCloskey of New York. One year later
he was entered in the novitiate of the Redemptorists in Belgium,
and there he cultivated to a high degree the spirit of lofty
mystical piety which marked him through life.
Ordained a priest in London by Wiseman in 1849, he returned
to America, and worked until 1857 as a Redemptorist missionary.
With all his mysticism, Isaac Hecker had the wide-awake mind
of the typical American, and he perceived that the missionary
activity of the Catholic Church in the United States must
remain to a large extent ineffective unless it adopted methods
suited to the country and the age. In this he had the sympathy
of four fellow Redemptorists, who like himself were of American
birth and converts from Protestantism. Acting as their agent,
and with the consent of his local superiors, Hecker went to Rome
to beg of the Rector Major of his Order that a Redemptorist
novitiate might be opened in the United States, in order thus to
attract American youths to the missionary life. In furtherance
of this request, he took with him the strong approval of some
members of the American hierarchy. The Rector Major, instead
of listening to Father Hecker, expelled him from the Order for
having made the journey to Rome without sufficient authoriza-
tion. The outcome of the trouble was that Hecker and the other
four American Redemptorists were permitted by Pius IX. in 1858
to form the separate religious community of the Paulists. Hecker
trained and governed this community in spiritual exercises and
mission-preaching until his death in New York City, after
seventeen years of suffering, on the 22nd of December 1888.
He founded and was the director of the Catholic Publication
Society, was the founder, and from 1865 until his death the
editor, of the Catholic World, and wrote Questions of the Soul
(1855), Aspirations of Nature (1857), Catholicity in the United
Stales (1879) and The Church and the Age (i
The name of Hecker is closely associated with that of " American-
ism." To understand this movement it is necessary to comprehend
the tendency of events in Catholic Europe rather than in America
itself. The steady decline in the power and influence of French
Catholicism since shortly after 1870 is the most remarkable feature
of the history of the Third Republic. Not only did the French State
pass laws bearing more and more stringently on the Church, under
each succeeding ministry, but the bulk of the people acquiesced in the
policy of its legislators. The clergy, if not Catholicism, was rapidly
losing its hold over the once Catholic nation. Observing this fact,
and encouraged by the action of Leo XIII., who, in 1892 called on
French Catholics loyally to accept the Republic, a body of vigorous
young French priests set themselves to check the disaster. They
studied the causes which produced it. These causes, they considered
to be, first, the clergy's predominant sympathy with the monarchists,
and in its undisguised hostility to the Republic; secondly, the
Church's aloofness from modern men, methods and thought. The
progressive party believed that there was too little cultivation of
individual, independent character, while too much stress was laid
upon what might be called the mechanical or routine side of religion.
The party perceived, too, that Catholicism was making scarcely
any use of modern aggressive modes of propaganda; that, for
example, the Church took but an insignificant part in social move-
ments, in the organization of clubs for social study, in the establishing
of settlements and similar philanthropic endeavour. Lack of
adaptability to modern needs expresses in short the deficiencies in
Catholicism which these men endeavoured to correct. They began
a domestic apostolate which had for one of its rallying cries, "Allans
au peuple,''" Let us go to the people." They agitated for the
inauguration of social works, for a more intimate mingling of priests
with the people, and for general cultivation of personal initiative,
both in clergy and in laity.
Not unnaturally, they looked for inspiration to America. There
they saw a vigorous Church among a free people, with priests
publicly respected, and with a note of aggressive zeal in every
project of Catholic enterprise. From the American priesthood,
Father Hecker stood out conspicuous for sturdy courage, deep
interior piety, an assertive self-initiative and immense love of modern
times and modern liberty. So they took Father Hecker for a kind
of patron saint. His biography (New York, 1891), written in English
by the Paulist Father Elliott, was translated into French (1897),
and speedily became the book of the hour. Under the inspiration
of Father Hecker's life and character, the more spirited section of
the French clergy undertook the task of persuading their fellow-
Criests loyally to accept the actual political establishment, and then,
reaking out of their isolation, to put themselves in touch with the
intellectual life of the country, and take an active part in the work of
social amelioration.
In 1897 the movement received an impetus and a warning
when Mgr O'Connell, former Rector of the American College in
Rome, spoke on behalf of Father Hecker's ideas at the Catholic
Congress in Friburg. The conservatives took alarm at what they
considered to be symptoms of pernicious modernism or " Liberalism."
Did not the watchword " Allans au peuple " savour of heresy ?
Did it not tend toward breaking down the divinely established
distinction between the priest and the layman, and conceding
something to the laity in the management of the Church ? The
insistence upon individual initiative was judged to be incompatible
with the fundamental principle of Catholicism, obedience to authority.
Moreover, the conservatives were, almost to a man, anti-republicans
who distrusted and disliked the democratic abb6s. Complaints
were sent to Rome. A violent polemic against the new movement
was launched in Abb6 Maignan s Le pere Hecker, est-il un saint ?
(1898). Repugnance to American tendencies and influences had a
strong representation in the Curia and in powerful circles in Rome.
Leo XIII. was extremely reluctant to pronounce any strictures
upon American Catholics, of whose loyalty to the Roman See, and
to their faith, he had often spoken in terms of high approbation.
But he yielded, in a measure, to the pressure brought to bear upon
him, and, early in February 1899, addressed to Cardinal Gibbons the
Brief Testem Benevolentiae. This document contained a condem-
nation of the following doctrines or tendencies: (a) undue insistence
on interior initiative in the spiritual life, as leading to disobedience;
(6) attacks on religious vows, and disparagement of the value in the
present age, of religious orders; (c) minimizing Catholic doctrine;
(d) minimizing the importance of spiritual direction. The brief did
not assert that any unsound doctrine on the above points had been
held by Hecker or existed among Americans. Its tenour was, that
if such opinions did exist, the Pope called upon the hierarchy to
eradicate the evil. Cardinal Gibbons and many other prelates
replied to Rome. With all but unanimity, they declared that the
incriminated opinions had no existence among American Catholics.
It was well known that Hecker never had countenanced the slightest
departure from Catholic principles in their fullest and most strict
application. The disturbance caused by the condemnation was
slight; almost the entire laity, and a considerable part of the clergy,
never understood what the noise was about. The affair was soon
forgotten, but the result was to strengthen the hands of the con-
servatives in France. (J. J. F.)
HECKMONDWIKE, an urban district in the Spen Valley
parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
8 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great
Northern, and London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901),
9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on the south-east, it is an
important centre of the blanket and carpet manufactures, and
there are also machine works, dye works and iron foundries.
Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity.
HECTOR, in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the
husband of Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had
an Oriental name, Darius. In Homer he is represented as an
ideal warrior, the champion of the Trojans and the mainstay of
the city. His character is drawn in most favourable colours as
a good son, a loving husband and father, and a trusty friend.
His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the Iliad,
and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most
touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo;
and later poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief
exploits during the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon,
his fight with Ajax, son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and
the storming of the Greek ramparts. When Achilles, enraged
with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks, Hector drove them back
to their ships, which he almost succeeded in burning. Patroclus,
the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the Greeks, was
slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to
revenge his friend's death, returned to the war, slew Hector,
dragged his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards
round the tomb of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved
196
HECUBA HEDGES AND FENCES
it from corruption and mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes,
went to Achilles and prevailed on him to give back the body,
which was buried with great honour. Hector was afterwards
worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei, who
offered sacrifices at his grave.
HECUBA (Gr. 'E/cd/3?7), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian
king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius).
According to Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam's
fifty sons. When Troy was captured and Priam slain, she was
made prisoner by the Greeks. Her fate is told in various ways,
most of which connect her with the promontory Cynossema,
on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According to Euripides
(in the Hecuba), her youngest son Polydorus had been placed
during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of
Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese
on their way home Hecuba discovered that her son had been
murdered, and in revenge put out the eyes of Polymestor and
murdered his two sons. She was acquitted by Agamemnon;
but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into a dog, and her
grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, Metam. xiii. 399-575;
Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor's note). According to another story,
she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw
herself into the Hellespont ; or, she used such insulting language
towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis
v. 13. 16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba's trans-
formation and death that she is a form of some goddess
to whom dogs were sacred; and the analogy with Scylla is
striking.
HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ (c. i594~c. 1670), Dutch painter,
born at Haarlem, was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted
himself exclusively to the painting of still life. He was the
contemporary and comrade of Dirk Hals, with whom he had
in common pictorial touch and technical execution. But Heda
was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed consider-
able skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring
chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior
metals. Nothing is so appetizing as his " luncheon," with rare
comestibles set out upon rich plate, oysters seldom without
the cut lemon bread, champagne, olives and pastry. Even
the commoner " refection " is also not without charm, as it
comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One of Heda's
early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is
as homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at
Vienna. A more luxurious repast is a " Luncheon in the Augsburg
Gallery," dated 1644. Most of Heda's pictures are on the
European continent, notably in the galleries of Paris, Parma,
Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and Vienna. He was a
man of repute in his native city, and filled all the offices of dignity
and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have had con-
siderable influence in forming the younger Franz Hals.
HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER (1828-1897), Scottish
mineralogist, was born at Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April
1828. After receiving his early education at the Edinburgh
academy, he entered as a medical student at the university in
that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and mineralogy
at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D.
at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical
work, however, possessed for him little attraction; he became
assistant to Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at
St Andrews, and in 1862 succeeded him as professor. This post
he held until in 1880 he was invited to report on some gold mines
in South Africa. On his return he devoted himself with great
assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of the finest collections
by means of personal exploration in almost every part of Scotland.
His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at
Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive
work on the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to
complete, but the MSS. fell into able hands, and The Mineralogy
of Scotland, in 2 vols., edited by J. G. Goodchild. was issued
in 1901. Heddle was one of the founders of the Mineralogical
Society, and he contributed many articles on Scottish minerals,
and on the geology of the northern parts of Scotland, to the
Mineralogical Magazine, as well as to the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh. He died on the igth of November
1897.
See Dr Heddle and his Geological Work (with portrait), by J. G.
Goodchild, Trans, Edin. Geol. Soc. (1898) vii. 317.
HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN, a member of the mammalian order
Insectivora, remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines
and its short tail. The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the
snout is long and flexible, with the nostrils narrow, and the
claws are long but weak. The animal is about 10 in. long,
its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered with hairs of
the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its low
development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked
with but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The
hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from
which the spines stand out in every direction. The spines are
sharp, hard and elastic, and form so efficient a defence that
there are few animals able to effect a successful attack on this
creature. The moment it is touched, or even hears the report of
a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the muscles beneath
the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of the spines.
The most important muscle is the orbicularis panniculi, which
extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the body
-_,-.,. , ....
The Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus).
as the ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other
muscles aid in the contraction.
Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a
liking for mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits,
all seem to be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fond-
ness for eggs has caused it to meet with the enmity of game-
preservers; and there is no doubt it occasionally attacks leverets
and game-chicks. In a state of nature it does not emerge from
its retreat during daylight, unless urged by hunger or by the
necessities of its young. During winter it passes into a state
of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably; having
provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected
from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains
undisturbed till warmer weather returns. In July or August
the female brings forth four to eight young, or, according to
others, two to four at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the
spines, which in the adult are black in the middle, are white
and soft, but soon harden, though they do not attain their
full size until the succeeding spring.
The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as Erinaceus
europaeus, and is the type of the family Erinaceidae, is found
in woods and gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of
Europe; and has been found at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level
of the sea. The adult is provided with thirty-six teeth; in the
upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12 cheek-teeth, and in
the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10 cheek-teeth. The
genus is represented by about a score of species, ranging over
Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa. (R. L.*)
HEDGES AND FENCES. The object of the hedge or fence
(abbreviation of " defence ") is to mark a boundary or to enclose
1 Hedge is a Teutonic word, cf. Dutch heg, Ger. Heche; the ^ root
appears in other English words, e.g. " haw," as in " hawthorn."
HEDON HEDONISM
197
an area of land on which stock is kept. The hedge, i.e. a. row
of bushes or small trees, forms a characteristic feature of the
scenery of England, especially in the midlands and south; it is
more rarely found in other countries. Its disadvantages as a
fence are that it is not portable, that it requires cutting and
training while young, that it harbours weeds and vermin and
that it occupies together with the ditch which usually borders
it a considerable space of ground, the margins of which cannot
be cultivated. For these reasons it is to some extent superseded
by the fence proper, especially where shelter for cattle is not
required. In Great Britain the hawthorn (q.v.) is by far the most
important of hedge plants. Holly resembles the hawthorn
in its amenability to pruning and in its prickly nature and
closeness of growth , which make it an effective barrier to, and
shelter for, stock, but it is less hardy and more slow-growing
than the hawthorn. Hornbeam, beech, myrobalan or cherry
plum and blackthorn also have their advantages, hornbeam
being proof against great exposure, blackthorn thriving on poor
land and possessing great impenetrability and so on. Box, yew,
privet and many other plants are used for ornamental hedging;
in the United States the osage orange and honey locust are
favourite hedge plants. As fences, wooden posts and rails and
stone walls may be conveniently used in districts where the
requisite materials are plentiful. But the most modern form
of fence is formed of wire strands either smooth or barbed (see
BARBED WIRE), strained between iron standards or wooden or
concrete posts. The wire may be interwoven with vertical strands
or, if necessary, may be kept apart by iron droppers between the
standards. Fences of a lighter description are machine-made
with pickets of split chestnut or other wood closely set, woven
with a few strands of wire; they are braced by posts at intervals.
From the fact that tramps and vagabonds frequently sleep
under hedges the word has come to be used as a term of contempt,
as in " hedge-priest," an inferior and -illiterate kind of parson
at one time existing in England and Ireland, and in " hedge-
school," a low class school held in the open air, formerly very
common in Ireland. From the sense of " hedge " as an enclosure
or barrier the verb "to hedge" means to enclose, to form a
barrier or defence, to bound or limit. As a sporting term
the word is used in betting to mean protection from loss, by
betting on both sides, by "laying off " on one side, after laying
odds on another or vice versa. The word was early used
figuratively in the sense of to avoid committing oneself.
See articles in the Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture, vol. i.,
ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York, 1907); in the Standard Cyclopaedia
of Modern Agriculture, ed. by R. P. Wright (London, 1908-1909);
and in the Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, vol. ii., ed. by C. E. Green
and D. Young (Edinburgh, 1908).
HEDON, a municipal borough in the Holderness parliamentary
division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. E. of
Hull by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901),
1010. It stands in a low-lying, flat district bordering the
Humber. It is 2 m. from the river, but was formerly reached
by a navigable inlet, now dry, and was a considerable port.
There is a small harbour, but the prosperity of the port has passed
to Hull. The church of St Augustine is a splendid cruciform
building with central tower. It is Early English, Decorated
and Perpendicular, the tower being of the last period. The west
front is particularly fine, and the church, with its noble pro-
portions and lofty clerestories, resembles a cathedral in miniature.
There are a manufacture of bricks and an agricultural trade.
The corporation consists of a mayor, 3 aldermen and 9
councillors; and possesses a remarkable ancient mace, of isth-
century workmanship. Area, 321 acres.
According to tradition the men of Hedon received a charter
of liberties from King jEthelstan, but there is no evidence to
prove this or indeed to prove any settlement in the town until
after the Conquest. The manor is not mentioned in the
Domesday Survey, but formed part of the lordship of Holderness
which William the Conqueror granted to Odo, count of Albemarle.
A charter of Henry II., which is undated, contains the first certain
evidence of settlement. By it the king granted to William,
count of Albemarle, free borough rights in Hedon so that his
burgesses there might hold of him as freely and quietly as the
burgesses of York or Lincoln held of the king. An earlier charter
granted to the inhabitants of York shows that these rights
included a trade gild and freedom from many dues not only in
England but also in France. King John in 1200 granted a
confirmation of these liberties to Baldwin, count of Albemarle,
and Hawisia his wife and for this second charter the burgesses
themselves paid 70 marks. In 1272 Henry III. granted to
Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and Avelina his wife, then lord and
lady of the manor, the right of holding a fair at Hedon on the
eve, day, and morrow of the feast of St Augustine and for five
following days. After the countess's death the manor came to
the hands of Edward I. In 1 280 it was found by an inquisition
that the men of Hedon " were few and poor " and that if the town
were demised at a fee-farm rent the town might improve. The
grant, however, does not appear to have been made until 1346.
Besides this charter Edward III. also granted the burgesses the
privilege of electing a mayor and bailiffs every year. At that time
Hedon was one of the chief ports in the Humber, but its place was
gradually taken by Hull after that town came into the hands of
the king. Hedon was incorporated by Charles II. in 1661, and
James II. in 1680 gave the burgesses another charter granting
among other privileges that of holding two extra fairs, but of
this they never appear to have taken advantage. The burgesses
returned two members to parliament in 1295, and from 1547 to
1832 when the borough was disfranchised.
See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; J. R. Boyle, The Early
History of the Town and Port of Hedon (Hull and York, 1895) ; G. H.
Park, History of the Ancient Borough of Hedon (Hull, 1895).
HEDONISM (Gr. fiSovri, pleasure, from iJ56s, sweet, pleasant),
in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in which the
criterion is pleasure of one kind or another. Hedonistic theories
of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they
have been by no means of the same character. Moreover,
hedonism has, especially by its critics, been very much mis-
represented owing mainly to two simple misconceptions, In the
first place hedonism may confine itself to the view that, as a
matter of observed fact, all men do in practice make pleasure the
criterion of action, or it may go further and assert that men ought
to seek pleasure as the sole human good. The former statement
takes no view as to whether or not there is any absolute good:
it merely denies that men aim at anything more than pleasure.
The latter statement admits an ideal, summum bonum namely,
pleasure. The second confusion is the tacit assumption that the
pleasure of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a
purely physical kind; this assumption is in the case of some
hedonistic theories a pure perversion of the facts. Practically all
hedonists have argued that what are known as the " lower "
pleasures are not only ephemeral in themselves but also pro-
ductive of so great an amount of consequent pain that the wise
man cannot regard them as truly pleasurable; the sane hedonist
will, therefore, seek those so-called " higher " pleasures which
are at once more lasting and less likely to be discounted by
consequent pain. It should be observed, however, that this
choice of pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by " moral "
(absolute) but by prudential (relative) considerations.
The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that
of the Cyrenaic School as stated by Aristippus, who argued that
the only good for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment.
Since (following Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary
sensations, it is useless to try, as Socrates recommended, to make
calculations as to future pleasures, and to balance present enjoy-
ment with disagreeable consequences. The true art of life is to
crowd as much enjoyment as possible into every moment. This
extreme or " pure " hedonism regarded as a definite philosophic
theory practically died with the Cyrenaics, though the same
spirit has frequently found expression in ancient and modern,
especially poetical, literature.
The confusion already alluded to between " pure " and
" rational " hedonism is nowhere more clearly exemplified than
in the misconceptions which have arisen as to the doctrine oi
i 9 8
HEEL HEEMSKERK, J. VAN
the Epicureans. To identify Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism
is a complete misunderstanding. It is true that pleasure is the
summum bonum of Epicurus, but his conception of that pleasure
is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of prudence
and the eudaemonism of Aristotle. The true hedonist will aim
at a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of
life, but true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance
of reason. Self-control in the choice of pleasures with a view
to reducing pain to a minimum is indispensable. " Of all this,
the beginning, and the greatest good, is prudence." The negative
side of Epicurean hedonism was developed to such an extent by
some members of the school (see HEGESIAS) that the ideal life
is held to be rather indifference to pain than positive enjoyment.
This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the positive
hedonism of Aristippus.
Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern
philosophers there lies a great gulf. Practically speaking
ancient hedonism advocated the happiness of the individual:
the modern hedonism of Hume, Bentham and Mill is based on a
wider conception of life. The only real happiness is the happiness
of the community, or at least of the majority: the criterion is
society, not the individual. Thus we pass from Egoistic to
Universalistic hedonism, Utilitarianism, Social Ethics, more
especially in relation to the still broader theories of evolution.
These theories are confronted by the problem of reconciling and
adjusting the claims of the individual with those of society.
One of the most important contributions to the discussion is that
of Sir Leslie Stephen (Science of Ethics), who elaborated a theory
of the " social organism " in relation to the individual. The end
ot the evolution process is the production of a " social tissue "
which will be " vitally efficient." Instead, therefore, of the
criterion of " the greatest happiness of the greatest number,"
Stephen has that of the " health of the organism." Life is not
" a series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate
the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses."
Each action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the
structure of society.
A criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the
article ETHICS (ad fin.). See also, beside works quoted under
CYRENAICS, EPICURUS, &c., and the general histories of philosophy,
J. S. Mackenzie, Manual of Ethics (3rd ed., 1897) ; J. H. Muirhead,
Elements of Ethics (1892); J. Watson, Hedonistic Theories (1895),
J. Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory (2nd ed., 1886) ; F. H. Bradley,
Ethical Studies (1876); H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics |(6th ed.,
1901); Jas. Seth, Ethical Principles (3rd ed., 1898); other works
quoted under ETHICS.
HEEL, (i) (O. Eng. hela, cf. Dutch hid; a derivative of O. Eng.
hoh, hough, hock), that part of the foot in man which is situated
below and behind the ankle; by analogy, the calcaneal part
of the tarsus in other vertebrates. The heel proper in digitigrades
and ungulates is raised off the ground and is commonly known as
the "knee" or "hock," while the term "heel" is applied to the
hind hoofs. (2) (A variant of the earlier hield; cf. Dutch hellen,
for helderi), to turn over to one side, especially of a ship. It is
this word probably, in the sense of " tip-up," used particularly
of the tilting or tipping of a cask or barrel of liquor, that explains
the origin of the expression " no heel-taps," a direction to the
drinkers of a toast to drain their glasses and leave no dregs
remaining. " Tap " is a common word for liquor, and a cask
is said to be " heeled " when it is tipped and only dregs or
muddy liquor are left. This suits the actual sense of the phrase
better than the explanations which connect it with tapping the
" heel " or bottom of the glass (see Notes and Queries, 4th series,
vols. xi.-xii., and sth series, vol. i.).
HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN (or JOHANNES DE),'(C. i6oo-c.i683),
Dutch painter. He was, if not the first, certainly the greatest
painter of still life in Holland; no artist of his class combined
more successfully perfect reality of form and colour with brilliancy
and harmony of tints. No object of stone or silver, no flower
humble or gorgeous, no fruit of Europe or the tropics, no twig
or leaf, with which he was not familiar. Sometimes he merely
represented a festoon or a nosegay. More frequently he worked
with a purpose to point a moral or illustrate a motto. Here
the snake lies coiled under the grass, there a skull rests on
blooming plants. Gold and silver tankards or cups suggest
the vanity of earthly possessions; salvation is allegorized in a
chalice amidst blossoms, death as a crucifix inside a wreath.
Sometimes de Heem painted alone, sometimes in company with
men of his school, Madonnas or portraits surrounded by festoons
of fruit or flowers. At one time he signed with initials, at others
with Johannes, at others again with the name of his father
joined to his own. At rare intervals he condescended to a date,
and when he did the work was certainly of the best. De Heem
entered the gild of Antwerp in 1635-1636, and became a burgher
of that city in 1637. He steadily maintained his residence till
1667, when he moved to Utrecht, where traces of his presence
are preserved in records of 1668, 1669 and 1670. It is not known
when he finally returned to Antwerp, but his death is recorded
in the gild books of that place. A very early picture, dated
1628, in the gallery of Gotha, bearing the signature of Johannes
in full, shows that de Heem at that time was familiar with the
technical habits of execution peculiar to the youth of Albert
Cuyp. In later years he completely shook off dependence,
and appears in all the vigour of his own originality.
Out of 100 pictures or more to be met with in European
galleries scarcely eighteen are dated. The earliest after that of
Gotha is a chased tankard, with a bottle, a silver cup, and a
lemon on a marble table, dated 1640, in the museum of
Amsterdam. A similar work of 1645, with the addition of
fruit and flowers and a distant landscape, is in Lord Radnor's
collection at Longford. A chalice in a wreath, with the radiant
host amidst wheatsheaves ; grapes and flowers, is a masterpiece
of 1648 in the Belvedere of Vienna. A wreath round a Madonna
of life size, dated 1650, in the museum of Berlin, shows that de
Heem could paint brightly and harmoniously on a large scale.
In the Pinakothek at Munich is the celebrated composition of
1653, in which creepers, beautifully commingled with gourds
and blackberries, twigs of orange, myrtle and peach, are
enlivened by butterflies, moths and beetles. A landscape with
a blooming rose tree, a jug of strawberries, a selection of fruit,
and a marble bust of Pan, dated 1655, is in the Hermitage at
St Petersburg; an allegory of abundance in a medallion wreathed
with fruit and flowers, in the gallery of Brussels, is inscribed
with de Heem's monogram, the date of 1668, and the name of
an obscure artist called Lambrechts. All these pieces exhibit
the master in full possession of his artistic faculties.
CORNEIIUS DE HEEM, the son of Johannes, was in practice
as a flower painter at Utrecht in 1658, and was still active in
his profession in 1671 at the Hague. His pictures are not equal
to those of his father, but they are all well authenticated, and
most of them in the galleries of the Hague, Dresden, Cassel,
Vienna and Berlin. In the Staedel at Frankfort is a fruit
piece, with pot-herbs and a porcelain jug, dated 1658; another,
dated 1671, is in the museum of Brussels. DAVID DE HEEM,
another member of the family, entered the gild of Utrecht in
1668 and that of Antwerp in 1693. The best piece assigned
to him is a table with a lobster, fruit and glasses, in the gallery
of Amsterdam; others bear his signature in the museums of
Florence, St Petersburg and Brunswick. It is well to guard
against the fallacy that David de Heem above mentioned is
the father of Jan de Heem. We should also be careful not to
make two persons of the first artist, who sometimes signs
Johannes, sometimes Jan Davidsz or J. D. Heem.
HEEMSKERK, JOHAN VAN (1597-1656), Dutch poet, was
born at Amsterdam in 1597. He was educated as a child at
Bayonne, and entered the university of Leiden in 1617. In
1621 he went abroad on the grand tour, leaving behind him his
first volume of poems, Minnekunst (The Art of Love), which
appeared in 1622. He was absent from Holland four years. He
was made master of arts at Bourges in 1623, and in 1624 visited
Hugo Grotius in Paris. On his return in 1625 he published
Minnepligt (The Duty of Love), and began to practise as an
advocate in the Hague. In 1628 he was sent to England in his
legal capacity by the Dutch East India Company, to settle the
dispute respecting Amboyna. In the same year he published
HEEMSKERK, M. J. HEEREN
the poem entitled Minnekunde, or the Science of Love. He
proceeded to Amsterdam in 1640, where he married Alida,
sister of the statesman Van Beuningen. In 1641 he published
a Dutch version of Corneille's The Cid, a tragi-comedy, and in
1647 his most famous work, the pastoral romance of Batavische
Arcadia, which he had written ten years before. During the
last twelve years of his life Heemskerk sat in the upper chamber
of the states-general. He died at Amsterdam on the 27th of
February 1656.
The poetry of Heemskerk, which fell into oblivion during the
i8th century, is once more read and valued. His famous pastoral,
the Batavische Arcadia, which was founded on the Astree of Honor6
d'Urfd, enjoyed a great popularity for more than a century, and
passed through twelve editions. It provoked a host of more or less
able imitations, of which the most distinguished were the Dor-
drechtsche Arcadia (1663) of Lambert van den Bos (1610-1698), the
Saanlandsche Arcadia (1658) of Hendrik Sooteboom (1616-1678)
and the Rotterdamsche Arcadia (1703) of Willem den Elger (d. 1703).
But the original work of Heemskerk, in which a party of nymphs
and shepherds go out from the Hague to Katwijk, and there indulge
in polite and pastoral discourse, surpasses all these in brightness and
versatility.
HEEMSKERK, MARTIN JACOBSZ (1498-1574), Dutch
painter, sometimes called Van Veen, was born at Heemskerk in
Holland in 1498, and apprenticed by his father, a small farmer,
to Cornelisz Willemsz, a painter at Haarlem. Recalled after a
time to the paternal homestead and put to the plough or the
milking of cows, young Heemskerk took the first opportunity
that offered to run away, and demonstrated his wish to leave
home for ever by walking in a single day the 50 miles which
separate his native hamlet from the town of Delft. There he
studied under a local master whom he soon deserted for John
Schoreel of Haarlem. At Haarlem he formed what is known as
his first manner, which is but a quaint and gauche imitation of the
florid style brought from Italy by Mabuse and others. He then
started on a wandering tour, during which he visited the whole of
northern and central Italy, stopping at Rome, where he had
letters for a cardinal. It is evidence of the facility with which he
acquired the rapid execution of a scene-painter that he was
selected to co-operate with Antonio da San Gallo, Battista
Franco and Francesco Salviati to decorate the triumphal arches
erected at Rome in April 1536 in honour of Charles V. Vasari,
who saw the battle-pieces which Heemskerk then produced, says
they were well composed and boldly executed. On his return to
the Netherlands he settled at Haarlem, where he soon (1540)
became president of his gild, married twice, and secured a large
and lucrative practice. In 1572 he left Haarlem for Amsterdam,
to avoid the siege which the Spaniards laid to the place, and
there he made a will which has been preserved, and shows that he
had lived long enough and prosperously enough to make a fortune.
At his death, which took place on the ist of October 1574, he left
money and land in trust to the orphanage of Haarlem, with
interest to be paid yearly to any couple who should be willing to
perform the marriage ceremony on the slab of his tomb in the
cathedral of Haarlem. It was a superstition which still exists in
Catholic Holland that a marriage so celebrated would secure the
peace of the dead within the tomb.
The works of Heemskerk are still very numerous. " Adam and
Eve," and " St Luke painting the Likeness of the Virgin and
Child " in presence of a poet crowned with ivy leaves, and a parrot
in a cage an altar-piece in the gallery of Haarlem, and the
"Ecce Homo" in the museum of Ghent, are characteristic works
of the period preceding Heemskerk's visit to Italy. An altar-piece
executed for St Laurence of Alkmaar in 1538-1 541, and composed
of at least a dozen large panels, would, if preserved, have given
us a clue to his style after his return from the south. In its
absence we have a " Crucifixion " executed for the Riches Claires
at Ghent (now in the Ghent Museum) in 1543, and the altar-piece
of the Drapers Company at Haarlem, now in the gallery of the
Hague, and finished in 1 546. In these we observe that Heems-
kerk studied and repeated the forms which he had seen at Rome
in the works of Michelangelo and Raphael, and in Lombardy in
the frescoes of Mantegna and Giulio Romano. But he never forgot
the while his Dutch origin or the models first presented to him by
199
Schoreel and Mabuse. As late as 1551 his memory still served
him to produce a copy from Raphael's " Madonna di Loretto "
(gallery of Haarlem). A " Judgment of Momus," dated 1561, in
the Berlin Museum, proves him to have been well acquainted
with anatomy, but incapable of selection and insensible of grace,
bold of hand and prone to daring though tawdry contrasts of
colour, and fond of florid architecture. Two altar-pieces which
he finished for churches at Delft in 1551 and 1559, one complete,
the other a fragment, in the museum of Haarlem, a third of 1551 in
the Brussels Museum, representing "Golgotha," the "Crucifixion,"
the " Flight into Egypt," " Christen the Mount," and scenes from
the lives of St Bernard and St Benedict, are all fairly representa-
tive of his style. Besides these we have the " Crucifixion " in the
Hermitage of St Petersburg, and two " Triumphsof Silenus " in the
gallery of Vienna, in which the same relation to Giulio Romano
may be noted as we mark in the canvases of Rinaldo of Mantua.
Other pieces of varying importance are in the galleries of
Rotterdam, Munich, Cassel, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Mainz and
Copenhagen. In England the master is best known by his
drawings. A comparatively feeble picture by him is the
" Last Judgment " in the palace of Hampton Court.
HEER, OSWALD (1809-1883), Swiss geologist and naturalist,
was born at Nieder-Utzwyl in Canton St Gallen on the sist of
August 1809. He was educated as a clergyman and took holy
orders, and he also graduated as doctor of philosophy and
medicine. ' Early in life his interest was aroused in entomology,
on which subject he acquired special knowledge, and later he took
up the study of plants and became one of the pioneers in palaeo-
botany, distinguished for his researches on the Miocene flora. In
1851 he became professor of botany in the university of Zurich,
and he directed his attention to the Tertiary plants and insects of
Switzerland. For some time he was director of the botanic
garden at Zurich. In 1863 (with W. Pengelly, Phil. Trans.,
1862) he investigated the plant-remains from the lignite-deposits
of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, regarding them as of Miocene
age; but they are now classed as Eocene. Heer also reported
on the Miocene flora of Arctic regions, on the plants of the
Pleistocene lignites of Durnten on lake Zurich, and on the cereals
of some of the lake-dwellings (Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten,
1866). During a great part of his career he was hampered by
slender means and ill-health, but his services to science were
acknowledged in 1873 when the Geological Society of London
awarded to him the Wollaston medal. Dr Heer died at Lausanne
on the 27th of September 1883. He published Flora Tertiaria
Hehetiae (3 vols., 1855-1859) ; Die Urwelt der Schweiz (1865), and
Flora fossttis Arctica (1868-1883).
HEEREN, ARNOLD HERMANN LUDWIG (1760-1842),
German historian, was born on the 25th of October 1760 at
Arbergen, near Bremen. He studied philosophy, theology and
history at Gottingen, and thereafter travelled in France, Italy
and the Netherlands. In 1787 he was appointed one of the
professors of philosophy, and then of history at Gottingen, and
he afterwards was chosen aulic councillor, privy councillor, &c.,
the usual rewards of successful German scholars. He died at
Gottingen on the 6th of March 1842. Heeren's great merit as an
historian was that he regarded the states of antiquity from an
altogether fresh point of view. Instead of limiting himself to a
narration of their political events, he examined their economic
relations, their constitutions, their financial systems, and thus
was enabled to throw a new light on the development of the old
world. He possessed vast and varied learning, perfect calmness
and impartiality, and great power of historical insight, and is
now looked back to as the pioneer in the movement for the
economic interpretation of history.
Heeren's chief works are : Ideen iiber Politik, den Verkehr, und den
Handel der vornehmsten Volker der alien Welt (2 vols., Gottingen,
1793-1796; 4th ed., 6 vols., 1824-1826; Eng. trans., Oxford,
1833); Geschichte des Studiums der klassischen Litteratur seit dem
Wiederaufleben der Wissenschaften (2 vols., Gottingen, 1797-1802;
new ed., 1822); Geschichte der Staaten des Altertums (Gottingen,
1799; Eng. trans., Oxford, 1840); Geschichte des europdischen
Staalensyslems (Gottingen, 1800; 5th ed., 1830; Eng. trans.,
1834); Versuch einer Entwickelung der Foleen der Kreuzzuge (G6t-
tingen, 1808; French trans., Paris, 1808), a prize essay of the
200
HEFELE HEGEL
Institute of France. Besides these, Heeren wrote brief biographical
sketches of Johann von M tiller (Leipzig, 1809); Ludwig Spittler
(Berlin, 1812); and Christian Heyne (Gottingen, 1813). With
Friedrich August Ukert (1780-1851) he founded the famous historical
collection, Geschichte der europdischen Staaten (Gotha, 1819 seq.),
and contributed many papers to learned periodicals.
A collection of his historical works, with autobiographical notice,
was published in 15 volumes (Gottingen, 1821-1830).
HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON (1809-1893), German theologian,
was born at Unterkochen in Wurttemberg on the i sth of March
1809, and was educated at Tubingen, where in 1839 he became
professor-ordinary of Church history and patristics in the Roman
Catholic faculty of theology. From 1842 to 1845 ne sat in the
National Assembly of Wurttemberg. In December 1869 he was
enthroned bishop of Rottenburg. His literary activity, which
had been considerable, was in no way diminished by his elevation
to the episcopate. Among his numerous theological works may
be mentioned his well-known edition of the Apostolic Fathers,
issued in 1839; his Life of Cardinal Ximenes, published in 1844
(Eng. trans., 1860); and his still more celebrated History of the
Councils of the Church, in seven volumes, which appeared between
1855 and 1874 (Eng. trans., 1871, 1882). Hefele's theological
opinions inclined towards the more liberal school in the Roman
Catholic Church, but he nevertheless received considerable signs
of favour from its authorities, and was a member of the com-
mission that made preparations for the Vatican Council of 1870.
On the eve of that council he published at Naples his Causa
Honorii Papae, which aimed at demonstrating the moral and
historical impossibility of papal infallibility. About the same
time he brought out a work in German on the same subject. He
took rather a prominent part in the discussions at the council,
associating himself with Felix Dupanloup and with Georges
Darboy, archbishop of Paris, in his opposition to the doctrine
of Infallibility, and supporting their arguments from his vast
knowledge of ecclesiastical history. In the preliminary discussions
he voted against the promulgation of the dogma. He was absent
from the important sitting of the i8th of June 1870, and did not
send in his submission to the decrees until 1871, when he explained
in a pastoral letter that the dogma " referred only to doctrine
given forth ex cathedra, and therein to the definitions proper only,
but not to its proofs or explanations." In 1872 he took part in
the congress summoned by the Ultramontanes at Fulda, and by
his judicious use of minimizing tactics he kept his diocese free
from any participation in the Old Catholic schism. The last four
volumes of the second edition of his History of the Councils have
been described as skilfully adapted to the new situation created
by the Vatican decrees. During the later years of his life he
undertook no further literary efforts on behalf of his church, but
retired into comparative privacy. He died on the 6th of June
1893.
See Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie, vii. 525.
HEGEL, GEOR6 WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831),
German philosopher, was born at Stuttgart on the 27th of August
1770. His father, an official in the fiscal service of Wurttemberg,
is not otherwise known to fame; and of his mother we hear
only that she had scholarship enough to teach him the elements
of Latin. He had one sister, Christiana, who died unmarried,
and a brother Ludwig, who served in the campaigns of Napoleon.
At the grammar school of Stuttgart, where Hegel was educated
between the ages of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable.
His main productions were a diary kept at intervals during
eighteen months (1785-1787), and translations of the Antigone,
the Manual of Epictetus, &c. But the characteristic feature
of his studies was the copious extracts which from this time
onward he unremittingly made and preserved. This collection,
alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical
authors, passages from newspapers, treatises on morals and
mathematics from the standard works of the period. In this way
he absorbed in their integrity the raw materials for elaboration.
Yet as evidence that he was not merely receptive we have essays
already breathing that admiration of the classical world which he
never lost. His chief amusement was cards, and he began the
habit of taking snuff.
In the autumn of 1788 he entered at Tubingen as a student
of theology; but he showed no interest in theology: his sermons
were a failure, and he found more congenial reading in the classics,
on the advantages of studying which his first essay was written.
After two years he took the degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn
of 1793 received his theological certificate, stating him to be of
good abilities, but of middling industry and knowledge, and
especially deficient in philosophy.
As a student, his elderly appearance gained him the title
" Old man," but he took part in the walks, beer-drinking and
love-making of his fellows. He gained most from intellectual
intercourse with his contemporaries, the two best known of
whom were J. C. F. Holderlin and Schelling. With Holderlin
Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which grew stronger
as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more
failed to interest him. With Schelling like sympathies bound him.
They both protested against the political and ecclesiastical
inertia of their native state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom
and reason. The story which tells how the two went out one
morning to dance round a tree of liberty in a meadow is an
anachronism, though in keeping with their opinions.
On leaving college, he became a private tutor at Bern and
lived in intellectual isolation. He was, however, far from
inactive. He compiled a systematic account of the fiscal system
of the canton Bern, but the main factor in his mental growth
came from his study of Christianity. Under the impulse given
by Lessing and Kant he turned to the original records of Chris-
tianity, and attempted to construe for himself the real significance
of Christ. He wrote a life of Jesus, in which Jesus was simply
the son of Joseph and Mary. He did not stop to criticize as a
philologist, and ignored the miraculous. He asked for the secret
contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him
the hope of the human race. Jesus appeared as revealing the
unity with God in which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly
rejoiced, and as lifting the eyes of the Jews from a lawgiver who
metes out punishment on the transgressor, to the destiny which
in the Greek conception falls on the just no less than on the unjust.
The interest of these ideas is twofold. In Jesus Hegel finds the
expression for something higher than mere morality: he finds
a noble spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and vice
into the concrete life, seeing the infinite always embracing our
finitude, and proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot
be overcome by error and evil, unless the man close his eyes and
ears to the godlike presence within him. In religious life, in
short, he finds the principle which reconciles the opposition
of the temporal mind. But, secondly, the general source of the
doctrine that life is higher than all its incidents is of interest.
He does not free himself from the current theology either by
rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative synthesis
like Fichte and Schelling. He finds his panacea in the concrete
life of humanity. But although he goes to the Scriptures, and
tastes the mystical spirit of the medieval saints, the Christ of his
conception has traits that seem borrowed from Socrates and
from the heroes of Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet
smile gently on a destiny to which they were reconciled. Instead
of the Hebraic doctrine of a Jesus punished for our sins, we
have the Hellenic idea of a man who is calmly tranquil in the.
consciousness of his unity with God.
During these years Hegel kept up a slack correspondence
with Schelling and Holderlin. Schelling, already on the way
to fame, kept Hegel abreast with German speculation. Both
of them were intent on forcing the theologians into the daylight,
and grudged them any aid they might expect from Kant's
postulation of God and immortality to crown the edifice of ethics.
Meanwhile, Holderlin in Jena had been following Fichte's career
with an enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel.
It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought
to a tour which Hegel in company with three other tutors made
through the Bernese Oberland in July and August 1796. Of this
tour he left a minute diary. He was delighted with the varied
play of the waterfalls, but no glamour blinded him to the squalor
of Swiss peasant life. The glaciers and the rocks called forth no
HEGEL
2OI
raptures. " The spectacle of these eternally dead masses gave
me nothing but the monotonous and at last tedious idea, ' Es
ist so.'"
Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had
received hopes from Schelling of a post at Jena. Fortunately
his friend Holderlin, now tutor in Frankfort, secured a similar
situation there for Hegel in the family of Herr Gogol, a merchant
(January 1797). The new post gave him more leisure and the
society he needed.
About this time he turned to questions of economics and
government. He had studied Gibbon, Hume and Montesquieu
in Switzerland. We now find him making extracts from the
English newspapers on the Poor-Law Bill of 1796; criticising
the Prussian land laws, promulgated about the same time;
and writing a commentary on Sir James Steuart's Inquiry into
the Principles of Political Economy. Here, as in contemporaneous
criticisms of Kant's ethical writings, Hegel aims at correcting
the abstract discussion of a topic by treating it in its systematic
interconnexions. Church and state, law and morality, com-
merce and art are reduced to factors in the totality of human
life, from which the specialists had isolated them.
But the best evidence of Hegel's attention to contemporary
politics is two unpublished essays one of them written in 1798,
" On the Internal Condition of Wurttemberg in Recent Times,
particularly on the Defects in the Magistracy," the other a
criticism on the constitution of Germany, written, probably,
not long after the peace of Luneville (1801). Both essays are
critical rather than constructive. In the first Hegel showed how
the supineness of the committee of estates in Wurttemberg had
favoured the usurpations of the superior officials in whom the
court had found compliant servants. And though he perceived
the advantages of change in the constitution of the estates,
he still doubted if an improved system could work in the actual
conditions of his native province. The main feature in the
pamphlet is the recognition that a spirit of reform is abroad.
If Wurttemberg suffered from a bureaucracy tempered by
despotism, the Fatherland in general suffered no less. " Ger-
many," so begins the second of these unpublished papers, " is
no longer a state." Referring the collapse of the empire to
the retention of feudal forms and to the action of religious
animosities, Hegel looked forward to reorganization by a central
power (Austria) wielding the imperial army, and by a representa-
tive body elected by the geographical districts of the empire.
But such an issue, he saw well, could only be the outcome of
violence of " blood and iron. " The philosopher did not pose
as a practical statesman. He described the German empire in
its nullity as a conception without existence in fact. In such a
state of things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth
the outlines of the coming epoch, as they were already moulding
themselves into shape, amidst what the ordinary eye saw only
as the disintegration of the old forms of social life.
His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a
more philosophical form. Starting with the contrast between
a natural and a positive religion, he regards a positive religion
as one imposed upon the mind from without, not a natural
growth crowning the round of human life. A natural religion,
on the other hand, was not, he thought, the one universal
religion of every clime and age, but rather the spontaneous
development of the national conscience varying in varying
circumstances. A people's religion completes and consecrates
their whole activity: in it the people rises above its finite life
in limited spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one.
Even philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to
religion; for philosophy must never abandon the finite in the
search for the infinite. Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view
according to which philosophy is a higher mode of apprehending
the infinite than even religion.
At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel
first assumed the proper philosophic form. In a MS. of 102
quarto sheets, of which the first three and the seventh are
wanting, there is preserved the original sketch of the Hegelian
system, so far as the logic and metaphysics and part of the
philosophy of nature are concerned. The third part of the
system the ethical theory seems to have been composed
afterwards; it is contained in its first draft in another MS.
of 30 sheets. Even these had been preceded by earlier Pytha-
gorean constructions envisaging the divine life in divine triangles.
Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to complete these
outlines. His father died in January 1799; and the slender
sum which Hegel received as his inheritance, 3154 gulden (about
260), enabled him to think once more of a studious life. At
the close of 1800 we find him asking Schelling for letters of
introduction to Bamberg, where with cheap living and good beer
he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual excitement
of Jena. The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January
1801. An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena,
when the romantic poets, Tieck, Novalis and the Schlegels
made it the headquarters of their fantastic mysticism, and Fichte
turned the results of Kant into the banner of revolutionary
ideas. Schelling was the main philosophical lion of the time;
and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of as a new champion
summoned to help him in his struggle with the more prosaic
continuators of Kant. Hegel's first performance seemed to
justify the rumour. It was an essay on the difference between
the philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the
main to support the latter. Still more striking was the agreement
shown in the Critical Journal of Philosophy, which Schelling
and Hegel wro f .e conjointly during the years 1802-1803. So
latent was the difference between them at this epoch that in
one or two cases it is not possible to determine by whom the
essay was written. Even at a later period foreign critics like
Cousin saw much that was alike in the two doctrines, and did not
hesitate to regard Hegel as a disciple of Schelling. The disserta-
tion by which Hegel qualified for the position of Privatdozent
(De orbitis planelarum) was probably chosen under the influence
of Schilling's philosophy of nature. It was an unfortunate
subject. For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion
suggested by Plato, hinted in a single sentence that it might be
a mistake to look for a planet between Mars and Jupiter, Giuseppe
Piazzi (q.v.) had already discovered the first of the asteroids
(Ceres) on the ist of January 1801. Apparently in August, when
Hegel qualified, the news of the discovery had not yet reached
him, but critics have made this luckless suggestion the ground
of attack on a priori philosophy.
Hegel's lectures, in the winter of 1801-1802, on logic and
metaphysics were attended by about eleven students. Later,
in 1804, we find him with a class of about thirty, lecturing on
his whole system; but his average attendance was rather less.
Besides philosophy, he once at least lectured on mathematics.
As he taught, he was led to modify his original system, and notice
after notice of his lectures promised a text-book of philosophy
which, however, failed to appear. Meanwhile, after the departure
of Schelling from Jena in the middle of 1803, Hegel was left
to work out his own views. Besides philosophical studies,
where he now added Aristotle to Plato, he read Homer and the
Greek tragedians, made extracts from books, attended lectures
on physiology, and dabbled in other sciences. On his own
representation at Weimar, he was in February 1805 made a
professor extraordinarius, and in July 1806 drew his first and
only stipend 100 thalers. At Jena, though some of his hearers
became attached t<5 him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any
more than K. C. F. Krause (q.v.). The ordinary student found
J. F. Fries (q.v.) more intelligible.
Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable
notes. The language often had a theological tinge (never
entirely absent), as when the " idea " was spoken of, or " the
night of the divine mystery," or the dialectic of the absolute
called the " course of the divine life. " Still his view was growing
clearer, and his difference from Schelling more palpable. Both
Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but while the
aesthetic model of Schelling was found in the contemporary
world, where art was a special sphere and the artist a separate
profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation,
the model of Hegel was found rather in those works of national
202
HEGEL
art in which art is not a part but an aspect of the common life,
and the artist is not a mere individual but a concentration of the
passion and power of beauty in the whole community. " Such
art," says Hegel, " is the common good and the work of all.
Each generation hands it on beautified to the next; each has
done something to give utterance to the universal thought.
Those who are said to have genius have acquired some special
aptitude by which they render the general shapes of the nation
their own work, one in one point, another in another. What
they produce is not their invention, but the invention of the whole
nation; or rather, what they find is that the whole nation has
found its true nature. Each, as it were, piles up his stone.
So too does the artist. Somehow he has the good fortune to
come last, and when he places his stone the arch stands self-
supported." Hegel, as we have already seen, was fully aware
of the change that was coming over the world. " A new epoch,"
he says, " has arisen. It seems as if the world-spirit had now
succeeded in freeing itself from all foreign objective existence,
and finally apprehending itself as absolute mind." These words
come from lectures on the history of philosophy, which laid
the foundation for his Phanomenologie des Geistes (Bamberg,
1807).
On the 1 4th of October 1806 Napoleon was at Jena. Hegel,
like Goethe, felt no patriotic shudder at the national disaster,
and in Prussia he saw only a corrupt and conceited bureaucracy.
Writing to his friend F. J. Niethammer (1766-1848) on the day
before the battle, he speaks with admiration of the " world-soul,"
the emperor, and with satisfaction of the probable overthrow
of the Prussians. The scholar's wish was to see the clouds of
war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work. His
manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety
of his last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the French
soldiers in his lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the
Phanomenologie, to take refuge in the pro-rector's house. Hegel's
fortunes were now at the lowest ebb. Without means, and
obliged to borrow from Niethammer, he had no further hopes
from the impoverished university. He had already tried to get
away from Jena. In 1805, when several lecturers left in con-
sequence of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich
Voss (</..), suggesting that his philosophy might find more
congenial soil in Heidelberg; but the application bore no fruit.
He was, therefore, glad to become editor of the Bamberger
Zeitung (1807-1808). Of his editorial work there is little to tell;
no leading articles appeared in his columns. It was not a
suitable vocation, and he gladly accepted the rectorship of the
Aegidien-gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post which he held from
December 1808 to August 1816. Bavaria at this time was
modernizing her institutions. The school system was reorganized
by new regulations, in accordance with which Hegel wrote a
series of lessons in the outlines of philosophy ethical, logical
and psychological. They were published in 1840 by Rosenkranz
from Hegel's papers.
As a teacher and master Hegel inspired confidence in his
pupils, and maintained discipline without pedantic interference
in their associations and sports. On prize-days his addresses
summing up the history of the school year discussed some topic
of general interest. Five of these addresses are preserved.
The first is an exposition of the advantages of a classical training,
when it is not confined to mere grammar. " The perfection
and grandeur of the master-works of Greek and Roman literature
must be the intellectual bath, the secular baptism, which gives
the first and unfading tone and tincture of taste and science."
In another address, speaking of the introduction of military
exercises at school, he says: " These exercises, while not in-
tended to withdraw the students from their more immediate
duty, so far as they have any calling to it, still remind them of
the possibility that every one, whatever rank in society he may
belong to, may one day have to defend his country and his king,
or help to that end. This duty, which is natural to all, was
formerly recognized by every citizen, though whole ranks in
the state have become strangers to the very idea of it."
On the i6th of September 1811 Hegel married Marie von
Tucher (twenty-two years his junior) of Nuremberg. She
brought her husband no fortune, but the marriage was entirely
happy. The husband kept a careful record of income and
expenditure. His income amounted at Nuremberg to 1500
gulden (130) and a house; at Heidelberg, as professor, he
received about the same sum; at Berlin about 3000 thalers
(3) Two sons were born to them; the elder, Karl, became
eminent as a historian. The younger, Immanuel, was born on
the 24th of September 1816. Hegel's letters to his wife, written
during his solitary holiday tours to Vienna, the Netherlands
and Paris, breathe of kindly and happy affection. Hegel the
tourist recalling happy days spent together; confessing that,
were it not because of his sense of duty as a traveller, he would
rather be at home, dividing his time between his books and his
wife; commenting on the shop windows at Vienna; describing
the straw hats of the Parisian ladies is a contrast to the professor
of a profound philosophical system. But it shows that the
enthusiasm which in his days of courtship moved him to verse
had blossomed into a later age of domestic bliss.
In 1812 appeared the first two volumes of his Wissenschaft
der Logik, and the work was completed by a third in 1816. This
work, in which his system was for the first time presented in
what, with a few minor alterations, was its ultimate shape,
found some audience in the world. Towards the close of his
eighth session three professorships were almost simultaneously
put within his reach at Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg.
The Prussian offer expressed a doubt that his long absence from
university teaching might have made him rusty, so he accepted
the post at Heidelberg, whence Fries had just gone to Jena
(October 1816). Only four hearers turned up for one of his
courses. Others, however, on the encyclopaedia of philosophy
and the history of philosophy drew classes of twenty to thirty.
While he was there Cousin first made his acquaintance, but a
more intimate relation dates from Berlin. Among his pupils
was Hermann F. W. Hinrichs (<?..), to whose Religion in its
Inward Relation to Science (1822) Hegel contributed an important
preface. The strangest of his hearers was an Esthonian baron,
Boris d'Yrkull, who after serving in the Russian army came to
Heidelberg to hear the wisdom of Hegel. But his books and
his lectures were alike obscure to the baron, who betook himself
by Hegel's advice to simpler studies before he returned to the
Hegelian system.
At Heidelberg Hegel was active in a literary way also. In
1817 he brought out the Encyklopadie d. philos. Wissenschaften
im Grundrisse (4th ed., Berlin, 1817; new ed., 1870) for use at
his lectures. It is the only exposition of the Hegelian system
as a whole which we have direct from Hegel's own hand.
Besides this work he wrote two reviews for the Heidelberg
Jahrbiicher the first on F. H. Jacobi, the other a political
pamphlet which called forth violent criticism. It was entitled
a Criticism on the Transactions of the Estates of Wurttemberg in
1815-1816. On the 1 5th of March 1815 King Frederick of
Wurttemberg, at a meeting of the estates of his kingdom, laid
before them the draft of a new constitution, in accordance with
the resolutions of the congress of Vienna. Though an improve-
ment on the old constitution, it was unacceptable to the estates,
jealous of their old privileges and suspicious of the king's
intentions. A decided majority demanded the restitution of
their old laws, though the kingdom now included a large popula-
tion to which the old rights were strange. Hegel in his essay,
which was republished at Stuttgart, supported the royal pro-
posals, and animadverted on the backwardness of the bureaucracy
and the landed interests. In the main he was right; but he
forgot too much the provocation they had received, the usurpa-
tions and selfishness of the governing family, and the unpatriotic
character of the king.
In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of
philosophy at Berlin, vacant since the death of Fichte. The
hopes which this offer raised of a position less precarious than
that of a university teacher of philosophy were in one sense
disappointed; for more than a professor Hegel never became.
But his influence upon his pupils, and his solidarity with the
HEGEL
203
Prussian government, gave him a position such as few professors
have held.
In 1821 Hegel published the Grundlinien der Philosophic des
Rechts (2nd ed., 1840; ed. G. J. B. Bolland, 1901; Eng. trans.,
Philosophy of Right, by S. W. Dyde, 1896). It is a combined
system of moral and political philosophy, or a sociology dominated
by the idea of the state. It turns away contemptuously and
fiercely from the sentimental aspirations of reformers possessed
by the democratic doctrine of the rights of the omnipotent
nation. Fries is stigmatized as one of the " ringleaders of
shallowness " who were bent on substituting a fancied tie of
enthusiasm and friendship for the established order of the state.
The disciplined philosopher, who had devoted himself to the
task of comprehending the organism of the state, had no patience
with feebler or more mercurial minds who recklessly laid hands
on established ordinances, and set them aside where they con-
travened humanitarian sentiments. With the principle that
whatever is real is rational, and whatever is rational is real,
Hegel fancied that he had stopped the mouths of political
critics and constitution-mongers. His theory was not a mere
formulation of the Prussian state. Much that he construed as
necessary to a state was wanting in Prussia; and some of the
reforms already introduced did not find their place in his system.
Yet, on the whole, he had taken his side with the government.
Altenstein even expressed his satisfaction with the book. In
his disgust at the crude conceptions of the enthusiasts, who had
hoped that the war of liberation might end in a realm of internal
liberty, Hegel had forgotten his own youthful vows recorded in
verse to Holderlin, " never, never to live in peace with the
ordinance which regulates feeling and opinion." And yet if
we look deeper we see that this is no worship of existing powers.
It is rather due to an overpowering sense of the value of organiza-
tion a sense that liberty can never be dissevered from order,
that a vital interconnexion between all the parts of the body
politic is the source of all good, so that while he can find nothing
but brute weight in an organized public, he can compare the
royal person in his ideal form of constitutional monarchy to the
dot upon the letter i. A keen sense of how much is at stake
in any alteration breeds suspicion of every reform.
During his thirteen years at Berlin Hegel's whole soul seems
to have been in his lectures. Between 1823 and 1827 his activity
reached its maximum. His notes were subjected to perpetual
revisions and additions. We can form an idea of them from the
shape in which they appear in his published writings. Those on
Aesthetics, on the Philosophy of Religion, on the Philosophy of
History and on .the History of Philosophy, have been published
by his editors, mainly from the notes of his students, under
their separate heads; while those on logic, psychology and the
philosophy of nature are appended in the form of illustrative
and explanatory notes to the sections of his Encyklopadie.
During these years hundreds of hearers from allpartsof Germany,
and beyond, came under his influence. His fame was carried
abroad by eager or intelligent disciples. At Berlin Henning
served to prepare the intending disciple for fuller initiation by
the master himself. Edward Cans (q.v.) and Heinrich Gustav
Hotho (q.v.) carried the method into special spheres of inquiry.
At Halle Hinrichs maintained the standard of Hegelianism amid
the opposition or indifference of his colleagues.
Three courses of lectures are especially the product of his
Berlin period: those on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion
and the philosophy of history. In the years preceding the
revolution of 1830, public interest, excluded from political life,
turned to theatres, concert-rooms and picture-galleries. At
these Hegel became a frequent and appreciative visitor and
made extracts from the art-notes in the newspapers. In his
holiday excursions, the interest in the fine arts more than once
took him out of his way to see some old painting. At Vienna
in 1824 he spent every moment at the Italian opera, the ballet
and the picture-galleries. In Paris, in 1827, he saw Charles
Kemble and an English company play Shakespeare. This
familiarity with the facts of art, though neither deep nor histori-
cal, gave a freshness to his lectures on aesthetics, which, as
put together from the notes of 1820, 1823, 1826, are in many
ways the most successful of his efforts.
The lectures on the philosophy of religion are another applica-
tion of his method. Shortly before his death he had prepared
for the press a course of lectures on the proofs for the existence
of God. In his lectures on religion he dealt with Christianity,
as in his philosophy of morals he had regarded the state. On
the one hand he turned his weapons against the rationalistic
school, who reduced religion to the modicum compatible with
an ordinary worldly mind. On the other hand he criticized the
school of Schleiermacher, who elevated feeling to a place in
religion above systematic theology. His middle way attempts
to show that the dogmatic creed is the rational development
of what was implicit in religious feeling. To do so, of course,
philosophy becomes the interpreter and the superior. To the
new school of E. W. Hengstenberg, which regarded Revelation
itself as supreme, such interpretation was an abomination.
A Hegelian school began to gather. The flock included
intelligent, pupils, empty-headed imitators, and romantic natures
who turned philosophy into lyric measures. Opposition and
criticism only served to define more precisely the adherents of
the new doctrine. Hegel himself grew more and more into a
belief in his own doctrine as the one truth for the world. He was
in harmony with the government, and his followers were on the
winning side. Though he had soon resigned all direct official
connexion with the schools of Brandenburg, his real influence in
Prussia was considerable, and as usual was largely exaggerated
in popular estimate. In the narrower circle of his friends his
birthdays were the signal for congratulatory verses. In 1826 a
formal festival was got up by some of his admirers, one of whom,
Herder, spoke of his categories as new gods; and he was pre-
sented with much poetry and a silver mug. In 1830 the students
struck a medal in his honour, and in 1831 he was decorated by
an order from Frederick William III. In 1830 he was rector
of the university; and in his speech at the tricentenary of the
Augsburg Confession in that year he charged the Catholic
Church with regarding the virtues of the pagan world as brilliant
vices, and giving the crown of perfection to poverty, continence
and obedience.
. One of the last literary undertakings in which he took part
was the establishment of the Berlin Jahrbiicher fur wissenschaft-
liche Kritik, in which he assisted Edward Cans and Varnhagen
von Ense. The aim of this review was to give a critical account,
certified by the names of the contributors, of the literary and
philosophical productions of the time, in relation to the general
progress of knowledge. The journal was not solely in the
Hegelian interest; and more than once, when Hegel attempted
to domineer over the other editors, he was met by vehement
and vigorous opposition.
The revolution of 1830 was a great blow to him, and the
prospect of democratic advances almost made him ill. His last
literary work, the first part of which appeared in the Preussische
Staatszeitung, was an essay on the English Reform Bill of 1831.
It contains primarily a consideration of its probable effects on
the character of the new members of parliament, and the measures
which they may introduce. In the latter connexion he enlarged
on several points in which England had done less than many
continental states for the abolition of monopolies and abuses.
Surveying the questions connected with landed property, with
the game laws, the poor, the Established Church, especially in
Ireland, he expressed grave doubt on the legislative capacity
of the English parliament as compared with the power of re-
novation manifested in other states of western Europe.
In 1831 cholera first entered Europe. Hegel and his family
retired for the summer to the suburbs, and there he finished the
revision of the first part of his Science of Logic. On the beginning
of the winter session, however, he returned to his house in the
Kupfergraben. On this occasion an altercation occurred between
him and his friend Gans, who in his notice of lectures on juris-
prudence had recommended Hegel's Philosophy of Right. Hegel,
indignant at what he deemed patronage, demanded that the note
should be withdrawn. On the i4th of November, after one
204
HEGEL
day's illness, he died of cholera and was buried, as he had wished,
between Fichte and Solger.
Hegel in his class-room was neither imposing nor fascinating.
You saw a plain, old-fashioned face, without life or lustre a
figure which had never looked young, and was now prematurely
aged; the furrowed face bore witness to concentrated thought.
Sitting with his snuff-box before him, and his head bent down,
he looked ill at ease, and kept turning the folios of his notes.
His utterance was interrupted by frequent coughing; every
sentence came out with a struggle. The style was no less ir-
regular. Sometimes in plain narrative the lecturer would be
specially awkward, while in abstruse passages he seemed specially
at home, rose into a natural eloquence, and carried away the
hearer by the grandeur of his diction.
Philosophy. Hegelianism is confessedly one of the most difficult of
all philosophies. Every one has heard the legend which makes Hegel
say, " One man has understood me, and even he has not." He
abruptly hurls us into a world where old habits of thought fail us.
In three places, indeed, he has attempted to exhibit the transition to
his own system from other levels of thought; but in none with
much success. In the introductory lectures on the philosophy of
religion he gives a rationale of the difference between the modes of
consciousness in religion and philosophy (between Vorstellung and
Beeriff). In the beginning of the Encyklopadie he discusses the
defects of dogmatism, empiricism, the philosophies of Kant and
Jacobi. In the first case he treats the formal or psychological
aspect of the difference; in the latter he presents his doctrine less
in its essential character than in special relations to the prominent
systems of his time. The Phenomenology of Spirit, regarded as an
introduction, suffers from a different fault. It is not an introduction
for the philosophy which it was to introduce was not then fully
elaborated. Even to the last Hegel had not so externalized his
system as to treat it as something to be led up to by gradual steps.
His philosophy was not one aspect of his intellectual life, to be con-
templated from others; it was the ripe fruit of concentrated re-
flection, and had become the one all-embracing form and principle of
his thinking. More than most thinkers he had quietly laid himself
open to the influences of his time and the lessons of history.
The Phenomenology is the picture of the Hegelian philosophy in
the making at the stage before the scaffolding has been removed
from the building. For this reason the book is at once the
most brilliant and the most difficult of Hegel's works the
most brilliant because it is to some degree an autobiography
meaology. Q f Hegel's m i nc i no t the abstract record of a logical
evolution, but the real history of an intellectual growth; the most
difficult because, instead of treating the rise of intelligence (from its
first appearance in contrast with the real world to its final recognition
of its presence in, and rule over, all things) as a purely subjective
process, it exhibits this rise as wrought out in historical epochs,
national characteristics, forms of culture and faith, and philosophical
systems. The theme is identical with the introduction to the
Encyklopadie; but it is treated in a very different style. From all
periods of the world from medieval piety and stoical pride, Kant
and Sophocles, science and art, religion and philosophy with disdain
of mere chronology, Hegel gathers in the vineyards of the human spirit
the grapes from which he crushes the wine of thought. The mind
coming through a thousand phases of mistake and disappointment to
a sense and realization of its true position in the universe such is the
drama which is consciously Hegel's own history, but is represented
objectively as the process of spiritual history which the philosopher
reproduces in himself. The Phenomenology stands to the Encyklo-
pddie somewhat as the dialogues of Plato stand to the Aristotelian
treatises. It contains almost all his philosophy but irregularly and
without due proportion. The personal element gives an undue
prominence to recent phenomena of the philosophic atmosphere.
It is the account given by an inventor of his own discovery, not
the explanation of an outsider. It therefore to some extent assumes
from t"he first the position which it proposes ultimately to reach,
and gives not a proof of that position, but an account of the ex-
perience (Erfahrung) by which consciousness is forced from one
position to another till it finds rest in Absolutes Wissen.
The Phenomenology is neither mere psychology, nor logic, nor
moral philosophy, nor history, but is all of these and a great deal
more. It needs not distillation, but expansion and illustration
from contemporary and antecedent thought and literature. It
treats of the attitudes of consciousness towards reality under the
six heads of consciousness, self-consciousness, reason (Vernunft),
spirit (Geist), religion and absolute knowledge. The native attitude
of consciousness towards existence is reliance on the evidence of
the senses; but a little reflection is sufficient to show that the
reality attributed to the external world is as much due to intellectual
conceptions as to the senses, and that these conceptions elude us
when we try to fix them. If consciousness cannot detect a permanent
object outside it, so self-consciousness cannot find a permanent
subject in itself. It may, like the Stoic, assert freedom by holding
aloof from the entanglements of real life, or like the sceptic regard
the world as a delusion, or finally, as the " unhappy consciousness "
(Ungluckliches Bewusstseyn), may be a recurrent falling short of a
perfection which it has placed above it in the heavens. But in this
isolation from the world, self -consciousness has closed its gates
against the stream of life. The perception of this is reason. Reason
convinced that the world and the soul are alike rational observes the
external world, mental phenomena, and specially the nervous
organism, as the meeting ground of body and mind. But reason
finds much in the world recognizing no kindred with her, and so
turning to practical activity seeks in the world the realization of
her own aims. Either in a crude way she pursues her own pleasure,
and finds that necessity counteracts her cravings; or she endeavours
to find the world in harmony with the heart, and yet is unwilling
to see fine aspirations crystallized by the act of realizing them.
Finally, unable to impose upon the world either selfish or humani-
tarian ends, she folds her arms in pharisaic virtue, with the hope
that some hidden power will give the victory to righteousness.
But the world goes on in its life, heedless of the demands of virtue.
The principle of nature is to live and let live. Reason abandons
her efforts to mould the world, and is content to let the aims of
individuals work out their results independently, only stepping in
to lay down precepts for the cases where individual actions conflict,
and to test these precepts by the rules .of formal logic.
So far we have seen consciousness on one hand and the real world
on the other. The stage of Geist reveals the consciousness no
longer as critical and antagonistic but as the indwelling spirit of a
community, as no longer isolated from its surroundings but the
union of the single and real consciousness with the vital feeling that
animates the community. This is the lowest stage of concrete
consciousness life, and not knowledge; the spirit inspires, but does
not reflect. It is the age of unconscious morality, when the in-
dividual's life is lost in the society of which he is an organic member.
But increasing culture presents new ideals, and the mind, absorbing
the ethical spirit of its environment, gradually emancipates itself
from conventions and superstitions. This Aufkldrung prepares
the way for the rule of conscience, for the moral view of the world
as subject of a moral law. From the moral world the next step
is religion; the moral law gives place to God; but the idea of God-
head, too, as it first appears, is imperfect, and has to pass through
the forms of nature-worship and of art before it reaches a full
utterance in Christianity. Religion in this shape is the nearest step
to the stage of absolute knowledge; and this absolute knowledge
" the spirit knowing itself as spirit "is not something which
leaves these other forms behind but the full comprehension of them
as the organic constituents of its empire; " they are the memory and
the sepulchre of its history, and at the same time the actuality, truth
and certainty of its throne." Here, according to Hegel, is the field
of philosophy.
The preface to the Phenomenology signalled the separation from
Schelling the adieu to romantic. It declared that a genuine
philosophy has no kindred with the mere aspirations of artistic
minds, but must earn its bread by the sweat of its brow. It sets
its face against the idealism which either thundered against the
world for its deficiencies, or sought something finer than reality.
Philosophy is to be the science of the actual world it is the spirit
comprehending itself in its own externalizations and manifestations.
The philosophy of Hegel is idealism, but it is an idealism in which
every idealistic unification has its other face in the multiplicity of
existence. It is realism as well as idealism, and never quits its hold
on facts. Compared with Fichte and Schelling, Hegel has a sober,
hard, realistic character. At a later date, with the call of Schelling
to Berlin in 1841, it became fashionable to speak of Hegelianism as a
negative philosophy requiring to be complemented by a " positive "
philosophy which would give reality and not mere ideas. The cry
was the same as that of Krug (q.v.), asking the philosophers who
expounded the absolute to construe his pen. It was the cry of the
Evangelical school for a personal Christ and not a dialectical Logos.
The claims of the individual, the real, material and historical fact,
it was said, had been sacrificed by Hegel to the universal, the ideal,
the spiritual and the logical.
There was a truth in these criticisms. It was the very aim of
Hegelianism to render fluid the fixed phases of reality to show
existence not to be an immovable rock limiting the efforts of thought,
but to have thought implicit in it, waiting for release from its
petrifaction. Nature was no longer, as with Fichte, to be a mere
spring-board to evoke the latent powers of the spirit. Nor was it,
as in Schelling's earlier system, to be a collateral progeny with
mind from the same womb of indifference and identity. Nature and
mind in the Hegelian system the external and the spiritual world
have the same origin, but are not co-equal branches. The natural
world proceeds from the " idea," the spiritual from the idea and
nature. It is impossible, beginning with the natural world, to
explain the mind by any process of distillation or development,
unless consciousness or its potentiality has been there from the
first. Reality, independent of the individual consciousness, there
must be; reality, independent of all mind, is an impossibility. At
the basis of all reality, whether material or mental, there is thought.
But the thought thus regarded as the basis of all existence is not
HEGEL
205
consciousness with its distinction of ego and non-ego. It is rather
the stuff of which both mind and nature are made, neither extended
as in the natural world, nor self-centred as in mind. Thought in its
primary form is, as it were, thoroughly transparent and absolutely
fluid, free and mutually interpenetrable in every part the spirit in
its seraphic scientific life, before creation had produced a natural
world, and thought had risen to independent existence in the social
organism. Thought in this primary form, when in all its parts
completed, is what Hegel calls the " idea." But the idea, though
fundamental, is in another sense final, in the process of the world.
history of philosophy is the presupposition of logic, or the three
branches of philosophy form a circle.
The exposition or constitution of the " idea " is the work of the
Logic. As the total system falls into three parts, so every part of
the system follows the triadic law. Every truth, every
reality, has three aspects or stages; it is the unification of
two contradictory elements, of two partial aspects of truth which are
not merely contrary, like black and white, but contradictory, like
same and different. The first step is a preliminary affirmation and
unification, the second a negation and differentiation, the third a final
synthesis. For example, the seed of the plant is an initial unity of
life, which when placed in its proper soil suffers disintegration into its
constitutents, and yet in virtue of its vital unity keeps these divergent
elements together, and reappears as the plant with its members in
organic union. Or again, the process of scientific induction is a
threefold chain; the original hypothesis (the first unification of the
fact) seems to melt away when confronted with opposite facts, and
yet no scientific progress is possible unless the stimulus of the
original unification is strong enough to clasp the discordant facts
ana establish a reunification. Thesis, antithesis and synthesis, a
Fichtean formula, is generalized by Hegel into the perpetual law of
thought.
In what we may call their psychological aspect these three stages
are known as the abstract stage, or that of understanding (Verstand),
the dialectical stage, or that of negative reason, and the speculative
stage, or that of positive reason (Vernunft). The first of these
attitudes taken alone is dogmatism; the second, when similarly
isolated, is scepticism ; the third, when unexplained by its elements,
is mysticism. Thus Hegelianism reduces dogmatism, scepticism
and mysticism to factors in philosophy. The abstract or dogmatic
thinker believes his object to be one, simple and stationary, and
intelligible apart from its surrounding. He speaks, e.g., as if species
and genera were fixed and unchangeable; and fixing his eye on
the ideal forms in their purity and self-sameness, he scorns the
phenomenal world, whence this identity and persistence are absent.
The dialectic of negative reason rudely dispels these theories.
Appealing to reality it shows that the identity and permanence of
forms are contradicted by history; instead of unity it exhibits
multiplicity, instead of identity difference, instead of a whole, only
parts. Dialectic is, therefore, a dislocating power; it shakes the
solid structures of material thought, and exhibits the instability
latent in such conceptions of the world. It is the spirit of progress
and change, the enemy of convention and conservatism; it is
absolute and universal unrest. In the realm of abstract thought
these transitions take place lightly. In the worlds of nature and
mind they are more palpable and violent. So far as this Hegel
seems on the side of revolution. But reason is not negative only;
while it disintegrates the mass or unconscious unity, it builds up a
new unity with higher organization. But this third stage is the place
of effort, requiring neither the surrender of the original unity nor the
ignoring of the diversity afterwards suggested. The stimulus of
contradiction is no doubt a strong one; but the easiest way of escap-
ing it is to shut our eyes to one side of the antithesis. What is
required, therefore, is to readjust our original thesis in such a way as
to include and give expression to both the elements in the process.
The universe, then, is a process or development, to the eye of
philosophy. It is the process of the absolute in religious language,
the manifestation of God. In the background of all the absolute
is eternally present; the rhythmic movement of thought is the
self-unfolding of the absolute. God reveals Himself in the logical
idea, in nature and in mind; but mind is not alike conscious of its
absoluteness in every stage of development. Philosophy alone sees
God revealing Himself in the ideal orgarfism of thought as it were a
possible deity prior to the world and to any relation between God
and actuality; in the natural world, as a series of materialized
forces and forms of life; and in the spiritual world as the human soul,
the legal and moral order of society, and the creations of art, religion
and philosophy.
This introduction of the absolute became a stumbling-block to
Feuerbach and other members of the " Left." They rejected as an
illegitimate interpolation the eternal subject of development, and,
instead of one continuing God as the subject of all the predicates
by which in the logic the absolute is defined, assumed only a series
of ideas, products of philosophic activity. They denied the theo-
logical value of the logical forms the development of these forms
being in their opinion due to the human thinker, not to a self-
revealing absolute. Thus they made man the creator of the absolute.
But with this modification on the system another necessarily
followed; a mere logical series could not create nature. And thus
the material universe became the real starting-point. Thought
became only the result of organic conditions subjective and human;
and the system of Hegel was no longer an idealization of religion,
but a naturalistic theory with a prominent and peculiar logic.
The logic of Hegel is the only rival to the logic of Aristotle. What
Aristotle did for the theory of demonstrative reasoning, Hegel
attempted to do for the whole of human knowledge. His logic is
an enumeration of the forms or categories by which our experience
exists. It carried out Kant's doctrine of the categories as a priori
synthetic principles, but removed the limitation by which Kant
denied them any constitutive value except in alliance with ex-
perience. According to Hegel the terms in which thought exhibits
itself are a system of their own, with laws and relations which
reappear in a less obvious shape in the theories of nature and mind.
Nor are they restricted to the small number which Kant obtained
by manipulating the current subdivision of judgments. But all
forms by which thought holds sensations in unity (the formative or
synthetic elements of language) had their place assigned in a system
where one leads up to and passes over into another.
The fact which ordinary thought ignores, and of which ordinary
logic therefore provides no account, is the presence of gradation and
continuity in the world. The general terms of language simplify
the universe by reducing its variety of individuals to a few forms,
none of which exists simply and perfectly. The method of the
understanding is to divide and then to give a separate reality to
what it has thus distinguished. It is part of Hegel's plan to remedy
this one-sided character of thought, by laying bare the gradations
of ideas. He lays special stress on the point that abstract ideas
when held in their abstraction are almost interchangeable with
their opposites that extremes meet, and that in every true and
concrete idea there is a coincidence of opposites.
The beginning of the logic is an illustration of this. The logical
idea is treated under the three heads of being (Seyn), essence (Wesen)
and notion (Begriff). The simplest term of thought is being; we
cannot think less about anything than when we merely say that it is.
Being the abstract " is " is nothing definite, and nothing at least is.
Being and not being are thus declared identical a proposition which
in this unqualified shape was to most people a stumbling-block at
the very door of the system. Instead of the mere " is " which is as
yet nothing, we should rather say " becomes," and as " becomes "
always implies " something," we have determinate being " a
being " which in the next stage of definiteness becomes " one." And
in this way we pass on to the quantitative aspects of being.
The terms treated under the first head, in addition to those already
mentioned, are the abstract principles of quantity and number, and
their application in measure to determine the limits of being. Under
the title of essence are discussed those pairs of correlative terms which
are habitually employed in the explanation of the world such as
law and phenomenon, cause and effect, reason and consequence,
substance and attribute. Under the head of notion are considered,
firstly, the subjective forms of conception, judgment and syllogism;
secondly, their realization in objects as mechanically, chemically
or teleologically constituted; and thirdly, the idea first of life, and
next of science, as the complete interpenetration of thought and
objectivity. The third part of logic evidently is what contains the
topics usually treated in logic-books, though even here the province
of logic in the ordinary sense is exceeded. The first two divisions
the objective logic " are what is usually called metaphysics.
The characteristic of the system is the gradual way in which idea is
linked to idea so as to make the division into chapters only an arrange-
ment of convenience. The judgment is completed in the syllogism ;
the syllogistic form as the perfection of subjective thought passes into
objectivity, where it first appears embodied in a mechanical system;
and the teleological object, in which the members are as means and
end, leads up to the idea of life, where the end is means and means
end indissolubly till death. In some cases these transitions may
be unsatisfactory and forced ; it is apparent that the linear develop-
ment from " being " to the " idea ' is got by transforming into a
logical order the sequence that has roughly prevailed in philosophy
from the Eleatics ; cases might be quoted where the reasoning seems
a play upon words; and it may often be doubted whether certain
ideas dp not involve extra-logical considerations. The order of the
categories is in the main outlines fixed; but in the minor details
much depends upon the philosopher, who has to fill in the gaps
between ideas, with little guidance from the data of experience, and
to assign to the stages of development names which occasionally
deal hardly with language. The merit of Hegel is to have indicated
and to a large extent displayed the filiation and mutual limitation
of pur forms of thought; to have arranged them in the order of
their comparative capacity to give a satisfactory expression to truth
in the totality of its relations; and to have broken down the partition
which _in Kant separated the formal logic from the transcendental
analytic, as well as the general disruption between logic and meta-
physic. It must at the same time be admitted that much of the
work of weaving the terms of thought, the categories, into a system
has a hypothetical and tentative character, and that Hegel has
rather pointed out the path which logic must follow, viz. a criticism
of the terms of scientific and ordinary thought in their filiation
206
HEGEL
and interdependence, than himself in every case kept to the right
way. The day for a fuller investigation of this problem will partly
depend upon the progress of the study of language in the direction
marked out by W. von Humboldt.
The Philosophy of Nature starts with the result of the logical
development, with the full scientific " idea." But the relations of
Philo- pure thought, losing their inwardness, appear as relations
sophyol * s P ace ar "d time; the abstract development of thought
aatun. appears as matter and movement. Instead of thought, we
have perception ; instead of dialectic, gravitation ; instead
of causation, sequence in time. The whole falls under the three
heads of mechanics, physics and " organic " the content under each
varying somewhat in the three editions of the Encyklopddie. The
first treats of space, time, matter, movement ; and in the solar system
we have the representation of the idea in its general and abstract
material form. Under the head of physics we have the theory of
the elements, of sound, heat and cohesion, and finally of chemical
affinity presenting the phenomena of material change and inter-
change in a series of special forces which generate the variety of the
life of nature. Lastly, under the head of " organic," come geology,
botany and animal physiology presenting the concrete results of
these processes in the three kingdoms of nature.
The charges of superficial analogies, so freely urged against the
" Natur-philosophie " by critics who forget the impulse it gave to
physical research by the identification of forces then believed to be
radically distinct, do not particularly affect Hegel. But in general
it may be said that he looked down upon the mere natural world.
The meanest of the fancies of the mind and the most casual of its
whims he regarded as a better warrant for the being of God than
any single object of nature. Those who supposed astronomy to
inspire religious awe were horrified to hear the stars compared to
eruptive spots on the face of the sky. Even in the animal world,
the highest stage of nature, he saw a failure to reach an independent
and rational system of organization; and its feelings under the
continuous violence and menaces of the environment he described
as insecure, anxious and unhappy.
His point of view was essentially opposed to the current views of
science. To metamorphosis he only allowed a logical value, as
explaining the natural classification; the only real, existent meta-
morphosis he saw in the development of the individual from its
embryonic stage. Still more distinctly did he contravene the general
tendency of scientific explanation. " It is held the triumph of
science to recognize in the general process of the earth the same
categories as are exhibited in the processes of isolated bodies. This
is, however, an application of categories from a field where the
conditions are finite to a sphere in which the circumstances are
infinite." In astronomy he depreciates the merits of Newton and
elevates Kepler, accusing Newton particularly, a propos of the
distinction of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of leading to a
confusion between what is mathematically to be distinguished and
what is physically separate. The principles which explain the fall of
an apple will not do for the planets. As to colour, he follows Goethe,
and uses strong language against Newton's theory, for the barbarism
of the conception that light is a compound, the incorrectness of his
observations, &c. In chemistry, again, he objects to the way in
which all the chemical elements are treated as on the same level.
The third part of the system is the Philosophy of Mind. Its
three divisions are the " subjective mind " (psychology), the " ob-
jective mind " (philosophic jurisprudence, moral and
political philosophy) and the " absolute mind " (the
philosophy of art, religion and philosophy). The subjects
of the second and third divisions have been treated by
Hegel with great detail. The " objective mind " is the
topic of the Rechts-Philosophie, and of the lectures on the
Philosophy of History; while on the "absolute mind" we have
the lectures on Aesthetic, on the Philosophy of Religion and on the
History of Philosophy in short, more than one-third of his works.
The purely psychological branch of the subject takes up half of
the space allotted to Geist in the Encyklopddie. It falls under
the three heads of anthropology, phenomenology and psychology
proper. Anthropology treats of the mind in union with the body
of the natural soul and discusses the relations of the soul with
the planets, the races of mankind, the differences of age, dreams,
animal magnetism, insanity and phrenology. In this obscure region
it is rich in suggestions and rapprochements; but the ingenuity of
these speculations attracts curiosity more than it satisfies scientific
inquiry. In the Phenomenology consciousness, self-consciousness
and reason are dealt with. The title of the section and the contents
recall, though with some important variations, the earlier half of his
first work; only that here the historical background on which the
stages in the development of the ego were represented has dis-
appeared. Psychology, in the stricter sense, deals with the various
forms of theoretical and practical intellect, such as attention, memory,
desire and will. In this account of the development of an inde-
pendent, active and intelligent being from the stage where man like
the Dryad is a portion of the natural life around him, Hegel has
combined what may be termed a physiology and pathology of the
mind a subject far wider than that of ordinary psychologies, and
one of vast intrinsic importance. It is, of course, easy to set aside
these questions as unanswerable, and to find artificiality in the
Philo-
sophy
of mind.
1. Psycho-
logy.
, ,
history.
arrangement. Still it remains a great point to have even attempted
some system in the dark anomalies which lie under the normal
consciousness, and to have traced the genesis of the intellectual
faculties from animal sensitivity.
The theory of the mind as objectified in the institutions of law,
the family and the state is discussed in the " Philosophy of Right."
Beginning with the antithesis of a legal system and
morality, Hegel, carrying out the work o? Kant, presents
the synthesis of these elements in the ethical life (Sittlich-
keif) of the family and the state. Treating the family as
an instinctive realization of the moral life, and not as the result of
contract, he shows how by the means of wider associations due to
private interests the state issues as the full home of the moral spirit,
where intimacy of interdependence is combined with freedom of
independent growth. The state is the consummation of man as
finite; it is the necessary starting-point whence the spirit rises to an
absolute existence in the spheres of art, religion and philosophy. In
the finite world or temporal state, religion, as the finite organization
of a church, is, like other societies, subordinate to the state. But
on another side, as absolute spirit, religion, like art and philosophy,
is not subject to the state, but belongs to a higher region.
The political state is always an individual, and the relations of
these states with each other and the " world-spirit " of which they
are the manifestations constitute the material of history. The
Lectures on the Philosophy of History, edited by Cans and subse-
quently by Karl Hegel, is the most popular of Hegel's works. The
history of the world is a scene of judgment where one people and
one alone holds for awhile the sceptre, as the unconscious instrument
of the universal spirit, till another rises in its place, with a fuller
measure of liberty a larger superiority to the bonds of natural
and artificial circumstance. Three main periods the Oriental,
the Classical and the Germanic in which respectively the single
despot, the dominant order, and the man as man possess freedom
constitute the history of the world. Inaccuracy in detail and
artifice in the arrangement of isolated peoples are inevitable in
such a scheme. A grayer mistake, according to some critics, is
that Hegel, far from giving a law of progress, seems to suggest that
the history of the world is nearing an end, and has merely reduced
the past to a logical formula. The answer to this charge is partly
that such a law seems unattainable, and partly that the idealistic
content of the present which philosophy extracts is always an
advance upon actual fact, and so does throw a light into the future.
And at any rate the method is greater than Hegel's employment of it.
But as with Aristotle so with Hegel beyond the ethical and
political sphere rises the world of absolute spirit in art, religion and
philosophy. The psychological distinction between the
three forms is that sensuous perception (Anschauung)
is the organon of the first, presentative conception
( Vorstellung) of the second and free thought of the third.
The work of art, the first embodiment of absolute mind,
shows a sensuous conformity between the idea and the
reality in which it is expressed. The so-called beauty of nature is
for Hegel an adventitious beauty. The beauty of art is a beauty born
in the spirit of the artist and born again in the spectator; it is not
like the beauty of natural things, an incident of their existence, but
is " essentially a question, an address to a responding breast, a call
to the heart and spirit." The perfection of art depends on the degree
of intimacy in which idea and form appear worked into each other.
From the different proportion between the idea and the shape in
which it is realized arise three different forms of art. When the idea,
itself indefinite, gets no further than a struggle and endeavour for
its appropriate expression, we have the symbolic, which is the
Oriental, form of art, which seeks to compensate its imperfect ex-
pression by colossal and enigmatic structures. In the second or
classical form of art the idea of humanity finds an adequate sensuous
representation. But this form disappears with the decease of Greek
national life, and on its collapse follows the romantic, the third form
of art; where the harmony of form and content again grows de-
fective, because the object of Christian art the infinite spirit is a
theme too high for art. Corresponding to this division is the classi-
fication of the single arts. First comes architecture in the main,
symbolic art; then sculpture, the classical art par excellence; they
are found, however, in all three forms. Painting and music are the
specially romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music
comes poetry, where the sensuous element is more than ever sub-
ordinate to the spirit.
The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next
sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion ;
and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the
aesthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of chivalry, &c.,
make the Asthetik a book of varied interest.
The lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in
their composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit
the vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like
art, is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between
man and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and
music of the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after ex-
pounding the nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical
phases, but in the immature state of religious science falls into
several mistakes. At the bottom of the scale of nature-worships he
3. Art,
religion
and
philo-
sophy.
HEGEMON OF THASOS
207
places the religion of sorcery. The gradations which follow are
apportioned with some uncertainty amongst the religions of the
East. With the Persian religion of light and the Egyptian of
enigmas we pass to those faiths where Godhead takes the form of
a spiritual individuality, i.e. to the Hebrew religion (of sublimity),
the Greek (of beauty) and the Roman (of adaptation). Last comes
absolute religion, in which the mystery of the reconciliation between
God and man is an open doctrine. This is Christianity, in which
God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The revelation of this
truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures. For the Son of
God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of nature and
man, which far from being at one with its Father is originally in
an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is the visible
reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death of
Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital idea
the Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community.
The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately
with the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning
of Hegel's career. In trying to subject history to the order of logic
they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created
the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that
a philosophical theory is not an accident or whim, but an exponent
of its age determined by its antecedents and environments, and
handing on its results to the future. (W. W. ; X.)
Hegelianism in England. On the continent of Europe the direct
influence of Hegelianism was comparatively short-lived. This was
due among other causes to the direction of attention to the rising
science of psychology, partly to the reaction against the speculative
method. In England and Scotland it had another fate. Both in
theory and practice it here seemed to supply precisely the counter-
active to prevailing tendencies towards empiricism and individualism
that was required. In this respect it stood to philosophy in some-
what the same relation that the influence of Goethe stood to litera-
ture. This explains the hold which it had obtained upon both
English and Scottish thought soon after the middle of the igth cen-
tury. The first impulse came from J. F. Ferrier and J. H. Stirling
in Edinburgh, and B. Jowett in Oxford. Already in the seventies
there was a powerful school of English thinkers under the lead of
Edward Caird and T. H. Green devoted to the study and exposition
of the Hegelian system. With the general acceptance of its main
principle that the real is the rational, there came in the eighties a
more critical examination of the precise meaning to be attached to
it and its bearing on the problems of religion. The earlier Hegelians
had interpreted it in the sense that the world in its' ultimate essence
was not only spiritual but self-conscious intelligence whose nature
was reflected inadequately but truly in the finite mind. They thus
seemed to come forward in the character of exponents rather than
critics of the Western belief in God, freedom and immortality. As
time went on it became obvious that without departure from the
spirit of idealism Hegel's principle was susceptible of a different
interpretation. Granted that rationality taken in the sense of inner
coherence and self-consistency is the ultimate standard of truth
and reality, does self-consciousness itself answer to the demands of
this criterion? If not, are we not forced to deny ultimate reality
to personality whether human or divine? The question was
definitely raised in F. H. Bradley's Appearance and Reality (1893;
2nd ed., 1897) and answered in the negative. The completeness and
self-consistency which our ideal requires can be realized only in a
form of being in which subject and object, will and desire, no longer
stand as exclusive opposites, from which it seemed at once to follow
that the finite self could not be a reality nor the infinite reality a self.
On this basis Bradley developed a theory of the Absolute which, while
not denying that it must be conceived of spiritually, insisted that its
spirituality is of a kind that finds no analogy in our self-conscious
experience. More recently J. M. E. McTaggart's Studies in Hegelian
Dialectic (1896), Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (1901) and Some
Dogmas of Religion (1906) have opened a new chapter in the inter-
pretation of fiegelianism. Truly perceiving that 1;he ultimate
metaphysical problem is, here as ever, the relation of the One and the
Many, McTaggart starts with a definition of the ideal in which our
thought upon it can come to rest. He finds it where (a) the unity is
for each individual, (6) the whole nature of the individual is to be
lor the unity. It follows from such a conception of the relation that
the whole cannot itself be an individual apart from the individuals
in whom it is realized, in other words, the Absolute cannot be a
Person. But for the same reason viz. that in it first and in it alone
this condition is realized the individual soul must be held to be an
ultimate reality reflecting in its inmost nature, like the monad of
Leibniz, the complete fulness and harmony of the whole. In reply
to Bradley's argument for the unreality of the self, Hegel is inter-
preted as meaning that the opposition between self and not-self on
which it is founded is one that is self-made and in being made is
transcended. The fuller our knowledge of reality the more does
the object stand out as an invulnerable system of ordered parts,
but the process by which it is thus set in opposition to the subject
is also the process by which we understand and transform it into the
substance of our own thought. From this position further conse-
quences followed. Seeing that the individual soul must thus be
taken to stand in respect to its inmost essence in complete har-
mony with the whole, it must eternally be at one with itself: all
change must be appearance. Seeing, moreover, that it is, and is
maintained in being, by a fixed relation to the Absolute, it cannot
fail of immortality. No pantheistic theory of an eternal substance
continuously expressing itself in different individuals who fall back
into its being like drops into the ocean will here be sufficient. The
ocean is the drops. ' The Absolute requires each self not to make
up a sum or to maintain an average but in respect of the self's special
and unique nature." Finally as it cannot cease, neither can the
individual soul have had a beginning. Pre-existence is as necessary
and certain as a future life. If memory is lacking as a link between
the different lives, this only shows that memory is not of the sub-
stance of the soul.
In view of these differences (amounting almost to an antinomy of
paradoxes) in interpretation, it is not surprising to find that recent
years have witnessed a violent reaction in some quarters against
Hegelian influence. This has taken the direction on the one hand of
a revival of realism (see METAPHYSICS), on the other of a new form
of subjective idealism (see PRAGMATISM). As yet neither of these
movements has shown sufficient coherence or stability to establish
itself as a rival to the main current of philosophy in England. But
they have both been urged with sufficient ability to arrest its progress
and to call for a reconsideration and restatement of the fundamental
principle of idealist philosophy and its relation to the fundamental
problems of religion. This will probably be the main work of the
next generation of thinkers in England (see IDEALISM).
Among Italian Hegelians are A. Vera, Raffaele Mariano and
B. Spaventa (1817-1883) ; see V. de Lucia, L'Hegel in Italia (1891).
In Sweden, J. J. Borelius of Lund ; in Norway, G. V. Lyng (d. 1884),
M. J. Monrad (1816-1807) and G. Kent (d. 1892) have adopted
Hegelianism ; in France, P. Leroux and P. PreVost.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Shortly after Hegel's death his collected works
were published by a number of his friends, who combined for the
purpose. They appeared in eighteen volumes in 1832, and a second
edition came out about twelve years later. Volumes i.-viii. contain
the works published by himself; the remainder is made up of his
lectures on the Philosophy of History, Aesthetic, the Philosophy of
Religion and the History of Philosophy, besides some essays and
reviews, with a few of his letters, and the Philosophical Propaedeutic.
For his life see K. Rosenkranz, Leben Hegels (Berlin, 1844) ;
R. R. Haym, Hegel und seine Zeit (Berlin, 1857); K. Kostlin, Hegel
in philosophischer, politischer und nationaler Beziehung (Tubingen,
1870); Rosenkranz, Hegel als deutscher National-Philosoph (Berlin,
1870), and his Neue Studien, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1878); Kuno Fischer,
Hegels Leben und Werke.
For the philosophy see A. Ruge's Aus fruherer Zeit, vol. iv.
(Berlin, 1867); Haym (as above); F. A. Trendelenburg (in Logische
Untersuchungen) ; A. L. Kym (Metaphysische Untersuchungen) and
C. Hermann (Hegel und die logische Frage and other works) are
noticeable as modern critics. Georges Noel, La Logique de Hegel
(Paris, 1897) ; Aloys Schmid, Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der
Hegelschen Logik (Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the
Encyklopadie into French, with notes; C. Bernard, the Aslhelik.
In English J. Hutcheson Stirling's Secret of Hegel (2 yols., London,
1865) contains a translation of the beginning of the Wissenschaft der
Logik; the "Logic" from the Encyklopadie has been translated,
with Prolegomena, by W. Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also
translated the third part of the Encyklopadie in Hegel's Philosophy
of Mind (1894); R. B. Haldane the History of Philosophy (1896);
E. B. Speirs, lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (1895) ; J. Sibree,
lectures on The Philosophy of History (1852); B. Bosanquet, Philo-
sophy of Fine Art, Introduction (1886); W. Hastie, The Philosophy
of Art (1886); S. W. Dyde, The Philosophy of Right (1896). Other
recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those mentioned
above are W. T. Harris, Hegel's Logic (1890); J. B. Baillie, Origin
and Significance of Hegel's Logic (1901), and Outline of the Idealistic
Construction of Experience (1906) ; P. Barth, Die Geschichtsphilosophie
Hegels (1890); J. A. Marrast, La Philosophic du droit de Hegel
(1869); L. Miraglia, I Principii fondamentali e la dottrina etico-
eiuridica di Hegel (1873) ; Hegel s Philosophy of the State and History
(Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887); G. Bolland, Philosophic des Rechts
(1902), and Hegels Philosophic der Religion (1901); E. Ott, Die
Religionsphilosophie Hegels (1904) ; J. M. Sterrett, Studies in Hegel's
Philosophy of Religion (1891); M. Ehrenhauss, Hegels Gottesbegriff
(1880); E. Caird, Hegel (1880); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, Hegelian-
ism and Personality (1893) ; Millicent Mackenzie, Hegel's Educational
Theory and Practice (1909), with biographical sketch; J. M. E.
McTaggart, Commentary on Hegel's Logic (1910). (J. H. Mu.)
HEGEMON OF THASOS, Greek writer of the old comedy,
nicknamed <I>a./rij from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything
is known of him, except that he nourished during the Pelopon-
nesian War. According to Aristotle (Poetics, ii. 5) he was the
inventor of a kind of parody; by slightly altering the wording
in well-known poems he transformed the sublime into the
ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily reached
Athens, his parody of the Gigantomachia was being performed;
it is said that the audience were so .amused by it that, instead of
leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He
208
HEGEMONY HEIBERG
was also the author of a comedy called Philinne (Pkiline),
written in the manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he
attacked a well-known courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who
preserves some parodic hexameters of his, relates other anecdotes
concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407).
Fragments in T. Kock, Comicorum Atticprum fragmenta, i. (1880) ;
B. J. Peltzer, De parodied Graecorum poesi (1855).
HEGEMONY (Gr. ^yejuoi/ta, leadership, from fryeio-Qai, to
lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group
of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied
in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual
city-states, e.g. by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a
position of predominance (primus inter pares) among other equal
states, coupled with individual autonomy. The reversion of this
position was claimed by Macedon (see GREECE: Ancient History,
and DELIAN LEAGUE).
HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and
historian, flourished about 300 B.C. Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks
of him as the founder of the florid style of composition known as
"Asiatic" (cf. TIMAEUS). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Hali-
carnassus and Cicero all speak of him in disparaging terms,
although Varro seems to have approved of his work. He pro-
fessed to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding long periods,
and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without modula-
tion or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his
writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes
his composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is
generally supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by
Dionysius, that Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of
lives of Alexander the Great. This fragment describes the
treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants by Alexander after its
conquest, but it is possible that it is only part of an epideictic
or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is supported
by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (cod. 250) that the
only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing
sensational events.
See Cicero, Brutus 83, Orator 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys's note, ad
AU. xii. 6; Dion. Halic. De verborum comp. iv. ; Aulus Gellius ix.
4; Plutarch, Alexander, 3; C. W. Miiller, Scriptores rerum Alexandra
Magni, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846); Norden,
Die antike Kunstprosa (1898); J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians
(1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of " Asiatic " style,
with example from Hegesias.
HEGESIPPUS, Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed
KpobjSuXos (" knot "), probably from the way in which he wore
his hair. He lived in the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-
Macedonian policy he was an enthusiastic supporter. In 343
B.C. he was one of the ambassadors sent to Macedonia to dis-
cuss, amongst other matters, the restoration of the island of
Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was
unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering
to resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the
question of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De
Halonneso was delivered, which, although included among the
speeches of Demosthenes, is generally considered to be by
Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, however,
favour the authorship of Demosthenes.
See Demosthenes, De falsa legatione 364, 447, De corona 250,
Philippica iii. 129; Plutarch, Demosthenes 17, Apophthegmata,
1870; Dionysius Halic. ad Ammaeum, i. ; Grote, History of Greece,
ch. 90.
HEGESIPPUS (fl. A.D. 150-180), early Christian writer, was of
Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius,
Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged
to that group of Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law
themselves, did not attempt to impose on others the requirements
of circumcision and Sabbath observance. He was the author of
a treatise (inrofivfi fiord) in five books dealing with such subjects
as Christian literature, the unity of church doctrine, paganism,
heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments of which are found in
Eusebius, who obtained much of his information concerning early
Palestinian church history and chronology from this source.
Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other leaders
of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way)
about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed
him with the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities
he visited was a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy:
" in each succession and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance
with that which the Law and the Prophets and the Lord [i.e the
Old Testament and the evangelical tradition] proclaim." To
illustrate this opinion he drew up a list of the Roman bishops.
Hegesippus is thus a significant figure both for the type of
Christianity taught in the circle to which he belonged, and as
accentuating the point of view which the church began to assume
in the presence of a developing gnosticism.
HEGESIPPUS, the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation
of the Jewish War of Josephus under the title De hello Judaico et
excidio urbis Hierosolymitanae. The seven books of Josephus
are compressed into five, but much has been added from the
Antiquities and from the works of Roman historians, while several
entirely new speeches are introduced to suit the occasion. Internal
evidence shows that the work could not have been written before
the 4th century A.D. The author, who is undoubtedly a Christian,
describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of Josephus.
Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340-
397), but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The
name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus,
through the stages 'IOJOTJTTOS, losippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus,
unless it was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the
father of ecclesiastical history (2nd century).
Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities
in E. Schurer, History of the Jewish People (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq. ;
F. Vogel, De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete (Erlangen,
1881).
HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER (c. 1433-1498), German
humanist, so called from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In
his youth he was a pupil of Thomas a Kempis, at that time canon
of the convent of St Agnes at Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at
Deventer in Holland, where he either founded or succeeded to the
headship of a school, which became famous for the number of its
distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these was Erasmus;
others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of
humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus
(Muth von Mudt) and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer
on the 7th of December 1498. His writings, consisting of short
poems, philosophical essays, grammatical notes and letters,
were published after his death by his pupil Jacob Faber. They
display considerable knowledge of Latin, but less of Greek, on the
value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius's chief claim to be
remembered rests not upon his published works, but upon his
services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing
the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction,
and led his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves.
His generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable
fortune, and at his death he left nothing but his books and
clothes.
See D. Reichling, " Beitrage zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius,"
in the Monatsschrift fur Westdeutschland (1877) ; H. Hamelmann,
Opera genealogico-historica (1711); H. A. Erhard, Geschichte des
Wiederaufbluhens wissenschaftticher Bildung (1826); C. Krafft ancl
W. Crecelius, " Alexander Hegius und seine Schiller," from the
works of Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius's pupils, in Zeitschrift
des bergischen Geschichtsvereins, vii. (Bonn, 1871).
HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1791-1860), Danish poet and
critic, son of the political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-
1841), and of the famous novelist, afterwards the Baroness
Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard, was born at Copenhagen on the i4th
of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled and settled in
Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign office, retir-
ing in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical writings
continued to exercise great influence over his fellow-countrymen.
Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and his wife
into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the uni-
versity of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled The
Theatre for Marionettes (1814), included two romantic dramas.
This was followed by Christmas Jokes and New Year's Tricks
HEIDE HEIDELBERG
209
(1816), The Initiation of Psyche (1817), and The Prophecy of
Tycho Brahe, a satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic
writers, especially on the sentimentality of Ingemann. These
works attracted attention at a time when Baggesen, Ohlen-
schlager and Ingemann possessed the. popular ear, and were
understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817
Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant
from government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next
three years there with his father. In 1822 he published his drama
of Nina, and was made professor of the Danish language at the
university of Kiel, where he delivered a course of lectures, com-
paring the Scandinavian mythology as found in the Edda with
the poems of Ohlenschlager. These lectures were published in
German in 1827.
In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of
introducing the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a
great number of these vaudevilles, of which the best known are
King Solomon and George the Hatmaker (1825); April Fools
(1826); A Story in Rosenberg Garden (1827); Kjoge Huskors
(1831); The Danes in Paris (1833); No (1836); and Yes
(1839). He took his models from the French theatre, but showed
extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but the
subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical.
Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious
kind; in 1828 he brought out the national drama of Eltierhoi;
in 1830 The Inseparables; in 1835 the fairy comedy of The Elves,
a dramatic version of Tieck's Elfin; and in 1838 Fata Morgana,
In 1841 Heiberg published a volume of New Poems containing
" A Soul after Death," a comedy which is perhaps his master-
piece, " The Newly Wedded Pair," and other pieces. He edited
from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the Flyvende Post (The
Flying Post), and subsequently the Interimsblade (1834-1837)
and the Intelligensblade (1842-1843). In his journalism he
carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the
Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating
criticism of art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress
Johanne Louise Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some
popular vaudevilles. Heiberg's scathing satires, however, made
him very unpopular; and this antagonism reached its height
when, in 1845, he published his malicious little drama of The
Nut Crackers. Nevertheless he became in 1847 director of the
national theatre. He filled the post for seven years, working
with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by intrigues
from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup,
near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon
taste and critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of
his time, and can only be compared with that of Holberg in the
1 8th century. Most of the poets of the Romantic movement in
Denmark were very grave and serious; Heiberg added the
element of humour, elegance and irony. He had the genius of
good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand almost
unique in the literature of his country.
The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in n vols., in 1861
1862, and his prose writings (n vols.) in the same year. The last
volume of his prose works contains some fragments of autobio-
graphy. See also G. Brandes, Essays (1889). For the elder Heiberg
see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflugel (1891).
HEIDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between
the marshes and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W.
of Gliickstadt, at the junction of the railways Elmshorn-
Hvidding and Neumiinster-Tonning. Pop. (1905), 8758. Ithasan
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a high-grade school,
and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries. Heide in
1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but
on the i3th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat
of the peasant forces by the Danes.
HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1633-1698), Swiss
theologian, was born at Barentschweil, in the canton of Zurich.
Switzerland, on the ist of July 1633. He studied at Marburg
and at Heidelberg, where he became the friend of J. L. Fabricius
(1632-1696), and was appointed professor extraordinarily of
Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was called to
Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical history,
and in the same year he became doctor of theology of Heidelberg.
In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he
travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the
acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to
Zurich, where he was elected professor of moral philosophy.
Two years later he succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in
the chair of theology, which he occupied till his death on the
1 8th of January 1698, having declined an invitation in 1669
to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call to Groningen.
Heidegger was the principal author of the Formula Consensus
Helvetica in 1675, which wasdesigned to unite the SwissReformed
churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him
as the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time.
His writings are largely controversial, though without being
bitter, and are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic
Church. The chief are De historia sacra patriarcharum exercita-
tiones selectae (1667-1671); Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus
religiosis (1670); De ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea, &c.
(1670); Historia papatus (1684; under the name Nicander von
Hohenegg); Manuductio in mam concordiae Protestantium
ecclesiasticae (1686); Tumulus concilii Tridentini (1690);
Exercitationes biblicae (1700), with a lifeof the author prefixed;
Corpus theologiae Christianae (1700, edited by J. H. Schweizer);
Ethicae Christianae elementa (1711); and lives of J. H. Hottinger
(1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared
in 1698, under the title Historia vitae J. H, Heideggeri.
See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie and the
Allgemeine deulsche Biographic ; and cf. W. Gass, Geschichte der
protestantischen Dogmatik, ii. 353 ff.
HEIDELBERG, a town of Germany, on the south bank of the
Neckar, 12 m. above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E.
from Mannheim and 54 m. from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The
situation of the town, lying between lofty hills covered with
vineyards and forests, at the spot where the rapid Neckar leaves
the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one of great natural
beauty. The town itself consists practically of one long, narrow
street the Hauptstrasse running parallel to the river, from
the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east
(where there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To
the south of this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by
handsome villas and gardens, leading directly to the centre of
the place. A number of smaller streets intersect the Haupt-
strasse at right angles and run down to the river, which is crossed
by two fine bridges. Of these, the old bridge on the east, built
in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned with statues of
Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate;
the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877, connects
Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and
Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely
towards the west on both sides of the river; but the additions
have been almost entirely of the better class of residences.
Heidelberg is an important railway centre, and is connected by
trunk lines with Frankfort, Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and
WUrzburg. Electric trams provide for local traffic, and there
are also several light railways joining it with the neighbouring
villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant Peters-
kirche dating from the isth century and restored in 1873, to
the door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses;
the Heilige Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing
Gothic edifice of the i5th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman
Catholic), with a sumptuously decorated interior, and the new
Evangelical Christuskirche. The town hall and the university
buildings, dating from 1712 and restored in 1886, are common-
place erections; but to the south of the Ludwigsplatz, upon
which most of the academical buildings lie, stands the new
university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in
German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz
with its equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are
other squares in the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz
with a statue of Bismarck, and the Jubilaumsplatz.
210
HEIDELBERG
The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which over-
hangs the east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbiihl,
a spur of the Konigsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above
the Neckar. Though now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence,
its beautiful situation and its interesting history render it by
far the most noteworthy, as it certainly is the grandest and
largest, of the old castles of Germany. The building was begun
early in the i3th century. The elector palatine and German
king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the
wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert's building, that bears his name.
Succeeding electors further extended and embellished it (see
ARCHITECTURE, Plate VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry
" the Magnanimous " (d. 1559), who built the beautiful early
Renaissance wing known as the Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559);
Frederick IV., for whom the fine late Renaissance wing called
the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and Frederick V., the
unfortunate " winter king " of Bohemia, who on the west side
added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after
his wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress
of the present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of
Westphalia, Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.'s son,
Charles Louis, who restored the castle to its former splendour.
In 1688, during Louis XIV. 's invasion of the Palatinate, the
castle was taken, after a long siege, by the French, who blew
part of it up when they found they could not hope to hold it
(March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by them and still
further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by lightning
and reduced to its present ruinous condition.
Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square
with round towers at the angles, the principal buildings being
grouped round a central courtyard, the entrance to which is
from the south through a series of gateways. In this courtyard,
besides the buildings already mentioned, are the oldest parts
of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau (old building) and the
Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated with statues
of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored and
rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy
objects in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated
with four granite columns from Charlemagne's palace at Ingel-
heim; the Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the
English princess; the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E.
angle; the ruins of the Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte
Turm, or blown-up tower, and the castle chapel and the museum
of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a cellar entered from
the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg. This
vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or
two occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft.
high and 31 ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Allan
(1610), or castle balcony, from which is obtained a view of great
beauty, extending from .the town beneath to the heights across
the Neckar and over the broad luxuriant plain of the Rhine
to Mannheim and the dim contours of the Hardt Mountains
behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a statue of
Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg.
The university of Heidelberg was founded by the elector
Rupert I., in 1385, the bull of foundation being issued by Pope
Urban VI. in that year. It was constructed after the type of
Paris, had four faculties, and possessed numerous privileges.
Marselius von Inghen was its first rector. The electors Frederick
I., the Victorious, Philip the Upright and Louis V. respectively
cherished it. Otto Henry gave it a new organization, further
endowed it and founded the library. At the Reformation it
became a stronghold of Protestant learning, the Heidelberg
catechism being drawn up by its theologians. Then the tide
turned. Damaged by the Thirty Years' War, it led a struggling
existence for a century and a half. A large portion of its remain-
ing endowments was cut off by the peace of Luneville (1801).
In 1803, however, Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden,
raised it anew and reconstituted it under the name of " Ruperto-
Carola." The number of professors and teachers is at present
about 150 and of students 1700. The library was first kept in
the choir of the Heilige Geist Kirche, and then consisted of
3500 MSS. In 1623 it was sent to Rome by Maximilian I.,
duke of Bavaria, and stored as the Bibliotheca Palatina in the
Vatican. It was afterwards taken to Paris, and in 1815 was
restored to Heidelberg. It has more than 500,000 volumes,
besides 4000 MSS. Among the other university institutions
are the academic hospital, the maternity hospital, the physio-
logical institution, the chemical laboratory, the zoological
museum, the botanical garden and the observatory on the
Konigsstuhl.
The other educational foundations are a gymnasium, a modern
and a technical school. There is a small theatre, an art and
several other scientific societies. The manufactures of Heidelberg
include cigars, leather, cement, surgical instruments and beer,
but the inhabitants chiefly support themselves by supplying
the wants of a large and increasing body of foreign permanent
residents, of the considerable number of tourists who during
the summer pass through the town, and of the university
students. A funicular railway runs from the Korn-Markt up
to the level of the castle and thence to the Molkenkur (700 ft.
above the town). The town is well lighted and is supplied with
excellent water from the Wolfsbrunnen. Pop. (1885), 29,304;
(1905), 49,527.
At an early period Heidelberg was a fief of the bishop of
Worms, who entrusted it about 1225 to the count palatine of
the Rhine, Louis I. It soon became a town and the chief
residence of the counts palatine. Heidelberg was one of the
great centres of the reformed teaching and was the headquarters
of the Calvinists. On this account it suffered much during the
Thirty Years' War, being captured and plundered by Count
Tilly in 1622, by the Swedes in 1633 and again by the imperialists
in 1635. By the peace of Westphalia it was restored to the
elector Charles Louis. In 1688 and again in 1693 Heidelberg
was sacked by the French. On the latter occasion the work of
destruction was carried out so thoroughly that only one house
escaped; this being a quaintly decorated erection in the Markt-
platz, which is now the H&tel zum Ritter. In 1720 the elector
Charles II. removed his court to Mannheim, and in 1803 the
town became part of the grand-duchy of Baden. On the 5th of
March 1848 the Heidelberg assembly was held here, and at this
meeting the steps were taken which led to the revolution in
Germany in that year.
See Oncken, Stadt, SMoss und Hochschule Heidelberg; Bilder
aus ihrer Vergangenheit (Heidelberg, 1885); Ochelhauser, Das
Heidelberger SMoss, ban- und kunstgeschichtlicher Fiihrer (Heidel-
berg, 1902); Pfaff, Heidelberg und Umgebung (Heidelberg, 1902);
HEIDELBERG HEIDENHEIM
Lorcntzen, Heidelberg und Umgebung (Stuttgart, 1902); Durm,
Das Heidelberger Schloss, eine Studie (Berlin, 1884) ; Koch and Seitz,
Das Heidelberger Schloss (Darmstadt, 1887-1891); J. F. Hautz,
Geschichte der Universitdt Heidelberg (1863-1864); A. Thorbecke,
Geschichte der Universitdt Heidelberg (Stuttgart, 1886); the Urkunden-
bitch der Universitdt Heidelberg, edited by Winkelmann (Heidelberg,
1886); Bahr, Die Entfuhrung der Heidelberger Bibliothek nach Rom
(Leipzig, 1 845) ; and G. Weber, Heidelberger Erinnerungen (Stuttgart,
1886).
HEIDELBERG, a town and district of the Transvaal. The
district is bounded S. by the Vaal river and includes the south-
eastern part of the Witwatersrand gold-fields. The town of
Heidelberg is 42 m. S.E. of Johannesburg and 441 m. N.W. of
Durban by rail. Pop. (1904), 3220, of whom 1837 were white.
It was founded in 1865, is built on the slopes of the Rand at an
elevation of 5029 ft., and is reputed the best sanatorium
in the colony. It is the centre of the eastern Rand gold-
mines.
HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE, the most attractive of
all the catechisms of the Reformation, was drawn up at the
bidding of Frederick III., elector of the Palatinate, and published
on Tuesday the igth of January 1563. The new religion in
the Palatinate had been largely under the guidance of Philip
Melanchthon, who had revived the old university of Heidelberg
and staffed it with sympathetic teachers. One of these.Tillemann,
Heshusius, who became general superintendent in 1558, held
extreme Lutheran views on the Real Presence, and in his desire
to force the community into his own position excommunicated
his colleague Klebitz, who held Zwinglian views. When the
breach was widening Frederick, " der fromme Kurfurst," came
to the succession, dismissed the two chief combatants and
referred the trouble to Melanchthon, whose guarded verdict
was distinctly Swiss rather than Lutheran. In a decree of August
1 560 the elector declared for Calvin and Zwingli, and soon after
he resolved to issue a new and unambiguous catechism of the
evangelical faith. He entrusted the task to two young men
who have won deserved remembrance by their learning and their
character alike. Zacharias Ursinus was born at Breslau in July
1534 and attained high honour in the university of Wittenberg.
In 1558 he was made rector of the gymnasium in his native
town, but the incessant strife with the extreme Lutherans drove
him to Zurich, whence Frederick, on the advice of Peter Martyr,
summoned him to be professor of theology at Heidelberg and
superintendent of the Sapientiae Collegium. He was a man of
modest and gentle spirit, not endowed with great preaching
gifts, but unwearied in study and consummately able to impart
his learning to others. Deposed from his chair by the elector
Louis in 1576, he lived with John Casimir at Neustadt and
found a congenial sphere in the new seminary there, dying in
his 49th year, in March 1583.
Caspar Olevianus was born at Treves in 1536. He gave up
law for theology, studied under Calvin in Geneva, Peter Martyr
in Zurich, and Beza in Lausanne. Urged by William Farel he
preached the new faith in his native city, and when banished
therefrom found a home with Frederick of Heidelberg, where
he gained high renown as preacher and administrator. His
ardour and enthusiasm made him the happy complement of
Ursinus. When the reaction came under Louis he was befriended
by Ludwig von Sain, prince of Wittgenstein, and John, count of
Nassau, in whose city of Herborn he did notable work at the
high school until his death on the isth of March 1587. The
elector could have chosen no better men, young as they were,
for the task in hand. As a first step each drew up a catechism
of his own composition, that of Ursinus being naturally of a more
grave and academic turn than the freer production of Olevianus,
while each made full use of the earlier catechisms already in use.
But when the union was effected it was found that the spirits
of the two authors were most happily and harmoniously wedded,
the exactness and erudition of the one being blended with the
fervency and grace of the other. Thus the Heidelberg Catechism ,
which was completed within a year of its inception, has an
individuality that marks it out from all its predecessors and
successors. The Heidelberg synod unanimously approved of it,
211
it was published in January 1563, and in the same year officially
turned into Latin by Jos. Lagus and Lambert Pithopoeus.
The ultra-Lutherans attacked the catechism with great
bitterness, the assault being led by Heshusius and Flacius
Illyricus. Maximilian II. remonstrated against it as an infringe-
ment of the peace of Augsburg. A conference was held at
Maulbronn in April 1564, and a personal attack was made on the
elector at the diet of Augsburg in 1566, but the defence was
well sustained, and the Heidelberg book rapidly passed beyond
the bounds of the Palatinate (where indeed it suffered eclipse
from 1576 to 1583, during the electorate of Louis), and gained
an abundant success not only in Germany (Hesse, Anhalt,
Brandenburg and Bremen) but also in the Netherlands (1588),
and in the Reformed churches of Hungary, Transylvania and
Poland. It was officially recognized by the synod of Dort in
1619, passed into France, Britain and America, and probably
shares with the De imitatione Christi and The Pilgrim's Progress
the honour of coming next to the Bible in the number of tongues
into which it has been translated.
This wide acceptance and high esteem are due largely to an
avoidance of polemical and controversial subjects, and even
mose to an absence of the controversial spirit. There is no
mistake about its Protestantism, even when we omit the unhappy
addition made to answer 80 by Frederick himself (in indignant
reply to the ban pronounced by the Council of Trent), in which
the Mass is described as " nothing else than a denial of the one
sacrifice and passion of Jesus Christ, and an accursed idolatry "
an addition which is the one blot on the errwtma of the
catechism. The work is the product of the best qualities of
head and heart, and its prose is frequently marked by all the
beauty of a lyric. It follows the plan of the epistle to the Romans
(excepting chapters ix.-xi.) and falls into three parts: Sin,
Redemption and the New Life. This arrangement alone would
mark it out from the normal reformation catechism, which runs
along the stereotyped lines of Decalogue, Creed, Lord's Prayer,
Church and Sacraments. These themes are included, but are
shown as organically related. The Commandments, e.g. " belong
to the first part so far as they are a mirror of our sin and misery,
but also to the third part, as being the rule of our new obedience
and Christian life." The Creed a panorama of the sublime
facts of redemption and the sacraments find their place in
the second part; the Lord's Prayer (with the Decalogue) in the
third.
See The Heidelberg Catechism, the German Text, with a Revised
Translation and Introduction, edited by A. Smellie (London, 1900).
HEIDELOFF, KARL ALEXANDER VON (1788-1865), German
architect, the son of Victor Peter Heideloff, a painter, was born
at Stuttgart. He studied at the art academy of his native
town, and after following the profession of an architect for some
time at Coburg was in 1818 appointed city architect at Nurem-
berg. In 1822 he became professor at the polytechnic school,
holding his post until 1854, and some years later he was chosen
conservator of the monuments of art. Heideloff devoted his
chief attention to the Gothic style of architecture, and the
buildings restored and erected by him at Nuremberg and in its
neighbourhood attest both his original skill and his purity of
taste. He also achieved some success as a painter in water-
colour. He died at Hassfurt on the 28th of September 1865.
Among his architectural works should be mentioned the castle
of Reinhardsbrunn, the Hall of the Knights in the fortress at
Coburg, the castle of Landsberg,the mortuary chapel in Meiningen,
the little castle of Rosenburg near Bonn, the chapel of the
castle of Rheinstein near Bingen^ and the Catholic church in
Leipzig. His powers in restoration are shown in the castle of
Lichtenstein, the cathedral of Bamberg, and the Knights'
Chapel (Ritter Kapelle) at Hassfurt.
Among his writings on architecture are Die Lehre von den Sdulen-
ordnungen (1827); Der Kleine Vignola (1832); Niirnberes Baudenk-
maler der Vorzeit (1838-1843, complete edition 1854); and Die
Ornamentik des Mittelalters (1838-1842).
HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, 31 m. by rail north by east of Ulm. Pop. (1005),
12,173. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
212
HEIFER HEILSBRONN
and several schools. Its industrial establishments include
cotton, woollen, tobacco, machinery and chemical factories,
bleach-works, dye-works and breweries, and corn and cattle
markets. The town, which received municipal privileges in
1356, is overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Hellenstein,
standing on a hill 1985 ft. high. Heidenheim is also the name
of a small place in Bavaria famous on account of the Benedictine
abbey which formerly stood therein. Founded in 748 by
Wilibald, bishop of Eichstatt, this was plundered by the peasantry
in 1525 and was closed in 1537.
HEIFER, a young cow that has not calved. The O. Eng. heah-
fore or heafru, from which the word is derived, is of obscure origin.
It is found in Bede's History (A.D. 900) as heahfore, and has
passed through many forms. It is possibly derived from heah,
high, and faren (fare), to go, meaning " high-stepper." It has
also been suggested that the derivation is from hea, a stall, and
fore, a cow.
HEIGEL, KARL AUGUST VON (1835-1905), German novelist,
was born, the son of a regisseur or stage-manager of the court
theatre, on the 25th of March 1835 at Munich. In this city he
received his early schooling and studied (1854-1858) philosophy
at the university. He was then appointed librarian to Prince
Heinrich zu Carolath-Beuthen in Lower Silesia, and accompanied
the nephew of the prince on travels. In 1863 he settled in Berlin,
where from 1865 to 1875 he was engaged in journalism. He
next resided at Munich, employed in literary work for the king,
Ludwig II., who in 1881 conferred upon him a title of nobility.
On the death of the king in 1886 he removed to Riva on the
Lago di Garda, where he died on the 6th of September 1905.
Karl von Heigel attained some popularity with his novels:
Wohin ? (1873), Die Dame ohne Herz (1873), Das Geheimnis
des Konigs (1891), Der Roman einer Stadt (1898), Der Maha-
radschah (1900), Die nervose Frau (1900), Die neuen Heiligen
(1901), and Bromels Glilck und Ende (1902). He also wrote
some plays, notably Josephine Bonaparte (1892) and Die Zarin
(1883) ; and several collections of short stories, Neue Erziihlungen
(1876), Neueste Novellen (1878), and Heitere Erziihlungen
(1893).
HEIJERMANS, HERMANN (1864- ), Dutch writer, of
Jewish origin, was born on the 3rd of December 1864 at Rotter-
dam. In the Amsterdam Handelsblad he published a series of
sketches of Jewish family life under the pseudonym of " Samuel
Falkland," which were collected in volume form. His novels
and tales include Trinette (1892), Fles (1893), Kamertjeszonde
(2 vols., 1896), Interieurs (1897), Diamantstadt (2 vols., 1903).
He created great interest by his play Op Hoop van Zegen (1900),
represented at the Theatre Antoine in Paris, and in English by
the Stage Society as The Good Hope. His other plays are:
Dora Kremer (1893), Ghetto (1898), Hel zevende Gebot (1899),
Het Pantser (1901), Ora et labora (1901), and numerous one-act
pieces. A Case of Arson, an English version of the one-act play
Brand in de Jonge Jan, was notable for the impersonation (1904
and 1905) by Henri de Vries of all the seven witnesses who appear
as characters.
HEILBRONN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttem-
berg, situated in a pleasant and fruitful valley on the Neckar,
33 m. by rail N. of Stuttgart, and at the junction of lines to
Jagdsfeld, Crailsheim and Eppingen. Pop. (1905), 40,026. In
the older part of the town the streets are narrow, and contain
a number of high turreted houses with quaintly adorned gables.
The old fortifications have now been demolished, and their site
is occupied by promenades, outside of which are the more modern
parts of the town with wide streets and many handsome buildings.
The principal public buildings are the church of St Kilian
(restored 1886-1895) i n the Gothic and Renaissance styles, begun
about 1019 and completed in 1529, with an elegant tower 210 ft.
high, a beautiful choir, and a finely carved altar; the town hall
(Rathaus), founded in 1540, and possessing a curious clock made
in 1580, and a collection of interesting letters and other docu-
ments; the house of the Teutonic knights (Deutsches Haus),
now used as a court of law; the Roman Catholic church of St
Joseph, formerly the church of the Teutonic Order; the tower
(Diebsturm or Gotzens Turm) on the Neckar, in which Gotz
von Berlichingen was confined in 1519; a fine synagogue; an
historical museum and several monuments, among them those
to the emperors William I. and Frederick I., to Bismarck, to
Schiller and to Robert von Mayer (1814-1878), a native of the
town, famous for his discoveries concerning heat. The educa-
tional establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial school
and an agricultural academy. The town in a commercial point
of view is the most important in Wiirttemberg, and possesses
an immense variety of manufactures, of which the principal are
gold, silver, steel and iron wares, machines, sugar of lead, white
lead, vinegar, beer, sugar, tobacco, soap, oil, cement, chemicals,
artificial manure, glue, soda, tapestry, paper and cloth. Grapes,
fruit, vegetables and flowering shrubs are largely grown in the
neighbourhood, and there are large quarries for sandstone and
gypsum and extensive salt-works. By means of the Neckar
a considerable trade is carried on in wood, bark, leather,
agricultural produce, fruit and cattle.
Heilbronn occupies the site of an old Roman settlement; it
is first mentioned in 741, and the Carolingian princes had a palace
here. It owes its name originally Heiligbronn, or holy spring
to a spring of water which until 1857 was to be seen issuing from
under the high altar of the church of St Kilian. Heilbronn
obtained privileges from Henry IV. and from Rudolph I. and
became a free imperial city in 1360. It was frequently besieged
during the middle ages, and it suffered greatly during the
Peasants' War, the Thirty Years' War, and the various wars
with France. In April 1633 a convention was entered into here
between Oxenstierna, the Swabian and Prankish estates and the
French, English and Dutch ambassadors, as a result of which the
Heilbronn treaty, for the prosecution of the Thirty Years' War,
was concluded. In 1802 Heilbronn was annexed by Wiirttem-
berg.
See Jager, Geschichte von Heilbronn (Heilbronn, 1828) ; Kuttler,
Heilbronn, seine Umgebungen und seine Geschichte (Heilbronn, 1859) ;
Diirr, Heilbronner Chronik (Halle, 1896); Schliz, Die Entstehung
der Stadtgemeinde Heilbronn (Leipzig, 1903); and A. Kiisel, Der
Heilbronner Konvent (Halle, 1878).
HEILIGENSTADT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony,
on the Leine, 32 m. E.N.E. of Cassel, on the railway to Halle.
Pop. (1905), 7955. It possesses an old castle, formerly belonging
to the electors of Mainz, one Evangelical and two Roman
Catholic churches, several educational establishments, and an
infirmary. The principal manufactures are cotton goods,
cigars, paper, cement and needles. Heiligenstadt is said to have
been built by the Frankish king Dagobert and was formerly
the capital of the principality of Eichsfeld. In 1022 it was
acquired by the archbishop of Mainz, and in 1103 it came into
the possession of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony, but when his
son Henry the Lion was placed under the ban of the Empire, it
again came to Mainz. It was destroyed by fire in 1333, and was
captured in 1525 by Duke Henry of Brunswick. In 1803 it
came into possession of Prussia. The Jesuits had a celebrated
college here from 1581 to 1773. ' ;
HEILSBERG, a town of Germany, in the province of East
Prussia, at the junction of the Simser and Alle, 38 m. S. of
Konigsberg. Pop. (1905), 6042. It has an Evangelical and a
Roman Catholic church, and an old castle formerly the seat of
the prince-bishops of Ermeland, but now used as an infirmary.
The principal industries are tanning, dyeing and brewing, and
there is considerable trade in grain. The castle founded at
Heilsberg by the Teutonic order in 1240 became in 1306 the seat
of the bishops of Ermeland, an honour which it retained for
500 years. On the loth of June 1807 a battle took place at
Heilsberg between the French under Soult and Murat, and the
Russians and Prussians under Bennigsen.
HEILSBRONN (or KLOSTER-HEILSBRONN), a village of
Germany, in the Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, with
a station on the railway between Nuremberg and Ansbach, has
1 200 inhabitants. In the middle ages it was the seat of one of
the great monasteries of Germany. This foundation, which
belonged to the Cistercian order, owed its origin to Bishop Otto
HEIM HEINE
213
of Bamberg in 1132, and continued to exist till 1555. Its
sepulchral monuments, many of which are figured by Hocker,
Hetisbronnischer Antiquitatenschatz (Ansbach, 1731-1740), are of
exceptionally high artistic interest. It was the hereditary
burial-place of the Hohenzollern family and ten burgraves of
Nuremberg, five margraves and three electors of Brandenburg,
and many other persons of note are buried within its walls.
The buildings of the monastery have mostly disappeared, with
the exception of the fine church, a Romanesque basilica, restored
between 1851 and 1866, and possessing paintings by Albert
Dttrer. The " Monk of Heilsbronn " is the ordinary appellation
of a didactic poet of the i4th century, whose Sieben Graden,
Tochter Syon and Leben des heiligen Alexius were published by
J. F. L. T. Merzdorf at Berlin in 1870.
See Rehm, Ein Gang durch und um die Miinster-Kirche zu Kloster-
Heilsbronn (Ansbach, 1875); Stillfried, Kloster-Heilsbronn, ein
Beitrag zu den Hohenzollr.rnschen Forschungen (Berlin, 1877); Muck,
Geschichte von Kloster-Heilsbronn (Nordlingen, 1879-1880); J. Meyer,
Die Hohenzollerndenkmale in Heilsbronn (Ansbach, 1891); and A.
Wagner, Vber den Monch von Heilsbronn (Strassburg, 1876).
HEIM, ALBERT VON ST GALLEN (1849- ), Swiss
geologist, was born at Zurich on the i2th of April 1849. He was
educated at Zurich and Berlin universities. Very early in life
he became interested in the physical features of the Alps, and
at the age of sixteen he made a model of the Todi group. This
came under the notice of Arnold Escher von der Linth, to whom
Heim was indebted for much encouragement and geological
instruction in the field. In 1873 he became professor of geology
in the polytechnic school at Zurich, and in 1875 professor of
geology in the university. In 1882 he was appointed director of
the Geological Survey of Switzerland, and in 1884 the hon. degree
of Ph.D. was conferred upon him at Berne. He is especially
distinguished for his researches on the structure of the Alps
and for the light thereby thrown on the structure of mountain
masses in general. He traced the plications from minor to major
stages, and illustrated the remarkable foldings and overthrust
faultings in numerous sections and with the aid of pictorial
drawings. His magnificent work, Mechanismus der Gebirgs-
biidung ( 1 878) , is now regarded as a classic, and it served to inspire
Professor C. Lapworth in his brilliant researches on the Scottish
Highlands (see Geol. Mag. 1883). Heim also devoted consider-
able attention to the glacial phenomena of the Alpine regions.
The Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1904 by the
Geological Society of London.
HEIM, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1787-1865), French painter,
was born at Belfort on the i6th of December 1787. He early
distinguished himself at the Ecole Centrale of Strassburg, and
in 1803 entered the studio of Vincent at Paris. In 1807 he
obtained the first prize, and in 1812 his picture of "The
Return of Jacob " (Musee de Bordeaux) won for him a gold
medal of the first class, which he again obtained in 1817, when
he exhibited, together with other works, a St John bought by
Vivant Denon. In 1819 the " Resurrection of Lazarus "
(Cathedral Autun), the " Martyrdom of St Cyr " (St Gervais),
and two scenes from the life of Vespasian (ordered by the king)
attracted attention. In 1823 the " Re-erection of the Royal
Tombs at St Denis," the " Martyrdom of St Laurence " (Notre
Dame) and several full-length portraits increased the painter's
popularity; and in 1824, when he exhibited his great canvas,
the " Massacre of the Jews " (Louvre), Heim was rewarded with
the legion of honour. In 1827 appeared the " King giving away
Prizes at the Salon of 1824 " (Louvre engraved by Jazet)
the picture by which Heim is best known and " Saint
Hyacinthe." Heim was now commissioned to decorate the
Gallery Charles X. (Louvre). Though ridiculed by theromantists,
Heim succeeded Regnault at the Institute in 1834, shortly
after which he commenced a series of drawings of the celebrities
of his day, which are of much interest. His decorations of the
Conference room of the Chamber of Deputies were completed
in 1844; and in 1847 his works at the Salon "Champ de Mai "
and " Reading a Play at the Theatre Francais " were the signal
for violent criticisms. Yet something like a turn of opinion in
his favour took place at the exhibition of 1851; his powers as a
draughtsman and the occasional merits of his composition were
recognized, and toleration extended even to his colour. Heim
was awarded the great gold medal, and in 1855 having sent to
the Salon no less than sixteen portraits, amongst which may be
cited those of " Cuvier," " Geoffroy de St Hilaire," and " Madame
Hersent "he was made officer of the legion of honour. In 1859
he again exhibited a curious collection of portraits, sixty-four
members of the Institute arranged in groups of four. He died
on the 29th of September 1865. Besides the paintings already
mentioned, there is to be seen in Notre Dame de Lorette (Paris)
a work executed on the spot; and the museum of Strassburg
contains an excellent example of his easel pictures, the subject
of which is a " Shepherd Drinking from a Spring."
HEIMDAL, or HEIMDALL, in Scandinavian mythology, the
keeper of the gates of Heaven and the guardian of the rainbow
bridge Bifrost. He is the son of Odin by nine virgins, all sisters.
He is called " the god with the golden teeth." He lives in the
stronghold of Himinsbiorg at the end of Bifrost. His chief
attribute is a vigilance which nothing can escape. He sleeps less
than a bird; sees at night and even in his sleep; can hear the
grass, and even the wool on a lamb's back grow. He is armed
with Gjallar, the magic horn, with which he will summon the gods
on the day of judgment.
HEINE, HEINRICH (1797-1856), German poet and journalist,
was born at Diisseldorf, of Jewish parents, on the i3th of
December 1 797. His father, after various vicissitudes in business,
had finally settled in Diisseldorf, and his mother, who possessed
much energy of character, was the daughter of a physician of
the same place. Heinrich (or, more exactly, Harry) was the
eldest of four children, and received his education, first in private
schools, then in the Lyceum of his native town; although not an
especially apt or diligent pupil, he acquired a knowledge of French
and English, as well as some tincture of the classics and Hebrew.
His early years coincided with the most brilliant period of
Napoleon's career, and the boundless veneration which he is never
tired of expressing for the emperor throughout his writings
shows that his true schoolmasters were rather the drummers
and troopers of a victorious army than the masters of the Lyceum.
By freeing the Jews from many of the political disabilities under
which they had hitherto suffered, Napoleon became, it may be
noted, the object of particular enthusiasm in the circles amidst
which Heine grew up. When he left school in 1815, an attempt
was made to engage him in business in Frankfort, but without
success. In the following year his uncle, Solomon Heine, a
wealthy banker in Hamburg, took him into his office. A passion
for his cousin Amalie Heine seems to have made the young
man more contented with his lot in Hamburg, and his success
was such that his uncle decided to set him up in business for
himself. This, however, proved too bold a step; in a very few
months the firm of " Harry Heine & Co." was insolvent. His
uncle now generously provided him with money to enable him to
study at a university, with the view to entering the legal profession,
and in the spring of 1819 Heine became a student of the university
of Bonn. During his stay there he devoted himself rather to the
study of literature and history than to that of law; amongst
his teachers A. W. von Schlegel, who took a kindly interest in
Heine's poetic essays, exerted the most lasting influence on him.
In the autumn of 1820 Heine left Bonn for Gottingen, where he
proposed to devote himself more assiduously to professional
studies, but in February of the following year he challenged to
a pistol duel a fellow-student who had insulted him, and was,
in consequence, rusticated for six months. The pedantic
atmosphere of the university of Gottingen was, however, little
to his taste; the news of his cousin's marriage unsettled him
still more; and he was glad of the opportunity to seek distraction
in Berlin.
In the Prussian capital a new world opened up to him; a
very different life from that of Gottingen was stirring in the new
university there, and Heine, like all his contemporaries, sat at
the feet of Hegel and imbibed from him, doubtless, those views
which in later years made the poet the apostle of an outlook
upon life more modern than that of his romantic predecessors.
214
HEINE
Heine was also fortunate in having access to the chief
literary circles of the capital; he was on terms of intimacy
with Varnhagen von Ense and his wife, the celebrated Rahel,
at whose house he frequently met such men as the Humboldts,
Hegel himself and Schleiermacher; he made the acquaintance
of leading men of letters like Fouque and Chamisso, and was
on a still more familiar footing with the most distinguished
of his co-religionists in Berlin. Under such favourable circum-
stances his own gifts were soon displayed. He contributed
poems to the Berliner Gesellschafter, many of which were subse-
quently incorporated in the Buck der Lieder, and in December
1821 a little volume came from the press entitled Gedichle, his
first avowed act of authorship. He was also employed at this
time as correspondent of a Rhenish newspaper, as well as in
completing his tragedies Almansor and William Raicliff, which
were published in 1823 with small success. In that same year
Heine, not in the most hopeful spirits, returned to his family,
who had meanwhile moved to Liineburg. He had plans of
settling in Paris, but as he was still dependent on his uncle,
the latter's consent had to be obtained. As was to be expected,
Solomon Heine did not favour the new plan, but promised to
continue his support on the condition that Harry completed
his course of legal study. He sent the young student for a six
weeks' holiday at Cuxhaven, which opened the poet's eyes to
the wonders of the sea; and three weeks spent subsequently
at his uncle's county seat near Hamburg were sufficient to
awaken a new passion in Heine's breast this time for Amalie's
sister, Therese. In January 1824 Heine returned to Gottingen,
where, with the exception of a visit to Berlin and the excursion to
the Hartz mountains in the autumn of 1824, which is immortal-
ized in the first volume of the Reisebilder, he remained until his
graduation in the summer of the followirfg year. It was on the
latter of these journeys that he had the interview with Goethe
which was so amusingly described by him in later years. A few
weeks before obtaining his degree, he took a step which he had
long meditated; he formally embraced Christianity. This
" act of apostasy," which has been dwelt upon at unnecessary
length both by Heine's enemies and admirers, was actuated
wholly by practical considerations, and did not arise from any
wish on the 'poet's part to deny his race. The summer months
which followed his examination Heine spent by his beloved
sea in the island of Norderney, his uncle having again generously
supplied the means for this purpose. The question of his future
now became pressing, and for a time he seriously considered the
plan of settling as a solicitor in Hamburg, a plan which was
associated in his mind with the hope of marrying his cousin
Therese. Meanwhile he had made arrangements for the publica-
tion of the Reisebilder, the first volume of which, Die Harzreise,
appeared in May 1826. The success of the book was instan-
taneous. Its lyric outbursts and flashes of wit; its rapid
changes from grave to gay; its flexibility of thought and style,
came as a revelation to a generation which had grown weary of
the lumbering literary methods of the later Romanticists.
In the spring of the following year Heine paid a long planned
visit to England, where he was deeply impressed by the free
and vigorous public life, by the size and bustle of London ; above
all, he was filled with admiration for Canning, whose policy
had realized many a dream of the young German idealists of
that age. But the picture had also its reverse; the sordidly
commercial spirit of English life, and brutal egotism of the
ordinary Englishman, grated on Heine's sensitive nature;
he missed the finer literary and artistic tastes of the continent
and was repelled by the austerity of English religious sentiment
and observance. Unfortunately the latter aspects of English
life left a deeper mark on his memory than the bright side.
In October Baron Cotta, the well-known publisher, offered
Heine the second volume of whose Reisebilder and the Buck
der Lieder had meanwhile appeared and won him fresh laurels
the joint-editorship of the Neue allgemeine polilische Annalen.
He gladly accepted the offer and betook himself to Munich.
Heine did his best to adapt himself and his political opinions to
the new surroundings, in the hope of coming in for a share of
the good things which Ludwig I. of Bavaria was so generously
distributing among artists and men of letters. But the stings
of the Reisebilder were not so easily forgotten; the clerical
party in particular did not leave him long in peace. In July
1828, the professorship on which he had set his hopes being
still not forthcoming, he left Munich for Italy, where he remained
until the following November, a holiday which provided material
for the third and part of the fourth volumes of the Reisebilder.
A blow more serious than the Bavarian king's refusal to establish
him in Munich awaited him on his return to Germany the
death of his father. In the beginning of 1829 Heine took up
his abode in Berlin, where he resumed old acquaintanceships;
in summer he was again at the sea, and in autumn he returned
to the city he now loathed above all others, Hamburg, where he
virtually remained until May 1831. These years were not a
happy period of the poet's life; his efforts to obtain a position,
apart from that which he owed to his literary work, met with
rebuffs on every side; his relations with his uncle were un-
satisfactory and disturbed by constant friction, and for a time
he was even seriously ill. His only consolation in these months
of discontent was the completion and publication of the Reise-
bilder. When in 1830 the news of the July Revolution in the
streets of Paris reached him, Heine hailed it as the beginning
of a new era of freedom, and his thoughts reverted once more
to his early plan of settling in Paris. All through the following
winter the plan ripened, and in May 1831 he finally said farewell
to his native land.
Heine's first impressions of the " New Jerusalem of Liberalism "
were jubilantly favourable; Paris, he proclaimed, was the
capital of the civilized world, to be a citizen of Paris the highest
of honours. He was soon on friendly terms with many of the
notabilities of the capital, and there was every prospect of a
congenial and lucrative journalistic activity as correspondent
for German newspapers. Two series of his articles were subse-
quently collected and published under the titles Franzosische
Zustande (1832) and Lutezia (written 1840-1843, published in
the Vermischte Schriften, 1854). In December 1835, however,
the German Bund, incited by W. Menzel's attacks on " Young
Germany," issued its notorious decree, forbidding the publication
of any writings by the members of that coterie; the name of
Heine, who had been stigmatized as the leader of the movement
headed the list. This was the beginning of a series of literary
feuds in which Heine was, from now on, involved; but a more
serious and immediate effect of the decree was to curtail consider-
ably his sources of income. His uncle, it is true, had allowed
him 4000 francs a year when he settled in Paris, but at this
moment he was not on the best of terms with his Hamburg
relatives. Under these circumstances he was induced to take
a step which his fellow-countrymen have found it hard to forgive ;
he applied to the French government for support from a secret
fund formed for the benefit of " political refugees " who were
willing to place themselves at the service of France. From 1836
or 1837 until the Revolution of 1848 Heine was in receipt of
4800 francs annually from this source.
In October 1834 Heine made the acquaintance of a young
Frenchwoman, Eugenie Mirat, a saleswoman in a boot-shop
in Paris, and before long had fallen passionately in love with
her. Although ill-educated, vain and extravagant, she inspired
the poet with a deep and lasting affection, and in 1841, on the
eve of a duel in which he had become involved, he made her
his wife. " Mathilde," as Heine called her, was not the comrade
to help the poet in days of adversity, or to raise him to better
things, but, in spite of passing storms, he seems to have been
happy with her, and she nursed him faithfully in his last illness.
Her death occurred in 1883. His relations with Mathilde
undoubtedly helped to weaken his ties with Germany; and
notwithstanding the affection he professed to cherish for his
native land, he only revisited it twice, in the autumn of 1843 and
the summer of 1847. In 1845 appeared the first unmistakable
signs of the terrible spinal disease, which, for eight years, from
the spring of 1848 till his death, condemned him to a " mattress
grave." These years of suffering suffering which left his
HEINECCIUS HEINECKEN
215
intellect as clear and vivacious as ever seem to have effected
what might be called a spiritual purification in Heine's nature,
and to have brought out all the good sides of his character,
whereas adversity in earlier years only intensified his cynicism.
The lyrics of the Romanzero (1851) and the collection of Neueste
Gedichte (1853-1854) surpass in imaginative depth and sincerity
of purpose the poetry of the Buck der Lieder. Most wonderful
of all are the poems inspired by Heine's strange mystic passion
for the lady he called Die Mouche, a countrywoman of his own
her real name was Elise von Krienitz, but she had written in
French under the nom de plume of Camille Selden who helped
to brighten the last months of the poet's life. He died on the
1 7th of February 1856, and lies buried in the cemetery of
Montmartre.
Besides the purely journalistic work of Heine's Paris years,
to which reference has already been made, he published a collec-
tion of more serious prose writings under the title Der Salon
(1833-1839). In this collection will be found, besides papers on
French art and the French stage, the essays " Zur Geschichte der
Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland," which he had written
for the Reoue des deux mond.es. Here, too, are the more character-
istic productions of Heine's genius, Aus den Memoiren des
Herrn von Schnabelewopski, ' Der Rabbi von Bacherach and
Florentinische Nachte. Die romantische Schule (1836), with
its unpardonable personal attack on the elder Schlegel, is a
less creditable essay in literary criticism. In 1839 appeared
Shakespeares Mddchen und Frauen, which, however, was merely
the text to a series of illustrations; and in 1840, the witty and
trenchant satire on a writer, who, in spite of many personal
disagreements, had been Heine's fellow-fighter in the liberal
cause, Ludwig Borne. Of Heine's poetical work in these years,
his most important publications were, besides the Romanzero,
the two admirable satires, Deutschland, ein Wintermarchen
(1844), the result of his visit to Germany, and A Ita Troll, ein
Sommernachtstraum (1876), an attack on the political Tendenz-
literatur of the 'forties.
In the case of no other of the greater German poets is it so
hard to arrive at a final judgment as in that of Heinrich Heine.
In his Buck der Lieder he unquestionably struck a new lyric
note, not merely for Germany but for Europe. No singer
before him had been so daring in the use of nature-symbolism
as he, none had given such concrete and plastic expression to
the spiritual forces of heart and soul; in this respect Heine
was clearly the descendant of the Hebrew poets of the Old
Testament. At times, it is true, his imagery is exaggerated
to the degree of absurdity, but it exercised, none the less, a
fascination over his generation. Heine combined with a spiritual
delicacy, a fineness of perception, that firm hold on reality
which is so essential to the satirist. His lyric appealed with
particular force to foreign peoples, who had little understanding
for the intangible, undefinable spirituality which the German
people regard as an indispensable element in their national
lyric poetry. Thus his fame has always stood higher in England
and France than in Germany itself, where his lyric method,
his self-consciousness, his cynicism in season and out of season,
were little in harmony with the literary traditions. As far,
indeed, as the development of the German lyric is concerned,
Heine's influence has been of questionable value. But he
introduced at least one new and refreshing element into German
poetry with his lyrics of the North Sea; no other German
poet has felt and expressed so well as Heine the charm of sea
and coast.
As a prose writer, Heine's merits were very great. His work
was, in the main, journalism, but it was journalism of a high
order, and, after all, the best literature of the." Young German "
school to which he belonged was of this character. Heine's
light fancy, his agile intellect, his straightforward, clear style
stood him here in excellent stead. The prose writings of his
French period mark, together with Borne's Briefe aus Paris,
the beginning of a new era in German journalism and a healthy
revolt against the unwieldly prose of the Romantic period.
Above all things, Heine was great as a wit and a satirist. His
lyric may not be able to assert itself beside that of the very
greatest German singers, but as a satirist he had powers of the
highest order. He combined the holy zeal and passionate
earnestness of the " soldier of humanity " with the withering
scorn and ineradicable sense of justice common to the leaders
of the Jewish race. It was Heine's real mission to be a reformer,
to restore with instruments of war rather than of peace " the
interrupted order of the world." The more's the pity that his
magnificent Aristophanic genius should have had so little
room for its exercise, and have been frittered away in the petty
squabbles of an exiled journalist.
The first collected edition of Heine's works was edited by A.
Strodtmann in 21 vols. (1861-1866), the best critical edition is the
Sdmtliche Werke, edited by E. Elster (7 vols., 1887-1890). Heine
has been more translated into other tongues than any other German
writer of his time. Mention may here be made of the French
translation of his (Euvres completes (14 vols., 1852-1868), and the
English translation (by C. G. Leland and others) recently completed,
The Works of Heinrich Heine (13 vols., 1892-1905). For biography
and criticism see the following works : A. Strodtmann, Heines Leben
und Werke (3rd ed., 1884); H. Hueffer, Aus dent Leben H. Heines
(1878); and by the same author, H. Heine: Gesammelte Aufsdtze
(1906); G. Karpeles, H. Heine und seine Zeitgenossen (1888), and
by the same author, H. Heine: aus seinem Leben und aus seiner
Zeit (1900); W. Bqlsche, //. Heine: Versuch einer asthetisch-
kritiscken Analyse seiner Werke und seiner Weltanschauung (1888);
G. Brandes, Del unge Tyskland (1890; Eng. trans., 1905). An
English biography by W. Stigand, Life, Works and Opinions of
Heinrich Heine, appeared in 1875, but it has little value; there is
also a short life by W. Sharp (1888). The essays on Heine by
George Eliot and Matthew Arnold are well known. The best French
contributions to Heine criticism are J. Legras, H. Heine, poete
(1897), and H. Lichtenberger, H. Heine, penseur (1905). See also
L.P. Betz, Heine in Frankreich (1895). (J. W. F.; J. G. R.)
HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1681-1741), German
jurist, was born on the nth of September 1681 at Eisenberg,
Altenburg. He studied theology at Leipzig, and law at Halle;
and at the latter university he was appointed in 1713 professor
of philosophy, and in 1718 professor of jurisprudence. He
subsequently filled legal chairs at Franeker in Holland and at
Frankfort, but finally returned to Halle in 1733 as professor
of philosophy and jurisprudence. He died there on the 3ist of
August 1 741 . Heineccius belonged to the school of philosophical
jurists. He endeavoured to treat law as a rational science, and
not merely as an empirical art whose rules had no deeper
source than expediency. Thus he continually refers to first
principles, and he develops his legal doctrines as a system of
philosophy.
His chief works were Antiquitatum Romanarum juris prudentiam
illustrantium syntagma (1718), Historia juris civilis Romani ac
Germanici (1733), Elementa juris Germanici (1735), Elementa juris
naturae et gentium (1737; Eng. trans, by Turnbull, 2 vols., London,
1763). Besides these works he wrote on purely philosophical sub-
jects, and edited the works of several of the classical jurists. His
Opera omnia (9 vols., Geneva, 1771, &c.) were edited by his son
Johann Christian Gottlieb Heineccius (1718-1791).
Heineccius's brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HEINECCIUS (1674-
1722), was a well-known preacher and theologian, but is re-
membered more from the fact ,that he was the first to make a
systematic study of seals, concerning which he left a book, De
veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum sigillis (Leipzig,
1710; 2nd ed., 1719).
HEINECKEN, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH (1721-1725), a child
remarkable for precocity of intellect, was born on the 6th of
February 1721 at Liibeck, where his father was a painter.
Able to speak at the age of ten months, by the time he was one
year old he knew by heart the principal incidents in the
Pentateuch. At two years of age he had mastered sacred
history; at three he was intimately acquainted with history
and geography, ancient and modern, sacred and profane, besides
being able to speak French and Latin; and in his fourth year
he devoted himself to the study of religion and church history.
This wonderful precocity was no mere feat of memory, for the
youthful savant could reason on and discuss the knowledge
he had acquired. Crowds of people flocked to Liibeck to see
the wonderful child; and in 1724 he was taken to Copenhagen
at the desire of the king of Denmark. On his return to Liibeck
2l6
HEINICKE HEIR
he began to learn writing, but his sickly constitution gave way,
and he died on the 22nd of June 1725.
The Life, Deeds, Travels and Death of the Child of Liibeck
were published in the following year by his tutor Schoneich. See
also Teutsche Bibliothek, xvii., and Memoires de Trevoux (Jan.
1731).
HEINICKE, SAMUEL (1727-1790), the originator in Germany
of systematic education for the deaf and dumb, was born on the
loth of April 1727, at Nautschiitz, Germany. Entering the
electoral bodyguard at Dresden, he subsequently supported
himself by teaching. About 1754 his first deaf and dumb pupil
was brought him. His success in teaching this pupil was so
great that he determined to devote himself entirely to this work.
The outbreak of the Seven Years' War upset his plans for a time.
Taken prisoner at Pirna, he was brought to Dresden, but soon
made his escape. In 1768, when living in Hamburg, he success-
fully taught a deaf and dumb boy to talk, following the methods
prescribed by Amman in his book Surdus loquens, but improving
on them. Recalled to his own country by the elector of Saxony,
he opened in Leipzig, in 1778, the first deaf and dumb institution
in Germany. This school he directed till his death, which took
place on the 3oth of April 1790. He was the author of a variety
of books on the instruction of the deaf and dumb.
HEINSE, JOHANN JAKOB WILHELM (1740-1803), German
author, was born at Langewiesen near Ilmenau in Thuringia on
the 1 6th of February 1749. After attending the gymnasium at
Schleusingen he studied law at Jena and Erfurt. In Erfurt he
became acquainted with Wieland and through him with " Father"
Gleim who in 1772 procured him the post of tutor in a family at
Quedlinburg. In 1774 he went to Diisseldorf, where he assisted
the poet J. G. Jacobi to edit the periodical Iris. Here the
famous picture gallery inspired him with a passion for art, to the
study of which he devoted himself with so much zeal and insight
that Jacobi furnished him with funds for a stay in Italy, where
he remained for three years (i 780-1 783). He returned to Diissel-
dorf in 1784, and in 1786 was appointed reader to the elector
Frederick Charles Joseph, archbishop of Mainz, who subse-
quently made him his librarian at Aschaffenburg, where he died
on the 22nd of June 1803.
The work upon which Heinse's fame mainly rests is Ardinghello
und die gluckseligen Inseln (1787), a novel which forms the frame-
work for the exposition of his views on art and life, the plot being
laid in the Italy of the i6th century. This and his other novels
Laidion, oder die eleusinischen Geheimnisse (1774) and Hildegard
von Hohenthal (1796) combine the frank voluptuousness of
Wieland with the enthusiasm of the " Sturm und Drang." Both
as novelist and art critic, Heinse had considerable influence on
the romantic school.
Heinse's complete works (Samtliche Schriften) were published by
H. Laube in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1838). A new edition by C. Schudde-
kopf is in course of publication (Leipzig, 1901 sqq.). See H. Prohle,
Lessing, Wieland, Heinse (Berlin, 1877), and J. Schober, Johann
Jacob Wilhelm Heinse, sein Leben und seine Werke (Leipzig, 1882);
also K. D. Jessen, Heinses Stellung zur bildenden Kunst (Berlin,
1903)-
HEINSIUS (or HEINS) DANIEL (1580-1655), one of the most
famous scholars of the Dutch Renaissance, was born at Ghent
on the 9th of June 1580. The troubles of the Spanish war drove
his parents to settle first at Veere in Zeeland, then in England,
next at Ryswick and lastly at Flushing. In 1594, being already
remarkable for his attainments, he was sent to the university of
Franeker to perfect himself in Greek under Henricus Schotanus.
He stayed at Franeker half a year, and then settled at Leiden
for the remaining sixty years of his life. There he studied under
Joseph Scaliger, and there he found Marnix de St Aldegonde,
Janus Douza, Paulus Merula and others, and was soon taken
into the society of these celebrated men as their equal. His
proficiency in the classic languages won the praise of all the best
scholars of Europe, and offers were made to him, but in vain, to
accept honourable positions outside Holland. He soon rose in
dignity at the university of Leiden. In 1602 he was made
professor of Latin, in 1605 professor of Greek, and at the death of
Merula in 1607 he succeeded that illustrious scholar as librarian
to the university. The remainder of his life is recorded in a list of
his productions. He died at the Hague on the 25th of February
1655. The Dutch poetry of Heinsius is of the school of Roemer
Visscher, but attains no very high excellence. It was, however,
greatly admired by Martin Opitz, who was the pupil of Heinsius,
and who, in translating the poetry of the latter, introduced the
German public to the use of the rhyming alexandrine.
He published his original Latin poems in three volumes Iambi
(1602), Elegiae (1603) and Po'emata (1605) ; his Emblemata amatoria,
poems in Dutch and Latin, were first printed in 1604. In the same
year he edited Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, having edited Hesiod
in 1603. In 1609 he printed his Latin Orations. In 1610 he edited
Horace, and in 1611 Aristotle and Seneca. In 1613 appeared in
Dutch his tragedy of The Massacre of the Innocents; and in 1614 his
treatise De politica sapientia. In 1616 he collected his original Dutch
poems into a volume. He edited Terence in 1618, Livy in 1620,
published his oration De contemptu mortis in 1621, and brought out
the Epistles of Joseph Scaliger in 1627.
HEINSIUS, NIKOLAES (1620-1681), Dutch scholar, son of
Daniel Heinsius, was born at Leiden on the 2oth of July 1620.
His boyish Latin poem of Breda expugnata was printed in
1637, and attracted much attention. In 1642 he began his
wanderings with a visit to England in search of MSS. of the
classics; but he met with little courtesy from the English
scholars. In 1644 he was sent to Spa to drink the waters; his
health restored, he set out once more in search of codices, passing
through Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Antwerp and so back to
Leiden, everywhere collating MSS. and taking philological and
textual notes. Almost immediately he set out again, and arriving
in Paris was welcomed with open arms by the French savants.
After investigating all the classical texts he could lay hands on,
he proceeded southwards, and visited on the same quest Lyons,
Marseilles, Pisa, Florence (where he paused to issue a new edition
of Ovid) and Rome. Next year, 1647, found him in Naples,
from which he fled during the reign of Masaniello; he pursued
his labours in Leghorn, Bologna, Venice and Padua, at which
latter city he published in 1648 his volume of original Latin verse
entitled Ilalica. He proceeded to Milan, and worked for a con-
siderable time in the Ambrosian library; he was preparing to
explore Switzerland in the same patient manner, when the news
of his father's illness recalled him hurriedly to Leiden. He was
soon called away to Stockholm at the invitation of Queen
Christina, at whose court he waged war with Salmasius, who
accused him of having supplied Milton with facts from the life
of that great but irritable scholar. Heinsius paid a flying visit
to Leiden in 1650, but immediately returned to Stockholm. In
1651 he once more visited Italy; the remainder of his life was
divided between Upsala and Holland. He collected his Latin
poems into a volume in 1653. His latest labours were the
editing of Velleius Paterculus in 1678, and of Valerius Flaccus in
1680. Hedied at the Hague on the 7th of Octoberi68i. Nikolaes
Heinsius was one of the purest and most elegant of Latinists, and
if his scholarship was not quite so perfect as that of his father, he
displayed higher gifts as an original writer.
His illegitimate son, NIKOLAES HEINSIUS (b. 1655), was the
author of The Delightful Adventures and Wonderful Life of
Mirandor (1675), the single Dutch romance of the i7th century.
He had to flee the country in 1677 for committing a murder in the
streets of the Hague, and died in obscurity.
HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in herus
or erus, master of a house, Gr. \dp, hand, Sans, hat ana,
hand), in law, technically one who succeeds, by descent, to an
estate of inheritance, in contradistinction to one who succeeds
to personal property, i.e. next of kin. The word is now used
generally to denote the person who is entitled by law to inherit
property, titles, &c.,of another. The rules regulating the descent
of property to an heir will be found in the articles INHERITANCE,
SUCCESSION, &c.
An heir apparent (Lat. apparens, manifest) is he whose right of
inheritance is indefeasible, provided he outlives the ancestor,
e.g. an eldest or only son.
Heir by custom, or customary heir, he who inherits by a
particular and local custom, as in borough-English, whereby
HEIRLOOM HEJAZ
the youngest son inherits, or in gavelkind, whereby all the sons
inherit as parceners, and made but one heir.
Heir general, or heir at law, he who after the death of his
ancestor has, by law, the right to the inheritance.
Heir presumptive, one who is next in succession, but whose
right is defeasible by the birth of a nearer heir, e.g. a brother or
nephew, whose presumptive right may be destroyed by the birth
of a child, or a daughter, whose right may be defeated by the
birth of a son.
Special heir, one not heir at law (i.e. at common law), but by
special custom.
Ultimate heir, he to whom lands come by escheat on failure of
proper heirs. In Scots law the technical use of the word " heir "
is not confined to the succession to real property, but includes
succession to personal property as well.
HEIRLOOM, strictly so called in English law, a chattel
{" loom " meaning originally a tool) which by immemorial
usage is regarded as annexed by inheritance to a family estate.
Any owner of such heirloom may dispose of it during his life-
time, but he cannot bequeath it by will away from the estate.
If he dies intestate it goes to his heir-at-law, and if he devises
the estate it goes to the devisee. At the present time such
heirlooms are almost unknown, and the word has acquired a
secondary and popular meaning and is applied to furniture,
pictures, &c., vested in trustees to hold on trust for the person
for the time being entitled to the possession of a settled house.
Such things are more properly called settled chattels. An
heirloom in the strict sense is made by family custom, not by
settlement. A settled chattel may, under the Settled Land Act
1882, be sold under the direction of the court, and the money
arising under such sale is capital money. The court will only
sanction such a sale if it be shown that it is to the benefit of all
parties concerned; and if the article proposed to be sold is of
unique or historical character, it will have regard to the intention
of the settlor and the wishes of the remainder men (Re Hope,
De Cello v. Hope, 1899, 2 ch. 679).
HEJAZ (HIJAZ), a Turkish vilayet and a province of Western
Arabia, extending along the Red Sea coast from the head of
the Gulf of Akaba in 29 30' N. to the south of Taif in 20 N. It
is bounded N. by Syria, E. by the Nafud desert and by Nejd and
S. by Asir. Its length is about 750 m. and its greatest breadth
from the Harra east of Khaibar to the coast is 200 m. The
name Hejaz, which signifies " separating," is sometimes limited
to the region extending from Medina in the north to Taif in the
south, which separates the island province f Nejd from the
Tehama (Tihama) or coastal district, but most authorities,
both Arab and European, define it in the wider sense. Though
physically the most desolate and uninviting province in Arabia,
it has a special interest and importance as containing the two
sacred cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina (q.v.), respectively
the birthplace and burial-place of Mahomet, which are visited
yearly by large numbers of Moslem pilgrims from all parts of
the world.
Hejaz is divided longitudinally by the Tehama, range of
mountains into two zones, a narrow littoral and a broader
upland. This range attains its greatest height in Jebel Shar,
the Mount Seir of scripture, overlooking the Midian coast,
which probably reaches 7000 ft., and Jebel Radhwa a little N.E.
of Yambu rising to 6000 ft. It is broken through by several
valleys which carry off the drainage of the inland zone; the
principal of these is the Wadi Hamd, the main source of which
is on the Harra east of Khaibar. Its northern tributary the Wadi
Jizil drains the Harrat el Awerid and a southern branch comes
from the neighbourhood of Medina.. Farther south the Wadi
es Safra cuts through the mountains and affords the principal
access to the valley of Medina from Yambu or Jidda. None
of the Hejaz Wadis has a perennial stream, but they are liable
to heavy floods after the winter rains, and thick groves of date-
palms and occasional settlements are met with along their
courses wherever permanent springs are found. The northern
part of Hejaz contains but few inhabited sites. Muwela, Damgha
and El Wijh are small ports used by coasting craft. The last
217
named was formerly an important station on the Egyptian
pilgrim route, and in ancient days was a Roman settlement,
and the port of the Nabataean towns of el Hajr 150 m. to the east.
Inland the sandstone desert of El Hisma reaches from the Syrian
border at Ma'an to Jebel Awerid, where the volcanic tracts
known as harra begin, and extend southwards along the western
borders of the Nejd plateau as far as the latitude of Mecca. East
of Jebel Awerid lies the oasis of Tema, identified with the
Biblical Teman, which belongs to the Shammar tribe; its fertility
depends on the famous well, known as Bir el Hudaj. Farther
south and on the main pilgrim route is El 'Ala, the principal
settlement of El Hajr, the Egra of Ptolemy, to whom it was
known as an oasis town on the gold and frankincense road.
Higher up the same valley are the rock-cut tombs of Medina
Salih, similar to those at Petra and shown by the Nabataean
coins and inscriptions discovered there by Doughty and Huber
to date from the beginning of the Christian era. To the south-
east again is the oasis of Khaibar, with some 2500 inhabitants,
chiefly negroes, the remnants of an earlier slave population.
The citadel, known as the Kasr el Yahudi, preserves the tradition
of its former Jewish ownership. With these exceptions there
are no settled villages between Ma'an and Medina, the stations
on the pilgrim road being merely small fortified posts with
reservoirs, at intervals of 30 or 40 m., which are kept up by the
Turkish government for the protection of the yearly caravan.
The southern part of the province is more favoured by nature.
Medina is a city of 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, situated in a
broad plain between the coast range and the low hills across
which lies the road to Nejd. Its altitude above the sea is about
2500 ft. It is well supplied with water and is surrounded by
gardens and plantations; barley and wheat are grown, but the
staple produce, as in all the cultivated districts of Hejaz, is dates,
of which 100 different sorts are said to grow. Yambu' has a
certain importance as the port for Medina. The route follows
for part of the way along the Wadi es Safra, which contains
several small settlements with abundant date groves; from
Badr Hunen, the last of these, the route usually taken from
Medina to Mecca runs near the coast, passing villages with
some cultivation at each stage. The eastern route though more
direct is less used; it passes through a barren country described
by Burton as a succession of low plains and basins surrounded
by rolling hills and intersected by torrent beds; the predominant
formation is basalt. Suwerikiya and Es Safina are the only
villages of importance on this route.
' Mecca and the holy places in its vicinity are described in a
separate article; it is about 48 m. from the port of Jidda, the
most important trade centre of the Hejaz province. The great
majority of pilgrims for Mecca arrive by sea at Jidda. Their
transport and the supply of their wants is therefore the chief
business of the place; in 1004 the number was 66,500, and the
imports amounted in value to 1,400,000.
From the hot lowland in which Mecca is situated the country
rises steeply up to the Taif plateau, some 6000 ft. above sea-
level, a district resembling in climate and physical character
the highlands of Asir and Yemen. Jebel el Kura at the northern
edge of the plateau is a fertile well-watered district, producing
wheat and barley and fruit. Taif, a day's journey farther south,
lies in a sandy plain, surrounded by low mountains. The houses,
though small, are well built of stone; the gardens for which
it is celebrated lie at a distance of a mile or more to the S.W. at
the foot of the mountains.
Hejaz, together with the other provinces of Arabia which on
the overthrow of the Bagdad Caliphate in 1258 had fallen under
Egyptian domination, became by the conquest of Egypt in 1517
a dependency of the Ottoman empire. Beyond assuming the
title of Caliph, neither Salim I. nor his successors interfered
much in the government, which remained in the hands of the
sharifs of Mecca until the religious upheaval which culminated
at the beginning of the igth century in the pillage of the holy
cities by the Wahhabi fanatics. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt,
was entrusted by the sultan with the task of establishing order,
and after several arduous campaigns the Wahhabis were routed
218
HEJIRA HELDENBUCH
and their capital Deraiya in Nejd taken by Ibrahim Pasha in
1817. Hejaz remained in Egyptian occupation until 1845,
when its administration was taken over directly by Constan-
tinople, and it was constituted a vilayet under a vali or governor-
general. The population is estimated at 300,000, about half of
which are inhabitants of the towns and the remainder Bedouin,
leading a nomad or pastoral life. The principal tribes are the
Sherarat, Beni Atiya and Huwetat in the north; the Juhena
between Yambu' and Medina, and the various sections of the
Harb throughout the centre and south; the Ateba also touch
the Mecca border on the south-east. All these tribes receive
surra or money payments of large amount from the Turkish
government to ensure the safe conduct of the annual pilgrimage,
otherwise they are practically independent of the Turkish
administration, which is limited to the large towns and garrisons.
The troops occupying these latter belong to the i6th (Hejaz)
division of the Turkish army.
The difficulties of communication with his Arabian provinces,
and of relieving or reinforcing the garrisons there, induced the
sultan Abdul Hamid in 1900 to undertake the con-
* struction of a railway directly connecting the Hejaz
railway. cities with Damascus without the necessity of leaving
Turkish territory at any point, as hitherto required
by the Suez Canal. Actual construction was begun in May 1901
and on the ist of September 1904 the section Damascus-Ma'an
(285 m.) was officially opened. The line has a narrow gauge
of 1-05 metre= 41 in., the same gauge as that of the Damascus-
Beirut line; it has a ruling gradient of i in 50 and follows gener-
ally the pilgrim track, through a desert country presenting no
serious engineering difficulties. The graver difficulties due to
the scarcity of water, and the lack of fuel, supplies and labour
were successfully overcome; in 1906 the line was completed
to El Akhdar, 470 m. from Damascus and 350 from Medina,
in time to be used by the pilgrim caravan of that year; and the
section to Medina was opened in 1908. Its military value was
shown in the previous year, when it conveyed 28 battalions from
Damascus to Ma'an, from which station the troops marched to
Akaba for embarkation en route to Hodeda.. The length of the line
from Damascus to Medina is approximately 820 m., and from
Medina to Mecca 280 m.; the highest level attained is about
4000 ft. at Dar el Hamra in the section Ma'an-Medina.
AUTHORITIES. J. L. Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia (London,
1829); 'Ali Bey, Travels (London, 1816); R. F. Burton, Pilgrimage
to Medinah and Mecca (1893); Land of Midian (London, 1879);
J. S. Hurgronje, Mekka (Hague, 1888); C. M. Doughty, Arabia
Deserta (Cambridge, 1888); Auler Pasha, Die Hedschasbahn (Gotha,
1906). (R. A. W.)
HEJIRA, 1 or HEGIRA (Arab, kijra, flight, departure from
one's country, from hajara, to go away) , the name of the Mahom-
medan era. It dates from 622, the year in which Mahomet
" fled " from Mecca to Medina to escape the persecution of his
kinsmen of the Kpreish tribe. The years of this era are dis-
tinguished by the initials " A.H." (anno hegirae). The Mahom-
medan year is a lunar one, about n days shorter than the
Christian; allowance must be made for this in translating
Hegira dates into Christian dates; thus A.H. 1321 corresponds
roughly to A.D. 1903. The actual date of the " flight " is fixed
as 8 Rabia I., i.e. 2oth of September 622, by the tradition that
Mahomet arrived at Kufa on the Hebrew Day of Atonement.
Although Mahomet himself appears to have dated events by
his flight, it was not till seventeen years later that the actual
era was systematized by Omar, the second caliph(see CALIPHATE),
as beginning from the ist day of Muharram (the first lunar
month of the year) which in that year (639) corresponded to
July 16. The term hejira is also applied in its more general
sense to other " emigrations " of the faithful, e.g. to that to
Abyssinia (see MAHOMET), and to that of Mahomet's followers
to Medina before the capture of Mecca. These latter are known
as Muhajirun.
For the problems of Moslem chronology and comparative tables
of dates see (beside the articles CALENDAR, CHRONOLOGY and
1 The i in the second syllable is short.
MAHOMET),Wustenfeld, Vergleichungstabellen der muhammedanischen
und christlichen Zeitrechnung (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Mas Latric,
Tresor de chronologie (Paris, 1889); Durbaneh, Universal Calendar
(Cairo, 1896); Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, ii. 326-350;
D. Nielson, Die altarabische Mondreligion (Strassburg, 1904) ; Hughes,
Dictionary of Islam, s.v. " Hijrah."
HEL, or HELA, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of
the dead. She was a child of Loki and the giantess Angurboda,
and dwelt beneath the roots of the sacred ash, Yggdrasil. She
was given dominion over the nine worlds of Helheim. In early
myth all the dead went to her: in later legend only those who
died of old age or sickness, and she then became synonymous
with suffering and horror. Her dwelling was Elvidnir (dark
clouds), her dish Hungr (hunger), her knife Sullt (starvation),
her servants Ganglate (tardy feet), her bed Kor (sickness), and
her bed-curtains Blikiandabol (splendid misery).
HELDENBUCH, DAS, the title under which a large body of
German epic poetry of the I3th century has come down to us.
The subjects of the individual poems are taken from national
German sagas which originated in the epoch of the Migrations
(V olkenvanderung} , although doubtless here, as in all purely
popular sagas, motives borrowed from the forces and phenomena
of nature were, in course of time, woven into events originally
historical. While the saga of the Nibelungs crystallized in the
i3th century into the Nibelungenlied (q.v.), and the Low German
Hilde-saga into the epic of Gtidrun (q.v.) the poems of the
Heldenbuch, in the more restricted use of that term, belong
almost exclusively to two cycles, (i) the Ostrogothic saga of
Ermanrich, Dietrich von Bern (i.e. Dietrich of Verona,Theodorich
the Great) and Etzel (Attila), and (2) the cycle of Hugdietrich,
Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, which like the Nibelungen saga, was
probably of Franconian origin. The romances of the Heldenbuch
are of varying poetic value; only occasionally do they rise to
the height of the two chief epics, the Nibelungenlied and Gudrun.
Dietrich von Bern, the central figure of the first and more im-
portant group, was the ideal type of German medieval hero, and,
under more favourable literary conditions, he might have become
the centre of an epic more nationally German than even the
Nibelungenlied itself. Of the romances of this group, the chief
are Biterolf und Dietlieb, evidently the work of an Austrian poet,
who introduced many elements from the court epic of chivalry
into a milieu and amongst characters familiar to us from the
Nibelungenlied. Der Rosengarten tells of the conflicts which
took place round Kriemhild's " rose garden " in Worms
conflicts from which Dietrich always emerges victor, even when
he is confronted by Siegfried himself. In Laurin und der kleine
Rosengarten, the Heldensage is mingled with elements of popular
fairy-lore; it deals with the adventures of Dietrich and his
henchman Witege with the wily dwarf Laurin, who watches over
another rose garden, that of the Tyrol. Similar in character
are the adventures of Dietrich with the giants Ecke (Eckenlied)
and Sigenot, with the dwarf Goldemar, and the deeds of chivalry
he performs for queen Virginal (Dietrichs erste Ausfahrt) all
of these romances being written in the fresh and popular tone
characteristic of the wandering singers or Spielleute. Other
elements of the Dietrich saga are represented by the poems
Alpharts Tod, Dietrichs Flucht and Die Rabenschlacht (" Battle
of Ravenna "). Of these, the first is much the finest poem of
the entire cycle and worthy of a place beside the best popular
poetry of the Middle High German epoch. Alphart, a young
hero in Dietrich's army, goes out to fight single-handed with
Witege and Heime, who had deserted to Ermanrich, and he falls,
not in fair battle, but by the treachery of Witege whose life he
had spared. The other two Dietrich epics belbng to a later
period, the end of the i3th century the author being an Austrian,
Heinrich der Vogler and show only too plainly the decay that
had by this time set in in Middle High German poetry.
The second cycle of sagas is represented by several long
romances, all of them unmistakably " popular " in tone conflicts
with dragons, supernatural adventures, the wonderland of the
East providing the chief features of interest. The epics of this
group are Ortnit, Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich, the latter with its
HELDER HELENA
219
pathetic episode of the unswerving loyalty of Wolfdietrich's
vassal Duke Berchtung and his ten sons. Although many of the
incidents and motives of this cycle are drawn from the best
traditions of the Heldensage, its literary value is not very high.
This collection of popular romances was one of the first German
books to be printed. The date of the first edition is unknown, but
the second edition appeared in the year 1491 and was followed by
later reprints in 1509, 1545, 1560 and 1590. The last of these forms
the basis of the text edited by A. von Keller for the Stuttgart
Literarische Verein in 1867. In 1472 the Heldenbuch was adapted
to the popular tastes of the time by being remodelled in rough
Knittelvers or doggerel ; the author, or at least copyist, of the MS.
was a certain Kaspar von der Roen, of Munnerstadt in Franconia.
This version was printed by F. von der Hagen and S. Primisser in
their Heldenbuch (1820-1825). Das Heldenbuch, which F. von der
Hagen published in 2 vols. in 1855, was the first attempt to reproduce
the original text by collating the MSS. A critical edition, based not
merely on the oldest printed text the only one which has any value
for this purpose, as the others are all copies of it but also on the
MSS., was published in 5 vols. by O. Janicke, E. Martin, A. Amelung
and J. Zupitza at Berlin (1866-1873). A selection, edited by E.
Henrici, will be found in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur,
vol. 7 (1887). Recent editions have appeared of Der Rosengarten
and Laurin, by G. Holz (1893 and 1897). All the poems have been
translated into modern German by K. Simrock and others. See
F. E. Sandbach, The Heroic Saga-Cycle of Dietrich of Bern (1906).
The literature of the Heldensage is very extensive. See especially
W. Grimm, Die deutsche Heldensage (3rd ed., 1889); L. Uhland,
" Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter," Schriften, vol. i.
(1866); O. L. Jiriczek, Deutsche Heldensage,- vol. i. (1898); and
especially B. Symons, " Germanische Heldensage," in Paul's Grund-
riss der germanischen Philologie (2nd ed., 1898).
HELDER, a seaport town at the northern extremity of the
province of North Holland, in the kingdom of Holland, 51 m.
by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam. Pop. (1900) 25,842. It is
situated on the Marsdiep, the channel separating the island of
Texel from the mainland, and the main entrance to the Zuider
Zee, and besides being the terminus of the North Holland canal
from Amsterdam, it is an important naval and military station.
On the east side of the town, called the Nieuwe Diep, is situated
the fine harbour, which formerly served, as Ymuiden now does,
as the outer port of Amsterdam. In this neighbourhood are the
naval wharves and magazines, wet and dry docks, and the naval
cadet school of Holland, the name Willemsoord being given
to the whole naval establishment. From Nieuwe Diep to Fort
Erfprins on the west side of the town, a distance of about 5 m.,
stretches the great sea-dike which here takes the place of the
dunes. This dike descends at an angle of 40 for a distance of
200 ft. into the sea, and is composed of Norwegian granite and
Belgian limestone, strengthened at intervals by projecting
jetties of piles and fascines. A circle of forts and batteries
defends the town and coast, and there is a permanent garrison
of 7000 to 9000 men, while 30,000 men can be accommodated
within the lines, and the province flooded from this point.
Besides several churches and a synagogue, there are a town
hall (1836), a hospital, an orphan asylum, the " palace " of
the board of marine, a meteorological observatory, a zoological
station and a lighthouse. The industries of the town are
sustained by the garrison and marine establishments. ,
HELEN, or HELENA (Gr. 'EXeirj), in Greek mythology, daughter
of Zeus by Leda (wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta),, sister of
Castor, Pollux and Clytaemnestra, and wife of Menelaus.
Other accounts make her the daughter of Zeus and Nemesis,
or of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the most beautiful woman in
Greece, and indirectly the cause of the Trojan war. When
a child she was carried off from Sparta by Theseus to Attica,
but was recovered and taken back by her brothers. When she
grew up, the most famous of the princes of Greece sought her
hand in marriage, and her father's choice fell upon Menelaus.
During her husband's absence she was induced by Paris, son of
Priam, with the connivance of Aphrodite, to flee with him to
Troy. After the death of Paris she married his brother Delphobus,
whom she is said to have betrayed into the hands of Menelaus
at the capture of the city (Aeneid, vi. 517 ff.). Menelaus there-
upon took her back, and they returned together to Sparta, where
they lived happily till their death, and were buried at Therapnae
in Laconia. According to another story, Helen survived her
husband, and was driven out by her stepsons. She fled to Rhodes,
where she was hanged on a tree by her former friend Polyxo,
to avenge the loss of her husband Tlepolemus in the Trojan
War (Pausanias iii. 19). After death, Helen was said to have
married Achilles in his home in the island of Leuke. In another
version, Paris, on his voyage to Troy with Helen, was driven
ashore on the coast of Egypt, where King Proteus, upon learning
the facts of the case, detained the real Helen in Egypt, while a
phantom Helen was carried off to Troy. Menelaus on his way
home was also driven by stress of winds to Egypt, where he
found his wife and took her home (Herodotus ii. 112-120;
Euripides, Helena). Helen was worshipped as the goddess of
beauty at Therapnae in Laconia, where a festival was held in
her honour. At Rhodes she was worshipped under the name
of Dendritis (the tree goddess), where the inhabitants built a
temple in her honour to expiate the crime of Polyxo. The
Rhodian story probably contains a reference to the worship
connected with her name (cf. Theocritus xviii. 48 akfiov n'.,
'E\tvas <t>vrov ei/w). She was the subject of a tragedy by
Euripides and an epic by Colluthus. Originally, Helen was
perhaps a goddess of light, a moon-goddess, who was gradually
transformed into the beautiful heroine round whom the action
of the Iliad revolves. Like her brothers, the Dioscuri, she
was a patron deity of sailors.
See E. Oswald, The Legend of Fair Helen (1905) ; J. A. Symonds,
Studies of the Creek Poets, i. (1893); F. Decker, Die griechische
Helena in Mythos und Epos (1894); Andrew Lang, Helen of Troy
(1883); P. Paris in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des an-
tiquites; the exhaustive article by R. Engelmann in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie; and O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythplogie,
i. 163, according to whom Helen originally represented, in the
Helenephoria (a mystic festival of Artemis, Iphigeneia or Tauro-
polos), the sacred basket (k\kvri) in which the holy objects were
carried ; and hence, as the personification of the initiation ceremony,
she was connected with or identified with the moon, the first appear-
ance of which probably marked the beginning of the festivity. ,
HELENA, ST (c. 247-^. 327) the wife of the emperor Constantius
I. Chlorus, and mother of Constantine the Great. She was a
woman of humble origin, born probably at Drepanum, a town on
the Gulf of Nicomedia, which Constantine named Helenopolis
in her honour. Very little is known of her history. It is certain
that, at an advanced age, she undertook a pilgrimage to Palestine,
visited the holy places, and founded several churches. She
was still living at the time of the murder of Crispus (326). Con-
stantine had coins struck with the effigy of his mother. The
name of Helena is intimately connected with the commonly
received story of the discovery of the Cross. But the accounts
which connect her with the discovery are much later than the
date of the event. The Pilgrim of Bordeaux (333), Eusebius
and Cyril of Jerusalem were unaware of this important episode
in the life of the empress. It was only at the end of the 4th
century and in the West that the legend appeared. The principal
centre of the cult of St Helena in the West seems to be the abbey
of Hautvilliers, near Reims, where since the pth century they
have claimed to be in possession of her body. In England
legends arose representing her as the daughter of a prince of
Britain. Following these Geoffrey of Monmouth makes her
the daughter of Coel, the king who is supposed to have given
his name to the town of Colchester. These legends have doubt-
less not been without influence on the cult of the saint in England,
where a great number of churches are dedicated either to St
Helena alone, or to St Cross and St Helena. Her festival is
celebrated in the Latin Church on the i8th of August. The
Greeks make no distinction between her festival and that of
Constantine, the 2ist of May.
See Acta sanctorum, August! iii. 548-580; Tixeront, Les Origines
de I'eglise d'Edesse (Paris, 1888); F. Arnold-Forster, Studies in
Church Dedications or England's Patron Saints, i. 181-189, "' '6>
365-366 (1899). (H. DE.)
HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Phillips county,
Arkansas, U.S.A., situated on and at the foot of Crowly's
Ridge, about 150 ft. above sea-level, in the alluvial bottoms of
the Mississippi river, about 65 m. by rail S.W. of Memphis,
Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 5189, (1900) 5550, of whom 3400
220
HELENA HELGESEN
werenegroes; (1910) 8772. It is served by the Yazoo& Mississippi
Valley (Illinois Central), the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern
(Missouri Pacific), the Arkansas Midland, and the Missouri &
North Arkansas railways. Built in part upon " made land,"
well protected by levees, and lying within the richest cotton-
producing region of the south, the rich timber country oi the
St Francis river, and the Mississippi " bottom lands," Helena
concentrates its economic interests in cotton-compressing and
shipping, the manufacture of cotton-seed products, lumbering
and wood- working. The city was founded about 1821, but so
late as 1860 the population was only 800. During the Civil War
the place was of considerable strategic importance. It was
occupied in July 1862 by the Union forces, who strongly fortified
it to guard their communications with the lower Mississippi;
on the 4th of July 1863, when occupied by General Benjamin
M. Prentiss (1819-1901) with 4500 men, it was attacked by a
force of 9000 Confederates under General TheophilusH. Holmes
(1804-1880), who hoped to raise the siege of Vicksburg or close
the river to the Union forces. The attack was repulsed, with
a loss to the Confederates of one-fifth their numbers, the Union
loss being slight.
HELENA, a city and the county-seat of Lewis and Clark
county, Montana, U.S.A., and the capital of the state, at the
E. base of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, 80 m. N.E.
of Butte, at an altitude of about 4000 ft. Pop. (1880) 3624;
(1890) 13,834; (1900) 10,770, of whom 2793 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 12,515. It is served by the Great Northern
and the Northern Pacific railways. Helena is delightfully
situated with Mt Helena as a background in the hollow of the
Prickly Pear valley, a rich agricultural region surrounded by
rolling hills and lofty mountains, and contains many fine buildings,
including the state capitol, county court house, the Montana
club house, high school, the cathedral of St Helena, a federal
building, and the United States assay office. It is the seat of
the Montana Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal),
founded in 1890; St Aloysius College and St Vincent's Academy
(Roman Catholic); and has a public library with about 35,000
volumes, the Montana state library with about 40,000 volumes,
and the state law library with about 24,000 volumes. The
city is the commercial and financial centre of the state (Butte
being the mining centre), and is one of the richest cities in the
United States in proportion to its population. It has large
railway car-shops, extensive smelters and quartz crushers (at
East Helena), and various manufacturing establishments;
the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,309,746, an
increase of 68-7 % over that of 1900. The surrounding
country abounds in gold- and silver-bearing quartz deposits,
and it is estimated that from the famous Last Chance Gulch
alone, which runs across the city, more than $40,000,000 in
gold has been taken. The street railway and the lighting system
of the city are run by power generated at a plant and 40 ft.
dam at Canyon Ferry, on the Missouri river, 18 m. E. of Helena.
There is another great power plant at Hauser Plant, 20 m.
N. of Helena. Three miles W. of the city is the Broadwater
Natatorium with swimming pool, 300 ft. long and 100 ft. wide,
the water for which is furnished by hot springs with a temperature
at the source of 160. Fort Harrison, a United States army post,
is situated 3 m. W. of the city. Helena was established as a
placer mining camp in 1864 upon the discovery of gold in Last
Chance Gulch. The town was laid out in the same year, and
after the organization of Montana Territory it was designated
as the capital. Helena was burned down in 1869 and in 1874.
It was chartered as a city in 1881.
HELENSBURGH, a municipal and police burgh and watering-
place of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the N. shore of the Firth
of Clyde, opposite Greenock, 24 m. N.W. of Glasgow by the
North British railway. Pop. (1901) 8554. There is a station
at Upper Helensburgh on the West Highland railway, and from
the railway pier at Craigendoran there is steamer communication
with Garelochhead, Dunoon and other pleasure resorts on the
western coast. In 1776 the site began to be built upon, and in
1802 the town, named after Lady Helen, wife of Sir James
Colquhoun of Luss, the ground landlord, was erected into a
burgh of barony, under a provost and council. The public
buildings include the burgh hall, municipal buildings, Hermitage
schools and two hospitals. On the esplanade stands an obelisk
to Henry Bell, the pioneer of steam navigation, who died at
Helensburgh in 1830.
HELENUS, in Greek legend, son of Priam and Hecuba, and
twin-brother of Cassandra. He is said to have been originally
called Scamandrius, and to have receive^} the name of Helenus
from a Thracian soothsayer who instructed him in the prophetic
art. In the Iliad he is described as the prince of augurs and a
brave warrior; in the Odyssey he is not mentioned at all.
Various details concerning him are added by later writers.
It is related that he and his sister fell asleep in the temple of
Apollo Thymbraeus and that snakes came and cleansed their
ears, whereby they obtained the gift of prophecy and were
able to understand the language of birds. After the death of
Paris, Helenus and his brother Dei'phobus became rivals for
the hand of Helen. Dei'phobus was preferred, and Helenus
withdrew in indignation to Mount Ida, where he was captured
by the Greeks, whom he advised to build the wooden horse and
carry off the Palladium. According to other accounts, having
been made prisoner by a stratagem of Odysseus, he declared
that Philoctetes must be fetched from Lemnos before Troy could
be taken; or he surrendered to Diomedes and Odysseus in the
temple of Apollo, whither he had fled in disgust at the sacrilegious
murder of Achilles by Paris in the sanctuary. After the capture
of Troy, he and his sister-in-law Andromache accompanied
Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus) as captives to Epirus, where Helenus
persuaded him to settle. After the death of Neoptolemus,
Helenus married Andromache and became ruler of the country.
He was the reputed founder of Buthrotum and Chaonia, named
after a brother or companion whom he had accidentally slain
while hunting. He was said to have been buried at Argos,
where his tomb was shown. When Aeneas, in the course of his
wanderings, reached Epirus, he was hospitably received by
Helenus, who predicted his future destiny.
Homer, Iliad, vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94, xiii. 576; Sophocles, Philoc-
tetes, 604, who probably follows the Little Iliad of Lesches; Pausanias
i. ii, ii. 23; Conon, Narrationes, 34; Dictys Cretensis iv. 18;
Virgil, Aeneid, ill. 294-490; Servius on Aeneid, ii. 166, iii. 334.
HELGAUD, or HELGALDUS (d. c. 1048), French chronicler,
was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Fleury. Little else
is known about him save that he was chaplain to the French
king, Robert II. the Pious, whose life he wrote. This Epitoma
uitae Roberti regis, which is probably part of a history of the
abbey of Fleury, deals rather with the private than with the
public life of the king, and its value is not great either from the
literary or from the historical point of view. The only existing
manuscript is in the Vatican, and the Epitoma has been printed
by J. P. Migne in the Patrologia Lalina, tome cxli. (Paris,
1844); and by M. Bouquet in the Recueil des historiens des
Gaules, tome x. (Paris, 1760).
See Histoire lilteraire de la France, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869) ;
and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris,
1902)
HELGESEN, POVL, 1 Danish humanist, was born at Varberg
in Halland about 1480, of a Danish father and a Swedish mother.
Helgesen was educated first at the Carmelite monastery of
his native place and afterwards at another monastery at Elsinore,
where he devoted himself to humanistic studies and adopted
Erasmus as his model. None had a keener eye for the abuses
of the Church; long before the appearance of Luther, he
denounced the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, and, as
lector at the university of Copenhagen, gathered round him a
band of young enthusiasts, the future leaders of the Danish
Reformation. But Helgesen desired an orderly, methodical,
rational reformation, and denounced Luther, whose ablest
opponent in Denmark he subsequently became, as a hot-headed
revolutionist. Christian II. was also an object of Helgesen's
detestation, and so boldly did he oppose that monarch's measures
1 He wrote his name Heliae or Eliae.
HELIACAL HELIAND
221
that, to save his life, he had to flet to Jutland. Under Frederick I.
(1523-1533) he returned to Copenhagen and resumed his chair
at the university, becoming soon afterwards provincial of the
Carmelite Order for Scandinavia. But like all moderate men
in a time of crisis, Helgesen could gain the confidence of neither
party, and was frequently attacked as bitterly by the Catholics
as by the Protestants. From 1 530 to 1 533 he and the Protestant
champion Hans Tausen exhausted the whole vocabulary of
vituperation in their fruitless polemics. In October 1534,
however, Helgesen issued an eirenicon in which he attempted to
reconcile the two contending confessions. After that every
trace of him is lost. For a long time he was unjustly regarded
as a turn-coat, but he was too superior to the prejudices of his
age to be understood by his contemporaries. His ideal was a
moral internal reformation of the Church on a rational basis,
conducted not by ill-informed fanatics, but by an enlightened and
well-educated clergy; and from this standpoint he never
diverged. Helgesen was indisputably the greatest master of
style of his age in Denmark, and as a historian he also occupies
a prominent position. He always endeavours to probe down to
the very soul of things, though his passionate nature made it
very difficult for him to be impartial. His chief works are
Danmark's Kongers Historic and Skibby Kroniken.
See Ludwig Schmitt, Der Karmeliter Paulus Helia (Freiburg,
1893); Danmarks Riges Historic (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. iii.
HELIACAL, relating to the sun (^Xtos), a term applied in
the ancient astronomy to the first rising of a star which could
be seen after it emerged from the rays of the sun, or the last
setting that could be seen before it was lost from sight by
proximity to the sun.
HELIAND. The pth-century poem on the Gospel history,
to which its first editor, J. A. Schmeller, gave the appropriate
name of Heliand (the word used in the text for " Saviour,"
answering to the O. Eng. hadend and the Ger. Heiland), is, with
the fragments of a version of the story of Genesis believed to be
by the same author, all that remains of the poetical literature
of the old Saxons, i.e. the Saxons who continued in their original
home. It contained when entire about 6000 lines, and portions
of it are preserved in four MSS. The Cotton MS. in the British
Museum, written probably late in the loth century, is nearly
complete, ending in the middle of the story of the journey to
Emmaus. The Munich MS., formerly at Bamberg, begins at
line 85, and has many lacunae, but continues the history down
to the last verse of St Luke's Gospel, ending, however, in the
middle of a sentence. A MS. discovered at Prague in 1881
contains lines 958-1106, and another, in the Vatican library,
discovered by K. Zangemeister in 1894, contains lines 1279-1358.
The poem is based, not directly on the New Testament, but on
the oseudo-Tatian's harmony of the Gospels, and it shows
acquaintance with the commentaries of Alcuin, Baada and
Hrabanus Maurus.
The questions relating to the Heliand cannot be adequately
discussed without considering also the poem on the history of
Genesis, which, on the grounds of similarity in style and vocabu-
lary, and for other reasons afterwards to be mentioned, may
with some confidence be referred to the same author. A part
of this poem, as is mentioned in the article GEDMON, is extant
only in an Old English translation. The portions that have
been preserved in the original language are contained in the
same Vatican MS. that includes the fragment of the Heliand
referred to above. In the one language or the other, there
are in existence the following three fragments: (i) The passage
which appears as lines 235-851 in the so-called " Caedmon's
Genesis," on the revolt of the angels and the temptation and fall
of Adam and Eve. Of this the part corresponding to lines 790-
820 exists also in the original Old Saxon. (2) The story of Cain
and Abel, in 124 lines. (3) The account of the destruction of
Sodom, in 187 lines. The main source of the Genesis is the Bible,
but Professor E. Sievers has shown that considerable use was
made of the two Latin poems by Alcimus Avitus, De initio mundi
and De peccato originali.
The two poems give evidence of genius and trained skill,
though the poet was no doubt hampered by the necessity of not
deviating too widely from the sacred originals. Within the limits
imposed by the nature of his task, his treatment of his sources
is remarkably free, the details unsuited for poetic handling
being passed over, or, in some instances, boldly altered. In
many passages his work gives the impression of being not so
much an imitation of the ancient Germanic epic, as a genuine
example of it, though concerned with the deeds of other heroes
than those of Germanic tradition. In the Heliand the Saviour
and His Apostles are conceived as a king and his faithful warriors,
and the use of the traditional epic phrases appears to be not,
as with Cynewulf or the author of Andreas, a mere following
of accepted models, but the spontaneous mode of expression of
one accustomed to sing of heroic themes. The Genesis fragments
have less of the heroic tone, except in the splendid passage
describing the rebellion of Satan and his host. It is noteworthy
that the poet, like Milton, sees in Satan no mere personification
of evil, but the fallen archangel, whose awful guilt could not
obliterate all traces of his native majesty. Somewhat curiously,
but very naturally, Enoch the son of Cain is confused with the
Enoch who was translated to heaven an error which the
author of the Old English Genesis avoids, though (according
to the existing text) he confounds the names of Enoch and Enos.
Such external evidence as exists bearing on the origin of the
Heliand and the companion poem is contained in a Latin docu-
ment printed by Flacius Illyricus in 1562. This is in two parts;
the one in prose, entitled (perhaps only by Flacius himself)
" Praefatio ad librum anliquum in lingua Saxonica conscriptum ";
the other in verse, headed " Versus de poeta et Interpreta hujus
codicis." The Praefalio begins by stating that the emperor
Ludwig the Pious, desirous that his subjects should possess the
word of God in their own tongue, commanded a certain Saxon,
who was esteemed among his countrymen as an eminent poet,
to translate poetically into the German language the Old and
New Testaments. The poet willingly obeyed, all the more
because he had previously received a divine command to under-
take the task. He rendered into verse all the most important
parts of the Bible with admirable skill, dividing his work into
vitteas, a term which, the writer says, may be rendered by
" lectiones " or " sententias." The Praefatio goes on to say that
it was reported that the poet, till then knowing nothing oi the
art of poetry, had been admonished in a dream to turn into
verse the precepts of the divine law, which he did with so much
skill that his work surpasses in beauty all other German poetry
(ut cuncta Theudisca poemata suo vincat decor e}. The Versus
practically reproduce in outline Baeda's account of Caedmon's
dream, without mentioning the dream, but describing the poet
as a herdsman, and adding that his poems, beginning with the
creation, relate the history of the five ages of the world down
to the coming of Christ.
The suspicion of some earlier scholars that the Praefatio and
the Versus might be a modern forgery is refuted by the occur-
rence of the word vitteas, which is the Old Saxon fittea, cor-
responding to the Old English fitt, which means a " canto " of a
poem. It is impossible that a scholar of the i6th century could
have been acquainted with this word, and internal evidence
shows clearly that both the prose and the verse are of early
origin. The Versus, considered in themselves, might very well
be supposed to relate to Caedmon; but the mention of the five
ages of the world in the concluding lines is obviously due to
recollection of the opening of the Heliand (lines 46-47). It is
therefore certain that the Versus, as well as the Praefatio, -attri-
bute to the author of the Heliand a poetic rendering of the Old
Testament. Their testimony, if accepted, confirms the ascription
to him of the Genesis fragments, which is further supported by
the fact that they occur in the same MS. with a portion of the
Heliand. As the Praefatio speaks of the emperor Ludwig in the
present tense, the former part of it at least was probably written
in his reign, i.e. not later than A.D. 840. The general opinion of
scholars is that the latter part, which represents the poet as
having received his vocation in a dream, is by a later hand, and
that the sentences in the earlier part which refer to the dream are
222
HELICON HELIGOLAND
interpolations by this second author. The date of these additions
and of the Versus, is of no importance, as their statements ar
incredible. That the author of the Heliand was, so to speak
another Caedmon an unlearned man who turned into poetrj
what was read to him from the sacred writings is impossible
because in many passages the text of the sources is so
closely followed that it is clear that the poet wrote with the
Latin books before him. On the other hand, there is no reason
for rejecting the almost contemporary testimony of the first part
of the Praefatio that the author of the Heliand had won renown
as a poet before he undertook his great task at the emperor 1 !
command. It is certainly not impossible that a Christian Saxon
sufficiently educated to read Latin easily, may have chosen to
follow the calling of a scop or minstrel instead of entering the
priesthood or the cloister; and if such a person existed, it woulc
be natural that he should be selected by the emperor to execute
his design. As has been said above, the tone of many portions o
the Heliand is that of a man who was no mere imitator of the
ancient epic, but who had himself been accustomed to sing ol
heroic themes.
The commentary on the gospel of Matthew by Hrabanus
Maurus was finished about 821, which is therefore the superior
limit of date for the composition of the Heliand. It is usually
maintained that this work was written before the Old Testament
poems. The arguments for this view are that the Heliand con-
tains no allusion to any foregoing poetical treatment of the ante-
cedent history, and that the Genesis fragments exhibit a higher
degree of poetic skill. This reasoning does not appear con-
clusive, and if it be set aside, the limit of date for the beginning of
the work is carried back to A.D. 814, the year of the accession of
Ludwig.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The first complete edition of the Heliand was
published by J. A. Schmeller in 1830; the second volume, containing
the glossary and grammar, appeared in 1840. The standard edition
is that of E. Sievers (1877), m which the texts of the Cotton and
Munich MSS. are printed side by side. It is not provided with a
glossary, but contains an elaborate and most valuable analysis of
the diction, synonymy and syntactical features of the poem. Other
useful editions are those of M. Heyne (3rd ed., 1903), O. Behaghel
(1882) and P. Piper (1897, containing also the Genesis fragments).
The fragments of the Heliand and the Genesis contained in the
Vatican MS. were edited in 1894 by K. Zangemeister and W. Braune
under the title Bruchstucke der altsdchsischen Bibeldichtung. Among
the works treating of the authorship, sources and place of origin of
the poems, the most important are the following: E. Windisch
Der Heliand und seine Quellen (1868) ; E. Sievers, Der Heliand und
die angelsdchsische Genesis (1875); R- Kogel, Deutsche Literatur-
geschichte, Bd. i. (1894) and Die altsachsische Genesis (1895)- R.
Kogel and W. Bruckner, " Althoch- und altniederdeutsche Li-
teratur, in Paul's Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, Bd. ii.
(2nd ed., 1901), which contains references to many other works;
Hermann Collitz, Zum Dialekte des Heliand (1901). (H. BR.)
HELICON, a mountain range, of Boeotia in ancient Greece,
celebrated in classical literature as the favourite haunt of the
Muses, is situated between Lake Copals and the Gulf of Corinth.
On the fertile eastern slopes stood a temple and grove sacred to
the Muses, and adorned with beautiful statues, which, taken by
Constantine the Great to beautify his new city, were consumed
there by a fire in A.D. 404. Hard by were the famous fountains,
Aganippe and Hippocrene, the latter fabled to have gushed from
the earth at the tread of the winged horse Pegasus, whose
favourite browsing place was there. At the neighbouring Ascra
dwelt the poet Hesiod, a fact which probably enhanced the
poetic fame of the region. Pausanias, who describes Helicon in
his ninth book, asserts that it was the most fertile mountain in
Greece, and that neither poisonous plant nor serpent was to be
found on it, while many of its herbs possessed a miraculous
healing virtue. The highest summit, the present Palaeovouni
(old hill), rises to the height of about 5000 ft. Modern travellers,
aided by ancient remains and inscriptions, and guided by the
local descriptions of Pausanias, have succeeded in identifying
many of the ancient classical spots, and the French excavators
have discovered the temple of the Muses and a theatre.
1 The term Volkssanger, commonly used in German discussions
of this question, is misleading; the audience for heroic poetry was
not " tlie people " in the modern sense, but the nobles.
See also Clarke, Travels in Various Countries (vol. vii 1818)-
i,, , / I Musical and Topographical Tour through Greece (i8l8) :
W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece (vol. ii., 1835)- J G
Frazer's edition of Pausanias, v. 150.
HELICON (Fr. helicon, bombardon circulaire; Ger. Helikon),
the circular form of the Bt> contrabass tuba used in military
bands, worn round the body, with the enormous beH resting on
the left shoulder and towering above the head of the performer.
The pitch of the helicon is an octave below that of the euphonium.
The idea of winding the long tube of the contrabass tuba and of
wearing it round the shoulders was suggested by the ancient
Roman buccina and cornu, represented in mosaics and on the
sculptured reliefs surrounding Trajan's Column. The buccina and
cornu 2 differed in the diameter of their respective bores, the
former having the narrow, almost cylindrical bore and harmonic
series of the trumpet and trombone, whereas the cornu, having
a bore in the form of a wide cone, was the prototype of the bugle
and tubas.
HELIGOLAND (Ger. Helgoland), an island of Germany, in the
North Sea, lying off the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, 28 m.
from the nearest point in the mainland. Pop. (1900) 2307.
From 1807 to 1890 a British possession, it was ceded in 1890 to
Germany, and since 1892 has formed part of the Prussian
province of Schleswig-Holstein. It consists of two islets, the
smaller, the Dunen-Insel, a quarter of a mile E. of the main, or
Rock Island, connected until 1720, when it was severed by a
violent irruption of the sea, with the other by a neck of land, and
the main, or Rock Island. The latter is nearly triangular in
shape and is surrounded by steep red cliffs, the only beach being
the sandy spit near the south-east point, where the landing-stage
is situated. The rocks composing the cliffs are worn into caves,
and around the island are many fantastic arches and columns.
The impression made by the red cliffs, fringed by a white beach
and supporting the green Oberland, is commonly believed to have
suggested the national colours, red, white and green, or, as the
old Frisian rhyme goes:
" Gron is dat Land,
Rood is de Kant,
Witt is de Sand,
Dat is de Flagg vun't hillige Land."
The lower town of Unterland, on the spit, and the upper town,
or Oberland, situated on the cliff above, are connected by a
wooden stair and a lift. There is a powerful lighthouse, and since
its cession by Great Britain to Germany, the main island has been
strongly fortified, the old English batteries being replaced by
armoured turrets mounting guns of heavy calibre. Inside the
Dunen-Insel the largest ships can ride safely at anchor, and take
in coal and other supplies. The greatest length of the main
island, which slopes somewhat from west to east, is just a mile,
and the greatest breadth less than a third of a mile, its average
height 198 ft., and the highest point, crowned by the church, with
a conspicuous spire, 216 ft. The Dunen-Insel is a sand-bank
irotected by groines. It is only about 200 ft. above the sea at its
highest point, but the drifting sands make the height rather
variable. The sea-bathing establishment is situated here; a
shelving beach of white sand presenting excellent facilities for
jathing. Most of the houses are built of brick, but some are of
wood. There are a theatre, a Kurhaus, and a number of hotels
and restaurants. In 1892 a biological institute, with a marine
museum and aquarium (1900) attached, was opened.
During the summer some 20,000 people visit the island for
sea-bathing. German is the official language, though among
hemselves the natives speak a dialect of Frisian, barely in-
elligible to the other islands of the group. There is regular
communication with Bremen and Hamburg.
The winters are stormy. May and the early part of June are
wet and foggy, so that few visitors arrive before the middle of
he latter month.
1 For illustrations of the cornu see the altar of Julius Victor ex
'ollegio, reproduced in Bartoli, Pict. Ant, p. 76; Bellori, Pict.
ntiq. crypt, rom. p. 76, pi. viii.; in Daremberg and Saglio, Did.
des antiq. grecques et romaines, under " Cornu," the buccina and cornu
lave not been distinguished.
HELIOCENTRIC HELIOGRAPH
223
The generally accepted derivation of Heligoland (or Helgoland)
from Heiligeland, i.e. " Holy Land," seems doubtful. According
to northern mythology, Forseti, a son of Balder and Nanna,
the god of justice, had a temple on the island, which was sub-
sequently destroyed by St Ludger. This legend may have given
rise to the derivation " Holy Land." The more probable
etymology, however, is that of Hallaglun, or Halligland, i.e.
" land of banks, which cover and uncover." Here Hertha,
according to tradition, had her great temple, and hither came
from the mainland the Angles to worship at her shrine. Here
also lived King Radbod, a pagan, and on this isle St Willibrord
in the 7th century first preached Christianity; and for its owner-
ship, before and after that date, many sea-rovers have fought.
Finally it became a fief of the dukes of Schleswig-Holstein,
though often hypothecated for loans advanced to these princes
by the free city of Hamburg. The island was a Danish possession
in 1807, when the English seized and held it until it was formally
ceded to them in 1814. In the picturesque old church there are
still traces of a painted Dannebrog.
In 1890 the island was ceded to Germany, and in 1892 it was
incorporated with Prussia, when it was provided that natives
born before the year 1880 should be allowed to elect either for
British or German nationality, and until 1901 no additional
import duties were imposed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Von der Decken, Philosophisch-historisch-geo-
nhische Untersuchungen iiber die Insel Helgoland, oder Heilige-
, und ihre Bewohner (Hanover, 1826); Wiebel, Die Insel Helgo-
land, Untersuchungen iiber deren Grosse in Vorzeit und Gegenwart
vom Standpunkte der Geschichte und Geologie (Hamburg, 1848);
J. M. Lappenberg, Uberdenehemaligen Umfang und die alte Geschichte
Helgoland! (Hamburg, 1831); F. Otker, Helgoland. Schilderungen
und Erorterungen (Berlin, 1855); E. Hallier, Helgoland, Nordsee-
studien (Hamburg, 1893) ; A. W. F. M oiler, Rechtsgeschichle der Insel
Helgoland (Weimar, 1904) ; W. G. Black, Heligoland and the Islands
of the North Sea (Glasgow, 1888); E. Lindermann, Die Nordseeinsel
Helgoland in topographischer, geschichtlicher, sanitarer Beziehung
(Berlin, 1889) ; and Tittel, Die natiirlichen Verdnderungen Helgoland;
(Leipzig, 1894).
HELIOCENTRIC, i.e. referred to the centre of the sun (iJXios)
as an origin, a term designating especially co-ordinates or heavenly
bodies referred to that origin.
HELIODORUS, of Emesa in Syria, Greek writer of romance.
According to his own statement his father's name was Theodosius,
and he belonged to a family of priests of the sun. He was the
author of the Aethiopica, the oldest and best of the Greek
romances that have come down to us. It was first brought to
light in modern times in a MS. from the library of Matthias
Corvinus, found at the sack of Buda (Ofen) in 1526, and printed
at Basel in 1534. Other codices have since been discovered.
The title is taken from the fact that the action of the beginning
and end of the story takes place in Aethiopia. The daughter of
Persine, wife of Hydaspes, king of Aethiopia, was born white
through the effect of the sight of a marble statue upon the queen
during pregnancy. Fearing an accusation of adultery, the mother
gives the babe to the care of Sisimithras, a gymnosophist, who
carries her to Egypt and places her in charge of ,Charicles, a
Pythian priest. The child is taken to Delphi, and made a priestess
of Apollo under the name of Chariclea. Theagenes, a noble
Thessalian, comes to Delphi and the two fall in love with each
other. He carries off the priestess with the help of Calasiris, an
Egyptian, employed by Persine to seek for her daughter. Then
follow many perils from sea-rovers and others, but the chief
personages ultimately meet at Meroe at the very moment when
Chariclea is about to be sacrificed to the gods by her own father.
Her birth is made known, and the lovers are happily married.
The rapid succession of events, the variety of the characters,
the graphic descriptions of manners and of natural scenery, the
simplicity and elegance of the style, give the Aelhiopica great
charm. As a whole it offends less against good taste and morality
than others of the same class. Homer and Euripides were the
favourite authors of Heliodorus, who in his turn was imitated
by French, Italian and Spanish writers. The early life of Clorinda
in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered (canto xii. 2 1 sqq.)is almost identical
with that of Chariclea; Racine meditated a drama on the same
subject; and it formed the model of the Persiles y Sigismunda of
Cervantes. According to the ecclesiastical historian Socrates
(Hist, cedes, v. 22), the author of the Aethiopica was a
certain Heliodorus, bishop of Tricca in Thessaly. It is supposed
that the work was written in his early years before he became
a Christian, and that, when confronted with the alternative of
disowning it or resigning his bishopric, he preferred resignation.
But it is now generally agreed that the real author was a sophist
of the 3rd century A.D.
The best editions are: A. Coraes (1804), G. A. Hirschig (1856);
see also M. Oeftering, H. und seine Bedeutung fur die Lileratur,
with full bibliographies (1901); J. C. Dunlop, History of Prose
Fiction (1888); and especially E. Rohde, Der griechische Roman
(1900). There are translations in almost all European languages:
in English, in Bohn's Classical Library and the " Tudor " series (v.,
1895, containing the old translation by T. Underdowne, 1587, with
introduction by C. Whibley) ; in French by Amyot and Zevort.
HELIOGABALUS (ELAGABALUS), Roman emperor (A.D.
218-222), was born at Emesa about 205. His real name was
Varius Avitus. On the murder of Caracalla (217), Julia Maesa,
Varius's grandmother and Caracalla's aunt, left Rome and
retired to Emesa, accompanied by her grandsons (Varius and
Alexander Severus). Varius, though still only a boy, was ap-
pointed high priest of the Syrian sun-god Elagabalus, one of
the chief seats of whose worship was Emesa (Horns) . His beauty,
and the splendid ceremonials at which he presided, made him
a great favourite with the troops stationed in that part of Syria,
and Maesa increased his popularity by spreading reports that he
was in reality the illegitimate son of Caracalla. Macrinus,
the successor and instigator of the murder of Caracalla, was
very unpopular with the army; an insurrection was easily set
on foot, and on the i6th of May 218 Varius was proclaimed
emperor as Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. The troops sent to
quell the revolt went over to him, and Macrinus was defeated
near Antioch on the 8th of June. Heliogabalus was at once
recognized by the senate as emperor. After spending the winter
in Nicomedia, he proceeded in 219 to Rome, where he made it
his business to exalt the deity whose priest he was and whose
name he assumed. The Syrian god was proclaimed the chief deity
in Rome, and all other gods his servants; splendid ceremonies
in his honour were celebrated, at which Heliogabalus danced in
public, and it was believed that secret rites accompanied by
human sacrifice were performed in his honour. In addition to
these affronts upon the state religion, he insulted the intelli-
gence of the community by horseplay of the wildest description
and by childish practical joking. The shameless profligacy
of the emperor's life was such as to shock even a Roman
public. His popularity with the army declined, and Maesa,
perceiving that the soldiers were in favour of Alexander Severus,
persuaded Heliogabalus to raise his cousin to the dignity of
Caesar (221), a step of which he soon repented. An attempt
to murder Alexander was frustrated by the watchful Maesa.
Another attempt in 2 2 2 produced a mutiny among the praetorians,
in which Heliogabalus and his mother Soemias (Soaemias) were
slain (probably in the first half of March).
AUTHORITIES. Life by Aelius Lampridius in Scriptores historiae
Augustac; Hcrodian v. 3-8; Dio Cassius Ixxviii. 30 sqq., Ixxix. 1-21 ;
monograph by G. Duviquet, Heliogabale (1903), containing a trans-
lation of the various accounts of Heliogabalus in Greek and Latin
authors, notes, bibliography and illustrations; O. F. Butler, Studies
in the Life of Heliogabalus (New York, 1908); Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, ch. 6; H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i.
pt. ii. (1883), p. 759 ff. On the Syrian god see F. Cumont in Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, v. pt. ii. (1905).
HELIOGRAPH (from Gr. i;Xios, sun, and yp&friv to write),
an instrument for reflecting the rays of the sun (or the light
obtained from any other source) over a considerable distance.
Its main application is in military signalling (see SIGNAL). A
similar instrument is the heliotrope, used principally for defining
distant points in geodetic surveys, such as in the triangulation
of India, and in the verification of the African arcof the meridian.
It is necessary to distinguish the method of signalling termed
heliography from the photographic process of the same name
(see PHOTOGRAPHY).
224
HELIOMETER
FIG. i.
FIG. 3.
HELIOMETER (from Gr. fjAios, sun, and nerpov, a measure),
an instrument originally designed for measuring the variation
of the sun's diameter at different seasons of the year, but applied
now to the modern form of the instrument which is capable of
much wider use. The present article also deals with other
forms of double-image micrometer.
The discovery of the method of making measures by double
images is stated to have been first suggested by O. Roemer about
1768. But no such suggestion occurs in the Basis Astronomiae ol
Peter Horrebow (Copenhagen, 1735), which contains the only works
of Roemer that re-
main to us. It would
appear that to Ser-
vington Savary is due
the first invention of
a micrometer for
measurement by
double image. His
heliometer (described
in a paper communi-
cated to the Royal
Society in 1743, and
printed, along with
a letter from James
Short, in Phil. Trans., 1753, p. 156) was constructed by cutting
from a complete lens abed the equal portions aghc and acfe
(fig. i). The segments gbh and efd so formed were then attached
to the end of a tube having an internal diameter represented by the
dotted circle (fig. 2). The width of each of the portions aghc and acfe
cut away from the lens was made slightly greater than the focal
length of lens X tangent of sun's greatest diameter. Thus at the
focus two images of the sun were formed nearly in
contact as in fig. 3. The small interval between
the adjacent limbs was then measured with a
wire micrometer.
Savary also describes another form of helio-
meter, on the same principle, in which the seg-
ments aghc and acfe are utilized by cementing
their edges gh and ef together (fig. 4), and covering all except
the portion indicated by the unshaded circle. Savary expresses
preference for this second plan, and makes the pertinent remark
that in both these models " the rays of red light in the two solar
images will be next to each other, which will render the sun's disk
more easy to be observed than the violet ones." This he mentions
" because the glasses in these two sorts are somewhat prismatical,
but mostly those of the first model, which could there-
fore bear no great charge (magnifying power)."
A third model proposed by Savary consists of two
complete lenses of equal focal length, mounted in
cylinders side by side, and attached to a strong brass
plate (fig. 5). Here, in order to fulfil the purposes of
the previous models, the distance of the centres of the
lenses from each other should only slightly exceed the
tangent of sun's diameter X focal length of lenses.
Savary dwells on the difficulty both of procuring lenses
sufficiently equal in focus and of accurately adjusting
and centring them.
In the Mem. Acad. de Paris (1748), Pierre Bouguer
describes an instrument which he calls a heliometer.
Lalande in his Astronomie (vol. ii. p. 639) mentions such a helio-
meter which had been in his possession from the year 1753, and of
which he gives a representation on Plate XXVIII., fig. 186, of the
same volume. Bouguer's heliometer was in fact similar to that of
Savary's third model, with the important difference that, instead of
both object-glasses being fixed, one of them is movable by a screw
provided with a divided head. No auxiliary filar micrometer was
required, as in Savary's heliometer, to measure
the interval between the limbs of two adjacent
images of the sun, it being only necessary to
turn the screw with the divided head to change
the distance between the object-glasses till the
two images of the sun are in contact as in
fig. 6. The differences of the readings of the
screw, when converted into arc, afford the
means of measuring the variations of the sun's
apparent diameter.
On the 4th of April 1754 John Dollond com-
municated a paper to the Royal Society of
/"" ~^\ / \ London (Phil. Trans., vol. xlviii. p. 551) in
i which he shows that a micrometer can be
I much more easily constructed by dividing a
single object-glass through its axis than by
the employment of two object-glasses. He
FIG. 6. points out (i) that a telescope with an object-
glass so divided still produces a single image
of any object to which it may be directed, provided that the optical
centres of the segments are in coincidence (i.e. provided the segments
retain the same relative positions to each other as before the glass
FIG. 5.
oo :
^/ V_^ ;
was cut); (2) that if the segments are separated in any direction
two images of the object viewed will be produced ; (3) that the most
convenient direction of separation for micrometric purposes is to
slide these straight edges one along the other as the figure on the
margin (fig. 7) represents them: "for thus they
may be moved without suffering any false light to
come in between them; and by this way of
removing them the distance between their centres
may be very conveniently measured, viz. by having
a vernier's division fixed to the brass work that holds
one segment, so as to slide along a scale on the plate
to which the other part of the glass is fitted."
Dollond then points out three different types
in which a glass so divided and mounted may jr
be used as a micrometer: tlG - 7-
" i. It may be fixed at the end of a tube, of a suitable length to its
focal distance, as an object-glass, the other end of the tube having
an^eye-glass fitted as usual in astronomical telescopes.
" ? J 1 ma y De applied to the end of a tube much shorter than its
focal distance, by having another convex glass within the tube, to
shorten the focal distance of that which is cut in two.
" 3. It may be applied to the open end of a reflecting telescope,
either of the Newtonian or the Cassegrain construction.
Dollond adds his opinion that the third type is " much the best and
most convenient of the three"; yet it is the first type that has
survived the test of time and experience, and which is in fact the
modern heliometer. It must be remembered, however, that when
Dollond expressed preference for this third type he had not then in-
vented the achromatic object-glass.
Some excellent instruments of the second type were subsequently
made by Dollond's eldest son Peter, in which for the " convex glass
within the tube " was substituted an achromatic object-glass, and
outside that a divided negative achromatic combination of long focus.
In the fine example of this instrument at the Cape Observatory the
movable negative lenses consist of segments of the shape gach and
acfe (fig. i) cut from a complete negative achromatic combination of
8t in. aperture and about 41 ft. focal length, composed of a double
concave flint lens and a double convex crown. This was applied to
an excellent achromatic telescope of 3^ in. aperture and 42 in. focal
length. In this instrument a considerable linear relative movement
of the divided lens corresponds with a comparatively small separation
of the double image, so that simple verniers reading to T ^Vo in. are
sufficient for measurement.
With one of these instruments of somewhat smaller dimensions
(telescope 2% in. aperture and 35 ft. focus), Franz von Paula Tries-
necker made a series of measurements at the observatory of Vienna
which has been reduced by Dr Wilhelm Schur of Strasburg (Nova
Ada der Ksl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Natursforscher,
1882, xlv. No. 3). The angle between the stars f and g Ursae maj.
(?o8"-55) was measured on four nights; the probable error of a
measure on one night was o'-44. Jupiter was measured on eleven
nights in the months of June and July 1794; from these measures
Schur derives the values 35 "-39 and 37 "-94 for the polar and equa-
torial diameter respectively, at mean distance, corresponding with a
compression 1/14-44. These agree satisfactorily with the correspond-
ing values 35"'2i, 37*'6o, 1/15-59 afterwards obtained by F. W.
Bessel (Konigsberger Beobachtungen, xix. 102). From a series of
measures of the angle between Jupiter's satellites and the planet,
made in June and July 1794 and in August and September 1795,
Schur finds the mass of Jupiter = 1/1048-55 1-45, a result which
accords well within the limits of its probable error with the received
value of the mass derived from modern researches. The probable
errors for the measures of one night are o"-577, o"-889, o"-542,
i "-096, for Satellites I., II., III. and IV. respectively.
Considering the accuracy of these measures (an accuracy far sur-
passing that of any other contemporary observations), it is somewhat
surprising that this form of micrometer was never systematically
used in any sustained or important astronomical researches, although
a number of instruments of the kind were made by Dollond. Prob-
ably the last example of its employment is an observation of the
transit of Mercury (November 4, 1868) by Mann, at the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope (Monthly Notices R.A.S. vol.
xxix. p. 197-209). The most important part, however, which this
type of instrument seems to have played in the history of astronomy
arises from the fact that one of them was in the possession of Bessel
at Konigsberg during the time when his new observatory there
was being built. In 1812 Bessel measured with it the angle between
the components of the double star 61 Cygni and observed the great
comet of 1811. He also observed the eclipse of the sun on May 4,
1818. In the discussion of these observations (Konigsberger Beo-
bacht, Abt. 5, p. iv.) he found that the index error of the scale
changed systematically in different position angles by quantities
which were independent of the direction of gravity relative to the
josition angle under measurement, but which depended solely on
:he direction of the measured position angle relative to a fixed radius
of the object-glass. Bessel attributed this to non-homogeneity
n the object-glass, and determined with great care the necessary
corrections. But he was so delighted with the general performance
>f the instrument, with the sharpness of the images and the possi-
nlities which a kindred construction offered for the measurement of
HELIOMETER
225
considerable angles with micrometric accuracy, that he resolved,
when he should have the choice of a new telescope for the observatory,
to secure some form of heliometer.
Nor is it difficult to imagine the probable course of reasoning
which led Bessel to select the model of his new heliometer. Why,
he might ask, should he not select the simple form of Dollond's
first type ? Given the achromatic object-glass, why should not it be
divided ? This construction would give all the advantage of the
younger Dollond's object-glass micrometer, and more than its sharp-
ness of definition, without liability to the systematic errors which
may be due to want of homogeneity of the object-glass; for the lenses
will not be turned with respect to each other, but, in measurement,
will always have the same relation in position angle to the line
joining the objects under observation. It is true that the scale will
require to be capable of being read with much greater accuracy than
j-j'jjjth of an inch for that, even in a telescope of 10 ft. focus, would
correspond with 2' of arc. But, after all, this is no practical diffi-
culty, for screws can be used to separate the lenses, and, by these
screws, as in a Gascoigne micrometer, the separation of the lenses
can be measured; or we can have scales for this purpose, read by
microscopes, like the Troughton l circles of Piazzi or Pond, or those
of the Carey circle, with almost any required accuracy.
Whether Bessel communicated such a course of reasoning to
Fraunhofer, or whether that great artist arrived independently at
like conclusions, we have been unable to ascertain with certainty.
The fact remains that before 1820" Fraunhofer had completed
one or more of the five helipmeters (3 in. aperture and 39 in. focus)
which have since become historical instruments. In 1824 the great
Konigsberg heliometer was commenced, and it was completed in 1 829.
To sum up briefly the history of the development of the heliometer.
The first application of the divided object-glass and the employment
of double images in astronomical measures is due to Savary in 1743.
To Bouguer in 1748 is due the true conception of measurement by
double image without the auxiliary aid of a filar micrometer, viz.
by changing the distance between two object-glasses of equal focus.
To Dollond in 1754 we owe the combination of Savary's idea of
the divided object-glass with Bouguer's method of measurement,
and the construction of the first really practical heliometers. To
Fraunhofer, some time not long previous to 1820, is due, so far as
we can ascertain, the construction of the first heliometer with an
achromatic divided object-glass, i.e. the first heliometer of the
modern type.
The Modern Heliometer.
The Konigsberg heliometer is represented in fig. 8. No part of
the equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles in
every respect the usual Fraunhofer mounting. An adapter h is fixed
on a telescope-tube, made of wood, in Fraunhpfer's usual fashion.
To this adapter is attached
a flat circular flange h.
The slides carrying the
segments of the divided
object-glass are mounted
on a plate, which is fitted
and ground to rotate
smoothly on the flange h.
Rotation is communi-
cated by a pinion, turned
FIG. 8.
by the handle c (concealed in the figure), which works in teeth cut
on the edge of the flange h. The counterpoise w balances the head
about its axis of rotation. The slides are moved by the screws a and
b, the divided heads of which serve to measure the separation of the
segments. These screws are turned from the eye-end by bevelled
wheels and pinions, the latter connected with the handles a', b'.
The reading micrometers e, f also serve to measure, independently,
the separation of the segments, by scales attached to the slides;
such measurements can be employed as a check on thpse made by
the screws. The measurement of position angles is provided for
by a graduated circle attached to the head. There is also a position
circle, attached at m to the eye-end, provided with a slide to move
the eye-piece radially from the axis of the telescope, and with a
micrometer to measure the distance of an object from that axis.
The ring c, which carries the supports of the handles a', b', is capable
of a certain amount of rotation on the tube. The weight of the
handles and their supports is balanced by the counterpoise z. This
ring is necessary in order to allow the rods to follow the micrometer
heads when the position angle is changed. Complete rotation of the
head is obviously impossible because of the interference of the
declination axis with the rods, and therefore, in some angles, objects
cannot be measured in two positions of the circle. The object-glass
has an aperture of 6$ in. and 102 in. focal length.
There are three methods in which this heliometer can be used.
First Method. One of the segments is fixed in the axis of the
lescope, and the eye-piece is also placed in the axis. Measures
' The circles by Reichenbach, then almost exclusively used in
Germany, were read by verniers only.
* The diameter of Venus was measured with one of these helio-
meters at the observatory of Breslau by Brandes in 1820 (Berlin
Jahrbuch, 1824, p. 164).
xni. 8
are made with the moving segment displaced alternately on opposite
sides of the fixed segment.
Second Method. -One segment is fixed, and the measures are
made as in the first method, excepting that the eye-piece is placed
symmetrically with respect to the images under measurement.
For this purpose the pos.tion angle of the eye-piece micrometer is
set to that of the head, and the eye-piece is displaced from the
axis of the tube (in the direction of the movable segment) by an
amount equal to half the angle under measurement.
Third Method. The eye-piece is fixed in the axis, and the segments
are symmetrically displaced from the axis each by an amount equal
to half the angle measured.
Of these methods Bessel generally employed the first because of
its simplicity, notwithstanding that it involved a resetting of the
right ascension and declination of the axis of the tube with each
reversal of the segments. The chief objections to the method are
that, as one star is in the axis of the telescope and the other dis-
placed from it, the images are not both in focus of the eye-piece, 1
and the rays from the two stars do not make the same angle with
the optical axis of each segment. Thus the two images under
measurement are not defined with equal sharpness and symmetry.
The second method is free from the objection of non-coincidence in
focus of the images, but is more troublesome in practice from the
necessity for frequent readjustment of the position of the eye-piece.
The third method is the most symmetrical of all, both in obser-
vation and reduction; but it was not employed by Bessel, on the
ground that it involved the determination of the errors of two
screws instead of one. On the other hand it is not necessary to
reset the telescope after each reversal of the segments. 4
When Bessel ordered the Konigsberg heliometer, he was anxious
to have the segments made to move in cylindrical slides, of which
the radius should be equal to the focal length of the object-glass.
Fraunhofer, however, did not execute this wish, on the ground
that the mechanical difficulties were too great.
M. L. G. Wichmann states (Konigsb. Beobach. xxx. 4) that Bessel
had indicated, by notes in his handbooks, the following points which
should be kept in mind in the construction of future heliometers:
(i) The segments should move in cylindrical slides; 6 (2) the screw
should be protected from dust; 6 (3) the zero of the position circle
should not be so liable to change; 7 (4) the distance of the optical
centres of the segments should not change in different position
angles or otherwise ; 8 (5) the points of the micrometer screws should
rest on ivory plates; 9 (6) there should be an apparatus for changing
the screen. 10
Wilhelm Struve. in describing the Pulkowa heliometer, 11 made
* The distances of the optical centres ol the segments from the
eye-piece are in this method as I ; secant of the angle under measure-
ment. In Bessel's heliometer this would amount to a difference of
T^nth of an inch when an angle of i is measured. For 2 the
difference would amount to nearly ^th of an inch. Bessel confined
his measures to distances considerably less than i.
4 In criticizing Bessel's choice of methods, and considering the
loss of time involved in each, it must be remembered that Fraunhofer
provided no means of reading the screws or even the heads from the
eye-end. Bessel's practice was to unclamp in declination, lower and
read off the head, and then restore the telescope to its former declina-
tion reading, the clockwork meanwhile following the stars in right
ascension. The setting of both lenses symmetrically would, under
such circumstances, be very tedious.
6 This most important improvement would permit any two stars
under measurement each to be viewed in the optical axis of each
segment. The optical centres of the segments would also remain
at the same distance from the eye-piece at all angles of separation.
Thus, in measuring the largest as well as the smallest angles, the
images of both stars would be equally symmetrical and equally well
in focus. Modern heliometers made with cylindrical slides measure
angles over 2, the images remaining as sharp and perfect as when
the smallest angles are measured.
6 Bessel found, in course of time, that the original corrections
for the errors of his screw were no longer applicable. He considered
that the changes were due to wear, which would be much lessened
if the screws were protected from dust.
'The tube, being of wood, was probably liable to warp and twist
in a very uncertain way.
8 We have been unable to find any published drawing showing
how the segments are fitted in their cells.
9 We have been unable to ascertain the reasons which led Bessel
to choose ivory planes for the end-bearings of his screws. He actually
introduced them in the Konigsberg heliometer in 1840, and they were
renewed in 1848 and 1850.
10 A screen of wire gauze, placed in front of the segment through
which the fainter star is viewed, was employed by Bessel to equalize
the brilliancy of the images under observation. An arrangement,
afterwards described, has been fitted in modern heliometers for plac-
ing the screen in front of either segment by a handle at the eye-end.
11 This heliometer resembles Bessel's, except that its foot is a solid
block of granite instead of the ill-conceived wooden structure that
supported his instrument. The object-glass is of 7-4 in. aperture
and 123 in. focus.
226
HELIOMETER
by Merz in 1839 on the model of Bessel's heliometer, submits the
following suggestions for its improvement: l (l) to give automatic-
ally to the two segments simultaneous equal and opposite move-
ment ; 2 and (2) to make the tube of metal instead of wood ; to attach
the heliometer head firmly to this tube; to place the eye-piece
permanently in the axis of the telescope ; and to fix a strong cradle
on the end of the declination axis, in which the tube, with the
attached head and eye-piece, could rotate on its axis.
Both suggestions are important. The first is originally the idea
of Dollond; its advantages were overlooked by his son, and it seems
to have been quite forgotten till resuggested by Struve. But the
method is not available if the separation is to be measured by screws ;
it is found, in that case, that the direction of the final motion of turn-
ing of the screw must always be such as to produce motion of the
segment against gravity, otherwise the " loss of time " is apt to be
variable. Thus the simple connexion of the two screws by cog-
wheels to give them automatic opposite motion is not an available
method unless the separation of the segments is independently
measured by scales.
Struve's second suggestion has been adopted in nearly all succeed-
ing heliometers. It permits complete rotation of the tube and
measurement of all angles in reversed positions of the circle; the
handles that move the slides can be brought down to. the eye-end,
inside the tube, and consequently made to rotate with it; and the
position circle may be placed at the end of the cradle next the eye-
end where it is convenient of access. Struve also points out that
by attaching a fine scale to the focusing slide of the eye-piece, and
knowing the coefficient of expansion of the metal tube, the means
would be provided for determining the absolute change of the focal
length of the object-glass at any time by the simple process of
focusing on a double star. This, with a knowledge of the tempera-
ture of the screw or scale and its coefficient of expansion, would
enable the change of screw-value to be determined at any instant.
It is probable that the Bonn heliometer was in course of con-
struction before these suggestions of Struve were published or
discussed, since its construction resembles that of the Konigsberg
and Pulkowa instruments. Its dimensions are similar to those of
the former instrument. Bessel, having been consulted by the
celebrated statesman, Sir Robert Peel, on behalf of the Radcliffe
trustees, as to what instrument, added to the Radcliffe Observatory,
would probably most promote the advancement of astronomy,
strongly advised the selection of a heliometer. The order for the
instrument was given to the Repsolds in 1840, but " various circum-
stances, for which the makers are not responsible, contributed to
delay the completion of the instrument, which was not delivered
before the winter of 1848." 3 The building to receive it was com-
menced in March 1849 and completed in the end of
the same year. This instrument has a superb object-
glass of 1\ in. aperture and 126 in. focal length. The
makers availed themselves of Bessel's suggestion to
make the segments move in cylindrical slides, and of
Struve's to have the head attached to a brass tube;
the eye-piece is set permanently in the axis, and the
whole rotates in a cradle attached to the declination
axis. They provided a splendid, rigidly mounted,
equatorial stand, fitted with every luxury in the way
of slow motion, and scales for measuring the displace-
ment of the segments were read by powerful micro-
meters from the eye-end. 4 It is somewhat curious
that, though Struve's second suggestion was adopted,
his first was overlooked by the makers. But it is
still more curious that it was not afterwards carried
out, for the communication of automatic symmetrical
motion to both segments only involves a simple
alteration previously described. But, as it came
from the hands of the makers in 1849, the Oxford
heliometer was incomparably the most powerful and
perfect instrument in the world for the highest order
of micrometric research. It so remained, unrivalled
in every respect, till 1873.
As the transit of Venus of 1 874 approached, prepara-
tions were set on foot by the German Government in good time; a
commission of the most celebrated astronomers was appointed, and it
was resolved that the heliometer should be the instrument chiefly
relied on. The four long-neglected small heliometers made by Fraun-
hofer were brought into requisition. Fundamental alterations were
made upon them : their wooden tubes were replaced by tubes of metal ;
means of measuring the focal point were provided; symmetrical
motion was given to the slides; scales on each slide were provided
instead of screws for measuring the separation of the segments, and
both scales were read by the same micrometer microscope; a
metallic thermometer was added to determine the temperature of
the scales. These small instruments have since done admirable
work in the hands of Schur, Hartwig, Kustner, Elkin, Auwers and
others.
The Russian Government ordered three new heliometers (each of
4 in. aperture and 5 ft. focal length) from the Repsolds, and the
design for their construction was superintended by Struve, Auwers
FIG. 9.
and Winnecke, the last-named making the necessary experiments at
Carlsruhe. Fig. 9 represents the resulting type of instrument which
was finally designed and constructed by Repsolds. The brass tube,
strengthened at the bearing points by strong truly turned collars,
rotates in the cast iron cradle q attached to the declination axis.
a is the eye-piece fixed in the optical axis, b the micrometer for reading
both scales, c and d are telescopes for reading the position circle p,
e the handle for quick motion in position angle, / the slow motion in
position angle, g the handle for changing the separation of the
segments by acting on the bevel-wheel g' (fig. 10). h is a milled
head connected by a rod with h' (fig. 10), for the purpose of inter-
posing at pleasure the prism ir in the axis of the reading micrometer;
this enables the observer to view the graduations on the face of the
metallic thermometer TT (composed of a rod of brass and a rod of
zinc), i is a milled head connected with the wheel VV (fig, 10), and
affords the means of placing the screen s (fig. 9), counterpoised by it)
over either half of the object-glass, k clamps the telescope in
declination, n clamps it in right ascension, and the handles m
and / provide slow motion in declination and right ascension
respectively.
The details'of the interior mechanism of the " head " will be almost
1 Description de I' observatoire central de Pulkowa, p. 208.
1 Steinheil applied such motion to a double-image micrometer
made for Struve. This instrument suggested to Struve the above-
mentioned idea of employing a similar motion for the heliometer.
3 -Manuel Johnson, M.A., Radcliffe observer, Astronomical Obser-
vations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year 1830,
Introduction, p. iii.
4 The illumination of these scales is interesting as being the first
application of electricity to the illumination of astronomical instru-
ments. Thin platinum wire was rendered incandescent by a voltaic
current; a small incandescent electric lamp would now be found
more satisfactory.
FIG. 10.
evident from fig. 10 without description. The screw, turned by
the wheels at g , acts in a toothed arc, whence, as shown in the
figure, equal and opposite motion is communicated to the slides by
the jointed rods v , v. The slides are kept firmly down to their bear-
ings by the rollers r, r, r, r, attached to axes which are, in the middle,
very strong springs. Side-shake is prevented by the screws and
pieces k, k, k, k. The scales are at n, n; they are fastened only at
the middle, and are kept down by the brass pieces /, t.
A similar heliometer was made by the Repsolds to the order of
Lord Lindsay for his Mauritius expedition in 1874. It differed only
from the three Russian instruments in having a mounting by the
Cookes in which the declination circle reads from the eye-end. 6
This instrument was afterwards most generously lent by Lord
Lindsay to Gill for his expedition to Ascension in 1877.'
These four Repsold heliometers proved to be excellent instruments,
6 For a detailed description of this instrument see Dunecht Publi-
cations, vol. ii.
6 Mem. Royal Astronomical Society, xlvi. 1-172.
HELIOMETER
227
easy and convenient in use, and yielding results of very high accuracy
in measuring distances. Their slow motion in position angle, how-
ever, was not all that could be desired. When small movements
FIG. n.
were communicated to the handle e (fig. 9) by the tangent screw /,
actin 1 " on a small toothed wheel clamped to the rod connected with
the diving pinion, there was apt to be a torsion of the rod rather
than <n immediate action. Thus the slow motion would take place
the observer. This alteration and the new equatorial mounting
have been admirably made by Grubb; the result is completely
successful. The instrument so altered was in use at the Cape
Observatory from March 1881 till 1887 in deter-
mining the parallax of some of the more interesting
southern stars. The instrument then passed, by
purchase from Gill, to Lord McLaren, by whom
it was presented to the Royal Observatory,
Edinburgh.
Still more recently the Repsolds have completed
a new heliometer for Yale College, New Haven,
United States. The object-glass is of 6 in. aper-
ture and 98 in. focal length. The mounting, the
tube, objective-cell, slides, &c., are all of steel. 1
The instrument is shown in fig. II. The circles
for position angle and declination are read by
micrometer-microscopes illuminated by the lamp
L; the scales are illuminated by the lamp /. T is
. part of the tube proper, and turns with the head.
The tube V, on the contrary, is attached to the
cradle, and merely forms a support for the finder
Q, the handles at / and p, and the moving ring P.
The latter gives quick motion in position angle;
the handles at p clamp and give slow motion in
position angle, those at / clamp and give slow
motion in right ascension and declination, a is
the eye-piece, b the handle for moving the seg-
ments, c the micrometer microscope for reading
the scales and scale micrometer, d the micrometer
readers of the position and declination circles,
e the handle for rotating the large wheel E
which carries the screens. The hour circle is
also read by microscopes, and the instrument
can be used in both positions (tube preceding
and following) for elimination of the effect of
flexure on the position angles. Elkin found that
the chief drawbacks to speed and convenience
in working this heliometer were: (i) The loss
of time involved in entering the correspond-
ing readings of the micrometer pointings on two
scales. (2) That an additional motion inter-
mediate between the quick and slow motion in
position angle was necessary, because, whilst the
slow motion provided by Repsolds was admirably
adapted for adjusting the pointings in position
angle, it was too slow for causing the images to
' ' cross through ' ' each other in the process of measur-
ing distances. To remedy drawback (i) Repsolds
devised the form of printing micrometer which is shown in figs. 12 and
13. This micrometer is provided with two pairs of parallel webs. One
fixed pair of webs is attached to the micrometer-box, the other pair
is moved by the screw S. The whole micrometer-box is moved b>
. jerks instead of with the necessary smoothness and certainty.
When the heliometer-part of Lord Lindsay's heliometer was acquired
by Gill in 1879, he changed the manner of imparting the motion in
question. A square toothed racked wheel was applied to the tube
at r (fig. 9). This wheel is acted on by a tangent screw whose bear-
ings are attached to the cradle; the screw is turned by means of a
handle supported by bearings attached to the cradle, and coming
within convenient reach of the observer's hand. The tube turns
smoothly in the racked wheel, or can be clamped to it at the will of
FlG. 13.
the screw attached to the heads. Accordingly, in reading the scales
A and B (attached to the slides which carry the two halves of the
object-glass), it is only necessary to turn the screws until the fixed
1 The primary object was to have the object-glass mounted in
steel cells, which more nearly correspond in expansion with glass.
It became then desirable to make the head of steel for sake of
uniformity of material, and the advantages of steel in lightness and
rigidity for the tube then became evident.
228
HELIOMETER
double web is pointed symmetrically on one of the divisions of scale
A, then to move the other double web by the screw S until it is
symmetrically pointed on the adjoining division of scale B. By
turning the quick acting screw P (fig. 13) to the right, the cushion C
(which is faced with india-rubber) presses the paper
ribbon (shown in fig. 13) against the index-edge and
type-wheels, and thus the beautifully cut divisions of
the micrometer-head, the numbers marking the jjj
parts of the head, the index and the total number of
revolutions are all sharply embossed together upon the
paper ribbon. Fig. 14 shows the record of several
successive paintings on the same scale as that given by
the micrometer. The reverse motion of P auto-
matically moves the paper ribbon forward, ready to
receive the next impression. It must be mentioned
that the pressure of the cushion C on the type-wheels
has no influence whatever upon the micrometer-screw,
because the type-wheels are mounted on a hollow
cylindrical axis, concentric with the axis of the screw,
but entirely disconnected from the screw itself. The
only connexion between the type-wheel and the screw-
head S is by the pin p (which is screwed into S), the
cylindrical end of which acts in a slot cut in the type-
wheel. To remedy drawback (2) Repsolds provided
for the Yale hehometer an additional handle for
motion in position angle, intermediate in velocity
between the original quick and slow motions.
In the y-in. neliometer, completed in 1887 for the Royal Ob-
servatory at the Cape of Good Hope, Repsolds, on Gill's suggestion,
introduced the following improvements: (a) Four different speeds
of motion in position angle were provided. The quickest movement
is given by the hand-ring, 73 (fig. 15). This ring runs between
friction wheels and is provided with teeth on its inner periphery,
and these teeth transmit motion to a pinion on a spindle having at
its other end another pinion which, through an intermediate wheel,
rotates the heliometer tube. The transmission spindle, just men-
tioned, carries at its end a head, 74, which, if turned directly, gives
the second speed. The slowest speed is given by means of a tangent
screw which is carried by a ball-bearing on the flange of the telescope-
~*
6 -3<S
r -as
-00
' -M
FIG. 14.
(6) In lieu of oil-lamps, small, conveniently placed incandescent
electric 6-vplt lamps are employed; and these are fitted with
suitable switches and variable resistances. Thus the scales, the
position- and declination-circles, the field of view, the heads of all the
micrometer-microscopes, the focusing scale, &c., are read without the
aid of a hand-lamp and with an amount of illumination that can be
regulated at the observer's pleasure.
(c) A button in the centre of the position-angle handle (74) con-
nects with a chronograph which enables the observer to record the
instant of observation. Little card-holders (81) (also illuminated)
enable the astronomer to enter beforehand the R.A. and Dec. of the
object to be observed, the scale divisions to be pointed upon, and
thus, in measures of distance, with the aid of the chronograph and
printing micrometer, enable the observer to adjust the instrument
for observation and obtain a record of his observations without
the aid of a hand-lamp or the necessity to make any records in his
notebook. In observations of position angle one of the two tablets
8 1 can be used to record the readings.
(d) The scales are made of iridio-platinum instead of silver, and the
magnifying power of the reading microscope is increased fourfold
(viz. to 100 diameters). A special microscope is introduced for
determining the division errors of the scales. It enables the observer
to compare any division-interval on one half of either scale with any
corresponding interval on the other scale. With this apparatus
Gill was enabled (Annals Cape Obs. vii. 29-42, and Monthly
Notices, R.A.S., xlix. 105-115) to determine the division error of
every line on both scales with a probable error corresponding to
=o"-oO92 arc.
From Engineering, vol. xlbt.
FIG. 15.
sleeve, whilst its nut is double- jointed to a ring that encircles the
flange of the heliometer-tube. This ring is provided with a clamping
screw, which, through the intervention of bevel-gear and rods, is
operated by means of the hand-wheel 78. With similar bevel-gear
and rods the tangent screw is connected to the hand-wheel, 79,
by which the observer communicates the fourth or slowest motion
in position angle. Finally the hand-wheel 80 is ^connected by
gearing to the rod carrying the hand-wheel 79, and it can thus be
used to give the latter a more rapid motion than if used direct;
this constitutes the third speed of movement.
(e) A position-micrometer is attached to the finder to enable the
observer to select comparison stars for observation with some
unexpected object. Thus a comet may be encountered in the morn-
ing dawn or evening twilight, and without such an adjunct the
astronomer may lose the whole available opportunity for observation
in the vain endeavour to find a suitable comparison-star. But
with such a position-micrometer of large field he has no difficulty.
Directing the finder to the comet, he has at once in the field of view
all available comparison stars. Having selected the most suitable
one he directs the axis of the finder to the estimated middle point
between the comet and the star, turns the finder-micrometer in
position angle until the images of comet and
star lie symmetrically between the parallel
position wires, and then turns the micrometer
screw (which moves the distance-wires sym-
metrically from the centre in opposite direc-
tions) till one wire bisects the comet and the
other the star. The reading of the position-
circle of the finder is then the reading to which
the position-circle of the heliometer should be
set, and from the readings of the micrometer-
screw he finds, by a convenient table, the proper
settings of the heliometer scales in distance.
When the scales and position-circle of the
heliometer have been set to these readings, the
comet and the selected comparison-star appear
together in the field of view.
Fig. 15 shows the very convenient arrange-
ment of the eye-end of the instrument. The
disk, 30 with its small projecting handle
enables the 2 segments of the divided object
to be moved rapidly or with any required
delicacy relative to each other. The disk 32
operates the wire gauze screens for equalizing
the brightness of the two stars under observa-
tion. The dial between 30 and 32 indicates
the screen in use. 18 clamps and 19 gives
slow motion in declination; 20 clamps and
21 gives slow motion in right ascension.
The two handles 82 serve for manipulating
the instrument. The microscopes adjoining 82
read the position and declination circles; for,
by an ingenious arrangement of prisms and
screens, the images of both circles can be read
by each single microscope as shown in fig. 16,
thus avoiding the necessity for the employ-
ment of two additional micrometers.
Experience has shown that there is little
that can be advantageously changed to im-
prove this instrument either in convenience or
precision of working. A series of observa-
tions can be easily and more accurately ac-
complished with the Cape heliometer in half an hour; with
the Oxford heliometer it would occupy 2 hours, and with the 4-in.
Repsold heliometer (fig. 9) I hour. Heliometers of 6 to 8 in.
aperture have subsequently been constructed by Repsolds on
these plans for Gottingen, Bamberg, Leipzig and the Kuffner Ob-
servatory (near Vienna), and all of them have made important
contributions to astronomy of precision.
Heliometer observations of distance in their most refined sense
cannot be considered absolute measures of angles. Essentially the
scale-value of the instrument depends on the relation of the focal
HELIOMETER
229
Cmit ofpou
Crclt of didmalm
From Engintfring, vol. xlL\.
FlG. 16.
length of the object-glass to the length of the unit of the scale. But
the eye is tolerant of small changes in the focal adjustment which sensibly
affect the scale-value. These changes may and do arise from the
following causes: (i.) The focal length of the object-glass and the
length of the tube are affected by temperature, (ii.) The focal length
is sensibly different for objects of different colour, (iii.) The length
of the scale is affected by temperature, (iv.) The state of adaptation
of the observer's
eye is dependent
on his state of
health, on a con-
dition of greater
or less fatigue, or
on the inclina-
tion of the head
inconsequenceof
the altitude of
the object ob-
served, (v.) The
temperature of
the object-glass,
of the scale and
of the tube, can-
not be assumed
to be identical.
Thus, for re-
fined purposes, it
cannot be as-
sumed with any
certainty that
the instantane-
ous scale-value
of the heliometer
is known, or that it is a function of the temperature. Of course,
for many purposes, mean conditions may be adopted and mean
scale-values be found which are applicable with considerable pre-
cision to small angles or to comparatively crude observations of
large distances; but the highest refinement is lost unless means
are provided for determining the scale-value for each observer at
each epoch of observation.
In determinations of stellar or solar parallax, comparison stars,
symmetrically situated with respect to the object whose parallax
is sought, should be employed, in which case the instantaneous
scale-value may be regarded as an unknown quantity which can be
derived in the process of the computation of the results. Examples
of this mode of procedure will be found, in the case of stellar parallax
in the Mem. R.A.S. vol. xlviii. pp. 1-194, an .d in the Annals of the
Cape Observatory, vol. viii. parts I and 2 ; and in the case of planetary
parallax in the Mem. R.A.S. vol. xlvi. pp. 1-171, and in the Annals
of the Cape Observatory, vol. vi. In other operations, such as the
triangulation of large groups of stars, it is necessary to select a pair
of standard stars, if possible near the middle of the group, and to
determine the scale-value by measures of this standard distance at
frequent intervals during the night (see Annals of the Cape Ob-
servatory, vol. vi. pp. 3-224). In other cases, such as the measure-
ment of the mutual distances and position angles of the satellites
of Jupiter, for derivation of the elements of the orbits of the satellites
and the mass of Jupiter, reference must also be made to measures
of standard stars whose relative distance and position angle is
accurately determined by independent methods (see Annals of the
Cape Observatory, vol. xii. part 2).
Gill introduced a powerful auxiliary to the accuracy of helio-
meter measures in the shape of a reversing prism placed in front
of the eye-piece, between the latter and the observer's eye. If
measures are made by placing the image of a star in the centre
of the disk of a planet, the observer may have a tendency to do so
systematically in error from some acquired habit or
from natural astigmatism of the eye. But by rotating
the prism 90 the image is presented entirely reversed
to the eye, so that in the mean of measures made in
two such positions personal error is eliminated. Simi-
r larly the prism may be used for the study and elim-
"' ination of personal errors depending on the angle made
J* by a double star with the vertical. The best plan of
FIG 17 mounting such a prism has been found to be the
' _ following. P-, P (fig. 17) are the eye lens and field
lens respectively of a Merz positive eye-piece. In this construction
the lenses are much closer together and the diaphragm for the eye
is much farther from the lenses than in Ramsden's eye-piece. The
prism p is fitted accurately into brass slides (care has to be taken in
the construction to place the prism so that an object in the centre
of the field will so remain when the eye-piece is rotated in its adapter).
There is a collar, clamped by the screw at S, which is so adjusted
that the eye-piece is in focus when pushed home, in its adapter, to
this collar. The prism and eye-piece are then rotated together in
the adapter.
. The Double Image Micrometer. Thomas Clausen in 1841 (Ast.
Nach. No. 414) proposed a form of micrometer consisting of a
divided plate of parallel glass placed within the cone of rays from
the object-glass at right angles to the telescope axis. One-half of
this plane remains fixed, the other half is movable. When the in-
clination of the movable half with respect to the axis of the telescope
is changed by rotation about an axis at right angles to the plane of
division, two images are produced. The amount ot separation is
very small, and depends on the thickness of the glass, the index of
refraction and the focal length of the telescope. Angelo Secchi
(Comptes rendus, xli., 1855, p. 906) gives an account of some ex-
periments with a similar micrometer; and Ignarjio Porro (Comptes
rendus, xli. p. 1058) claims the original invention and construction
of such a micrometer in 1842. Clausen, however, has undoubted
priority. Helmholtz in his " Ophthalmometer " has employed
Clausen's principle, but arranges the plates so that both move sym-
metrically in opposite directions with respect to the telescope axis.
Should Clausen s micrometer be employed as an astronomical
instrument, it would be well to adopt the improvement of Helmholtz.
Double-Image Micrometers with Divided Lenses. Various micro-
meters have been invented besides the heliometer for measuring by
double image. Ramsden's dioptric micrometer consists of a divided
lens placed in the conjugate focus of the innermost lens of the erecting
eye-tube of a terrestrial telescope. The inventor claimed that it
would supersede the heliometer, but it has never done anything for
astronomy. Dollond claims the independent invention and first
construction of a similar instrument (Pearson's Practical Astronomy,
ii. 182). Of these and kindred instruments only two types have
proved of practical value. G. B. Amici of Modena (Mem. Sac.
Ital. xvii., 1815, pp. 344-359) describes a micrometer in which a
negative lens is introduced between the eye-piece and the object-
glass. This lens is divided and mounted like a heliometer object-
glass; the separation of the lenses produces the required double
image, and is measured by a screw. W. R. Dawes very successfully
used this micrometer in conjunction with a filar micrometer, and
found that the precision of the measures was in this way greatly
increased (Monthly Notices, vol. xviii. p. 58, and Mem. R.A.S. vol.
xxxv. p. 147).
In the improved form 1 of Airy's divided eye-glass micrometer
(Mem. R.A.S. vol. xv. pp. 199-209) the rays from the object-glass
pass successively through lenses as follows:
Lens.
Distance from
next Lens.
Focal Length.
a. An equiconvex lens
b. . . .
c. Plano-convex,convex towards b
d. Plano-convex.convex towards c
P
2
If
arbitrary = p
5
I
I
The lens 6 is divided, and one of the segments is moved by a micro-
meter screw. The magnifying power is varied by changing the lens a
for another in which p has a different value. The magnifying power
of the eye-piece is that of a single lens of focus = \p.
In 1850 J. B. Valz pointed out that the other optical conditions
could be equally satisfied if the divided lens were made concave
instead of convex, with the advantage of giving a larger field of view
(Monthly Notices, vol. x. p. 160).
The last improvement on this instrument is .mentioned in the
Report of the R.A.S. council, February 1865. It consists in the
introduction by Simms of a fifth lens, but no satisfactory descrip-
tion has ever appeared. There is only one practical published
investigation of Airy's micrometer that is worthy of mention,
viz. that of F. Kaiser (Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden, iii.
111-274). The reader is referred to that paper for an exhaustive
history and discussion of the intrument. 2 It is somewhat surprising
that, after Kaiser's investigations, observers should continue, as
many have done, to discuss their observations with this instrument
as if the screw-value were constant for all angles.
1 For description of the earliest form see Cambridge Phil. Trans.
vol. ii., and Greenwich Observations (1840).
2 Dawes (Monthly Notices, January 1858, and Mem. R.A.S. vol.
xxxy. p. 150) suggested and used a valuable improvement for pro-
ducing round images, instead of the elongated images which are
otherwise inevitable when the rays pass through a divided lens of
which the optical centres are not in coincidence, viz. " the intro-
duction of a diaphragm having two circular apertures touching each
other in a point coinciding with the line of collimation of the telescope,
and the diameter of each aperture exactly equal to the semidiameter
of the cone of rays at the distance of the diaphragm from the focal
point of the object-glass." Practically the difficulty of making
these diaphragms for the different powers of the exact required
equality is insuperable; but, if the observer is content to lose a
certain amount of light, we see no reason why they may not readily
be made slightly less. Dawes found the best method for the purpose
in question was to limit the aperture of the object-glass by a dia-
phragm having a double circular aperture, placing the line joining
the centres of the circles approximately in the position angle under
measurement. Dawes successfully employed the double circular
aperture also with Amici's micrometer. The present writer has
successfully used a similar plan in measuring position angles of a
Centauri with the heliometer, viz. by placing circular diaphragms
on the two segments of the object-glass.
230
HELIOPOLIS HELIOSTAT
Steinheil (Journal savant de Munich, Feb. 28, 1843) describes
a " heliometre-oculaire " which he made for the great Pulkowa
refractor, the result of consultations between himself and the elder
Struve. It is essentially the same in principle as Amici's micro-
meter, except that the divided lens is an achromatic positive instead
of a negative lens. Struve (Description de I'Obsenjatoire Central de
Pulkowa, pp. 196, 197) adds a few remarks to Steinheil's description,
in which he states that the images have not all desirable precision
a fault perhaps inevitable in all micrometers with divided lenses,
and which is probably in this case aggravated by the fact that the
rays falling upon the divided lens have considerable convergence.
He, however, successfully employed the instrument in measuring
double stars, so close as I * or 2", and using a power of 300 diameters,
with results that agreed satisfactorily amongst themselves and with
those obtained with the filar micrometer. If Struve had employed
a properly proportioned double circular diaphragm, fixed symmetric-
ally with the axis of the telescope in front of the divided lens and
turning with the micrometer, it is probable that his report on the
instrument would have been still more favourable. This particular
instrument has historical interest, having led Struve to some of those
criticisms of the Pulkowa heliometer which ultimately bore such
valuable fruit (see ante).
Ramsden (Phil. Trans, vol. xix. p. 419) suggested the division
of the small speculum of a Cassegrain telescope and the production
of double image by micrometric rotation of the semispecula in the
plane passing through their axis. Brewster (Ency. Brit. 8th ed.
vol. xiv. p. 749) proposed a plan on a like principle, by dividing the
plane mirror of a Newtonian telescope. Again, in an ocular helio-
meter by Steinheil double image is similarly produced by a divided
prism of total reflection placed in parallel rays. But practically
these last three methods are failures. In the last the field is full of
false light, and it is not possible to give sufficiently minute and steady
separation to the images; and there are of necessity a collimator,
two prisms of total reflection, and a small telescope through which
the rays must pass; consequently there is great loss of light.
Micrometers Depending on Double Refraction. To the Abb6
Rochon (Jour, de phys. liii., 1801, pp. 169-198) is due the happy
idea of applying the two images formed by double refraction to the
construction of a micrometer. He fell upon a most ingenious plan of
doubling the amount of double refraction of a prism by using two
prisms of rock-crystal, so cut out of the solid as to give each the
same quantity of double refraction, and yet to double the quantity
in the effect produced. The combination so formed is known as
Rochon's prism. Such a prism he placed between the object-glass
and eye-piece of a telescope. The separation of the images increases
as the prism is approached to the object-glass, and diminishes as it
is approached towards the eye-piece.
D. F. J. Arago (Comptes rendus, xxiv., 1847, pp. 400-402) found
that in Rochon's micrometer, when the prism was approached close to
the eye-piece for the measurement of very small angles, the smallest
imperfections in the crystal or its surfaces were inconveniently
magnified. He therefore selected for any particular measurement
such a Rochon prism as when fixed between the eye and the eye-
piece (i.e. where a sunshade is usually placed) would, combined with
the normal eye-piece employed, bring the images about to be
measured nearly in contact. He then altered the magnifying power
by sliding the field lens of the eye-piece (which was fitted with a
slipping tube for the purpose) along the eye-tube, till the images
were brought into contact. By a scale attached to the sliding tube
the magnifying power of the eye-piece was deduced, and this com-
bined with the angle of the prism employed gave the angle measured.
FIG. 18.
FIG. 19.
If p* is the refracting angle of the prism, and n the magnifying power
of the eye-piece, then p"/n will be the distance observed. Arago
made many measures of the diameters of the planets with such a
micrometer.
Dollond (Phil. Trans., 1821, pp. 101-103) describes a double-
image micrometer of his own invention, in which a sphere of rock-
crystal is substituted for the eye-lens of an ordinary eye-piece. In
this instrument (figs. 1 8, 19) a is the sphere, placed in half-holes on
the axis bb, so that when its principal axis is parallel to the axis of
the telescope it gives only one image of the object. In a direction
perpendicular to that axis it must be so placed that when it is
moved by rotation of the axis bb the separation of the images shall
be parallel to that motion. The angle of rotation is measured on
| the graduated circle C. The angle between the objects measured
is = r sin 28, where r is a constant to be determined for each magni-
fying power employed, 1 and 6 the angle through which the sphere
has been turned from zero (i.e. from coincidence of its principal
axis with that of the telescope). The maximum separation is conse-
quently at 45 from zero. The measures can be made on both sides
of zero for eliminating index error. There are considerable difficulties
of construction, but these have been successfully overcome by
Dollond ; and in the hands of Dawes (Mem. R.A.S. xxxv. p. 144 seq.)
such instruments have done valuable service. They are liable to
the objection that their employment is limited to the measurement
of very small angles, viz. 13" or 14* when the magnifying power is
100, and varying inversely as the power. Yet the beautiful images
which these micrometers give permit the measurement of very
difficult objects as a check on measures with the parallel-wire
micrometer.
On the theory of the heliometer and its use consult Bessel, Astrono-
mische Untersuchungen, vol. i. ; Hansen, Ausfuhrliche Methode mil
dem Fraunhoferschen Heliometer anzustellen (Gptha, 1827); Chau-
venet, Spherical and Practical Astronomy, vol. ii. (Philadelphia and
London, 1876); Seeliger, Theorie des Heliometers (Leipzig, 1877);
Lindsay and Gill, Dunecht Publications, vol. ii. (Dunecht, for private
circulation, 1877); Gill, Mem. R.A.S. vol. xlvi. pp. 1-172, and
references mentioned in the text. (D. Gl.)
HELIOPOLIS, one of the most ancient cities of Egypt, met
with in the Bible under its native name On. It stood 5 m. E.
of the Nile at the apex of the Delta. It was the principal seat
of sun-worship, and in historic times its importance was entirely
religious. There appear to have been two forms of the sun-god
at Heliopolis in the New Kingdom namely, Ra-Harakht, or
Re'-Harmakhis, falcon-headed, and Etom, human-headed;
the former was the sun in his mid-day strength, the latter the
evening sun. A sacred bull was worshipped here under the name
Mnevis (Eg. Mreu), and was especially connected with Etom.
The sun-god Re' (see EGYPT: Religion) was especially the royal
god, the ancestor of all the Pharaohs, who therefore held the
temple of Heliopolis in great honour. Each dynasty might
give the first place to the god of its residence Ptah of Memphis,
Ammon of Thebes, Neith of Sais, Bubastis of Bubastis, but all
alike honoured Re'. His temple became in a special degree a
depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the
priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history
of all the Egyptians. The schools of philosophy and astronomy
are said to have been frequented by Plato and other Greek
philosophers; Strabo, however, found them deserted, and the
town itself almost uninhabited, although priests were still there,
and cicerones for the curious traveller. The Ptolemies probably
took little interest in their " father " Re', and Alexandria had
eclipsed the learning of Heliopolis; thus with the withdrawal
of royal favour Heliopolis quickly dwindled, and the students
of native lore deserted it for other temples supported by a
wealthy population of pious citizens. In Roman times obelisks
were taken from its temples to adorn the northern cities of the
Delta, and even across the Mediterranean to Rome. Finally
the growth of Fostat and Cairo, only 6 m. to the S.W., caused
the ruins to be ransacked for building materials. The site was
known to the Arabs as 'Ayin esh shems, " the fountain of the
sun," more recently as Tel Hisn. It has now been brought for
the most part under cultivation, but the ancient city walls of
crude brick are to be seen in the fields on all sides, and the position
of the great temple is marked by an obelisk still standing (the
earliest known, being one of a pair set up by Senwosri I., the
second king of the Twelfth Dynasty) and a few granite blocks
bearing the name of Rameses II.
See Strabo xvii. cap. I. 27-28; Baedeker's Egypt. (F. LL. G.)
HELIOSTAT (from Gr. rjXtoj, the sun, or arcs, fixed, set up),
an instrument which will reflect the rays of the sun in a fixed
direction notwithstanding the motion of the sun. The optical
apparatus generally consists of a mirror mounted on an axis
parallel to the axis of the earth, and rotated with the same
angular velocity as the sun. This construction assumes that the
sun describes daily a small circle about the pole of the celestial
sphere, and ignores any diurnal variation in the declination.
This variation is, however, so small that it can be neglected for
most purposes.
1 Dollond provides for changing the power by sliding the lens d
nearer to or farther from a.
HELIOTROPE
231
FIG. i.
Many forms of heliostats have been devised, the earliest having
been described by Wilhelm Jacob s'Gravesande in the 3rd edition
of his Physices elementa (1742). One of the simplest consists of a
plane mirror rigidly connected with a
revolving axis so that the angle be-
tween the normal to the mirror and
the axis of the instrument equals half
the sun's polar distance, the mirror
being adjusted so that the normal has
the same right ascension as the sun.
It is easily seen that if the mirror be
rotated at the same angular velocity as
the sun the right ascensions will re-
main equal throughout the day, and
therefore this device reflects the rays
in the direction of the earth's axis; a
second fixed mirror reflects them in
any other fixed direction. Foucault's
heliostat reflects the rays horizontally
in any required direction. The principle
of the apparatus may be explained
by reference to fig. I. The axis of rotation AB bears a rigidly
attached rod DEC inclined to it at an angle equal to the sun's polar
distance. By adjusting the right ascension of the plane ABC and
rotating the axis with the angular velocity of the sun, it follows that
BC will be the direction of the solar rays
throughout the day. X is the mirror
rotating about the point E, and placed so
that (if EB is the horizontal direction in
which the rays are to be reflected) (i) the
normal CE to the mirror is jointed to BC
at C and is equal in length to BE, (2) the
rod DEC passes through a slot in a rod ED
fixed to, and in the plane of, the mirror.
Since CE equals BE these directions are
equally inclined to, and coplanar with, the
normal to the mirror. Hence light incident
along the direction BC will be reflected
along CE. Silbermann's heliostat reflects
the rays in any direction. The principle
may be explained by means of fig. 2. AB
is the axis of rotation, BC an adjustable
rod as in Foucault's constiuction, and
can be set to the direction in which
reflected. The rods BC and DB carry two
FIG. 2.
BD is another rod which
rays are
the rays are to be
small rods EF, GF jointed at F; at this joint there is a pin which
slides in a slot on the rod BH, which is normal to the mirror X. The
From Jamin and Bouty, Cours de physique, Gauthier-Villare.
FIG. 3. Silbermann's Heliostat.
rods EF, GF are such that BEFG is a rhombus. It is easy to show
that rays falling on the mirror in the direction BC will be reflected
along BD. One construction of the instrument, described in Jamin's
Cows de physique, is shown in fig. 3. The mirror mm is attached
to the framework pafe, the members of which are parallel to the
incident and reflected rays SO, OR, and the diagonal pf is per-
pendicular to the mirror. The framework is attached to two inde-
pendent circular arcs Cs and rr' having their centres at O and provided
with clamps D and A on the axis F of the instrument. The arc Cs
is graduated, and is set so that the angle COD equals the complement
of the sun's declination. ^This can be effected (after setting the axis)
by rotating Cs until a needle indicates true time on the hour dial B.
The arc rr is set so as to reflect the rays in the required direction.
The axis F of the instrument is set at an angle equal to the latitude
of the place of observation and in the meridian by means of the screw
K, and rotated by clockwork contained in the barrel H. The setting
in the meridian is effected by turning the instrument after setting
for latitude until a pin-hole aperture s and a small screen P, placed
so that Pi is parallel to CO, are in a line with the sun.
Many other forms of heliostats have been designed, the chief
difference consisting in the mechanical devices for maintaining the
constant direction of the reflecting ray. One of the most important
applications of the heliostat is as an adjunct to the newer forms of
horizontal telescopes (q.v.) and in conjunction with spectroscopic
telescopes in observations of eclipses.
HELIOTROPE, or TURNSOLE, Heliolropium (Gr.
i.e. a plant which follows the sun with its flowers or leaves, or,
according to Theophrastus (Hist, plant, vii. 15), which flowers
at the summer solstice), a genus of usually more or less hairy
herbs or undershrubs of the tribe Heliolropieae of the natural
order Boraginaceae, having alternate, rarely almost opposite
leaves; small white, lilac or blue flowers, in terminal or lateral
one-sided simple or once or twice
forked spikes, with a calyx of five
deeply divided segments, a salver-
shaped, hypogynous, 5-lobed corolla,
and entire 4-celled ovary; fruit 2-
to 4-sulcate or lobed, at length
separable into four i -seeded nutlets
or into two hard 2-celled carpels.
The genus contains 220 species
indigenous in the temperate and
warmer parts of both hemispheres.
A few species are natives of Europe,
as H. europaeum, which is also a
naturalized species in the southern
parts of North America.
The common heliotrope of English
hothouses, H. peruvianum, popularly
known as " cherry-pie," is on
account of the delicious odour of
its flowers a great favourite with
florists. It was introduced into
Europe by the younger Jussieu,
who sent seed of it from Peru
to the royal garden at Paris. About the year 1757 it
was grown in England by Philip Miller from seed obtained
from St Germains. H. corymbosum (also a native of Peru),
which was grown in Hammersmith nurseries as early as 1812,
has larger but less fragant flowers than H. peruvianum. The
species commonly grown in Russian gardens is H. suaveolens,
which has white, highly fragrant flowers.
Heliotropes may be propagated either from seed, or, as
commonly, by means of cuttings of young growths taken an
inch or_two in length. Cuttings when sufficiently ripened, are
struck in spring or during the summer months; when rooted
they should be potted singly into small pots, using as a compost
fibry loam, sandy peat and well-decomposed stable manure
from an old hotbed. The plants soon require to be shifted into
a pot a size larger. To secure early-flowering plants, cuttings
should be struck in August, potted off before winter sets in, and
kept in a warm greenhouse. In the spring larger pots should
be given, and the plants shortened back to make them bushy.
They require frequent shiftings during the summer, to induce
them to bloom freely.
The heliotrope makes an elegant standard. The plants must
in this case be allowed to send up a central shoot, and all the
side growths must be pinched off until the necessary height is
reached, when the shoot must be stopped and lateral growths
will be produced to form the head. During winter they should
Heliotropium suaveolens.
232
HELIOZOA
be kept somewhat dry, and in spring the ball of soil should be
reduced and the plants repotted, the shoots being slightly
pruned, so as to maintain a symmetrical head. When they
are planted out against the walls and pillars of the greenhouse
or conservatory an abundance of highly perfumed blossoms
will be supplied all the year round. Fcom the end of May till
October heliotropes are excellent for massing in beds in the
open air by themselves or with other plants. Many florists'
varieties of the common heliotrope are known in cultivation.
Pliny (Nat. hist. xxii. 29) distinguishes two kinds of " helio-
tropium," the tricoccum, and a somewhat taller plant, the
helioscopium; the former, it has been supposed, is Croton
tinctorium, and the latter the TJKiOTpbniov piKpov of Dioscorides
or Heliotropium europaeum. The helioscopium, according to
Pliny, was variously employed in medicine; thus the juice of
the leaves with salt served for the removal of warts, whence
the term herba iierrucaria applied to the plant. What, from the
perfume of its flowers, is sometimes called winter heliotrope,
is the fragrant butterbur, or sweet-scented coltsfoot, Petasites
(Tussilago) fragrans, a perennial Composite plant.
HELIOTROPE, in mineralogy, is the mineral commonly called
" bloodstone " (q.v.), and sometimes termed girasol a name
applied also to fire-opal. The name, like those of many ancient
names of minerals, seems to have had a fanciful origin. According
to Pliny the stone was so called because when thrown into the
water it turned the sun's light falling upon it into a reflection
like that of blood.
HELIOZOA, in zoology, a group of the Sarcodina (q.v.) so
named by E. Haeckel, 1866. They are characterized by the
radiate pseudopods, finely tapering at the apex, springing
abruptly from the superficial protoplasm, containing a denser,
rather permanent axial rod (figs, i (i), 2 (2); protoplasm without
a clear ectoplasm or pellicle, often frothy with large vacuoles,
like the alveoli of Radiolaria; nucleus i or numerous; skeleton
absent, gelatinous or of separate siliceous fibres, plates or
spicules, rarely complete and latticed; reproduction by simple
fission or by brood-formation, often syngamous; form usually
nearly spherical, rarely changing slowly. This group was
formerly included with the Rhizopoda; but was separated
from it by Haeckel on account of the character of its pseudopods,
and its general adaptation to a semipelagic existence correlated
with the frothy cytoplasm (fig. i (i)). Actinophrys sol and
Actinosphaerium eichhurnii (fig. 2), known as sun animalcules
to the older microscopists, float freely in stagnant or slow-
flowing waters, and Myriophrys is able by an investment of
long flagelliform cilia to swim freely. The majority, however,
lurk among confervae or the light debris of the bottom ooze;
and come under the head of " sapropelic " rather than pelagic
organisms. The body is usually of constant spherical form in
relation to the floating habit. Nuclearia, however, shows amoe-
boid changes of general outline. The pseudopods are retractile,
the axial filament being absorbed as the filament grows shorter
and thicker and disappearing when the pseudopod merges into the
ectoplasm, to be reformed at the same time with the pseudopod.
There is often a distinction, clear, but never sharp, between the
richly vacuolate, almost frothy ectoplasm and the denser
endoplasm. One or more contractile vacuoles may protrude
from the ectoplasm. The endoplasm contains the nucleus or
nuclei. The nucleus when single may be central or excentric:
in the latter case, the endoplasm contains a clear central sphere
(" centrosome ")on which abut the axial filaments of the pseudo-
pods. The ectoplasm contains, in some species, constantly
(Raphidiophrys viridis) or occasionally (Actinosphaerium), green
cells belonging to the genera Zoochlorella and Sphaerocystis, both
probably the latter certainly vegetative stages of a Chlamy-
domonad (FLAGELLATA, q.v.) and of symbiotic significance.
The Heliozoa can move by rolling over on their extended pseudo-
pods; Acanthocyslis ludibunda traversing a path of as much
as twenty times its diameter in a minute, according to Penard.
Several species (e.g. Raphidiophrys elegans) remain associated
by the union of their pseudopods, whether into social aggregates
(due to approximation) or " colonies " due -to lack of separation
FIG. i. Heliozoa. i. Actinophrys sol, Ehrb.; X 800. a, Food-
particle lying in a large food-vacuole ; 6, deep-lying finely granular
protoplasm; c, axial filament of a pseudopodium extended inwards
to the nucleus; d, the central nucleus; e, contractile vacuole; /,
superficial much vacuolated prot9plasm. 2. Clathrulina elegans,
Cienk. ; X 200. 3. Heterophrys marina, H. and L. X 660. a, nucleus;
b, clearer protoplasm surrounding the nucleus; c, the peculiar
felted envelope. 4. Raphidiophrys pallida, F. E. Schultze; X 430.
a, food-particle; 6, contractile vacuole; c, the nucleus; d, central
granule in which all the axis-filaments of the pseudopodia meet.
The tangentially disposed spicules are seen arranged in masses on
the surface. 5. Acanthocystis turfacea, Carter; X 240. a, probably
the central nucleus; 6, clear protoplasm around the nucleus; c,
more superficial protoplasm with vacuoles and chlorophyll cor-
puscles; d, coarser siliceous spicules; e, finer forked siliceous
spicules; /, finely granular layer of protoplasm. The long pseudo-
podia reaching beyond the spicules are not lettered. 6. Bi-flagellate
" flagellula " of Acanthocystts aculeata. a, nucleus. 7. Id. of Clath-
rulina elegans. a, nucleus; b, granules. 8. Astrodisculus ruber,
Greeff; X 320. o, red-coloured central sphere (? nucleus); b, peri-
pheral homogeneous envelope.
after fission, is not accurately known. The multinuclear species
Actinosphaerium eichhornii (fig. 2), normally apocytial (i.e. the
nuclei divide repeatedly without division of the cytoplasm),
HELIUM
233
FIG. 2. Heliozoa. I. Actinosphaerium eichhornii, Ehr. ; X 200. a,
nuclei; ft, deeper protoplasm with smaller vacuoles and numerous
nuclei; c, contractile vacuoles; d, peripheral protoplasm with
larger vacuoles. 2. A portion of the same specimen more highly
magnified and seen in optical section, a, Nuclei; ft, deeper proto-
plasm (so-called endosarc); d, peripheral protoplasm (so-called
ectosarc) ; e, pseudopodia showing the granular protoplasm stream-
ing over the stiff axial filament ; /, food-particle in a good-vacuole.
3, 4- Nuclei of Actinosphaerium in the resting condition. 5-13.
Successive stages in the division of a nucleus of Actinosphaerium,
showing fibrillation, and in 7 and 8 formation of an equatorial
plate of chromatin substance (after Hertwig). 14. Cyst-phase of
Actinosphaerium eichhornii, showing the protoplasm divided into
twelve chlamydospores, each of which has a siliceous coat; a,
nucleus of the spore; g, gelatinous wall of the cyst; h, siliceous
coat of the spore.
may increase in size by the fusion (" plastogamic ") of small
individuals. If a large specimen be cut up or fragment itself
under irritation, the small ones so produced soon approach one
another and fuse completely.
Reproduction. Binary fission has been repeatedly observed; in
ome cases one or both of the daughter cells may swim for a time
as a biflagellate zoospore (fig. I (6, 7)). The process may take place
when the cell is naked or after preliminary encystment. Budding
has been well studied in Acanthocystis; the cell nucleus divides
repeatedly and most of the daughter nuclei pass to the periphery,
aggregate part of the cytoplasm, and with it are constricted off as
independent cells; one nucleus remains central and the process may
be repeated. The detached bud may assume the typical character
after a short amoeboid (lobose) stage, sometimes preceded by rest,
or it may develop 2 flagella and swim off (fig. I (6)).
Brood formation is only known here in relation to a syngamic
process; this is a sharp contrast to Proteomyxa (q.v.) where brood-
formation is the commonest mode of reproduction, and plasmodium-
formation, rare indeed, is the nearest approach to syngamy observed.
Indeed, if we knew the life-history of all the species this difference
in the life cycle would be a convenient critical character.
Equal conjugation was demonstrated fully by F. Schaudinn in
Actinophrys; two individuals approach and enter into close contact,
and are surrounded by a common cyst wall. The nucleus of either
male divides; and one nucleus passes to the surface at either side,
and is budded off with a small portion of the cytoplasm as an abortive
cell; the two remaining nuclei which are " first cousins " in cellular
relationship now fuse, as is the case with the cytoplasts. The resulting
coupled cell or zygote divides into two, which again encyst.
Actinosphaerium (fig. 2) shows a still more remarkable process,
fully studied by R. Hertwig. The large multinucleate animal
withdraws its pseudopods, its vacuoles disappear, it encysts and its
nuclei diminish in number to about j^th partly by fusion, 2 and
2, probably by digestion of the majority. Within the primary cyst
the body is now resolved into nuclear cells, which again surround
themselves with secondary cysts. The cell in each secondary cyst
divides (by karyokinesis), and these sister cells, or rather their
offspring, pair in much the same way as the individual cells of
Actinophrys the chief difference is that after the first division and
budding off of, a rudimentary cell, a second division of the same
character takes place, with the formation of a second rudimentary
cell, which is the niece of the first, absolutely in the same way as the
1st and 2nd polar bodies are formed in the maturation of the ovum
in Metazoa. The actual pairing cells are thus second cousins, great-
granddaughters of the original cell of the secondary cysts. Complete
fusion now takes place to form the coupled cell, which is now con-
tracted and forms a gelatinous wall within the siliceous secondary
cyst wall (fig. 2 (14)). During a resting stage nuclear divisions occur
and finally a brood of young i-nuclear Actinosphaerium leave the
cyst.
Classification.
Aphrothoraca. Body naked. Actinophrys Ehrb. (fig. I (i))
(nucleate), Actinosphaerium Stein plurmucleate (fig. 2 (i)),
Camptonema (plurinucleate) Schaud., Dimorpha Gruber (some-
times 2 flagellate).
I. Chlamydophora. Investment gelatinous. Astrodiscus.
II. Chalarothoraca. Body protected by an investment of
spicules or fibre scattered or approximated, never fused
into a continuous skeleton.
I. Spicules netted or free in the protoplasm. Hetero-
phrys Arch. (fig. i (3)), Raphidiophrys Arch. (fig. I (4)),
Pinacodocystis, Hertw. and Less.
2. Spicules approximated radially. Pinaciophora Greeff ,
Pompholyxophrys Arch., Lithocolla F. E. Schultze,
Elaeorhanis Greeff (in the two foregoing genera the spicules
represented by sand granules), Acanthocystis Carter (fig. I
(5)), Pinacocystis (?) Hertw. and Less, Myriophrys Penard.
(Astrodisculus).
III. Desmothoraca. I attached by a stalk. Clathrulina Cienk.
(fig. i (2, 7)), Hedriocystis, Hertw. and Less.
2. Free Blaster, Grimin, Choanocystis.
LITERATURE. The most important English original papers on this
group are those by W. Archer, " On some Freshwater Rhizopoda,
new, or little known," Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science,
N.S. ix.-xi. (1869-1871), and " Re'sume' of Recent Contributions to
the Knowledge of Freshwater Rhizopods," ibid, xvi., xvii. (1876-
1877). See also R. Hertwig and Lesser, " Cber Rhizopoda und
denselben nahestehenden Organismen," in Archiv fur mikroscopische
Anatomie, x. (1874), p. 35; R. Schaudinn, " Heliozoa " in Tierreich
(1896); E. Penard, Les Heliozoaires d'eau douce (1904); the two
last named contain full bibliographies. (M. HA.)
HELIUM (from Gr. rjXtos, the sun), a gaseous chemical
element, the modern discovery of which followed closely on that
of argon (q.v.). The investigations of Lord Rayleigh and Sir
William Ramsay had shown that indifference to chemical
reagents did not sufficiently characterize an unknown gas as
nitrogen, and it became necessary to reinvestigate other cases of
the occurrence of "nitrogen" in nature. H.Miers drew Ramsay's
attention to the work of W. F. Hillebrand, who had noticed, in
examining the mineral uraninite, that an inert gas was evolved
when the mineral was decomposed with acid. Ramsay, repeating
these experiments, found that the inert gas emitted refused
234
HELIX HELLANICUS
to oxidize when sparked with oxygen, and on examining it
spectroscopically he saw that the spectrum was not that of
argon, but was characterized by a bright yellow line near to,
but not identical with, the D line of sodium. This was after-
wards identified with the Ds line of the solar chromosphere,
observed in 1868 by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, and ascribed by
him to a hypothetical element helium. This name was adopted
for the new gas.
Helium is relatively abundant in many minerals, all of which
are radioactive, and contain uranium or thorium as important
constituents. (For the significance of this fact see RADIO-
ACTIVITY.) The richest known source is thorianite, which
consists mainly of thorium oxide, and contains 9-5 cc. of helium
per gram. Monazite, a phosphate of thorium and other rare
earths, contains on the average about i cc. per gram. Cleveite,
samarskite and fergusonite contain a little more than monazite.
The gas also occurs in minute quantities in the common minerals
of the earth's crust. In this case too it is associated with radio-
active matter, which is almost ubiquitous. In two cases, how-
ever, it has been found in the absence of appreciable quantities
of uranium and thorium compounds, namely in beryl, and in
sylvine (potassium chloride). Helium is contained almost
universally in the gases which bubble up with the water of thermal
springs. The proportion varies greatly. In the hot springs of
Bath it amounts to about one-thousandth part of the gas evolved.
Much larger percentages have been recorded in some French
springs (Compt. rend., 1906, 143, p. 795, and 146, p. 435), and
considerable quantities occur in some natural gas (Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 29, p. 1524). R. J. Strutt has suggested that helium
in hot springs may be derived from the disintegration of common
rocks at great depths.
Helium is present in the atmosphere, of which it constitutes
four parts in a million. It is conspicuous by its absorption
spectrum in many of the white stars. Certain stars and nebulae
show a bright line helium spectrum.
Much the best practical source of helium is thorianite, a
mineral imported from Ceylon for the manufacture of thoria.
It dissolves readily in strong nitric acid, and the helium contained
is thus liberated. The gas contains a certain amount of hydrogen
and oxides of carbon, also traces of nitrogen. In order to get
rid of hydrogen, some oxygen is added to the helium, and the
mixture exploded by an electric spark. All remaining impurities,
including the excess of oxygen, can then be taken out of the
gas by Sir James Dewar's ingenious method of absorption
with charcoal cooled in liquid air. Helium alone refuses to be
absorbed, and it can be pumped off from the charcoal in a state
of absolute purity. In the absence of liquid air the helium must
be purified by the methods employed for argon (q.v.). If
thorianite cannot be obtained, monazite, which is more abundant,
may be utilized. A part of the helium contained in minerals
can be extracted by heat or by grinding (J. A. Gray, Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1909, 82A, p. 301).
Properties. All attempts to make helium enter into stable
chemical union have hitherto proved unsuccessful. The gas is
in all probability only mechanically retained in the minerals in
which it is found. Jacquerod and Perrot have found that
quartz-glass is freely permeable to helium below a red-heat
(Contpl. rend., 1904, 139, p. 789). The effect is even perceptible
at a temperature as low as 220 C. Hydrogen, and, in a much
less degree, oxygen and nitrogen, will also permeate silica, but
only at higher temperatures. They have made this observation
the basis of a practical method of separating helium from the
other inert gases. M. Travers has suggested that it may explain
the liberation of helium from minerals by heat, the gas being
enabled to permeate the siliceous materials in which it is enclosed.
Thorianite, however, contains no silica, and until it is shown that
metallic oxides behave in the same way this explanation must
be accepted with reserve.
The density of helium has been determined by Ramsay and
Travers as 1-98. Its ratio 'of specific heats has very nearly the
ideal value 1-666, appropriate to a monatomic molecule. The
accepted atomic weight is accordingly double the density, i.e.
approximately four times that of hydrogen. The refractivity
of helium is 0-1238 (air=i). The solubility in water is the
lowest known, being, at 18-2, only -0x573 vols. per unit volume
of water. The viscosity is -96 (air=i).
The spectrum of helium as observed in a discharge tube is
distinguished by a moderate number of brilliant lines, dis-
tributed over the whole visual spectrum. The following are
the approximate wave-lengths of the most brilliant lines:
Red 7066
Red 6678
Yellow 5876
Green 4922
Blue 4472
Violet 4026
When the discharge passes through helium at a pressure of
several millimetres, the yellow line 5876 is prominent. At lower
pressures the green line 4922 becomes more conspicuous. At
atmospheric pressure the discharge is able to pass through a
far greater distance in helium than in the common gases.
M. Travers, G. Senter and A. Jacquerod (Phil. Trans. A. 1903,
200, p. 105) carefully examined the behavour of a constant
volume gas thermometer filled with helium. For the pressure
coefficient per degree, between o and 100 C., they give the
value -00366255, when the initial pressure is 700 mm. This
value is indistinguishable from that which they find for hydrogen.
Thus at high temperatures a helium thermometer is of no special
advantage. At low temperatures, on the other hand, they find,
using an initial pressure of 1000 mm., that the temperatures on
the helium scale are measurably higher than on the hydrogen
scale, owing to the more perfectly gaseous condition of helium.
This difference amounts to about tV at the temperature of liquid
oxygen, and about at that of liquid hydrogen.
The liquefaction of helium was achieved by H. Kamerlingh
Onnes at Leiden in 1908. According to him its boiling point
is 4-3 abs. (-268-7 C.), the density of the liquid 0-154, the
critical temperature 5 abs., and the critical pressure 2-3 atmo-
spheres (Communications from the Physical Laboratory at Leiden,
No. 108; see also LIQUID GASES).
REFERENCES. A bibliography and summary of the earlier work
on helium will be found in a paper by Ramsay, Ann. chim. phys.
(1898) [7], 13, p. 433. See also M. Travers, The Study of Gases
(1901)- (R.J.S.)
HELIX (Gr. e\i, a spiral or twist), an architectural term
for the spiral tendril which is carried up to support the angles
of the abacus of the Corinthian capital; from the same stalk
springs a second helix rising to the centre of the capital, its
junction with one on the opposite side being sometimes marked
by a flower. Sometimes the term " volute " is given to the angle
helix, which is incorrect, as it is of a different design and rises
from the same stalk as the central helices. Its origin is probably
metallic, that is to say, it was copied from the conventional
treatment in Corinthian bronze of the tendrils of a plant.
HELL (O. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to
cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel), the word used in English
both of the place of departed spirits and of the place of torment
of the wicked after death. It is used in the Old Testament
to translate the Hebrew Sheol, and in the New Testament
the Greek $877$, Hades, and jtivva, Hebrew Gehenna (see
ESCHATOLOGY).
HELLANICUS or LESBOS, Greek logographer, flourished
during the latter half of the 5th century B.C. According to
Suidas, he lived for some time at the court of one of the kings
of Macedon, and died at Perperene, a town on the gulf of Adra-
myttium opposite Lesbos. Some thirty works are attributed
to him chronological, historical and episodical. Mention may
be made of: The Priestesses of Hera at Argos, a chronological
compilation, arranged according to the order of succession of
these functionaries; the Carneonikae, a list of the victors in the
Carnean games (the chief Spartan musical festival), including
notices of literary events; an Atlhis, giving the history of Attica
frpm 683 to the end of the Peloppnnesian War (404), which is
referred to by Thucydides (i. 97), who says that he treated the
events of the years 480-431 briefly and superficially, and with
HELLEBORE
235
little regard to chronological sequence: Phoronis, chiefly
genealogical, with short notices of events from the times of
Phoroneus the Argive " first man " to the return of the
Heraclidae; Troica and Persica, histories of Troy and
Persia.
Hellanicus marks a real step in the development of historio-
graphy. He transcended the narrow local limits of the older
logographers, and was not content to repeat the traditions that
had gained general acceptation through the poets. He tried to
give the traditions as they were locally current, and availed
himself of the few national or priestly registers that presented
something like contemporary registration. He endeavoured
to lay the foundations of a scientific chronology, based primarily
on the list of the Argive priestesses of Hera, and secondarily
on genealogies, lists of magistrates (e.g. the archons at Athens) ,
and Oriental dates, in place of the old reckoning by generations.
But his materials were insufficient and he often had recourse
to the older methods. On account of his deviations from common
tradition, Hellanicus is often called an untrustworthy writer
by the ancients themselves, and it is a curious fact that he
appears to have made no systematic use of the many inscriptions
which were ready to hand. Dionysius of Halicarnassus censures
him for arranging his history, not according to the natural
connexion of events, but according to the locality or the nation
he was describing; and undoubtedly he never, like his contem-
porary Herodotus, rose to the conception of a single current of
events wider than the local distinction of race. His style, like
that of the older logographers, was dry and bald.
Fragments in Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, \. and iv. ;
see among older works L. Preller, De Hellanico Lesbip historieo
(1840) ; Mure, History of Greek Literature, iv. ; late criticism in
H. Kullmer, " Hellanikos " in Jahrbucher fur klass. Philologie
(Supplementband, xxvii. 455 sqq.) (1902), which contains new
edition and arrangement of fragments; C. F. Lehmann-Haupt,
" Hellanikos, Heroaot, Thukydides," in Klio vi. 127 sqq. (1906);
J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), pp. 27 sqq.
HELLEBORE (Gr. eXXt/Sopos: mod. Gr. also
Ger. Nieswurz, Christwurz; Fr. hellebore, and in the district of
Avranche, herbe enragee), a genus (Helleborus) of plants of the
natural order Ranunculaceae, natives of Europe and western
Asia. They are coarse perennial herbs with palmately or pedately
lobed leaves. The flowers have five persistent petaloid sepals,
within the circle of which are placed the minute honey-containing
tubular petals of the form of a horn with an irregular opening.
The stamens are very numerous, and are spirally arranged; and
the carpels are variable in number, sessile or stipitate and slightly
united at the base and dehisce by ventral suture.
Helleborus niger, black hellebore, or, as from blooming in mid-
winter it is termed the Christmas rose (Ger. Schwarze Nieswurz;
Fr., rose de Noel or rose d'hiver), is found in southern and
central Europe, and with other species was cultivated in the time
of Gerard (see Herball, p. 977, ed. Johnson, 1633) in English
gardens. Its knotty root-stock is blackish-brown externally,
and, as with other species, gives origin to numerous straight roots.
The leaves spring from the top of the root-stock, and are smooth,
distinctly pedate, dark-green above, and lighter below, with 7 to
9 segments and long petioles. The scapes, which end the
branches of the rhizome, have a loose entire bract at the base, and
terminate in a single flower, with two bracts, from the axis of
one of which a second flower may be developed. The flowers
have 5 white or pale-rose, eventually greenish sepals, 15 to 18
lines in breadth; 8 to 13 tubular green petals containing honey;
and 5 to 10 free carpels. There are several forms, the best being
maximus. The Christmas rose is extensively grown in many
market gardens to provide white flowers forced in gentle heat
about Christmas time for decorations, emblems, &c.
H. orientalis, the Lenten rose, has given rise to several fine
hybrids with H. niger, some of the best forms being clear in
colour and distinctly spotted. H. foetidus, stinking hellebore,
is a native of England, where like H. uiridis, it is confined chiefly
to limestone districts; it is common in France and the south
of Europe. Its leaves have 7- to n-toothed divisions, and the
flowers are in panicles, numerous, cup-shaped and drooping,
with many bracts, and green sepals tinged with purple, alternating
with the five petals.
H. viridis, or green hellebore proper, is probably indigenous
in some of the southern and eastern counties of England, and
occurs also in central and southern Europe. It has bright
yellowish-green flowers, 2 to 4 on a stem, with large leaf-like
bracts. O. Brunfels and H. Bock (i6th century) regarded the
plant as the black hellebore of the Greeks.
H. lividus, holly-leaved hellebore, found in the Balearic
Islands, and in Corsica and Sardinia, is remarkable for the hand-
someness of its foliage. White hellebore is Veralrum album
(see VERATRUM), a liliaceous plant.
Hellebores may be grown in any ordinary light garden mould,
but thrive best in a soil of about equal parts of turfy loam and
Helleborus niger. I, Vertical section of flower; 2, Nectary, side
and front view (nat. size).
well-rotted manure, with half a part each of fibrous peat and
coarse sand, and in moist but thoroughly-drained situations,
more especially where, as at the margins of shrubberies, the
plants can receive partial shade in summer. For propagation
cuttings of the rhizome may be taken in August, and placed in
pans of light soil, with a bottom heat of 60 to 70 Fahr. ; helle-
bores can also be grown from seed, which must be sown as soon
as ripe, since it quickly loses its vitality. The seedlings usually
blossom in their third year. The exclusion of frost favours
the production of flowers; but the plants, if forced, must be
gradually inured to a warm atmosphere, and a free supply of
air must be afforded, without which they are apt to become
much affected by greenfly. For potting, H . niger and its varieties,
and H. orientalis, atrorubens and olympicus have been found
well suited. After lifting, preferably in September, the plants
should receive plenty of light, with abundance of water, and once
a week liquid manure, not over-strong. The flowers are improved
in delicacy of hue, and are brought well up among the leaves,
by preventing access of light except to the upper part of the
plants. Of the numerous species of hellebore now grown, the
deep-purple-flowered H. colchicus is one of the handsomest;
by crossing with H . gultalus and other species several valuable
garden forms have been produced, having variously coloured
spreading or bell-shaped flowers, spotted with crimson, red or
purple.
The rhizome of H . niger occurs in commerce in irregular and
nodular pieces, from about i to 3 in. in length, white and of a
horny texture within. Cut transversely it presents internally
a circle of 8 to 12 cuneiform ligneous bundles, surrounded by
a thick bark. It emits a faint odour when cut or broken, and
has a bitter and slightly acrid taste. The drug is sometimes
adulterated with the rhizome of baneberry, Actaea spicata,
which, however, may be recognized by the distinctly cruciate
appearance of the central portion of the attached roots when
236
HELLENISM
cut across, and by its decoction giving the chemical reactions
for tannin. 1 The rhizome is darker in colour in proportion
to its degree of dryness, age and richness in oil. A specimen
dried by Schroff lost in eleven days 65% of water.
H. niger, orientalis, viridis, foetidus, and several other species of
hellebore contain the glucosides helleborin, CHO 6 , and helleborein,
Cz8HOi 6 , the former yielding glucose and helleboresin, CwH&Oi,
and the latter glucose and a violet-coloured substance helleboretin,
CuHaoOa. Helleborin is most abundant in H. viridis. A third and
volatile principle is probably present in H. foetidus. Both helleborin
and helleborein act poisonously on animals, but their decomposition-
products helleboresin and helleboretin seem to be devoid of any
mi urious qualities. Helleborin produces excitement and restlessness,
followed by paralysis of the lower extremities or whole body, q uickened
respiration, swelling and injection of the mucous membranes,
dilatation of the pupil, and, as with helleborein, salivation, vomiting
and diarrhoea. hHleborein exercises on the heart an action similar
to that of digitalis, but more powerful, accompanied by at first
quickened and then slow and laboured respiration; it irritates the
conjunctiva, and acts as a sternutatory, but less violently than
veratrine. Pliny states that horses, oxen and swine are killed by
eating "black hellebore"; and Christison (On Poisons, p. 876,
nth ed., 1845) writes: " I have known severe griping produced
by merely tasting the fresh root in January." Poisonous doses of
hellebore occasion in man singing in the ears, vertigo, stupor, thirst,
with a feeling of suffocation, swelling of the tongue and fauces,
emesis and catharsis, slowing of the pulse, and finally collapse and
death from cardiac paralysis. Inspection after death reveals much
inflammation of the stomach and intestines, more especially the
rectum. The drug has been observed to exercise a cumulative
action. Its extract was an ingredient in Bacher's pills, an empirical
remedy once in great repute in France. In British medicine the
rhizome was formerly official. H. foetidus was in past times much
extolled as an anthelmintic, and is recommended by Bisset (Med.
Ess., pp. 169 and 195, 1766) as the best vermifuge for children;
J. Cook, however, remarks of it (Oxford Mag., March 1769, p. 99) :
Where it killed not the patient, it would certainly kill the worms;
but the worst of it is, it will sometimes kill both. ' This plant, of
old termed by farriers ox-heel, setter-wort and setter-grass, as well
as H. viridis (Fr. Herbe & seton), is employed in veterinary surgery,
to which also the use of H. niger is now chiefly confined in Britain.
In the early days of medicine two kinds of hellebore were recog-
nized, the white or Veratrum album (see VERATRUM), and the black,
including the various species of Helleborus. The former, according
to Codronchius (Comm. . . . de elleb., 1610), Castellus (De helleb.
epist., 1622), and others, is the drug usually signified in the writings
of Hippocrates. Among the hellebores indigenous to Greece and
Asia Minor, H. orientalis, the rhizome of which differs from that
of H. niger and of H. viridis in the bark being readily separable from
the woody axis, is the species found by Schroff to answer best to the
descriptions given by the ancients of black hellebore, the i\X/3opos
fieXa? of Dioscorides. The rhizome of this plant, if identical, as
would appear, with that obtained by Tournefort at Prusa in Asia
Minor (Rel. d'un voy. du Levant, ii. 189, 1718), must be a remedy
of no small toxic properties. According to an early tradition, black
hellebore administered by the soothsayer and physician Melampus
(whence its name Melampodium) , was the means of curing the mad-
ness of the daughters of Proetus, king of Argos. The drug was used
by the ancients in paralysis, gout and other diseases, more particu-
larly in insanity, a fact frequently alluded to by classical writers,
e.g. Horace (Sat. ii. 3. 80-83, Ep. ad Pis. 300). Various supersti-
tions were in olden times connected with the cutting of black hellebore.
The best is said by Pliny (Nat. hist. xxv. 21) to grow on Mt Helicon.
Of the three Anticyras that in Phocis was the most famed for its
hellebore, which, being there used combined with " sesamoides,"
was, according to Pliny, taken with more safety than elsewhere.
The British Pharmaceutical Conference has recommended
the preparation which it terms the linctura veratri viridis, as the
best form in which to administer this drug. It may be given in
doses of 5-15 minims. The tincture is prepared from the dried
rhizome and rootlets of green hellebore, containing the alkaloids
jervine, veratrine and veratroidine. It is recommended as a
cardiac and nervous sedative in cerebral haemorrhage and
puerperal eclampsia. Black hellebore is a purgative and uterine
stimulant.
HELLENISM (from Gr. eXXrjwfeii', to imitate the Greeks, who
were known as "EXX^es, after "EXXTjv, the son of Deucalion).
The term " Hellenism " is ambiguous. It may be used to denote
ancient Greek culture in all its phases, and even those elements
in modern civilization which are Greek in origin or in spirit;
but, while Matthew Arnold made the term popular in the latter
connexion as the antithesis of " Hebraism," the German historian
1 For the microscopical characters and for figures of transverse
sections of the rhizome, see Lanessan, Hist, des drogues, i. 6 (1878).
J. G. Droysen introduced the fashion (1836) of using it to
describe particularly the latter phases of Greek culture from the
conquests of Alexander to the end of the ancient world, when
those over whom this culture extended were largely not Greek
in blood, i.e. Hellenes, but peoples who had adopted the Greek
speech and way of life, Hellenistai. Greek culture had, however,
both in " Hellenic " and " Hellenistic " times, a common essence,
just as light is light whether in the original luminous body or in
a reflection, and to describe this by the term Hellenism seems most
natural. But whilst using the term in the larger sense, this
article, in deference to the associations which have come to be
specially connected with it, will devote its principal attention
to Hellenism as it appeared in the world after the Macedonian
conquests. But it will be first necessary to indicate briefly
what Hellenism in itself implied.
No verbal formula can really enclose the life of a people or an
age, but we can best understand the significance of the old
Greek cities and the life they developed, when, looking at the
history of mankind as a whole, we see the part played by reason,
active and critical, in breaking down the barriers by which custom
hinders movement, in guiding movement to definite ends, in
dissipating groundless beliefs and leading onwards to fresh
scientific conquests when we see this and then take note that
among the ancient Greeks such an activity of reason began in an
entirely novel degree and that its activity in Europe ever since
is due to their impulsion. When Hellenism came to stand in the
world for something concrete and organic, it was, of course, no
mere abstract principle, but embodied in a language, a literature,
an artistic tradition. In the earliest existing monument of the
Hellenic genius, the Homeric poems, one may already observe
that regulative sense of form and proportion, which shaped the
later achievements of the race in the intellectual and artistic
spheres. It was not till the great colonizing epoch of the 8th and
7th centuries B.C., when the name " Hellene " came into use as
the antithesis of " barbarian," that the Greek race came to be
conscious of itself as a peculiar people; it was yet some three
centuries more before Hellenism stood fully declared in art and
literature, in politics and in thought. There was now a new thing
in the world, and to see how the world was affected by it is our
immediate concern.
I. THE EXPANSION OF HELLENISM BEFORE ALEXANDER. In
the sth century B.C. Greek cities dotted the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean and the Black Sea from Spain to Egypt and the Caucasus,
and already Greek culture was beginning to pass beyond the
limits of the Greek race. Already in the 7th century B.C., when
Hellenism was still in a rudimentary stage, the citizens of the
Greek city-states had been known to the courts of Babylon
and Egypt as admirable soldiers, combining hardihood with
discipline, and Greek mercenaries came to be in request through-
out the Nearer East. But as Hellenism developed, its social
and intellectual life began to exercise a power of attraction.
The proud old civilizations of the Euphrates and the Nile
might ignore it, but the ruder barbarian peoples in East and West,
on whose coasts the Greek colonies had been planted, came in
various degrees under its spell. In some cases an outlying colony
would coalesce with a native population, and a fusion of Hellenism
with barbarian customs take place, as at Emporium in Spain
(Strabo iii. p. 160) and at Locri in S. Italy (Polyb. xii. 5. 10).
Perinthus included a Thracian phyle. The stories of Anacharsis
and Scylas (Herod, iv. 76-80) show how the leading men of the
tribes in contact with the Greek colonies in the Black Sea might
be fascinated by the appeal which the exotic culture made to
mind and to eye.
The great developments of the century and a half before
Alexander set the Greek people in a very different light before the
world. In the sphere of material power the repulse of Xerxes
and the extension of Athenian or Spartan supremacy in the
eastern Mediterranean were large facts patent to the most obtuse.
The kings of the East leant more than ever upon Greek mercen-
aries, whose superiority to barbarian levies was sensibly brought
home to them by the expedition of Cyrus. But the developments
within the Hellenic sphere itself were also of great consequence
HELLENISM
237
for its expansion outwards. The political disunion of the Greeks
was to some extent neutralized by the rise of Athens to a leading
position in art, in literature and in philosophy. In Athens
the Hellenic genius was focussed, its tendencies drawn together
and combined; nor was it a circumstance of small moment
that the Attic dialect attained, for prose, a classical authority;
for if Hellenism was to be propagated in the world at large,
it was obviously convenient that it should have some one definite
form of speech to be its medium.
1. The Persians. The ruling race of the East, the Persian,
was but little open to the influences of the new culture. The
military qualities of the Greeks were appreciated, and so, too,
was Greek science, where it touched the immediately useful;
a Greek captain was entrusted by Darius with the exploration
of the Indus; a Greek architect bridged the Bosporus for him;
Greek physicians (e.g. Democedes, Ctesias) were retained for
enormous fees at the Persian court. The brisk diplomatic
intercourse between the Great King and the Greek states in the
4th century may have produced effects that were not merely
political. We certainly find among those members of the Persian
aristocracy, who came by residence in Asia Minor into closer
contact with the Greeks, some traces of interest in the more
ideal side of Hellenism. A man like the younger Cyrus invited
Greek captains to his friendship for something more than their
utility in war, and procured Greek hetaerae for something
more than sensual pleasure. There is the Mithradates who
presented the Academy with a statue of Plato by Silanion, not
improbably identical (though the supposition implies a correction
in the text of Diogenes Laertius) with that Mithradates who,
together with his father Ariobarzanes, received the citizenship of
Athens (Dem. xxiii. 141, 202). Exactly how far Greek influence
can be traced in the remains of Persian art, such as the royal
palaces of Persepolis and Susa may be doubtful (see Gayet,
L' 'Art person; R. Phene Spiers, Architecture East and West,
p. 245 f.), but it is certain that the engraved gems for which
there was a demand in the Persian empire were largely the
work of Greek artists (Furtwangler, Antike Gemmen, iii. p. 1 16 f.).
2 . The Phoenicians. As early as the first half of the 4th century
we find communities of Phoenician traders established in the
Peiraeus (C.I. A. ii. 86). In Cyprus, on the frontier between
the Greek and Semitic worlds, a struggle for ascendancy went on.
The Phoenician element seems to have been dominant in the
island when Evagoras made himself king of Salamis in 412,
and restored Hellenism with a strong hand. The words of
Isocrates (even allowing for their rhetorical colour) give us a
vivid insight into what such a process meant. " Before Evagoras
established his rule, they were so hostile and exclusive, that
those of their rulers were actually held to be the best who were
the fiercest adversaries of the Greeks; but now such a change
has taken place, that it is a matter of emulation who shall show
himself the most ardent phil-hellen, that for the mothers of
their children most of them choose wives from amongst us,
and that they take pride in having Greek things about rather
than native, in following the Greek fashion of life, whilst our
masters of the fine arts and other branches of culture now resort
to them in greater numbers than were once to be found in those
quarters they specially frequented " (Isoc. 109 = Evag. 49, 50).
Even into the original seats of the Phoenicians Hellenism began to
intrude. Evagoras at one time (about 386) made himself master
of Tyre (Isoc. Evag. 62; Diod. xv. 2, 4). His grandson Evagoras
II. is found as governor of Sidon for the Persian king 349-346.
(Babelon, Perses Achemenides, p. cxxii.; cf. Diod. xvi. 46, 3).
Abdashtart, king of Sidon (374-362 B.C.), called Straton
by the Greeks, had already entered into close relations with
the Greek states, and imitated the Hellenic princes of Cyprus
(Athen. xii. 531; C.I. A. ii. 86; Corp. inscr. Sentit. i. 114).
The Phoenician colonists in Sardinia purchased or imitated the
work of Greek artists (Furtwangler, Antike Gemmen, iii. 109).
3. The Carians and Lycians. The seats of the Greeks in
the East touched peoples more or less nearly related to the
Hellenic stock, with native traditions not so far remote from
those of the Greeks in a more primitive age, the Carians and the
Lycians. It came about in the last century preceding Alexander
that the first of these peoples was organized as a strong state
under native princes, the line founded by Hecatomnus of Mylasa.
Hecatomnus made himself master of Caria in the first decade of
the 4th century, but it was under his son Mausolus, who succeeded
him in 377-376 that the house rose to its zenith. These Carian
princes ruled as satraps for the Great King, but they modelled
themselves upon the pattern of the Greek tyrant. The capital
of Mausolus was a Greek city, Halicarnassus, and all that we
can still trace of his great works of construction and adornment
shows conformity to the pure Hellenic type. His famous
sepulchre, the Mausoleum (the remains of it are now in the
British Museum), was a monument upon which the most eminent
Greek sculptors of the time worked in rivalry (Plin. N.H. xxxvi.
S> 3; Vitruv. vii. 13). His court gave a welcome to the vagrant
Greek philosopher (Diog. Laert. viii. 8, 87). Even the Carian
town of Mylasa now shows the forms of a Greek city and records
its public decrees in Greek (C.I.G. 2691 c,d,e= Michel 471).
In Lycia, which in spite of " the son of Harpagus " and King
Pericles, had never been brought under one man's rule, the Greek
influence is more limited. Here, for the most part in the in-
scriptions, the native language maintains itself against Greek.
The proper names are (if not native) mainly Persian. But the
Greek language makes an occasional appearance; Greek names
are borne by others beside Pericles. The coins are Greek in type.
And above all the monumental remains of Lycia show strong
Greek influence, especially the well-known " Nereid Monument "
in the British Museum, whose date is held to go back to the
5th century (Gardner, Handbook of Gk. Sculp, p. 344).
4. South Russia. Hellenic influences continued to penetrate
the Scythian peoples from the Greek colonies of the Black Sea,
at any rate in the matter of artistic fabrication. Our evidence
is the actual objects recovered from the soil. (See SCYTHIA.)
5. Egypt. From the time of Psammetichus (d. 610 B.C.)
Greek mercenaries had been used to prop Pharaoh's throne.
At the same time Greek merchants had begun to find their way
up the Nile and even to the Oases. A Greek city Naucratis (q.v.)
was allowed to arise at the Bolbitinic mouth of the Nile. But
the racial repugnance to the Greek, which forbade an Egyptian
even to eat an animal which had been carved with a Greek's knife
(Hdt. ii. 41 ) , probably kept the soul of the people more shut against
Hellenic influences than was that of the other races of the East.
6. Macedonia. In Macedonia the native chiefs had been
attracted by the rich Hellenic life at any rate from the beginning
of the 5th century, when Alexander I., surnamed " Phil-hellen,"
persuaded the judges at Olympia that the Temenid house was
of good Argive descent (Hdt. v. 22). And, although their
enemies might stigmatize them as barbarians, the Macedonian
kings maintained that they were not Macedonians, but Greeks
(cf. avrjp "EXXiji' MaKfSoviav wrapxos, Hdt. v. 20). It was not
probably till the reorganization of the kingdom by Archelaus
(413-399) that Greek culture found any abundant entrance
into Macedonia. Now all that was most brilliant in Greek
literature and Greek art was concentrated in the court of Aegae;
the palace was decorated by Zeuxis; Euripides spent there
the end of his days. From that time, no doubt, a certain degree
of literary culture was general among the Macedonian nobility;
their names in the days of Philip are largely Greek; the
Macedonian service was full of men from the Greek cities within
Philip's dominions. The values recognized at the court would
naturally be recognized in noble families generally, and Philip
chose Aristotle to be the educator of his son. How far the country
generally may be regarded as Hellenized is a problem which
involves the vexed question what right the Macedonian people
itself has to be classed among the Hellenes, and Macedonian
to be considered a dialect of Greek. 1 As the literary and official
language, Greek alone would seem to have had any status.
1 See, among recent writers, on one side Kaerst, Gesch. des Hellenist.
Zeitalters, pp. 97 f., and on the other Beloch, Griech. Gesch., iii.
Ii.] 1-9; Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Gesch. d. griech. Sprache,
p. 283 f . ; O. Hoffmann, Die Makedonen, ihre Sprache u. ihr Volkstum
(1906).
HELLENISM
7. In the West: the Native Races of Sicily. Italy and the
south of Gaul had not remained unaffected by the neighbourhood
of the Greek colonies. Under the rule of the elder and younger
Dionysius in the 4th century, the hellenization of the Sicels in
the interior of Sicily seems to have become complete (Freeman,
History of Sicily, ii. 387, 388, 422-424; Beloch, Griech. Gesch.
iii. [i.] 261).
The alphabets used by the various Italian races from the sth
century were directly or indirectly learnt from the Greeks.
The peoples of the south (Lucanians, Bruttians, Mamertines)
show a Greek principle of nomenclature (Mommsen, Unterital.
Dialekt, p. 240 f.). The Pythagorean philosophy, whose seat
was in southern Italy, won adherents among the native chiefs
(Cic. Desenec. 12, cf. Dio Chrys. Oral. Cor. 37, 24). From the
Greeks of southern Gaul Hellenic influences penetrated the Celtic
races so far that imitations of Greek coins were struck even on
the coasts of the Atlantic.
II. AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT. When we review
generally the extent to which Hellenism had penetrated the
outer world in the middle of the 4th century B.C., it must be
admitted that it had not seriously affected any but the more
primitive races which dwelt upon the borders of the Hellenic
lands, and here it would seem, with the doubtful exception of
the Macedonians, to have been an affair rather of the courts
than of the life of the people. On the other hand it must be
taken into account that Hellenism had as yet only been a very
short while in the world. What would have happened had it
continued to depend upon its spiritual force only for propagation
we cannot say. Everything was changed when by the conquests
of Alexander (334-323) it suddenly rose to material supremacy
in all the East as far as India, and when cities of Greek speech
and constitution were planted by the might of kings at all the
cardinal points of intercourse within those lands. The values
honoured by the rulers of the world must naturally impress
themselves upon the subject multitudes. The Macedonian
chiefs found their pride in being champions of Hellenism. Of
Alexander there is no need to speak. The courts of his successors
in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt were Greek in language and
atmosphere. All kings liked to win the good word of the Greeks
by munificence bestowed upon Greek cities and Greek institutions.
All of them in some degree patronized Greek art and letters,
and some sought fame for themselves as authors. Even the
barbarian courts, their neighbours or vassals, were swayed
by the dominant fashion to imitation. 'But by the courts alone
Hellenism could never have been propagated far. Greek culture
had been the product of the city-state, and Hellenism could not
be dissevered from the city. It was upon the system of Greek
and Macedonian cities, planted by Alexander and his successors,
that their work rested, and though their dynasties crumbled,
their work remained. Rome, when it stepped into their place,
did no more than safeguard its continuance; in the East
Rome acted as a Hellenistic power, and if, when the legions had
thundered past, the brooding East " plunged in thought again,"
that thought was largely directed by the Greek schoolmaster who
followed in the legions' train. From our present point of view
we may therefore regard this work of Hellenism as one continuous
process, initiated by the Macedonians and carried on under
Roman protection, and ask in the first place what the institution
of a Greek city implied.
The Character of the New Greek Cities. The citizen bodies
at the outset were really of Greek or Macedonian blood soldiers
who had served in the royal armies, or men attracted from the
older Greek cities to the new lands thrown open to commerce.
To fix their European soldiery upon the new soil was an obvious
necessity for the Macedonian chiefs who had set up kingdoms
among the barbarians, and the lots of the veterans (except in
Egypt) were naturally attached to various urban centres. The
cities, of course, drew in numbers beside of the people of the
land; Alexander is specially said to have incorporated large
bodies of natives in some of the new cities of the Eastern provinces
(Arr. iv. 4, i; Diod. xvii. 83, 2; Curtius ix. 10, 7). It may
generally be taken for granted that the lower strata of the city-
populations was mainly native; to be included in the city
population was not, however, to be included in the citizen body,
and it remains a question how far the latter admitted members
of other than European origin (Beloch iii. [i.] 414). The
statements, for instance, of Josephus that the Jews were given
full citizen rights in the new foundations are probably false
(Willrich, Juden und Griechen vor der makkabaischen Erhebung,
1895, p. 19 f.). The social organization of the citizen-body
conformed to the regular Hellenic type with a division into
phylae and, in Egypt, at any rate, into demi (Liban. Or. xix.
62; Satyrus, frag. 2i=F.H.G. iii. 164; Sir W. M. Ramsay,
Cities and Bishoprics, i. 60; Kenyon, Archiv f. Papyr. ii. 74;
Jonguet, Bull. corr. hell, xxi., 1897, 184 f.; Liebenam, Stddte-
aerwaltung, 220 f.). The cities appear equally Hellenic in
their political organs and functions with boule and demos and
popularly elected magistrates. Life was filled with the universal
Hellenic interests, which centred in the gymnasium and the
religious festivals, these last including, of course, not only athletic
contests but performances of the classical dramas or later
imitations of them. The wandering sophist and rhetorician
would find a hearing no less than the musical artist. The
language of the upper classes was Greek; and the material
background of building and decoration, of dress and furniture,
was of Greek design. A greater regularity in the street-plans
seems to have distinguished the new cities from the older slowly
grown cities of the Greek lands, just as it distinguishes the cities
of the New World to-day from those of Europe. Alexandria
and Antioch were both traversed from end to end by one long
straight street, crossed by shorter ones at right angles; Nicaea
was a square from the centre of which all the four gates could
be seen at the ends of the intersecting thoroughfares (Strabo
xii. 565); similar characteristics are noted in the rebuilt Smyrna
(ib. xiv. 646).
Sometimes the Greek city was not an absolutely new founda-
tion, but an old Oriental city, re-colonized and transformed.
And in such cases the old name was often replaced by a Greek
one. Thus Celaenae in Phrygia became Apamea; Haleb
(Aleppo) in Syria became Beroea; Nisibis in Mesopotamia,
Antioch; Rhagae (Rai) in Media, Europus. In some cases
the old name was left unchallenged, e.g. Thyatira, Damascus
and Samaria. Even where there was no new foundation the
older cities of Phoenicia and Syria became transformed from
the overwhelming prestige of Hellenic culture. In Tyre and
Sidon, no less than in Antioch or Alexandria, Greek literature
and philosophy were seriously cultivated, as we may see by the
great names which they contributed. The process by which
Hellenism thus leavened an older city we may trace with peculiar
vividness in the case of Jerusalem; we see there the younger
generation captivated by its ideals, the appearance of gymnasium
and theatre, the eager adoption of Greek political forms (i
Mace. i. 13 f.; 2 Mace. 4., 10 f.).
A. Characteristics of Hellenism after Alexander. To the number
of Greek city-states existing before Alexander were now therefore
added those which extended Hellas as far as India. With the
enormous extension of Greek territory a great shifting took place
in the old centres of gravity. What changes in the character
of Greek culture did the new conditions of the world bring
about ?
Hellenism had been the product of the free life of the Greek
city-state, and after Chaeronea the great days of the city-state
were past. Not that all liberty was everywhere a v
extinguished. Under Alexander himself the Greek m ent.
states were restive, and Aetolia unsubdued; and,
with the break-up of the empire at Alexander's death, there
was once more scope for the action of the individual cities among
the rival great powers. In the history of the next two or three
centuries the cities are by no means ciphers. Rhodes takes
a great part in Weltpolitik, as a sovereign ally of one or other
of the royal courts. In Greece itself the overlordship to which
the Macedonian king aspires is imperfect in extent and only
maintained to that extent by continual wars. The Greek
states on their side show that they are capable even of progressive
HELLENISM
239
political development, the needs of the time being met by the
federal system, by larger unions of equal members than the
leading cities of the past would have tolerated, with their
extreme unwillingness to forego the least shred of sovereign
independence. The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues are inde-
pendent powers, which the Macedonian can indeed check by
garrisons in Corinth, Chalcis and elsewhere, but which keep a
field clear for Hellenic freedom within their borders. Sparta
also is a power which can cross swords with the Macedonian
king, and Cleomenes III. aspires to unite the Peloponnesus
under his headship. As to the cities outside Greece, within
or around the royal realms, Seleucid, Ptolemaic or Attalid, their
degree of freedom probably differed widely according to circum-
stances. At one end of the scale, cities of old renown, e.g.
Lampsacus or Smyrna, could still make good their independence
against Antiochus III. at the beginning of the 2nd century B.C.
At the other end of the scale the cities which were royal capitals,
e.g. Alexandria, Antioch and Pergamum, were normally controlled
altogether by royal nominees. At Pergamum indeed and (at
any rate after Antiochus IV.) at Antioch, forms of self-govern-
ment subsisted upon which, of course, the court had its hand,
whilst at Alexandria even such forms were wanting. Between
the two extremes there was variation not only between city
and city, but, no doubt, in one and the same city at different
times. In Syria the independent action of the cities greatly
increased during the last weakness of the Seleucid monarchy.
With the extension of the single strong rule of Rome over this
Hellenistic world, the conditions were changed. Just as the
Macedonian conquest, whilst increasing the domain of Greek
culture, had straitened Greek liberty, so Rome, whilst bringing
Hellenism finally into secure possession of the nearer East,
extinguished Greek freedom altogether. Even now the old
forms were long religiously respected. Formally, the most
illustrious Greek states, Athens, for instance, or Marseilles, or
Rhodes, were not subjects of Rome, but free allies. Even in
the case of civitates stipendiariae (tribute-paying states) , municipal
autonomy, subject indeed to interference on the part of the
Roman governor, was allowed to go on. Boute and demos long
continued to function. The old catchword, " autonomy of the
Hellens," was still heard and indeed was solemnly proclaimed
by Nero at the Isthmian games of A.D. 67. But during the first
centuries of the Christian era, this municipal autonomy, by a
process which can only be imperfectly traced in detail, decayed.
The demos first sank into political annihilation and the council,
no longer popularly elected but an aristocratic order, concen-
trated the whole administration in its hands. By the end of
the 2nd century A.D., claims made by the imperial government
upon the municipal senate are more and more changing member-
ship of the order from an honour into an intolerable burden;
and financial disorganization is calling on imperial officials in
one place after another to undertake the business of government.
After Diocletian and under the Eastern Empire the Greek world
is organized on the principles of a vast bureaucracy.
With this long process of political decline from Alexander to
Diocletian correspond the inner changes in the temper of the
Hellenic and Hellenistic peoples. There were, of course,
changes, marked differences between one region and another.
But certain general characteristics distinguished at
once Greek society after the Macedonian conquests from the
society of the earlier age. When the vast field of the East was
opened to Hellenic enterprise and the bullion of its treasuries
flung abroad, fortunes were made on a scale before unparalleled.
A new standard of sumptuousness and splendour was set up in
the richest stratum of society. This material elaboration of
life was furthered by the existence of Hellenistic courts, where
the great ministers amassed fabulous riches (e.g. Dionysius,
the state secretary of Antiochus IV., Polyb. xxxi. 3, 16; Hermias,
the chief minister of Seleucus III., and Antiochus III., Polyb.
v. 50. 2; cf. Plutarch, Agis o), and of huge cities like Alexandria,
Antioch and the enlarged Ephesus. It is significant that whereas
the earlier Greeks had used precious stones only as a medium
for the engraver's art, unengraven gems, valuable for their
<ure .
mere material, now came to be used in profusion for adornment.
Already before Alexander pan-hellenic feeling had in various
ways overridden the internal divisions of the Greek race, but
now, with the vast mingling of Greeks of all sorts in the newly-
conquered lands, a generalized Greek culture in which the old
local characteristics were merged, came to overspread the world.
The gradual supersession of the old dialects by the Koine the
common speech of the Greeks, a modification of the Attic idiom
coloured by Ionic, was one obvious sign of the new order of things
(see GREEK LANGUAGE).
In its artistic, its literary, its spiritual products the age after
Alexander gave evidence of the change. In no department did
activity immediately stop; but the old freshness and
creative exuberance was gone. Artistic pleasure,
grown less delicate, required the stimulus of a more
sensational effect or a more striking realism, as we
may see by the Pergamene and Rhodian schools of sculpture,
by the bas-reliefs with the genre subjects drawn from the life
of the countryside, or, in literature by the sort of historical
writing which became popular with Cleitarchus and Duris, by
the studied emotional or rhetorical point of Callimachus, and
by the portrayal of country life in Theocritus. At the same time,
artists and men of letters were now addressing themselves in
most cases, not to their fellow-citizens in a free city, but to kings
and courtiers, or the educated class generally of the Greek world.
In those departments of intellectual activity which demand
no high ideal faculty, in the study of the world of fact, the
centuries immediately following Alexander witnessed notable
advance. Scientific research might prosper, just as poetry
withered, under the patronage of kings, and such research had
now a vast amount of new material at its disposal and could
profit by the old Babylonian and Egyptian traditions. The
medical schools, especially that of Alexandria, really enlarged
knowledge of the animal frame. Knowledge of the earth gained
immensely by the Macedonian conquests. The literary schools
of Alexandria and Pergamum built up grammatical science,
and brought literary and artistic criticism to a fine point. If
indeed the earlier ages had been those of creative and spontaneous
life, the Hellenistic age was that of conscious criticism and
book-learning. The classical products were registered, studied,
assorted and commented upon. Men travelled and read more.
Books were in demand and were multiplied. Libraries became a
feature of the age, the kings leading the way as collectors, of
books, especially the rival dynasties of Egypt and Pergamum.
The library attached to the Museum at Alexandria is said to
have contained at the time of its destruction in 47 B.C. as many
as 700,000 rolls (Aul. Cell. vi. 17. 3). Even smaller cities, like
Aphrodisias in Caria, had public libraries for the instruction of
their youth (Le Bas, III. No. 1618).
With the general decay of ancient civilization under the
Roman empire, even scientific research ceased, and though there
were literary revivals, like that connected with the new Atticism
under the Antonine emperors, these were mainly imitative and
artificial, and even learning became at last under the Byzantine
emperors a jejune and formal tradition (see GREEK LITERATURE).
The diffusion of the Greek race far from the former centres of
its life, the mingling of citizens of many cities, the close contact
between Greek and barbarian in the conquered lands
all this had made the old sanctions of civic religion Keli l c>0 .? ll
and civic morality of less account than ever. New S ophy.
guides of life were needed. The Stoic philosophy, with
its cosmopolitan note, its fixed dogmas and plain ethical precepts,
came into the world at the time of the Macedonian conquests to
meet the needs of the new age. Its ideas became popular among
ordinary men as the older philosophies had never been. The
Stoic or Cynic preacher, attacking theways of society, in pungent,
often coarse, phrase, became a familiar figure of the Greek
market-place (P. Wendland, Beitrdge zur Gesch. d. griech. Philo-
sophic, 1895).
Although the cults of the old Greek deities in the new cities,
with their splendid apparatus of festivals and sacrifice might still
hold the multitude, men turned ever in large numbers to alien
240
HELLENISM
religions, felt as more potent because strange, and the various gods
of Egypt and the East began to find larger entrance in the Greek
world. Even in the old Greek religion before Alexander there had
been large elements of foreign origin, and that the Greeks should
now do honour to the gods of the lands into which they came, as
we find the Cilician and Syrian Greeks doing to Baal-tars and Baal-
marcod and the Egyptian Greeks to the gods of Egypt, was only
in accordance with the primitive way of thinking. But it was a
sign of the times when Serapis and Isis, Osiris and Anubis began
to take place among the popular deities in the old Greek lands.
The origin of the cult of Serapis, which Ptolemy I. found, or
established, in Egypt is disputed; the familiar type of the god is
the invention of a Greek artist, but the name and religion came
from somewhere in the East (see discussion under SERAPIS).
Before the end of the and century B.C. there were temples of
Serapis in Athens, Rhodes, Delos and Orchomenos in Boeotia.
Under the Roman empire the cult of Isis, now furnished with an
official priesthood and elaborate ritual, became really popular in
the Hellenistic world. King Asoka in the 3rd century B.C. sent
Buddhist missionaries from India to the Mediterranean lands;
their preaching has, it is true, left little or no trace in our Western
records. But other religions of Oriental origin penetrated far,
the worship of the Phrygian Great Mother, and in the 2nd
century A.D. the religion of the Mithras (Lafaye, Culte des
divinites alexandrines, 1884; Roscher, articles " Anubis," " Isis,"
&c.; F. Cumont, Mysteres de Mithra, Eng. trans., 1903; Les
Religions orientales dans le paganisme remain, 1906).
The Jews, too, by the time of Christ were finding in many
quarters an open door. Besides those who were ready to go the
whole length and accept circumcision, numbers adopted particular
Jewish practices, observing the Sabbath, for instance, or turned
from polytheism to the doctrine of the One God. The synagogues
in the Gentile cities had generally attached to them, in more or
less close connexion a multitude of those " who feared God " and
frequented the services (Schurer, Gesch. d. jiid. Volks, iii. 102-
135).
Among the religions which penetrated the Hellenistic world
from an Eastern source, one ultimately overpowered all the rest
and made that world its own. The inter-action of
Christianity and Hellenism opens large fields of inquiry.
The teaching of Christ Himself contained, as it is given
to us, no Hellenic element; so far as He built with older material,
that material was exclusively the sacred tradition of Israel. So
soon, however, as the Gospel was carried in Greek to Greeks,
Hellenic elements began to enter into it, in the writings, for
instance, of St Paul, the appeal to what " nature " teaches would
be generally admitted to be the adoption of a Greek mode of
thought. It was, of course, impossible that speaking in Greek
and living among Greeks, Christians should not to some extent
use current conceptions for the expression of their faith. There
was, at the same time, in the early Church a powerful current of
feeling hostile to Greek culture, to the wisdom of the world.
What the attitude of the New People should be to it, whether it
was all bad, or whether there were good things in it which
Christians should appropriate, was a vital question that always
confronted them. The great Christian School of Alexandria re-
presented by Clement and Origen effected a durable alliance
between Greek education and Christian doctrine. In proportion
as the Christian Church had to go deeper into metaphysics in the
formulation of its belief as to God, as to Christ, as to the soul, the
Greek philosophical terminology, which was the only vehicle then
available for precise thought, had to become more and more an
essential part of Christianity. At the same time Christian ethics
incorporated much of the current popular philosophy, especially
large Stoical elements. In this way the Church itself, as we shall
see, became a propagator of Hellenism (see Hatch, Hibbert
Lectures, 1888; Wendland, " Christentum u. Hellenismus "
in Neue Jahrb. f. kl. Alt. ix. 1902, p. i f.; and Die hellenistisch-
romische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum u. Christentum,
1907).
B. Effect upon non-Hellenic Peoples. Hellenism secured by the
Macedonian conquest points d'appui from the Mediterranean to
Christi-
anity.
Greek
cities.
India, and brought the system of commerce and intercourse into
Greek hands. What effect did it produce in these various
countries? What effect again in the lands of the West which fell
under the sway of Rome?
(i.) India. In India (including the valleys of the Kabul and
its northern tributaries, then inhabited by an Indian, not, as
now, by an Iranian, population) Alexander planted
a number of Greek towns. Alexandria " under the
Caucasus " commanded the road from Bactria over
the Hindu-Kush; it lay somewhere among the hills to the north
of Kabul, perhaps at Opian near Charikar (MacCrindle, Ancient
India, p. 87, note 4); that it is the city meant by " Alasadda
the capital of the Yona (Greek) country " in the Buddhist
Mahavanso, as is generally affirmed, seems doubtful (Tarn,
loc. cit. below, p. 269, note 7). We hear of a Nicaea in the Kabul
valley itself (near Jalalabad?), another Nicaea on the Hydaspes
(Jhelum) where Alexander crossed it, with Bucephala (see
BUCEPHALUS) opposite, a city (unnamed) on the Acesines
(Chenab) (Arr. vi. 29, 3), and a series of foundations strung along
the Indus to the sea. Soon after 321, Macedonian supremacy
beyond the Indus collapsed before the advance of the native
Maurya dynasty, and about 303 even large districts west of the
Indus were ceded by Seleucus. But the chapter of Greek rule
in India was not yet closed. The Maurya dynasty broke up about
180 B.C., and at the same time the Greek rulers of Bactria began
to lead expeditions across the Hindu-Kush. Menander in the
middle of the 2nd century B.C. extended his rule from the Hindu-
Kush to the Ganges. Then " Scythian " peoples from central
Asia, Sakas and Yue-chi, having conquered Bactria, gradually
squeezed within ever-narrowing limits the Greek power in India.
The last Greek prince, Hermaeus, seems to have succumbed
about 30 B.C. It was just at this time that the Graeco-Roman
world of the West was consolidated as the Roman Empire, and,
though Greek rule in India had disappeared, active commercial
intercourse went on between India and the Hellenistic lands.
How far, through these changes, did the Greek population settled
by Alexander or his successors in India maintain their distinctive
character? What influence did Hellenism during the centuries
in which it was in contact with India exert upon the native
mind? Only extremely qualified answers can be given to these
questions. Capital data are possibly waiting there under
ground the Kabul valley for instance is almost virgin soil for
the archaeologist and any conclusion we can arrive at is merely
provisional. If certain statements of classical authors were
true, Hellenism in India flourished exceedingly. But the phil-
hellenic Brahmins in Philostratus' life of Apollonius had no exist-
ence outside the world of romance, and the statement of Dio
Chrysostom that the Indians were familiar with Homer in their
own tongue (Or. liii. 6) is a traveller's tale. India, the sceptical
observe, has yielded no Greek inscription, except, of course, on
the coins of the Greek kings and their Scythian rivals and suc-
cessors. To what extent can it be inferred from legends on coins
that Greek was a living speech in India ? Perhaps to no large
extent outside the Greek courts. The fact, however, that the
Greek character was still used on coins for two centuries after the
last Greek dynasty had come to an end shows that the language
had a prestige in India which any theory, to be plausible, must
account for. If we argue by probability from what we know
of the conditions, we have to consider that the Greek rule in
India was all through fighting for existence, .and can have had
" little time or energy left for such things as art, science and
literature " (Tarn, loc. cit. p. 292), and it is pointed out that a
casual reference to the Greeks in an Indian work contemporary
with Menander characterizes them as " viciously valiant Yonas."
How long is it probable that Greek colonies planted in the midst
of alien races would have remained distinct? Mr Tarn builds
much upon the fact that the descendants of the Greek Branchidae
settled by Xerxes in central Asia had become bilingual in six
generations (Curt. vii. 5, 29). But the Greek race before
Alexander had not its later prestige, and we must consider such
a sentiment as leads the Eurasian to-day to cling to his Western
parentage, so that the instance of the Branchidae cannot be
HELLENISM
241
Greek
used straight away for the time after Alexander. Certainly,
had the Greek colonies in India been active political bodies, we
could hardly have failed to find some trace of them, in civic
architecture or in inscriptions, by this time. Perhaps we should
rather think of them as resembling the Greeks found to-day
dispersed over the nearer East with interests mainly commercial,
easily assimilating themselves to their environment. A notice
derived from Agatharchides (about 140 B.C.) possibly refers to
the activity of these Indian Greeks in the sea-borne trade of the
Indian Ocean (Mtiller, Geog. Graeci min. i. p. 191; cf. Diod.
iii. 47. 9). As to what India derived from Greece there has been
a good deal of erudite debate. That the Indian drama took
its origin from the Greek is still maintained by scime scholars,
though hardly proved. There is no doubt that Indian astronomy
shows marked Hellenic features, including actual Greek words
borrowed. But by far the most signal borrowing is in the sphere
of art. The stream of Buddhist art which went out
eastwards across Asia had its rise in North-West India,
and the remains of architecture and sculpture un-
earthed in this region enable us to trace its development back to
pure Greek types. It remains, of course, a question whether
the tradition was transmitted by the Greek dynasties from
Bactria or by intercourse with the Roman empire; the latter
seems now almost certain; but the fact of the influence is equally
striking on either theory. How far to the east the distinctive
influence of Greece went is shown by the seal-impressions with
Athena and Eros types found by Dr Stein in the buried cities of
Khotan (Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan, p. 396), and according to
Mr E. B. Havell, there exist " paintings treasured as the most
precious relics and rarely shown to Europeans, which closely
resemble the Graeco-Buddhist art of India " in some of the oldest
temples of Japan (Studio, vol. xxvii. 1903, p. 26).
See A. A. Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature (1900) p. 41 1 f.,
and the references on p. 452 ; V. A. Smith, Early History of India
(1904); Griinwedel, Buddhist Art in India (Eng. trans., edited by
Dr Burgess, 1901); W. W. Tarn, " Notes on Hellenism in Bactria
and India" in Journ. of Hell. Studies, xxii. (1902); Foucher,
L'Art greco-bouddhique du Gandhdra (1905).
(ii.) Iran and Babylonia. The colonizing activity of Alexander
and his successors found a large field in Iran where, up till his
time, hardly any walled towns seem to have existed.
Cities now arose in all its provinces, superseding in
many cases native market places and villages, and
holding the vantage-points of commerce. Media, Polybius says,
was defended by a chain of Greek cities from barbarian incursion
(x. 27. 3); in the neighbourhood of Teheran seem to have stood
Heraclea and Europus. In Eastern Iran the cities which are
its chief places to-day then bore Greek names, and looked upon
Alexander or some other Hellenic prince as their founder.
Khojend, Herat, Kandahar were Alexandrias, Merv was an
Alexandria till it changed that name for Antioch. When the
farther provinces broke away under independent Greek kings,
a Eucratidea and a Demetrias attested their glory. Even in a
town definitely barbarian like Syrinca in 209 B.C. there was a
resident mercantile community of Greeks (Polyb. x. 31). The
bulk of Greek historical literature having perished, and in the
absence of both archaeological data from Iran, we can only
speculate on the inner life of these Greek cities under a strange
sky. One precious document is the decree of Antioch in Persis
(about 206 B.C.) cited in a recently discovered inscription (Kern,
Insc/ir. v. Magnesia, No. 61; Dittenberger, Orient, gr. Inscr. i.
No. 233). This shows us the normal organs of a Greek city,
boule, ecclesia, prylaneis, &c., in full working, with the annual
election of magistrates, and ordinary forms of public action.
But more than this, it throws a remarkable light upon the
solidarity of the Hellenic Dispersion. The citizen body had been
increased some generations before by colonists from Magnesia-on-
Meander sent at the invitation of Antiochus I. The Magnesians
are instigated by pan-hellenic enthusiasm. And we see a brisk
diplomatic intercourse between the scattered Greek cities going
on. It is especially the local religious festivals which bind them
together. Antioch in Persis, of course, sends athletes to the great
games of Greece, but in this decree it determines to take part in
Qnet
cities.
the new festival being started in honour of Artemis at Magnesia.
The loyalty, too, expressed towards the Seleucid king implies
a predominant interest in pan-hellenic unity, natural in colonies-
isolated among barbarians. A list is given (fragmentary) of
other Greek cities in Babylonia and beyond from which similar
decrees had come.
In the middle of the 3rd century B.C. Bactria and Sogdiana
broke away from the Seleucid empire; independent Greek kings
reigned there till the country was conquered by
nomads from Central Asia (Sacae and Yue-chi) a
century later. Alexander had settled large masses of
Greeks in these regions (Greeks, it would seem, not Mace-
donians), whose attempts to return home in 325 and 323 had
been frustrated, and it may well be that a racial antagonism
quickened the revolt against Macedonian rule in 250. The
history of these Greek dynasties is for us almost a blank, and
for estimating the amount and quality of Hellenism in Bactria
during the 180 years or so of Macedonian and Greek rule, we
are reduced to building hypotheses upon the scantiest data.
Probably nothing important bearing on the subject has been left
out of view in W. W. Tarn's learned discussion (Journ. of Hell.
Stud, xxii., 1902, p. 268 f.), and his result is mainly negative,
that palpable evidences of an active Hellenism have not been
found; he inclines to think that the Greek kingdoms mainly
took on the native Iranian colour. The coins, of course, are
adduced on the other side, being not only Greek in type and
legend, but (in many cases) of a peculiarly fine and vigorous
execution; and excellence in one branch of art is thought to
imply that other branches flourished in the same milieu. Tarn
suggests that they may be a " sport," a spasmodic outbreak
of genius (see BACTRIA and works there quoted). In these out-
lying provinces the national Iranian sentiment seems to have
been most intense, and it is interesting to see that under Alexander
Hellenism appeared as " belligerent civilization," in the attempt
to suppress practices like the exposure of the dying to the dogs
(an exaggeration of Zoroastrianism) and, possibly also, abhorrent
forms of marriage (Strabo xi. 517; Porphyr. De abstin. 4. 21;
Plut. Defort. Al. 5).
The west of Iran slipped from the Seleucids in the course of
the and century B.C. to be joined to the Parthian kingdom, or
fall under petty native dynasties. Soon after 130 Babylonia
too was conquered by the Parthian, and Mesopotamia before 88.
Then the reconquest of the nearer East by Oriental dynasties
was checked by the advance of Rome. Asia Minor and Syria
remained substantial parts of the Roman Empire till the Mahom-
medan conquests of the 7th century A.D. began a new process
of recoil on the part of the Hellenistic power. In Babylonia, also,
in Susiana and Mesopotamia, Hellenism had been established
in a system of cities for 200 years before the coming of the
Parthian. The greatest of all of them stood here almost on
the site of Bagdad Seleucia on the Tigris. It superseded
Babylon as the industrial focus of Babylonia and counted some
600,000 inhabitants (plebs urbana) according to Pliny, N.H. vi.
122 (cf. Joseph. Arch, xviii. 372, 374; for coins, probably of
Seleucia, with the type of Tyche issued in the years A.D. 43-44
see Wroth, Coins of Parthia, p. xlvi.). The list of other Greek
cities known to us in these regions is too long to give here (see
Droysen, loc. cit., and E. Schwartz in Kern's Inschr. v. Magnesia,
p. 171 f.). In Mesopotamia, Pliny especially notes how the
character of the country was changed when the old village life
was broken in upon by new centres of population in the cities of
Macedonian foundation (Pliny, N.H. vi. 117; cf. K. Regling,
" Histor. geog. d. mesopot. Parallelograms," in Lehmann's
Beitriige, i. p. 442 f.).
We do not look in vain for notable names in Hellenistic
literature and philosophy produced on an Asiatic soil. Diogenes,
the Stoic philosopher (head of the school in 156 B.C.),
was a " Babylonian," i.e. a citizen of Seleucia on the Heikak-
Tigris; so too was Seleucus, the mathematician and culture.
astronomer, being possibly a native Babylonian;
Berossus, who wrote a Babylonian history in Greek (before
261 B.C.) was a Hellenized native. Apollodorus, Strabo's authority
242
HELLENISM
for Parthian history (c. 80 B.C. ?), was from the Greek city of
Artemita in Assyria. When the Parthians rent away provinces
from the Seleucid empire, the Greek cities did not cease to exist
by passing under barbarian rule. Gradually no doubt the
Greek colonies were absorbed, but the process was a long one.
In 140 and 130 B.C. those of Iran were ready to rise in support
of the Seleucid invader (Joseph. Arch. xiii. 184; Justin xxxviii.
10.6-8). Just so, Crassus in 53 B.C. found a welcome in the Greek
cities of Mesopotamia. Seleucia on the Tigris is spoken of by
Tacitus as being in A.D. 36 " proof against barbarian influences
and mindful of its founder Seleucus " (Ann. vi. 42). How im-
portant an element the Greek population of their realm seemed
to the Parthian kings we can see by the fact that they claimed
to be themselves champions of Hellenism. From the reign of
Artabanus I. (128/7-123 B.C.) they bear the epithet of " Phil-
hellen " as a regular part of their title upon the coins. Under
the later reigns the Tyche figure (the personification of a Greek
city) becomes common as a coin type (Wroth, Coins of Parthia,
pp. liii., Ixxiv.). The coinage may, of course, give a somewhat
one-sided representation of the Parthian kingdom, being specially
designed for the commercial class, in which the population of
the Greek cities was, we may guess, predominant. The state of
things which prevails in modern Afghanistan, where trade is in
the hands of a class distinct in race and speech (Persian in this
case) from the ruling race of fighters is very probably analogous
to that which we should have found in Iran under the Parthians. 1
That the Parthian court itself was to some extent Hellenized
is shown by the story, often adduced, that a Greek company of
actors was performing the Bacchae before the king when the
head of Crassus was brought in. This single instance need not,
it is true, show a Hellenism of any profundity; still it does show
that certain parts of Hellenism had become so essential to the
lustre of a court that even an Arsacid could not be without them.
Artavasdes, king of Armenia (54?~34 B.C.) composed Greek
tragedies and histories (Plut. Crass. 33). Then the prestige
of the Roman Empire, with its prevailingly Hellenistic culture,
must have told powerfully. The Parthian princes were in many
cases the children of Greek mothers who had been taken into the
royal harems (Plut. Crass. 32). Musa, the queen-mother, whose
head appears on the coins of Phraataces (3/2 B.C.-A.D. 4) had
been an Italian slave-girl. Many of the Parthian princes resided
temporarily, as hostages or refugees, in the Roman Empire;
but one notes that the nation at large looked with anything but
favour upon too liberal an introduction of foreign manners at
the court (Tac. Ann. ii. 2).
Such slight notices in Western literature do not give us any
penetrating view into the operation of Hellenism among the
Iranians. As an expression of the Iranian mind we have the
Avesta and the Pehlevi theological literature. Unfortunately
in a question of this kind the dating of our documents is the first
matter of importance, and it seems that we can only assign
dates to the different parts of the Avesta by processes of fine-
drawn conjecture. And even if we could date the Avesta
securely, we could only prove borrowing by more or less close
coincidences of idea, a tempting but uncertain method of inquiry.
Taking an opinion based on such data for what it is worth, we
may note that Darmesteter believed in the influence of the later
Greek philosophy (Philonian and Neo-platonic) as one of those
which shaped the Avesta as we have it (Sacred Books of the East,
iv. 54 f.), but we must also note that such an influence is
emphatically denied by Dr L. Mills (Zarathushtra and the Greeks,
Leipzig, 1906). Outside literature, we have to look to the
artistic remains offered by the region to determine Hellenic
influence. But here, too, the preliminary classification of the
documents is beset with doubt. In the case of small objects like
gems the place of manufacture may be far from the place of
discovery. The architectural remains are solidly in situ, but
1 " Ce sont les Tadjik de 1'Afghanistan qui constituent les trente-
deux corps de metier, qui tiennent boutique, expedient les marchan-
dises, repr^sentent, en un mot, la vie industrielle et commerciale de
la nation. Ce sont aussi les Tadjik des villes qui forment la classe
Iettr6e, et qui ont emp^che' les Afghans de retomber dans la barbarie."
(Reclus, Nouvelle Geograph. univ. ix. p. 71.)
we may have such vast disagreement as to date as that between
Dieulafoy and M. de Morgan with respect to domed buildings of
Susa, a disagreement of at least five centuries. It is enough
then here to observe that Iran and Babylonia do, as a matter of
fact, continually yield the explorer objects of workmanship
either Greek or influenced by Greek models, belonging to the age
after Alexander, and that we may hence infer at any rate such
an influence of Hellenism upon the tastes of the richer classes
as would create a demand for these things.
For gems see " Gobineau " in the Rei: archeol., yols. xxvii., xxviii.
(1874); M6nant, Recherches sur la glyptique orientate, ii. 189 f. ;
E. Babelon, Catalogue des camees de la Bibl. Nat. (1897), p. 56;
A. Furtwangler, Die antiken Gemmen, pp. 165, 369 ff. ; Figurines:
Heuzey, Fig. ant. du Louvre (1883) p. 3; J. P. Peters, Nippur,
ii. 128; Military standard: Heuzey, Comptes rendus de lAcad.
d. Inscr. (1895) p. 16; Rev. d'Assyr. \. (1903), p. 103 f. Alabaster
vase: Sykes, Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, p. 445. In the case
of the architectural remains, the Greek tradition is obvious at Hatra
(Jacquerel, Rev. arcMol., 1897 [ii.], 343 f.), and in the relics of the
temple at Kingavar (Dieulafoy, L Art antique de la Perse, v. p. 10 f.).
If any vestige of Hellenism still survived under the Sassanian
kings, our records do not show it. The spirit of the Sassanian
monarchy was more jealously national than that of the
Arsacid, and alien grafts could hardly have flourished
under it. Of course, if Darmesteter was right in seeing
a Greek element in Zoroastrianism, Greek influence must still
have operated under the new dynasty, which recognized the
national religion. But, as we saw, the Greek influence has been
authoritatively denied. At the court a limited recognition
might be given, as fashion veered, to the values prevalent in the
Hellenistic world. The story of Hormisdas in Zosimus is sugges-
tive in this connexion (Zosim. Hist. nov. ii. 27). Chosroes I.
interested himself in Greek philosophy and received its professors
from the West with open arms (Agath. ii. 28 f.); according to
one account, he had his palace at Ctesiphon built by Greeks
(Theophylact. Simocat. v. 6).
But the account of Chosroes' mode of action makes it plain
that the Hellenism once planted in Iran had withered away;
representatives of Greek learning and skill have all to be imported
from across the frontier.
For Hellenism in Babylonia and Iran, see the useful article of
M. Victor Chapot in the Bull, et memoires de la Soc. Nat. des Anti-
quaires de France for 1902 (published 1904), p. 206 f., which gives
a conspectus of the relevant literature.
(iii.) Asia Minor. Very different were the fortunes of Hellen-
ism in those lands which became annexed to the Roman Empire.
In Asia Minor, we have seen how, even before Alexander,
Hellenism had begun to affect the native races and Persian
nobility. During Alexander's own reign, we cannot anek
trace any progress in the Hellenization of the interior, cities
nor can we prove here his activity as a builder of
cities. But under the dynasties of his successors a
great work of city-building and colonization went on. Antigonus
fixed his capital at the old Phrygian town of Celaenae, and the
famous cities of Nicaea and Alexandria Troas owed to him
their first foundation, each as an Antigonia; they were refounded
and renamed by Lysimachus (301-281 B.C.). Then we have
the great system of Seleucid foundations. Sardis, the Seleucid
capital in Asia Minor, had become a Greek city before the end
of the 3rd century B.C. The main high road between the Aegean
coast and the East was held by a series of new cities. Going
west from the Cilician Gates we have Laodicea Catacecaumene,
Apamea, the Phrygian capital which absorbed Celaenae, Laodicea
on the Lycus, Antioch-on-Meander, Antioch-Nysa, Antioch-
Tralles. To the south of this high road we have among the
Seleucid foundations Antioch in Pisidia (colonized with Mag-
nesians from the Meander) and Stratonicea in Caria; in the
region to the north of it the most famous Seleucid colony was
Thyatira. Along the southern coast, where the houses of Seleucus
and Ptolemy strove for predominance, we find the names of
Berenice, Arsinoe and Ptolemais confronting those of Antioch
and Seleucia. With the rise of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum ,
a system of Pergamene foundation begins to oppose the Seleucid
in the interior, bearing such names as Attalia, Philetaeria,
a e
HELLENISM
243
Eumenia, Apollonis. Of these, one may note for their later
celebrity Philadelphia in Lydia and Attalia on the Pamphylian
coast. The native Bithynian dynasty became Hellenized in the
course of the 3rd century, and in the matter of city building
Prusias (the old Cius) , Apamea (the old Myrlea) , probably Prusa,
and above all Nicomedia attested its activity. While new
Greek cities were rising in the interior, the older Hellenism of
the western coast grew in material splendour under the muni-
ficence of Hellenistic kings. Its centres of gravity to some
extent shifted. There was a tendency towards concentration
in large cities of the new type, which caused many of the lesser
towns, like Lebedus, Myus or Colophon, to sink to insignificance,
while Ephesus grew in greatness and wealth, and Smyrna rose
again after an extinction of four centuries. The great importance
of Rhodes belongs to the days after Alexander, when it received
the riches of the East from the trade-routes which debouched
into the Mediterranean at Alexandria and Antioch. In Aeolis,
of course, the centre of gravity moved to the Attalid capital,
Pergamum. It was the irruption of the Celts, beginning in
278-277 B.C., which checked the Hellenization of the interior.
Not only did the Galatian tribes take large tracts towards the
north of the plateau in possession, but they were an element of
perpetual unrest, which hampered and distracted the Hellenistic
monarchies. The wars, therefore, in which the Pergamene
kings in the latter part of the 3rd century stemmed their aggres-
sions, had the glory of a Hellenic crusade.
The minor dynasties of non-Greek origin, the native Bithynian
and the two Persian dynasties in Pontus and Cappadocia, were
Hellenized before the Romans drove the Seleucid out
dynasties. ^ l ^ e countr y- I n Bithynia the upper classes seem to
have followed the fashion of the court (Beloch iii. [i.],
278); the dynasty of Pontus was phil-hellenic by ancestral
tradition; the dynasty of Cappadocia, the most conservative,
dated its conversion to Hellenism from the time when a Seleucid
princess came to reign there early in the 2nd century B.C. as the
wife of Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi. 19. 8). But Hellenism in
Cappadocia was for centuries to come still confined to the castles
of the king and the barons, and the few towns.
When Rome began to interfere in Asia Minor, its first action
was to break the power of the Gauls (189 B.C.). In 133 Rome
Hellenism entered formally upon the heritage of the Attalid
under kingdom and became the dominant power in the
Roman Anatolian peninsula for 1 200 years. Under Rome the
process of Hellenization, which the divisions and
weaknessof the Macedonian kingdoms had checked, went forward.
The coast regions of the west and south the Romans found
already Hellenized. In Lydia " not a trace " of the old language
was left in Strabo's time (Strabo xiv. 631); in Lycia, the old
language became obsolete in the early days of Macedonian rule
(see Kalinka, Tituli Asioe minoris, i. 8). But inland, in
Phrygia, Hellenism had as yet made little headway outside
the Greek cities. Even the Attalids had not effected much here
(Korte, Athen. Mitth. xxiii., 1898, p. 152), and under the Romans,
the penetration of the interior by Hellenism was slow. It was
not till the reign of Hadrian that city life on the Phrygian plateau
became rich and vigorous, with its material circumstances of
temples, theatres and baths. Among the villages of the north
and east of Phrygia, Hellenism " was only beginning to make
itself felt in the middle of the 3rd century A.D." (Ramsay in
Kuhn's Zeitsch. f. vergleich. Sprachforschung, xxviii., 1885,
p. 382). Gravestones in this region as late as the 4th century
curse violators in the old Phrygian speech. The lower classes
at Lystra in St Paul's time spoke Lycaonian (Acts xiv. u).
In that part of Phrygia, which by the settlement of the Celtic
invaders became Galatia, the larger towns seem to have become
Hellenized by the time of the Christian era, whilst the Celtic
speech maintained itself in the country villages till the 4th
century A.D. (Jerome, Preface to Comment, in Epist. ad Gal.
book ii.; see J. G. C. Anderson, Journ. of Hell, Stud, xix., 1899,
p. 312 f.). Cappadocia at the beginning of the Christian era
was still comparatively townless (Strabo xii. 537), a country
of large estates with a servile peasantry. Even in the 4th century
its Hellenization was still far from complete; but Christianity
had assimilated so much of the older Hellenic culture that the
Church was now a main propagator of Hellenism in the backward
regions. The native languages of Asia Minor all ultimately
gave way to Greek (unless Phrygian lingered on in parts till the
Turkish invasions; see Mordtmann, Sitzungsb. d. bayer. Ak.
1862, i. p. 30; K. Holl in Hermes, xliii., 1908, p. 240 f.).
The effective Hellenization of Armenia did not take place till
the sth century, when the school of Mesrop and Sahak gave
Armenia a literature translated from, or imitating, Greek
books (Gelzer in I. v. Miiller's Handbuch, vol. ix. Abt. i.
p. 916.)
(iv.) Syria. In Syria, which with Cilicia and Mesopotamia,
formed the central part of the Seleucid empire, the new colonies
were especially numerous. Alexander himself had
perhaps made a beginning with Alexandria-by-Issus em p/re
(mod. Alexandretta), Samaria, Pella (the later
Apamea), Carrhae, &c. Antigonus founded Antigonia, which
was absorbed a few years later by Antioch, and after the fall
of Antigonus in 301, the work of planting Syria with Greek
cities was pursued effectively north of the Lebanon by the house
of Seleucus, and, less energetically, south of the Lebanon by the
house of Ptolemy. In the north of Syria four cities stood
pre-eminent above the rest, (i) Antioch on the Orontes, the
Seleucid capital; (2) Seleucia-in-Pieria near the mouth of the
Orontes, which guarded the approach to Antioch from the sea;
(3) Apamea (mod. Famia), on the middle Orontes, the military
headquarters of the kingdom; and (4) Laodicea " on sea " (ad
mare), which had a commercial importance in connexion with
the export of Syrian wine. Of the Ptolemaic foundations in
Coele-Syria only one attained an importance comparable with
that of the larger Seleucid foundations, Ptolemais on the coast,
which was the old Semitic Acco transformed (mod. Acre). The
group of Greek cities east of the Jordan also fell within the
Ptolemaic realm during the 3rd century B.C., though their
greatness belonged to a somewhat later day. The whole of
Syria was brought under the Seleucid sceptre, together with
Cilicia, by Antiochus III. the Great (223-187 B.C.). Under his
son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164), a fresh impulse was
given to Syrian Hellenism. In i Maccabees he is represented
as writing an order to all his subjects to forsake the ways of their
fathers and conform to a single prescribed pattern, and though
in this form the account can hardly be exact, it does no doubt
represent the spirit of his action. Other facts there are which
point the same way. We now find a sudden issue of bronze
money by a large number of the cities of the kingdom in their
own name an indication of liberties extended or confirmed.
Many of them exchange their existing name for that of Antioch
(Adana, Tarsus, Gadara, Ptolemais), Seleucia (Mopsuestia,
Gadara) or Epiphanea (Oeniandus, Hamath). At Antioch
itself great public works were carried out, such as were involved
in the addition of a new quarter to the city, including, we may
suppose, the civic council chamber which is afterwards spoken
of as being here. With the ever-growing weakness of the Seleucid
dynasty, the independence and activity of the cities increased,
although, if, on the one hand, they were less suppressed by a
strong central government, they were less protected against
military adventurers and barbarian chieftains. Accordingly,
when Pompey annexed Syria in 64 B.C. as a Roman province,
he found it a chaos of city-states and petty princi-
palities. The Nabataeans and the Jews above all had
encroached upon the Hellenistic domain; in the
south the Jewish raids had spread desolation and left many
cities practically in ruins. Under Roman protection, the cities
were soon rebuilt and Hellenism secured from the barbarian peril.
Greek city life, with its political forms, its complement of
festivities, amusements and intellectual exercise, went on more
largely than before. The great majority of the Hellenistic remains
in Syria belong to the Roman period. Such local dynasties as
were suffered by the Romans to exist had, of course, a Hellenistic
complexion. Especially was this the case with that of the Herods.
Not only were such marks of Hellenism as a theatre introduced
244
HELLENISM
by Herod the Great (37-34 B.C.) at Jerusalem, but in the work
of city-building this dynasty showed itself active. Sebaste
(the old Samaria), Caesarea, Antipatris were built by Herod
the Great, Tiberias by Herod Antipas (4 B.C.-A.D. 39). The
reclaiming of the wild district of Hauran for civilization and
Hellenistic life was due in the first instance to the house of
Herod (Schiirer, Gesch. d. jiid. Volk. 3rd ed., ii. p. 12 f.). In
Syria, too, Hellenism under the Romans advanced upon new
ground. Palmyra, of which we hear nothing before Roman times,
is a notable instance.
As to the effect of this network of Greek cities upon the
aboriginal population of Syria, we do not find here the same
disappearance of native languages and racial charac-
teristics as in Asia Minor. Still less was this the case
la Syria. in Mesopotamia, where a strong native element in such
a city as Edessa is indicated by its epithet /jio/3dp/3apos.
The old cults naturally went on, and at Carrhae (Harran) even
survived the establishment of Christianity. The lower classes
at Antioch, and no doubt in the cities generally, were in speech
Aramaic or bilingual; we find Aramaic popular nicknames
of the later Seleucids (K. O. Midler, Antiq. Ant. p. 29). The
villages, of course, spoke Aramaic. The richer natives, on the
other hand, those who made their way into the educated classes
of the towns, and attained official position, would become
Hellenized in language and manners, and the " Syrian Code "
shows how far the social structure was modified by the Hellenic
tradition (Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den o'st. Pro-
vinzen des rom. Kaiserreichs, 1891; Arnold Meyer, Jesu Mutter-
sprache, 1896). Of the Syrians who made their mark in
Greek literature, some were of native blood, e.g. Lucian of
Samosata.
One may notice the great part taken by natives of the
Phoenician cities in the history of later Greek philosophy, and
in the poetic movement of the last century B.C., which led to
fresh cultivation of the epigram. Greek, in fact, held the
field as the language of literature and polite society. Possibly
at places like Edessa, which for some 350 years (till A.D. 216)
was under a dynasty of native princes, Aramaic was cultivated
as a literary language. There was a Syriac-speaking church here
as early as the 2nd century, and with the spread of Christianity
Syriac asserted itself against Greek. The Syriac literature
which we possess is all Christian.
But where Greek gave place to Syriac, Hellenism was not thereby
effaced. It was to some extent the passing over of the Hellenic
tradition into a new medium. We must remember the marked
Hellenic elements in Christian theology. The earliest Syriac
work which we possess, the book " On Fate," produced in the
circle of the heretic Bardaisan or Bardesanes (end of the 2nd
century), largely follows Greek models. There was an extensive
translation of Greek works into Syriac during the next centuries,
handbooks of philosophy and science for the most part. The
version of Homer into Syriac verses made in the 8th century
has perished, all but a few lines (R. Duval, La Litt. syriaque,
1900, p. 325).
(v.) The relation of the Jews to Hellenism in the first century
and a half of Macedonian rule is very obscure, since the state-
ments made by later writers like Josephus, as to the
visit of Alexander to Jerusalem or the privileges con-
ferred upon the Jews in the new Macedonian realms are justly
suspected of being fiction. It has been maintained that Greek
influence is to be traced in parts of the Old Testament assigned
to this period, as, for instance, the Book of Proverbs; but even
in the case of Ecclesiastes, the canonical writing whose affinity
with Greek thought is closest, the coincidence of idea need not
necessarily prove a Greek source. The one solid fact in this con-
nexion is the translation of the Jewish Law into Greek in the 3rd
century B.C., implying a Jewish Diaspora at Alexandria, so far
Hellenized as to have forgotten the speech of Palestine. Early
in the 2nd century B. c. we see that the priestly aristocracy of
Jerusalem had, like the well-to-do classes everywhere in Syria,
been carried away by the Hellenistic current, its strength
being evidenced no less by the intensity of the conservative
opposition embodied in the party of the " Pious " (Assideans,
JJasldim).
Under Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-165) the Hellenistic
aristocracy contrived to get Jerusalem converted into a Greek
city; the gymnasium appeared, and Greek dress became fashion-
able with the young men. But when Antiochus, owing to
political developments, interfered violently at Jerusalem, the
conservative opposition carried the nation with them. The
revolt under the Hasmonaean family (Judas Maccabaeus and
his brethren) followed, ending in 143-142 in the establishment
of an independent Jewish state under a Hasmonaean prince.
But whilst the old Hellenistic party had been crushed the
Hasmonaean state was of the nature of a compromise. The
Mosaic Law was respected, but Hellenism still found an entrance
in various forms. The first Hasmonaean " king," Aristobulus I.
(104-103), was known to the Greeks as Phil-hellen. He and all
later kings of the dynasty bear Greek names as well as Hebrew
ones, and after Jannaeus Alexander (103-76) the Greek legends
are common on the coins beside the Hebrew. Herod, who sup-
planted the Hasmonaean dynasty (37-34 B.C,) made, outside
Judaea, a display of Phil-hellenism, building new Greek cities
and temples, or bestowing gifts upon the older ones of fame.
His court, at the same time, welcomed Greek men of letters
like Nicolaus of Damascus. Even in the neighbourhood of
Jerusalem, he erected a theatre and an amphitheatre. We have
already noticed the work done by the Herodian dynasty in
furthering Hellenism in Syria (see Schiirer, Gesch. des jiidisch.
Volkes, vols. i. and ii.). Meanwhile a great part of the Jewish
people was living dispersed among the cities of the Greek world,
speaking Greek as their mother-tongue, and absorbing Greek
influences in much larger measure than their brethren of Palestine.
These are the Jews whom we find contrasted as " Hellenists "
with the " Hebrews " in Acts. They still kept in touch with
the mother-city, and indeed we hear of special synagogues in
Jerusalem in which the Hellenists temporarily resident there
gathered (Acts vi. 9). A large Jewish literature in Greek had
grown up since the translation of the Law in the 3rd century.
Beside the other canonical books of the Old Testament, translated
in many cases with modifications or additions, it included transla-
tions of other Hebrew books (Ecclesiasticus, Judith, &c.), works
composed originally in Greek but imitating to some extent the
Hebraic style (like Wisdom), works modelled more closely on
the Greek literary tradition, either historical, like 2 Maccabees,
or philosophical, like the productions of the Alexandrian school,
represented for us by Aristobulus and Philo, in which style
and thought are almost wholly Greek and the reference to the
Old Testament a mere pretext; or Greek poems on Jewish
subjects, like the epic of the elder Philo and Ezechiel's tragedy,
Exagoge. It included also a number of forgeries, circulated
under the names of famous Greek authors, verses fathered upon
Aeschylus or Sophocles, or books like the false Hecataeus, or
above all the pretended prophecies of ancient Sibyls in epic
verse. These frauds were all contrived for the heathen public,
as a means of propaganda, calculated to inspire them with respect
for Jewish antiquity or turn them from idols to God.
For Jewish Hellenism see Schiirer, op. cit. iii. ; Susemihl, Gesch.
der griech. Lit. in der Alexandrinerzeit, ii. 601 f. ; Willrich, Juden
und Griechen (1895), Judaica (1900); Hastings' Diet, of the Bible,
art. "Greece"; Encyclop. Biblica, art. "Hellenism"; Pauly-
Wissowa, art. " Aristobulus (15) "; also the work of P. Wendland
cited above.
Through the Hellenistic Jews, Greek influences reached
Jerusalem itself, though their effect upon the Aramaic-speaking
Rabbinical schools was naturally not so pronounced. The large
number of Greek words, however, in the language of the Mishnah
and the Talmud is a significant phenomenon. The attitude of
the Rabbinic doctors to a Greek education does not seem to
have been hostile till the time of Hadrian. The sect of the
Essenes probably shows an intermingling of the Greek with
other lines of tradition among the Jews of Palestine.
See Schiirer ii. 42-67, 583; . S. Krauss, Griech. u. latein.
Lehnworter im Talmud (1898); Jewish Encyclopedia, art. "Greek
Language."
HELLENISM
245
(vi.) In Egypt the Ptolemies were hindered by special considera-
tions from building Greek cities after the manner of the other
Macedonian houses. One Greek city they found
existing, Naucratis; Alexander had called Alexandria
into being; the first Ptolemy added Ptolemais as
a Greek centre for Upper Egypt. They seem to have suffered
no other community in the Nile Valley with the inde-
pendent life of a Greek city, for the Greek and Macedonian
soldier-colonies settled in the Fayum or elsewhere had no
political self-existence. And even at Alexandria Hellenism
was not allowed full development. Ptolemais, indeed, enjoyed
all the ordinary forms of self-government, but Alexandria was
governed despotically by royal officials. In its population, too,
Alexandria was only semi-Hellenic; for besides the proportion
of Egyptian natives in its lower strata, its commercial greatness
drew in elements from every quarter; the Jews, for instance,
formed a majority of the population in two out of the five
divisions of the city. At the same time the prevalent tone of
the populace was, no doubt, Hellenistic, as is shown by the
fact that the Jews who settled there acquired Greek in place
of Aramaic as their mother-tongue, and in its upper circles
Alexandrian society under the Ptolemies was not only
Hellenistic, but notable among the Hellenes for its literary and
artistic brilliance. The state university, the " Museum," was
in close connexion with the court, and gave to Alexandria
the same pre-eminence in natural science and literary scholar-
ship which Athens had in moral philosophy.
Probably in no other country, except Judaea, did Hellenism
encounter as stubborn a national antagonism as in Egypt.
The common description of " the Oriental " as indurated in
his antagonism to the alien conqueror here perhaps has some
truth in it. The assault made upon the Macedonian devotee
in the temple of Serapis at Memphis " because he was a Greek "
is significant (Papyr. Brit. Mus. i. No. 44; cf. Grenfell, Amherst
Papyr. p. 48) . And yet even here one must observe qualifications.
The papyri show us habitual marriage of Greeks and native
women and a frequent adoption by natives of Greek names.
It has even been thought that some developments of the Egyptain
religion are due to Hellenistic influence, such as the deification
of Imhotp (Bissing, Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1902, col. 2330)
or the practice of forming voluntary religious associations (Otto,
Priester und Tempel, i. 125). The worship of Serapis was
patronized by the court with the very object of affording a
mixed cultus in which Greek and native might unite. In Egypt,
too, the triumph of Christianity brought into being a native
Christian literature, and if this was in one way the assertion of
the native against Hellenistic predominance, one must remember
that Coptic literature, like Syriac, necessarily incorporated
those Greek elements which had become an essential part of
Christian theology.
From the Ptolemaic kingdom Hellenism early travelled up
the Nile into Ethiopia. Ergamenes, the king of the Ethiopians
Ethiopia * n tne t ' me ^ tne secon d Ptolemy, "who had received
a Greek education and cultivated philosophy," broke
with the native priesthood (Diod. iii. 6), and from that time
traces of Greek influence continue to be found in the monuments
of the Upper Nile. When Ethiopia became a Christian country
in the 4th century, its connexion with the Hellenistic world
became closer.
(vii.) Hellenism in the West. Whilst in the East Hellenism
had been sustained by the political supremacy of the Greeks, in
Qnek Italy Graecia capta had only the inherent power and
culture charm of her culture wherewith to win her way. At
la the Carthage in the 3rd century the educated classes
seem generally to have been familiar with Greek
culture (Bernhardy, Grundriss d. griech. Lit. 77).
The philosopher Clitomachus, who presided over the Academy
at Athens in the 2nd century, was a Carthaginian. Even before
Alexander, as we saw, Hellenism had affected the peoples of
Italy, but it was not till the Greeks of south Italy and Sicily
were brought under the supremacy of Rome in the 3rd century
B.C. that the stream of Greek influence entered Rome in any
Roman
world.
volume. It was now that the Greek freedman, L. Livius
Andronicus, laid the foundation of a new Latin literature by
his translation of the Odyssey, and that the Greek dramas were
recast in a Latin mould. The first Romans who set about
writing history wrote in Greek. At the end of the 3rd century
there was a circle of enthusiastic phil-hellenes among the Roman
aristocracy, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who in Rome's
name proclaimed the autonomy of the Greeks at the Isthmian
games of 196. In the middle of the 2nd century Roman Hellen-
ism centred in the circle of Scipio Aemilianus, which included
men like Polybius and the philosopher Panaetius. The visit
of the three great philosophers, Diogenes the " Babylonian,"
Critolaus and Carneades in 155, was an epoch-making event in
the history of Hellenism at Rome. Opposition there could not
fail to be, and in 161 a senatus consultum ordered all Greek
philosophers and rhetoricians to leave the city. The effect of
such measures was, of course, transient. Even though the
opposition found so doughty a champion as the elder Cato
(censor in 184), it was ultimately of no avail. The Italians did
not indeed surrender themselves passively to the Greek tradition.
In different departments of culture the degree of their inde-
pendence was different. The system of government framed by
Rome was an original creation. Even in the spheres of art and
literature, the Italians, while so largely guided by Greek canons,
had something of their own to contribute. The mere fact that
they produced, a literature in Latin argues a power of creation
as well as receptivity. The great Latin poets were imitators
indeed, but mere imitators they were no more than Petrarch or
Milton. On the other hand, even where the creative originality
of Rome was most pronounced, as in the sphere of Law, there
were elements of Hellenic origin. It has been often pointed out
how the Stoic philosophy especially helped to shape Roman
jurisprudence (Schmekel, Philos. d. mittl. Stoa, p. 454 f.).
Whilst the upper classes in Italy absorbed Greek influences
by their education, by the literary and artistic tradition, the
lower strata of the population of Rome became largely hellenized
by the actual influx on a vast scale of Greeks and hellenized
Asiatics, brought in for the most part as slaves, and coalescing
as freedmen with the citizen body. Of the Jewish inscriptions
found at Rome some two-thirds are in Greek. So too the early
Christian church in Rome, to which St Paul addressed his
epistle, was Greek-speaking, and continued to be till far into the
3rd century.
III. LATER HISTORY. It remains only to glance at the
ultimate destinies of Hellenism in West and East. In the Latin
West knowledge of Greek, first-hand acquaintance
with the Greek classics, became rarer and rarer as
general culture declined, till in the dark ages (after ages.
the $th century) it existed practically nowhere but in
Ireland (Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, i. 438). In
Latin literature, however, a great mass of Hellenistic tradition
in a derived form was maintained in currency, wherever, that is,
culture of any kind continued to exist. It was a small number
of monkish communities whose care of those narrow channels
prevented their ever drying up altogether. Then the stream
began to rise again, first with the influx of the learning of the
Spanish Moors, then with the new knowledge of Greek brought
from Constantinople in the I4th century. With the Renaissance
and the new learning, Hellenism came in again in flood, to form
a chief part of that great river on which the modern world is
being carried forward into a future, of which one can only say
that it must be utterly unlike anything that has gone before.
In the East it is popularly thought that Hellenism, as an exotic,
withered altogether away. This view is superficial. During
the dark ages, in the Byzantine East, as well as in the West,
Hellenism had become little more than a dried and shrivelled
tradition, although the closer study of Byzantine culture in
latter years has seemed to discover more vitality than was once
supposed. Ultimately the Greek East was absorbed by Islam;
the popular mistake lies in supposing that the Hel- fa/am
lenistic tradition thereby came to an end. The
Mahommedan conquerors found a considerable part of it taken
246
HELLER HELMERSEN
over, as we saw, by the Syrian Christians, and Greek philosophical
and scientific classics were now translated from Syriac into
Arabic. These were the starting-points for the Mahommedan
schools in these subjects. Accordingly we find that Arabian
philosophy (g.v.), mathematics, geography, medicine and
philology are all based professedly upon Greek works (Brockel-
mann, Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur, 1898, vol. i.; R. A.
Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs, 1907, pp. 358-361).
Aristotle in the East no less than in the West was the " master
of them that know "; and Moslem physicians to this day invoke
the names of Hippocrates and Galen. The Hellenistic strain
in Mahommedan civilization has, it is true, flagged and failed,
but only as that civilization as a whole has declined. It was
not that the Hellenistic element failed, whilst the native elements
in the civilization prospered; the culture of Islam has, as a
whole (from whatever causes), sunk ever lower during the
centuries that have witnessed the marvellous expansion of
Europe.
AUTHORITIES. For the inner history of Hellenism after Alexander,
the general historical literature dealing with later Greece and Rome
supplies material in various degrees. See works quoted in articles
GREECE, History; ROME, History; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY;
BACTRIA, &c.
Different elements (literature, philosophy, art, &c.) are dealt
with in works dealing specially with these subjects, among which
those of Susemihl, Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Erwin Rohde and
E. Schwartz are of especial importance for the literature; those of
Schreiber and Strzygowski for the later Greek art.
Sketches of Hellenistic civilization generally are found in J. P.
Mahaffy's Greek Life and Thought (1887), The Greek World under
Roman Sway (1890), The Silver Age of the Greek World (1906);
Julius Kaerst, Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalters (Band ii., publ. 1909) ;
and in Beloch's Griechische Geschichte, vol. iii. (for the century
immediately succeeding Alexander). R. von Scala's " The Greeks
after Alexander," in Helmolt's History of the. World (vol. v.), covers
the whole period from Alexander to the end of the Byzantine Empire.
P. Wendland's Hellenistisch-rdmische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen
zu Judentum u. Christentum (1907) is an illuminating monograph,
giving a conspectus of the material. For Hellenistic Egypt, Bouch<-
Leclercq, Histoire des Lagides, vol. iii. (1906). (E. R. B.)
HELLER, STEPHEN (1815-1888), Austrian pianist and
composer, was born at Pest on the isth of May 1815. (Fetis's
dictionary says 1814, but this is almost certainly wrong.) He
was at first intended for a lawyer, but at nine years of age
performed so successfully at a concert that he was sent to Vienna
to study under Czerny. Halm was his principal master, and
from the age of twelve he gave concerts in Vienna, and made a
tour through Hungary, Poland and Germany. At Augsburg
he had the good fortune to be befriended when ill by a wealthy
family, who practically adopted him and gave him the oppor-
tunity to complete his musical education. In 1838 he went to
Paris, and soon became intimate with Liszt, Chopin, Berlioz
and their set, among whom was Halle, throughout his life an
indefatigable performer of Heller's music. In 1849 he came to
England and played a few times, and in 1862 he appeared with
Halle at the Crystal Palace. He outlived the great reputation
he had enjoyed among cultivated amateurs for so many years,
and was almost forgotten when he died at Paris on the i4th of
January 1888. His pianoforte pieces, almost all of them pub-
lished in sets and provided with fancy names, do not show very
startling originality, but their grace and refinement could not
but make them popular with players and listeners of all classes.
HELLESPONT (i.e. " Sea of Helle "; variously named in
classical literature 'EXX^o-TrofTOJ, 6 "EXXjjj -nwTOS, Helle-
spontum Pelagus, and Fretum Hellesponticuni), the ancient name
of the Dardanelles (?..) It was so-called from Helle, the
daughter of Athamas (<?..), who was drowned here. See
ARGONAUTS.
HELLEVOETSLUIS, or HELVOETSLUIS, a fortified seaport in
the province of South Holland, the kingdom of Holland, on the
south side of the island of Voorne-and-Putten, on the sea-arm
known as the Haringvliet, 55 m. S. of Brielle. It has dailysteam-
boat connexion with Rotterdam by the Voornsche canal. Pop.
(1900), 4152. Hellevoetsluis is an important naval station, and
possesses a naval arsenal, dry and wet docks, wharves and a
naval college for engineers. Among the public buildings are the
communal chambers, a Reformed church (1661), a Roman
Catholic church and a synagogue.
HELLIN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Albacete, on the Albacete-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 12,558.
Hellin is built on the outskirts of the low hills which line the left
bank of the river Mundo. It possesses the remains of an old
Roman castle and a beautiful parish church, the masonry and
marble pavement at the entrance of which are worthy of special
notice. The surrounding country yields wine, oil and saffron in
abundance; within the town there are manufactures of coarse
cloth, leather and pottery. Sulphur is obtained from the cele-
brated mining district of Minas del Mundo, 12 m. S., at the junc-
tion between the Mundo and the Segura; and there are warm
sulphurous springs in the neighbouring village of Azaraque.
Hellin was known to the Romans who first exploited its sulphur
as Illunum.
HELLO, ERNEST (1828-1885), French critic, was born at
Treguier. He was the son of a lawyer who held posts of great
importance at Rennes and in Paris, and was well educated at
both places, but took to no profession and resided much, fora
time, in his father's country-house in Brittany. A very strong
Roman Catholic, he appears to have been specially excited by his
countryman Renan's attitude to religious matters, and coming
under the influence of J. A. Barbey d' Aurevilly and Louis Veuillot,
the two most brilliant crusaders of the Church in the press, he
started a newspaper of his own, Le Croise, in 1859; but it only
lasted two years. He wrote, however, much in other papers.
He had very bad health, suffering apparently from spinal or bone
disease. But he was fortunate enough to meet with a wife, Zoe
Berthier, who, ten years older than himself, and a friend for some
years before their marriage, became his devoted nurse, and even
brought upon herself abuse from gutter journalists of the time for
the care with which she guarded him. He died in 1885. Hello's
work is somewhat varied in form but uniform in spirit. His best-
known book, Physionomie de saints (1875), which has been trans-
lated into English (1903) as Studies in Saintship, does not display
his qualities best. Contes extraordinaires, published not long
before his death, is better and more original. But the real Hello
is to be found in a series of philosophical and critical essays,
from Renan, I'Attemagne et I'alheisme (1861), through L'Homme
(1871) and Les Plateaux de la balance (1880), perhaps his chief
book, to the posthumously published Le Siecle. The peculiarity
of his standpoint and the originality and vigour of his handling
make his studies, of Shakespeare, Hugo and others, of abiding
importance as literary " triangulations," results of object, sub-
ject and point of view.
HELMERS, JAN FREDERIK (1767-1813), Dutch poet, was
born at Amsterdam on the 7th of March 1767. His early poems,
Night (1788) and Socrates (1790), were tame and sentimental, but
after 1805 he determined, in company with his brother-in-law,
Cornells Loots (1765-1834), to rouse national feeling by a burst
of patriotic poetry. His Poems ( 2 vols. , 1 809- 1 8 1 o) , but especially
his great work The Dutch Nation, a poem in six cantos (1812),
created great enthusiasm and enjoyed immense success. Helmers
died at Amsterdam on the 26th of February 1813. He owed his
success mainly to the integrity of his patriotism and the opportune
moment at which he sounded his counterblast to the French
oppression. His posthumous poems were collected in 1815.
HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON (1803-1885), Russian geologist,
was born at Laugut-Duckershof, near Dorpat, on the 29th of
September (O.S.) 1803. He received an engineering training and
became major-general in the corps of Mining Engineers. In 1837
he was appointed professor of geology in the mining institute at St
Petersburg. He was author of numerous memoirs on the geology
of Russia, especially on the coal and other mineral deposits of the
country; and he wrote also some explanations to accompany
separate sheets of the geological map of Russia. His geological
work was continued to an advanced age, one of the later publica-
tions being Studien iiber die Wanderblocke und die Diluvial gebilde
Russlands (1869 and 1882). Most of his memoirs were published
by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. He died
at St Petersburg on the 3rd of February (O.S.) 1885,
HELMET
247
W
HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. helme, mod.
heaume; the English word is " helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and
Ger.; all are from the Teutonic base hal-, pre-Teut. kal-, to cover;
:f. Lat. celare, to hide, Eng. " hell," &c.), a defensive covering for
he head.' The present article deals with the helmet during the
iddle ages down to the close of the period when body armour
was worn. For the helmet worn by the Greeks and Romans see
ARMS AND ARMOUR.
The head-dress of the warriors of the dark ages and of the
earlier feudal period was far from being the elaborate helmet
which is associated in the imagination with
the knight in armour and the tourney. It
was a mere casque, a cap with or without
additional safeguards for the ears, the nape
of the neck and the nose (fig. i). By those
warriors who possessed the means to equip
themselves fully, the casque was worn over
a hood of mail, as shown in fig. 2. In
manuscripts, &c., armoured men are some-
times portrayed fighting in their hoods, without casques, basinets
or other form of helmet. The casque was, of course, normally of
plate, but in some instances it was a strong leather cap covered
with mail or imbricated plates. The most
advanced form of this early helmet is the
conical steel or iron cap with nasal (fig. 2),
worn in conjunction with the hood of mail.
This is the typical helmet of the nth-century
warrior, and is made familiar by the Bayeux
Tapestry. From this point however (c. 1 100)
the evolution of war head-gear follows two
different paths for many years. On the one
hand the simple casque easily transformed
itself into the basinet, originally a pointed iron
skull-cap without nasal, ear-guards, &c. On
the other hand the knight in armour, especially
/J G \^-r:V asclu ? after the fashion of the tournament set in,
found the mere cap with nasal insufficient,
and the heaume (or " helmet ") gradually
came into vogue. This was in principle a large heavy iron pot
covering the head and neck. Often a light basinet was worn
underneath it or rather the knight usually wore his basinet and
only put the heaume on over it at the
last moment before engaging. The
earlier (i2th century) war heaumes are
intended to be worn with the mail
hood and have nasals (fig. 3). Towards
the end of the i3th century, however,
the basinet grew in size and strength,
just as the casque had grown, and
p lc , Heaume early began to challenge comparison with the
1 3th century. heavy and clumsy heaume. There-
upon the heaume became, by degrees,
the special head-dress of the tournament, and grew heavier,
larger and more elaborate, while the basinet, reinforced with
with Nasal
Mail Hood.
and
Fie. 4. Heaume, isth century. FIG. 5. Heaume, isth century
camail and vizor, was worn in battle. Types of the later,
purely tilting, heaume are shown in figs. 4 and 5.
The basinet, then, is the battle head-dress of nobles, knights
and sergeants in the uth century. Its development from the
loth-century cap to the towering helmet of 1350, with its long
snouted vizor and ample drooping " camail," is shown in fig. 6,
a, b, c and d, the two latter showing the same helmet with vizor
down and up. But the tendency set in during the earlier years
of the 1 5th century to make all parts of the armour thicker.
Chain " mail " gradually gave way to plate on the body and the
limbs, remaining only in those parts, such as neck and elbows,
where flexibility was essential, and even there it was in the end
replaced by jointed steel bands or small plates. The final step
was the discarding of the " camail " and the introduction of the
FIG. 6. Basinets.
" armet." The latter will be described later. Soon after the
beginning of the 1 5th century the high-crowned basinet gave place
to the salade or sallet, a helmet with a low rounded crown and a
long brim or neck-guard at the back. This was the typical head-
piece of the last half of the Hundred Years' War as the vizored
basinet had been of the first. Like the basinet it was worn in a
simple form by archers and pikemen and in a more elaborate
form by the knights and men-at arms. The larger and heavier
salades were also often used instead of the heaume in tournaments.
Here again, however, there is a great difference between those
worn by light armed men, foot-soldiers and archers and those of
the heavy cavalry. The former, while possessing as a rule the
bowl shape and the lip or brim of the type, and always destitute
of the conical point which is the distinguishing mark of the
basinet, are cut away in front of
the face (fig. 70). In some cases
this was remedied in part by the
addition of a small pivoted vizor,
which, however, could not protect
the throat. In the larger salades
of the heavy cavalry the wide
brim served to protect the whole^
head, a slit being
made in that part
of the brim which
came in front of
the eyes (in some
examples the whole
of the front part
of the brim was
made movable).
But the chin and
neck, directly opposed to the enemy's blows, were scarcely
protected at all, and with these helmets a large volant-piece
or beaver (mentonniere) usually a continuation of the body
armour up to the chin or even beyond was worn for this purpose,
as shown in fig. 7 b. This arrangement combined, in a rough way,
the advantages of freedom of movement for the head with
adequate protection for the neck and lower part of the face.
The armet, which came into use about 1475-1500 and com-
pletely superseded the salade, realized these requirements far
better, and later at the zenith of the armourer's art (about 1520)
and throughout the period of the decline of armour it remained
the standard pattern of helmet, whether for war or for tourna-
ment. It figures indeed in nearly all portraits of kings, nobles and
FIG. 7. Salades or Sallets.
248
HELMHOLTZ
soldiers up to the time of Frederick the Great, either with the
suit of armour or half-armour worn by the subject of the portrait
or in allegorical trophies, &c. The armet was a fairly close-
fitting rounded shell of iron or steel, with a movable vizor in
front and complete plating over chin, ears and neck, the latter
replacing the mentonniere or beaver. The armet was connected
to the rest of the suit by the gorget, which was usually of thin
laminated steel plates. With a good arrhet and gorget there was
no weak point for the enemy's sword to attack, a roped lower
edge of the armet generally fitting into a sort of flange round the
top of the gorget. Thus, and in other and slightly different ways,
FIG. 8. Armets.
was solved the problem which in the early days of plate armour
had been attempted by the clumsy heaume and the flexible, if
tough, camail of the vizored basinet, and still more clumsily in
the succeeding period by the salade and its grotesque mentonniere.
As far as existing examples show, the wide-brimmed salade itself
first gave way to the more rounded armet, the mentonniere
being carried up to the level of the eyes. Then the use (growing
throughout the isth century) of laminated armour for the joints
of the harness probably suggested the gorget, and once this was
applied to the lower edge of the armet by a satisfactory joint, it
was an easy step to the elaborate pivoted vizor which completed
the new head-dress. Types of armets are shown in fig. 8.
The burgonet, often confused with the armet, is the typical
helmet of the late i6th and early i7th centuries. In its simple
form it was worn by the foot and light cavalry though the
latter must not be held to include the pistol-armed chevaux-Ugers
of the wars of religion, these being clad in half-armour and
FIG. 9. Burgonets.
vizored burgonet and consisted of a (generally rounded) cap
with a projecting brim shielding the eyes, a neck-guard and ear-
pieces. It had almost invariably a crest or comb, as shown in the
illustrations (fig. 9). Other forms of infantry head-gear much
in vogue during the i6th century are shown in figs. 10 and n,
which represent the morion and cabasset respectively. Both
these were lighter and smaller than the burgonet; indeed much
of their popularity was due to the ease with which they were
worn or put on and off, for in the matter of protection they could
not compare with the burgonet, which in one form or another
was used by cavalry (and often by pikemen) up to the final
disappearance of armour from the field of battle about 1670.
Fig. 9 * gives the general outline of richly decorated 16th-century
Italian burgonet which is preserved in Vienna. The archetype
of the burgonet is perhaps the casque worn by the Swiss infantry
(fig. 9 a) at the epoch of Marignan (1515).
This was probably copied by them from
their former Burgundian antagonists, whose
connexion with this helmet is sufficiently
indicated by its name. The lower part of
the more elaborate burgonets worn by
nobles and cavalrymen is often formed into
a complete covering for the ears, cheek
and chin, and connected closely with the
gorget. They therefore resemble the armets
and have often been confused with them,
but the distinguishing feature of the bur-
gonet is invariably the front peak. Various
forms of vizor were fitted to such helmets;
these as a rule were either fixed bars
(fig. 9 c) or mere upward continuations of
the chin piece. Often a nasal was the only
face protection (fig. 9 d, a Hungarian type).
The latest form of the burgonet used in FIG. n. Cabasset.
active service is the familiar Cromwellian
cavalry helmet with its straight brim, from which depends the
slight vizor of three bars or stout wires joined together at the
bottom.
The above are of course only the main types. Some writers
class all remaining examples either as casques or as " war-hats,"
the latter term conveniently covering all those helmets which
resemble in any way the head-gear of civil life. For illustrations
of many curiosities of this sort, including the famous iron hat
of King Charles I. of England, and also for examples of Russian,
Mongolian, Indian and Chinese helmets, the reader is referred to
pp. 262-269 and 285-286 of Demmin's Arms and Armour (English
edition 1894). The helmets in brass, steel or cloth, worn by
troops since the general introduction of uniforms and the disuse
of armour, depend for their shape and material solely on con-
siderations of comfort and good appearance. From time to
time, however, the readoption of serviceable helmets is advocated
by cavalrymen, and there is much to be said in favour of this.
The burgonet, which was the final type of war helmet evolved by
the old armourers, would certainly appear to be by far the best
head-gear to adopt should these views prevail, and indeed it is
still worn, in a modified yet perfectly recognizable form, by the
German and other cuirassiers.
HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON
(1821-1894), German philosopher and man of science, was born
on the 3ist of August 1821 at Potsdam, near Berlin. His father,
Ferdinand, was a teacher of philology and philosophy in the
gymnasium, while his mother was a Hanoverian lady, a lineal
descendant of the great Quaker William Penn. Delicate in
early life, Helmholtz became by habit a student, and his father
at the same time directed his thoughts to natural phenomena.
He soon showed mathematical powers, but these were not
fostered by the careful training mathematicians usually receive,
and it may be said that in after years his attention was directed
to the higher mathematics mainly by force of circumstances.
As his parents were poor, and could not afford to allow him to
follow a purely scientific career, he became a surgeon of the
Prussian army. In 1842 he wrote a thesis in which he announced
the discovery of nerve-cells in ganglia. This was his first work,
and from 1842 to 1894, the year of his death, scarcely a year
passed without several important, and in some cases epoch-
making, papers on scientific subjects coming from his pen. He
lived in Berlin from 1842 to 1849, when he became professor of
physiology in Konigsberg. There he remained from 1849 to
1855, when he removed to the chair of physiology in Bonn. In
1858 he became professor of physiology in Heidelberg, and in
1871 he was called to occupy the chair of physics in Berlin. To
this professorship was added in 1887 the post of director of
the physico-technical institute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin,
HELMOLD HELMONT
249
and he held the two positions together until his death on the
8th of September 1894.
His investigations occupied almost the whole field of science,
including physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics,
chemistry, mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology
and theoretical mechanics. At an early age he contributed to
our knowledge of the causes of putrefaction and fermentation.
In physiological science he investigated quantitatively the
phenomena of animal heat, and he was one of the earliest in the
field of animal electricity. He studied the nature of muscular
contraction, causing a muscle to record its movements on a
smoked glass plate, and he worked out the problem of the velocity
of the nervous impulse both in the motor nerves of the frog and
in the sensory nerves of man. In 1847 Helmholtz read to the
Physical Society of Berlin a famous paper, ffber die Erhaltung
der Kraft (on the conservation of force) , which became one of the
epoch-making papers of the century; indeed, along with J. R.
Mayer, J. P. Joule and W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), he may
be regarded as one of the founders of the now universally received
law of the conservation of energy. The year 1851, while he was
lecturing on physiology at Konigsberg, saw the brilliant invention
of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument which has been of in-
estimable value to medicine. It arose from an attempt to
demonstrate to his class the nature of the glow of reflected light
sometimes seen in the eyes of animals such as the cat. When
the great ophthalmologist, A. von Grafe, first saw the fundus
of the living human eye, with its optic disc and blood-vessels,
his face flushed with excitement, and he cried, " Helmholtz
has unfolded to us a new world!" Helmholtz's contributions
to physiological optics are of great importance. He investigated
the optical constants of the eye, measured by his invention,
the ophthalmometer, the radii of curvature of the crystalline
lens for near and far vision, explained the mechanism of accom-
modation by which the eye can focus within certain limits,
discussed the phenomena of colour vision, and gave a luminous
account of the movements of the eyeballs so as to secure single
vision with two eyes. In particular he revived and gave new
force to the theory of colour-vision associated with the name of
Thomas Young, showing the three primary colours to be red,
green and violet, and he applied the theory to the explanation
of colour-blindness. His great work on Physiological Optics
(1856-1866) is by far the most important book that has appeared
on the physiology and physics of vision. Equally distinguished
were his labours in physiological acoustics. He explained
accurately the mechanism of the bones of the ear, and he discussed
the physiological action of the cochlea on the principles of sym-
pathetic vibration. Perhaps his greatest contribution, however,
was his attempt to account for our perception of quality of
tone. He showed, both by analysis and by synthesis, that
quality depends on the order, number and intensity of the over-
tones or harmonics that may, and usually do, enter into the
structure of a musical tone. He also developed the theory
of differential and of summational tones. His work on Sensa-
tions of Tone (1862) may well be termed the principia of physio-
logical acoustics. He may also be said to be the founder of the
fixed-pitch theory of vowel tones, according to which it is
asserted that the pitch of a vowel depends on the resonance of
the mouth, according to the form of the cavity while singing it,
and this independently of the pitch of the note on which the
vowel is sung. For the later years of his life his labours may
be summed up under the following heads: (i) On the conserva-
tion of energy; (2) on hydro-dynamics; (3) on electro-dynamics
and theories of electricity; (4) on meteorological physics;
(5) on optics; and (6) on the abstract principles of dynamics.
In all these fields of labour he made important contributions to
science, and showed himself to be equally great as a mathe-
matician and a physicist. He studied the phenomena of electrical
oscillations from 186910 1871, and in the latter year he announced
that the velocity of the propagation of electromagnetic induction
was about 3 14,000 metres per second. Faraday had shown that
the passage of electrical action involved time, and he also
asserted that electrical phenomena are brought about by changes
in intervening non-conductors or dielectric substances. This
led Clerk Maxwell to frame his theory of electro-dynamics, in
which electrical impulses were assumed to be transmitted
through the ether by waves. G. F. Fitzgerald was the first to
attempt to measure the length of electric waves; Helmholtz
put the problem into the hands of his favourite pupil, Heinrich
Hertz, and the latter finally gave an experimental demonstration
of electromagnetic waves, the " Hertzian waves," on which
wireless telegraphy depends, and the velocity of which is the
same as that of light. The last investigations of Helmholtz
related to problems in theoretical mechanics, more especially
as to the relations of matter to the ether, and as to the distribu-
tion of energy in mechanical systems. In particular he explained
the principle of least action, first advanced by P. L. M. de
Maupertuis, and developed by Sir W. R. Hamilton, of quaternion
fame. Helmholtz also wrote on philosophical and aesthetic
problems. His position was that of an empiricist, denying the
doctrine of innate ideas and holding that all knowledge is founded
on experience, hereditarily transmitted or acquired.
The life of Helmholtz was uneventful in the usual sense.
He was twice married, first, in 1849, to Olga von Velten (by whom
he had two children, a son and daughter), and secondly, in 1861,
to Anna von Mohl, of a Wiirtemberg family of high social position.
Two children were born of this marriage, a son, Robert, who died
in 1889, after showing in experimental physics indications of
his father's genius, and a daughter, who married a son of Werner
von Siemens. Helmholtz was a man of simple but refined
tastes, of noble carriage and somewhat austere manner. His
life from first to last was one of devotion to science, and he must
be accounted, on intellectual grounds, one of the foremost men
of the i gth century.
See L. Konigsberger, Hermann von Helmholtz (1902; English
translation by F. A. Welby, Oxford, 1906); J. G. M"Kendrick,
H. L. F. von Helmholtz (1899). (J. G. M.)
HELMOLD, an historian of the izth century, was a priest
at Bosau near Plon. He was a friend of the two bishops of
Oldenburg, Vicelin (d. 1154) and Gerold (d. 1163), who did
much to Christianize the Slavs. At Bishop Gerold's instigation
Helmold wrote his Chronica Slawrum, a history of the conquest
and conversion of the Slavonic countries from the time of
Charlemagne. For the life and times of Henry the Lion, duke of
Saxony, Helmold's chronicle, as that of a contemporary who had
exceptional means for gaining information, is of first-rate
importance. The history was continued down to 1209 by Abbot
Arnold of Lubeck.
The Chronica were first edited by Siegmund Schorkcl (Frankfort
a. M., 1556). The best edition is by J. M. Lappenberg in Man.
Germ. hist, scriptores, xxi. (1869). For critical works on the
Chronica see A. Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi, s. " Helmoldus."
HELMOND, a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland,
on the small river Aa, and on the canal (Zuid-Willems Vaart)
between 'sHertogenbosch and Maastricht, 245 m. by rail W.N.W.
of Venlo. It is connected by steam tramway with 'sHertogen-
bosch (21 m. N.W.), a branch line northwards to Osch being
given off at Veghel. Pop. (1900) 11,465. The castle of Helmond,
built in 1402, is a beautiful specimen of architecture, and among
the other buildings of note in the town are the spacious church
of St Lambert, the Reformed church and the town hall. Helmond
is one of the industrial centres of the province, and possesses
over a score of factories for cotton and silk weaving, cotton
printing, dyeing, iron founding, brewing, soap boiling and
tobacco dressing, as well as engine works and a margarine
factory. There is an art school in the town.
HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN (1577-1644), Belgian
chemist, physiologist and physician, a member of a noble
family, was born at Brussels in 1577.* He was educated at
Louvain, and after ranging restlessly from one science to another
and finding satisfaction in none, turned to medicine, in which
he took his doctor's degree in 1599. The next few years he spent
in travelling through Switzerland, Italy, France and England.
Returning to his own country he was at Antwerp at t,he time of
1 An alternative date for his birth is 1579 and for his death 1635
(see Bull. Roy. Acad. Belg., 1907, 7, p. 732).
2 5
HELMSTEDT HELMUND
the great plague in 1605, and having contracted a rich marriage
settled in 1609 at Vilvorde, near Brussels, where he occupied
himself with chemical experiments and medical practice until
his death on the 3oth of December 1644. Van Helmont presents
curious contradictions. On the one hand he was a disciple of
Paracelsus (though he scornfully repudiates his errors was well as
those of most other contemporary authorities), a mystic with
strong leanings to the supernatural, an alchemist who believed
that with a small piece of the philosopher's stone he had trans-
muted 2000 times as much mercury into gold; on the other
hand he was touched with the new learning that was producing
men like Harvey, Galileo and Bacon, a careful observer of nature,
and an exact experimenter who in some cases realized that
matter can neither be created nor destroyed. As a chemist
he deserves to be regarded as the founder of pneumatic chemistry,
even though it made no substantial progress for a century after
his time, and he was the first to understand that there are gases
distinct in kind from atmospheric air. The very word " gas "
he claims as his own invention, and he perceived that his " gas
sylvestre " (our carbon dioxide) given off by burning charcoal
is the same as that produced by fermenting must and that
which sometimes renders the air of caves irrespirable. For
him air and water are the two primitive elements of things.
Fire he explicitly denies to be an element, and earth is not one
because it can be reduced to water. That plants, for instance,
are composed of water he sought to show by the ingenious
quantitative experiment of planting a willow weighing 5 Ib in
200 Ib of dry soil and allowing it to grow for five years; at the
end of that time it had become a tree weighing 169 ft, and since
it had received nothing but water and the soil weighed practically
the same as at the beginning, he argued that the increased weight
of wood, bark and roots had been formed from water alone.
It was an old idea that the processes of the living body are
fermentative in character, but he applied it more elaborately
than any of his predecessors. For him digestion, nutrition and
even movement are due to ferments, which convert dead food
into living flesh in six stages. But having got so far with the
application of chemical principles to physiological problems,
he introduces a complicated system of supernatural agencies
like the archei of Paracelsus, which preside over and direct the
affairs of the body. A central archeus controls a number of
subsidiary archei which move through the ferments, and just
as diseases are primarily caused by some affection (exorbitatio)
of the archeus, so remedies act by bringing it back to the normal.
At the same time chemical principles guided him in the choice
of medicines undue acidity of ihe digestive juices, for example,
was to be corrected by alkalies and vice versa; he was thus a
forerunner of the iatrochemical school, and did good service to
the art of medicine by applying chemical methods to the prepara-
tion of drugs. Over and above the archeus he taught that there
is the sensitive soul which is the husk or shell of the immortal
mind. Before the Fall the archeus obeyed the immortal mind
and was directly controlled by it, but at the Fall men received
also the sensitive soul and with it lost immortality, for when it
perishes the immortal mind can no longer remain in the body.
In addition to the archeus, which he described as " aura vitalis
seminum, vitae directrix," Van Helmont had other governing
agencies resembling the archeus and not always clearly distin-
guished from it. From these he invented the term bias, defined
as the " vis motus tarn alterivi quam localis." Of bias there
were several kinds, e.g. bias humanum and bias meteoron; the
heavens he said " constare gas materia et bias efficiente." He
was a faithful Catholic, but incurred the suspicion of the Church
by his tract De magnetica vulnerum curatione (1621), which was
thought to derogate from some of the miracles. His works were
collected and published at Amsterdam as Ortus medicinae, vd
opera et opuscula omnia in 1668 by his son Franz Mercurius
(b. i6r8 at Vilvorde, d. 1699 at Berlin), in whose own writings,
e.g. Cabbalah Denudata (1677) and Opuscula philosophica (1690),
mystical theosophy and alchemy appear in still wilder confusion.
See M. Foster, Lectures on the History of Physiology (1901); also
Chevreul in Journ. des savants (Feb. and March 1850), and Cap
in Journ. pharm. Mm. (1852). Other authorities are Poultier
d'Elmoth, Memoire sur J. B. van Helmont (1817) ; Rixner and Sieber,
Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Physiologic (1819-1826), vol. ii.; Spiers,
Helmont' s System der Medicin (1840); Melsens, Lemons sur van
Helmont (1848) ; Rommelaere, fttudes sur J. B. van Helmont (1860).
HELMSTEDT, or more rarely Helmstadt, a town of Germany,
in the duchy of Brunswick, 30 m. N.W. of Magdeburg on the
main line of railway to Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 15,415. The
principal buildings are the Juleum, the former university, built
in the Renaissance style towards the close of the i6th century,
and containing a library of 40,000 volumes; the fine Stephans-
kirche dating from the I2th century; the Walpurgiskirche
restored in 1893-1894; the Marienberger Kirche, a beautiful
church in the Roman style, and the Roman Catholic church.
The Augustinian nunnery of Marienberg founded in 1176 is
now a Lutheran school. The town contains the ruins of the
Benedictine abbey of St Ludger, which was secularized in 1803.
The educational institutions include several schools. The
principal manufactures are furniture, yarn, soap, tobacco,
sugar, vitriol and earthenware. Near the town is Bad Helmstedt,
which has an iron mineral spring, and the Liibbensteine, two
blocks of granite on which sacrifices to Woden are said to have
been offered. Near Bad Helmstedt a monument has been erect cd
to those who fell in the Franco-German War; in the town there
is one to those killed at Waterloo. Helmstedt originated,
according to legend, in connexion with the monastery founded
by Ludger or Liudger (d. 809) , the first bishop of Munster. There
appears, however, little doubt that this tradition is mythical
and that Helmstedt was not founded until about 900. It obtained
civic rights in 1099 and, although destroyed by the archbishop
of Magdeburg in 1199, it was soon rebuilt. In 1457 it joined the
Hanseatic League, and in 1490 it came into the possession of
Brunswick. In 1576 Julius, duke of Brunswick, founded a
university here, and throughout the i7th century this was one
of the chief seats of Protestant learning. It was closed by
Jerome, king of Westphalia, in 1809.
See Ludewig, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Helmstedt
(Helmstedt, 1821).
HELMUND, a river of Afghanistan, in length about 600 m.
The Helmund, which is identical with the ancient Etymander,
is the most important river in Afghanistan, next to the Kabul
river, which it exceeds both in volume and length. It rises
in the recesses of the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, its
infant stream parting the Unai pass from the Irak, the two
chief passes on the well-known road from Kabul to Bamian.
For 50 m. from its source its course is ascertained, but beyond
that point for the next 50 no European has followed it. About
the parallel of 33 N. it enters the Zamindawar province which
lies to the N.W. of Kandahar, and thenceforward it is a well-
mapped river to its termination in the lake of Seistan. Till
about 40 m. above Girishk the character of the Helmund is that
of a mountain river, flowing through valleys which in summer are
the resort of pastoral tribes. On leaving the hills it enters on a
flat country, and extends over a gravelly bed. Here also it begins
to be used in irrigation. At Girishk it is crossed by the principal
route from Herat to Kandahar. Forty-five miles below Girishk
the Helmund receives its greatest tributary, the Arghandab,
from the high Ghilzai country beyond Kandahar, and becomes
a very considerable river, with a width of 300 or 400 yds. and
an occasional depth of 9 to 12 ft. Even in the dry season it is
never without a plentiful supply of water. The course of the
river is more or less south-west from its source till in Seistan
it crosses meridian 62, when it turns nearly north, and so flows
for 70 or 80 m. till it falls into the Seistan hamuns, or swamps,
by various mouths. In this latter part of its course it forms
the boundary between Afghan and Persian Seistan, and owing
to constant changes in its bed and the swampy nature of its
borders it has been a fertile source of frontier squabbles. Persian
Seistan was once highly cultivated by means of a great system
of canal irrigation; but for centuries, since the country was
devastated by Timur, it has been a barren, treeless waste of
flat alluvial plain. In years of exceptional flood the Seistan
lakes spread southwards into an overflow channel called the
HELM WIND HELPS, SIR A.
251
Shclag which, running parallel to the northern course of the
Helmund in the opposite direction, finally loses its waters in
the Gaod-i-Zirreh swamp, which thus becomes the final bourne
of the river. Throughout its course from its confluence with the
Arghandab to the ford of Chahar Burjak, where it bends north-
ward, the Helmund valley is a narrow green belt of fertility
sunk in the midst of a wide alluvial desert, with many thriving
villages interspersed amongst the remains of ancient cities,
relics of Kaiani rule. The recent political mission to Seistan
under Sir Henry M c Mahon (1904-1905) added much information
respecting the ancient and modern channels of the lower Helmund,
proving that river to have been constantly shifting its bed over
a vast area, changing the level of the country by silt deposits,
and in conjunction with the terrific action of Seistan winds
actually, altering its configuration. (T. H. H.*)
HELM WIND, a wind that under certain conditions blows
over the escarpment of the Pennines, near Cross Fell from the
eastward, when a helm (helmet) cloud covers the summit. The
helm bar is a roll of cloud that forms in front of it, to leeward.
See " Report on the Helm Wind Inquiry," by W. Marriott,
Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc. xv. 103.
HELOTS (Gr. eiXcores or tiXcorcu), the serfs of the ancient
Spartans. The word was derived in antiquity from the town
of Helos in Laconia, but is more probably connected with eXos,
a fen, or with the root of f\tiv, to capture. Some scholars
suppose them to have been of Achaean race, but they were
more probably the aborigines of Laconia who had been enslaved
by the Achaeans before the Dorian conquest. After the second
Messenian war (see SPARTA) the conquered Messenians were
reduced to the status of helots, from which Epaminondas
liberated them three centuries later after the battle of Leuctra
(371 B.C.). The helots were state slaves bound to the soil
adscripts glebae and assigned to individual Spartiates to till
their holdings ((cXijpoi) ; their masters could neither emancipate
them nor sell them off the land, and they were under an oath
not to raise the rent payable yearly in kind by the helots. In
time of war they served as light-armed troops or as rowers in
the fleet; from the Peloponnesian War onwards they were
occasionally employed as heavy infantry (oirXtrat), distinguished
bravery being rewarded by emancipation. That the general
attitude of the Spartans towards them was one of distrust and
cruelty cannot be doubted. Aristotle says that the ephors of
each year on entering office declared war on the helots so that
they might be put to death at any time without violating religious
scruple (Plutarch, Lycurgus 28), and we have a well-attested
record of 2000 helots being freed for service in war and then
secretly assassinated (Thuc. iv. 80). But when we remember
the value of the helots from a military and agricultural point
of view we shall not readily believe that the crypteia was really,
as some authors represent it, an organized system of massacre;
we shall see in it " a good police training, inculcating hardihood
and vigour in the young," while at the same time getting rid
of any helots who were found to be plotting against the state
(see further CRYPTEIA).
Intermediate between Helots and Spartiates were the two
classes of Ncodamodes and Mothones. The former were emanci-
pated helots, or possibly their descendants, and were much
used in war from the end of the 5th century; they served especi-
ally on foreign campaigns, as those of Thibron (400-399 B.C.)
and Agesilaus (396-394 B.C.) in Asia Minor. The mothones or
mothakes were usually the sons of Spartiates and helot mothers;
they were free men sharing the Spartan training, but were not
full citizens, though they might become such in recognition of
special merit.
See C. O. Miiller, History and Antiquities of the Doric Race (Eng.
trans.), bk. iii. ch. 3.; G. Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities
(Eng. trans.), pp. 30-35; A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek
Constitutional History, pp. 83-85; G. Busolt, Die griech. Stoats- u.
htsaltertumer, 84; Griechische Geschichte, i. 2 525-528; G. F.
Schomann, Antiquities of Greece: The State (Eng. trans.) pp. 104 ff.
(M. N. T.)
HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875), English writer and clerk
of the Privy Council, youngest son of Thomas Helps, a London
merchant, was born near London on the loth of July 1813. He
was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
coming out 3ist wrangler in the mathematical tripos in 1835. He
was recognized by the ablest of his contemporaries there as a
man of superior gifts, and likely to make his mark in after life.
As a member of the Conversazione Society, better known as the
" Apostles," a society established in 1820 for the purposes of
discussion on social and literary questions by a few young men
attracted to each other by a common taste for literature and
speculation, he was associated with Charles Buller, Frederick
Maurice, Richard Chenevix Trench, Monckton Milnes, Arthur
Hallam and Alfred Tennyson. His first literary effort, Thoughts
in the Cloister and the Crowd (1835), was a series of aphorisms
upon life, character, politics and manners. Soon after leaving
the university Arthur Helps became private secretary to Spring
Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle), then chancellor of the ex-
chequer. This appointment he filled till 1839, when he went
to Ireland as private secretary to Lord Morpeth (afterwards
earl of Carlisle), chief secretary for Ireland. In the meanwhile
(28th October 1836) Helps had married Bessy, daughter of
Captain Edward Fuller. He was one of the commissioners
for the settlement of certain Danish claims which dated so far
back as the siege of Copenhagen; but with the fall of the
Melbourne administration (1841) his official experience closed
for a period of nearly twenty years. He was not, however,
forgotten by his political friends. He possessed admirable
tact and sagacity; his fitness for official life was unmistakable,
and in 1860 he was appointed clerk of the Privy Council, on the
recommendation of Lord Granville.
His Essays written in the Intervals of Business had appeared
in 1841, and his Claims of Labour, an Essay on the Duties of the
Employers to the Employed, in 1844. Two plays, King Henry
the Second, an Historical Drama, and Catherine Douglas, a Tragedy,
published in 1843, have no particular merit. Neither in these,
nor in his only other dramatic effort, Oulita the Serf (1858) did
he show any real qualifications as a playwright.
Helps possessed, however, enough dramatic power to give
life and individuality to the dialogues with which he enlivened
many of his other books. In his Friends in Council, a Series
of Readings, and Discourse thereon (1847-1859), Helps varied
his presentment of social and moral problems by dialogues
between imaginary personages, who, under the names of Milver-
ton, Ellesmere and Dunsford, grew to be almost as real to
Helps's readers as they certainly became to himself. The book
was very popular, and the same expedient was resorted to in
Conversations on War and General Culture, published in 1871.
The familiar speakers, with others added, also appeared in his
Realmah (1868) and in the best of its author's later works, Talk
about Animals and their Masters (1873).
A long essay on slavery in the first series of Friends in Council
was subsequently elaborated into a work in two volumes pub-
lished in 1848 and 1852, called The Conquerors of the New World
and their Bondsmen. Helps went to Spain in 1847 to examine
the numerous MSS. bearing upon his subject at Madrid. The
fruits of these researches were embodied in an historical work
based upon his Conquerors of the New World, and called The
Spanish Conquest in America, and its Relation to the History of
Slavery and the Government of Colonies (4 vols., 1855-1857-1861).
But in spite of his scrupulous efforts after accuracy, the success
of the book was marred by its obtrusively moral purpose and
its discursive character.
The Life of Las Casas, the Apostle of the Indians (1868), The
Life of Columbus (1869), The Life of Pizarro (1869), and The
Life of Hernando Cortes (1871), when extracted from the work
and published separately, proved successful. Besides the books
which have been already mentioned he wrote: Organization
in Daily Life, an Essay (1862), Casimir Maremma (1870), Brevia,
Short Essays and Aphorisms (1871), Thoughts upon Government
(1872), Life and Labours of Mr Thomas Brassey (1872), Ivan
de Biron (1874), Social Pressure (1875).
His appointment as clerk of the Council brought him into
personal communication with Queen Victoria and the Prince
252
HELSINGBORG HELST
Consort, both of whom came to regard him with confidence
and respect. After the Prince's death, the Queen early turned
to Helps to prepare an appreciation of her husband's life and
character. In his introduction to the collection (1862) of the
Prince Consort's speeches and addresses Helps adequately
fulfilled his task. Some years afterwards he edited and wrote
a preface to the Queen's Leaves from a Journal of our Life in
the Highlands (1868). In 1864 he received the honorary degree
of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. He was made a C.B.
in 1871 and K.C.B. in the following year. His later years
were troubled by financial embarrassments, and he died on the
7th of March 1875.
HELSINGBORG, a seaport of Sweden in the district (Ian)
of Malmohus, 35 m. N. by E. of Copenhagen by rail and water.
Pop. (1900), 24,670. It is beautifully situated at the narrowest
part of Oresund, or the Sound, here only 3 m. wide, opposite
Helsingor (Elsinore) in Denmark. Above the town the brick
tower of a former castle crowns a hill, commanding a fine view
over the Sound. On the outskirts are the Oresund Park, gardens
containing iodide and bromide springs, and frequented sea-baths.
On the coast to the north is the royal chateau of Sofiero; to the
south, the small spa of Ramlosa. A system of electric trams is
maintained. North and east of Helsingborg lies the only coal-
field in Sweden, extending into the lofty Kullen peninsula,
which forms the northern part of the east shore of the Sound.
Potter's clay is also found. Helsingborg ranks among the first
manufacturing towns of Sweden, having copper works, using
ore from Sulitelma in Norway, india-rubber works and breweries.
The artificial harbour has a depth of 24 ft., and there are
extensive docks. The chief exports are timber, butter and iron.
The town is the headquarters of the first army division.
The original site of the town is marked by the tower of the
old fortress, which is first mentioned in 1135. In the i4th century
it was several times besieged. From 1370 along with other
towns in the province of Skane, it was united for fifteen years
with the Hanseatic League. The fortress was destroyed by fire
in 1418, and about 1425 Eric XIII. built another near the sea,
and caused the town to be transported thither, bestowing upon
it important privileges. Until 1658 it belonged to Denmark,
and it was again occupied by the Danes in 1676 and 1677. In
i684itsfortificationsweredismantled. It was taken by Frederick
IV. of Denmark in November 1709, but on the 28th of February
1710 the Danes were defeated in the neighbourhood, and the
town came finally into the possession of Sweden, though in 1711
it was again bombarded by the Danes. A tablet on the quay
commemorates the landing of Bernadotte after his election
as successor to the throne in 1810.
HELSIN6FORS (Finnish Helsinki), a seaport and the capital
of Finland and of the province of Nyland, centre of the admini-
strative, scientific, educational and industrial life of Finland.
The fine harbour is divided into two parts by a promontory,
and is protected at its entrance by a group of small islands, on
one of which stands the fortress of Sveaborg. A third harbour
is situated on the west side of the promontory, and all three
have granite quays. The city, which in 1810 had only 4065
inhabitants, Abo the then capital having 10,224, has increased
with great rapidity, having 22,228 inhabitants in 1860, 61,530
in 1890 and 111,654 in 1904. It is the centre of an active shipping
trade with the Baltic ports and with England, and of a railway
system connecting it with all parts of the grand duchy and with
St Petersburg. Helsingfors is handsome and well laid out with
wide streets, parks, gardens and monuments. The principal
square contains the cathedral of St Nicholas, the Senate House
and the university, all striking buildings of considerable archi-
tectural distinction. In the centre is the statue of the Tsar
Alexander II., who is looked upon as the protector of the liberties
of Finland, the monument being annually decorated with wreaths
and garlands. The university has a teaching staff of 141 with
(1906) 1921 students, of whom 328 were women. The university
is well provided with museums and laboratories and has a
library of over 250,000 volumes. Other public institutions
are the Athenaeum, with picture gallery, a Swedish theatre
and opera house, a Finnish theatre, the Archives, the Senate
House, the Nobles' House (Riddarhuset) and the House of the
Estates, the German (Lutheran) church and the Russian church.
Some of the scientific societies of Helsingfors have a wide
repute, such as the academy of sciences, the geographical,
historical, Finno-Ugrian, biblical, medical, law, arts and forestry
societies, as also societies for the spread of popular education
and of arts and crafts. There are a polytechnic, ten high schools,
navigation and trade schools, institutes for the blind and the
mentally deficient, and numerous elementary schools. The
general standard of education is high, the publication of books,
reviews and newspapers being very active. The language of
culture is Swedish, but owing to recent manufacturing develop-
ments the majority of the population is Finnish-speaking.
Helsingfors displays great manufacturing and commercial
activity, the imports being coal, machinery, sugar, grain and
clothing. The manufactures of the city consist largely of
tobacco, beer and spirits, carpets, machinery and sugar.
HELST, BARTHOLOMAEUS VAN DER, Dutch painter, was
born in Holland at the opening of the I7th century, and died
at Amsterdam in 1670. The date and place of his birth are
uncertain; and it is equally difficult to confirm or to deny the
time-honoured statement that he was born in 1613 at Amsterdam.
It has been urged indeed by competent authority that Van der
Heist was not a native of Amsterdam, because a family of that
name lived as early as 1607 at Haarlem, and pictures are shown
as works of Van der Heist in the Haarlem Museum which might
tend to prove that he was in practice there before he acquired
repute at Amsterdam. Unhappily Bartholomew has not been
traced amongst the children of Severijn van der Heist, who
married at Haarlem in 1607, and there is no proof that the
pictures at Haarlem are really his; though if they were so they
would show that he learnt his art from Frans Hals and became
a skilled master as early as 1631. Scheltema, a very competent
judge in matters of Dutch art chronology, supposes that Van
der Heist was a resident at Amsterdam in 1636. His first great
picture, representing a gathering of civic guards at a brewery,
is variously assigned to 1639 and 1643, and still adorns the
town-hall of Amsterdam. His noble portraits of the burgo-
master Bicker and Andreas Bicker the younger, in the gallery of
Amsterdam, of the same date no doubt as Bicker's wife lately
in the Ruhl collection at Cologne, were completed in 1642.
From that time till his death there is no difficulty in tracing Van
der Heist's career at Amsterdam. He acquired and kept the
position of a distinguished portrait-painter, producing indeed
little or nothing besides portraits at any time, but founding,
in conjunction with Nicolaes de Helt Stokade, the painters'
guild at Amsterdam in 1654. At some unknown date he married
Constance Reynst, of a good patrician family in the Netherlands,
bought himself a house in the Doelenstrasse and ended by
earning a competence. His likeness of Paul Potter at the Hague,
executed in 1654, and his partnership with Backhuysen, who laid
in the backgrounds of some of his pictures in 1668, indicate
a constant companionship with the best artists of the time.
Wagen has said that his portrait of Admiral Kortenaar, in
the gallery of Amsterdam, betrays the teaching of Frans Hals,
and the statement need not be gainsaid; yet on the whole
Van der Heist's career as a painter was mainly a protest against
the systems of Hals and Rembrandt. It is needless to dwell
on the pictures which preceded that of 1648, called the Peace
of Miinster, in the gallery of Amsterdam. The Peace challenges
comparison at once with the so-called Night Watch by Rembrandt
and the less important but not less characteristic portraits of
Hals and his wife in a neighbouring room. Sir Joshua Reynolds
was disappointed by Rembrandt, whilst Van der Heist surpassed
his expectation. But Biirger asked whether Reynolds had not
already been struck with blindness when he ventured on this
criticism. The question is still an open one. But certainly
Van der Heist attracts by qualities entirely differing from those
of Rembrandt and Frans Hals. Nothing can be more striking
than the contrast between the strong concentrated light and the
deep gloom of Rembrandt and the contempt of chiaroscuro
HELSTON HELVETII
253
peculiar to his rival, except the contrast between the rapid
sketchy touch of Hals and the careful finish and rounding of
van der Heist. " The Peace " is a meeting of guards to celebrate
the signature of the treaty of Munster. The members of the
Doele of St George meet to feast and congratulate each other not
at a formal banquet but in a spot laid out for good cheer, where
de Wit, the captain of his company, can shake hands with his
lieutenant Waveren, yet hold in solemn state the great drinking-
horn of St George. The rest of the company sit, stand or busy
themselves around some eating, others drinking, others
carving or serving an animated scene on a long canvas, with
figures large as life. Well has Burger said, the heads are full
of life and the hands admirable. The dresses and subordinate
parts are finished to a nicety without sacrifice of detail or loss
of breadth in touch or impast. But the eye glides from shape to
shape, arrested here by expressive features, there by a bright
stretch of colours, nowhere at perfect rest because of the lack
of a central thought in light and shade, harmonies or composition.
Great as the qualities of van der Heist undoubtedly are, he
remains below the line of demarcation which separates the
second from the first-rate masters of art.
His pictures are very numerous, and almost uniformly good ; but
in his later creations he wants power, and though still amazingly
careful, he becomes grey and woolly in touch. At Amsterdam the
four regents in the Werkhuys (1650), four syndics in the gallery
(1656), and four syndics in the town-hall (1657) are masterpieces,
to which may be added a number of fine single portraits. Rotterdam,
notwithstanding the fire of 1864, still boasts of three of van der
Heist's works. The Hague owns but one. St Petersburg, on the
other hand, possesses ten or eleven, of various shades of excellence.
The Louvre has three, Munich four. Other pieces are in the galleries
of Berlin, Brunswick, Brussels, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Darmstadt,
Dresden, Frankfort, Gotha, Stuttgart and Vienna.
HELSTON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Truro parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, n m. by
road W.S.W. of Falmouth, on a branch of the Great Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 3088. It is pleasantly situated on rising
ground above the small river Cober, which, a little below the
town, expands into a picturesque estuary called Looe Pool, the
water being banked up by the formation of Looe Bar at the
mouth. Formerly, when floods resulted from this obstruction,
the townsfolk of Helston acquired the right of clearing a passage
through it by presenting leathern purses containing three
halfpence to the lord of the manor. The mining industry on
which the town formerly depended is extinct, but the district
is agricultural and dairy farming is carried on, while the town
has flour mills, tanneries and iron foundries. As Helston has
the nearest railway station to the Lizard, with its magnificent
coast-scenery, there is a considerable tourist traffic in summer.
Some trade passes through the small port of Porthleven, 3 m.
S.W., where the harbour admits vessels of 500 tons. On the
8th of May a holiday is still observed in Helston and known as
Flora or Furry day. It has been regarded as a survival of the
Roman Floralia, but its origin is believed by some to be Celtic.
Flowers and branches were gathered, and dancing took place in
the streets and through the houses, all being thrown open, while
a pageant was also given and a special ancient folk-song chanted.
This ceremony, after being almost forgotten, has been revived
in modern times. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 309 acres.
Helston (Henliston, Haliston, Helleston), the capital of the
Meneage district of Cornwall, was held by Earl Harold in the
time of the Confessor and by King William at the Domesday
Survey. At the latter date besides seventy-three villeins, bordars
and serfs there were forty cenisarii, a species of unfree tenants
who rendered their custom in the form of beer. King John
(1201) constituted Helleston a free borough, established a gild
merchant, and granted the burgesses freedom from toll and other
similar dues throughout the realm, and the cognizance of all
pleas within the borough except crown pleas. Richard, king of
the Romans (1260), extended the boundaries of the borough
and granted permission for the erection of an additional mill.
Edward I. (1304) granted the pesage of tin, and Edward III. a
Saturday market and four fairs. Of these the Saturday market
and a fair on the feast of SS. Simon and Jude are still held, also
iive other fairs of uncertain origin. In 1585 Elizabeth granted
a charter of incorporation under the name of the mayor and
commonalty of Helston. This was confirmed in 1641, when it
was also provided that the mayor and recorder should be ipso
facto justices of the peace. From 1294 to 1832 Helston returned
two members to parliament. In 1774 the number of electors
(which by usage had been restricted to the mayor, aldermen
and freemen elected by them) had dwindled to six, and in 1790
to one person only, whose return of two members, however,
was rejected and that of the general body of the freemen accepted.
In 1832 Helston lost one of its members, and in 1885 it lost the
other and became merged in the county.
HELVETIC CONFESSIONS, the name of two documents
expressing the common belief of the reformed churches of
Switzerland. The first, known also as the Second Confession of
Basel, was drawn up at that city in 1536 by Bullinger and Leo
Jud of Zurich, Megander of Bern, Oswald Myconius and Grynaeus
of Basel, Bucer and Capito of Strassburg, with other representa-
tives from Schaffhausen, St Gall, Miihlhausen and Biel. The
first draft was in Latin and the Zurich delegates objected to its
Lutheran phraseology. 1 Leo Jud's German translation was,
however, accepted by all, and after Myconius and Grynaeus
had modified the Latin form, both versions were agreed to and
adopted on the 26th of February 1536.
The Second Helvetic Confession was written by Bullinger in
1562 and revised in 1564 as a private exercise. It came to the
notice of the elector palatine Friedrich III., who had it translated
into German and published. It gained a favourable hold on the
Swiss churches, who had found the First Confession too short
and too Lutheran. It was adopted by the Reformed Church not
only throughout Switzerland but in Scotland (1566), Hungary
(1567), France (1571), Poland (1578), and next to the Heidelberg
Catechism is the most generally recognized Confession of the
Reformed Church.
See L. Thomas, La Confession helvetique (Geneva, 1853); 'P.
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, i. 390-420, iii. 234-306; Muller,
Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten Kirche (Leipzig, 1903).
HELVETII ("EXoi^rioi, 'EXjS^rrtoO, a Celtic people, whose
original home was the country between the Hercynian forest
(probably the Rauhe Alp), the Rhine and the Main (Tacitus,
Germania, 28). In Caesar's time they appear to have been
driven farther west, since, according to him (Bell. Gall. i. 2. 3)
their boundaries were on the W. the Jura, on the S. the Rhone
and the Lake of Geneva, on the N. and E. the Rhine as far as
Lake Constance. They thus inhabited the western part of
modern Switzerland. They were divided into four cantons
(pagi) , common affairs being managed by the cantonal assemblies.
They possessed the elements of a higher civilization (gold coinage,
the Greek alphabet), and, according to Caesar, were the bravest
people of Gaul. The reports of gold and plunder spread by the
Cimbri and Teutones on their way to southern Gaul induced
the Helvetii to follow their example. In 107, under Divico, two
of their tribes, the Tougeni and Tigurini, crossed the Jura and
made their way as far as Aginnum (Agen on the Garonne),
where they utterly defeated the Romans under L. Cassius
Longinus, and forced them to pass under the yoke (Livy, Epit.
65; according to a different reading, the battle took place near
the Lake of Geneva). In 102 the Helvetii joined the Cimbri in
the invasion of Italy, but after the defeat of the latter by Marius
they returned home. In 58, hard pressed by the Germans and
incited by one of their princes, Orgetorix, they resolved to found
a new home west of the Jura. Orgetorix was thrown into prison,
being suspected of a design to make himself king, but the Helvetii
themselves persisted in their plan. Joined by the Rauraci,
Tulingi, Latobrigi and some of the Boii according to their own
reckoning 368,000 in all they agreed to meet on the 28th of
1 Some of the delegates, especially Bucer, were anxious to effect
a union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. There was also
a desire to lay the Confession before the council summoned at
Mantua by Pope Paul III.
254
HELVETIUS
March at Geneva and to advance through the territory of the
Allobroges. They were overtaken, however, by Caesar at
Bibracte, defeated and forced to submit. Those who survived
were sent back home to defend the frontier of the Rhine against
German invaders. During the civil wars and for some time
after the death of Caesar little is heard of the Helvetii.
Under Augustus Helvetia (not so called till later times, earlier
ager Helvetiorum) proper was included under Gallia Belgica.
Two Roman colonies had previously been founded at Noviodunum
(Colonia Julia Equestris, mod. Nyon) and at Colonia Rauracorum
(afterwards Augusta Rauracorum, Augst near Basel) to keep
watch over the inhabitants, who were treated with generosity by
their conquerors. Under the name of foederati they retained
their original constitution and division into four cantons. They
were under an obligation to furnish a contingent to the Roman
army for foreign service, but were allowed to maintain garrisons
of their own, and their magistrates had the right to call out a
militia. Their religion was not interfered with; they managed
their own local affairs and kept their own language, although
Latin was used officially. Their chief towns were Aventicum
(Avenches) and Vindonissa (Windisch). Under Tiberius the
Helvetii were separated from Gallia Belgica and made part of
Germania Superior. After the death of Galba (A.D. 69), having
refused submission to Vitellius, their land was devastated by
Alienus Caecina, and only the eloquent appeal of one of their
leaders named Claudius Cossus saved them from annihilation.
Under Vespasian they attained the height of their prosperity.
He greatly increased the importance of Aventicum, where his
father had carried on business. Its inhabitants, with those of
other towns, probably obtained the tits Latinum, had a senate,
a council of decuriones, a prefect of public works and flamens of
Augustus. After the extension of the eastern frontier, the troops
were withdrawn from the garrisons and fortresses, and Helvetia,
free from warlike disturbances, gradually became completely
romanized. Aventicum had an amphitheatre, a public
gymnasium and an academy with Roman professors. Roads
were made wherever possible, and commerce rapidly developed.
' The old Celtic religion was also supplanted by the Roman.
The west of the country, however, was more susceptible to Roman
influence, and hence preserved its independence against barbarian
invaders longer than its eastern portion. During the reign of
Gallienus (260-268) the Alamanni overran the country; and
although Probus, Constantius Chlorus, Julian, Valentinian I.
and Gratian to some extent checked the inroads of the barbarians,
it never regained its former prosperity. In the subdivision of
Gaul in the 4th century, Helvetia, with the territory of the
Sequani and Rauraci, formed the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum ,
the chief town of which was Vesontio (Besan$on). Under
Honorius (395-423) it was probably definitely occupied by the
Alamanni, except in the west, where the small portion remaining
to the Romano was ceded in 436 by Aetius to the Burgundians.
See L. von Haller, Helvetien unter den Romern (Bern, 1811);
T. Mommsen, Die Schweiz in romischer Zeit (Zurich, 1854); J. Brosi,
Die Kelten und Althehietier (Solothurn, 1851); L. Hug and R. Stead,
"Switzerland" in Story of the Nations, xxvi. ; C. Diindliker, Ge-
schichte der Schweiz (1892-1895), and English translation (of a shorter
history by the same) by E. Salisbury (1899); Die Schweiz unter den
Romern (anonymous) published by the Historischer Verein of St
Gall (Scheitlin and Zollikofer, St Gall, 1862); and G. Wyss, " t)ber
das romische Helvetien " in Archiv fur schweizerische^ Geschichte,
vii. (1851). For Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii, see T. R.
Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899) and Mommsen, Hist, of
Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7; ancient authorities in A. Holder,
Altkeltischer Sprachschatz (1896), s.v. Elvetii.
HELVETIUS, CLAUDE ADRIEN (1715-1771), French philo-
sopher and litterateur, was born in Paris in January 1715. He
was descended from a family of physicians, whose original name
was Schweitzer (latinized as Helvetius). His grandfather
introduced the use of ipecacuanha; his father was first physician
to Queen Marie Leczinska of France. Claude Adrien was
trained for a financial career, but he occupied his spare time with
writing verses. At the age of twenty-three, at the queen's
request, he was appointed farmer-general, a post of great re-
sponsibility and dignity worth a 100,000 crowns a year. Thus
provided for, he proceeded to enjoy life to the utmost, with
the help of his wealth and liberality, his literary and artistic
tastes. As he grew older, however, his social successes ceased,
and he began to dream of more lasting distinctions, stimulated
by the success of Maupertuis as a mathematician, of Voltaire
as a poet, of Montesquieu as a philosopher. The mathematical
dream seems to have produced nothing; his poetical ambitions
resulted in the poem called Le Bonheur (published posthumously,
with an account of Helvetius's life and works, by C. F. de Saint-
Lambert, 1773), in which he develops the idea that true happiness
is only to be found in making the interest of one that of all;
his philosophical studies ended in the production of his famous
book De I 'esprit. It was characteristic of the man that, as soon
as he thought his fortune sufficient, he gave up his post of farmer-
general, and retired to an estate in the country, where he
employed his large means in the relief of the poor, the encourage-
ment of agriculture and the development of industries. De
I'esprit (Eng. trans, by W. Mudford, 1807), intended to be the
rival of Montesquieu's L'Esprit des lois, appeared in 1758. It
attracted immediate attention and aroused the most formidable
opposition, especially from the dauphin, son of Louis XV. The
Sorbonne condemned the book, the priests persuaded the court
that it was full of the most dangerous doctrines, and the author,
terrified at the storm, he had raised, wrote three separate re-
tractations; yet, in spite of his protestations of orthodoxy,
he had to give up his office at the court, and the book was
publicly burned by the hangman. The virulence of the attacks
upon the work, as much as its intrinsic merit, caused it. to be
widely read; it was translated into almost all the languages
of Europe. Voltaire said that it was full of commonplaces, and
that what was original was false or problematical; Rousseau
declared that the very benevolence of the author gave the lie
to his principles; Grimm thought that all the ideas in the book
were borrowed from Diderot; according to Madame du Deffand,
Helvetius had raised such a storm by saying openly what every
one thought in secret; Madame de Graffigny averred that all
the good things in the book had been picked up in her own salon.
In 1764 Helvetius visited England, and the next year, on the
invitation of Frederick II., he went to Berlin, where the king
paid him marked attention. He then returned to his country
estate and passed the remainder of his life in perfect tranquillity.
He died on the 26th of December 1771.
His philosophy belongs to the utilitarian school. The four
discussions of which his book consists have been thus summed
up: (i) All man's faculties may be reduced to physical sensa-
tion, even memory, comparison, judgment; our only difference
from the lower animals lies in our external organization. (2)
Self-interest, founded on the love of pleasure and the fear of pain ,
is the sole spring of judgment, action, affection; self-sacrifice
is prompted by the fact that the sensation of pleasure outweighs
the accompanying pain; it is thus the result of deliberate
calculation; we have no liberty of choice between good and
evil ; there is no such thing as absolute right ideas of justice
and injustice change according to customs. (3) All intellects
are equal; their apparent inequalities do not depend on a more
or less perfect organization, but have their cause in the unequal
desire for instruction, and this desire springs from passions, of
which all men commonly well organized are susceptible to the
same degree; and we can, therefore, all love glory with the same
enthusiasm and we owe all to education. (4) In this discourse
the author treats of the ideas which are attached to such words
as genius, imagination, talent, taste, good sense, &c. The only
original ideas in his system are those of the natural equality of
intelligences and the omnipotence of education, neither of which,
however, is generally accepted, though both were prominent in
the system of J. S. Mill. There is no doubt that his thinking
was unsystematic; but many of his critics have entirely mis-
represented him (e.g. Cairns in his Unbelief in the Eighteenth
Century). As J. M. Robertson (Short History of Free Thought)
points out, he had great influence upon Bentham, and C. Beccaria
states that he himself was largely inspired by Helvetius in his
attempt to modify penal laws. The keynote of his thought was
HELVIDIUS PRISCUS HELY-HUTCHINSON
255
that public ethics has a utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly
on the importance of culture in national development.
A sort of supplement to the De I'esprit, called De I homme, de ses
facultes intellectuelles et de son education (Eng. trans, by W. Hooper,
1777) found among his manuscripts, was published after his death,
but created little interest. There is a complete edition of the works of
HelviStius, published at Paris, 1 8 1 8. For an estimate of his work and
his place among the philosophers of the 1 8th century see Victor
Cousin's Philosophic sensualiste (1863); P. L. Lezaud, Resumes
philosophiques (1853); F. D. Maurice, in his Modern Philosophy
(1862) pp 537 seq.; J. Morley, Diderot and the Encyclopaedists
(London 1878); D. G. Mostratos, Die Pddagogik des Helvetius
(Berlin, 1891); A. Guillois, Le Salon de Madame Helvetius (1894);
A. Piazzi, Le Ideefilosofiche specialmente pedagogiche deC.A. Helvetius
(Milan, 1889); G. Plekhanov, Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Materia-
tismus (Stuttgart, 1896); L. Limentani, Le Teorie psicologiche di
C. A. Helvetius (Verona, 1902); A. Keim, Helvetius, sa vie et son
tcvore (1907).
HELVIDIUS PRISCUS, Stoic philosopher and statesman,
lived during the reigns of Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and
Vespasian. Like his father-in-law, Thrasea Paetus, he was
distinguished for his ardent and courageous republicanism.
Although he repeatedly offended his rulers, he held several high
offices. During Nero's reign he was quaestor of Achaea and
tribune of the plebs (A.D. 56); he restored peace and order in
Armenia, and gained the respect and confidence of the pro-
vincials. His declared sympathy with Brutus and Cassius
occasioned his banishment in 66. Having been recalled to Rome
by Galba in 68, he at once impeached Eprius Marcellus, the
accuser of Thrasea Paetus, but dropped the charge, as the
condemnation of Marcellus would have involved a number of
senators. As praetor elect he ventured to oppose Vitellius in the
senate (Tacitus, Hist. ii. 91), and as praetor (70) he maintained,
in opposition to Vespasian, that the management of the finances
ought to be left to the discretion of the senate; he proposed
that the capitol, which had been destroyed in the Neronian
conflagration, should be restored at the public expense; he
saluted Vespasian by his private name, and did not recognize
him as emperor in his praetorian edicts. At length he was
banished a second time, and shortly afterwards was executed
by Vespasian's order. His life, in the form of a warm panegyric,
written at his widow's request by Herennius Senecio, caused
its author's death in the reign of Domitian.
Tacitus, Hist. iv. 5, Dialogus, 5; Dio Cassius Ixvi. 12, Ixvii. 13;
Suetonius, Vespasian, 15; Pliny, Epp. vii. 19.
HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1724-1794), Irish lawyer, states-
man, and provost of Trinity College, Dublin, son of Francis Hely,
a gentleman of County Cork, was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1748. He took the
additional name of Hutchinson on his marriage in 1751 with
Christiana Nixon, heiress of her uncle, Richard Hutchinson. He
was elected member of the Irish House of Commons for the
borough of Lanesborough in 1759, but after 1761 he represented
the city of Cork. He at first attached himself to the " patriotic "
party in opposition to the government, and although he after-
wards joined the administration he never abandoned his advocacy
of popular measures. He was a man of brilliant and versatile
ability, whom Lord Townshend, the lord lieutenant, described as
" by far the most powerful man in parliament." William
Gerard Hamilton said of him that " Ireland never bred a more
able, nor any country a more honest man." Hely-Hutchinson
was, however, an inveterate place-hunter, and there was point in
Lord North's witticism that "if you were to give him the whole
of Great Britain and Ireland for an estate, he would ask the Isle
of Man for a potato garden." After a session or two in parliament
he was made a privy councillor and prime serjeant-at-law; and
from this time he gave a general, though by no means invariable,
support to the government. In 1767 the ministry contemplated
an increase of the army establishment in Ireland from 12,000 to
15,000 men, but the Augmentation Bill met with strenuous
opposition, not only from Flood, Ponsonby and the habitual
opponents of the government, but from the Undertakers, or pro-
prietors of boroughs, on whom the government had hitherto
relied to secure them a majority in the House of Commons. It
therefore became necessary for Lord Townshend to turn to other
methods for procuring support. Early in 1768 an English act
was passed for the increase of the army, and a message from the
king setting forth the necessity for the measure was laid before
the House of Commons in Dublin. An address favourable to the
government policy was, however, rejected ; and Hely-Hutchinson ,
together with the speaker and the attorney-general, did their
utmost both in public and private to obstruct the bill. Parlia-
ment was dissolved in May 1768, and the lord lieutenant set
about the task of purchasing or otherwise securing a majority in
the new parliament. Peerages, pensions and places were bestowed
lavishly on those whose support could be thus secured; Hely-
Hutchinson was won over by the concession that the Irish army
should be established by the authority of an Irish act of parlia-
ment instead of an English one. The Augmentation Bill was
carried in the session of 1769 by a large majority. Hely-
Hutchinson's support had been so valuable that he received as
reward an addition of 1000 a year to the salary of his sinecure
of Alnagar, a major's commission in a cavalry regiment, and a
promise of the secretaryship of state. He was at this time one of
the most brilliant debaters in the Irish parliament, and he was
enjoying an exceedingly lucrative practice at the bar. This in-
come, however, together with his well-salaried sinecure, and his
place as prime Serjeant, he surrendered in 1 7 74, to become provost
of Trinity College, although the statute requiring the provost to
be in holy orders had to be dispensed with in his favour.
For this great academic position Hely-Hutchinson was in no
way qualified, and his appointment to it for purely political
service to the government was justly criticized with much
asperity. His conduct in using his position as provost to secure
the parliamentary representation of the university for his eldest
son brought him into conflict with Duigenan, who attacked him
in Lacrymae academicae, and involved him in a duel with a Mr
Doyle; while a similar attempt on behalf of his second son in
1790 led to his being accused before a select committee of the
House of Commons of impropriety as returning officer. But
although without scholarship Hely-Hutchinson was an efficient
provost, during whose rule material benefits were conferred on
Trinity College. He continued to occupy a pBominent place in
parliament, where he advocated free trade, the relief of the
Catholics from penal legislation, and the reform of parliament.
He was one of the very earliest politicians to recognize the
soundness of Adam Smith's views on trade; and he quoted from
the Wealth of Nations, adopting some of its principles, in his
Commercial Restraints of Ireland, published in 1779, which Lecky
pronounces " one of the best specimens of political literature
produced in Ireland in the latter half of the 1 8th century." In the
same year, the economic condition of Ireland being the cause
of great anxiety, the government solicited from several leading
politicians their opinion on the state of the country with sugges-
tions for a remedy. Hely-Hutchinson's response was a remark-
ably able state paper(MS. in the Record Office), which also showed
clear traces of the influence of Adam Smith. The Commercial
Restraints, condemned by the authorities as seditious, went far to
restore Hely-Hutchinson's popularity which had been damaged by
his greed of office. Not less enlightened were his views on the
Catholic question. In a speech in parliament on Catholic educa-
tion in 1782 the provost declared that Catholic students were in
fact to be found at Trinity College, but that he desired their
presence there to be legalized on the largest scale. " My opinion,"
he said, " is strongly against sending Roman Catholics abroad for
education, nor would I establish Popish colleges at home. The
advantage of being admitted into the university of Dublin will be
very great to Catholics; they need not be obliged to attend the
divinity professor, they may have one of their own; and I would
have a part of the public money applied to their use, to the
support of a number of poor lads as sizars, and to provide
premiums for persons of merit, for I would have them go into
examinations and make no distinction between them and the
Protestants but such as merit might claim." And after sketching
a scheme for increasing the number of diocesan schools where
Roman Catholics might receive free education, he went on to
256
HELYOT REMANS
urge that " it is certainly a matter of importance that the educa-
tion of their priests should be as perfect as possible, and that if they
have any prejudices they should be prejudices in favour of their
own country. The Roman Catholics should receive the best educa-
tion in the established university at the public expense; but by
no means should Popish colleges be allowed, for by them we
should again have the press groaning with themes of controversy,
and subjects of religious disputation that have long slept in
oblivion would again awake, and awaken with them all the worst
passions of the human mind." 1
In 1777 Hely-Hutchinson became secretary of state. When
Grattan in 1782 moved an address to the king containing a
declaration of Irish legislative independence, Hely-Hutchinson
supported the attorney-general's motion postponing the question;
but on the i6th of April, after the Easter recess, he read a
message from the lord lieutenant, the duke of Portland, giving
the king's permission for the House to take the matter into con-
sideration, and he expressed his personal sympathy with the
popular cause which Grattan on the same day brought to a
triumphant issue (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Hely-Hutchinson
supported the opposition on the regency question in 1788, and
one of his last votes in the House was in favour of parliamentary
reform. In 1790 he exchanged the constituency of Cork for that
of Taghmon in County Wexford, for which borough he remained
member till his death at Buxton on the 4th of September
1794.
In 1785 his wife had been created Baroness Donoughmore
and on her death in 1788, his eldest son Richard (1756-1825)
succeeded to the title. Lord Donoughmore was an ardent
advocate of Catholic emancipation. In 1797 he was created
Viscount Donoughmore, 2 and in 1800 (having voted for the
Union, hoping to secure Catholic emancipation from the united
parliament) he was further created earl of Donoughmore of
Knocklofty, being succeeded first by his brother John Hely-
Hutchinson (1757-1832) and then by his nephew John, 3rd
arl (1787-1851), from whom the title descended.
See W. E. H. Lecky, Hist, of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century
(5 vols., London, 1892); J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland in the
Eighteenth Century (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); H. Grattan,
Memoirs of the Life and Times of'Henry Grattan (8 vols., London,
1839-1846); Baratariana, by various writers (Dublin, 1773).
(R. J. M.)
HELYOT, PIERRE (1660-1716), Franciscan friar and his-
torian, was born at Paris in January 1660, of supposed English
ancestry. After spending his youth in study, he entered in his
twenty-fourth year the convent of the third order of St Francis,
founded at Picpus, near Paris, by his uncle Jer6me Helyot,
canon of St Sepulchre. There he took the name of Pere Hip-
polyte. Two journeys to Rome on monastic business afforded
him the opportunity of travelling over most of Italy; and after
his final return he saw much of France, while acting as secretary
to various provincials of his order there. Both in Italy and
France he was engaged in collecting materials for his great work,
which occupied him about twenty-five years, L'Histoire des
ordres monastiques, religieux, et militaires, et des congregations
sSculieres, de I'un et de I'autre sexe, qui ont ete elablies jusqu'a
present, published in 8 volumes in 1714-1721. Helyot died on
the sth of January 1716, before the fifth volume appeared, but
his friend Maximilien Bullot completed the edition. Helyot's
only other noteworthy work is Le Chretien mourant (1695)
The Histoire is a work of first importance, being the great repertory
of information for the general history of the religious orders up to the
end of the I7th century. It is profusely illustrated by large plates
1 Irish Parl. Debates, i. 309, 310.
2 It is generally supposed that the title conferred by this patent
was that of Viscount Suirdale, and such is the courtesy title by which
the heir apparent of the earls of Donoughmore is usually styled.
This, however, appears to be an error. In all the three creations
(barony 1783, viscountcy 1797, earldom 1800) the title is
" Donoughmore of Knocklofty." In 1821 the 1st earl was further
created Viscount Hutchinson of Knocklofty in the peerage of the
United Kingdom. The courtesy title of the earl's eldest son should,
therefore, apparently be either " Viscount Hutchinson " or " Vis-
count Knocklofty." See G. E. C. Complete Peerage (London, 1890).
exhibiting the dress of the various orders, and in the edition of 1792
the plates are coloured. It was translated into Italian (l/37) and
into German (1753). The material has been arranged in dictionary
form in Migne's Encyclopedic theologique, under the title "Dictionnaire
des orders religieux " (4 vols., 1858).
REMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA (1793-1835), English poet,
was born in Duke Street, Liverpool, on the 25th of September
1793. Her father, George Browne, of Irish extraction, was a
merchant in Liverpool, and her mother, whose maiden name
was Wagner, was the daughter of the Austrian and Tuscan
consul at Liverpool. Felicia, the fifth of seven children, was
scarcely seven years old when her father failed in business, and
retired with his family to Gwrych, near Abergele, Denbighshire;
and there the young poet and her brothers and sisters grew
up in a romantic old house by the sea-shore, and in the very
midst of the mountains and myths of Wales. Felicia's education
was desultory. Books of chronicle and romance, and every
kind of poetry, she read with avidity; and she also studied
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German. She played both
harp and piano, and cared especially for the simple national
melodies of Wales and Spain. In 1808, when she was only
fourteen, a quarto volume of her Juvenile Poems, was published
by subscription, and was harshly criticized in the Monthly Review.
Two of her brothers were fighting in Spain under Sir John Moore;
and Felicia, fired with military enthusiasm, wrote England and
Spain, or Valour and Patriotism, a poem afterwards translated
into Spanish. Her second volume, The Domestic A/ections and
other Poems, appeared in 1812, on the eve of her marriage to
Captain Alfred Hemans. She lived for some time at Daventry,
where her husband was adjutant of the Northamptonshire
militia. About this time her father went to Quebec on business
and died there; and, after the birth of her first son, she and
her husband went to live with her mother at Bronwylfa, a house
near St Asaph. Here during the next six years four more
children all boys were born; but in spite of domestic cares
and failing health she still read and wrote indefatigably. Her
poem entitled The Restoration of Works of Art to Italy was
published in 1816, her Modern Greece in 1817, and in 1818
Translations from Camoens and other Poets.
In 1818 Captain Hemans went to Rome, leaving his wife,
shortly before the birth of their fifth child, with her mother at
Bronwylfa. There seems to have been a tacit agreement,
perhaps on account of their limited means, that they should
separate. Letters were interchanged, and Captain Hemans was
often consulted about his children; but the husband and wife
never met again. Many friends among them the bishop of
St Asaph and Bishop Heber gathered round Mrs Hemans and
her children. In 1819 she published Tales and Historic Scenesin
Verse, and gained a prize of 50 offered for the best poem on
The Meeting of Wallace and Bruce on the Banks of the Carron.
In 1820 appeared The Sceptic and Stanzas to the Memory of the
late King. In June 1821 she won the prize awarded by the Royal
Society of Literature for the best poem on the subject of Dart-
moor, and. began her play, The Vespers of Palermo. She now
applied herself to a course of German reading. Korner was her
favourite German poet, and her lines on the grave of Korner
were one of the first English tributes to the genius of the young
soldier-poet. In the summer of 1823 a volume of her poems
was published by Murray, containing " The Siege of Valencia,"
"The Last Constantino " and " Belshazzar's Feast." The
Vespers of Palermo was acted at Covent Garden, December
12, 1823, and Mrs Hemans received 200 for the copy-
right ; but, though the leading parts were taken by Young and
Charles Kemble, the play was a failure, and was withdrawn
after the first performance. It was acted again in Edinburgh
in the following April with greater success, when an epilogue,
written for it by Sir Walter Scott at Joanna Baillie's request,
was spoken by Harriet Siddons. This was the beginning of a
cordial friendship between Mrs Hemans and Scott. In the same
year she wrote De Chatillon, or the Crusaders; but the manu-
script was lost, and the poem Was published after her death,
from a rough copy. In 1824 she began " The Forest Sanctuary,"
HEMEL HEMPSTEAD HEMICHORDA
257
which appeared a year later with the "Lays of Many Lands"
and miscellaneous pieces collected from the New Monthly
Magazine and other periodicals.
In the spring of 1825 Mrs Hemans removed from Bronwylfa,
which had been purchased by her brother, to Rhyllon, a house
on an opposite height across the river Clwyd. The contrast
between the two houses suggested her Dramatic Scene between
Bronwylfa and Rhyllon. The house itself was bare and un-
picturesque, but the beauty of its surroundings has been cele-
brated in " The Hour of Romance," " To the River Clwyd in
North Wales," " Our Lady's Well " and " To a Distant Scene."
This time seems to have been the most tranquil in Mrs Hemans's
life. But the death of her mother in January 1-827 was a second
great breaking-point in her life. Her heart was affected, and
she was from this time an acknowledged invalid. In the summer
of 1828 the Records of Woman was published by Blackwood,
and in the same year the home in Wales was finally broken up
by the marriage of Mrs Hemans's sister and the departure of
her two elder boys to their father in Rome. Mrs Hemans
removed to Wavertree, near Liverpool. But, although she had
a few intimate friends there among them her two subsequent
biographers, Henry F. Chorley and Mrs Lawrence of Wavertree
Hall she was disappointed in her new home, She thought the
people of Liverpool stupid and provincial; and they, on the
other hand, found her uncommunicative and eccentric. In the
following summer she travelled by sea to Scotland with two of
her boys, to visit the Hamiltons of Chiefswood.
Here she enjoyed " constant, almost daily, intercourse "
with Sir Walter Scott, with whom she and her boys afterwards
stayed some time at Abbotsford. " There are some whom we
meet, and should like ever after to claim as kith and kin; and
you are one of those," was Scott's compliment to her at parting.
One of the results of her Edinburgh visit was an article, full of
praise, judiciously tempered with criticism, by Jeffrey himself
for the Edinburgh Review. Mrs Hemans returned to Wavertree
to write her Songs of the Affections, which were published early
in 1830. In the following June, however, she again left home,
this time to visit Wordsworth and the Lake country; and in
August she paid a second visit to Scotland. In 1831 she removed
to Dublin. Her poetry of this date is chiefly religious. Early
in 1834 her Hymns for Childhood, which had appeared some
years before in America, were published in Dublin. At the same
time appeared her collection of National Lyrics, and shortly
afterwards Scenes and Hymns of Life. She was planning also a
series of German studies, one of which, on Goethe's Tasso,
was completed and published in the New Monthly Magazine
for January 1834. In intervals of acute suffering she wrote the
lyric Despondency and Aspiration, and dictated a series of sonnets
called Thoughts during Sickness, the last of which, " Recovery,"
was written when she fancied she was getting well. After three
months spent at Redesdale, Archbishop Whately's country seat,
she was again brought into Dublin, where she lingered till spring.
Her last poem, the Sabbath Sonnet, was dedicated to her brother
on Sunday April 26th, and she died in Dublin on the i6th of
May 1835 at the age of forty-one.
Mrs Hemans's poetry is the production of a fine imaginative
and enthusiastic temperament, but not of a commanding
intellect or very complex or subtle nature. It is the outcome
of a beautiful but singularly circumscribed life, a life spent
in romantic seclusion, without much worldly experience, and
warped and saddened by domestic unhappiness and physical
suffering. An undue preponderance of the emotional is its
prevailing characteristic. Scott complained that it was " too
poetical," that it contained " too many flowers " and " too
little fruit." Many of her short poems, such as " The Treasures
of the Deep," " The Better Land," " The Homes of England,"
" Casabianca," " The Palm Tree," "The Gravesof a Household,"
'' The Wreck," " The Dying Improvisatore," and " The Lost
Pleiad," have become standard English lyrics. It is on the
strength of these that her reputation must rest.
Mrs Hemans's Poetical Works were collected in 1 832 ; her Memorials
&c., by H. F. Chorley (1836).
xiii. 9
HEMEL HEMPSTEAD, a market-town and municipal borough
in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England,
25 m. N.W. from London, with a station on a branch of the
Midland railway from Harpenden, and near Boxmoor station
on the London and North Western main line. Pop. (1891)
9678; (1001) 11,264. It is pleasantly situated in the steep-
sided valley of the river Gade, immediately above its junction
with the Bulbourne, near the Grand Junction canal. The church
of St Mary is a very fine Norman building with Decorated
additions. Industries include the manufacture of paper, iron
founding, brewing and tanning. Boxmoor, within the parish, is
a considerable township of modern growth. Hemel Hempstead
is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
7184 acres.
Settlements in the neighbourhood of Hemel Hempstead
(Hamalamslede, Hemel Hampsted) date from pre-Roman times,
and a Roman villa has been discovered at Boxmoor. The manor,
royal demesne in 1086, was granted by Edmund Plantagenet
in 1285 to the house of Ashridge, and the town developed under
monastic protection. In 1539 a charter incorporated the bailiff
and inhabitants. A mayor, aldermen and councillors received
governing power by a charter of 1898. The town has never had
parliamentary representation. A market on Thursday and a
fair on the feast of Corpus Christi were conferred in 1539. A
statute fair, for long a hiring fair, originated in 1803.
HEMEROBAPTISTS, an ancient Jewish sect, so named from
their observing a practice of daily ablution as an essential part
of religion. Epiphanius (Panarion, i. 17), who mentions their
doctrine as the fourth heresy among the Jews, classes the
Hemerobaptists doctrinally with the Pharisees (q.v.) from whom
they differed only in, like the Sadducees, denying the resurrection
of the dead. The name has been sometimes given to the Mandaeans
on account of their frequent ablutions; and in the Clementine
Homilies (ii. 23) St John the Baptist is spoken of as a Hemero-
baptist. Mention of the sect is made by Hegesippus (see Euseb.
Hist. Eccl. iv. 22) and by Justin Martyr in the Dialogue with
Trypho, 80. They were probably a division of the Essenes.
HEMICHORDA, or HEMICHORDATA, a zoological term intro-
duced by W. Bateson in 1884, without special definition, as
equivalent to Enteropneusta, which then included the single
genus Balanoglossus, and now generally employed to cover a
group of marine worm-like animals believed by many zoologists
to be related to the lower vertebrates and so to represent the
invertebrate stock from which Vertebrates have been derived.
Vertebrates, or as they are sometimes termed Chordates, are
distinguished from other animals by several important features.
The chief of these is the presence of an elastic rod, the notochord,
which forms the longitudinal axis of the body, and which persists
throughout life in some of the lowest forms, but which appears
only in the embryo of the higher forms, being replaced by the
jointed backbone or vertebral column. A second feature is the
development of outgrowths of the pharynx which unite with the
skin of the neck and form a series of perforations leading to the
exterior. These structures are the gill-slits, which in fishes are
lined with vascular tufts, but which in terrestrial breathing
animals appear only in the embryo. The third feature of
importance is the position of structure of the central nervous
system, which in all the Chordates lies dorsally to the alimentary
canal and is formed by the sinking in of a longitudinal media
dorsal groove. Of these structures the Vertebrata or Craniata
possess all three in a typical form; the Cephalochordata (see
AMPHIOXUS) also possess them, but the notochord extends
throughout the whole length of the body to the extreme tip of
the snout; the Urochordata (see TUNICATA) possess them in a
larval condition, but the notochord is present only in the tail,
whilst in the adult the notochord disappears and the nervous
system becomes profoundly modified; in the Hemichorda, the
respiratory organs very closely resemble gill-slits, and structures
comparable with the notochord and the tubular dorsal nervous
system are present.
The Hemichorda include three orders, the Phoronidea (?..),
the Pterobranchia (q.v.} and the Enteropneusta (see BALANO-
258
HEMICYCLE HEMIPTERA
GLOSSUS), but the relationship to the Chordata expressed in the
designation Hemichordata cannot be regarded as more than an
attractive theory with certain arguments in its favour. (P. C. M.)
HEMICYCLE (Gr. iw*i-, half, and KuxXos, circle), a semi-
circular recess of considerable size which formed one of the most
conspicuous features in the Roman Thermae, where it was
always covered with a hemispherical vault. A small example
exists in Pompeii, in the street of tombs, with a seat round inside,
where those who came to pay their respects to the departed
could rest. An immense hemicycle was designed by Bramante
for the Vatican, where it constitutes a fine architectural effect
at the end of the great court.
HEMIMERUS, an Orthopterous or Dermapterous insect, the
sole representative of the family Hemimeridae, which has affinities
with both the Forficulidae (earwigs) and the Blattidae (cock-
roaches). Only two species have been discovered, both from
West Africa. The better known of these (H . hanseni) lives upon
a large rat-like rodent (Cricetomys gambianus) feeding perhaps
upon its external parasites, perhaps upon scurf and other dermal
products. Like many epizoic or parasitic insects, Hemimerus
is wingless, eyeless and has relatively short and strong legs.
Correlated also with its mode of life is the curious fact that it is
viviparous, the young being born in an advanced stage of growth.
HEMIMORPHITE, a mineral consisting of hydrous zinc
silicate, HzZnzSiOs, of importance as an ore of the metal, of
which it contains 54-4%. It is interesting crystallographically
by reason of the hemimorphic development of its orthorhombic
crystals; these are prismatic in habit and are
differently terminated at the two ends. In
the figure, the faces at the upper end of the
crystal are the basal plane k and the domes
o, p, I, m, whilst at the lower end there are
only the four faces of the pyramid P. Con-
nected with this polarity of the crystals is
their pyroelectric character when a crystal
is subjected to changes of temperature it
becomes positively electrified at one end and
negatively at the opposite end. There are per-
fect cleavages parallel to theprism faces (din the
figure). Crystals are usually colourless, some-
times yellowish or greenish, and transparent;
they have vitreous lustre. The hardness is 5, and the specific
gravity 3.45. The mineral also occurs as stalactitic or botryoidal
masses with a fibrou? structure, or in a massive, cellular or
granular condition intermixed with calamine and clay. It is
decomposed by hydrochloric acid with gelatinization; this
property affords a ready means of distinguishing hemimorphite
from calamine (zinc carbonate), these two minerals being, when
not crystallized, very like each other in appearance. The water
contained in hemimorphite is expelled only at a red heat, and
the mineral must therefore be considered as a basic metasilicate,
(ZnOH) 2 SiO 3 .
The name hemimorphite was given by G. A. Kenngott in 1853
because of the typical hemimorphic development of the crystals.
The mineral had long been confused with calamine (q.v.) and
even now this name is often applied to it. On account of its
pyroelectric properties, it was called electric calamine by J.
Smithson in 1803.
Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc (calamine and
blende), forming veins and beds in sedimentry limestones.
British localities are Matlock, Alston, Mendip Hills and Lead-
hills; at Roughten Gill, Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, it occurs as
mammillated incrustations of a sky-blue colour. Well-crystallized
specimens have been found in the zinc mines at Altenberg near
Aachen in Rhenish Prussia, Nerchinsk mining district in Siberia,
and Elkhorn in Montana. (L. J. S.)
HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF, also commonly, but errone-
ously, called WALTER HEMINGFORD, a Latin chronicler of the
I4th century, was a canon regular of the Austin priory of Gisburn
in Yorkshire. Hence he is sometimes known as Walter of Gisburn
(Walterus Gisburnensis). Bale seems to have been the first to
give him the name by which he became more commonly known.
His chronicle embraces the period of English history from the
Conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of Edward III., with
the exception of the years 1316-1326. It ends with the title of a
chapter in which it was proposed to describe the battle of Crefy
(1346); but the chronicler seems to have died before the required
information reached him. There is, however, some controversy
as to whether the later portions which are lacking in some of the
MSS. are by him. In compiling the first part, Hemingburgh
apparently used the histories of Eadmer, Hoveden, Henry of
Huntingdon, and William of Newburgh; but the reigns of the
three Edwards are original, composed from personal observation
and information. There are several manuscripts of the history
extant the best perhaps being that presented to the College of
Arms by the earl of Arundel. The work is correct and judicious,
and written in a pleasing style. One of its special features is the
preservation in its pages of copies of the great charters, and
Hemingburgh's versions have more than once supplied deficiencies
and cleared up obscurities in copies from other sources.
The first three books were published by Thomas Gale in 1687, in
his Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque, and the remainder by
Thomas Hearne in 1731. The first portion was again published in
1848 by the English Historical Society, under the title Chronicon
Walteri de Hemingburgh, vulgo Hemingford nuncupate, de gestis
regum Angliae, edited by H. C. Hamilton.
HEMIPTERA (Gr. ^ti-, half and irrtpbv, a wing), the name
applied in zoological classification to that order of the class
Hexapoda (q.v.) which includes bugs, cicads, aphids and scale-
insects. The name was first used by Linnaeus (1735), who
derived it from the half-coriaceous and half-membranous con-
dition of the forewing in many members of the order. But the
wings vary considerably in different families, and the most dis-
tinctive feature is the structure of the jaws, which form a beak-
like organ with stylets adapted for piercing and sucking. Hence
the name Rhyngota (or Rhynchota), proposed by J. C. Fabricius
(1775), is used by many writers in preference to Hemiptera.
Structure. The head varies greatly in shape, and the feelers
have usually but few segments often only four or five. The
arrangement of the jaws is remarkably constant throughout
the order, if we exclude from it the lice (Anoplura). Taking as
our type the head of a cicad, we find a jointed rostrum or beak
(figs, i and 2, IV. b, c) with a deep groove on its anterior face;
this organ is formed by
the second pair of maxillae
and corresponds therefore
to the labium or " lower
lip " of biting insects.
Within the groove of the
rostrum two pairs of
slender piercers often
barbed at the tip work
to and fro. One of these
pairs (fig. 2, II. a, b, c)
represents the mandibles,
the other (fig. 2, III. a, b,
c) the first maxillae. The
piercing portions of the
latter representing their
inner lobes or
lie median to the man-
dibular piercers in the
natural position of the
organs. These homologies
of the hemipterous jaws
were determined by J. C.
Savigny in 1816, and though disputed by various subsequent
writers, they have been lately confirmed by the embryological
researches of R. Heymons (1899). Vestigial palps have been
described in various species of Hemiptera, but the true nature
of these structures is doubtful. In front of the rostrum and the
piercers lies the pointed flexible labrum and within its base a
small hypopharynx (fig. 2, IV. d) consisting of paired conical
processes which lie dorsal to. the "syringe" of the salivary
glands. This latter organ injects a secretion into the plant or
After Marlatt, Bull. 14 (N.S.) Div. Enl. U.S.
lacmiae Dept.Agr.
the man- FIG. I. Head and Prothorax of Cicad
from side.
. Frons.
. Base of mandible.
. Base of first maxillae.
'. Second maxillae forming rostrum.
. Pronotum.
IV.
V.
HEMIPTERA
259
animal tissue from which the insect is sucking. The point of the
rostrum is pressed against the surface to be pierced; then the
stylets come into play and the fluid food is believed to pass into
the mouth by capillary attraction.
The prothorax (figs, i and 2,V.) in Hemiptera is large and
free, and the mesothoracic scutellum is usually extensive. The
number of tarsal segments is reduced; often three, two or only
one may be present instead of the typical insectan number
five. The wings will be described in connexion with the various
After Marlatt, Bull. 14 (N. S.) Div. Ent. U.S. Depl. Agr.
FIG. 2. Head and Prothorax of Cicad, parts separated.
, I., a, frons; b, clypeus; c, labrum; d, epipharynx.
I'., Same from behind.
II., Mandible.
III., 1st maxilla; a, base; 6, sheath; c, stylet; c', muscle.
IV., 2nd maxillae, a, sub-mentum; b, mentum; c, ligula, forming
beak; d, hypopharynx (shown also from front d', and
behind d').
V., Prothorax, 6, haunch; a, trochanter.
sub-orders, but an interesting peculiarity of the Hemiptera
is the occasional presence of winged and wingless races of the
same species. Eleven abdominal segments can be recognized,
at least in the early stages; as the adult condition is reached,
the hinder segments become reduced or modified in connexion
with the external reproductive organs, and show, in some male
Hemiptera, a marked asymmetry. The typical insectan ovi-
positor with its three pairs of processes, one pair belonging to the
eighth and two pairs to the ninth abdominal segment, can be
distinguished in the female.
In the nervous system the concentration of the trunk ganglia
a.
After Marlatt, Bull. 4 (N.S.) Dtv. Ent. U.S. Deft. Agr.
FIG, 3--^-a, Cast-off nymphal skin of Bed-bug (Cimex lectularius) ;
i Second instar after emergence from a\ c, The same after a meal.
Magnified 30 times.
into a single nerve-centre situated in the thorax is remarkable.
The digestive system has a slender gullet, a large crop and no
gizzard; in some Hemiptera the hinder region of the mid-gut
forms a twisted loop with the gullet. Usually there are four
excretory (Malpighian) tubes; but there are only two in the
Coccidae and none in the Aphidae. " Stink glands," which
secrete a nauseous fluid with a defensive function, are present
in many Hemiptera. In the adult there is a pair of such glands
opening ventrally on the hindmost thoracic segment, or at the
base of the abdomen; but in the young insect the glands are
situated dorsally and open to the exterior on a variable number of
the abdominal terga.
Development. In most Hemiptera the young insect (fig. 3)
resembles its parents except for the absence of wings, and is
active through all stages of its growth. In all Hemiptera the
wing-rudiments develop externally on the nymphal cuticle,
but in some families the cicads for example the young insect
(fig. 10) is a larva differing markedly in form from its parent,
and adapted for a different mode of life, while the nymph before
the final moult is sluggish and inactive. In the male Coccidae
(Scale-insects) the nymph (fig. 4) remains passive and takes no
food. The order of the Hemiptera affords, therefore, some
interesting transition stages towards the complete metamorphosis
of the higher insects.
Distribution and Habits. Hemiptera are widely distributed,
and are plentiful in most quarters of the globe, though they
probably have not penetrated as far into remote and inhospitable
regions as have the Coleoptera, Diptera
and Aptera. They feed entirely by
suction, and the majority of the species
pierce plant tissues and suck sap. The
leaves of plants are for the most part the
objects of attack, but many aphids and
scale-insects pierce stems, and some go
underground and feed on roots. The
enormous rate at which aphids multiply
under favourable conditions makes them
of the greatest economic importance,
since the growth of immense numbers of
the same kind of plant in close proximity
as in ordinary farm-crops is especially
advantageous to the insects that feed on
them. Several families of bugs are pre-
daceous in habit, attacking other insects Uta Rn ey ^a Howard,
often members of their own order I"*"' L 'l e - V L ' ( U -S-
Dept. Agr.).
j , ^i /-,!
and sucking their juices. Others are
scavengers feeding on decaying organic FIG. 4. Passive
matter; the pond skaters, for example, JrSSe r lSS5ct
live mostly on the juices of dead float- (Icerya). Magnified 15
ing insects. And some, like the bed-bugs, times.
are parasites of vertebrate animals, on
whose bodies they live temporarily or permanently, and whose
blood they suck.
The Hemiptera are especially interesting as an order from
the variety of aquatic insects included therein. Some of these
the Hydromelridae or pond-skaters, for example move over
the surface-film, on which they are supported by their elongated,
slender legs, the body of the insect being raised clear of the water.
They are covered with short hairs which form a velvet-like pile,
so dense that water cannot penetrate. Consequently when the
insect dives, an air-bubble forms around it, a supply of oxygen is
thus secured for breathing and the water is kept away from the
spiracles. In many of these insects, while most individuals
of the species are wingless, winged specimens are now and then
met with. The occasional development of wings is probably
of service to the species in enabling the insects to reach new
fresh-water breeding-grounds. This family of Hemiptera (the
Hydrometridae) and the Saldidae contain several insects that
are marine, haunting the tidal margin. One genus of Hydrome-
tridae (Halobales) is even oceanic in its habit, the species being
met with skimming over the surface of the sea hundreds of miles
from land. Probably they dive when the surface becomes
ruffled. In these marine genera the abdomen often undergoes
excessive reduction (fig. 5).
Other i'amilies of Hemiptera such as the " Boatmen "
(Notoneclidae) and the " Water-scorpions " (fig. 6) and their
allies (Nepidae) dive and swim through the water. They obtain
their supply of air from the surface. The Nepidae breathe by
means of a pair of long, grooved tail processes (really out-growths
260
HEMIPTERA
of the abdominal pleura) which when pressed together form
a tube whose point can pierce the surface film and convey
air to the hindmost spiracles which are alone functional in the
adult. The Notonectidae breathe mostly through the thoracic
spiracles; the air is conveyed to these from the tail-end, which
is brought to the surface, along a kind of tunnel formed by
overlapping hairs.
Sound-producing Organs. The Hemiptera are remarkable
for the variety of their stridulating organs. In many genera of
After Carpenter, Proc. R. Dublin Soc.,
vol. viii.
FIG. 5. A reef-haunting
hemipteron (H ermatobates
haddonii) with excessively re-
duced abdomen. Magnified.
FIG. 6. W ater-scorpion
(Nepa cinerea) with raptorial
fore-legs, heteropterous wings,
and long siphon for conveying
air to spiracles. Somewhat
magnified, sc, scutellum; co,
cl, m, corium, clavus and
membrane of forewing.
the Pentalomidae, bristle-bearing tubercles on the legs are
scraped across a set of fine striations on the abdominal sterna.
In Halobates a comb-like series of sharp spines on the fore-shin
can be drawn across a set of blunt processes on the shin of the
opposite leg. Males of the little water-bugs of the genus Corixa
make a shrill chirping note by drawing a row of teeth on the
flattened fore-foot across a group of spines on the haunch of
the opposite leg. But the loudest and most remarkable vocal
organs of all insects are those of the male cicads, which " sing "
d e
From Marlatt, Bull. 14 (N.S.) Div. Eat. U.S. Depl. Agr.
FIG. 7.
a, Body of male Cicad from c, Section showing muscles which
below, showing cover-plates vibrate drum (magnified) ;
of musical organs; d, A drum at rest;
b, From above snowing drums, e, Thrown into vibration, more
natural size; highly magnified.
by the rapid vibration of a pair of " drums " or membranes
within the metathorax. These drums are worked by special
muscles, and the cavities in which they lie are protected by
conspicuous plates visible beneath the base of the abdomen
(see fig. 7).
Fossil History. The Heteroptera can be traced back farther
than any other winged insects if the fossil Protocimev silurica
Moberg, from the Ordovician slates of Sweden is rightly regarded
as the wing of a bug. But according to the recent researches
of A. Handlirsch it is not insectan at all. Both Heteropterous
and Homopterous genera have been described from the Carbon-
iferous, but the true nature of some of these is doubtful. Eugereon
is a remarkable Permian fossil, with jaws that are typically
hemipterous except that the second maxillae are not fused and
with cockroach-like wings. In the Jurassic period many of the
existing families, such as the Cicadidae, Fulgoridae, Aphidae,
Nepidae, Redwviidae, Hydromelridae, Lygaeidae and Coreidae,
had already become differentiated.
Classification. The number of described species of Hemiptera
must now be nearly 20,000. The order is divided into two sub-
orders, the Heteroptera and the Homoptera. The Anoplura or lice
should not be included among the Hemiptera, but it has been thought
convenient to refer briefly to them at the close of this article.
HETEROPTERA
In this sub-order are included the various families of bugs and their
aquatic relations. The front of the head is not in contact with the
haunches of the fore-legs. There is usually a marked difference between
the wings of the two pairs. The fore-wing is generally divided into a
firm coriaceous basal region, occupying most of the area, and a mem-
branous terminal portion, while the hind-wing is delicate and entirely
membranous (see fig. 6). In the firm portion of the fore-wing two
After Marlatt, Bull. 4 (N.S.) Div. Enl. U.S. Depl. Agr.
FIG. 8. Bed-bug (Cimex lectularius, Linn.).
C,
Female from above;
From beneath, magnified 5
times;
Vestigial wing;
d, Jaws, more highly magnified
(tips of mandibles and 1st
maxillae still more highly
magnified).
distinct regions can usually be distinguished ; most of the area is
formed by the corium (fig. 6, co), which is separated by a longitudinal
suture from the clavus (fig. 6, cl) on its hinder edge, and in some
families there is also a cuneus (fig. 9 cu) external _to and an embolium
in front of the corium.
Most Heteroptera are flattened in form, and the wings lie flat, or
nearly so, when closed. The young Heteropteron is hatched from
the egg in a form not markedly different from that of its parent;
it is active and takes food through all the stages of its growth. It is
usual to divide the Heteroptera into two tribes the Gymnocerata
and the Cryptocerata.
Gymnocerata.. This tribe includes some eighteen families of
terrestrial, arboreal and marsh-haunting bugs, as well as those
aquatic Heteroptera that live on the surface-film of water. The
feelers are elongate and conspicuous. The Pentatomidae (shield-
bugs), some of which 'are metallic or otherwise brightly coloured,
are easily recognized by the great development of the scutellum,
which reaches at least half-way back towards the tip of the abdomen,
and in some genera covers the whole of the hind body, and also the
wings when these are closed. The Coreidae have a smaller scutellum,
and the feelers are inserted high on the head, while in the Lygaeidae
they are inserted lower down. These three families have the foot with
three segments. In the curious little Tingidae, whose integuments
exhibit a pattern of network-like ridges, the feet are two-segmented
and the scutellum is hidden by the prpnotum. The Aradidae have
two segmented feet, and a large visible scutellum. The Hydro-
melridae are a large family including the pond-skaters and other
dwellers on the surface-film of fresh water, as well as the remarkable
oceanic genus Halobates already referred to. The Reduviidae are
HEMIPTERA
261
a family of predaceous bugs that attack other insects and suck
their juices; the beak is short, and carried under the head in a hook-
like curve, not as in the preceding families lying close against the
breast. The Cimicidae have the feet three-segmented and the fore-
wings greatly reduced; most of the species are parasites on birds
and bats, but one Cimex lectulariits (figs. 3, 8) is the well-known
" bed-bug " which abounds in unclean dwellings and sucks human
blood (see BUG). The Anthocoridae are nearly related to the Cimi-
cidae, but the wings are usually well developed and the forewing
possesses cuneus and embolium as well as corium and clavus. The
Capsidae are a large family of rather soft-skinned bugs mostly
elongate in form with the two
basal segments of the feelers
stouter than the two terminal.
The forewing in this family has a
cuneus (fig. 9 cu), but not an
embolium. These insects are often
found in large numbers on plants
whose juices they suck.
Cryptocerata. In this tribe are
included five or six families of
aquatic Heteroptera which spend
the greater part of their lives
submerged, diving and swimming
through the water. The feelers
are very small and are often
hidden in cavities beneath the
head. The Naucoridae and
Belostomatidae are flattened in-
sects, with four-segmented feelers
and fore-legs inserted at the front
of the prosternum. Two species
of the former family inhabit our
islands, but the Belostomatidae
are found only in the warmer
regions of the globe; some of
them, attaining a length of 4 to
5 in., are giants among insects. The
FIG. 9. Capsid Leaf-bug (Poe- Nepidae (fig. 6) or water-scorpions
cilocapsus lineatus) N. America, (q.v.) two British species
Magnified 4 times, cu cuneus. are distinguished by their three-
segmented feelers, their raptorial
fore-legs (in which the shin and foot, fused together, work like a sharp
knife-blade on the grooved thigh), and their elongate tail-processes
formed of the abdominal pleura and used for respiration. The
Notonectidae, or " water-boatmen " (Q.V.) have convex ovoid bodies
admirably Adapted for aquatic life. By msans of the oar-like hind-
legs they swim actively through the water with the ventral surface
upwards; the fore-legs are inserted at the hinder edge of the pro-
sternum. The Corixidae are small flattened water-bugs, with very
short unjointed beak, the labrum being enclosed within the second
After M. V. Slingerland, Cornell Univ.
Ent. Bull. 58.
d,
From Marlatt, Butt. 14 (N. S.), Div. Ent. V. S. Deft. Agr.
FIG. 10. a, Nymph (4th stage) of Cicad, magnified 5 times;
c, d, inner and outer faces of front leg, magnified 7j times; b, teeth
on thigh, more highly magnified.
maxillae, and the foot in the fore and intermediate leg having but
a single segment. The hinder abdominal segments in the male show
a curious asymmetrical arrangement, the sixth segment bearing on its
upper side a small stalked plate (strigil) of unknown function,
furnished with rows of teeth. On account of the reduction and
modification of the jaws in the Corixidae, C. Borner has lately
suggested that they should form a special sub-order of Hemiptera
the Sandaliorrhyncha.
HOMOPTERA
This sub-order includes the cicads, lantern-flies, frog-hoppers,
aphids and scale-insects. The face has such a marked backward
slope (see fig. i) as to bring the beak into close contact with the
haunches of the fore-legs. The feelers have one or more thickened
basal segments, while the remaining segments are slender and thread-
like. The fore-wings are sometimes membranous like the hind-wings,
usually they are firmer in texture, but they never show the distinct
areas that characterize the wings of Heteroptera. When at rest
the wings of Homoptera slope roofwise across the back of the insect.
In their life-history the Homoptera are more specialized than the
Heteroptera; the young insect often differs markedly from its
c.
After Weed, Riley and Howard, Insect Life, vol. iii.
FIG. II. Cabbage Aphid (Aphisbrassicae). a, Male; c, female
(wingless). Magnified, b and d. Head and feelers of male and
female, more highly magnified.
parent and does not live in the same situations; while in some
families there is a passive stage before the last moult.
The Cicadidae are for the most part large insects with ample wings;
they are distinguished from other Homoptera by the front thighs
being thickened and toothed beneath. The broad head carries, in
addition to the prominent compound eyes, three simple eyes (ocelli)
on the crown, while the feeler consists of a stout basal segment,
followed by five slender segments. The female, by means of her
serrated ovipositor, lays her eggs in slits cut in the twigs of plants.
The young have simple feelers and stout fore-legs (fig. 10) adapted
for digging; they live underground and feed on the roots of plants.
After Howard, Year Book U. S. Depl. Agr., 1894.
FIG. 12. Apple Scale Insect (Mytilaspis pomorum). a, Male;
e, female; c, larva, magnified 20 times; b, foot of male; d,
feeler of larva, more highly magnified.
In the case of a North American species it is known that this larval
life lasts for seventeen years. The " song " of the male cicads is
notorious and the structures by which it is produced have already
been described (see also CICADA). There are about 900 known
species, but the family is mostly confined to warm countries; only
a single cicad is found in England, and that is restricted to the south.
The Fulgoridae and Membracidae are two allied families most of
whose members are also natives of hot regions. The Fulgoridae
262
HEMLOCK
have the head with two ocelli and three-segmented feelers ; frequently
as in the tropical " lantern-flies " (q.v.) the head is prolonged into a
conspicuous bladder, or trunk-like process. The Membracidae are
remarkable on account of the backward prolongation of the pronotum
After Howard, Year Book U.S. Dept. Agr., 1894.
FIG. 13. Apple Scale Insect (Mytilaspis pomorum). a. Scale from
beneath showing female and eggs; b, from above, magnified 24
times; c and e, female and male scales on twigs, natural size; d,
male scale magnified 12 times.
into a process or hood-like structure which may extend far behind the
tail-end of the abdomen. Two other allied families, the Cercopidae
and Jassidae, are more numerously represented in our islands.
The young of many of these insects are green and soft-skinned,
protecting themselves
by the well-known
frothy secretion that is
called " cuckoo-spit."
In all the above-
mentioned families of
Homoptera there are
three segments in each
foot. Tho remaining
four families have feet
with only two seg-
ments. They are of
Enl'. very great zoological
interest on account of
the peculiarities of
their life-history par-
thenogenesis being of
normal occurrence
The families Psyllidae
(or " jumpers ") with eight or ten segments in
the feeler and the Aleyrodidae (or " snowy-
flies ") distinguished by their white mealy
wings, are of comparatively slight importance.
The two families to which special attention
has been paid are the Aphidae or plant-lice
(" green fly ") and the Coccidae or scale-insects.
The aphids (fig. ll) have feelers with seven or
fewer distinct segments, and the fifth abdominal
segment usually carries a pair of tubular pro-
cesses through which a waxy secretion is dis- Div.
charged. Tha sweet " honey-dew," often Ag
sought as a food by ants, is secreted from the FIG. 15. Pro-
intestines of aphids. The peculiar life-cycle in boscis of Pediculus.
which successive generations are produced Highly magnified.
through the summer months by virgin females
the egg developing within the body of the mother is de-
scribed at length in the articles APHIDES and PHYLLOXERA. The
Coccidae have only a single claw to the foot; the males (fig. 12 o)
have the fore-wings developed and the hind-wings greatly reduced,
while in the female wings are totally absent and the body undergoes
marked degradation (figs. 12, e, 13, a, b). In the Coccids the forma-
FromOsborn (after Denny),
Bull. 5 (N.S.), Div. ~
U.S. Dept. Agr.
FIG. 14. Louse
(Pediculus vestimenti) .
Magnified.
among most of them.
Enl.
Dept.
tion of a protective waxy secretion present in many genera of
Homoptera reaches its most extreme development. In some coccids
the " mealy-bugs " (Dactylopius, &c.) for example the secretion
forms a white thread-like or plate-like covering which the insect
carries about. But in most members of the family, the secretion,
united with cast cuticles and excrement, forms a firm " scale "
closely attached by its edges to the surface of the plant on which
the insect lives, and serving as a shield beneath which the female
coccid, with her eggs (fig. 13 a} and brood, finds shelter. The male
coccid passes through a passive stage (fig. 4) before attaining the
perfect condition. Many scale-insects are among the most serious
of pests, but various species have been utilized by man for the
production of wax (lac) and red dye (cochineal). See ECONOMIC
ENTOMOLOGY, SCALE-INSECT.
ANOPLURA
The Anoplura or lice (see LOUSE) are wingless parasitic insects
(ng. 14) forming an order distinct from the Hemiptera, their sucking
and piercing mouth-organs being apparently formed on quite a
different plan from those of the Heteroptera and Homoptera. In
front of the head is a short tube armed with strong recurved hooks
which can be fixed into the skin of the host, and from the tube an
elongate more slender sucking-trunk can be protruded (fig. 15).
Each foot is provided with a single strong claw which, opposed to
a process on the shin, serves to grasp a hair of the host, all the lice
being parasites on different mammals. Although G. Enderlein has
recently shown that the jaws of the Hemiptera can be recognized
in a reduced condition in connexion with the louse's proboscis, the
modification is so excessive that the group certainly deserves ordinal
separation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A recent standard work on the morphology of
the Hemiptera by R. Heymons (Nova Acta Acad. Leap. Carol.
Ixxiv. 3, 1899) contains numerous references to older literature.
An excellent survey of the order is given by D. Sharp (Cambridge
Nat. Hist. vol. vi., 1898). For internal structure of Heteroptera see
R. Dufour, Mem. savans etrangers (Paris, iv., 1833); of Homoptera,
E. Witlaczil (Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien, iv., 1882, Zeits. f. wiss. Zool.
xliii., 1885). The development of Aphids has been dealt with by
T. H. Huxley (Trans. Linn. Soc. xxii., 1858) and E. Witlaczil (Zeits.
f. wiss. Zool. xl., 1884). Fossil Hemiptera are described by S. H.
Scudder in K. Zittel's Paleontologie (French translation, vol. ii.
Paris, 1887, and English edition, vol. L, London, 1900), and by A.
Handlirsch (Verh. zoo/, hot. Gesell. Wien, lii., 1902). Among general
systematic works on Heteroptera may be mentioned J. C. Schiodte
(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) vi., 1870); C. Stal's Enumeratio Hemip-
terorum (K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl. ix.-xiv., 1870-1876); L.
Lethierry and G. Severin's Catalogue generate des hemipteres (Brussels
!893> &c.); G. C. Champion's volumes in the Biologia Centrali-
Americana; W. L. Distant's Oriental Cicadidae (London, 1889-1892),
and many other papers; M. E. Fernald's Catalogue of the Coccidae
(Amherst, U.S.A., 1903). European Hemiptera have been dealt with
in numerous papers by A. Puton. For British species we have
E. Saunders's Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the British Isles (London,
1892); J. Edwards's Hemiptera-Homoptera of the British Isles
(London, 1896); J. B. Buckton's British Aphidae (London, Ray
Society, 1875-1882); and R. Newstead's British Coccidae (London,
Ray Society, 1901-1903). Aquatic Hemiptera are described by
L. C. Miall (Nat. History Aquatic Insects; London, 1895), and by
G. W. Kirkaldy in numerous recent papers (Entomologist, &c.). For
marine Hemiptera (Halobates) see F. B. White (Challenger Reports,
vii., 1883); J. J. Walker (Ent. Mo. Mag., 1893); N. Nassonov
(Warsaw, 1893), and G. H. Carpenter (Knowledge, 1901, and Report,
Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal Society, 1906). Sound-producing
organs of Heteroptera are described by A. Handlirsch (Ann. Hofmus.
Wien, xv. 1900), and G. W. Kirkaldy (Journ. Quekett Club (2) viii.
1901); of Cicads by G. Carlet (Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (6) v. 1877).
For the Anoplura see E. Piaget's Pediculines (Leiden, 1880-1905),
and G. Enderlein (Zool. Anz. xxviii., 1904). (G. H. C.)
HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. hemlic or hymlice; no cognate is found
in any other language, and the origin is unknown), the Conium
maculatum of botanists, a biennial umbelliferous plant, found
wild in many parts of Great Britain and Ireland, where it occurs
in waste places on hedge-banks, and by the borders of fields,
and also widely spread over Europe and temperate Asia, and
naturalized in the cultivated districts of North and South
America. It is an erect branching plant, growing from 3 to 6 ft.
high, and emitting a disagreeable smell, like that of mice. The
stems are hollow, smooth, somewhat glaucous green, spotted with
dull dark purple, as alluded to in the specific name, maculatum.
The root-leaves have long furrowed footstalks, sheathing the
stem at the base, and are large, triangular in outline, and
repeatedly divided or compound, the ultimate and very numerous
segments being small, ovate, and deeply incised at the edge.
These leaves generally perish after the growth of the flowering
stem, which takes place in the second year, while the leaves
HEMP
263
produced on the stem became gradually smaller upwards. The
branches are all terminated by compound many-rayed umbels
of small white flowers, the general involucres consisting of several,
the partial ones of about three short lanceolate bracts, the latter
being usually turned towards the outside of the umbel. The
flowers are succeeded by broadly ovate fruits, the mericarps
(half-fruits) having five ribs which, when mature, are waved
or crenated; and when cut across the albumen is seen to be
deeply furrowed on the inner face, so as to exhibit in section a
reniform outline. The fruits when triturated with a solution
of caustic potash evolve a most unpleasant odour.
Hemlock is a virulent poison, but it varies much in potency
according to the conditions under which it has grown, and the
season or stage of growth at which it is gathered. In the first
year the leaves have little power, nor in the second are their
properties developed until the flowering period, at which time,
or later on when the fruits are fully grown, the plant should be
gathered. The wild plant growing in exposed situations is to
be preferred to garden-grown samples, and is more potent in
dry warm summers than in those which are dull and moist.
The poisonous property of hemlock resides chiefly in the
alkaloid canine or conia which is found in both the fruits and
the leaves, though in exceedingly small proportions in the latter.
Conine resembles nicotine in its deleterious action, but is much
less powerful. No chemical antidote for it is known. The
plant also yields a second less poisonous crystallizable base
called conhydrine, which may be converted into conine by the
abstraction of the elements of water. When collected for
medicinal purposes, for which both leaves and fruits are used,
the former should be gathered at the time the plant is in full
blossom, while the latter are said to possess the greatest degree
of energy just before they ripen. The fruits are the chief source
whence conine is prepared. The principal forms in which hemlock
is employed are the extract and juice of hemlock, hemlock
poultice, and the tincture of hemlock fruits. Large doses
produce vertigo, nausea and paralysis; but in smaller quantities,
administered by skilful hands, it has a sedative action on the
nerves. It has also some reputation as an alterative and resolvent,
and as an anodyne.
The acrid narcotic properties of the plant render it of some
importance that one should be able to identify it, the more so
as some of the compound-leaved umbellifers, which have a
general similarity of appearance to it, form wholesome food
for man and animals. Not only is this knowledge desirable
to prevent the poisonous plant being detrimentally used in place
of the wholesome one; it is equally important in the opposite
case, namely, to prevent the inert being substituted for the
remedial agent. The plant with which hemlock is most likely
to be confounded is Anlhriscus sylvestris, or cow-parsley, the
leaves of which are freely eaten by cattle and rabbits; this plant,
like the hemlock, has spotted stems but they are hairy, not
hairless; it has much-divided leaves of the same general form,
but they are downy and aromatic, not smooth and nauseous
when bruised; and the fruit of Anthriscus is linear-oblong
and not ovate.
HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf . Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf, cognate
with Gr. KavvajSis, La.t. cannabis), an annual herb (Cannabis saliva)
having angular rough stems and alternate deeply lobed leaves.
The bast fibres of Cannabis are the hemp of commerce, but,
unfortunately, the products from many totally different plants
are often included under the general name of hemp. In some
cases the fibre is obtained from the stem, while in others it
comes from the leaf. Sunn hemp, Manila hemp, Sisal hemp,
and Phormium (New Zealand flax, which is neither flax nor
hemp) are treated separately. All these, however, are often
classed under the above general name, and so are the following:
Deccan or Ambari hemp, Hibiscus cannabinus, an Indian and
East Indian malvaceous plant, the fibre from which is often
known as brown hemp or Bombay hemp; Pile hemp, which
is obtained from the American aloe, Agave americana; and
Moorva or bowstring-hemp, Sansevieria zeylanica, which is
obtained from an aloe-like plant, and is a native of India and
Ceylon. Then there are Canada hemp, Apocynum cannabinum,
Kentucky hemp, Urtica cannabina, and others.
The hemp plant, like the hop, which is of the same natural
order, Cannabinaceae, is dioecious, i.e. the male and female
flowers are borne on separate plants. The female plant grows
to a greater height than the male, and its foliage is darker and
more luxuriant, but the plant takes from five to six weeks longer
to ripen. When the male plants are ripe they are pulled, put
up into bundles, and steeped in a similar manner to flax, but
the female plants are allowed to remain until the seed is perfectly
ripe. They are then pulled, and after the seed has been removed
are retted in the ordinary way. The seed is also a valuable
product; the finest is kept for sowing, a large quantity is sold
for the food of cage birds, while the remainder is sent to the oil
mills to be crushed. The extracted oil is used in the manufacture
of soap', while the solid remains, known as oil-cake, are valuable
as a food for cattle. The leaves of hemp have five to seven
leaflets, the form of which is lanceolate-acuminate, with a
serrate margin. The loose panicles of male flowers, and the
short spikes of female flowers, arise from the axils of the upper
leaves. The height of the plant varies greatly with season, soil
and manuring; in some districts it varies from 3 to 8 ft.,
but in the Piedmont province it is not unusual to see them
from 8 to 16 ft. in height, whilst a variety (Cannabis
sotiva, variety gigantea) has produced specimens over 17 ft. in
height.
All cultivated hemp belongs to the same species, Cannabis
saliva; the special varieties such as Cannabis indica, Cannabis
chinensis, &c., owe their differences to climate and soil, and they
lose many of their peculiarities when cultivated in temperate
regions. Rumphius (in the i?th century) had noticed these
differences between Indian and European hemp.
Wild hemp still grows on the banks of the lower Ural, and
the Volga, near the Caspian Sea. It extends to Persia, the
Altai range and northern and western China. The authors of
the Pharmacographia say: " It is found in Kashmir and in
the Himalaya, growing 10 to 12 ft. high, and thriving vigorously
at an elevation of 6000 to 10,000 ft." Wild hemp is, however,
of very little use as a fibre producer, although a drug is obtained
from it.
It would appear that the native country of the hemp plant is
in some part of temperate Asia, probably near the Caspian Sea.
It spread westward throughout Europe, and southward through
the Indian peninsula.
The names given to the plant and to its products in different
countries are of interest in connexion with the utilization of the
fibre and resin. In Sans, it is called goni, sana, shanapu, banga
and ganjika; in Bengali, ganga; Pers. bang and canna; Arab.
kinnub or cannub; Gr. kannabis; Lat. cannabis; Ital. canappa;
Fr. chanvre; Span, canamo; Portuguese, canamo; Russ.
kondpel; Lettish and Lithuanian, kannapes; Slav, konopi;
Erse, canaib and canab; A. Sax. hoenep; Dutch, hennep;
Ger. Hanf; Eng. hemp; Danish and Norwegian, hamp; Icelandic,
hampr; and in Swed. hampa. The English word canvas
sufficiently reveals its derivation from cannabis.
Very little hemp is now grown in the British Isles, although
this variety was considered to be of very good quality, and to
possess great strength. The chief continental hemp-producing
countries are Italy, Russia and France; it is also grown in
several parts of Canada and the United States and India. The
Central Provinces, Bengal and Bombay are the chief centres
of hemp cultivation in India, where the plant is of most use for
narcotics. The satisfactory growth of hemp demands a light,
rich and fertile soil, but, unlike most substances, it may be
reared for a few years in succession. The time of sowing, the
quantity of seed per acre (about three bushels) and the method
of gathering and retting are very similar to those of flax; but,
as a rule, it is a hardier plant than flax, does not possess the same
pliability, is much coarser and more brittle, and does not require
the same amount of attention during the first few weeks of its
growth.
The very finest hemp, that grown in the province of Piedmont,
264
HEMSTERHUIS, F.
Italy, is, however, very similar to flax, and in many cases the two
fibres are mixed in the same material. The hemp fibre has
always been valuable for the rope industry, and it was at one
time very extensively used in the production of yarns for the
manufacture of sail cloth, sheeting, covers, bagging, sacking, &c.
Much of the finer quality is still made into cloth, but almost all
the coarser quality finds its way into ropes and similar material.
A large quantity of hemp cloth is still made for the British
navy. The cloth, when finished, is cut up into lengths, made
into bags and tarred. They are then used as coal sacks. There
is also a quantity made into sacks which are intended to hold
very heavy material. Hemp yarns are also used in certain
classes of carpets, for special bags for use in cop dyeing and for
similar special purposes, but for the ordinary bagging and
sacking the employment of hemp yarns has been almost entirely
supplanted by yarns made from the jute fibre.
Hemp is grown for three products (i) the fibre of its stem;
(2) the resinous secretion which is developed in hot countries
upon its leaves and flowering heads; (3) its oily seeds.
Hemp has been employed for its fibre from ancient times.
Herodotus (iv. 74) mentions the wild and cultivated hemp of
Scythia, and describes the hempen garments made by the
Thracians as equal to linen in fineness. Hesychius says the
Thracian women made sheets of hemp. Moschion (about 200
B.C.) records the use of hempen ropes for rigging the ship
" Syracusia " built for Hiero II. The hemp plant has been
cultivated in northern India from a considerable antiquity,
not only as a drug but for its fibre. The Anglo-Saxons were
well acquainted with the mode of preparing hemp. Hempen
cloth became common in central and southern Europe in the
I3th century.
Hemp-resin. Hemp as a drug or intoxicant for smoking
and chewing occurs in the three forms of bhang, ganja and
charas.
1. Bhang, the Hindustani siddhi or sabzi, consists of the
dried leaves and small stalks of the hemp; a faw fruits occur in
it. It is of a dark brownish-green colour, and has a faint peculiar
odour and but a slight taste. It is smoked with or without
tobacco; or it is made into a sweetmeat with honey, sugar
and aromatic spices; or it is powdered and infused in cold water,
yielding a turbid drink, subdschi. Hashish is one of the Arabic
names given to the Syrian and Turkish preparations of the
resinous hemp leaves. One of the commonest of these prepara-
tions is made by heating the bhang with water and butter, the
butter becoming thus charged with the resinous and active
substances of the plant.
2. Ganja, the guaza of the London brokers, consists of the
flowering and fruiting heads of the female plant. It is brownish-
green, and otherwise resembles bhang, as in odour and taste.
Some of the more esteemed kinds of hashish are prepared from
this ganja. Ganja is met with in the Indian bazaars in dense
bundles of 24 plants or heads apiece. The hashish in such
extensive use in Central Asia is often seen in the bazaars of large
cities in the form of cakes, i to 3 in. thick, 5 to 10 in. broad and
10 to 15 in. long.
3. Charas, or churrus, is the resin itself collected, as it exudes
naturally from the plant, in different ways. The best sort is
gathered by the hand like opium; sometimes the resinous
exudation of the plant is made to stick first of all to cloths, or
to the leather garments of men, or even to their skin, and is then
removed by scraping, and afterwards consolidated by kneading,
pressing and rolling. It contains about one-third or one-fourth
its weight of the resin. But the churrus prepared by different
methods and in different countries differs greatly in appearance
and purity. Sometimes it takes the form of egg-like masses of
greyish-brown colour, having when of high quality a shining
resinous fracture. Often it occurs in the form of irregular
friable lumps, like pieces of impure linseed oil-cake.
The medicinal and intoxicating properties of hemp have
probably been known in Oriental countries from a very early
period. An ancient Chinese herbal, part of which was written
about the 5th century B.C., while the remainder is of still earlier
date, notices the seed and flower-bearing kinds of hemp. Other
early writers refer to hemp as a remedy. The medicinal and
dietetic use of hemp spread through India, Persia and Arabia
in the early middle ages. The use of hemp (bhang) in India was
noticed by Garcia d'Orta in 1563. Berlu in his Treasury of Drugs
(1690) describes it as of " an infatuating quality and pernicious
use." Attention was recalled to this drug, in consequence of
Napoleon's Egyptian expedition, by de Sacy (1809) and Rouger
(1810). Its modern medicinal use is chiefly due to trials by Dr
O'Shaughnessy in Calcutta (1838-1842). The plant is grown
partly and of ten mainly for the sake of its resin in Persia, northern
India and Arabia, in many parts of Africa and in Brazil.
Pharmacology and Therapeutics. The composition of this
drug is still extremely obscure; partly, perhaps, because it
varies so much in individual specimens. It appears to contain
at least two alkaloids cannabinine and tetano-cannabine of
which the former is volatile. The chief active principle may
possibly be neither of these, but the substance cannabinon.
There are also resins, a volatile oil and several other constituents.
Cannabis indica as the drug is termed in the pharmacopoeias
may be given as an extract (dose j-i gr.) or tincture (dose 5-15
minims).
The drug has no external action. The effects of its absorption,
whether it be swallowed or smoked, vary within wide limits
in different individuals and races. So great is this variation as
to be inexplicable except on the view that the nature and propor-
tions of the active principles vary greatly in different specimens.
But typically the drug in an intoxicant, resembling alcohol in
many features of its action, but differing in others. The early
symptoms are highly pleasurable, and it is for these, as in the case
of other stimulants, that the drug is so largely consumed in the
East. There is a subjective sensation of mental brilliance, but,
as in other cases, this is not borne out by the objective results.
It has been suggested that the incoordination of nervous action
under the influence of Indian hemp may be due to independent
and non-concerted action on the part of the two halves of the
cerebrum. Following on a decided lowering of the pain and
touch senses, which may even lead to complete loss of cutaneous
sensation, there comes a sleep which is often accompanied by
pleasant dreams. There appears to be no evidence in the case
of either the lower animals or the human subject that the drug
is an aphrodisiac. Excessive indulgence in cannabis indica is
very rare, but may lead to general ill-health and occasionally to
insanity. The apparent impossibility of obtaining pure and
trustworthy samples of the drug has led to its entire abandon-
ment in therapeutics. When a good sample is obtained it is a
safe and efficient hypnotic, at any rate in the case of a European.
The tincture should not be prescribed unless precautions are
taken to avoid the precipitation of the resin which follows its
dilution with water.
See Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India.
HEMSTERHUIS, FRANCOIS (1721-1790), Dutch writer on
aesthetics and moral philosophy, son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis,
was born at Franeker in Holland, on the 27th of December 1721.
He was educated at the university of Leiden, where he studied
Plato. Failing to obtain a professorship, he entered the service
of the state, and for many years acted as secretary to the state
council of the United Provinces. He died at the Hague on the
7th of July 1790. Through his philosophical writings he became
acquainted with many distinguished persons Goethe, Herder,
Princess Amalia of Gallitzin, and especially Jacobi, with whom
he had much in common. Both were idealists, and their works
suffer from a similar lack of arrangement, although distinguished
by elegance of form and refined sentiment. His most valuable
contributions are in the department of aesthetics or the general
analysis of feeling. His philosophy has been characterized as
Socratic in content and Platonic in form. Its foundation was
the desire for self-knowledge and truth, untrammelled by the
rigid bonds of any particular system.
His most important works, all of which were written in French, are :
Lettre sur la sculpture (1769), in which occurs the well-known defini-
tion of the Beautiful as " that which gives us the greatest number of
HEMSTERHUIS, T. HENBANE
265
ideas in the shortest space of time " ; its continuation, Lettre sur
Its desirs (1770); Lettre sur I'homme et ses rapports (1772), in which
the "moral organ" and the theory of knowledge are discussed;
Sopyle (1778), a dialogue on the relation between the soul and the
body, and also an attack on materialism; Aristee (1779), the
" theodicy " of Hemsterhuis, discussing the existence of God and his
relation to man; Simon '(1787), on the four faculties of the soul,
which are the will, the imagination, the moral principle (which is
both passive and active); Alexis (1787), an attempt to prove that
chere are three golden ages, the last being the life beyond the grave ;
Lettre sur Vatheisme (1/87).
The best collected edition of his works is by P. S. Meijboom
(1846-1850); see also S. A. Gronemann, F. Hemsterhuis, de Neder-
landische Wijsgeer (Utrecht, 1867) ; E. Grucker, Francois Hemsterhuis ,
so, vie et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1866); E. Meyer, Der Philosoph Franz
Hemsterhuis (Breslau, 1893), with bibliographical notice.
HEMSTERHUIS, TIBERIUS (1685-1766), Dutch philologist
and critic, was born on the pth of January 1685 at Groningen
in Holland. His father, a learned physician, gave him so good
an early education that, when he entered the university of his
native town in his fifteenth year, he speedily proved himself to
be the best student of mathematics. After a year or two at
Groningen, he was attracted to the university of Leiden by the
fame of Perizonius; and while there he was entrusted with the
duty of arranging the manuscripts in the library. Though he
accepted an appointment as professor of mathematics and
philosophy at Amsterdam in his twentieth year, he had already
directed his attention to the study of the ancient languages.
In 1706 he completed the edition of Pollux's Onomasticon begun
by Lederlin; but the praise he received from his countrymen
was more than counterbalanced by two letters of criticism from
Bentley, which mortified him so keenly that for two months he
refused to open a Greek book. In 1717 Hemsterhuis was
appointed professor of Greek at Franeker, but he did not enter
on his duties there till 1720. In 1738 he became professor of
national history also. Two years afterwards he was called to
teach the same subjects at Leiden, where he died on the 7th of
April 1766. Hemsterhuis was the founder of a laborious and
useful Dutch school of criticism, which had famous disciples
in Valckenaer, Lennep and Ruhnken.
His chief writings are the following: Luciani cottoquia et Timon
(1708); Aristophanis Plutus (1744); Notae, &c., ad Xenopkontem
Ephesium in the Miscellanea crilica of Amsterdam, vols. iii. and
iv.; Observationes ad Chrysostomi homilias ; Orationes (1784);
a Latin translation of the Birds of Aristophanes, in Kiister's edition ;
notes to Bernard's Thomas Magister, to Alberti's Hesychius, to
Ernesti's Callimachus and to Burmann's Propertius. See Elogium
T. Hemsterhusii (with Bentley's letters) by Ruhnken (1789), and
Supplementa annotalionis ad elogium T. Hemsterhusii, &c. (Leiden,
1874) ; also J. E. Sandys' Hist. Class. Scholarship, ii. (1908).
HEMY, CHARLES NAPIER (1841- ), British painter,
born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, was trained in the Newcastle school
of art, in the Antwerp academy and in the studio of Baron Leys.
He has produced some figure subjects and landscapes, but is
best known by his admirable marine paintings. He was elected
an associate of the Royal Academy in 1898, associate of the Royal
Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1890 and member in
1897. Two of his paintings, " Pilchards " (1897) and " London
River " (1904), are in the National Gallery of British Art.
HEN, a female bird, especially the female of the common fowl
((?..) . The O. Eng. keen is the feminine form of hana, the male bird,
a correlation of words which is represented in other Teutonic
languages, cf. Ger. Hahn, Henne, Dutch haan, hen, Swed. hane,
honne, &c. The O. Eng. name for the male bird has disappeared,
its place being taken by " cock," a word probably of onomato-
poeic origin, being from a base kuk- or kik-, seen also in " chicken."
This word also appears in Fr. coq, and medieval Lat. coccus.
HENAULT, CHARLES JEAN FRANCOIS (1685-1770), French
historian, was born in Paris on the 8th of February 1685. His
father, a farmer-general of taxes, was a man of literary tastes,
and young Renault obtained a good education at the Jesuit
college. Captivated by the eloquence of Massillon, in his fifteenth
year he entered the Oratory with the view of becoming a preacher,
but after two years' residence he changed his intention, and,
inheriting a position which secured him access to the most select
society of Paris, he achieved distinction at an early period by his
gay, witty and graceful manners. His literary talent, mani-
fested in the composition of various light poetical pieces, an
opera, a tragedy (Cornelie vestale, 1710), &c., obtained his entrance
to the Academy (1723). Petit-matire as he was, he had also
serious capacity, for he became councillor of the parlement of
Paris (1705), and in 1710 he was chosen president of the court of
enquetes. After the death of the count de Rieux (son of the
famous financier, Samuel Bernard) he became (1753) super-
intendent of the household of Queen Marie Leszczynska, whose
intimate friendship he had previously enjoyed. On his recovery
in his eightieth year from a dangerous malady (1765) he pro-
fessed to have undergone religious conversion and retired into
private life, devoting the remainder of his days to study and
devotion. His religion was, however, according to the marquis
d'Argenson, " exempt from fanaticism, persecution, bitterness
and intrigue "; and it did not prevent him from continuing his
friendship with Voltaire, to whom it is said he had formerly
rendered the service of saving the manuscript of La Henriade,
when its author was about to commit it to the flames. The
literary work on which Henault bestowed his chief attention was
the Abr6g6 chronologique de I'histoire de France, first published
in 1744 without the author's name. In the compass of two
volumes he comprised the whole history of France from the
earliest times to the death of Louis XIV. The work has no
originality. Henault had kept his note-books of the history
lectures at the Jesuit college, of which the substance was taken
from Mezeray and P. Daniel. He revised them first in 1723,
and later put them in the form of question and answer on the
model of P. le Ragois, and by following Dubos and Boulain-
villiers and with the aid of the abbe Boudot he compiled his^l bregi.
The research is all on the surface and is only borrowed. But
the work had a prodigious success, and was translated into
several languages, even into Chinese. This was due partly to
Renault's popularity and position, partly to the agreeable style
which made the history readable. He inserted, according to
the fashion of the period, moral and political reflections,
which are always brief and generally as fresh and pleasing as they
are just. A few masterly strokes reproduced the leading features
of each age and the characters of its illustrious men; accurate
chronological tables set forth the most interesting events in the
history of each sovereign and the names of the great men
who flourished during his reign; and interspersed throughout
the work are occasional chapters on the social and civil state of
the country at the dose of each era in its history. Continuations
of the work have been made at separate periods by Fantin des
Odoards, by Anguis with notes by Walckenaer, and by Michaud.
He died at Paris on the 24th of November 1770.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Renault's Memoires have come down to us in
two different versions, both claiming to be authentic. One was
published in 1855 by M. du Vigan; the other was owned by the
Comte de Coutades, who permitted Lucien Percy to give long extracts
in his work on President Henault (Paris, 1893). The memoirs are
fragmentary and disconnected, but contain interesting anecdotes and
details concerning persons of note. See the Correspondence of Grimm ,
of Madame du Deffand and of Voltaire; the notice by Walckenaer
in the edition of the Abrege; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi,
vol. xi. ; and the Origines de I'abrege (Ann. Bulletin de la Societe de
I'histoire de France, 1901). Also H. Lion, Le President Henault
(Paris, 1903).
HENBANE (Fr. jusquiaume, from the Gr. voo-Kvafios, or
hog's-bean; Ital. giusquiamo; Ger. Sckwarzes Bilsenkraut,
Hiihnertod, Saubohne and Zigeuner-Korn or " gipsies' corn "),
the common name of the plant Hyoscyamus niger, a member
of the natural order Solanaceae, indigenous to Britain, found
wild in waste places, on rubbish about villages and old castles,
and cultivated for medicinal use in various counties in the south
and east of England. It occurs also in central and southern
Europe and in western Asia extending to India and Siberia,
and has long been naturalized in the United States. There
are two forms of the plant, an annual and a biennial, which
spring indifferently from the same crop of seed the one growing
on during summer to a height of from i to 2 ft., and flowering
and perfecting seed; the other producing the first season only
a tuft of radical leaves, which disappear in winter, leaving under-
266
HENCHMAN HENDERSON, A.
ground a thick fleshy root, from the crown of which arises in
spring a branched flowering stem, usually much taller and more
vigorous than the flowering stems of the annual plants. The
biennial form is that which is considered officinal. The radical
leaves of this biennial plant spread out flat on all sides from the
crown of the root; they are ovate-oblong, acute, stalked, and
more or less incisely-toothed, of a greyish-green colour, and
covered with viscid hairs; these leaves perish at the approach
of winter. The flowering stem pushes up from the root-crown
in spring, ultimately reaching from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and as it
grows becoming branched, and furnished with alternate sessile
leaves, which are stem-clasping, oblong, unequally-lobed, clothed
with glandular clammy hairs, and of a dull grey-green, the whole
plant having a powerful nauseous odour. The flowers are shortly-
stalked, the lower ones growing in the fork of the branches,
the upper ones sessile in one-sided leafy spikes which are rolled
back at the top before flowering, the leaves becoming smaller
upwards and taking the place of bracts. The flowers have an
urn-shaped calyx which persists around the fruit and is strongly
veined, with five stiff, broad, almost prickly lobes; these,
when the soft matter is removed by maceration, form very elegant
specimens when associated with leaves prepared in a similar
way. The corollas are obliquely funnel-shaped, of a dirty
yellow or buff, marked with a close reticulation of purple veins.
The capsule opens transversely by a convex lid and contains
numerous seeds. Both the leaves and the seeds are employed
in pharmacy. The Mahommedan doctors of India are
accustomed to prescribe the seeds. Henbane yields a poisonous
alkaloid, hyoscyamine, which is stated to have properties almost
identical with those of atropine, from which it differs in being
more soluble in water. It is usually obtained in an amorphous,
scarcely ever in a crystalline state. Its properties have been
investigated in Germany by T. Husemann, Schroff, Hohn, &c.
Hohn finds its chemical composition expressed by CigHjs^Oa.
(Compare Hellmann, Beitrage zur Kennlnis der physiolog.
Wirkung des Hyoscyamins, &c., Jena, 1874.) In small and
repeated doses henbane has been found to have a tranquillizing
effect upon persons affected by severe nervous irritability.
In poisonous doses it causes loss of speech, distortion and
paralysis. In the form of extract or tincture it is a valuable
remedy in the hands of a medical man, either as an anodyne,
a hypnotic or a sedative. The extract of henbane is rich in
nitrate of potassium and other inorganic salts. The smoking
of the seeds and capsules of henbane is noted in books as a
somewhat dangerous remedy adopted by country people for
toothache. Accidental poisoning from henbane occasionally
occurs, owing sometimes to the apparent edibility and whole-
someness of the root.
See Bentley and Trumen, Medicinal Plants, 194 (1880).
HENCHMAN, originally, probably, one who attended on a
horse, a grqom, and hence, like groom (q.v.), a title of a sub-
ordinate official in royal or noble households. The first part
of the word is the O. Eng. hengest, a horse, a word which occurs in
many Teutonic languages, cf . Ger. and Dutch hengst. The word
appears in the name, Hengest, of the Saxon chieftain (see
HENGEST AND HORSA) and still survives in English in place and
other names beginning with Hingst- or Hinx-. Henchmen,
pages of honour or squires, rode or walked at the side of their
master in processions and the like, and appear in the English
royal household from the I4th century till Elizabeth abolished
the royal henchmen, known also as the " children of honour."
The word was obsolete in English from the middle of the I7th
century, and seems to have been revived through Sir Walter
Scott, who took the word and its derivation, according to the
New English Dictionary, from Edward Burt's Letters from a
Gentleman in the North of Scotland, together with its erroneous
derivation from " haunch." The word is, in this sense, used as
synonymous with " gillie," the faithful personal follower of a
Highland chieftain, the man who stands at his master's " haunch,"
ready for any emergency. It is this sense that usually survives
in modern usage of the word, where it is often used of an out-and-
out adherent or partisan, ready to do anything.
HENDERSON, ALEXANDER (1583-1646), Scottish ecclesi-
astic, was born in 1583 at Criech, Fifeshire. He graduated at
the university of St Andrews in 1603, and in 1610 was appointed
professor of rhetoric and philosophy and questor of the faculty
of arts. Shortly after this he was presented to the living of
Leuchars. As Henderson was forced upon his parish by Arch-
bishop George Gladstanes, and was known to sympathize with
episcopacy, his settlement was at first extremely unpopular;
but he subsequently changed his views and became a Presby-
terian in doctrine and church government, and one of the most
esteemed ministers in Scotland. He early made his mark as a
church leader, and took an active part in petitioning against the
" five acts " and later against the introduction of a service-book
and canons drawn up on the model of the English prayer-book.
On the ist of March 1638 the public signing of the " National
Covenant " began in Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh. Henderson
was mainly responsible for the final form of this document,
which consisted of (i) the " king's confession " drawn up in
1581 by John Craig, (2) a recital of the acts of parliament
against " superstitious and papistical rites," and (3) an elaborate
oath to maintain the true reformed religion. Owing to the skill
shown on this occasion he seems to have been applied to when
any manifesto of unusual ability was required. In July of the
same year he proceeded to the north to debate on the " Covenant "
with the famous Aberdeen doctors; but he was not well received
by them. " The voyd church was made fast, and the keys
keeped by the magistrate," says Baillie. Henderson's next
public opportunity was in the famous Assembly which met in
Glasgow on the 2 ist of November 1 638. He was chosen moderator
by acclamation, being, as Baillie says, " incomparablie the ablest
man of us all for all things." James Hamilton, 3rd marquess
of Hamilton, was the king's commissioner; and when the
Assembly insisted on proceeding with the trial of the bishops,
he formally dissolved the meeting under pain of treason. Acting
on the constitutional principle that the king's right to convene
did not interfere with the church's independent right to hold
assemblies, they sat till the 2Oth of December, deposed all the
Scottish bishops, excommunicated a number of them, repealed
all acts favouring episcopacy, and reconstituted the Scottish
Kirk on thorough Presbyterian principles. During the sitting of
this Assembly it was carried by a majority of seventy-five votes
that Henderson should be transferred to Edinburgh. He had
been at Leuchars for about twenty-three years, and was extremely
reluctant to leave it.
While Scotland and England were preparing for the " First
Bishops' War," Henderson drew up two papers, entitled respec-
tively The Remonstrance of the Nobility and Instructions for
Defensive Arms. The first of these documents he published
himself; the second was published against his wish by John
Corbet (1603-1641), a deposed minister. The " First Bishops'
War " did not last long. At the Pacification of Birks the king
virtually granted all the demands of the Scots. In the negotia-
tions for peace Henderson was one of the Scottish commissioners,
and made a very favourable impression on the king. In 1640
Henderson was elected by the town council rector of Edinburgh
University an office to which he was annually re-elected till
his death. The Pacification of Birks had been wrung from the
king; and the Scots, seeing that he was preparing for the
" Second Bishops' War," took the initiative, and pressed into
England so vigorously that Charles had again to yield everything.
The maturing of the treaty of peace took a considerable time,
and Henderson was again active in the negotiations, first at
Ripon (October ist) and afterwards in London. While he was
in London he had a personal interview with the king, with the
view of obtaining assistance for the Scottish universities from
the money formerly applied to the support of the bishops.
On Henderson's return to Edinburgh in July 1641 the Assembly
was sitting at St Andrews. To suit the convenience of the
parliament, however, it removed to Edinburgh; Henderson
was elected moderator of the Edinburgh meeting. In this
Assembly he proposed that " a confession of faith, a catechism,
a directory for all the parts of the public worship, and a platform
HENDERSON, E. HENDERSON, G. F. R.
267
of government, wherein possibly England and we might agree,"
should be drawn up. This was unanimously approved of, and
the laborious undertaking was left in Henderson's hands; but
the " notable motion " did not lead to any immediate results.
During Charles's second state-visit to Scotland, in the autumn
of 1641, Henderson acted as his chaplain, and managed to get
the funds, formerly belonging to the bishopric of Edinburgh,
applied to the metropolitan university. In 1642 Henderson,
whose policy was to keep Scotland neutral in the war which had
now broken out between the king and the parliament, was
engaged in corresponding with England on ecclesiastical topics;
and, shortly afterwards, he was sent to Oxford to mediate
between the king and his parliament; but his mission proved
a failure.
A memorable meeting of the General Assembly was held in
August 1643. Henderson was elected moderator for the third
time. He presented a draft of the famous " Solemn League and
Covenant," which was received with great enthusiasm. Unlike
the " National Covenant " of 1638, which applied to Scotland
only, this document was common to the two kingdoms.
Henderson, Baillie, Rutherford and others were sent up to
London to represent Scotland in the Assembly at Westminster.
The " Solemn League and Covenant," which pledged both
countries to the extirpation of prelacy, leaving further decision
as to church government to be decided by the " example of the
best reformed churches, "after undergoing some slight alterations,
passed the two Houses of Parliament and the Westminster
Assembly, and thus became law for the two kingdoms. By
means of it Henderson has had considerable influence on the
history of Great Britain. As Scottish commissioner to the
Westminster Assembly, he was in England from August 1643 till
August 1646; his principal work was the drafting of the directory
for public worship. Early in 1643 Henderson was sent to
Uxbridge to aid the commissioners of the two parliaments in
negotiating with the king; but nothing came of the conference.
In 1646 the king joined the Scottish army; and, after retiring
with them to Newcastle, he sent for Henderson, and discussed
with him the two systems of church government in a number of
papers. Meanwhile Henderson was failing in health. He sailed
to Scotland, and eight days after his arrival died, on the igth
of August 1646. He was buried in Greyfriars churchyard,
Edinburgh ; and his death was the occasion of national mourning
in Scotland. On the 7th of August Baillie had written that he
had heard that Henderson was dying " most of heartbreak." A
document was published in London purporting to be a "Declara-
tion of Mr Alexander Henderson made upon his Death-bed ";
and, although this paper was disowned, denounced and shown to
be false in the General Assembly of August 1648, the document
was used by Clarendon as giving the impression that Henderson
had recanted. Its foundation was probably certain expressions
lamenting Scottish interference in English affairs.
Henderson is one of the greatest men in the history of Scotland
and, next to Knox, is certainly the most famous of Scottish
ecclesiastics. He had great political genius; and his statesman-
ship was so influential that " he was," as Masson well observes,
" a cabinet minister without office." He has made a deep mark
on the history, not only of Scotland, but of England; and the
existing Presbyterian churches in Scotland are largely indebted
to him for the forms of their dogmas and their ecclesiastical
organization. He is thus justly considered the second founder of
the Reformed Church in Scotland.
See M'Crie's Life of Alexander Henderson (1846) ; Alton's Life and
Times of Alexander Henderson (1836); The Letters and Journals of
Robert Baillie (1841-1842) (an exceedingly valuable work, from an
historical point of view); J. H. Burton's History of Scotland; D.
Masson's Life of Drummond of Hawthornden; and, above all,
Masson's Life of Milton; Andrew Lang, Hist, of Scotland (1907),
vol. iii. Henderson's own works are chiefly contributions to current
controversies, speeches and sermons. (T. Gl. ; D. MN.)
HENDERSON, EBENEZER (1784-1858), a Scottish divine, was
born at the Linn near Dunfermline on the i7th of November
1784, and died at Mortlake on the i7th of May 1858. He was the
youngest son of an agricultural labourer, and after three years'
schooling spent some time at watchmaking and as a shoemaker's
apprentice. In 1803 he joined Robert Haldane's theological
seminary, and in 1805 was selected to accompany the Rev. John
Paterson to India; but as the East India Company would not
allow British vessels to convey missionaries to India, Henderson
and his colleague went to Denmark to await the chance of a
passage to Serampur, then a Danish port. Being unexpectedly
delayed, and having begun to preach in Copenhagen, they
ultimately decided to settle in Denmark, and in 1806 Henderson
became pastor at Elsinore. From this time till about 1817 he
was engaged in encouraging the distribution of Bibles in the
Scandinavian countries, and in the course of his labours he
visited Sweden and Lapland (1807-1808), Iceland (1814-1815)
and the mainland of Denmark and part of Germany (1816).
During most of this time he was an agent of the British and
Foreign Bible Society. On the 6th of October 181 1 he formed the
first Congregational church in Sweden. In 1818, after a visit to
England, he travelled in company with Paterson through Russia
as far south as Tiflis, but, instead of settling as was proposed at
Astrakhan, he retraced his steps, having resigned his connexion
with the Bible Society owing to his disapproval of a translation
of the Scriptures which had been made in Turkish. In 1822 h'e
was invited by Prince Alexander (Galitzin) to assist the Russian
Bible Society in translating the Scriptures into various languages
spoken in the Russian empire. After twenty years of foreign
labour Henderson returned to England , and in 1 8 2 5 was appointed
tutor of the Mission College, Gosport. In 1830 he succeeded Dr
William Harrison as theological lecturer and professor of Oriental
languages in Highbury Congregational College. In 1850, on the
amalgamation of the colleges of Homerton, Coward and Highbury,
he retired on a pension. In 1852-1853 he was pastor of Sheen
Vale chapel at Mortlake. His last work was a translation of the
book of Ezekiel. Henderson was a man of great linguistic attain-
ment. He made himself more or less acquainted, not only with the
ordinary languages of scholarly accomplishment and the various
members of the Scandinavian group, but also with Hebrew,
Syriac, Ethiopic, Russian, Arabic, Tatar, Persian, Turkish,
Armenian, Manchu, Mongolian and Coptic. He organized the
first Bible Society in Denmark (1814), and paved the way for
several others. In 1817 he was nominated by the Scandinavian
Literary Society a corresponding member; and in 1840 he was
made D.D. by the university of Copenhagen. He was honorary
secretary for life of the Religious Tract Society, and one of the
first promoters of the British Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel among the Jews. The records of his travels in Iceland
(1818) were valuable contributions to our knowledge of that
island. His other principal works are: Iceland, or the Journal
of a Residence in that Island (2 vols., 1818); Biblical Researches
and Travels in Russia (1826); Elements of Biblical Criticism and
Interpretation (1830); The Vaudois, a Tour of the Valleys of
Piedmont (1845).
See Memoirs of Ebenezer Henderson, by Thulia S. Henderson (his
daughter) (London, 1859) ; Congregational Year Book (1859).
HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT (1854-1903),
British soldier and military writer, was born in Jersey in 1854.
Educated at Leeds Grammar School, of which his father, after-
wards Dean of Carlisle, was headmaster, he was early attracted
to the study of history, and obtained a scholarship at St John's
College, Oxford. But he soon left the University for Sandhurst,
whence he obtained his first commission in 1878. One year
later, after a few months' service in India, he was promoted
lieutenant and returned to England, and in 1882 he went on
active service with his regiment, the York and Lancaster (6sth/
84th) to Egypt . He was present at Tell-el-Mahuta and Kassassin,
and at Tell-el-Kebir was the first man of his regiment to enter the
enemy's works. His conduct attracted the notice of Sir Garnet
(afterwards Lord) Wolseley, and he received the sth class of the
Medjidieh order. His name was, further, noted for a brevet-
majority, which he did not receive till he became captain in
1886. During these years he had been quietly studying military
art and history at Gibraltar, in Bermuda and in Nova Scotia,
in spite of the difficulties of research, and in 1889 appeared
268
HENDERSON, J.HENGEST AND HORSA
(anonymously) his first work, The Campaign of Fredericksburg.
In the same year he became Instructor in Tactics, Military Law
and Administration at Sandhurst. From this post he proceeded
as Professor of Military Art and History to the Staff College
(1892-1899), and there exercised a profound influence on the
younger generation of officers. His study on Spicheren had been
begun some years before, and in 1898 appeared, as the result of
eight years' work, his masterpiece, Stonewall Jackson and the
American Civil War. In the South African War Lieutenant-
Colonel Henderson served with distinction on the staff of Lord
Roberts as Director of Intelligence. But overwork and malaria
broke his health, and he had to return home, being eventually
selected to write the official history of the war. But failing
health obliged him to go to Egypt, where he died at Assuan on
the 5th of March 1903. He had completed the portion of the
history of the South African War dealing with the events up to the
commencement of hostilities, amounting to about a volume, but
the War Office decided to suppress this, and the work was begun
de now and carried out by Sir F. Maurice.
Various lectures and papers by Henderson were collected and
published in 1905 by Captain Malcolm, D.S.O., under the title
The Science of War; to this collection a memoir was contributed by
Lord Roberts. See also Journal of the Royal United Service
Institution, vol. xlvii. No. 302.
HENDERSON, JOHN (1747-1785), English actor, of Scottish
descent, was born in London. He made his first appearance
on the stage at Bath on the 6th of October 1772 as Hamlet.
His success in this and other Shakespearian parts led to his
being called the " Bath Roscius." He had great difficulty in
getting a London engagement, but finally appeared at the
Haymarket in 1777 as Shylock, and his success was a source of
considerable profit to Colman, the manager. Sheridan then
engaged him to play at Drury Lane, where he remained for two
years. When the companies joined forces he went to Covent
Garden, appearing as Richard III, in 1778, and creating original
parts in many of the plays of Cumberland, Shirley, Jephson
and others. His last appearance was in 1785 as Horatius in
The Roman Father, and he died on the 25th of November of
that year and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Garrick was
very jealous of Henderson, and the latter's power of mimicry
separated him also from Colman, but he was always gratefully
remembered by Mrs. Siddons and others of his profession whom
he had encouraged. He was a close friend of Gainsborough,
who painted his portrait, as did also Stewart and Romney.
He was co-author of Sheridan and Henderson's Practical Method
of Reading and Writing English Poetry.
HENDERSON, a city and the county-seat of Henderson county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Ohio river, about
142 m. W.S.W! of Louisville. Pop. (1890), 8835; (1900), 10,272,
of whom 4029 were negroes; (1910 census) 11,452. It is
served by the Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and
the Louisville, Henderson & St. Louis railways, and has direct
communication by steamboat with Louisville, Evansville, Cairo,
Memphis and New Orleans. Henderson is built on the high
bank of the river, above the flood level; the river is spanned
here by a fine steel bridge, designed by George W. G. Ferris
(1859-1896), the designer of the Ferris Wheel. The city has a
public park of 80 acres and a Carnegie library. It is situated
in the midst of a region whose soil is said to be the best in the
world for the raising of dark, heavy-fibred tobacco, and is well
adapted also for the growing of fruit, wheat and Indian corn.
Bituminous coal is obtained from the surrounding country.
Immense quantities of stemmed tobacco are shipped from here,
and the city is an important market for Indian corn. The
manufactures of the city include cotton and woollen goods,
hominy, meal, flour, tobacco and cigars, carriages, baskets,
chairs and other furniture, bricks, ice, whisky and beer; the
value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $1,365,120.
The municipality owns and operates its water works, gas plant
and electric-lighting plant. Henderson, named in honour of
Richard Henderson (1734-1785), was settled as early as 1784,
was first known as Red Banks, was laid out as a town by Hender-
son's company in 1797, was incorporated as a town in 1810, and
was first chartered as a city in 1854. The city boundary lines
were extended in 1905 by the annexation of Audubon and
Edgewood. Henderson was for some time the home of John
James Audubon, the ornithologist.
HENDIADYS, the name adopted from the Gr. tv dia 8vo1i>
(" one by means of two ") for a rhetorical figure, in which two
words connected by a copulative conjunction are used of a single
idea; usually the figure takes the form of two substantives
instead of a substantive and adjective, as in the classical example
pateris libamus et auro (Virgil, Ceorgics, ii. 192), " we pour
libations in cups and gold " for " cups of gold."
HENDON, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, on the river Brent, 8 m. N.W.
of St Paul's Cathedral, London, served by the Midland railway.
Pop. (1891), 15,843; (1901), 22,450. The nucleus of the township
lies on high ground to the east of the Edgware road, which crosses
the Welsh Harp reservoir of Regent's Canal, a favourite fishing
and skating resort. The church of St Mary is mainly Per-
pendicular, and contains a Norman font and monuments of the
i8th century. To the north of the village, which has extended
greatly as a residential suburb of the metropolis, is Mill Hill,
with a Roman Catholic Missionary College, opened in 1871,
with branches at Rosendaal, Holland and Brixen, Austria, and
a preparatory school at Freshfield near Liverpool; and a large
grammar school founded by Nonconformists in 1807. The
manor belonged at an early date to the abbot of Westminster.
HENDRICKS, THOMAS ANDREWS (1819-1885), American
political leader, vice-president of the United States in 1885,
was born near Zanesville, Ohio, on the 7th of September 1819.
He graduated at Hanover College, Hanover, Indiana, in 1841,
and began in 1843 a successful career at the bar. Identifying
himself with the Democratic party, he served in the state House
of Representatives in 1848, and was a prominent member of the
convention for the revision of the state constitution in 1850-1851,
a representative in Congress (1851-1855), commissioner of the
United States General Land Office (1855-1859), a United States
senator (1863-1869), and governor of Indiana (1873-1877).
From 1868 until his death he was put forward for nomination
for the presidency at every national Democratic Convention save
in 1872. Both in 1876 and 1884, after his failure to receive the
nomination for the presidency, he was nominated by the Demo-
cratic National Convention for vice-president, his nomination
in each of these conventions being made partly, it seems, with
the hope of gaining "greenback" votes Hendricks had opposed
the immediate resumption of specie payments. In 1876, with
S. J. Tilden, he lost the disputed election by the decision
of the electoral commission, but he was elected with Grover
Cleveland in 1884. He died at Indianapolis on the 25th of
November 1885.
HENGELO, or HENGELOO, a town in the province of Overyssel,
Holland, and a junction station 5 m. by rail N.W. of Enschede.
Pop. (1900), 14,968. The castle belonging to the ancient terri-
torial lords of Hengelo has long since disappeared, and the only
interest the town now possesses is as the centre of the flourishing
industries of the Twente district. The manufacture of cotton
in all its branches is very actively carried on, and there are
dye-works and breweries, besides the engineering works of the
state railway company.
HENGEST and HORSA, the brother chieftains who led the first
Saxon bands which settled in England. They were apparently
called in by the British king Vortigern (q.v.)to defend him against
the Picts. The place of their landing is said to have been
Ebbsfleet in Kent. Its date is not certainly known, 450-455
being given by the English authorities, 428 by the Welsh (see
KENT). The settlers of Kent are described by Bede as Jutes
(q.v.), and there are traces in Kentish custom of differences
from the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Hengest and Horsa
were at first given the island of Thanet as a home, but soon
quarrelled with their British allies, and gradually possessed
themselves of what became the kingdom of Kent. In 455 the
Saxon Chronicle records a battle between Hengest and Horsa
and Vortigern at a place called Aegaels threp, in which Horsa
HENGSTENBERG HENLE
269
was slain. Thenceforward Hengest reigned in Kent, together
with his son Aesc (Oisc). Both the Saxon Chronicle and the
Historia Brittonum record three subsequent battles, though
the two authorities disagree as to their issue. There is no doubt,
however, that the net result was the expulsion of the Britons
from Kent. According to the Chronicle, which probably
derived its information from a lost list of Kentish kings, Hengest
died in 488, while his son Aesc continued to reign until 512.
Bede, Hist. Eccl. (Plummet, 1896), i. 15, ii. 5; Saxon Chronicle
(Earle and Plummer, 1899), s.a. 449, 455, 457, 465, 473; Nennius,
Ilistoria Brittonum (San Marte, 1844), 31, 37, 38, 43-46, 58.
HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM (1802-1869), German
Lutheran divine and theologian, was born at Frondenberg, a
Westphalian village, on the 2oth of October 1802. He was
educated by his father, who was a minister of the Reformed
Church, and head of the Frondenberg convent of canonesses
(Frauleinstift). Entering the university of Bonn in 1810, he
attended the lectures of G. G. Freytag for Oriental languages
and of F. K. L. Gieseler for church history, but his energies were
principally devoted to philosophy and philology, and his earliest
publication was an edition of the Arabic Moallakat of Amru'l-
Qais, which gained for him the prize at his graduation in the
philosophical faculty. This was followed in 1824 by a German
translation of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Finding himself without
the means to complete his theological studies under Neander
and Tholuck in Berlin, he accepted a post at Basel as tutor in
Oriental languages to J. J. Stahelin, who afterwards became
professor at the university. Then it was that he began to direct
his attention to a study of the Bible, which led him to a conviction,
never afterwards shaken, not only of the divine character of
evangelical religion, but also of the unapproachable adequacy
of its expression in the Augsburg Confession. In 1824 he joined
the philosophical faculty of Berlin as a Privatdozent, and in
1825 he became a licentiate in theology, his theses being' remark-
able for their evangelical fervour and for their emphatic protest
against every form of " rationalism," especially in questions of
Old Testament criticism. In 1826 he became professor extra-
ordinarius in theology; and in July 1827 appeared, under his
editorship, the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, a strictly orthodox
journal, which in his hands acquired an almost unique reputation
as a controversial organ. It did not, however, attain to great
notoriety until in 1830 an anonymous article (by E. L. von
Gerlach) appeared, which openly charged Wilhelm Gesenius
and J. A. L. Wegscheider with infidelity and profanity, and on
the ground of these accusations advocated the interposition of
the civil power, thus giving rise to the prolonged Hallische
Sireit. In 1828 the first volume of Hengstenberg's Christologie
des Allen Testaments passed through the press; in the autumn
of that year he became professor ordinarius in theology, and
in 1829 doctor of theology. He died on the z8th of May 1869.
The following is a list of his principal works: Christologie des
Allen Testaments (1829-1835; 2nd ed., 1854-1857; Eng. trans, by
R. Keith, 1835-1839, also in Clark's " Foreign Theological Library,
by T. Meyer and J. Martin, 1854-1858), a work of much learning,
the estimate of which varies according to the hermeneutical principles
of the individual critic; Beitrage zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament
(1831-1839); Eng. trans., Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel
and the Integrity of Zechariah (Edin., 1848), and Dissertations
on tfa Genuineness of the Pentateuch (Edin., 1847), in which the
traditional view on each question is strongly upheld, and much
capital is made of the absence of. harmony among the negative
critics; Die Bucher Moses und Agypten (1841); Die Geschichte
Bileams u. seiner Weissagungen (1842; translated along with the
Dissertations on Daniel and Zechariah) ; Commentar iiber die Psalmen
(1842-1847; 2nd ed., 1849-1852; Eng. trans, by P. Fairbairn
and J. Thomson, Edin., 1844-1848), which shares the merits
and defects of the Christologie; Die Offenbarung Johannis erldutert
(1849-1851; 2nd ed., 1861-1862; Eng. trans, by P. Fairbairn,
also in Clark's "Foreign Theological Library," 1851-1852); Das
Hohe Lied ausgelegt (1853); Der Prediger Salomo ausgelegt (1859);
Das Evangelium Johannis erldutert (1861-1863; 2n d ed., 1867-1871 ;
Eng. trans., 1865) and Die Weissagungen des Propheten Ezechiel
erlaulert (1867-1868). Of minor importance are De rebus Tyriorum
commentatio academica (1832); Ober den Tag des Herrn (1852); Das
Passa, ein Vortrag (1853); and Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift (1859).
Several series of papers also, as, for example, on " The Retention
of the Apocrypha," " Freemasonry " (1854), " Duelling " (1856) and
The Relation between the Jews and the Christian Church " (1857;
2nd ed., 1859), which originally appeared in the Kirchenzeitung, were
afterwards printed in a separate form. Geschichte des Retches Gottes
unter dem Allen Bunde (1869-1871), Das Buck Hiob erldutert (1870-
1875) and Vorlesungen iiber die Leidensgeschichte (1875) were pub-
lished posthumously.
See J. Bachmann's Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg (1876-1879);
also his article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (1899), and the
article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. Also F. Lichtenberger,
History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889),. pp.
212-217; Philip Schaff, Germany; its Universities, Theology and
Religion (1857), pp. 300-319.
HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD (1752-1809),
German theologian, best known as a writer on church history,
was born at Hehlen, Brunswick, on the 3rd of July 1752. He
was educated at the gymnasium of Brunswick and the university
of Helmstadt, and from 1778 to 1809 he was professor, first of
philosophy, then of theology, in that university. In 1803 he
was appointed principal of the Carolinum in Brunswick as well.
He died on the 2nd of May 1809. Henke belonged to the
rationalistic school. His principal work (Allgemeine Geschichte
der christl. Kirche, 6 vols., 1788-1804; 2nd ed., 1795-1806)13
commended by F. C. Baur for fullness, accuracy and artistic
composition. His other works are Lineamenta institulionum
fidei Christianae historico-criticarum (1783), Opuscula academica
(1802) and two volumes of Predigten. He was also editor of
the Magazin Jilr die Religionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchen-
geschichte (1793-1802) and the Archiv fiir die neueste Kirchen-
geschichle (1794-1799).
His son, ERNST LUDWIG THEODOR HENKE (1804-1872), after
studying at the university of Jena, became professor extra-
ordinarius there in 1833, and professor ordinarius of Marburg
in 1839. He is known as the author of monographs upon
Georg Calixt u. seine Zeit (1853-1860), Papst Pius VII. (1860),
Konrad von Marburg (1861), Kaspar Peucer u. Nik. Krett
(1865), Jak. Friedr. Fries (1867), Zur neuern Kirchengeschichte
(1867).
HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JAKOB (1809 - 1885),
German pathologist and anatomist, was born on the gth of
July 1809 at Fiirth, in Franconia. After studying medicine
at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his doctor's degree
in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes Mtiller at
Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he pub-
lished a large amount of work, including three anatomical
monographs on new species of animals, and papers on the
structure of the lacteal system, the distribution of epithelium
in the human body, the structure and development of the hair,
the formation of mucus and pus, &c. In 1840 he accepted the
chair of anatomy at Zurich, and in 1844 he was called to Heidel-
berg, where he taught not only anatomy, but physiology and
pathology. About this period he was engaged on his complete
system of general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of
the new edition of S. T. von Sommerring's treatise, published
at Leipzig between 1841 and 1844. While at Heidelberg he
published a zoological monograph on the sharks and rays, in
conjunction with his master Miiller, and in 1846 his famous
Manual of Rational Pathology began to appear; this marked
the beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it
physiology and pathology were treated, in Henle's own words,
as " branches of one science," and the facts of disease were
systematically considered with reference to their physiological
relations. In 1852 he moved to Gottingen, whence he issued
three years later the first instalment of his great Handbook
of Systematic Human Anatomy, the last volume of which was not
published till 1873. This work was perhaps the most complete
and comprehensive of its kind that had so far appeared, and
it was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of
the anatomical descriptions, but also for the number and ex-
cellence of the illustrations with which they were elucidated.
During the latter half of his life Henle's researches were mainly
histological in character, his investigations embracing the
minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous membranes, kidney,
eye, nails, central nervous system, &c. He died at Gottingen
on the i3th of May 1885.
2JO
HENLEY, J. HENLEY, W. E.
HENLEY, JOHN (1692-1759), English clergyman, commonly
known as " Orator Henley," was born on the 3rd of August
1692 at Melton-Mowbray, where his father was vicar. After
attending the grammar schools of Melton and Oakham, he
entered St John's College, Cambridge, and while still an under-
graduate he addressed in February 1712, under the pseudonym
of Peter de Quir, a letter to the Spectator displaying no small wit
and humour. After graduating B.A., he became assistant and
then headmaster of the grammar school of his native town,
uniting to these duties those of assistant curate. His abundant
energy found still further expression in a poem entitled Esther,
Queen of Persia (1714), and in the compilation of a grammar
of ten languages entitled The Complete Linguist (2 vols., London,
1719-1721). He then decided to go to London, where he obtained
the appointment of assistant preacher in the chapels of Ormond
Street and Bloomsbury. In 1723 he was presented to the rectory
of Chelmondiston in Suffolk; but residence being insisted on,
he resigned both his appointments, and on the 3rd of July 1726
opened what he called an " oratory " in Newport Market, which
he licensed under the Toleration Act. In 1729 he transferred
the scene of his operations to Lincoln's Inn Fields. Into his
services he introduced many peculiar alterations: he drew up
a " Primitive Liturgy," in which he substituted for the Nicene
and Athanasian creeds two creeds taken from the Apostolical
Constitutions; for his " Primitive Eucharist " he made use of
unleavened bread and mixed wine; he distributed at the price of
one shilling medals of admission to his oratory, with the device
of a sun rising to the meridian, with the motto Ad summa, and
the viordslnveniam viam autfaciam below. But the most original
clement in the services was Henley himself, who is described by
Pope in the Dunciad as
" Preacher at once and zany of his age."
He possessed some oratorical ability and adopted a very theatrical
style of elocution, " tuning his voice and balancing his hands ";
and his addresses were a strange medley of solemnity and
buffoonery, of clever wit and the wildest absurdity, of able and
original disquisition and the worst artifices of the oratorical
charlatan. His services were much frequented by the " free-
thinkers," and he himself expressed- his determination " to die
a rational." Besides his Sunday sermons, he delivered Wednes-
day lectures on social and political subjects; and he also pro-
jected a scheme for connecting with the " oratory " a university
on quite a Utopian plan. For some time he edited the Hyp
Doctor, a weekly paper established in opposition to the Crafts-
man, and for this service he enjoyed a pension of 100 a year
from Sir Robert Walpole. At first the orations of Henley drew
great crowds, but, although he never discontinued his services,
his audience latterly dwindled almost entirely away. He died
on the I3th of October 1759.
Henley is the subject of several of Hogarth's prints. His life,
professedly written by A. Welstede, but in all probability by himself,
was inserted by him in his Oratory Transactions. See J. B. Nichols,
History of Leicestershire; I. Disraeli, Calamities of Authors.
HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST (1849-1903), British poet,
critic and editor, was born on the 23rd of August 1849 at Glou-
cester, and was educated at the Crypt Grammar School in that
city. The school was a sort of Cinderella sister to the Cathedral
School, and Henley indicated its shortcomings in his article
(Pall Mall Magazine, Nov. 1900) on T. E. Brown the poet, who
was headmaster there for a brief period. Brown's appointment,
uncongenial to himself, was a stroke of luck for Henley, for whom,
as he said, it represented a first acquaintance with a man of
genius. " He was singularly kind to me at a moment when I
needed kindness even more than I needed encouragement."
Among other kindnesses Brown did him the essential service
of lending him books. To the end Henley was no classical
scholar, but his knowledge and love of literature were vital.
Afflicted with a physical infirmity, he found himself in 1874, at
the age of twenty-five, an inmate of the hospital at Edinburgh.
From there he sent to the Cornhill Magazine poems in irregular
rhythms, describing with poignant force his experiences in
hospital. Leslie Stephen, then editor, being in Edinburgh,
visited his contributor in hospital and took Robert Louis Steven-
son, another recruit of the Cornhill, with him. The meeting
between Stevenson and Henley, and the friendship of which it
was the beginning, form one of the best-known episodes in recent
literature (see especially Stevenson's letter to Mrs Sitwell,
Jan. 1875, and Henley's poems " An Apparition " and " Envoy
to Charles Baxter "). In 1877 Henley went to London and
began his editorial career by editing London, a journal of a
type more usual in Paris than London, written for the sake of
its contributors rather than of the public. Among other dis-
tinctions it first gave to the world The New Arabian Nights of
Stevenson. Henley himself contributed to his journal a series
of verses chiefly in old French forms. He had been writing
poetry since 1872, but (so he told the world in his " advertise-
ment " to his collected Poems, 1898) he " found himself about
1877 so utterly unmarketable that he had to own himself beaten
in art and to addict himself to journalism for the next ten years."
After the decease of London, he edited the Magazine of Art from
1882 to 1886. At the end of that period he came before the public
as a poet. In 1887 Mr Gleeson White made for the popular series
of Canterbury Poets (edited by Mr William Sharp) a selection
of poems in old French forms. In his selection Mr Gleeson White
included a considerable number of pieces from London, and only
after he had completed the selection did he discover that the
verses were all by one hand, that of Henley. In the following
year, Mr H. B. Donkin in his volume Voluntaries, done for an
East End hospital, included Henley's unrhymed rhythms
quintessentializing the poet's memories of the old Edinburgh
Infirmary. Mr Alfred Nutt read these, and asked for more;
and in 1888 his firm published A Book of Verse. Henley was
by this time well known in a restricted literary circle, and the
publication of this volume determined for them his fame as a
poet, which rapidly outgrew these limits, two new editions of
this volume being called for within three years. In this same
year (1888) Mr Fitzroy Bell started the Scots Observer in Edin-
burgh, with Henley as literary editor, and early in 1889 Mr Bell
left the conduct of the paper to him. It was a weekly review
somewhat on the lines of the old Saturday Review, but inspired
in every paragraph by the vigorous and combative personality
of the editor. It was transferred soon after to London as the
National Observer, and remained under Henley's editorship until
1893. Though, as Henley confessed, the paper had almost as
many writers as readers, and its fame was mainly confined to
the literary class, it was a lively and not uninfluential feature
of the literary life of its time. Henley had the editor's great gift
of discerning promise, and the " Men of the Scots Observer," as
Henley affectionately and characteristically called his band of
contributors, in most instances justified his insight. The paper
found utterance for the growing imperialism of its day, and
among other services to literature gave to the world Mr Kipling's
Barrack-Room Ballads. In 1890 Henley published Views and
Reviews, a volume of notable criticisms, described by himself
as " less a book than a mosiac of scraps and shreds recovered
from the shot rubbish of some fourteen years of journalism."
The criticisms, covering a wide range of authors (except Heine
and Tolstoy, all English and French), though wilful and often
one-sided were terse, trenchant and picturesque, and remarkable
for insight and gusto. In 1892 he published a second volume of
poetry, named after the first poem, The Song of the Sword, but
on the issue of the second edition (1893) re-christened London
Voluntaries after another section. Stevenson wrote that he
had not received the same thrill of poetry since Mr Meredith's
" Jy f Earth " and " Love in the Valley," and he did not know
that that was so intimate and so deep. " I did not guess you
were so great a magician. These are new tunes; this is an
undertone of the true Apollo. These are not verse; they are
poetry." In 1892 Henley published also three plays written
with Stevenson Beau Austin, Deacon Brodie and Admiral
Guinea. In 1895 followed Macaire, afterwards published in
a volume with the other plays. Deacon Brodie was produced in
Edinburgh in 1884 and later in London. Beerbohm Tree produced
Beau Austin at the Haymarket on the 3rd of November 1890
HENLEY-ON-THAMES HENNA
271
and Macaire at His Majesty's on the 2nd of May 1901. Admiral
Guinea also achieved stage performance. In the meantime
Henley was active in the magazines and did notable editorial
work for the publishers: the Lyra Heroica, 1891; A Book of
English Prose (with Mr Charles Whibley), 1894; the centenary
Burns (with Mr T.F. Henderson) in 1896-1897, in which Henley's
Essay (published separately 1898) roused considerable con-
troversy. In 1892 he undertook for Mr Nutt the general editor-
ship of the Tudor Translations; and in 1897 began for Mr
Heinemann an edition of Byron, which did not proceed beyond
one volume of letters. In 1898 he published a collection of hjs
Poems in one volume, with the autobiographical " advertise-
ment " above quoted; in 1899 London Types, Quatorzains to
accompany Mr William Nicolson's designs; and in 1900 during
the Boer War, a patriotic poetical brochure, For England's
Sake. In 1901 he published a second volume of collected poetry
with the title Hawthorn and Lavender, uniform with the volume
of 1898. In 1902 he collected his various articles on painters and
artists and published them as a companion volume of Views
and Reviews: Art. These with " A Song of Speed " printed
in May 1903 within two months of his death make up his tale
of work. At the close of his life he was engaged upon his edition
of the Authorized Version of the Bible for his series of Tudor
Translations. There remained uncollected some of his scattered
articles in periodicals and reviews, especially the series of literary
articles contributed to the Pall Mall Magazine from 1899 until
his death. These contain the most outspoken utterances of a
critic never mealy-mouthed, and include the splenetic attack on
the memory of his dead friend R. L. Stevenson, which aroused
deep regret and resentment. In 1894 Henley lost his little six-
year-old daughter Margaret; he had borne the " bludgeonings
of chance" with "the unconquerable soul" of which he boasted,
not unjustifiably, in a well-known poem; but this blow broke
his heart. With the knowledge of this fact, some of these out-
bursts may be better understood; yet we have the evidence of
a clear-eyed critic who knew Henley well, that he found him
more generous, more sympathetic at the close of his life than he
had been before. He died on the nth of July 1903. In spite
of his too boisterous mannerism and prejudices, he exercised
by his originality, independence and fearlessness an inspiring
and inspiriting influence on the higher class of journalism. This
influence he exercised by word of mouth as well as by his pen,
for he was a famous talker, and figures as " Burly " in Stevenson's
essay on Talk and Talkers. As critic he was a good hater and a
good fighter. His virtue lay in his vital and vitalizing love of good
literature, and the vivid and pictorial phrases he found to give
it expression. But his fame must rest on his poetry. He excelled
alike in his delicate experiments in complicated metres, and the
strong impressionism of Hospital Sketches and London Volun-
taries. The influence of Heine may be discerned in these " un-
rhymed rhythms "; but he was perhaps a truer and more
successful disciple of Heine in his snatches of passionate song,
the best of which should retain their place in English literature.
See also references in Stevenson's Letters; Cornhill Magazine (1903)
(Sidney Low) ; Fortnightly Review (August 1892) (Arthur Symons) ;
and for bibliography, English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. p. 548.
(W. P. J.)
HEKLEY-ON-THAMES, a market town and municipal
borough in the Henley parliamentary division of Oxfordshire,
England, on the left bank of the Thames, the terminus of a
branch of the Great Western railway, by which it is 35 J m. W.
of London, while it is 575 m. by river. Pop. (1901) 5984. It
occupies one of the most beautiful situations on the Thames,
at the foot of the finely wooded Chiltern Hills. The river is
crossed by an elegant stone bridge of five arches, constructed
in 1786. The parish church (Decorated and Perpendicular)
possesses a lofty tower of intermingled flint and stone, attributed
to Cardinal Wolsey, but more probably erected by Bishop
Longland. The grammar school, founded in 1605, is incorporated
with a Blue Coat school. Henley is a favourite summer resort,
and is celebrated for the annual Henley Royal Regatta, the
principal gathering of amateur oarsmen in England, first held
in 1839 and usually taking place in July. Henley is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 549 acres.
Henley-on-Thames (Hanlegang, Henle, Handley), not
mentioned in Domesday, was a manor or ancient demesne of the
crown and was granted (1337) to John de Molyns, whose family
held it for about 250 years. It is said that members for Henley
sat in parliaments of Edward I. and Edward III., but no writs
have been found. Henry VIII. having granted the use of the
titles " mayor " and " burgess," the town was incorporated
in 1570-1371 by the name of the warden, portreeves, burgesses
and commonalty. Henley suffered from both parties in the Civil
War. William III. on his march to London (1688) rested here
and received a deputation from the Lords. The period of
prosperity in the I7th and i8th centuries was due to manu-
factures of glass and malt, and to trade, in corn and wool. The
existing Thursday market was granted by a charter of John
and the existing Corpus Christi fair by a charter of Henry VI.
See J. S. Burn, History of Henley-on-Thames (London, 1861).
HENNA, the Persian name for a small shrub found in India,
Persia, the Levant and along the African coasts of the Mediter-
ranean, where it is frequently cultivated. It is the Lawsonia
alba of botanists, and from the fact that young trees are spineless,
while older ones have the branchlets hardened into spines, it
has also received the names of Lawsonia inermis and L. spinosa.
It forms a slender shrubby plant of from 8 to 10 ft. high, with
opposite lance-shaped smooth leaves, which are entire at the
margins, and bears small white four-petalled sweet-scented
flowers disposed in panicles. Its Egyptian name is Khenna,
its Arabic name Al Khanna, its Indian name Mendee, while in
England it is called Egyptian privet, and in the West Indies,
where it is naturalized, Jamaica mignonette.
Henna or Henne is of ancient repute as a cosmetic. This
consists of the leaves of the Lawsonia powdered and made up
into a paste; this is employed by the Egyptian women, and
also by the Mahommedan women in India, to dye their finger-
nails and other parts of their hands and feet of an orange-red
colour, which is considered to add to their beauty. The colour
lasts for three or four weeks, when it requires to be renewed.
It is moreover used for dyeing the hair and beard, and even the
manes of horses; and the same material is employed for dyeing
skins and morocco-leather a reddish-yellow, but it contains no
tannin. The practice of dyeing the nails was common amongst
the Egyptians, and not to conform to it would have been con-
sidered indecent. It has descended from very remote ages,
as is proved by the evidence afforded by Egyptian mummies,
the nails of which are most commonly stained of a reddish hue.
Henna is also said to have been held in repute amongst the
Hebrews, being considered to be the plant referred to as camphire
in the Bible (Song of Solomon i. 14, iv. 13). " The custom of
dyeing the nails and palms of the hands and soles of the feet of
an iron-rust colour with henna," observes Dr J. Forbes Royle,
" exists throughout the East from the Mediterranean to the
Ganges, as well as in northern Africa. In some parts the practice
is not confined to women and children, but is also followed by
men, especially in Persia. In dyeing the beard the hair is turned
to red by this application, which is then changed to black by
a preparation of indigo. In dyeing the hair of children, and the
tails and manes of horses and asses, the process is allowed to
stop at the red colour which the henna produces." Mahomet,
it is said, used henna as a dye for his beard, and the fashion was
adopted by the caliphs. " The use of henna," remarks Lady
Calico tt in her Scripture Herbal, " is scarcely to be called a
caprice in the East. There is a quality in the drug which gently
restrains perspiration in the hands and feet, and produces an
agreeable coolness equally conducive to health and comfort."
She further suggests that if the Jewish women were not in the
habit of using this dye before the time of Solomon, it might
probably have been introduced amongst them by his wife, the
daughter of Pharaoh, and traces to this probability the allusion
to " camphire " in the passages in Canticles above referred to.
The preparation of henna consists in reducing the leaves
and young twigs to a fine powder, catechu or lucerne leaves
272
HENNEBONT HENRIETTA MARIA
in a pulverized state being sometimes mixed with them. When
required for use, the powder is made into a pasty mass with hot
water, and is then spread upon the part to be dyed, where it
is generally allowed to remain for one night. According to Lady
Callcott, the flowers are often used by the Eastern women to adorn
their hair. The distilled water from the flowers is used as a
perfume.
HENNEBONT, a town of western France, in the department
of Morbihan, 6m. N.E. of Lorient by road. Pop. (1906) 7250.
It is situated about 10 m. from the mouth of the Blavet, which
divides it into two parts the Ville Close, the medieval military
town, and the Ville Neuve on the left bank and the Vieille Ville
on the right bank. The Ville Close, surrounded by ramparts
and entered by a massive gateway flanked by machicolated
towers, consists of narrow quiet streets bordered by houses of the
i6th and i7th centuries. The Ville Neuve, which lies nearer the
river, developed during the lyth century and later than the
Ville Close, while the Vieille Ville is older than either. The only
building of architectural importance is the church of Notre-Dame
de Paradis (i6th century) preceded by a tower with an orna-
mented stone spire. There are scanty remains of the old fortress.
Hennebont has a small but busy river-port accessible to vessels
of 200 to 300 tons. An important foundry in the environs of
the town employs 1400 work-people in the manufacture of tin-
plate for sardine boxes and other purposes. Boat-building,
tanning, distilling and the manufacture of earthenware, white
lead and chemical manures are also carried on. Granite is worked
in the neighbourhood. Hennebont is famed for the resistance
which it made, under the widow of Jean de Montfort, when
besieged in 1342 by the armies of Philip of Valois and Charles of
Blois during the War of the Succession in Brittany (see BRITTANY) .
HENNEQUIN, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE (1763-1833), French
painter/ was a pupil of David. He was born at Lyons in 1763,
distinguished himself early by winning the " Grand Prix," and
left France for Italy. The disturbances at Rome, during the
course of the Revolution, obliged him to return to Paris, where
he executed the Federation of the I4th of July, and he was
at work on a large design commissioned for the town-hall of
Lyons, when in July 1704 he was accused before the revolutionary
tribunal and thrown into prison. Hennequin escaped, only to be
anew accused and imprisoned in Paris, and after running great
danger of death, seems to have devoted himself thenceforth
wholly to his profession. At Paris he finished the picture ordered
for the municipality of Lyons, and in 1801 produced his chief
work, " Orestes pursued by the Furies " (Louvre, engraved by
Landon, Annales du Musee, vol. i. p. 105). He was one of the
four painters who competed when in 1802 Gros carried off the
official prize for a picture of the Battle of Nazareth, and in 1808
Napoleon himself ordered Hennequin to illustrate a series of
scenes from his German campaigns, and commanded that his
picture of the " Death of General Salomon " should be engraved.
After 1815 Hennequin retired to Liege, and there, aided by
subventions from the Government, carried out a large historical
picture of the " Death of the Three Hundred in defence of Liege "-
a sketch of which he himself engraved. In 1824 Hennequin
settled at Tournay, and became director of the academy; he
exhibited various works at Lille in the following year, and
continued to produce actively up to the day of his death in
May 1833.
HENNER, JEAN JACQUES (1829-1905), French painter, was
born on the 5th of March 1829 at Dornach (Alsace). At first
a pupil of Drolling and of Picot, he entered the Ecole des Beaux-
Arts in 1848, and took the Prix de Rome with a painting of
" Adam and Eve finding the Body of Abel " (1858). At Rome
he was guided by Flandrin, and, among other works, painted
four pictures for the gallery at Colmar. He first exhibited at
the Salon in 1863 a " Bather Asleep," and subsequently contri-
buted " Chaste Susanna " (1865) ; " Byblis turned into a Spring "
(1867); "The Magdalene" (1878); "Portrait of M. Hayem "
(1878); " Christ Entombed " (1879); " Saint Jerome " (1881);
"Herodias" (1887); "A Study" (1891); "Christ in His
Shroud," and a " Portrait of Carolus-Duran " (1896) ; a " Portrait
of Mile Fouquier " (1897) ; " The Levite of the Tribe of Ephraim "
(1898), for which a first-class medal was awarded to him; and
"The Dream" (1900). Among other professional distinctions
Henner also took a Grand Prix for painting at the Paris Inter-
national Exhibition of 1900. He was made Knight of the Legion
of Honour in 1873, Officer in 1878 and Commander in 1889.
In 1889 he succeeded Cabanel in the Institut de France.
See E. Ericon, Psychologic d'art (Paris, 1900); C. Phillips, Art
Journal (1888); F. Wedmore, Magazine of Art (1888).
HENRIETTA MARIA (1600-1666), queen of Charles I. of
England, born on the 25th of November 1609, was the daughter
of Henry IV. of France. When the first serious overtures for'
her hand were made on behalf of Charles, prince of Wales,
in the spring of 1624, she was little more than fourteen years of
age. Her brother, Louis XIII., only consented to the marriage
on the condition that the English Roman Catholics were relieved
from the operation of the penal laws. When therefore she set
out for her new home in June 1625, she had already pledged
the husband to whom she had been married by proxy on the
ist of May to a course of action which was certain to bring
unpopularity on him as well as upon herself.
That husband was now king of England. The early years of
the married life of Charles I. were most unhappy. He soon
found an excuse for breaking his promise to relieve the English
Catholics. His young wife was deeply offended by treatment
which she naturally regarded as unhandsome. The favourite
Buckingham stirred the flames of his master's discontent.
Charles in vain strove to reduce her to tame submission. After
the assassination of Buckingham in 1628 the barrier between the
married pair was broken down, and the bond of affection which
from that moment united them was never loosened. The children
of the marriage were Charles II. (b. 1630), Mary, princess of
Orange (b. 1631), James II. (b. 1633), Elizabeth (b. 1636),
Henry, duke of Gloucester (b. 1640), and Henrietta, duchess of
Orleans (b. 1644).
For some years Henrietta Maria's chief interests lay in her
young family, and in the amusements of a gay and brilliant
court. She loved to be present at dramatic entertainments, and
her participation in the private rehearsals of the Shepherd's
Pastoral, written by her favourite Walter Montague, probably
drew down upon her the savage attack of Prynne. With political
matters she hardly meddled as yet. Even her co-religionists
found little aid from her till the summer of 1637. She had then
recently opened a diplomatic communication with the see of
Rome. She appointed an agent to reside at Rome, and a papal
agent, a Scotsman named George Conn, accredited to her,
was soon engaged in effecting conversions amongst the English
gentry and nobility. Henrietta Maria was well pleased to become
a patroness of so holy a work, especially as she was not asked
to take any personal trouble in the matter. Protestant England
took alarm at the proceedings of a queen who associated herself
so closely with the doings of "the grim wolf with privy paw."
When the Scottish troubles broke out, she raised money from
her fellow-Catholics to support the king's army on the borders in
1639. During the session of the Short Parliament in the spring
of 1640, the queen urged the king to oppose himself to the House
of Commons in defence of the Catholics. When the Long Parlia-
ment met, the Catholics were believed to be the authors and
agents of every arbitrary scheme which was supposed to have
entered into the plans of Strafford or Laud. Before the Long
Parliament had sat for two months, the queen was urging upon
the pope the duty of lending money to enable her to restore her
husband's authority. She threw herself heart and soul into the
schemes for rescuing Strafford and coercing the parliament.
The army plot, the scheme for using Scotland against England,
and the attempt upon the five members were the fruits of her
political activity.
In the next year the queen effected her passage to the Continent.
In February 1643 she landed at Burlington Quay, placed herself
at the head of a force of loyalists, and marched through England
to join the king near Oxford. After little more than a year's
residence there, on the 3rd of April 1644, she left her husband,
HENRY HENRY II.
273
to see his face no more. Henrietta Maria found a refuge in
France. Richelieu was dead, and Anne of Austria was com-
passionate. As long as her husband was alive the queen never
ceased to encourage him to resistance.
During her exile in France she had much to suffer. Her
husband's execution in 1649 was a terrible blow. She brought
up her youngest child Henrietta in her own faith, but her efforts
to induce her youngest son, the duke of Gloucester, to take the
same course only produced discomfort in the exiled family. The
story of her marriage with her attached servant Lord Jermyn
needs more confirmation than it has yet received to be accepted,
but all the information which has reached us of her relations with
her children points to the estrangement which had grown up
between them. When after the Restoration she returned to
England, she found, that she had no place in the new world.
She received from parliament a grant of 30,000 a year in com-
pensation for the loss of her dower-lands, and the king added
a similar sum as a pension from himself. In January 1661 she
returned to France to be present at the marriage of her daughter
Henrietta to the duke of Orleans. In July 1662 she set out again
for England, and took up her residence once more at Somerset
House. Her health failed her, and on the 24th of June 1665, she
departed in search of bhe clearer air of her native country. She
died on the 3ist of August 1666, at Colombes, not far from Paris.
See I. A. Taylor, The Life of Queen Henrietta Maria (1905).
HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid.
H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih,
i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng.
home, and rih, Goth, reiks; compare Lat. rex " king " " rich,"
therefore " mighty," and so " a ruler." Compare Sans, rddsh
" to shine forth, rule, &c. " and mod. raj " rule " and raja,
"king"), the name of many European sovereigns, the more
important of whom are noticed below in the following order:
(i) emperors and German kings; (2) kings of England; (3)
other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (4) other
reigning princes in the same order; (5) non-reigning princes;
(6) bishops, nobles, chroniclers, &c.
HENRY I. (c. 876-936), surnamed the " Fowler," German king,
son of Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, grew to manhood
amid the disorders which witnessed to the decay of the Carolingian
empire, and in early life shared in various campaigns for the
defence of Saxony. He married Hatburg, a daughter of Irwin,
count of Merseburg, but as she had taken the veil on the death
of a former husband this union was declared illegal by the church ,
and in 909 he married Matilda, daughter of a Saxon count named
Thiederich, and a reputed descendant of the hero Widukind.
On his father's death in 912 he became duke of Saxony, which he
ruled with considerable success, defending it from the attacks
of the Slavs and resisting the claims of the German king Conrad I.
(sec SAXONY). He afterwards won the esteem of Conrad to such
an extent that in 918 the king advised the nobles to make the
Saxon duke his successor. After Conrad's death the Franks
and the Saxons met at Fritzlar in May 919 and chose Henry as
German king, after which the new king refused to allow his election
to be sanctioned by the church. His authority, save in Saxony,
was merely nominal; but by negotiation rather than by warfare
he secured a recognition of his sovereignty from the Bavarians
and the Swabians. A struggle soon took place between Henry
and Charles III., the Simple, king of France, for the possession
of Lorraine. In 921 Charles recognized Henry as king of the East
Franks, and when in 923 the French king was taken prisoner
by Herbert, count of Vermandois, Lorraine came under Henry's
authority, and Giselbert, who married his daughter Gerberga,
was recognized as duke. Turning his attention to the east, Henry
reduced various Slavonic tribes to subjection, took Brennibor,
the modern Brandenburg, from the Hevelli, and secured both
banks of the Elbe for Saxony. In 923 he had bought a truce for
ten years with the Hungarians, by a promise of tribute, but on
its expiration he gained a great victory over these formidable
foes in March 933. The Danes were defeated, and territory as far
as the Eider secured for Germany; and the king sought further
to extend his influence by entering into relations with the kings
of England, France and Burgundy. He is said to have been
contemplating a journey to Rome, when he died at Memleben on
the 2nd of July 936, and was buried at Quedlinburg. By his first
wife, Hatburg, he left a son, Thankmar, who was excluded from
the succession as illegitimate; and by Matilda he left three sons,
the eldest of whom, Otto (afterwards the emperor Otto the Great),
succeeded him, and two daughters. Henry was a successful
ruler, probably because he was careful to undertake only such
enterprises as he was able to carry through. Laying more stress
on his position as duke of Saxony than king of Germany, he
conferred great benefits on his duchy. The founder of her town
life and the creator of her army, he ruled in harmony with her
nobles and secured her frontiers from attack. The story that he
received the surname of " Fowler " because the nobles, sent to
inform him of his election to the throne, found him engaged in
laying snares for the birds, appears to be mythical.
See Widukind of Corvei, Res gestae Saxonicae, edited by G.
Waitz in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band
iii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); " Die Urkunde des deutschen
Konigs Heinrichs I.," edited by T. von Sickel in the Monumenta
Germaniae historica. Diplomata (Hanover, 1879) ; W. von Giese-
brecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Bande i., ii. (Leipzig,
1881); G. Waitz, Jahrbilcher des deutschen Reichs unter Konig
Heinrich I. (Leipzig, 1885); and F. Loher, Die deutsche Politik
Konig Heinrich I. (Munich, 1857).
HENRY II. (973-1024), surnamed the " Saint, " Roman
emperor, son of Henry II., the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria,
and Gisela, daughter of Conrad, king of Burgundy, or Aries
(d. 993), and great-grandson of the German king Henry I., the
Fowler, was born on the 6th of May 973. When his father was
driven from his duchy in 976 it was intended that Henry should
take holy orders, and he received the earlier part of a good
education at Hildesheim. This idea, however, was abandoned
when his father was restored to Bavaria in 985; but young
Henry, whose education was completed at Regensburg, retained
a lively interest in ecclesiastical affairs. He became duke of
Bavaria on his father's death in 995, and appears to have
governed his duchy quietly and successfully for seven years.
He showed a special regard for monastic reform and church
government, accompanied his kinsman, the emperor Otto III.,
on two occasions to Italy, and about 1001 married Kunigunde
(d. 1037), daughter of Siegfried, count of Luxemburg. When
Otto III. died childless in 1002, Henry sought to secur; the
German throne, and seizing the imperial insignia made an
arrangement with Otto I., duke of Carinthia. There was con-
siderable opposition to his claim; but one rival, Ekkard I.,
margrave of Meissen, was murdered, and, hurrying to Mainz,
Henry was chosen German king by the Franks and Bavarians
on the 7th of June 1002, and subsequently crowned by Willigis,
archbishop of Mainz, who had been largely instrumental in
securing his election. Having ravaged the lands of another rival,
Hermann II., duke of Swabia, Henry purchased the allegiance
of the Thuringians and the Saxons; and when shortly afterwards
the nobles of Lorraine did homage and Hermann of Swabia
submitted, he was generally recognized as king. Danger soon
arose from Boleslaus I., the Great, king of Poland, who had
extended his authority over Meissen andLusatia, seized Bohemia,
and allied himself with some discontented German nobles,
including the king's brother, Bruno, bishop of Augsburg. Henry
easily crushed his domestic foes; but the incipient war with
Boleslaus was abandoned in favour of an expedition into Italy,
where Arduin, margrave of Ivrea, had been elected king. Cross-
ing the Alps Henry met with no resistance from Arduin, and in
May 1004 he was chosen and crowned king of the Lombards
at Pavia; but a tumult caused by the presence of the Germans
soon arose in the city, and having received the homage of several
cities of Lombardy the king returned to Germany. He then
freed Bohemia from the rule of the Poles, led an expedition into
Friesland, and was successful in compelling Boleslaus to sue
for peace in 1005. A struggle with Baldwin IV., count of
Flanders, in 1006 and 1007 was followed by trouble with the
king's brothers-in-law, Dietrich and Adalbero of Luxemburg,
who had seized respectively the bishopric of Metz and the
274
HENRY III.
archbishopric of Trier (Treves) . Henry sought to dislodge them,
but aided by their elder brother Henry, who had been made
duke of Bavaria in 1004, they held their own in a desultory
warfare in Lorraine. In 1009, however, the eldest of the three
brothers was deprived of Bavaria, while Adalbero had in the
previous year given up his claim to Trier, but Dietrich retained
the bishopric of Metz. The Polish war had been renewed in
1007, but it was not until 1010 that the king was able to take
a personal part in these campaigns. Meeting with indifferent
success, he made peace with Boleslaus early in 1013, when the
duke retained Lusatia, but did homage to Henry at Merseburg.
In 1013 the king made a second journey to Italy where two
popes were contending for the papal chair, and meeting with
no opposition was received with great honour at Rome. Having
recognized Benedict VIII. as the rightful pope, he was crowned
emperor on the I4th of February 1014, and soon returned to
Germany laden with treasures from Italian cities. But the
struggle with the Poles now broke out afresh, and in 1015 and
1017 the king, having obtained assistance from the heathen
Liutici, led formidable armies against Boleslaus. During the
campaign of 1017 he had as an ally the grand duke of Russia,
but his troops suffered considerable loss, and on the 3oth of
January 1018 he made peace at Bautzen with Boleslaus, who
again retained Lusatia. As early as 1006 Henry had concluded
a succession treaty with his uncle Rudolph III., the childless
king of Burgundy, or Aries; but when Rudolph desired to
abdicate in 1016 Henry's efforts to secure possession of the
territory were foiled by the resistance of the nobles. In 1020
the emperor was visited at Bamberg by Pope Benedict, in
response to whose entreaty for assistance against the Greeks of
southern Italy he crossed the Alps in 1021 for the third and last
time. With the aid of the Normans he captured many fortresses
and seriously crippled the power of the Greeks, but was compelled
by the ravages of pestilence among his troops to return to
Germany in 1022. It was probably about this time that Henry
gave Benedict the diploma which ratified the gifts made by his
predecessors' to the papacy. Spending his concluding years
in disputes over church reform he died on the i3th of July 1024
at Grona near Gottingen, and was buried at Bamberg, where
he had founded and richly endowed a bishopric.
Henry was an enthusiast for church reform, and under the
influence of his friend Odilo, abbot of Cluny, sought to further
the principles of the Cluniacs, and seconded the efforts of Benedict
VIII. to prevent the marriage of the clergy and the sale of
spiritual dignities. He was energetic and capable, but except
in his relations with the church was not a strong ruler. But
though devoted to the church and a strict observer of religious
rites, he was by no means the slave of the clergy. He appointed
bishops without the formality of an election, and attacked
clerical privileges although he made clerics the representatives
of the imperial power. He held numerous diets and issued
frequent ordinances for peace, but feuds among the nobles were
common, and the frontiers of the empire were insecure. Henry,
who was the last emperor of the Saxon house, was the first to
use the title " King of the Romans. " He died childless, and a
tradition of the i2th century says he and his wife took vows
of chastity. He was canonized in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III.
See Adalbold of Utrecht, Vita Heinrici II., Thietmar of Merse-
burg, Chronicon, both in the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
Scriptures, Bande iii. and iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.) ; W. von
Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Leipzig, 1881-1890) ;
S. Hirsch, continued by R. Usinger, H. Pabst and H. Bresslau,
Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Heinrich II. (Leipzig,
1874); A. Cohn, Kaiser Heinrich II. (Halle, 1867); H. Zeissberg,
Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs II. mil Boleslaw I. von Polen (Vienna,
1868); and G. Matthaei, Die Klosterpolitik Kaiser Heinrichs II.
(Gottingen, 1877).
HENRY III. (1017-1056), surnamed the "Black," Roman
emperor, only son of the emperor Conrad II., and Gisela, widow
of Ernest I., duke of Swabia, was born on the 28th of October
1017, designated as his father's successor in 1026, and crowned
German king at Aix-la-Chapelle by Pilgrim, archbishop of
Cologne, on the I4th of April 1028. In 1027 he was appointed
duke of Bavaria, and his early years were mainly spent in this
country, where he received an excellent education under the
care of Bruno, bishop of Augsburg and, afterwards, of Egilbert,
bishop of Freising. He soon began to take part in the business
of the empire. In 1032 he took part in a campaign in Burgundy;
in 1033 led an expedition against Ulalrich, prince of the
Bohemians; and in June 1036 was married at Nijmwegen to
Gunhilda, afterwards called Kunigunde, daughter of Canute,
king of Denmark and England. In 1038 he followed his father
to Italy, and in the same year the emperor formally handed
over to him the kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries, and appointed
him duke of Swabia. In spite of the honours which Conrad
heaped upon Henry the relations between father and son were
not uniformly friendly, as Henry disapproved of the emperor's
harsh treatment of some of his allies and adherents. When
Conrad died in June 1039, Henry became sole ruler of the
empire, and his authority was at once recognized in all parts
of his dominions. Three of the duchies were under his direct
rule, no rival appeared to contest his claim, and the outlying
parts of the empire, as well as Germany, were practically free
from disorder. This peaceful state of affairs was, however,
soon broken by the ambition of Bretislaus, prince of the
Bohemians, who revived the idea of an independent Slavonic
state, and conquered various Polish towns. Henry took up arms,
and having suffered two defeats in 1040 renewed the struggle
with a stronger force in the following year, when he compelled
Bretislaus to sue for peace and to do homage for Bohemia at
Regensburg. In 1042 he received the homage of the Burgundians
and his attention was then turned to the Hungarians, who had
driven out their king Peter, and set up in his stead one Aba
Samuel, or Ovo, who attacked the eastern border of Bavaria.
In 1043 and the two following years Henry crushed the
Hungarians, restored Peter, and brought Hungary completely
under the power of the German king. In 1038 Queen Kuni-
gunde had died in Italy, and in 1043 the king was married at
Ingelheim to Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne,
a union which drew him much nearer to the reforming party in
the church. In 1044 Gothelon (Gozelo), duke of Lorraine, died,
and some disturbance arose over Henry's refusal to grant the
whole of the duchy to his son Godfrey, called the Bearded.
Godfrey took up arms, but after a short imprisonment was
released and confirmed in the possession of Upper Lorraine in
1046 which, however, he failed to secure. About this time
Henry was invited to Italy where three popes were contending
for power, and crossing the Alps with a large army he marched
to Rome. Councils held at Sutri and at Rome having declared
the popes deposed, the king secured the election of Suidger,
bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of Clement II., and by
this pontiff Henry was crowned as emperor on the 25th of
December 1046. He was immediately recognized by the Romans
as Patricius, an office which carried with it at this time the
right to appoint the pope. Supreme in church and state alike,
ruler of Germany, Italy and Burgundy, overlord of Hungary
and Bohemia, Henry occupied a commanding position, and
this time may be regarded as marking the apogee of the power
of the Roman empire of the Germans. The emperor assisted
Pope Clement in his efforts to banish simony. He made a
victorious progress in southern Italy, where he restored Pandulph
IV. to the principality of Capua, and asserted his authority
over the Normans in Apulia and Aversa. Returning to Germany
in 1047 he appointed two popes, Damasus II. and Leo IX.,
in quick succession, and turned to face a threatening combination
in the west of the empire, where Godfrey of Lorraine was again
in revolt, and with the help of Baldwin V., count of Flanders
and Dirk IV., count of Holland, who had previously caused
trouble to Henry, was ravaging the lands of the emperor's
representatives in Lorraine. Assisted by the kings of England
and Denmark, Henry succeeded with some difficulty in bringing
the rebels to submission in 1050. Godfrey was deposed; but
Baldwin soon found an opportunity for a further revolt, which
an expedition undertaken by the emperor in 1054 was unable
to crush.
HENRY IV.
275
Meanwhile a reaction against German influence had taken
place in Hungary. King Peter had been driven out in 1046
and his place taken by Andreas I. Inroads into Bavaria followed,
and in 1051 and 1052 Henry led his forces against the Hungarians,
and after the pope had vainly attempted to mediate, peace was
made in 1053. It was quickly broken, however, and the emperor,
occupied elsewhere, soon lost most of his authority in the east;
although in 1054 he made peace between Brestislav of Bohemia
and Casimir I., duke of the Poles. Henry had not lost sight of
affairs in Italy during these years, and had received several
visits from the pope, whose aim was to bring southern Italy
under his own dominion. Henry had sent military assistance
to Leo, and had handed over to him the government of the
principality of Benevento in return for the bishopric of Bamberg.
But the pope's defeat by the Normans was followed by his death.
Henry then nominated Gebhard, bishop of Eichstadt, who took
the name of Victor II., to the vacant chair, and promised his
assistance to the reluctant candidate. Jn 1055 the emperor
went a second time to Italy, where his authority was threatened
by Godfrey of Lorraine, who had married Beatrice, widow of
Boniface III., margrave of Tuscany, and was ruling her vast
estates. Godfrey fled, however, on the appearance of Henry,
who only remained a short time in Italy, during which he granted
the duchy of Spoleto to Pope Victor, and negotiated for an
attack upon the Normans. Before the journey to Italy, Henry
had found it necessary to depose Conrad III., duke of Bavaria,
and to suppress a rising in southern -Germany. During his
absence Conrad formed an alliance with Welf , duke of Carinthia,
and Gebhard III., bishop of Regensburg. A conspiracy to depose
the emperor, support for which was found in Lorraine, was
quickly discovered, and Henry, leaving Victor as his repre-
sentative in Italy, returned in 1055 to Germany to receive the
submission of his foes. In 1056, the emperor was visited by
the pope; and on the sth of October in the same year he died
at Bodfeld and was buried at Spires. Henry was a pious and
peace-loving prince, who favoured church reform, sought earnestly
to suppress private warfare, and alone among the early emperors
is said to have been innocent of simony. Although under his
rule Germany enjoyed considerable tranquillity, and a period
of wealth and progress set in for the towns, yet his secular and
ecclesiastical policy showed signs of weakness. Unable, or
unwilling, seriously to curb the increasing power of the church,
he alienated the sympathies of the nobles as a class, and by
allowing the southern duchies to pass into other hands restored
a power which true to its traditions was not always friendly
to the royal house. Henry was a patron of learning, a founder
of schools, and built or completed cathedrals at Spires, Worms
and Mainz.
The chief original authorities for the life and reign of Henry
III. are the Chronicon of Herimann of Reichenau, the Annales
Sangallenses majores, the Annales Hildesheimenses , all in the
Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores (Hanover and Berlin,
1826 fol.). The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht,
Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1888) ; M.
Perlbach, " Die Kriege Heinrichs III. gegen Bohmen," in the
Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Band x. (Gottingen, 1862
1886); E. Steindorff, Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich
III. (Leipzig, 1874-1881); and F. Steinhoff, Das Konigthum und
Kaiserthum Heinrichs III. (Gottingen, 1865).
HENRY IV. (1050-1106), Roman emperor, son of the emperor
Henry III. and Agnes, daughter of William V., duke of Guienne,
was born on the nth of November 1050, chosen German king
at Tribur in 1053, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the I7th
of July 1054. In 1055 he was appointed duke of Bavaria,
and on his father's death in October 1056 inherited the kingdoms
of Germany, Italy and Burgundy. These territories were
governed in his name by his mother, who was unable to repress
the internal disorder or to take adequate measures for their
defence. Some opposition was soon aroused, and in 1062 Anno,
archbishop of Cologne, and others planned to seize the person
of the young king and to deprive Agnes of power. This plot
met with complete success. Henry, who was at Kaiserwerth,
was persuaded to board a boat lying in the Rhine; it was
immediately unmoored and the king sprang into the stream, but
was rescued by one of the conspirators and carried to Cologne.
Agnes made no serious effort to regain her control, and the
chief authority was exercised for a time by Anno; but his rule
proved unpopular, and he was soon compelled to share his power
with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen. The education and
training of Henry were supervised by Anno, who was called his
magister, while Adalbert was styled pair onus; but Anno was
disliked by Henry, and during his absence in Italy the chief
power passed into the hands of Adalbert. Henry's education
seems to have been neglected, and his wilful and headstrong
nature was developed by the conditions under which his early
years were passed. In March 1065 he was declared of age, and
in the following year a powerful coalition of ecclesiastical and
lay nobles brought about the banishment of Adalbert from court
and the return of Anno to power. In 1066 Henry was persuaded
to marry Bertha, daughter of Otto, count of Savoy, to whom he
had been betrothed since 1055. For some time he regarded
his wife with strong dislike and sought in vain for a divorce,
but after she had borne him a son in 1071 she gained his affections,
and became his most trusted friend and companion.
In 1069 the king took the reins of government into his own
hands. He recalled Adalbert to court; led expeditions against
the Liutici, and against Dedo or Dedi II., margrave of a district
east of Saxony; and soon afterwards quarrelled with Rudolph,
duke of Swabia, and Berthold, duke of Carinthia. Much more
serious was Henry's struggle with Otto of Nordheim, duke of
Bavaria. This prince, who occupied an influential position in
Germany, was accused in 1070 by a certain Egino of being
privy to a plot to murder the king. It was decided that a trial
by battle should take place at Goslar, but when the demand
of Otto for a safe conduct for himself and his followers, to and
from the place of meeting, was refused, he declined to appear.
He was thereupon declared deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon
estates were plundered. He obtained sufficient support, however,
to carry on a struggle with the king in Saxony and Thuringia
until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt. Henry aroused
the hostility of the Thuringians by supporting Siegfried, arch-
bishop of Mainz, in his efforts to exact tithes from them; but
still more formidable was the enmity of the Saxons, who had
several causes of complaint against the king. He was the son
of one enemy, Henry III., and the friend of another, Adalbert
of Bremen. He had ordered a restoration of all crown lands
in Saxony and had built forts among this people, while the
country was ravaged to supply the needs of his courtiers, and
its duke Magnus was a prisoner in his hands. All classes were
united against him, and when the struggle broke out in 1073
the Thuringians joined the Saxons; and the war, which lasted
with slight intermissions until 1088, exercised a most potent
influence upon Henry's fortunes elsewhere (see SAXONY).
Henry soon found himself confronted by an abler and more
stubborn antagonist than either Thuringian or Saxon. In 1073
Hildebrand became pope as Gregory VII. Two years later
this great ecclesiastic issued his memorable prohibition of lay
investiture, and the blow then struck at the secular power by
the papacy threatened seriously to undermine the imperial
authority. Spurred on by his advisers, Henry did not refuse the
challenge. Threatened with the papal ban, he summoned a
synod of German bishops which met at Worms in January 1076
and declared Gregory deposed; and he wrote his famous letter
to the pope, in which he referred to him as " not pope, but false
monk." The king was at once excommunicated. His adherents
gradually fell away, the Saxons were again in arms, and Otto of
Nordheim succeeded in uniting the malcontents of north and
south Germany. In October 1076 an important diet met at
Tribur, and after discussing the deposition of the king, decided
that he should be judged by an assembly to be held at Augsburg
in the following February under the presidency of the pope. This
union of the temporal and spiritual forces was too strong for the
king, and he decided to submit.
Crossing the Alps, Henry appeared in January 1077 as a
penitent before the castle of Canossa, where Gregory had taken
276
HENRY IV.
refuge. The story of this famous occurrence, which represents
the king asstandingin the courtyard of thecastle for three days in
the snow, clad as a penitent, and entreating to be admitted to the
pope's presence, is now regarded as mythical in its details; but
there is no doubt that the king visited the castle at intervals, and
prayed for admission for three days until the 28th of January,
when he was received by Gregory and absolved, after promising
to submit to the pope's authority and to secure for him a safe
journey to Germany. No historical incident has more profoundly
impressed the imagination of the Western world. It marked the
highest point reached by papal authority, and presents a vivid
picture of the awe inspired during the middle ages by the super-
natural powers supposed to be wielded by the church.
Scorned by his Lombard allies, Henry left Italy to find that in
his absence Rudolph, duke of Swabia, had been chosen German
king; and although Gregory had taken no part in this election,
Henry sought to prevent the pope's journey to Germany, and
regaining courage, tried to recover his former position. Supported
by most of the German bishops and by the Lombards, now
reconciled to him, and recognized in Burgundy, Bavaria and
Franconia, Henry (who at this time is referred to by Bruno, the
author of De hello Saxonico, as exrex) appeared stronger than his
rival Rudolph; but the ensuing war was waged with varying
success. He was beaten at Mellrichstadt in 1078, and at
Flarchheim in 1080, but these defeats were due rather to the
fierce hostility of the Saxons, and the military skill of Otto of
Nordheim, than to any general sympathy with Rudolph.
Gregory's attitude remained neutral, in spite of appeals from
both sides, until March 1080, when he again excommunicated
Henry, but without any serious effect on the fortunes of the king.
At Henry's initiative, Gregory was declared deposed on three
occasions, and an anti-pope was elected in the person of Wibert,
archbishop of Ravenna, who took the name of Clement III.
The death of Rudolph in October 1080, and a consequent lull in
the war, enabled the king to go to Italy early in 1081. He found
considerable support in Lombardy; placed Matilda, marchioness
of Tuscany, the faithful friend of Gregory, under the imperial
ban; took the Lombard crown at Pavia; and secured the
recognition of Clement by a council. Marching to Rome, he
undertook the siege of the city, but was soon compelled to retire
to Tuscany, where he granted privileges to various cities, and
obtained monetary assistance from a new ally, the eastern
emperor, Alexius I. A second and equally unsuccessful attack
on Rome was followed by a war of devastation in northern Italy
with the adherents of Matilda; and towards the end of 1082 the
king made a third attack on Rome. After a siege of seven months
the Leonine city fell into his hands. A treaty was concluded
with the Romans, who agreed that the quarrel between king and
pope should be decided by a synod, and secretly bound them-
selves to induce Gregory to crown Henry as emperor, or to choose
another pope. Gregory, however, shut up in the castle of St
Angelo, would hear of no compromise; the synod was a failure,
as Henry prevented the attendance of many of the pope's
supporters; and the king, in pursuance of his treaty with
Alexius, marched against the Normans. The Romans soon fell
away from their allegiance to the pope; and, recalled to the city,
Henry entered Rome in March 1084, after which Gregory was
declared deposed and Clement was recognized by the Romans.
On the 3ist of March 1084 Henry was crowned emperor by
Clement, and received the patrician authority. His next step
was to attack the fortresses still in the hands of Gregory. The
pope was saved by the advance of Robert Guiscard, duke of
Apulia, with a large force, which compelled Henry to return
to Germany.
Meanwhile the German rebels had chosen a fresh anti-king,
Hermann, count of Luxemburg, whom Henry's supporters had
already driven to his last line of defence in Saxony. During the
campaign of 1086 Henry was defeated near Wurzburg, but in
1088 Hermann abandoned the struggle and the emperor was
generally recognized in Saxony, to which country he showed
considerable clemency. Although Henry's power was in the
ascendent, a few powerful nobles adhered to the cause of Gregory's
successor, Urban II. Among them was Welf, son of Welf I., the
deposed duke of Bavaria, whose marriage with Matilda of
Tuscany rendered him too formidable to be neglected. The
emperor accordingly returned to Italy in 1090, where Mantua
and Milan were taken, and Pope Clement was restored to Rome.
Henry's communications with Germany were, however,threatened
by a league of the Lombard cities, and his anxieties were soon
augmented by domestic troubles.
Henry's first wife had died in 1087, and in 1089 he had married
a Russian princess, Praxedis, afterwards called Adelaide. Her
conduct soon aroused his suspicions, and his own eldest son,
Conrad, who had been crowned German king in 1087, was thought
to be a partner in her guilt. Escaping from prison, Adelaide fled
to Henry's enemies and brought grave charges against her
husband; while the papal party induced Conrad to desert his
father and to be crowned king of Italy at Monza in 1093.
Crushed by this blow, Henry remained almost helpless and
inactive in northern Italy for five years, until 1097, when having
lost every shred of authority in that country, he returned to
Germany, where his position was stronger than ever. Welf had
submitted, had forsaken the cause of Matilda and had been restored
to Bavaria, and in 1098 the diet assembled at Mainz declared
Conrad deposed, and chose the emperor's second son, Henry,
afterwards the emperor Henry V., as German king. The crusade
of 1096 had freed Germany from many turbulent spirits, and the
emperor, meeting with some success in his efforts to restore order,
could afford to ignore his repeated excommunication. A success-
ful campaign in Flanders was followed in 1 103 by a diet at Mainz,
where serious efforts were made to restore peace, and Henry
himself promised to go on crusade. But this plan was shattered
by the revolt of the younger Henry in 1104, who, encouraged by
the adherents of the pope, declared he owed no allegiance to an
excommunicated father. Saxony and Thuringia were soon in
arms, the bishops held mainly to the younger Henry, while the
emperor was supported by the towns. A desultory warfare was
unfavourable, however, to the emperor, who, deceived by false
promises, became a prisoner in the hands of his son in 1 105. The
diet met at Mainz inDecember,when he was compelled to abdicate;
but contrary to the conditions, he was detained at Ingelheim and
denied his freedom. Escaping to Cologne, he found considerable
support in the lower Rhineland; he entered into negotiations with
England, France and Denmark, and was engaged in collecting an
army when he died at Liege on the 7th of August 1 106. His body
was buried by the bishop of Liege with suitable ceremony, but by
command of the papal legate it was unearthed, taken to Spires,
and placed in an unconsecrated chapel. After being released from
the sentence of excommunication the remains were buried in
the cathedral of Spires in August mi.
Henry IV. was very licentious and in his early years was
careless and self-willed, but better qualities were developed in
his later life. He displayed much diplomatic ability, and his
abasement at Canossa may fairly be regarded as a move of policy
to weaken the pope's position at the cost of a personal humiliation
to himself. He was always regarded as a friend of the lower
orders, was capable of generosity and gratitude, and showed
considerable military skill. Unfortunate in the time in which
he lived, and in the troubles with which he had to contend, he
holds an honourable position in history as a monarch who resisted
the excessive pretensions both of the papacy and of the ambitious
feudal lords of Germany.
The authorities for the life and reign of Henry are Lambert of
Hersfeld, Annales; Bernold of Reichenau, Chronicon; Ekkehard of
Aura, Chronicon; and Bruno, De hello Saxonico, which gives several
of the more important letters that passed between Henry and
Gregory VII. These are all found in the Monumenta Germaniae
histories.. Scriptores, Bande v. and vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-
1892). There is an anonymous Vita Heinrici IV., edited by W.
Wattenbach (Hanover, 1876). The best modern authorities are:
G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches unter
Heinrich IV. (Leipzig, 1890); H. Floto, Kaiser Heinrich IV. und
sein Zeitalter (Stuttgart, 1855); E. Kilian, Itinerar Kaiser Heinrichs
IV. (Karlsruhe, 1886); K. W. Nitzsch, " Das deutsche Reich und
Heinrich IV.," in the Historische Zeitschrift, Band xlv. (Munich,
1859); H. Ulmann, Zum VerstdnJniss der sachsischen Erhebung
gegen Heinrich IV. (Hanover, 1886), W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte
HENRY V.
277
der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Leipzig, 1881-1890); B. Gebhardt, Hand-
buch der deutschen Geschichle (Berlin, 1901). For a list of other
works, especially those on the relations between Henry and Gregory,
see Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte (Got-
tingen, 1894). (A. W. H.*)
HENRY V. (1081-1125), Roman emperor, son of the emperor
Henry IV., was born on the 8th of January 1081, and after
the revolt and deposition of his elder brother, the German king
Conrad (d. noi), was chosen as his successor in 1098. He
promised to take no part in the business of the Empire during
his fathei's lifetime, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on
the 6th of January 1099. In spite of his oath Henry was induced
by his father's enemies to revolt in 1 104, and some of the princes
did homage to him at Mainz in January 1106. In August of the
same year the elder Henry died, when his son became sole ruler
of the Empire. Order was soon restored in Germany, the citizens
of Cologne were punished by a fine, and an expedition against
Robert II., count of Flanders, brought this rebel to his knees.
In 1107 a campaign, which was only partially successful, was
undertaken to restore Bofiwoj II. to the dukedom of Bohemia,
and in the year following the king led his forces into Hungary,
where he failed to take Pressburg. In 1109 he was unable to
compel the Poles to renew their accustomed tribute, but in
i no he succeeded in securing the dukedom of Bohemia for
Ladislaus I.
The main interest of Henry's reign centres in the controversy
over lay investiture, which had caused a serious dispute during
the previous reign. The papal party who had supported Henry
in his resistance to his father hoped he would assent to the
decrees of the pope, which had been renewed by Paschal II. at
the synod of Guastalla in 1106. The king, however, continued
to invest the bishops, but wished the pope to hold a council in
Germany to settle the question. Paschal after some hesitation
preferred France to Germany, and, after holding a council at
Troyes, renewed his prohibition of lay investiture. The matter
slumbered until mo, when, negotiations between king and pope
having failed, Paschal renewed his decrees and Henry went to
Italy with a large army. The strength of his forces helped him to
secure general recognition in Lombardy , and at Sutri he concluded
an arrangement with Paschal by which he renounced the right
of investiture in return for a promise of coronation, and the
restoration to the Empire of all lands given by kings, or emperors,
to the German church since the time of Charlemagne. It was a
treaty impossible to execute, and Henry, whose consent to it
is said to have been conditional on its acceptance by the princes
and bishops of Germany, probably foresaw that it would occasion
a breach between the German clergy and the pope. Having
entered Rome and sworn the usual oaths, the king presented
himself at St Peter's on the i2th of February nn for his
coronation and the ratification of the treaty. The words com-
manding the clergy to restore the fiefs of the crown to Henry
were read amid a tumult of indignation, whereupon the pope
refused to crown the king, who in return declined to hand over
his renunciation of the right of investiture. Paschal was seized
by Henry's soldiers and, in the general disorder into which the
city was thrown, an attempt to liberate the pontiff was thwarted
in a struggle during which the king himself was wounded. Henry
then left the city carrying the pope with him; and Paschal's failure
to obtain assistance drew from him a confirmation of the king's
right of investiture and a promise to crown him emperor. The
coronation ceremony accordingly took place on the i$th of
April nn, after which the emperor returned to Germany,
where he sought to strengthen his power by granting privileges
to the inhabitants of the region of the upper Rhine.
In 1 1 12 Lothair, duke of Saxony, rose in arms against Henry,
but was easily quelled. In 1113, however, a quarrel over the
succession to the counties of Weimar and Orlamiinde gave
occasion for a fresh outbreak on the part of Lothair, whose troops
were defeated at Warnstadt, after which the duke was pardoned.
Having been married at Mainz on the yth of January 1114 to
Matilda, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., king of England, the
emperor was confronted with a further rising, initiated by the
citizens of Cologne, who were soon joined by the Saxons and
others. Henry failed to take Cologne, his forces were defeated
at Welfesholz on the nth of February 1115, and complications
in Italy compelled him to leave Germany to the care of Frederick
II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and his brother Conrad,
afterwards the German king Conrad III. After the departure
of Henry from Rome in nn a council had declared the privilege
of lay investiture, which had been extorted from Paschal, to
be invalid, and Guido, archbishop of Vienne, excommunicated
the emperor and called upon the pope to ratify this sentence.
Paschal, however, refused to take so extreme a step; and the
quarrel entered upon a new stage in 1 1 1 5 when Matilda, daughter
and heiress of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany, died leaving her
vast estates to the papacy. Crossing the Alps in 1116 Henry
won the support of town and noble by privileges to the one and
presents to the other, took possession of Matilda's lands, and was
gladly received in Rome. By this time Paschal had withdrawn
his consent to lay investiture and the excommunication had been
published in Rome; but the pope was compelled to fly from the
city. Some of the cardinals withstood the emperor, but by
means of bribes he broke down the opposition, and was crowned
a second time by Burdinas, archbishop of Braga. Meanwhile
the defeat at Welfesholz had given heart to Henry's enemies;
many of his supporters, especially among the bishops, fell away;
the excommunication was published at Cologne, and the pope,
with the assistance of the Normans, began to make war. In
January 1118 Paschal died and was succeeded by Gelasius II.
The emperor immediately returned from northern Italy to Rome.
But as the new pope escaped from the city, Henry, despairing
of making a treaty, secured the election of an antipope who took
the name of Gregory VIII., and who was left in possession of
Rome when the emperor returned across the Alps in 1118.
The opposition in Germany was gradually crushed and a general
peace declared at Tribur, while the desire for a settlement of
the investiture dispute was growing. Negotiations, begun at
Wurzburg, were continued at Worms, where the new pope,
Calixtus II., was represented by Caidinal Lambert, bishop of
Ostia. In the concordat of Worms, signed in September 1122,.
Henry renounced the right of investiture with ring and crozier,
recognized the freedom of election of the clergy and promised
to restore all church property. The pope agreed to allow elections
to take place in presence of the imperial envoys, and the investi-
ture with the sceptre to be granted by the emperor as a symbol
that the estates of the church were held under the crown. Henry,
who had been solemnly excommunicated at Reims by Calixtus
in October 1119, was received again into the communion of the
church, after he had abandoned his nominee, Gregory, to defeat
and banishment. The emperor's concluding years were occupied
with a campaign in Holland, and with a quarrel over the succes-
sion to the margraviate of Meissen, two disputes in which his
enemies were aided by Lothair of Saxony. In 1124 he led an
expedition against King Louis VI. of France, turned his arms
against the citizens of Worms, and on the 23rd of May 1125
died at Utrecht and was buried at Spires. Having no children,
he left his possessions to his nephew, Frederick II. of Hohen-
staufen, duke of Swabia, and on his death the line of Franconian,
or Salian, emperors became extinct.
The character of Henry is unattractive. His love of power
was inordinate; he was wanting in generosity, and he did not
shrink from treachery in pursuing his ends.
The chief authority for the life and reign of Henry V. is Ekkehard
of Aura, Chronicon, edited by G. Waitz in the Monumenta
Germaniae hisiorica. Scriptores, Band vi. (Hanover and Berlin,
1826-1892). See also W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen
Kaiserzeit, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); L. von Ranke, Welt-
geschichte, pt. vii. (Leipzig, 1886); M. Manitius, Deutsche Geschichte
(Stuttgart, 1889); G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbucher des deutschen
Reiches unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V. (Leipzig, 1890); E.
Gervais, Politische Geschichte Deutschlands unter der Regierung der
Kaiser Heinrich V. und Lothar III. (Leipzig, 1841-1842) ; G. Peiser,
Der deutsche Investiturstreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V. (Berlin, 1883);
C. Stutzer, " Zur Kritik der Investiturverhandlungen im Jahre
1119," in the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Band xviii.
(Gottingen, 1862-1886); T. von Sickel and H. Bresslau, "Die
278
HENRY VI.-VII.
kaiserliche Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordats," in the Mitthei-
lungen des Instituts fiir osterreichische Geschichtsforschung (Innsbruck,
1880); B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte, Band i.
(Berlin, 1901), and E. Bernheim, Zur Geschichte des Wormser
Konkordats (Gottingen, 1878).
HENRY VI. (1165-1197), Roman emperor,'son of the emperor
Frederick I. and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of
upper Burgundy, was born at Nijmwegen, and educated under
the care of Conrad of Querfurt, afterwards bishop of Hildesheim
and Wiirzburg. Chosen German king, or king of the Romans,
at Bamberg in June 1169, he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle
on the isth of August 1169, invested with lands in Germany
in 1179, and at Whitsuntide 1184 his knighthood was celebrated
in the most magnificent manner at Mainz. Frederick was anxious
to associate his son with himself in the government of the empire,
and when he left Germany in 1184 Henry remained behind as
regent, while his father sought to procure his coronation from
Pope Lucius III. The pope was hesitating when he heard that
the emperor had arranged a marriage between Henry and
Constance, daughter of the late king of Sicily, Roger I., and aunt
and heiress of the reigning king, William II.; and this step,
which threatened to unite Sicily with Germany, decided him to
refuse the proposal. This marriage took place at Milan on the
27th of January 1186, and soon afterwards Henry was crowned
king of Italy. The claim of Henry and his wife on Sicily was
recognized by the barons of that kingdom; and having been
recognized by the pope as Roman emperor elect, Henry returned
to Germany, and was again appointed regent when Frederick
set out on crusade in May 1 189. His attempts to bring peace to
Germany were interrupted by the return of Henry the Lion,
duke of Saxony, in October 1189, and a campaign against him
was followed by a peace made at Fulda in July 1190.
Henry's desire to make this peace was due to the death of
William of Sicily, which was soon followed by that of the emperor
Frederick. Germany and Italy alike seemed to need the king's
presence, but for him, like all the Hohenstaufen, Italy had the
greater charm, and having obtained a promise of his coronation
from Pope Clement III. he crossed the Alps in the winter of
1 190. He purchased the support of the cities of northern Italy,
but on reaching Rome he found Clement was dead and his
successor, Celestine III., disinclined to carry out the engagement
of his predecessor. The strength of the German army and a
treaty made between the king and the Romans induced him,
however, to crown Henry as emperor on the I4th of April 1191.
The aid of the Romans had been purchased by the king's promise
to place in their possession the city of Tusculum, which they had
attacked in vain for three years. After the ceremony the
emperor fulfilled this contract, when the city was destroyed and
many of the inhabitants massacred. Meanwhile a party in Sicily
had chosen Tancred, an illegitimate son of Roger, son of King
Roger II., as their king, and he had already won considerable
authority and was favoured by the pope. Leaving Rome Henry
met with no resistance until he reached Naples, which he was
unable to take, as the ravages of fever and threatening news
from Germany, where his death was reported, compelled him to
raise the siege. In December 1191 he returned to Germany.
Disorder was general and a variety of reasons induced both the
Welfs and their earlier opponents to join in a general league
against the emperor. Vacancies in various bishoprics added to
the confusion, and Henry's enemies gained in numbers and
strength when it was suspected that he was implicated in the
murder of Albert, bishop of Li6ge. Henry acted energetically
in fighting this formidable combination, but his salvation came
from the captivity of Richard I., king of England, and the skill
with which he used this event to make peace with his foes; and,
when Henry the Lion came to terms in March 1194, order was
restored to Germany.
In the following May, Henry made his second expedition to
Italy, where Pope Celestine had definitely espoused the cause of
Tancred. The ransom received from Richard enabled him to
equip a large army, and aided by a fleet fitted out by Genoa and
Pisa he soon secured a complete mastery over the Italian main-
land. When he reached Sicily he found Tancred dead, and,
meeting with very little resistance, he entered Palermo, where
he was crowned king on Christmas day 1194. A stay of a few
months' duration enabled Henry_to settle the affairs of the
kingdom; and leaving his wife, Constance, as regent, and
appointing many Germans to positions of influence, he returned
to Germany in June 1195.
Having established his position in Germany and Italy, Henry
began to cherish ideas of universal empire. Richard of England
had already owned his supremacy, and declaring he would
compel the king of France to do the same Henry sought to stir
up strife between France and England. Nor did the Spanish
kingdoms escape his notice. Tunis and Tripoli were claimed,
and when the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, asked his help,
he demanded in return the cession of the Balkan peninsula.
The kings of Cyprus and Armenia asked for investiture at his
hands; and in general Henry, in the words of a Byzantine
chronicler, put forward his demands as " the lord of all lords,
the king of all kings." To complete this scheme two steps were
necessary, a reconciliation with the pope and the recognition of
his young son, Frederick, as his successor in the Empire. The
first was easily accomplished; the second was more difficult.
After attempting to suppress the renewed disorder in Germany,
Henry met the princes at Worms in December 1195 and put his
proposal before them. In spite of promises they disliked the
suggestion as tending to draw them into Sicilian troubles, and
avoided the emperor's displeasure by postponing their answer.
By threats or negotiations, however, Henry won the consent of
about fifty princes; but though the diet which met at Wiirzburg
in April 1196 agreed to the scheme, the vigorous opposition of
Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, and others rendered it inopera-
tive. In June 1196 Henry went again to Italy, sought vainly
to restore order in the north, and tried to persuade the pope to
crown his son who had been chosen king of the Romans at
Frankfort. Celestine, who had many causes of complaint against
the emperor and his vassals, refused. The emperor then went
to the south, where the oppression of his German officials had
caused an insurrection, which was put down with terrible cruelty.
At Messina on the 28th of September 1197 Henry died from
a cold caught whilst hunting, and was buried at Palermo.
He was a man of small frame and delicate constitution, but
possessed considerable mental gifts and was skilled in knightly
exercises. His ambition was immense, and to attain his
ends he often resorted deliberately to cruelty and treachery.
His chief recreation was hunting, and he also found pleasure
in the society of the Minnesingers and in writing poems,
which appear in F. H. von der Hagen's Minnesinger (Leipzig,
1838). He left an only son Frederick, afterwards the emperor
Frederick II.
The chief authorities for the life and reign of Henry VI. are Otto of
Freising, Chronicon, continued by Otto of St. Blasius; Godfrey of
Viterbo, Gesta Friderici I. and Gesta Heinrici VI.; Giselbert of
Mons, Chronicon Hanoniense, all of which appear in the Monu-
menta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande xx., xxi., xxii.
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), and the various annals of the time.
The best modern authorities are: W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte
der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); T. Toeche,
Kaiser Heinrich VI. (Leipzig, 1867); H. Bloch, Forschungen zur
Politik Kaiser Heinrichs VI. (Berlin, 1892), and K. A. Kneller,
Des Richard Lowenherz deutsche Gefangenschaft (Freiburg, 1893).
HENRY VII. (c. 1269-1313), Roman emperor, son of Henry
III., count of Luxemburg, was knighted by Philip IV., king of
France, and passed his early days under French influences,
while the French language was his mother-tongue. His father
was killed in battle in 1 288, and Henry ruled his tiny inheritance
with justice and prudence, but came into collision with the
citizens of Trier over a question of tolls. In 1292 he married
Margaret (d. 1311), daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and
after the death of the German king, Albert I., he was elected to
the vacant throne on the 27th of November 1308. Recognized
at once by the German princes and by Pope Clement V., the aspira-
tions of the new king turned to Italy, where he hoped by restoring
the imperial authority to prepare the way for the conquest of
HENRY VII. HENRY RASPE
279
the Holy Land. Meanwhile he strove to secure his position in
Germany. The Rhenish archbishops were pacified by the
restoration of the Rhine tolls, negotiations were begun with
Philip IV., king of France, and with Robert, king of Naples,
and the Habsburgs were confirmed in their possessions. At
this time Bohemia was ruled by Henry V., duke of Carinthia,
but the terrible disorder which prevailed induced some of the
Bohemians to offer the crown, together with the hand of Elizabeth,
daughter of the late king Wenceslas II., to John, the son of the
German king. Henry accepted the offer, and in August 1310
John was invested with Bohemia and his marriage was cele-
brated. Before John's coronation at Prague, however, in
February 1311, Henry had crossed the Alps. His hopes of re-
uniting Germany and Italy and of restoring the empire of the
Hohenstaufen were flattered by an appeal from the Ghibellines
to come to their assistance, and by the fact that many Italians,
sharing the sentiments expressed by Dante in his De Monarchia,
looked eagerly for a restoration of the imperial authority. In
October 1310 he reached Turin where, on receiving the homage
of the Lombard cities, he declared that he favoured neither
Guelphs nor Ghibellines, but only sought to impose peace.
Having entered Milan he placed the Lombard crown upon his
head on the 6th of January 1311. But trouble soon showed
itself. His poverty compelled him to exact money from the
citizens; the peaceful professions of the Guelphs were insincere,
and Robert, king of Naples, watched his progress with suspicion.
Florence was fortified against him, and the mutual hatred of
Guelph and Ghibelline was easily renewed. Risings took place
in various places and, after the capture of Brescia, Henry
marched to Rome only to find the city in the hands of the Guelphs
and the troops of King Robert. Some street fighting ensued,
and the king, unable to obtain possession of St Peter's, was
crowned emperor on the 2pth of June 1312 in the church of St
John Lateran by some cardinals who declared they only acted
under compulsion. Failing to subdue Florence, the emperor
from his headquarters at Pisa prepared to attack Robert of
Naples, for which purpose he had allied himself with Frederick
III., king of Sicily. But Clement, anxious to protect Robert,
threatened Henry with excommunication. Undeterred by the
threat the emperor collected fresh forces, made an alliance with
the Venetians, and set out for Naples. On the march he was,
however, taken ill, and died at Buonconvento near Siena on the
24th of August 1313, and was buried at Pisa. His death was
attributed, probably without reason, to poison given him by a
Dominican friar in the sacramental wine. Henry is described
by his contemporary Albertino Mussato, in the Historia Augusta
as a handsome man, of well-proportioned figure, with reddish
hair and arched eyebrows, but disfigured by a squint. He adds,
among other details, that he was slow and laconic in his speech,
magnanimous and devout, but impatient of any compacts
with his subjects, loathing the mention of the Guelph and
Ghibelline factions, and insisting on the absolute authority
of the Empire over all (cuncta absolute complectem Imperio).
He was, however, a lover of justice, and as a knight both bold
and skilful. He was hailed by Dante as the deliverer of Italy,
and in the Paradiso the poet reserved for him a place marked
by a crown.
The contemporary documents for the life and reign of Henry VII.
are very numerous. Many of them are found in the Rerum Itali-
carum scriptores, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751)
others in Fontes rerum Germanicarum, edited by J. F. Bohmer
(Stuttgart, 1843-1868), and in Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen
Vorzeit, Bande 79 and 80 (Leipzig, 1884). The following modern
works may also be consulted: Ada Henrici VII. imperatoris
Romanorum, edited by G. Donniges (Berlin, 1839); F. Bonaini
Ada Henrici VII. Romanorum imperatoris (Florence, 1877); T
Lindner, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxem-
burgern (Stuttgart, 1888-1893); J. Heidemann, "Die Konigswah
Heinrichs von Luxemburg," in the Forschungen zur deutschen
Geschichte, Band xi. (Gottingen, 1862-1886); B. Thomas, Zur
Konigswahl des Graf en Heinrich von Luxemburg (Strassburg, 1875)
D. Konig, Kritische Erorterungen zu einigen italienischen Quellen
fur die Geschichte des Romerzuges Konigs Heinrich VII. (Gottingen
1874); K. Wenck, Clemens V. und Heinrich VII. (Halle, 1882)
F. W. Barthold, Der Romerzug Konig Heinrichs von Liitzelburg
Konigsberg, 1830-1831); R. Pohlmann, Der Romerzug Kiinig
'leinnchs VII. und die Politik der Curie (Nuremberg, 1875); W.
Donniges, Kritik der Quellen fur die Geschichle Heinrichs VII. des
Luxemburgers (Berlin, 1841), and G. Sommerfeldt, Die Romfahrt
Kaiser Heinrichs VII. (Konigsberg, 1888).
HENRY VII. (1211-1242), German king, son of the emperor
Frederick II. and his first wife Constance, daughter of Alphonso
[I., king of Aragon, was crowned king of Sicily in 1212 and made
duke of Swabia in 1216. Pope Innocent III. had favoured his
coronation as king of Sicily in the hope that the union of this
.sland with the Empire would be dissolved, and had obtained a
jromise from Frederick to this effect. In spite of this, however,
Henry was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at
Frankfort in April 1220, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the
3th of May 1222 by his guardian Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne.
He appears to have spent most of his youth in Germany, and
on the 1 8th of November 1225 was married at Nuremberg to
Margaret (d. 1267), daughter of Leopold VI., duke of Austria.
Henry's marriage was the occasion of some difference of opinion,
as Engelbert wished him to marry an English princess, and the
name of a Bohemian princess was also mentioned in this con-
nexion, but Frederick insisted upon the union with Margaret.
The murder of Engelbert in 1225 was followed by an increase of
disorder in Germany in which Henry soon began to participate,
and in 1227 he took part in a quarrel which had arisen on the
death of Henry V., the childless count palatine of the Rhine.
About this time the relations between Frederick and his son
began to be somewhat strained. The emperor had favoured the
Austrian marriage because Margaret's brother, Duke Frederick
II., was childless; but Henry took up a hostile attitude towards
his brother-in-law and wished to put away his wife and
marry Agnes, daughter of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia.
Other causes of trouble probably existed, for in 1231 Henry not
only refused to appear at the diet at Ravenna, but opposed
the privileges granted by Frederick to the princes at Worms. In
1 23 2, "however, he submitted to his father, promising to adopt
the emperor's policy and to obey his commands. He did not
long keep his word and was soon engaged in thwarting Frederick's
wishes in several directions, until in 1233 he took the decisive
step of issuing a manifesto to the princes, and the following year
raised the standard of revolt at Boppard. He obtained very
little support in Germany, however, while the suspicion that he
favoured heresy deprived him of encouragement from the pope.
On the other hand, he succeeded in forming an alliance with the
Lombards in December 1234, but his few supporters fell away
when the emperor reached Germany in 1235, and, after a vain
attack on Worms, Henry submitted and was kept for some time
as a prisoner in Germany, though his formal deposition as German
king was not considered necessary, as he had broken the oath
taken in 1232. He was soon removed to San Felice in Apulia,
and afterwards to Martirano in Calabria, where he died, prob-
ably by his own hand, on the I2th of February 1242, and was
buried at Cosenza. He left two sons, Frederick and Henry,
both of whom died in Italy about 1251.
See J. Rohden, Der Sturz Heinrichs VII. (Gottingen, 1883) ; F. W.
Schirrmacher, Die letzten Hohenstaufen (Gottingen, 1871), and E.
Winkelmann, Kaiser Friedrich II. (Leipzig, 1889).
HENRY RASPE (c. 1202-1247), German king and landgrave
of Thuringia, was the second surviving son of Hermann L,
landgrave of Thuringia, and Sophia, daughter of Otto L, duke of
Bavaria. When his brother the landgrave Louis IV. died in
Italy in September 1227, Henry seized the government of
Thuringia and expelled his brother's widow, St Elizabeth of
Hungary, and her son Hermann. With some trouble Henry
made good his position, although his nephew Hermann II. was
nominally the landgrave, and was declared of age in 1237.
Henry, who governed with a zealous regard for his own interests,
remained loyal to the emperor Frederick II. during his quarrel
with the Lombards and the revolt of his son Henry. In 1236
he accompanied the emperor on a campaign against Frederick
II., duke of Austria, and took part in the election of his son
Conrad as German king at Vienna in 1 237. He appears, however,
to have become somewhat estranged from Frederick after this
280
HENRY HENRY I.
expedition, for he did not appear at the diet of Verona in 1238;
and it is not improbable that he disliked the betrothal of his
nephew Hermann to the emperor's daughter Margaret. At
all events, when the projected marriage had been broken off
the landgrave publicly showed his loyalty to the emperor in
1239 in opposition to a plan formed by various princes to elect
an anti-king. Henry, whose attitude at this time was very
important to Frederick, was probably kept loyal by the in-
fluence which his brother Conrad, grand-master of the Teutonic
Order, exercised over him, for after the death of this brother
in 1241 Henry's loyalty again wavered, and he was himself
mentioned as a possible anti-king. Frederick's visit to Germany
in 1242 was successful in preventing this step for a time, and in
May of that year the landgrave was appointed administrator of
Germany for King Conrad; and by the death of his nephew
in this year he became the nominal, as well as the actual, ruler
of Thuringia. Again he contemplated deserting the cause of
Frederick, and in April 1246 Pope Innocent IV. wrote to the
German princes advising them to choose Henry as their king
in place of Frederick who had just been declared deposed. Acting
on these instructions, Henry was elected at Veitshochheim on
the 22nd of May 1246, and owing to the part played by the
spiritual princes in this election was called the Pfa/enkonig, or
parsons' king. Collecting an army, he defeated King Conrad
near Frankfort on the sth of August 1246, and then, after holding
a diet at Nuremberg, undertook the siege of Ulm. But he was
soon compelled to give up this enterprise, and returning to
Thuringia died at the Wartburg on the I7th of February 1247.
Henry married Gertrude, sister of Frederick II., duke of Austria,
but left no children, and on his death the male line of his family
became extinct.
See F. Reuss, Die Wahl Heinrich Raspes (Ludenschcid, 1878);
A. Rubesamen, Landgraf Heinrich Raspe von Thuringen (Halle,
1885); F. W. Schirrmacner, Die letzten Hohenstaufen (Gottingen,
1871); E. Winkelrnann, Kaiser Friedrich II. (Leipzig, 1889), and
T. Knochenhauer, Geschichte Thiiringens ztir Zeit des ersten 'Land-
grafenhauses (Gotha, 1871).
HENRY (c. 1174-1216), emperor of Romania, or Constan-
tinople, was a younger son of Baldwin, count of Flanders and
Hainaut (d. 1195). Having joined the Fourth Crusade about 1201,
he distinguished himself at the siege of Constantinople in 1204
and elsewhere, and soon became prominent among the princes
of the new Latin empire of Constantinople. When his brother,
the emperor Baldwin I., was captured at the battle of Adrianople
in April 1205, Henry was chosen regent of the empire, succeeding
to the throne when the news of Baldwin's death arrived. He
was crowned on the 2oth of August 1205. Henry was a wise
ruler, whose reign was largely passed in successful struggles
with the Bulgarians and with his rival, Theodore Lascaris I.,
emperor of Nicaea. Henry appears to have been brave but not
cruel, and tolerant but not weak; possessing " the superior
courage to oppose, in a superstitious age, the pride and avarice
of the clergy." The emperor died, poisoned, it is said, by his
Greek wife, on the nth of June 1216.
See Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. vi. (ed.
J. B. Bury, 1898).
HENRY I. (1068-1135), king of England, nicknamed Beau-
clerk, the fourth and youngest son of William I. by his queen
Matilda of Flanders, was born in 1068 on English soil. Of his
life before 1086, when he was solemnly knighted by his father
at Westminster, we know little. He was his mother's favourite,
and she bequeathed to him her English estates, which, however,
he was not permitted to hold in his father's lifetime. Henry
received a good education, of which in later life he was proud;
he is credited with the saying that an unlettered king is only a
crowned ass. His attainments included Latin, which he could
both read and write; he knew something of the English laws
and language, and it may have been from an interest in natural
history that he collected, during his reign, the Woodstock
menagerie which was the admiration of his subjects. But
from 1087 his life was one of action and vicissitudes which left
him little leisure. Receiving, under the Conqueror's last dis-
positions, a legacy of five thousand pounds of silver, but no land,
he traded upon the pecuniary needs of Duke Robert of Normandy,
from whom he purchased, for the small sum of 3000, the
district of the Cotentin. He negotiated with Rufus to obtain
the possession of their mother's inheritance, but only incurred
thereby the suspicions of the duke, who threw him into prison.
In 1090 the prince vindicated his loyalty by suppressing, on
Robert's behalf, a revolt of the citizens of Rouen which Rufus
had fomented. But when his elder brothers were reconciled
in the next year they combined to evict Henry from the
Cotentin. He dissembled his resentment for a time, and lived
for nearly two years in the French Vexin in great poverty. He
then accepted from the citizens of Domfront an invitation to
defend them against Robert of Belleme; and subsequently,
coming to an agreement with Rufus, assisted the king in making
war on their elder brother Robert. When Robert's departure
for the First Crusade left Normandy in the hands of Rufus
(1096) Henry took service under the latter, and he was in
the royal hunting train on the day of Rufus's death (August 2nd,
noo). Had Robert been in Normandy the claim of Henry to
the English crown might have been effectually opposed. But
Robert only returned to the duchy a month after Henry's
coronation. In the meantime the new king, by issuing his
famous charter, by recalling Anselm, and by choosing the
Anglo-Scottish princess Edith-Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III.,
king of the Scots, as his future queen, had cemented that alliance
with the church and with the native English which was the
foundation of his greatness. Anselm preached in his favour,
English levies marched under the royal banner both to repel
Robert's invasion (1101) and to crush the revolt of the Mont-
gomeries headed by Robert of Belleme (1102). The alliance
of crown and church was subsequently imperilled by the question
of Investitures (1103-1106). Henry was sharply criticized for
his ingratitude to Anselm (q.v.), in spite of the marked respect
which he showed to the archbishop. At this juncture a sentence
of excommunication would have been a dangerous blow to Henry's
power in England. But the king's diplomatic skill enabled him
to satisfy the church without surrendering any rights of conse-
quence (1106); and he skilfully threw the blame of his previous
conduct upon his counsellor, Robert of Meulan. Although the
Peterborough Chronicle accuses Henry of oppression in his
early years, the nation soon learned to regard him with respect.
William of Malmesbury, about 1125, already treats Tinchebrai
(1106) as an English victory and the revenge for Hastings.
Henry was disliked but feared by the baronage, towards whom
he showed gross bad faith in his disregard of his coronation
promises. In mo he banished the more conspicuous mal-
contents, and from that date was safe against the plots of his
English feudatories.
With Normandy he had more trouble, and the military skill
which he had displayed at Tinchebrai was more than once put
to the test against Norman rebels. His Norman, like his English
administration, was popular with the non-feudal classes, but
doubtless oppressive towards the barons. The latter had
abandoned the cause of Duke Robert, who remained a prisoner
in England till his death (1134); but they embraced that of
Robert's son William the Clito, whom Henry in a fit of generosity
had allowed to go free after Tinchebrai. The Norman con-
spiracies of iii2, 1118, and 1123-24 were all formed in the
Clito's interest. Both France and Anjou supported this pre-
tender's cause from time to time; he was always a thorn in
Henry's side till his untimely death at Alost (1128), but more
especially after the catastrophe of the White Ship (1120) deprived
the king of his only lawful son. But Henry emerged from these
complications with enhanced prestige. His campaigns had
been uneventful, his chief victory (Bremule, 1119) was little
more than a skirmish. But he had held his own as a general,
and as a diplomatist he had shown surpassing skill. The chief
triumphs of his foreign policy were the marriage of his daughter
Matilda to the emperor Henry V. (1114) which saved Normandy
in 1124; the detachment of the pope, Calixtus II., from the
side of France and the Clito (1119), and the Angevin marriages
which he arranged for his son William Aetheling (1119) and for
HENRY II.
281
the widowed empress Matilda (1129) after her brother's death.
This latter match, though unpopular in England and Normandy,
was a fatal blow to the designs of Louis VI., and prepared the
way for the expansion of English power beyond the Loire.
After 1124 the disaffection of Normandy was crushed. The
severity with which Henry treated the last rebels was regarded
as a blot upon his fame; but the only case of merely vindictive
punishment was that of the poet Luke de la Barre, who was
sentenced to lose his eyes for a lampoon upon the king, and only
escaped the sentence by committing suicide.
Henry's English government was severe and grasping; but
he " kept good peace " and honourably distinguished himself
among contemporary statesmen in an age when administrative
reform was in the air. He spent more time in Normandy than
in England. But he showed admirable judgment in his choice
of subordinates; Robert of Meulan, who died in 1118, and
Roger of Salisbury, who survived his master, were statesmen
of no common order; and Henry was free from the mania of
attending in person to every detail, which was the besetting
sin of medieval sovereigns. As a legislator Henry was con-
servative. He issued few ordinances; the unofficial compilation
known as the Leges Henrici shows that, like the Conqueror,
he made it his ideal to maintain the " law of Edward." His
itinerant justices were not altogether a novelty in England or
Normandy. It is characteristic of the man that the exchequer
should be the chief institution created in his reign. The eulogies
of the last Peterborough Chronicle on his government were
written after the anarchy of Stephen's reign had invested his
predecessor's " good peace " with the glamour of a golden age.
Henry was respected and not tyrannous. He showed a lofty
indifference to criticism such as that of Eadmer in the Historic*,
novorum, which was published early in the reign. He showed,
on some occasions, great deference to the opinions of the magnates.
But dark stories, some certainly unfounded, were told of his
prison-houses. Men thought him more cruel and more despotic
than he actually was.
Henry was twice married. After the death of his first wife,
Matilda (1080-1118), he took to wife Adelaide, daughter of
Godfrey, count of Louvain (1121), in the hope of male issue.
But the marriage proved childless, and the empress Matilda
was designated as her father's successor, the English baronage
being compelled to do her homage both in 1126, and again,
after the Angevin marriage, in 1131. He had many illegitimate
sons and daughters by various mistresses. Of these bastards the
most important is Robert, earl of Gloucester, upon whom fell the
main burden of defending Matilda's title against Stephen.
Henry died near Gisors on the ist of December, 1135, in the
thirty-sixth year of his reign, and was buried in the abbey of
Reading which he himself had founded.
ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES. The Peterborough Chronicle(ed.P\ummer,
Oxford, 1882-1889); Florence of Worcester and his first continuator
(ed. B. Thorpe, 1848-1849); Eadmer, Historia novorum (ed. Rule,
Rolls Series, 1884); William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum and
Historia novella (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series, 1887-1889); Henry of
Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1879);
Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, Rolls Series, 1882-1885); Orderic
Vitalis, Historia eccles'iastica (ed. le PreVost, Paris, 1838-1855);
Robert of Torigni, Chronica (ed. Hewlett, Rolls Series, 1889), and
Continuatio Willelmi Gemmeticensis (ed. Duchesne, Hist. Norman-
norum scriptores, pp. 215-317, Paris, 1619). See also the Pipe Roll
of 31 H. I. (ed. Hunter, Record Commission, 1833) ; the documents in
W. Stubbs's Select Chapters (Oxford, 1895); the Leges Henrici in
Liebermann's Gesetze der Angel-Sachsen (Halle, 1898, &c.) ; and the
same author's monograph, Leges Henrici (Halle, 1901); the treaties,
&c., in the Record Commission edition of Thomas Rymer's Foedera,
vol. i. (1816).
MODERN AUTHORITIES. E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman
Conquest, vol. v. ; J. M. Lappenberg, History of England under the
Norman Kings (tr. Thorpe, Oxford, 1857); Kate Norgate, England
under the Angevin Kings, vol. i. (1887); Sir James Ramsay, Founda-
tions of England, vol. ii. ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. ;
H. W. C. Davis, England under the Normans and Angevins; Hunt
and Poole, Political History of England, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.)
HENRY II. (1133-1189), king of England, son of Geoffrey
Plantagenet, count of Anjou, by Matilda, daughter of Henry
I., was born at Le Mans on the 25th of March 1133. He was
brought to England during his mother's conflict with Stephen
(1142), and was placed under the charge of a tutor at Bristol.
He returned to Normandy in 1 146. He next appeared on English
soil in 1149 ' when he came to court the help of Scotland and the
English baronage against King Stephen. The second visit was of
short duration. In 1150 he was invested with Normandy by his
father, whose death in the next year made him also count of
Anjou. In 1152 by a marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the
divorced wife of the French king Louis VII., he acquired
Poitou, Guienne and Gascony; but in doing so incurred the
ill-will of his suzerain from which he suffered not a little in the
future. Lastly in 1153 he was able, through the aid of the
Church and his mother's partisans, to extort from Stephen the
recognition of his claim to the English succession; and this
claim was asserted without opposition immediately after Stephen's
death (25th of Octobef 1154). Matilda retired into seclusion,
although she possessed, until her death (1167), great influence
with her son.
The first years of the reign were largely spent in restoring the
public peace and recovering for the crown the lands and pre-
rogatives which Stephen had bartered away. Amongst the
older partisans of the Angevin house the most influential were
Archbishop Theobald, whose good will guaranteed to Henry
the support of the Church, and Nigel, bishop of Ely, who presided
at the exchequer. But Thomas Becket, archdeacon of Canter-
bury, a younger statesman whom Theobald had discovered
and promoted, soon became all-powerful. Becket lent himself
entirely to his master's ambitions, which at this time centred
round schemes of territorial aggrandizement. In 1155 Henry
asked and obtained from Adrian IV. a licence to invade Ireland,
which the king contemplated bestowing upon his brother,
William of Anjou. This plan was dropped; but Malcolm of
Scotland was forced to restore the northern counties which had
been ceded to David; North Wales was invaded in 1157; and
in 1159 Henry made an attempt, which was foiled by the inter-
vention of Louis VII., to assert his wife's claims upon Toulouse.
After vainly invoking the aid of the emperor Frederick I., the
young king came to terms with Louis (1160), whose daughter
was betrothed to Henry's namesake and heir. The peace proved
unstable, and there was desultory skirmishing in 1161. The
following year was chiefly spent in reforming the government of
the continental provinces. In 1163 Henry returned to England,
and almost immediately embarked on that quarrel with the
Church which is the keynote to the middle period of the reign.
Henry had good cause to complain of the ecclesiastical courts,
and had only awaited a convenient season to correct abuses
which were admitted by all reasonable men. But he allowed
the question to be complicated by personal issues. He was
bitterly disappointed that Becket, on whom he bestowed the
primacy, left vacant by the death of Theobald (1162), at once
became the champion of clerical privilege; he and the archbishop
were no longer on speaking terms when the Constitutions of
Clarendon came up for debate. The king's demands were not
intrinsically irreconcilable with the canon law, and the papacy
would probably have allowed them to take effect sub silentio,
if Becket (q.ii.) had not been goaded to extremity by persecution
in the forms of law. After Becket's flight (1164), the king put
himself still further in the wrong by impounding the revenues
of Canterbury and banishing at one stroke a number of the
archbishop's friends and connexions. He showed, however,
considerable dexterity in playing off the emperor against
Alexander III. and Louis VII., and contrived for five years,
partly by these means, partly by insincere negotiations with
Becket, to stave off a papal interdict upon his dominions. When,
in July 1170, he was forced by Alexander's threats to make
terms with Becket, the king contrived that not a word should
be said of the Constitutions. He undoubtedly hoped that in
this matter he would have his way when Becket should be more
in England and within his grasp. For the murder of Becket
(Dec. 29, 1170) the king cannot be held responsible, though the
1 For a supposed visit in 1 147, see J. H. Round in English Historical
Review, v. 747.
282
HENRY III.
deed was suggested by his impatient words. It was a misfortune
to the royal cause; and Henry was compelled to purchase the
papal absolution by a complete surrender on the question of
criminous clerks (1172). When he heard of the murder he was
panic-stricken; and his expedition to Ireland (1171), although so
momentous for the future, was originally a mere pretext for
placing himself beyond the reach of Alexander's censures.
Becket's fate, though it supplied an excuse, was certainly not
the real cause of the troubles with his sons which disturbed the
king's later years (1173-1189). But Henry's misfortunes were
largely of his own making. Queen Eleanor, whom he alienated
by his faithlessness, stirred up her sons to rebellion; and they
had grievances enough to be easily persuaded. Henry was an
affectionate but a suspicious and close-handed father. The
titles which he bestowed on them carried little power, and served
chiefly to denote the shares of the paternal inheritance which
were to be theirs after his death. The excessive favour which
he showed to John, his youngest-born, was another cause of
heart-burning; and Louis, the old enemy, did his utmost to
foment all discords. It must, however, be remembered in
Henry's favour, that the supporters of the princes, both in
England and in the foreign provinces, were animated by resent-
ment against the soundest features of the king's administration;
and that, in the rebellion of 1173, he received from the English
commons such hearty support that any further attempt to
raise a rebellion in England was considered hopeless. Henry,
like his grandfather, gained in popularity with every year of his
reign. In 1183 the death of Prince Henry, the heir-apparent,
while engaged in a war against his brother Richard and their
father, secured a short interval of peace. But in 1184 Geoffrey
of Brittany and John combined with their father's leave to make
war upon Richard, now the heir-apparent. After Geoffrey's
death (1186) the feud between John and Richard drove the
latter into an alliance with Philip Augustus of France. The
ill-success of the old king in this war aggravated the disease from
which he was suffering; and his heart was broken by the dis-
covery that John, for whose sake he had alienated Richard, was
in secret league with the victorious allies. Henry died at Chinon
on the 6th of July 1189, and was buried at Fontevraud. By
Eleanor of Aquitaine the king had five sons and three daughters.
His eldest son, William, died young; his other sons, Henry,
v Richard, Geoffrey and John, are all mentioned above. His
daughters were: Matilda (1156-1189), who became the wife of
Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; Eleanor (1162-1214), who
married Alphonso III., king of Castile; and Joanna, who, after
the death of William of Sicily in 1189, became the wife of Ray-
mund VI., count of Toulouse, having previously accompanied
her brother, Richard, to Palestine. He had also three illegiti-
mate sons: Geoffrey, archbishop of York; Morgan; and
William Longsword, earl of Salisbury.
Henry's power impressed the imagination of his contem-
poraries, who credited him with aiming at the conquest of France
and the acquisition of the imperial title. But his ambitions
of conquest were comparatively moderate in !his later
years. He attempted to secure Maurienne and Savoy for John
by a marriage-alliance, for which a treaty was signed in 1173.
But the project failed through the death of the intended bride;
nor did the marriage of his third daughter, the princess Joanna
(i 165-1 199), with William II., king of Sicily (1177) lead to English
intervention in Italian politics. Henry once declined an offer
of the Empire, made by the opponents of Frederick Barbarossa;
and he steadily supported the young Philip Augustus against
the intrigues of French feudatories. The conquest of Ireland
was carried out independently of his assistance, and perhaps
against his wishes. He asserted his suzerainty over Scotland
by the treaty of Falaise (1175), but not so stringently as to pro-
voke Scottish hostility. This moderation was partly due to the
embarrassments produced by the ecclesiastical question and
the rebellions of the princes. But Henry, despite a violent and
capricious temper, had a strong taste for the work of a legislator
and administrator. He devoted infinite pains and thought to
the reform of government both in England and Normandy.
The legislation of his reign was probably in great part of his own
contriving. His supervision of the law courts was close and
jealous; he transacted a great amount of judicial business in
his own person, even after he had formed a high court of justice
which might sit without his personal presence. To these
activities he devoted his scanty intervals of leisure. His govern-
ment was stern; he over-rode the privileges of the baronage
without regard to precedent; he persisted in keeping large
districts under the arbitrary and vexatious jurisdiction of the
forest-courts. But it is the general opinion of historians that
he had a high sense of his responsibilities and a strong love of
justice; despite the looseness of his personal morals, he com-
manded the affection and respect of Gilbert Foliot and Hugh of
Lincoln, the most upright of the English bishops.
ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES. Henry's laws are printed in W. Stubb's
Select Charters (Oxford, 1895). The chief chroniclers of his reign are
William of Newburgh, Ralph de Diceto, the so-called Benedict of
Peterborough, Roger of Hoveden, Robert de Torigni (or de Monte),
Jordan Fantosme, Giraldus Cambrensis, Gervase of Canterbury;
all printed in the Rolls Series. The biographies and letters contained
in the 7 vols. of Materials for the History of Thomas Becket (ed. J. C.
Robertson, Rolls Series, 1875-1885) are valuable for the early and
middle part of the reign. For Irish affairs the Song of Dermot (ed.
Orpen, Oxford, 1892), for the rebellions of the princes the metrical
Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal (ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., Paris,
1891, &c.) are of importance. Henry's legal and administrative
reforms are illustrated by the Tractatus de legibus attributed to
Ranulph Glanville, his chief justiciar (ed. G. Phillips, Berlin, 1828);
by the Dialogus de scaccario of Richard fitz Nigel (Oxford, 1902) ;
the Pipe Rotts, printed by 1. Hunter for the Record Commission
(1844) and by the Pipe-Roll Society (London, 1884, &c.) supply
valuable details. The works of John of Salisbury (ed. Giles, 1848),
Peter of Blois (ed. Migne), Walter Map (Camden Society, 1841,
1850) and the letters of Gilbert Foliot (ed. J. A. Giles, Oxford, 1845)
are useful for the social and Church history of the reign.
MODERN AUTHORITIES. R. W. Eyton, Itinerary of Henry II.
(London, 1878); W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. (Oxford,
1893), Lectures on Medieval and Modern History (Oxford, 1886) and
Early Plantagenets (London, 1876); the same author's introduction
to the Rolls editions of " Benedict," Gervase, Diceto, Hoveden;
Mrs J. R. Green, Henry II. (London, 1888); Miss K. Norgate,
England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols., London, 1887); Sir J. H.
Ramsay's The Angtvin Empire (London, 1893); H. W. C. Davis's
England under the Normans and Angevins (London, 1905); Sir F.
Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History of English Law (2 vols., Cam-
bridge, 1898) ; and F. Hardegen, Imperialpolitik Konig Heinrichs II.
von England (Heidelberg, 1905). (H. W. C. D.)
HENRY III. (1207-1272), king of England, was the eldest son
of King John by Isabella of Angouleme. Born on the ist of
October 1207, the prince was but nine years old at the time of
his father's death. The greater part of eastern England being
in the hands of the French pretender, Prince Louis, afterwards
King Louis VIII., and the rebel barons, Henry was crowned by
his supporters at Gloucester, the western capital. John had
committed his son to the protection of the Holy See; and a
share in the government was accordingly allowed to the papal
legates, Gualo and Pandulf, both during the civil war and for
some time afterwards. But the title of regent was given by the
loyal barons to William Marshal, the aged earl of Pembroke;
and Peter des Roches, the Poitevin bishop of Winchester,
received the charge of the king's person. The cause of the
young Henry was fully vindicated by the close of the year 1217.
Defeated both by land and sea, the French prince renounced his
pretensions and evacuated England, leaving the regency to deal
with the more difficult questions raised by the lawless insolence
of the royal partisans. Henry remained a passive spectator of
the measures by which William Marshal (d. 1219), and his
successor, the justiciar Hubert de Burgh, asserted the royal
prerogative against native barons and foreign mercenaries.
In 1223 Honorius III. declared the king of age, but this was a
mere formality, intended to justify the resumption of the royal
castles and demesnes which had passed into private hands during
the commotions of the civil war.
The personal rule of Henry III. began in 1227, when he was
again proclaimed of age. Even then he remained for some time
under the influence of Hubert de Burgh, whose chief rival, Peter
des Roches, found it expedient to quit the kingdom for four
years. But Henry was ambitions to recover the continental
HENRY IV.
283
possessions which his father had lost. Against the wishes of
the justiciar he planned and carried out an expedition, to the
west of France (1230); when it failed he laid the blame upon
his minister. Other differences arose soon afterwards. Hubert
was accused, with some reason, of enriching himself at the ex-
pense of the crown, and of encouraging popular riots against the
alien clerks for whom the papacy was providing at the expense
of the English Church. He was disgraced in 1232; and power
passed for a time into the hands of Peter des Roches, who filled
the administration with Poitevins. So began the period of
misrule by which Henry III. is chiefly remembered in history.
The Poitevins fell in 1234; they were removed at the demand
of the barons and the primate Edmund Rich, who held them
responsible for the tragic fate of the rebellious Richard Marshal.
But the king replaced them with a new clique of servile and
rapacious favourites. Disregarding the wishes of the Great
Council, and excluding all the more important of the barons and
bishops from office, he acted as his own chief minister and never
condescended to justify his policy except when he stood in need
of subsidies. When these were refused, he extorted aids from
the towns, the Jews or the clergy, the three most defenceless
interests in the kingdom. Always in pecuniary straits through
his extravagance, he pursued a foreign policy which would have
been expensive under the most careful management. He
hoped not only to regain the French possessions but to establish
members of his own family as sovereigns in Italy and the Empire.
These plans were artfully fostered by the Savoyard kinsmen
of Eleanor, daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence,
whom he married at Canterbury in January 1236, and by his
half-brothers, the sons of Queen Isabella and Hugo, count of la
Marche. These favourites, not content with pushing their
fortunes in the English court, encouraged the king in the wildest
designs. In 1242 he led an expedition to Gascony which ter-
minated disastrously with the defeat of Taillebourg; and
hostilities with France were intermittently continued for seven-
teen years. The Savoyards encouraged his natural tendency to
support the Papacy against the Empire; at an early date in the
period of misrule he entered into a close alliance with Rome,
which resulted in heavy taxation of the clergy and gave great
umbrage to the barons. A cardinal-legate was sent to England
at Henry's request, and during four years (1237-1241) admini-
stered the English Church in a manner equally profitable to the
king and to the pope. After the recall of the legate Otho the
alliance was less open and less cordial. Still the pope continued
to share the spoils of the English clergy with the king, and the
king to enforce the demands of Roman tax-collectors.
Circumstances favoured Henry's schemes. Archbishop
Edmund Rich was timid and inexperienced; his successor,
Boniface of Savoy, was a kinsman of the queen; Grosseteste,
the most eminent of the bishops, died in 1253, when he was on
the point of becoming a, popular hero. Among the lay barons,
the first place naturally belonged to Richard of Cornwall who,
as the king's brother, was unwilling to take any steps which
might impair the royal prerogative; while Simon de Montfort,
earl of Leicester, the ablest man of his order, was regarded with
suspicion as a foreigner, and linked to Henry's cause by his
marriage with the princess Eleanor. Although the Great Council
repeatedly protested against the king's misrule and extravagance,
their remonstrances came to nothing for want of leaders and a
clear-cut policy. But between 1248 and 1252 Henry alienated
Montfort from his cause by taking the side of the Gascons,
whom the earl had provoked to rebellion through his rigorous
administration of their duchy. A little later, when Montfort
was committed to opposition, Henry foolishly accepted from
Innocent IV. the crown of Sicily for his second son Edmund
Crouchback (1255). Sicily was to be conquered from the
Hohenstaufen at the expense of England; and Henry pledged
his credit to the papacy for enormous subsidies, although years
of comparative inactivity had already overwhelmed him with
debts. On the publication of the ill-considered bargain the
baronage at length took vigorous action. They forced upon the
king the Provisions of Oxford (1258), which placed the govern-
ment in the hands of a feudal oligarchy; they reduced expendi-
ture, expelled the alien favourites from the kingdom, and
insisted upon a final renunciation of the French claims. The
king submitted for the moment, but at the first opportunity
endeavoured to cancel his concessions. He obtained a papal
absolution from his promises; and he tricked the opposition
into accepting the arbitration of the French king, Louis IX.,
whose verdict was a foregone conclusion. But Henry was
incapable of protecting with the strong hand the rights which
he had recovered by his double-dealing. Ignominiously defeated
by Montfort at Lewes (1264) he fell into the position of a
cipher, equally despised by his opponents and supporters. He
acquiesced in the earl's dictatorship; left to his eldest son,
Edward, the difficult task of reorganizing the royal party;
marched with the Montfortians to Evesham; and narrowly
escaped sharing the fate of his gaoler. After Evesham he is
hardly mentioned by the chroniclers. The compromise with
the surviving rebels was arranged by his son in concert with
Richard of Cornwall and the legate Ottobuono; the statute
of Marlborough (1267), which purchased a lasting peace by
judicious concessions, was similarly arranged between Edward
and the earl of Gloucester. Edward was king in all but name
for some years before the death of his father, by whom he was
alternately suspected and adored.
Henry had in him some of the elements of a fine character.
His mind was cultivated; he was a discriminating patron of
literature, and Westminster Abbey is an abiding memorial of
his artistic taste. His personal morality was irreproachable,
except that he inherited the Plantagenet taste for crooked
courses and dissimulation in political affairs; even in this
respect the king's reputation has suffered unduly at the hands
of Matthew Paris, whose literary skill is only equalled by his
malice. The ambitions which Henry cherished, if extravagant,
were never sordid; his patriotism, though seldom attested by
practical measures, was tEoroughly sincere. Some of his worst
actions as a politician were due to a sincere, though exaggerated,
gratitude for the support which the Papacy had given him during
his minority. But he had neither the training nor the temper
of a statesman. His dreams of autocracy at home and far-
reaching dominion abroad were anachronisms in a century of
constitutional ideas and national differentiation. Above all he
earned the contempt of Englishmen and foreigners alike by
the instability of his purpose. Matthew Paris said that he had
a heart of wax; Dante relegated him to the limbo of ineffectual
souls; and later generations have endorsed these scathing
judgments.
Henry died at Westminster on the i6th of November 1272;
his widow, Eleanor, took the veil in 1276 and died at Amesbury
on the 25th of June 1291. Their children were: the future king
Edward I.; Edmund, earl of Lancaster; Margaret (1240-1275),
the wife of Alexander III., king of Scotland; Beatrice; and
Katherine.
ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES. Roger of Wendover, Flares historiarum
(ed. H. O. Coxe, 4 vols., 1841-1844) ; and Matthew of Paris, Chronica
majora (cd. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols., 1872-1883) are the
chief narrative sources. See also the Annales monastici (ed. H. R.
Luard, Rolls Series, 5 vols., 1864-1869); the collection of Royal and
other Historical Letters edited by W. Shirley (Rolls Series, 2 vols.,
1862-1866) ; the Close and Patent Rolls edited for the Record Com-
mission and the Master of the Rolls; the Epistolae Roberti Grosse-
teste (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1861); the Monumenta Francis-
cana, vol. i. (ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1858); the documents
in the new Foedera, vol. i. (Record Commission, 1816).
MODERN WORKS. G. J. Turner's article on the king's minority in
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, New Series, vol. xyiii. ;
Dom Gasquet s Henry III. and the Church (1905) ; the lives of Simon
de Montfort by G. W. Prothero (1871), R. Pauli (Eng. ed., 1876)
and C. B6mont (Paris, 1884); W. Stubbs's Constitutional History
of England, vol. ii. (1887) ; R. Pauli's Geschichte von England, vol. iii.
(Hamburg, 1853) ; T. F. Tout in the Political History of England,
vol. iii. (1905), and H. W. C. Davis in England under the Normans and
Angevins (1905). (H. W. C. D.)
HENRY IV. (1367-1413), king of England, son of John of
Gaunt, by Blanche, daughter of Henry, duke of Lancaster, was
born on the 3rd of April 1367, at Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire.
As early as 1377 he is styled earl of Derby, and in 1380 he married
284
HENRY V.
Mary de Bohun (d. 1394) one of the co-heiresses of the last earl
of Hereford. In 1387 he supported his uncle Thomas, duke of
Gloucester, in his armed opposition to Richard II. and his
favourites. Afterwards, probably through his father's influence,
he changed sides. He was already distinguished for his knightly
prowess, and for some years devoted himself to adventure.
He thought of going on the crusade to Barbary; but instead, in
July 1390, went to serve with the Teutonic knights in Lithuania.
He came home in the following spring, but next year went
again to Prussia, whence he journeyed by way of Venice to
Cyprus and Jerusalem. After his return to England he sided
with his father and the king against Gloucester, and in 1397
was made duke of Hereford. In January 1398 he quarrelled
with the duke of Norfolk, who charged him with treason. The
dispute was to have been decided in the lists at Coventry in
September; but at the last moment Richard intervened and
banished them both.
When John of Gaunt died in February 1399 Richard, contrary
to his promise, confiscated the estates of Lancaster. Henry
then felt himself free, and made friends with the exiled Arundels.
Early in July, whilst Richard was absent in Ireland, he landed
at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. He was at once joined by the
Percies; and Richard, abandoned by his friends, surrendered
at Flint on the igth of August. In the parliament, which
assembled on the 3oth of September, Richard was forced to
abdicate. Henry then made his claim as coming by right line
of blood from King Henry III., and through his right to recover
the realm which was in point to be undone for default of govern-
ance and good law. Parliament formally accepted him, and thus
Henry became king, " not so much by title of blood as by popular
election" (Capgrave). The new dynasty had consequently a
constitutional basis. With this Henry's own political sympathies
well accorded. But though the revolution of 1399 was popular
in form, its success was due to an oligarchical faction. From
the start Henry was embarrassed by the power and pretensions
of the Percies. Nor was his hereditary title so good as that of the
Mortimers. To domestic troubles was added the complication
of disputes with Scotland and France. The first danger came
from the friends of Richard, who plotted prematurely, and were
crushed in January 1400. During the summer of 1400 Henry
made a not over-successful expedition to Scotland. The French
court would not accept his overtures, and it was only in the
summer of 1401 that a truce was patched up by the restoration
of Richard's child-queen, Isabella of Valois. Meantime a more
serious trouble had arisen through the outbreak of the Welsh
revolt under Owen Glendower (q.v.). In 1400 and again in each
of the two following autumns Henry invaded Wales in vain.
The success of the Percies over the Scots at Homildon Hill
(Sept. 1402) was no advantage. Henry Percy (Hotspur) and
his father, the earl of Northumberland, thought their services
ill-requited, and finally made common cause with the partisans
of Mortimer and the Welsh. The plot was frustrated by Hotspur's
defeat at Shrewsbury (2ist of July 1403); and Northumberland
for the time submitted. Henry had, however, no one on whom
he could rely outside his own family, except Archbishop Arundel.
The Welsh were unsubdued; the French were plundering the
southern coast; Northumberland was fomenting trouble in the
north. The crisis came in 1405. A plot to carry off the young
Mortimers was defeated; but Mowbray, the earl marshal, who
had been privy to it, raised a rebellion in the north supported
by Archbishop Scrope of York. Mowbray an,d Scrope were
taken and beheaded; Northumberland escaped into Scotland.
For the execution of the archbishop Henry was personally
responsible, and he could never free himself from its odium.
Popular belief regarded his subsequent illness as a judgment for
his impiety. Apart from ill-health and unpopularity Henry had
succeeded relations with Scotland were secured by the
capture of James, the heir to the crown; Northumberland was at
last crushed at Bramham Moor (Feb. 1408) ; and a little later the
Welsh revolt was mastered.
Henry, stricken with sore disease, was unable to reap the
advantage. His necessities had all along enabled the Commons
to extort concessions in parliament, until in 1406 he was forced
to nominate a council and govern by its advice. However, with
Archbishop Arundel as his chancellor, Henry still controlled
the government. But in January 1410 Arundel had to give way
to the king's half-brother, Thomas Beaufort. Beaufort and his
brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, were opposed to Arundel
and supported by the prince of Wales. For two years the real
government rested with the prince and the council. Under
the prince's influence the English intervened in France in 1411
on the side of Burgundy. In this, and in some matters of home
politics, the king disagreed with his ministers. There is good
reason to suppose that the Beauforts had gone so far as to con-
template a forced abdication on the score of the king's ill-health.
However, in November 1411 Henry showed that he was still
capable of vigorous action by discharging the prince and his sup-
porters. Arundel again became chancellor, and the king's
second son, Thomas, took his brother's place. The change was
further marked by the sending of an expedition to France in
support of Orleans. But Henry's health was failing steadily.
On the 2oth of March 1413, whilst praying in Westminster
Abbey he was seized with a fainting fit, and died that same
evening in the Jerusalem Chamber. At the time he was believed
to have been a leper, but as it would appear without sufficient
reason.
As a young man Henry had been chivalrous and adventurous,
and in politics anxious for good government and justice. As
king the loss and failure of friends made him cautious, suspicious
and cruel. The persecution of the Lollards, which began with
the burning statute of 1401, may be accounted for by Henry's
own orthodoxy, or by the influence of Archbishop Arundel, his
one faithful friend. But that political Lollardry was strong is
shown by the proposal in the parliament of 1410 for a wholesale
confiscation of ecclesiastical property. Henry's faults may be
excused by his difficulties. Throughout he was practical and
steadfast, and he deserved credit for maintaining his principles
as a constitutional ruler. So after all his troubles he founded
his dynasty firmly, and passed on the crown to his son with a
better title. He is buried under a fine tomb at Canterbury.
By Mary Bohun Henry had four sons: his successor Henry V.,
Thomas, duke of Clarence, John, duke of Bedford, and Humphrey,
duke of Gloucester; and two daughters, Blanche, who married
Louis III., elector palatine of the Rhine, and Philippa, who
married Eric XIII., king of Sweden. Henry's second wife was
Joan, or Joanna, (c. 1370-1437), daughter of Charles the Bad,
king of Navarre, and widow of John IV. or V., duke of Brittany,
who survived until July 1437. By her he had no children.
The chief contemporary authorities are the Annales Henrici Quarti
and T. Walsingham's Historia Anglicar.a (Rolls Series), Adam of
Usk's Chronicle and the various Chronicles of London. The life by
John Capgrave (De illuslribus Henricis) is of little value. Some
personal matter is contained in Wardrobe Accounts of Henry, Earl of
Derby (Camden Soc.). For documents consult T. Rymer's Foedera;
Sir N. H. Nicolas, Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council;
Sir H. Ellis, Original Letters illustrative of English History (London,
1825-1846); Rolls of Parliament; Royal and Historical Letters,
Henry IV. (Rolls Series) and the Calendars of Patent Rolls. Of
modern authorities the foremost is J. H. Wylie's minute and learned
Hist, of England under Henry IV. (4 vols., London, 1884-1898).
See also W. Stubbs, Constitutional History; Sir J. Ramsay, Lancaster
and York (2 vols., Oxford, 1892), and C. W. C. Oman, The Political
History of England, vol. iv. (C. L. K.)
HENRY V. (1387-1422), king of England, son of Henry IV.
by Mary de Bohun, was born at Monmouth, in August 1387.
On his father's exile in 1398 Richard II. took the boy into his
own charge, and treated him kindly. Next year the Lancastrian
revolution forced Henry into precocious prominence as heir to
the throne. From October 1400 the administration of Wales
was conducted in his name; less than three years later he was
in actual command of the English forces and fought against
the Percies at Shrewsbury. The Welsh revolt absorbed his
energies till 1408. Then through the king's ill-health he began
to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by
his uncles Henry and Thomas Beaufort, he had practical control
of the government. Both in foreign and domestic policy he
HENRY VI.
285
differed from the king, who in November 1411 discharged the
prince from the council. The quarrel of father and son was
political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had
discussed the abdication of Henry IV., and their opponents
certainly endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that to
political enmity the tradition of Henry's riotous youth, immortal-
ized by Shakespeare, is partly due. To that tradition Henry's
strenuous life in war and politics is a sufficient general contradic-
tion. The most famous incident, his quarrel with the chief-
justice, has no contemporary authority and was first related by
Sir Thomas Elyot in 1 5.3 1 . The story of Falstaff originated partly
in Henry's early friendship for Oldcastle (q.v.). That friendship,
and the prince's political opposition to Archbishop Arundel,
perhaps encouraged Lollard hopes. If so, their disappointment
may account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers, like
Walsingham, that Henry on becoming king was changed suddenly
into a new man.
Henry succeeded his father on the 2oth of March 1413. With
no past to embarrass him, and with no dangerous rivals, his
practical experience had full scope. He had to deal with three
main problems the restoration of domestic peace, the healing
of schism in the Church and the recovery of English prestige in
Europe. Henry grasped them all together, and gradually built
upon them a yet wider policy. From the first he made it clear
that he would rule England as the head of a united nation,
and that past differences were to be forgotten. Richard II.
was honourably reinterred; the young Mortimer was taken
into favour; the heirs of those who had suffered in the last reign
were restored gradually to their titles and estates. With Old-
castle Henry used his personal influence in vain, and the gravest
domestic danger was Lollard discontent. But the king's firmness
nipped the movement in the bud (Jan. 1414), and made his own
position as ruler secure. Save for the abortive Scrope and
Cambridge plot in favour of Mortimer in July 1415, the rest of
his reign was free from serious trouble at home. Henry could
now turn his attention to foreign affairs. A writer of the next
generation was the first to allege that Henry was encouraged
by ecclesiastical statesmen to enter on the French war as a means
of diverting attention from home troubles. For this story there
is no foundation. The restoration of domestic peace was the
king's first care, and until it was assured he could not embark
on any wider enterprise abroad. Nor was that enterprise one of
idle conquest. Old commercial disputes and the support which
the French had lent to Glendower gave a sufficient excuse for
war, whilst the disordered state of France afforded no security
for peace. Henry may have regarded the assertion of his own
claims as part of his kingly duty, but in any case a permanent
settlement of the national quarrel was essential to the success
of his world policy. The campaign of 1415, with its brilliant
conclusion at Agincourt (October 25), was only the first step.
Two years of patient preparation followed. The command of the
sea was secured by driving the Genoese allies of the French out
of the Channel. A successful diplomacy detached the emperor
Sigismund from France, and by the Treaty of Canterbury paved
the way to end the schism in the Church. So in 1417 the war
was renewed on a larger scale. Lower Normandy was quickly
conquered, Rouen cut off from Paris and besieged. The French
were paralysed by the disputes of Burgundians and Armagnacs.
Henry skilfully played them off one against the other, without
relaxing his warlike energy. In January 1419 Rouen fell. By
August the English were outside the wallsof Paris. Theintrigues
of the French parties culminated in the assassination of John
of Burgundy by the dauphin's partisans at Montereau (Septem-
ber 10, 1419). Philip, the new duke, and the French court
threw themselves into Henry's arms. After six months' negotia-
tion Henry was by the Treaty of Troyes recognized as heir and
regent of France, and on the and of June 1420 married Catherine,
the king's daughter. He was now at the height of his power.
His eventual success in France seemed certain. He shared with
Sigismund the credit of having ended the Great Schism by obtain-
ing the election of Pope Martin V. All the states of western
Europe were being brought within the web of his diplomacy.
The headship of Christendom was in his grasp, and schemes for
a new crusade began to take shape. He actually sent an envoy
to collect information in the East; but his plans were cut short
by death. A visit to England in 1421 was interrupted by the
defeat of Clarence at Bauge. The hardships of the longer winter
siege of Meaux broke down his health, and he died at Bois de
Vincennes on the 3ist of August 1422.
Henry's last words were a wish that he might live to rebuild the
walls of Jerusalem. They are significant. His ideal was founded
consciously on the models of Arthur and Godfrey as national
king and leader of Christendom. So he is the typical medieval
hero. For that very reason his schemes were doomed to end in
disaster, since the time was come for a new departure. Yet he
was not reactionary. His policy was constructive: a firm
central government supported by parliament; church reform on
conservative lines; commercial development; and the mainten-
ance of national prestige. His aims in some respects anticipated
those of his Tudor successors, but he would have accomplished
them on medieval lines as a constitutional ruler. His success was
due to the power of his personality. He could train able lieu-
tenants, but at his death there was no one who could take his
place as leader. War, diplomacy and civil administration were
all dependent on his guidance. His dazzling achievements as a
general have obscured his more sober qualities as a ruler, and
even the sound strategy, with which he aimed to be master of the
narrow seas. If he was not the founder of theEnglish navy he was
one of the first to realize its true importance. Henry had so high
a sense of his own rights that he was merciless to disloyalty.
But he was scrupulous of the rights of others, and it was his eager
desire to further the cause of justice that impressed his French
contemporaries. He has been charged with cruelty as a religious
persecutor; but in fact he had as prince opposed the harsh
policy of Archbishop Arundel, and as king sanctioned a more
moderate course. Lollard executions during his reign had more
often a political than a religious reason. To be just with sternness
was in his eyes a duty. So in his warfare, though he kept strict
discipline and allowed no wanton violence, he treated severely all
who had in his opinion transgressed. In his personal conduct
he was chaste, temperate and sincerely pious. He delighted in
sport and all manly exercises. At the same time he was cultured,
with a taste for literature, art and music. Henry lies buried in
Westminster Abbey. His tomb was stripped of its splendid
adornment during the Reformation. The shield, helmet and
saddle, which formed part of the original funeral equipment,
still hang above it.
Of original authorities the best on the English side is the Gesta
Henrici Quinti (down to 1416), printed anonymously for the English
Historical Society, but probably written by Thomas Elmham, one
of Henry's chaplains. Two lives edited by Thomas Hearne under
the names of Elmham and Titus Livius Forojuliensis come from a
common source; the longer, which Hearne ascribed incorrectly to
Elmham, is perhaps the original work of Livius, who was an Italian
in the service of Humphrey of Gloucester, and wrote about 1440.
Other authorities are the Chronicles of Walsingham and Otterbourne,
the English Chronicle or Brut, and the various London Chronicles.
On the French side the most valuable are Chronicles of Monstrelet
and St Re'my (both Burgundian) and the Chronique du religieux de
S. Denys (the official view of the French court). For documents and
modern authorities see under HENRY IV. SeeajsoSirN. H. Nicolas,
Hist, of the Battle of Agincourt and the Expedition of 1415 (London,
1833) ; C. L. Kingsford, Henry V., the Typical Medieval Hero (New
York, 1901), where a fuller bibliography will be found. (C. L. K.)
HENRY VI. (1421-1471), king of England, son of Henry V. and
Catherine of Valois, was born at Windsor on the 6th of December
1421. He became king of England on the ist of September 1422,
and a few weeks later, on the death of his grandfather Charles VI.,
was proclaimed king of France also. Henry V. had directed that
Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (q.v.), should be his son's
preceptor; Warwick took up his charge in 1428; he trained his
pupil to be a good man and refined gentleman, but he could not
teach him kingship. As early as 1423 the baby king was made to
appear at public functions and take his place in parliament.
He was knighted by his uncle Bedford at Leicester in May 1426,
and on the 6th of November 1429 was crowned at Westminster.
286
HENRY VII.
Early in the next year he was taken over to France, and after
long delay crowned in Paris on the i6th of December 1431. His
return to London on the I4th of February 1432 was celebrated
with a great pageant devised by Lydgate.
During these early years Bedford ruled France wisely and at
first with success, but he could not prevent the mischief which
Humphrey of Gloucester (q.v.) caused both at home and abroad.
Even in France the English lost ground steadily after the victory
of Joan of Arc before Orleans in 1429. The climax came with the
death of Bedford, and defection of Philip of Burgundy in 1435.
This closed the first phase of Henry's reign. There followed
fifteen years of vain struggle in France, and growing disorder at
home. The determining factor in politics was the conduct of the
war. Cardinal Beaufort, and after him Suffolk, sought by work-
ing for peace to secure at least Guienne and Normandy.
Gloucester courted popularity by opposing them throughout;
with him was Richard of York, who stood next in succession to
the crown. Beaufort controlled the council, and it was under his
guidance that the king began to take part in the government.
Thus it was natural that as Henry grew to manhood he seconded
heartily the peace policy. That policy was wise, but national pride
made it unpopular and difficult. Henry himself had not the
strength or knowledge to direct it, and was unfortunate in his
advisers. The cardinal was old, his nephews John and Edmund
Beaufort were incompetent, Suffolk, though a man of noble char-
acter, was tactless. Suffolk, however, achieved a great success
by negotiating the marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou (q.v.)
in 1445. Humphrey of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort both
died early in 1447. Suffolk was now all-powerful in the favour of
the king and queen. But his home administration was unpopular,
whilst the incapacity of Edmund Beaufort ended in the loss of all
Normandy and Guienne. Suffolk's fall in 1450 left Richard of
York the foremost man in England. Henry's reign then entered
on its last phase of dynastic struggle. Cade's rebellion suggested
first that popular discontent might result in a change of rulers.
But York, as heir to the throne, could abide his time. The situa-
tion was altered by the mental derangement of the king, and the
birth of his son in 1453. York after a struggle secured the
protectorship, and for the next year ruled England. Then Henry
was restored to sanity, and the queen and Edmund Beaufort,
now Duke of Somerset, to power. Open war followed, with the
defeat and death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May
1455. Nevertheless a hollow peace was patched up, which con-
tinued during four years with lack of all governance. In 1459 war
broke out again. On the loth of July 1460 Henry was taken
prisoner at Northampton, and forced to acknowledge York as
heir, to the exclusion of his own son. Richard of York's death at
Wakefield (Dec. 29, 1460), and the queen's victory at St
Albans (Feb. 17, 14^1), brought Henry his freedom and no
more. Edward of York had himself proclaimed king, and by his
decisive victory at Towton on the 2gth of March, put an end to
Henry's reign. For over three years Henry was a fugitive in
Scotland. He returned to take part in an abortive rising in 1464.
A year later he was captured in the north, and brought a prisoner
to the Tower. For six months in 1470-1471 he emerged to hold
a shadowy kirfgship as Warwick's puppet. Edward's final
victory at Tewkesbury was followed by Henry's death on the 2ist
of May 1471, certainly by violence, perhaps at the hands of
Richard of Gloucester.
Henry was the most hapless of monarchs. He was so honest
and well-meaning that he might have made a good ruler in quiet
times. But he was crushed by the burden of his inheritance.
He had not the genius to find a way out of the French entangle-
ment or the skill to steer a constitutional monarchy between
rival factions. So the system and policy which were the creations
of Henry IV. and Henry V. led under Henry VI. to the ruin of
their dynasty. Henry's very virtues added to his difficulties.
He was so trusting that any one could influence him, so faithful
that he would not give up a minister who had become impossible.
Thus even in the middle period he had no real control of the
government. In his latter years he was mentally too weak for
independent action. At his best he was a " good and gentle
creature," but too kindly and generous to rule others. Religious
observances and study were his chief occupations. His piety
was genuine; simple and pure, he was shocked at any suggestion
of impropriety, but his rebuke was only " Fie, for shame ! forsooth
ye are to blame." For education he was really zealous. Even
as a boy he was concerned for the upbringing of his half-brothers,
his mother's children by Owen Tudor. Later, the planning of
his great foundations at Eton and King's College, Cambridge,
was the one thing which absorbed his interest. To both he was
more than a royal founder, and the credit of the whole scheme
belongs to him. The charter for Eton was granted on the nth
of October 1440, and that for King's College in the following
February. Henry himself laid the foundation-stones of both
buildings. He frequently visited Cambridge to superintend the
progress of the work. When at Windsor he loved to send for the
boys from his school and give them good advice.
Henry's only son was Edward, prince of Wales (1453-1471),
who, having snared the many journeys and varying fortunes of
his mother, Margaret, was killed after the battle of Tewkesbury
(May 4, 1471) by some noblemen in attendance on Edward IV.
There is a life of Henry by his chaplain John Blakman (printed at
the end of Hearne's edition of Otterbourne) ; but it is concerned
only with his piety and patience in adversity. English chronicles
for the reign are scanty ; the best are the Chronicles of London (ed.
C. L. Kingsford), with the analogous Gregory's Chronicle (ed. J.
Gairdner for Camden Soc.) and Chronicle of London (ed. Sir H. N.
Nicolas). The Paston Letters, with James Gairdner's valuable
Introductions, are indispensable. Other useful authorities are
Joseph Stevenson's Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the
English in France during the Reign of Henry VI. ; and Correspondence
of T. Bekynton (both in " Rolls ' ' series) . For the French war the chief
sources are the Chronicles of Monstrelet, D'Escouchy and T. Basin.
For other documents and modern authorities see under HENRY IV.
For Henry's foundations see Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte, History of Eton
College (London, 1899), and J. B. Mullinger, History of the University
of Cambridge (London, 1888). (C. L. K.)
HENRY VII. (1457-1509), king of England, was the first
of the Tudor dynasty. His claim to the throne was through
his mother from John of Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose
issue born before their marriage had been legitimated by
parliament. This, of course, was only a Lancastrian claim,
never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of
Gaunt had become extinct. By his father the genealogists
traced his pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him
to the Welsh when he had actually become king. His grand-
father, Owen Tudor, however, had married Catherine, the widow
of Henry V. and daughter to Charles VI. of France. Their
son Edmund, being half brother of Henry VI., was created by
that king earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret
Beaufort, only daughter of John, duke of Somerset, died more
than two months before their only child, Henry, was born in
Pembroke Castle in January 1457. The fatherless child had
sore trials. Edward IV. won the crown when he was four years
old, and while Wales partly held out against the conqueror,
he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then
for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken
abroad by his uncle Jasper, who found refuge in Brittany. At
one time the duke of Brittany was nearly induced to surrender
him to Edward IV.; but he remained safe in the duchy till
the cruelties of Richard III. drove more and more Englishmen
abroad to join him. An invasion of England was planned in
1483 in concert with the duke of Buckingham's rising; but
stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated
the two movements. A second expedition, two years later,
aided this time by France, was more successful. Henry landed
at Milford Haven among his Welsh allies and defeated Richard
at the battle of Bosworth (August 22, 1485). He was crowned
at Westminster on the 3oth of October following. Then, in
fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion
of many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to
Elizabeth (1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV.
(Jan. 18, 1486), whose two brothers had both been murdered by
Richard III. Thus the Red and White Roses were united and
the pretexts for civil war done away with.
Nevertheless, Henry's reign was much disturbed by a succession
HENRY VIII.
287
of Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most not-
able impostors, the first, Lambert Simnel, personated the earl
of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence, a youth of seventeen
whom Henry had at his accession taken care to imprison in the
Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was taken over to Ireland
to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully successful.
He was crowned as Edward VI. in Christchurch Cathedral,
Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one bishops,
nobles and judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accom-
panied by some bands of German mercenaries procured for him
in the Low Countries, he invaded England; but the rising was
put down at Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire, and,
Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial of his
kitchen.
This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess
dowager of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., who could not
endure to see the House of York supplanted by that of Tudor.
The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck, was also much indebted
to her support; but he seems to have entered on his career
at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged,
had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England.
Anxious as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars,
it was not many years before he was committed to a war with
France, partly by his desire of an alliance with Spain, and partly
by the indignation of his own subjects at the way in which the
French were undermining the independence of Brittany. Henry
gave Brittany defensive aid; but after the duchess Anne had
married Charles VIII. of France, he felt bound to fulfil his
obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to the
German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492.
His allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally
able to fulfil their obligations to him; and after besieging
Boulogne for some little time, he received very advantageous
offers from the French king and made peace with him.
Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491,
and had somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard,
duke of York, the younger of the two princes murdered in the
Tower, pretending that he had escaped, though his brother
had been killed. Charles VIII., then expecting war with England,
called him to France, recognized his pretensions and gave him
a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed him. Then
Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and Maxi-
milian, now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of
England. With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted
to land at Deal, but sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding
very well there either, sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV.
received him with open arms, married him to an earl's daughter
and made a brief and futile invasion of England along with him.
But in 1497 ne thought best to dismiss him, and Perkin, after
attempting something again in Ireland, landed in Cornwall
with a small body of men.
Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not
liking the taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the
Scotch invasion. A host of the country people, led first by a
blacksmith, but afterwards by a nobleman, marched up towards
London and were only defeated at Blackheath. But the Cornish-
men were quite ready for another revolt, and indeed had invited
Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him, however,
and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton
he stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire.
But, being assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to
London, and was only executed two years later, when, being
imprisoned near the earl of Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled
that simple-minded youth into a project of escape. For this
Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and executed no doubt
to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his favour.
Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest,
Arthur, had been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to
Catherine, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon. The match had
always been kept in view, but its completion depended greatly
on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella could feel of Henry's
secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine was brought
to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul's on
the i4th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and
the co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he
died on the 2nd of April following. Another match was presently
proposed for Catherine with the king's second son, Henry, which
only took effect when the latter had become king himself. Mean-
while Henry's eldest daughter Margaret was married to James IV.
of Scotland a match distinctly intended to promote inter-
national peace, and make possible that ultimate union which
actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at
Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland
the year after. In the interval between these two events Henry
lost his queen, who died on the nth of February 1503, and
during the remainder of his reign he made proposals in various
quarters for a second marriage proposals in which political
objects were always the chief consideration; but none of them
led to any result. In his latter years he became unpopular from
the extortions practised by his two instruments, Empson and
Dudley, under the authority of antiquated statutes. From
the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating money,
mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies,
and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April
1509, undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was
not a niggard, however, in his expenditure. Before his death
he had finished the hospital of the Savoy and made provision for
the magnificent chapel at Westminster which bears his name.
His money-getting was but part of his statesmanship, and for
his statesmanship his country owes him not a little gratitude.
He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and brought
under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear
survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in
almost uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce,
strengthened her slender navy and built, apparently for the first
time, a naval dock at Portsmouth.
In addition to his sons Arthur and Henry, Henry VII. had
several daughters, one of whom, Margaret, married James IV.,
king of Scotland, and another,'Mary, became the wife of Louis XII.
of France, and afterwards of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk.
The popular view of Henry VII. 's reign has always been derived
from Bacon's History of that king. This has been edited by J. R.
Lumby (Cambridge, 1881). But during the last half century large
accessions to our knowledge have been made from foreign and
domestic archives, and the sources of Bacon's work have been more
critically examined. For a complete account of those sources the
reader may be referred to W. Busch's England under the Tudors,
published in German in 1892 and in an English translation in
1895. Some further information of a special kind will be found in
M. Oppenheim's Naval Accounts and Inventories, published by
the Navy Records Society in 1896. See also J. Gairdner's Henry
VII. (1889). (J. GA.)
HENRY VIII. (1491-1547), king of England and Ireland, the
third child and second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of
York, was born on the 28th of June 1491 and, like all the Tudor
sovereigns except Henry VII., at Greenwich. His two brothers,
Prince Arthur and Edmund, duke of Somerset, and two of
his sisters predeceased their father; Henry was the only son,
and Margaret, afterwards queen of Scotland, and Mary, after-
wards queen of France and duchess of Suffolk, were the only
daughters who survived. Henry is said, on authority which
has not been traced farther back than Paolo Sarpi, to have
been destined for the church; but the story is probably a mere
surmise from his theological accomplishments, and from his
earliest years high secular posts such as the viceroyalty of Ireland
were conferred upon the child. He was the first English monarch
to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, and his
tutors included the poet Skelton; he became an accomplished
scholar, linguist, musician and athlete, and when by the death
of his brother Arthur in 1502 and of his father on the 22nd of
April 1509 Henry VIII. succeeded to the throne, his accession
was hailed with universal acclamation.
He had been betrothed to his brother's widow Catherine of
Aragon, and in spite of the protest which he had been made to
register against the marriage, and of the doubts expressed by
Julius II. and Archbishop Warham as to its validity, it was
288
HENRY VIII.
completed in the first few months of his reign. This step was
largely due to the pressure brought to bear by Catherine's father
Ferdinand upon Henry's council; he regarded England as a
tool in his hands and Catherine as his resident ambassador.
The young king himself at first took little interest in politics,
and for two years affairs were managed by the pacific Richard
Fox (q.v.) and Warham. Then Wolsey became supreme,
while Henry was immersed in the pursuit of sport and other
amusements. He took, however, the keenest interest from the
first in learning and in the navy, and his inborn pride easily
led him to support Wolsey's and Ferdinand's war-like designs
on France. He followed an English army across the Channel
in 1513, and personally took part in the successful sieges of
Therouanne and Tournay and the battle of Guinegate which
led to the peace of 1514. Ferdinand, however, deserted the
English alliance, and amid the consequent irritation against
everything Spanish, there was talk of a divorce between Henry
and Catherine (1514), whose issue had hitherto been attended
with fatal misfortune. But the renewed antagonism between
England and France which followed the accession of Francis I.
(1515) led to a rapprochement with Ferdinand; the birth of
the lady Mary (1516) held out hopes of the male issue which
Henry so much desired ; and the question of a divorce was
postponed. Ferdinand died in that year (1516) and the emperor
Maximilian in 1519. Their grandson Charles V. succeeded them
both in all their realms and dignities in spite of Henry's hardly
serious candidature for the empire; and a lifelong rivalry broke
out between him and Francis I. Wolsey used this antagonism
to make England arbiter between them; and both monarchs
sought England's favour in 1520, Francis at the Field of Cloth
of Gold and Charles V. more quietly in Kent. At the conference
of Calais in 1521 English influence reached its zenith; but the
alliance with Charles destroyed the balance on which that
influence depended. Francis was overweighted, and his defeat
at Pa via in 1525 made the emperor supreme. Feeble efforts
to challenge his power in Italy provoked the sack of Rome in
1527; and the peace of Cambrai in 1529 was made without
any reference to Wolsey or England's interests.
Meanwhile Henry had been developing a serious interest in
politics, and he could brook no superior in whatever sphere
he wished to shine. He began to adopt a more critical attitude
towards Wolsey's policy, foreign and domestic; and to give
ear to the murmurs against the cardinal and his ecclesiastical
rule. Parliament had been kept at arm's length since 1515 lest
it should attack the church; but Wolsey's expensive foreign
policy rendered recourse to parliamentary subsidies indispensable.
When it met in 1523 it refused Wolsey's demands, and forced
loans were the result which increased the cardinal's unpopularity.
Nor did success abroad now blunt the edge of domestic discontent.
His fate, however, was sealed by his failure to obtain a divorce
for Henry from the papal court. The king's hopes of male
issue had been disappointed, and by 1526 it was fairly certain
that Henry could have no male heir to the throne while Catherine
remained his wife. There was Mary, but no queen regnant had
yet ruled in England; Margaret Beaufort had been passed over
in favour of her son in 1485, and there was a popular impression
that women were excluded from the throne. No candidate
living could have secured the succession without a recurrence of
civil war. Moreover the unexampled fatality which had attended
Henry's issue revived the theological scruples which had always
existed about the marriage;, and the breach with Charles V.
in 1527 provoked a renewal of the design of 1514. All these
considerations were magnified by Henry's passion for Anne
Boleyn, though she certainly was not the sole or the main cause
of the divorce. That the succession was the main point is proved
by the fact that Henry's efforts were all directed to securing a
wife and not a mistress. Wolsey persuaded him that the
necessary divorce could be obtained from Rome, as it had been
in the case of Louis XII. of France and Margaret of Scotland.
For a time Clement VII. was inclined to concede the demand,
and Campeggio in 1528 was given ample powers. But the
prospect of French success in Italy which had encouraged the
pope proved delusive, and in 1529 he had to submit to the yoke
of Charles V. This involved a rejection of Henry's suit, not
because Charles cared anything for his aunt, but because a
divorce would mean disinheriting Charles's cousin Mary, and
perhaps the eventual succession of the son of a French princess
to the English throne.
Wolsey fell when Campeggio was recalled, and his fall involved
the triumph of the anti-ecclesiastical party in England. Lay-
men who had resented their exclusion from power were now
promoted to offices such as those of lord chancellor and lord
privy seal which they had rarely held before; and parliament
was encouraged to propound lay grievances against the church.
On the support of the laity Henry relied to abolish papal jurisdic-
tion and reduce clerical privilege and property in England;
and by a close alliance with Francis I. he insured himself against
the enmity of Charles V. But it was only gradually that the
breach was completed with Rome. Henry had defended the
papacy against Luther in 1521 and had received in return the
title " defender of the faith." He never liked Protestantism,
and he was prepared for peace with Rome on his own terms.
Those terms were impossible of acceptance by a pope in Clement
VII. 's position; but before Clement had made up his mind
to reject them, Henry had discovered that the papacy was hardly
worth conciliating. His eyes were opened to the extent of his
own power as the exponent of national antipathy to papal
jurisdiction and ecclesiastical privilege; and his appetite for
power grew. With Cromwell's help he secured parliamentary
support, and its usefulness led him to extend parliamentary re-
presentation to Wales and Calais, to defend the privileges
of Parliament, and to yield rather than forfeit its con-
fidence. He had little difficulty in securing the Acts of Annates,
Appeals and Supremacy which completed the separation from
Rome, or the dissolution of the monasteries which, by transferring
enormous wealth from the church to the crown, really, in Cecil's
opinion, ensured the reformation.
The abolition of the papal jurisdiction removed all obstacles
to the divorce from Catherine and to the legalization of Henry's
marriage with Anne Boleyn (1533). But the recognition of the
royal supremacy could only be enforced at the cost of the heads
of Sir Thomas More, Bishop Fisher and a number of monks
and others among whom the Carthusians signalized themselves
by their devotion (1535-1536). Anne Boleyn fared no better
than the Catholic martyrs; she failed to produce a male heir
to the throne, and her conduct afforded a jury of peers, over
which her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided, sufficient excuse
for condemning her to death on a charge of adultery (1536).
Henry then married Jane Seymour, who was obnoxious to no
one, gave birth to Edward VI., and then died (1537). The
dissolution of the monasteries had meanwhile evoked a popular
protest in the north, and it was only by skilful and unscrupulous
diplomacy that Henry was enabled to suppress so easily the
Pilgrimage of Grace. Foreign intervention was avoided through
the renewal of war between Francis and Charles; and the
insurgents were hampered by having no rival candidate for the
throne and no means of securing the execution of their
programme.
Nevertheless their rising warned Henry against further
doctrinal change. He had authorized the English Bible and
some approach towards Protestant doctrine in the Ten Articles.
He also considered the possibility of a political and theological
alliance with the Lutheran princes of Germany. But in 1538
he definitely rejected their theological terms, while in 1530-1540
they rejected his political proposals. By the statute of Six
Articles (1539) he took his stand on Catholic doctrine; and
when the Lutherans had rejected his alliance, and Cromwell's
nominee, Anne of Cleves, had proved both distasteful on personal
grounds and unnecessary because Charles and Francis were not
really projecting a Catholic crusade against England, Anne was
divorced and Cromwell beheaded. The new queen Catherine
Howard represented the triumph of the reactionary party under
Gardiner and Norfolk; but there was no idea of returning to the
papal obedience, and even Catholic orthodoxy as represented
HENRY VIII.
289
by the Six Articles was only enforced by spasmodic outbursts
of persecution and vain attempts to get rid of Cranmer.
The secular importance of Henry's activity has been somewhat
obscured by his achievements in the sphere of ecclesiastical
politics; but no small part of his energies was devoted to the
task of expanding the royal authority at the expense of temporal
competitors. Feudalism was not yet dead, and in the north and
west there were medieval franchises in which the royal writ and
common law hardly ran at all. Wales and its marches were
brought into legal union with the rest of England by the statutes
of Wales (1534-1536); and after the Pilgrimage of Grace the
Council of the North was set up to bring into subjection the
extensive jurisdictions of the northern earls. Neither they nor
the lesser chiefs who flourished on the lack of common law and
order could be reduced by ordinary methods, and the Councils of
Wales and of the North were given summary powers derived
from the Roman civil law similiar to those exercised by the Star
Chamber at Westminster and the court of Castle Chamber at
Dublin. Ireland had been left by Wolsey to wallow in its own
disorder; but disorder was anathema to Henry's mind, and in
1535 Sir William Skeffington was sent to apply English methods
and artillery to the government of Ireland. Sir Anthony St
Leger continued his policy from 1540; Henry, instead of being
merely lord of Ireland dependent on the pope, was made by an
Irish act of parliament king, and supreme head of the Irish
church. Conciliation was also tried with some success; planta-
tion schemes were rejected in favour of an attempt to Anglicize
the Irish; their chieftains were created earls and endowed with
monastic lands; and so peaceful was Ireland in 1542 that the
lord-deputy could send Irish kernes and gallowglasses to fight
against the Scots.
Henry, however, seems to have believed as much in the
coercion of Scotland as in the conciliation of Ireland. Margaret
Tudor's marriage had not reconciled the realms; and as soon
as James V. became a possible pawn in the hands of Charles V.,
Henry bethought himself of his old claims to suzerainty over
Scotland. At first he was willing to subordinate them to an
attempt to win over Scotland to his anti-papal policy, and he
made various efforts to bring about an interview with his nephew.
But James V. was held aloof by Beaton and two French
marriages; and France was alarmed by Henry's growing
friendliness with Charles V., who was mollified by his cousin
Mary's restoration to her place in the succession to the throne.
In 1542 James madly sent a Scottish army to ruin at Solway
Moss; his death a few weeks later left the Scottish throne to
his infant daughter Mary Stuart, and Henry set to work to
secure her hand for his son Edward and the recognition of his
own suzerainty. A treaty was signed with the Scottish estates;
but it was torn up a few months later under the influence of
Beaton and the queen-dowager Mary of Guise, and Hertford was
sent in 1 544 to punish this breach of promise by sacking Edin-
burgh.
Perhaps to prevent French intervention in Scotland Henry
joined Charles V. in invading France, and captured Boulogne
(Sept. 1 544). But Charles left his ally in the lurch and concluded
the peace of Cr6py that same month; and in 1545 Henry had to
face alone a French invasion of the Isle of Wight. This attack
proved abortive, and peace between England and France was
made in 1546. Charles V.'s desertion inclined Henry to listen
to the proposals of the threatened Lutheran princes, and the
last two years of his reign were marked by a renewed tendency
to advance in a Protestant direction. Catherine Howard had
been brought to the block (1542) on charges in which there was
probably a good deal of truth, and her successor, Catherine Parr,
was a patroness of the new learning. An act of 1545 dissolved
chantries, colleges and other religious foundations; and in the
autumn of 1546 the Spanish ambassador was anticipating further
anti-erclc 'istical measures. Gardiner had almost been sent
to the Tower, and Norfolk and Surrey were condemned to death,
while Cranmer asserted that it was Henry's intention to convert
the mass into a communion service. An opportunist to the last,
he would readily have sacrificed any theological convictions he
xn: 10
may have had in the interests of national uniformity. He died
on the 28th of January 1547, and was buried in St George's
Chapel, Windsor.
The atrocity of many of Henry's acts, the novelty and success
of his religious policy, the apparent despotism of his methods,
or all combined, have made it difficult to estimate calmly the
importance of Henry's work or the conditions which made it
possible. Henry's egotism was profound, and personal motives
underlay his public action. While political and ecclesiastical
conditions made the breach with Rome possible and in the
view of most Englishmen desirable Henry VIII. was led to
adopt the policy by private considerations. He worked for the
good of the state because he thought his interests were bound up
with those of the nation; and it was the real coincidence of this
private and public point of view that made it possible for so
selfish a man to achieve so much for his country. The royal
supremacy over the church and the means by which it was
enforced were harsh and violent expedients; but it was of the
highest importance that England should be saved from religious
civil war, and it could only be saved by a despotic government.
It was necessary for the future development of England that its
governmental system should be centralized and unified, that the
authority of the monarchy should be more firmly extended over
Wales and the western and northern borders, and that the still
existing feudal franchises should be crushed; and these objects
were worth the price paid in the methods of the Star Chamber
and of the Councils of the North and of Wales. Henry's work
on the navy requires no apology; without it Elizabeth's victory
over the Spanish Armada, the liberation of the Netherlands
and the development of English colonies would have been
impossible; and "of all others the year 1545 best marks the
birth of the English naval power " (Corbett, Drake, i. 59). His
judgment was more at fault when he conquered Boulogne and
sought by violence to bring Scotland into union with England.
But at least Henry appreciated the necessity of union within
the British Isles; and his work in Ireland relaid the foundations
of English rule. No less important was his development of the
parliamentary system. Representation was extended to Wales,
Cheshire, Berwick and Calais; and parliamentary authority
was enhanced, largely that it might deal with the church, until
men began to complain of this new parliamentary infallibility.
The privileges of the two Houses were encouraged and expanded,
and parliament was led to exercise ever wider powers. This
policy was not due to any belief on Henry's part in parliamentary
government, but to opportunism, to the circumstance that
parliament was willing to do most of the things which Henry
desired, while competing authorities, the church and the old
nobility, were not. Nevertheless, to the encouragement given
by Henry VIII. parliament owed not a little of its future growth,
and to the aid rendered by parliament Henry owed his success.
He has been described as a " despot under the forms of law ";
and it is apparently true that he committed no illegal act. His
despotism consists not in any attempt to rule unconstitutionally,
but in the extraordinary degree to which he was able to use
constitutional means in the furtherance of his own personal
ends. His industry, his remarkable political insight, his lack of
scruple, and his combined strength of will and subtlety of intellect
enabled him to utilize all the forces which tended at that time
towards strong government throughout western Europe. In
Michelet's words, " le nouveau Messie est le roi "; and the
monarchy alone seemed capable of guiding the state through
the social and political anarchy which threatened all nations in
their transition from medieval to modern organization. The
king was the emblem, the focus and the bond of national unity;
and to preserve it men were ready to put up with vagaries which
to other ages seem intolerable. Henry could thus behead
ministers and divorce wives with comparative impunity, because
the individual appeared to be of little importance compared
with the state. This impunity provoked a licence which is
responsible for the unlovely features of Henry's reign and
character. The elevation and the isolation of his position
fostered a detachment from ordinary virtues and compassion,
290
HENRY I.
and he was a remorseless incarnation of Machiavelli's Prince.
He had an elastic conscience which was always at the beck and
call of his desire, and he cared little for principle. But he had a
passion for efficiency, and for the greatness of England and
himself. His mind, in spite of its clinging to the outward forms
of the old faith, was intensely secular; and he was as devoid
of a moral sense as he was of a genuine religious temperament.
His greatness consists in his practical aptitude, in his political
perception, and in the self-restraint which enabled him to
confine within limits tolerable to his people an insatiable appetite
for power.
The original materials for Henry VIII. 's biography are practically
all incorporated in the monumental Letters and Papers of the Reign
of Henry VIII. (21 vols.), edited by Brewer and Gairdner and com-
pleted after fifty years' labour in 1910. A few further details may
be gleaned from such contemporary sources as Hall's Chronicle,
Cavendish's Life of Wolsey, W. Thomas's The Pilgrim and others;
and some additions have been made to the documentary sources
contained in the Letters and Papers by recent works, such as Ehses'
Romische Dokumente, and Merriman s Life and Letters of Thomas
Cromwell. Lord Herbert of Cherbury's Life and Reign of Henry
VIII. (1649), while good for its time, is based upon a very partial
knowledge of the sources and somewhat antiquated principles of
historical scholarship. Froude's famous portraiture of Henry is
coloured by the ideas of hero-worship and history which the author
imbibed from Carlyle, and the rival portraits in Lingard, R. W.
Dixon's Church History and Gasquet's Henry VIII. and the Monas-
teries by strong religious feeling. A more discriminating estimate
is attempted by H. A. L. Fisher in Messrs Longmans' Political
History of England, vol. v. (1906). Of the numerous paintings of
Henry none is by Holbein, who, however, executed the striking
chalk-drawing of Henry's head, now at Munich, and the famous but
decaying cartoon at Devonshire House. The well-known three-
quarter length at Windsor, usually attributed to Holbein, is by an
inferior artist. The best collection of Henry's portraits was exhibited
at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1909, and the catalogue of that
exhibition contains the best description of them; several are re-
produced in Pollard's Henry VIII. (Goupil) (1902), the letterpress
of which was published by Longmans in a cheaper edition (1905).
Henry composed numerous state papers still extant; his only book
was his Assertio septem sacramentorum, contra M. Lutherum (1521),
a copy of which, signed by Henry himself, is at Windsor. Several
anthems composed by him are extant; and one at least, Lord,
the Maker of all Things, is still occasionally rendered in English
cathedrals. (A. F. P.)
HENRY I. (1214-1217), king of Castile, son of Alphonso VIII.
of Castile, and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry
II. of England, after whom he was named, was born about
1207. He was killed, while still a boy, by the fall of a tile from
a roof.
HENRY II. of Trastamara (1369-1379), king of Castile, founder
of the dynasty known as " the new kings," was the eldest son of
Alphonso XI. and of his mistress Leonora de Guzman. He
was born in 1333. His father endowed him with great lordships
in northern Spain, and made him count of Trastamara. After
the death of Alphonso XI. in 1350, Leonora was murdered to
satisfy the revenge of the king's neglected wife. Several of the
numerous children she had borne to Alphonso were slain at
different times by Peter the Cruel, the king's legitimate son and
successor. Henry preserved his life by submissions and by
keeping out of the king's way. At last, after taking part in
several internal commotions, he fled to France in 1356. In
1366 he persuaded the mercenary soldiers paid off by the kings
of England and France to accompany him on an expedition to
upset Peter, who was driven out. The Black Prince having
intervened on behalf of Peter, Henry was defeated at Najera
(3rd of April 1367) and had again to flee to Aragon. When the
Black Prince was told that " the Bastard " had neither been
slain nor taken, he said that nothing had been done. And so it
turned out; for, when the Black Prince had left Spain, Henry
came back with a body of French soldiers of fortune under du
Guesclin, and drove his brother into the castle of Montiel in La
Mancha. Peter was tempted out by du Guesclin, and the half
brothers met in the Frenchman's tent. They rushed at one
another, and Peter, the stronger man, threw Henry down, and fell
on him. One of Henry's pages seized the king by the leg and
threw him on his back. Henry then pulled up Peter's hauberk
and stabbed him mortally in the stomach, on the 23rd of March
1369. He reigned for ten years, with some success both in
pacifying the kingdom and in war with Portugal. But as his
title was disputed he was compelled to purchase support by vast
grants to the nobles and concessions to the cities, by which he
gained the title of El de las Mercedes he of the largesse. Henry
was a strong ally of the French king in his wars with the English,
who supported the claims of Peter's natural daughters. He
died on the 3oth of May 1379.
HENRY III. (1390-1406) king of Castile, called El Doliente,
the Sufferer, was the son of John I. of Castile and Leon, and of
his wife Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Portugal. He was
born in 1379. The period of minority was exceptionally anarchi-
cal, even for Castile, but as the cities, always the best supporters
of the royal authority, were growing in strength, Henry was able
to reduce his kingdom to obedience, and, when he took the
government into his own hands after 1393, to compel his nobles
with comparative ease to surrender the crown lands they had
seized. The meeting of the Cortes summoned by him at Madrid
in 1394 marked a great epoch in the establishment of a practically
despotic royal authority, based on the consent of the commons,
who looked to the crown to protect them against the excesses
of the nobles. Henry strengthened his position still further
by his marriage with Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt and
of Constance, elder daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de
Padilla. This union combined the rival claims of the descendants
of Peter and of Henry of Trastamara. The king's bodily weak-
ness limited his real capacity, and his early death on the 25th
of December 1406 cut short the promise of his reign.
HENRY IV. (1453-1474), kingof Castile, surnamed the Impotent,
or the Spendthrift, was the son of John II. of Castile and Leon,
and of his wife, Mary, daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon and
Sicily. He was born at Valladolid on the 6th of January 1425.
The surnames given to this king by his subjects are of much more
than usual accuracy. His personal character was one of mere
weakness, bodily and mental. Henry was an undutiful son, and
his reign was one long period of confusion, marked by incidents
of the most ignominious kind. He divorced his first wife Blanche
of Navarre in 1453 on the ground of " mutual impotence."
Yet in 1468 he married Joan of Portugal, and when she bore a
daughter, first repudiated her as adulterine, and then claimed
her for his own. In 1468 he was solemnly deposed in favour
of his brother Alphonso, on whose death in the same year his
authority was again recognized. The last years of his life were
spent in vain endeavours, first to force his half-sister Isabella,
afterwards queen, to marry his favourite, the Master of Santiago,
and then to exclude her from the throne. Henry died at Madrid
on the 1 2th of December 1474.
HENRY I. (1008-1060), kingof France, son of King Robert and
his queen, Constance of Aquitaine, and grandson of Hugh Capet,
came to the throne upon the death of his father in 1031, although
in 1027 he had been anointed king at Reims and associated
in the government with his father. His mother, who favoured
her younger son Robert, and had retired from court upon
Henry's coronation, formed a powerful league against him, and
he was forced to take refuge with Robert II., duke of Normandy.
In the civil war which resulted, Henry was able to break up the
league of his opponents in 1032. Constance died in 1034, and
the rebel brother Robert was given the duchy of Burgundy,
thus founding that great collateral line which was to rival the
kings of France for three centuries. Henry atoned for this by
a reign marked by unceasing struggle against the great barons.
From 1033 to 1043 he was involved in a life and death contest
with those nobles whose territory adjoined the royal domains,
especially with the great house of Blois, whose count, Odo II.,
had been the centre of the league of Constance, and with the
counts of Champagne. Henry's success in these wars was largely
due to the help given him by Robert of Normandy, but upon the
accession of Robert's son William (the Conqueror), Normandy
itself became the chief danger. From 1047 to the year of his
death, Henry was almost constantly at war with William, who
held his own against the king's formidable leagues and beat
back two royal invasions, in 1055 and 1058. Henry's reign
HENRY II. HENRY III.
291
marks the height of feudalism. The Normans were independent
of him, with their frontier barely 25 m. west of Paris; to the
south his authority was really bounded by the Loire; in the east
the count of Champagne was little more than nominally his
subject, and the duchy of Burgundy was almost entirely cut off
from the king. Yet Henry maintained the independence of the
clergy against the pope Leo IX., and claimed Lorraine from the
emperor Henry III. In an interview at Ivois, he reproached
the emperor with the violation of promises, and Henry III.
challenged him to a single combat. According to the German
chronicle which French historians doubtthe king of France
declined the combat and fled from Ivois during the night. In
1059 he had his eldest son Philip crowned as joint king, and died
the following year. Henry's first wife was Maud, niece of the
emperor Henry III., whom he married in 1043. She died child-
less in 1044. Historians have sometimes confused her with
Maud (or Matilda), the emperor Conrad II. 's daughter, to whom
Henry was affianced in 1033, but who died before the marriage.
In 1051 Henry married the Russian princess Anne, daughter of
Yaroslav I., grand duke of Kiev. She bore him two sons, Philip,
his successor, and Hugh the great, count of Vermandois.
See the Historiae of Rudolph Glaber, edited by M. Prou (Paris,
1886); F. Sochn6e, Catalogue des actes d'Henri I" (1907); de Caiz
de Saint Aymour, Anne de Russie, reine de France (1896) ; E. Lavisse,
Histoire de France, tome ii. (1901), and the article on Henry I. in
La Grande Encyclopedie by M. Prou.
HENRY II. (1519-1559), king of France, the second son of
Francis I. and Claude, succeeded to the throne in 1547. When
only seven years old he was sent by his father, with his brother
the dauphin Francis, as a hostage to Spain in 1526, whence they
returned after the conclusion of the peace of Cambrai in 1530.
Henry was too young to have carried away any abiding impres-
sions, yet throughout his life his character, dress and bearing
were far more Spanish than French. In 1 533 his father married
him to Catherine de' Medici, from which match, as he said,
Francis hoped to gain great advantage, even though it might
be somewhat of a misalliance. In 1536 Henry, hitherto duke of
Orleans, became dauphin by the death of his elder brother
Francis. From that time he was under the influence of two
personages, who dominated him completely for the remainder
of his life Diane de Poitiers, his mistress, and Anne de Mont-
morency, his mentor. Moreover, his younger brother, Charles
of Orleans, who was of a more sprightly temperament, was his
father's favourite; and the rivalry of Diane and the duchesse
d'Etampes helped to make still wider the breach between the
king and the dauphin. Henry supported the constable Mont-
morency when he was disgraced in 1541; protested against
the treaty of Crepy in 1544; and at the end of the reign held
himself completely aloof. His accession in 1547 gave rise to a
veritable revolution at the court. Diane, Montmorency and the
Guises were all-powerful, and dismissed Cardinal de Tournon,
de Longueval, the duchesse d'fitampes and all the late king's
friends and officials. At that time Henry was twenty-eight years
old. He was a robust man, and inherited his father's love of
violent exercise; but his character was weak and his intelligence
mediocre, and he had none of the superficial and brilliant gifts
of Francis I. He was cold, haughty, melancholy and dull.
He was a bigoted Catholic, and showed to the Protestants even
less mercy than his father. During his reign the royal authority
became more severe and more absolute than ever. Resistance to
the financial extortions of the government was cruelly chastised,
and the " Chambre Ardente " was instituted against the Re-
formers. Abroad, the struggle was continued against Charles V.
and Philip II., which ended in the much-discussed treaty of
Cateau-Cambresis. Some weeks afterwards high feast was held
on the occasion of the double marriage of the king's daughter
Elizabeth with the king of Spain, and of his sister Margaret
with the duke of Savoy. On the 3oth of June 1559, when
tilting with the count of Montgomery, Henry was wounded in
the temple by a lance. In spite of the attentions of Ambroise
Pare he died on the loth of July. By his wife Catherine de'
Medici he had seven children living: Elizabeth, queen of Spain;
Claude, duchess of Lorraine; Francis (II.), Charles (IX.) and
Henry (III.), all of whom came to the throne; Marguerite,
who became queen of Navarre in 1572; and Francis, duke of
Alenfon and afterwards of Anjou, who died in 1584.
The bulk of the documents for the reign of Henry II. are un-
published, and are in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Of the
published documents, see especially the correspondence of Catherine
de' Medici (ed. by de la Ferri&re, Paris, 1880), of Diane de Poitiers
(ed. by Guiffrey, Paris, 1866), of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne
d'Albret (ed. by Rochambeau, Paris, 1877), of Odet de Sclve,
ambassador to England (ed. by Lefevre-Pontalis, Paris, 1888) and
of Dominique du Gabre, ambassador to Venice (ed. by Vitalis, Paris,
1903); Ribier, Lettres el memoires d'estat (Paris, 1666); Relations
des ambassadeurs jieniliens, &c. Of the contemporary memoirs and
histories, see Brant6me (ed. by Lalanne, Paris, 1864-1882), Francois
de Lorraine (ed. by Michaud and Poujoulat, Paris, 1839), Montluc
(ed. by de Ruble, Paris, 1864), F. de Boyvin du Villars (Michaud
and Poujoulat), F. de Rabutin (Pantheon litteraire, Paris, 1836).
See also de Thou, Historic, sui temporis . . . (London, 1733);
Decrue, Anne de Montmorency (Pans, 1889); H. Forneron, Les
Dues de Guise et leur epoque, vol. i. (Paris, 1877) ; and H. Lemonnier,
" La France sous Henri II " (Paris, 1904), in the Histoire de France,
by E. Lavisse, which contains a fuller bibliography of the subject.
HENRY III. ( 1 5 5 i-i 589) , king of France, third son of Henry II.
and Catherine de' Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the
th of September 1551, and succeeded to the throne of France
on the death of his brother Charles IX. in 1574. In his youth,
as duke of Anjou, he was warmly attached to the Huguenot
opinions, as we learn from his sister Marguerite de Valois; but
his unstable character soon gave way before his mother's will,
and both Henry and Marguerite remained choice ornaments
of the Catholic Church. Henry won, under the direction of
Marshal de Tavannes, two brilliant victories at Jarnac and
Moncontour ( 1 569) . He was the favourite son of his mother, and
took part with her in organizing the massacre of St Bartholomew.^
In 1573 Catherine procured his election to the throne of PolandT
Passionately enamoured of the princess of Conde, he set out
reluctantly to Warsaw, but, on the death of his brother Charles
IX. in 1574, he escaped from his Polish subjects, who endeavoured
to retain him by force, came back to France and assumed the
crown. He returned to a wretched kingdom, torn with civil
war. In spite of his good intentions, he was incapable of govern-
ing, and abandoned the power to his mother and his favourites.
Yet he was no dullard. He was a man of keen intelligence and
cultivated mind, and deserves as much as Francis I. the title of
patron of letters and art. But his incurable indolence and love
of pleasure prevented him from taking any active part in affairs.
Surrounded by his mignons, he scandalized the people by his
effeminate manners. He dressed himself in women's clothes,
made a collection of little dogs and hid in the cellars when it
thundered. The disgust aroused by the vices and effeminacy
of the king increased the popularity of Henry of Guise. After
the " day of the barricades " (the i2th of May 1588), the king,
perceiving that his influence was lost, resolved to rid himself
of Guise by assassination; and on the 23rd of December 1588
his faithful bodyguard, the " forty-five," carried out his design
at the chiteau of Blois. But the fanatical preachers of the League
clamoured furiously for vengeance, and on the ist of August 1589,
while Henry III. was investing Paris with Henry of Navarre,
Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, was introduced into his
presence on false letters of recommendation, and plunged a
knife into the lower part of his body. He died a few hours
afterwards with great fortitude. By his wife Louise of Lorraine,
daughter of the count of Vaudemont, he had no children, and on
his deathbed he recognized Henry of Navarre as his successor.
See the memoirs and chronicles of 1'Estoile, Villeroy, Ph. Hurault
de Cheverny, Brantdme, Marguerite de Valois, la Huguerye, du
Plessis-Mornay, &c.; Archives curieuses of Cimber and Danjou,
vols. x. and xi.; Memoires de la Ligue (new ed., Amsterdam, 1758);
the histories of T. A. d'Aubignd and J. A. de Thou; Correspondence
of Catherine de' Medici and of Henry IV. (in the Collection de docu-
ments inedits), and of the Venetian ambassadors, &c. ; P. Matthieu,
Histoire de France, vol. i. (1631); Scipion Dupleix, Histoire de Henri
III (1633); Robiquet, Paris et la Ligue (1886); and J. H. Manejol,
" La ReTorme et la Ligue," in the Histoire de France, by E. Lavisse
(Paris, 1904), which contains a more complete bibliography.
292
HENRY IV.
HENRY IV. (1553-1610), king of France, the son of Antoine
de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, head of the younger branch of
the Bourbons, descendant of Robert of Clermont, sixth son of
St Louis and of Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, was born
at Pau (Basses Pyrenees) on the i4th of December 1553. He
was educated as a Protestant, and in 1557 was sent to the court
at Amiens. In 1561 hi entered the College de Navarre at Paris,
returning in 1565 to Beam. During the third war of religion
in France (1568-1570) he was taken by his mother to Gaspard
de Coligny, leader of the Protestant forces since the death of
Louis I., prince of Conde, at Jarnac, and distinguished himself
at the battle of Arnay-le-Duc in Burgundy in 1569. On the 9th
of June 1572, Jeanne d'Albret died and Henry became king of
Navarre, marrying Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX. of
France, on the i8th of August of that year. He escaped the
massacre of St Bartholomew on the 24th of August by a feigned
abjuration. On the 2nd of February 1576, after several vain
attempts, he escaped from the court, joined the combined forces
of Protestants and of opponents of the king, and obtained by
the treaty of Beaulieu (1576) the government of Guienne. In
1577 he secured the treaty of Bergerac, which foreshadowed
the edict of Nantes. As a result of quarrels with his unworthy
wife, and the unwelcome intervention of Henry III., he undertook
the seventh war of religion, known as the " war of the lovers "
(des amoureux), seized Cahors on the 5th of May 1580, and signed
the treaty of Fleix on the 26th of November 1580. On the loth
ot June 1584 the death of Monsieur, the duke of Anjou, brother
of King Henry III., made Henry of Navarre heir presumptive
to the throne of France. Excluded from it by the treaty of
Nemours (1585) he began the " war of the three Henrys " by a
campaign in Guienne (1586) and defeated Anne, due de Joyeuse,
at Coutras on the zoth of October 1587. Then Henry III.,
driven from Paris by the League on account of his murder of the
duke of Guise at Blois ( 1 588) , sought the aid of the king of Navarre
to win back his capital, recognizing him as his heir. The assassi-
nation of Henry III. on the ist of August 1589 left Henry king
of France; but he had to struggle for ten more years against the
League and against Spain before he won his kingdom. The
main events in that long struggle were the victory of Arques
over Charles, duke of Mayenne, on the 28th of September 1589;
of Ivry, on the i4th of March 1590; the siege of Paris (1590);
of Rouen (1592) ; the meeting of the Estates of the League (1593),
which the Satire Menippee turned to ridicule; and finally the
conversion of Henry IV. to Catholicism in July 1593 an act of
political wisdom, since it brought about the collapse of all
opposition. Paris gave in to him on the '22nd of March 1594
and province by province yielded to arms or negotiations;
while the victory of Fontaine-Franc.aise (1595) and the capture
of Amiens forced Philip II. of Spain to sign the peace of Vervins
on the 2nd of May 1598. On the i3th of April of that year
Henry IV. had promulgated the Edict of Nantes.
Then Henry set to work to pacify and restore prosperity
to his kingdom. Convinced by the experience of the wars that
France needed an energetic central power, he pushed at times
his royal prerogatives to excess, raising taxes in spite of the
Estates, interfering in the administration of the towns, reforming
their constitutions, and holding himself free to reject the advice
of the notables if he consulted them. Aided by his faithful
friend Maximilien de Bethune, baron de Rosny and due de
Sully (q.v.), he reformed the finances, repressed abuses, suppressed
useless offices, extinguished the formidable debt and realized
a reserve of eighteen milb'ons. To alleviate the distress of the
people he undertook to develop both agriculture and industry:
planting colonies of Dutch and Flemish settlers to drain the
marshes of Saintonge, issuing prohibitive measures against the
importation of foreign goods (i 597), introducing the silk industry,
encouraging the manufacture of cloth, of glass-ware, of tapestries
(Gobelins), and under the direction of Sully named grand-voyer
de France improving and increasing the routes for commerce.
A complete system of canals was planned, that of Briare partly
dug. New capitulations were concluded with the sultan Ahmed
I. (1604) and treaties of commerce with England (1606), with
Spain and Holland. Attempts were made in 1604 and 1608 to
colonize Canada (see CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE). The army was
reorganized, its pay raised and assured, a school of cadets formed
to supply it with officers, artillery constituted and strongholds
on the frontier fortified. While lacking the artistic tastes of the
Valois, Henry beautified Paris, building the great gallery of the
Louvre, finishing the Tuileries, building the Pont Neuf, the
H6tel-de-Ville and the Place Royale.
The foreign policy of Henry IV. was directed against the
Habsburgs. Without declaring war, he did all possible harm
to them by alliances and diplomacy. In Italy he gained the
grand duke of Tuscany marrying his niece Marie de' Medici
in 1600 the duke of Mantua, the republic of Venice and Pope
Paul V. The duke of Savoy, who had held back from the treaty
of Vervins in 1598, signed tbe treaty of Lyons in 1601; in ex-
change for the marquisate of Saluzzo, France acquired Bresse,
Bugey, Valromey and the bailliage of Gex. In the Low Countries,
Henry sent subsidies to the Dutch in their struggle against
Spain. He concluded alliances with the Protestant princes in
Germany, with the duke of Lorraine, the Swiss cantons (treaty
of Soleure, 1602) and with Sweden.
The opening on the 25th of March 1609 of the question of the
succession of John William the Good, duke of Cleves, of Jiilich
and of Berg, led Henry, in spite of his own hesitations and those
of his German allies, to declare war on the emperor Rudolph II.
But he was assassinated by Ravaillac (?.:'.) on the I4th of May
1 6 10, upon the eve of his great enterprise, leaving hisjwlicy to
be followed up later by Richelieu. Sully in his Economies
royales attributes to his master the " great design " of constitut-
ing, after having defeated Austria, a vast European confedera-
tion of fifteen states a " Christian Republic " directed by a
general council of sixty deputies reappointed every three years.
But this " design " has been attributed rather to the imagination
of Sully himself than to the more practical policy of the king.
No figure in France has been more popular than that of
" Henry the Great." He was affable to the point of familiarity,
quick-witted like a true Gascon, good-hearted, indulgent, yet
skilled in reading the character of those around him, and he
could at times show himself severe and unyielding. His courage
amounted almost to recklessness. He was a better soldier than
strategist. Although at bottom authoritative he surrounded
himself with admirable advisers (Sully, Sillery, Villeroy, Jeannin)
and profited from their co-operation. His love affairs, un-
doubtedly too numerous (notably with Gabrielle d'Estrees and
Henriette d'Entragues), if they injure his personal reputation,
had no bad effect on his policy as king, in which he was guided
only by an exalted ideal of his royal office, and by a sympathy
for the common people, his reputation for which has perhaps
been exaggerated somewhat in popular tradition by the circum-
stances of his reign.
Henry IV. had no children by his first wife, Margaret of
Valois. By Marie de' Medici he had Louis, later Louis XIII.;
Gaston, duke of Orleans; Elizabeth, who married Philip IV. of
Spain; Christine, duchess of Savoy; and Henrietta, wife of
Charles I. of England. Among his bastards the most famous
were the children of Gabrielle d'Estrees Caesar, duke of
Vend&me, Alexander of Vend&me, and Catherine Henriette,
duchess of Elbeuf.
Several portraits of Henry are preserved at Paris, in the
Bibliotheque Nationale (cf . Bouchot, Portraits au crayon, p. 189),
at the Louvre (by Probus, bust by Barthelemy Prieur) at
Versailles, Geneva (Henry at the age of fifteen), at Hampton
Court, at Munich and at Florence.
The works dealing with Henry IV. and his reign are too numerous
to be enumerated here. For sources, see the Recueil des lettres
missives de Henri IV, published from 1839 to 1853 by B. de Xivrey,
in the Collection de documents inedits relatifs a I'histoire de France,
and the various researches of Galitzin, Bautiot, Ha'phen, Dussieux
and others. Besides their historic interest, the letters written
personally by Henry, whether love notes or letters of state, reveal a
charming writer. Mention should be made of Auguste Poirson's
.Histoire du regne de Henri IV (2nd ed.. 4 vpls., Paris, 1862-1867)
and of J. H. Mari6jol's volume (vi.) in the Histoire de France, edited
by Ernest Lavisse (Paris, 1905), where main sources and literature
HENRY I. HENRY THE PROUD
293
arc given with each chapter. A Revue Henri IV has been founded
at Paris (1905). Finally, a complete survey of the sources for the
period 1494-1610 is given by Henri Hauser in vol. vii. of Sources de
Ihistoire de France (Paris, 1906) in continuation of A. Molinier's
collection of the sources for French history during the middle
ages.
HENRY I. (c. 1210-1274), surnamed le Gros, king of Navarre
and count of Champagne, was the youngest son of Theobald I.
king of Navarre by Margaret of Foix, and succeeded his eldest
brother Theobald III. as king of Navarre and count of Champagne
in December 1270. His proclamation at Pamplona, however,
did not take place till March of the following year, and his
coronation was delayed until May 1273. After a brief reign,
characterized, it is said, by dignity and talent, he died in July
1274, suffocated, according to the generally received accounts, by
his own fat. In him the male line of the counts of Champagne
and kings of Navarre, became extinct. He married in 1269
Blanche, daughter of Robert, count of Artois, and niece of King
Louis IX. and was succeeded by his only legitimate child, Jeanne
or Joanna, by whose marriage to Philip IV. afterwards king of
France in 1284, the crown of Navarre became united to that of
France.
HENRY II. (1503-1555), titular king of Navarre, was the
eldest son of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516) by his wife Catherine de
Foix, sister and heiress of Francis Phoebus, king of Navarre,
and was born at Sanquesa in April 1503. When Catherine died
in exile in 1517 Henry succeeded her in her claim on Navarre,
which was disputed by Ferdinand I. king of Spain; and under
the protection of Francis I. of France he assumed the title of
king. After ineffectual conferences at Noyon in 1516 and at
Montpellier in 1 5 1 8, an active effort was made in 1 5 2 1 to establish
him in the de facto sovereignty; but the French troops which
had seized the country were ultimately expelled by the Spaniards.
In 1525 Henry was taken prisoner at the battle of Pa via, but
he contrived to escape, and in 1526 married Margaret, the sister
of Francis I. and widow of Charles, duke of Alencon. By her
he was the father of Jeanne d'Albret (d. 1572), and was conse-
quently the grandfather of Henry IV. of France. Henry, who
had some sympathy with the Huguenots, died at Pau on the
25th of May 1555.
HENRY I. (1512-1580), king of Portugal, third son of Emanuel
the Fortunate, was born in Lisbon, on the 3ist of January 1512.
He was destined for the church, and in 1532 was raised to the
archiepiscopal see of Braga. In 1542 he received the cardinal's
hat, and in 1578 when he was called to succeed his grandnephew
Sebastian on the throne, he held the archbishoprics of Lisbon
and Coimbra as well as that of Braga, in addition to the wealthy
abbacy of Alcobazar. As an ecclesiastic he was pious, pure,
simple in his mode of life, charitable, and a learned and liberal
patron of letters; but as a sovereign he proved weak, timid
and incapable. On his death in 1580, after a brief reign of
seventeen months, the male line of the royal family which traced
its descent from Henry, first count 6f Portugal (c. noo), came
to an end; and all attempts to fix the succession during his
lifetime having ignominiously failed, Portugal became an easy
prey to Philip II. of Spain.
HENRY II. (1489-1568), duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel,
was a son of Duke Henry I. , and was born on the loth of November
1489. He began to reign in 1514, but his brother William
objected to the indivisibility of the duchy which had been
decreed by the elder Henry, and it was only in 1535, after an im-
prisonment of eleven years, that William recognized his brother's
title. Sharing in an attack on John, bishop of Hildesheim,
Henry was defeated at the battle of Soltau in June 1519, but
afterwards he was more successful, and when peace was made
received some lands from the bishop. In 1525 he assisted
Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to crush the rising of the peasants
in north Germany, and in 1528 took help to Charles V. in Italy,
where he narrowly escaped capture. As a pronounced opponent
of the reformed doctrines, he joined the Catholic princes in
concerting measures for defence at Dessau and elsewhere, but
on the other hand promised Philip of Hesse to aid him in restoring
his own brother-in-law Ulrich, duke of Wiirttemberg, to his
duchy. However he gave no assistance when this enterprise
was undertaken in 1534, and subsequently the hostility between
Philip and himself was very marked. Henry was attacked
by Luther with unmeasured violence in a writing Wider Hans
Worst ; but more serious was his isolation in north Germany.
The duke soon came into collision with the Protestant towns of
Goslar and Brunswick, against the former of which a sentence
of restitution had been pronounced by the imperial court of
justice (Reichskammergerichf). To conciliate the Protestants
Charles V. had suspended the execution of this sentence, a
proceeding which Henry declared was ultra vires. The league
of Schmalkalden, led by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick,
elector of Saxony, then took up arms to defend the towns; and
in 1542 Brunswick was overrun and the duke forced to flee. In
September 1545 he made an attempt to regain his duchy, but
was taken prisoner by Philip, and only released after the victory
of Charles V. at Miihlberg in April 1 547. Returning to Brunswick ,
where he was very unpopular, he soon quarrelled with his subjects
both on political and religious questions, while his duchy was
ravaged by Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth. Henry was
among the princes who banded themselves together to crush
Albert, and after the death of Maurice, elector of Saxony, at
Sievershausen in July 1553, he took command of the allied troops
and defeated Albert in two engagements. In his later years
he became more tolerant, and was reconciled with his Protestant
subjects. He died at Wolfenbuttel on the nth of June 1568.
The duke was twice married, firstly in 1515 to Maria (d. 1541),
sister of Ulrich of Wiirttemberg, and secondly in 1556 to Sophia
(d. 1575) daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He attained
some notoriety through his romantic attachment to Eva von
Trott, whom he represented as dead and afterwards kept con-
cealed at Staufenburg. Henry was succeeded by his only
surviving son, Julius (1528-1589).
See F. Koldewey, Heinz von Wolfenbuttel (Halle, 1883); and
F. Bruns, Die Vertreibung Herzog Heinrichs von Braunschweig durch
den Schmalkaldischen Bund (Marburg, 1889).
HENRY (c. 1108-1139), surnamed the "Proud," duke of
Saxony and Bavaria, second son of Henry the Black, duke
of Bavaria, and Wulfhild, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of
Saxony, was a member of the Welf family. His father and
mother both died in 1126, and as his elder brother Conrad had
entered the church, Henry became duke of Bavaria and shared
the family possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his
younger brother, Welf. At Whitsuntide 1127 he was married
to Gertrude, the only child of the German king, Lothair the
Saxon, and at once took part in the warfare between the king
and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Frederick II., duke of Swabia,
and Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. While
engaged in this struggle Henry was also occupied in suppressing
a rising in Bavaria, led by Frederick, count of Bogen, during
which both duke and count sought to establish their own candi-
dates in the bishopric of Regensburg. After a war of devastation,
Frederick submitted in 1133, and two years later the Hohen-
staufen brothers made their peace with Lothair. In 1136
Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking
command of one division of the German army marched into
southern Italy, devastating the land as he went. It was probably
about this time that he was invested with the margraviate of
Tuscany and the lands of Matilda, the late margravine. Having
distinguished himself by his military genius during this campaign
Henry left Italy with the German troops, and was appointed
by the emperor as his successor in the dukedom of Saxony.
When Lothair died in December 1137 Henry's wealth and position
made him a formidable candidate for the German throne; but
the same qualities which earned for him the surname of " Proud,"
aroused the jealousy of the princes, and so prevented his election.
The new king, Conrad III., demanded the imperial insignia
which were in Henry's possession, and the duke in return asked
for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But Conrad, who
feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext that
it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts
at a settlement failed, and in July 1138 the duke was placed
294
HENRY THE LION
under the ban, and Saxony was given to Albert the Bear, after-
wards margrave of Brandenburg. War broke out in Saxony
and Bavaria, but was cut short by Henry's sudden death at
Quedlinburg on the 2oth of October 1139. He was buried at
Kb'nigslutter. Henry was a man of great ability, and his early
death alone prevented him from playing an important part in
German history. Conrad the Priest, the author of the Rolands-
lied, was in Henry's service, and probably wrote this poem
at the request of the duchess, Gertrude.
See S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns, Band i. (Gotha, 1878); W.
Bernhardi, Lothar von Supplinburg (Leipzig, 1879); W. von Giese-
brecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band iv. (Brunswick,
1877).
HENRY (1120-1195), surnamed the " Lion," duke of Saxony
and Bavaria, only son of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and
Bavaria, and Gertrude, daughter of the emperor Lothair the
Saxon, was born at Ravensburg, and was a member of the family
of Welf. In 1138 the German king Conrad III. had sought to
deprive Henry the Proud of his duchies, and when the duke died
in the following year the interests of his young son were
maintained in Saxony by his mother, and his grandmother
Richenza, widow of Lothair, and in Bavaria by his uncle, Count
Welf VI. This struggle ended in May 1142 when Henry was
invested as duke of Saxony at Frankfort, and Bavaria was given
to Henry II., Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, who married
his mother Gertrude. In 1147 he married dementia, daughter
of Conrad, duke of Zahringen (d. 1152), and began to take an
active part in administering his dukedom and extending its
area. He engaged in a successful expedition against the Abo-
trites, or Obotrites, in 1147, and won a considerable tract of land
beyond the Elbe, in which were re-established the bishoprics of
Mecklenburg, 1 Oldenburg 2 and Ratzeburg. Hartwig, arch-
bishop of Bremen, wished these sees to be under his authority,
but Henry contested this claim, and won the right to invest
these bishops himself, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the
emperor Frederick I. Henry, meanwhile, had not forgotten
Bavaria. In 1147 he made a formal claim on this duchy, and
in 1151 sought to take possession, but failing to obtain the aid
of his uncle Welf, did not effect his purpose. The situation was
changed in his favour when Frederick I., who was anxious to
count the duke among his supporters, succeeded Conrad as
German king in February 1152. Frederick was unable at first to
persuade Henry Jasomirgott to abandon Bavaria, but in June
1154 he recognized the claim of Henry the Lion, who accom-
panied him on his first Italian campaign and distinguished
himself in suppressing a rising at Rome, Henry's formal in-
vestiture as duke of Bavaria taking place in September 1156
on the emperor's return to Germany. Henry soon returned to
Saxony, where he found full scope for his untiring energy.
Adolph II., count of Holstein, was compelled to cede Ltibeck
to him in 1158; campaigns in 1163 and 1164 beat 'down further
resistance of the Abotrites; and Saxon garrisons were estab-
lished in the conquered lands. The duke was aided in this work
by the alliance of Valdemar I., king of Denmark, and, it is said,
by engines of war brought from Italy. During these years he
had also helped Frederick I. in his expedition of 1157 against
the Poles, and in July 1159 had gone to his assistance in Italy,
where he remained for about two years.
The vigorous measures taken by Henry to increase his power
aroused considerable opposition. In 1 166 a coalition was formed
against him at Merseburg under the leadership of Albert the Bear,
margrave of Brandenburg, and Archbishop Hartwig. Neither
side met with much success in the desultory warfare that ensued,
and Frederick made peace between the combatants at Wiirzburg
in June 1168. Having obtained a divorce from his first wife in
1162, Henry was married at Minden in February 1168 to Matilda
(1156-1189), daughter of Henry II., king of England, and was
soon afterwards sent by the emperor Frederick I. on an embassy
to the kings of England and France. A war with Valdemar of
Denmark, caused by a quarrel over the booty obtained from
1 The see was transferred to Schwerin by Henry in 1167.
J Transferred to Lubeck in 1163.
the conquest of Rugen, engaged Henry's activity until June
1171, when, in pursuance of a treaty which restored peace,
Henry's daughter, Gertrude, married the Danish prince, Canute.
Henry, whose position was now very strong, made a pilgrimage
to Jerusalem in 1172, was received with great respect by the
eastern emperor Manuel Comnenus at Constantinople, and
returned to Saxony in 1173.
A variety of reasons were leading to a rupture in the har-
monious relations between Frederick and Henry, whose increasing
power could not escape the emperor's notice, and who showed
little inclination to sacrifice his interests in Germany in order
to help the imperial cause in Italy. He was not pleased when
he heard that his uncle, Welf, had bequeathed his Italian and
Swabian lands to the emperor, and the crisis came after
Frederick's check before Alessandria in 1175. The emperor
appealed personally to Henry for help in February, or March
1176, but Henry made no move in response, and his defection
contributed in some measure to the emperor's defeat at Legnano.
The peace of Venice provided for the restoration of Ulalrich
to his see of Halberstadt. Henry, however, refused to give up
the lands which he had seized belonging to the bishopric, and
this conduct provoked a war in which Ulalrich was soon joined
by Philip, archbishop of Cologne. No attack on Henry appears
to have been contemplated by Frederick to whom both parties
carried their complaints, and a day was fixed for the settlement
of the dispute at Worms. But neither then, nor on two further
occasions, did Henry appear to answer the charges preferred
against him; accordingly in January 1180 he was placed under
the imperial ban at Wiirzburg, and was declared deprived of
all his lands.
Meanwhile the war with Ulalrich continued, but after his
victory at Weissensee Henry's allies began to fall away, and his
cause to decline. When Frederick took the field in June 1181
the struggle was soon over. Henry sought for peace, and the
conditions were settled at Erfurt in November 1181, when he
was granted the counties of Liinebiirg and Brunswick, but was
banished under oath not to return without the emperor's per-
mission. In July 1182 he went to his father-in-law's court in
Normandy, and afterwards to England, returning to Germany
with Frederick's permission in 1 185. He was soon regarded once
more as a menace to the peace of Germany, and of the three
alternatives presented to him by the emperor in 1188 h'e rejected
the idea of making a formal renunciation of his claim, or of
participating in the crusade, and chose exile, going again to
England in 1189. In October of the same year, however, he
returned to Saxony, excusing himself by asserting that his lands
had not been defended according to the emperor's promise.
He found many allies, took Lubeck, and soon almost the whole
of Saxony was in his power. King Henry VI. was obliged to
take the field against him, after which the duke's cause declined,
and in July 1190 a peace was arranged at Fulda, by which he
retained Brunswick and Liineburg, received half the revenues of
Lubeck, and gave two of his sons as hostages. Still hoping to
regain his former position, he took advantage of a league against
Henry VI. in 1193 to engage in a further revolt; but the cap-
tivity of his brother-in-law Richard I., king of England, led to a
reconciliation. Henry passed his later years mainly at his
castle of Brunswick, where he died on the 6th of August 1195,
and was buried in the church of St Blasius which he had founded
in the town. He had by his first wife a son and a daughter, and
by his second wife five sons and a daughter. One of his sons
was Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., and another was
Henry (d. 1227) count palatine of the Rhine.
Henry was a man of great ambition, and won his surname of
" Lion " by his personal bravery. His influence on the fortunes
of Saxony and northern Germany was very considerable. He
planted Flemish and Dutch settlers in the land between the Elbe
and the Oder, fostered the growth and trade of Lubeck, and in
other ways encouraged trade and agriculture. He sought to
spread Christianity by introducing the Cistercians, founding
bishoprics, and building churches and monasteries. In 1874 a
colossal statue was erected to his memory at Brunswick.
HENRY OF BATTENBERG HENRY STUART
295
The authorities for the life of Henry the Lion are those dealing
with the reign of the emperor Frederick I., and the early years of
his son King Henry VI. The chief modern works are H. Prutz,
'Heinrich der Lowe (Leipzig, 1865); M. Philippson, Geschichle
Heinrichs des Lowen (Leipzig, 1867); and L. Weiland, Das sdchsische
Herzogthum unter Lothar und Heinrich dent Lowen (Greifswald, 1866).
HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896), was the third
son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and his morganatic wife, the
beautiful Countess Julia von Hauke, to whom was granted in
1858 the title of princess of Battenberg, which her children
inherited. He was born at Milan on the sth of October 1858,
was educated with a special view to military service, and in due
time became a lieutenant in the first regiment of Rhenish
hussars. By their relationship to the grand dukes of Hesse the
princes of Battenberg were brought into close contact with the
English court, and Prince Henry paid several visits to England,
where he soon became popular both in public and in private
circles. It therefore created but little surprise when, towards
the close of 1884, it was announced that Queen Victoria had
sanctioned his engagement to the Princess Beatrice. The
wedding took place at Whippingham on the 23rd of July 1885,
and after the honeymoon the prince and princess settled down
to a quiet home life with the queen, being seldom absent from
the court, and accompanying her majesty in her annual visits
to the continent. Three sons and a daughter were the issue
of the marriage. On the 3ist of July 1885 a bill to naturalize
Prince Henry was passed by the House of Lords, and he received
the title of royal highness. He was made a Knight of the Garter
and a member of the Privy Council, and also appointed a colonel
in the army, and afterwards captain-general and governor of the
Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke Castle. He adapted
himself very readily to English country life, for he was an excellent
shot and an enthusiastic yachtsman. Coming of a martial race,
the prince would gladly have embraced an active military career,
and when the Ashanti expedition was organized in November
1895 he volunteered to join it. But when the expedition reached
Prahsu, about 30 m. from Kumasi, he was struck down by fever,
and being promptly conveyed back to the coast, was placed
on board H.M.S. " Blonde." On the i;th of January he seemed
to recover slightly, but a relapse occurred on the igth, and he
died on the evening of the 2oth off the coast of Sierra Leone.
HENRY FITZ HENRY (1155-1183), second son of Henry II.,
king of England, by Eleanor of Aquitaine, became heir to the
throne on the death of his brother William (1156), and at the
age of five was married to Marguerite, the infant daughter of
Louis VII. In 1170 he was crowned at Westminster by Roger
of York. The protests of Becket against this usurpation of
the rights of Canterbury were the ultimate cause of the primate's
murder. The young king soon quarrelled with his father, who
allowed him no power and a wholly inadequate revenue, and
headed the great baronial revolt of 1173. He was assisted by his
father-in-law, to whose court he had repaired; but, failing
to shake the old king's power either in Normandy or England,
made peace in 1174. Despite the generous terms which he
received, he continued to intrigue with Louis VII:, and was
in consequence jealously watched by his father. In 1182 he
and his younger brother Geoffrey took up arms, on the side of
the Poitevin rebels, against Richard Cceur de Lion; apparently
from resentment at the favour which Henry II. had shown to
Richard in giving him the government of Poitou while they
were virtually landless. Henry II. took the field in aid of
Richard; but the young king and Geoffrey had no scruples
about withstanding their father, and continued to aid the
Aquitanian rising until the young king fell ill of a fever which
proved fatal to him (June n, 1183). His death was bitterly
regretted by his father and by all who had known him. Though
of a fickle and treacherous nature, he had all the personal fascina-
tion of his family, and is extolled by his contemporaries as a
mirror of chivalry. His train was full of knights who served
him without pay for the honour of being associated with his
exploits in the tilting-lists and in war.
The original authorities for Henry's life are Robert de Torigni,
Chronica; Giraldus Cambrensis, De instructione principum, Guil-
laume le Marechal (ed. P. Meyer, Paris, 1891, &c.); Benedict, Gesta
Henrici, William of Newburgh. See also Kate Norgate, England
under the Angevin Kings (1887) ; Sir James Ramsay, Angevin Empire
(1903); and C. E. Hodgson, Jung Heinrich, Konig von England
(Jena, 1906).
HENRY, or in full, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT
STUART (1725-1807), usually known as Cardinal York, the
last prince of the royal house of Stuart, was the younger son
of James Stuart, and was born in the Palazzo Muti at Rome
on the 6th of March 1725. He was created duke of York by his
father soon after his birth, and by this title he was always
alluded to by Jacobite adherents of his house. British visitors
to Rome speak of him as a merry high-spirited boy with martial
instincts; nevertheless, he grew up studious, peace-loving and
serious. In order to be of assistance to his brother Charles,
who was then campaigning in Scotland, Henry was despatched
in the summer of 1745 to France, where he was placed in nominal
command of French troops at Dunkirk, with which the marquis
d'Argenson had some vague idea of invading England. Seven
months after Charles's return from Scotland Henry secretly
departed to Rome and, with the full approval of his father,
but to the intense disgust of his brother, was created a cardinal
deacon under the title of the cardinal of York by Pope Benedict
XIV. on the 3rd of July 1747. In the following year he was
ordained priest, and nominated arch-priest of the Vatican
Basilica. In 1759 he was consecrated archbishop of Corinth
inpattibus, and in 1761 bishop of Frascati (the ancient Tus-
culum) in the Alban Hills near Rome. Six years later he was
appointed vice-chancellor of the Holy See. Henry Stuart
likewise held sinecure benefices in France, Spain and Spanish
America, so that he became one of the wealthiest churchmen of
the period, his annual revenue being said to amount to 30,000
sterling. On the death of his father, James Stuart (whose
affairs he had managed during the last five years of his life),
Henry nlade persistent attempts to induce Pope Clement XIII.
to acknowledge his brother Charles as legitimate king of Great
Britain, but his efforts were defeated, chiefly through the adverse
influence of Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who was bitterly
opposed to the Stuart cause. On Charles's death in 1788 Henry
issued a manifesto asserting his hereditary right to the British
crown, and likewise struck a medal, commemorative of the event,
with the legend " Hen. IX. Mag. Brit. Fr. et Hib. Rex. Fid.
Def . Card. Ep. Tusc: " (Henry the Ninth of Great Britain, France
and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, Cardinal, Bishop of
Frascati). In February 1798, at the approach of the invading
French forces, Henry was forced to fly from Frascati to Naples,
whence at the close of the same year he sailed to Messina. From
Messina he proceeded by sea in order to be present at the ex-
pected conclave at Venice, where he arrived in the spring of
1799, aged, ill and almost penniless. His sad plight was now
made known by Cardinal Stefano Borgia to Sir John Coxe
Hippisley (d. 1825), who had formerly acted semi-officially on
behalf of the British government at the court of Pius VI. Sir
John Hippisley appealed to George III., who "on the warm
recommendation of Prince Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex,
gave orders for the annual payment of a pension of 4000 to the
last of the Royal Stuarts. Henry received the proffered assist-
ance gratefully, and in return for the king's kindness subsequently
left by his will certain British crown jewels in his possession to
the prince regent. In 1800 Henry was able to return to Rome,
and in 1803, being now senior cardinal bishop, he became ipso
facto dean of the Sacred College and bishop of Ostia and Velletri.
He died at Frascati on the I3th of July 1807, and was buried in
the Grolte Vaticane of St Peter's in an urn bearing the title
of "Henry IX."; he is also commemorated in Canova's well-
known monument to the Royal Stuarts (see JAMES). The
Stuart archives, once the property of Cardinal York, were
subsequently presented by Pope Pius VII. to the prince
regent, who placed them in the royal library at Windsor
Castle.
See B. W. Kelly, Life of Cardinal York; H. M. Vaughan, Last of
the Royal Stuarts; and A. Shield, Henry Stuart, Cardinal of York,
and his Times (1908). (H. M. V.)
296
HENRY OF PORTUGAL
HENRY OF PORTUGAL, surnamed the " Navigator " (1394-
1460), duke of Viseu, governor of the Algarve, was born at Oporto
on the 4th of March 1394. He wag the third (or, counting
children who died in infancy, the fifth) son of John (Joao) I.,
the founder of the Aviz dynasty, under whom Portugal, victorious
against Castile and against the Moors of Morocco, began to take
a prominent place among European nations; his mother was
Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt. When Ceuta, the " African
Gibraltar," was taken in 1415, Prince Henry performed the most
distinguished service of any Portuguese leader, and received
knighthood; he was now created duke of Viseu and lord of
Covilham, and about the same time began his explorations,
which, however, limited in their original conception, certainly
developed into a search for a better knowledge of the western
ocean and for a sea-way along the unknown coast of Africa to
the supposed western Nile (our Senegal), to the rich negro lands
beyond the Sahara desert, to the half-true, half-fabled realm
of Prester John, and so ultimately to the Indies.
Disregarding the traditions which assign 1412 or even 1410
as the commencement of these explorations, it appears that in
1415, the year of Ceuta, the prince sent out one John de Trasto
on a voyage which brought the Portuguese to Grand Canary.
There was no discovery here, for the whole Canarian archipelago
was now pretty well known to French and Spanish mariners,
especially since the conquest of 1402-06 by French adventurers
under Castilian overlordship ; but in 1418 Henry's captain,
Joao Goncalvez Zarco rediscovered Porto Santo, and in 1420
Madeira, the chief members of an island group which had
originally been discovered (probably by Genoese pioneers)
before 1351 or perhaps even before 1339, but had rather faded
from Christian knowledge since. The story of the rediscovery
of Madeira by the Englishman Robert Machim or Machin,
elooing from Bristol with his lady-love, Anne d'Arfet, in the reign
of Edward III. (about 1370), has been the subject of much con-
troversy; in any case it does not affect the original Italian
discovery, nor the first sighting of Porto Santo by Zarco, who,
while exploring the west African mainland coast, was driven by
storms to this island. In 1424-1425 Prince Henry attempted
to purchase the Canaries, and began the colonization of the
Madeira group, both in Madeira itself and in Porto Santo;
to aid this latter movement he procured the famous charters of
1430 and 1433 from the Portuguese crown. In 1427, again,
with the co-operation of his father King John, he seems to have
sent out the royal pilot Diogo de Sevill, followed in 1431 by
Goncalo Velho Cabral, to explore the Azores, first mentioned
and depicted in a Spanish treatise of 1345 (the Conos$imiento
de lodos los Reynos) and in an Italian map of 1351 (the Laurentian
Portolano, also the first cartographical work to give us the
Madeiras with modern names), but probably almost unvisited
from that time to the advent of Sevill. This rediscovery of the
far western archipelago, and the expeditions which, even within
Prince Henry's life (as in 1452) pushed still deeper into the
Atlantic, seem to show that the infante was not entirely forgetful
of the possibility of such a western route to Asia as Columbus
attempted in 1492, only to find America across his path. Mean-
time, in 1418, Henry had gone in person to relieve Ceuta from an
attack of Morocco and Granada Mussulmans; had accomplished
his task, and had planned, though he did not carry out, a seizure
of Gibraltar. About this time, moreover, it is probable that he
had begun to gather information from the Moors with regard to
the coast of " Guinea " and the interior of Africa. In 1419,
after his return to Portugal, he was created governor of the
" kingdom " of Algarve, the southernmost province of Portugal;
and his connexion now appears to have begun with what after-
wards became known as the " Infante's Town " ( Villa do If ante)
at Sagres, close to Cape St Vincent; where, before 1438, a
Tercena Nabal or naval arsenal grew up; where, from 1438,
after the Tangier expedition, the prince certainly resided for
a great part of his later life; and where he died in 1460.
In 1433 died King John, exhorting his son not to abandon
those schemes which were now, in the long-continued failure
to round Cape Bojador, ridiculed by many as costly absurdities;
and in 1434 one of the prince's ships, commanded by Gil Eannes,
at length doubled the cape. In. 143 5 Affonso Goncalvez Baldaya,
the prince's cup-bearer, passed fifty leagues beyond; and before-
the close of 1436 the Portuguese had almost reached Cape Blanco.
Plans of further conquest in Morocco, resulting in 1437 in the
disastrous attack upon Tangier, and followed in 1438 by the death
of King Edward (Duarte) and the domestic troubles of the
earlier minority of Affonso V., now interrupted Atlantic and
African exploration down to 1441, except only in the Azores.
Here rediscovery and colonization both progressed, as is shown
by the royal licence of the 2nd of July 1439, to people " the seven
islands " of the group then known. In 1441 exploration began
again in earnest with the venture of Antam Goncalvez, who
brought to Portugal the first slaves and gold-dust from the
Guinea coasts beyond Bojador; while Nuno Tristam in the same
year pushed on to Cape Blanco. These successes produced a great
effect; the cause of discovery, now connected with boundless
hopes of profit, became popular; and many volunteers, especially
merchants and seamen from Lisbon and Lagos, came forward.
In 1442 Nuno Tristam reached the Bay or Bight of Arguim,
where the infante erected a fort in 1448, and where for years the
Portuguese carried on vigorous slave-raiding. Meantime the
prince, who had now, in 1443, been created by Henry VI. a
knight of the Garter of England, proceeded with his Sagres
buildings, especially the palace, church and observatory (the
first in Portugal) which formed the nucleus of the " Infante's
Town," and which were certainly commenced soon after the
Tangier fiasco (1437), if not earlier. In 1444-1446 there was an
immense burst of maritime and exploring activity; more than
30 ships sailed with Henry's licence to Guinea; and several of
their commanders achieved notable success. Thus Diniz Diaz,
Nuno Tristam, and others reached the Senegal in 1445; Diaz
rounded Cape Verde in the same year; and in 1446 Alvaro
Fernandez pushed on almost to our Sierra Leone, to a point
no leagues beyond Cape Verde. This was perhaps the most
distant point reached before 1461. In 1444, moreover, the
island of St Michael in the Azores was sighted (May 8), and
in 1445 its colonization was begun. During this latter year
also John Fernandez (q.ii.) spent seven months among the natives,
of the Arguim coast, and brought back the first trustworthy
first-hand European account of the Sahara hinterland. Slave-
raiding continued ceaselessly; by 1446 the Portuguese had carried
off nearly a thousand captives from the newly surveyed coasts;
but between this time and the voyages of Cadamosto (q.v.)
in 1455-1456, the prince altered his policy, forbade the kidnapping
of the natives (which had brought about fierce reprisals, causing
the death of Nuno Tristam in 1446, and of other pioneers in 1445,
1448, &c.), and endeavoured to promote their peaceful inter-
course with his men. In 1445-1446, again, Dom Henry renewed
his earlier attempts (which had failed in 1424-1425) to purchase
or seize the Canaries for Portugal; by these he brought his
country to the verge of war with Castile; but the home govern-
ment refused to support him, and the project was again
abandoned. After 1446 our most voluminous authority, Azurara,
records but little; his narrative ceases altogether in 1448; one
of the latest expeditions noticed by him is that of a foreigner in
the prince's service, " Vallarte the Dane," which ended in utter
destruction near the Gambia, after passing Cape Verde in 1448.
after this the chief matters worth notice in Dom Henry's life
are, first, the progress of discovery and colonization in the Azores
where Terceira was discovered before 1450, perhaps in 1445,
and apparently by a Fleming, called " Jacques de Bruges "
in the prince's charter of the 2nd of March 1450 (by this charter
Jacques receives the captaincy of this isle as its intending
colonizer) ; secondly, the rapid progress of civilization in Madeira,
evidenced by its timber trade to Portugal, by its sugar, corn and
honey, and above all by its wine, produced from the Malvoisie
or Malmsey grape, introduced from Crete; and thirdly, the
explorations of Cadamosto and Diogo Gomez (q.v.). Of these
the former, in his two voyages of 1455 and 1456, explored part
of the courses of the Senegal and the Gambia, discovered the Cape
Verde Islands (1456), named and mapped more carefully than
HENRY OF ALMAIN HENRY OF BLOIS
297
before a considerable section of the African littoral beyond
Cape Verde, and gave much new information on the trade-routes
of north-west Africa and on the native races; while Gomez,
in his first important venture (after 1448 and before 1458),
though not accomplishing the full Indian purpose of his voyage
(he took a native interpreter with him for use " in the event of
reaching India "), explored and observed in the Gambia valley
and along the adjacent coasts with fully as much care and profit.
As a result of these expeditions the infante seems to have sent
out in 1458 a mission to convert the Gambia negroes. Gomez'
second voyage, resulting in another " discovery " of the Cape
Verde Islands, was probably in 1462, after the death of Prince
Henry; it is likely that among the infante's last occupations
were the necessary measures for the equipment and despatch
of this venture, as well as of Pedro de Sintra's important expedi-
tion of 1461.
The infante's share in home politics was considerable, especially
in the years of Affonso V.'s minority (1438, &c.) when he helped
to make his elder brother Pedro regent, reconciled him with the
queen-mother, and worked together with them both in a council
of regency. But when Dom Pedro rose in revolt (1447), Henry
stood by the king and allowed his brother to be crushed. In the
Morocco campaigns of his last years, especially at the capture of
Alcazar the Little (1458), he restored the military fame which he
had founded at Ceuta and compromised at Tangier, and which
brought him invitations from the pope, the emperor and the
kings of Castile and England, to take command of their armies.
The prince was also grand master of the Order of Christ, the
successor of the Templars in Portugal; and most of his Atlantic
and African expeditions sailed under the flag of his order, whose
revenues were at the service of his explorations, in whose name
he asked and obtained the official recognition of Pope Eugenius
IV. for his work, and on which he bestowed many privileges in the
new-won lands the tithes of St Michael in the Azores and one-
half of its sugar revenues, the tithe of all merchandise from
Guinea, the ecclesiastical dues of Madeira, &c. As " protector of
Portuguese studies," Dom Henry is credited with having founded
a professorship of theology, and perhaps also chairs of mathematics
and medicine, in Lisbon where also, in 1431, he is said to have
provided house-room for the university teachers and students.
To instruct his captains, pilots and other pioneers more fully in
the art of navigation and the making of maps and instruments he
procured, says Barros, the aid of one Master Jacome from Majorca,
together with that of certain Arab and Jewish mathematicians.
We hear also of one Master Peter, who inscribed and illuminated
maps for the infante; the mathematician Pedro Nunes declares
that the prince's mariners were well taught and provided with
instruments and rules of astronomy and geometry " which all
map-makers should know "; Cadamosto tells us that the
Portuguese caravels in his day were the best sailing ships afloat;
while, from several matters recorded by Henry's biographers, it
is clear that he devoted great attention to the study of earlier
charts and of any available information he could gain upon the
trade-routes of north-west Africa. Thus we find an Oran
merchant corresponding with him about events happening in the
negro-world of the Gambia basin in 1458. Even if there, were
never a formal " geographical school " at Sagres, or elsewhere in
Portugal, founded by Prince Henry, it appears certain that his
court was the centre of active and useful geographical study, as
well as the source of the best practical exploration of the time.
The prince died on the i3th of November 1460, in his town
near Cape St Vincent, and was buried in the church of St Mary in
Lagos, but a year later his body was removed to the superb
monastery of Batalha. His great-nephew, King Dom Manuel,
had a statue of him placed over the centre column of the side
gate of the church of Belem. On the 24th of July 1840, a monu-
ment was erected to him at Sagres at the instance of the marquis
de Sa da Bandeira.
The glory attaching to the name of Prince Henry does not rest
merely on the achievements effected during his own lifetime, but
on the subsequent results to which his genius and perseverance
had lent the primary inspiration. To him the human race is
indebted, in large measure, for the maritime exploration, within
one century (1420-1522), of more than half the globe, and
especially of the great waterways from Europe to Asia both by
east and by west. His own life only sufficed for the accomplish-
ment of a small portion of his task. The complete opening out of
the African or south-east route to the Indies needed nearly forty
years of somewhat intermittent labour after his death (1460-
1498), and the prince's share has often been forgotten in that of
pioneers who were really his executors Diogo Cam, Bartholomew
Diaz or Vasco da Gama. Less directly, other sides of his activity
may be considered as fulfilled by the Portuguese penetration of
inland Africa, especially of Abyssinia, the land of the " Prester
John " for whom Dom Henry sought, and even by the finding of
a western route to Asia through the discoveries of Columbus,
Balboa and Magellan.
See Alguns documentos do archivo national da Torre do Tombo
acerca das navegafoes . . . portuguezas (Lisbon, 1892); Alves,
Dom Henrique o Infante (Oporto, 1894); Archivo dos Azores (Ponta
Delgada, 1878-1894); Gomes Eannes de Azurara, Chronica do
descobrimento e conquista de Guine, ed. Carreira and Santarem (Paris,
1841; Eng. trans, by Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage,
Hakluyt Society, London, 1896-1899); Joao de Barros, Decadas da
Asia (Lisbon, 1652); Raymond Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator
(London, 1895), and introduction to Azurara, vol. ii., in Hakluyt
Soc. trans, (see above) ; Antonio Cordeirp, Historia Insultana (Lisbon,
I7J7); Freire (Candido Lusitano), Vida do Infante D. Henrique
(Lisbon, 1858); " Diogo Gomez," in Dr Schmeller's Ober Valentim
Fernandez Alemao, vol. iv. pt. iii., in the publications of the 1st
class of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences (Munich, 1845);
R. H. Major, The Life of Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator
(London, 1868); Jules Mees, Henri le Navigateur et I'academie . . .
de Sagres (Brussels, 1901), and Histoire de la decouverte des ties
Azores (Ghent, 1901); Duarte Pacheco Pereira, Esmeraldo de situ
orbis (Lisbon, 1892); Sophus Ruge, "Prinz Heinrich der See-
fahrer," in vol. 65 of Globus, p. 153 (Brunswick, 1894); Gustav de
Veer, Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer (Danzig, 1863); H. E. Wauwer-
man, Henri le Navigateur et I'academie portugaise de Sagres (Antwerp
and Brussels, 1890). (C. R. B.)
HENRY OF ALMAIN (1235-1271), so called from his father's
German connexions, was the son of Richard, earl of Cornwall and
king of the Romans. As a nephew of both Henry III. and Simon
de Montfort he wavered between the two at the beginning of the
Barons' War, but finally took the royah'st side and was among the
prisoners taken by Montfort at Lewes (1264). In 1268 he took
the cross with his cousin Edward, who, however, sent him back
from Sicily to pacify the unruly province of Gascony. Henry
took the land route with the kings of France and Sicily. While
attending mass at Viterbo (13 March 1271) he was attacked by
Guy and Simon de Montfort, sons of Earl Simon, and foully
murdered. This revenge was the more outrageous since Henry
had personally exerted himself on behalf of the Montforts after
Evesham. The deed is mentioned by Dante, who put Guy de
Montfort in the seventh circle of hell.
See W. H. Blaauw's The Barons' War (ed. 1871); Ch. B<5mont's
Simon de Montfort (1884).
HENRY OF BLOIS, bishop of Winchester (1101-1171), was the
son of Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William I.,
and brother of King Stephen. He was educated at Cluny, and
consistently exerted himself for the principles of Cluniac reform.
If these involved high claims of independence and power for the
Church, they also asserted a high standard of devotion and
discipline. Henry was brought to England by Henry I. and
made abbot of Glastonbury. In 1129 he was given the bishopric
of Winchester and allowed to hold his abbey in conjunction with
it. His hopes of the see of Canterbury were disappointed, but
he obtained in 1139 a legatine commission which gave him a
higher rank than the primate. In fact as well as in theory he
became the master of the Church in England. He even con-
templated the erection of a new province, with Winchester as its
centre, which was to be independent of Canterbury. Owing both
to local and to general causes the power of the Church in England
has never been higher than in the reign of Stephen (1135-1154).
Henry as its leader and a legate of the pope was the real " lord of
England," as the chronicles call him. Indeed, one of the ecclesi-
astical councils over which he presided formally declared that the
election of the king in England was the special privilege of the
HENRY OF GHENT HENRY OF LAUSANNE
clergy. Stephen owed his crown to Henry (1135), but they
quarrelled when Stephen refused to give Henry the primacy;
and the bishop took up the cause of Roger of Salisbury (1139).
After the battle of Lincoln (1141) Henry declared for Matilda;
but finding his advice treated with contempt, rejoined his
brother's side, and his successful defence of Winchester against
the empress (Aug.-Sept. 1141) was the turning-point of the civil
war. The expiration of bis legatine commission of 1 144 deprived
him of much of his power. He spent the rest of Stephen's reign in
trying to procure its renewal. But his efforts were unsuccessful,
though he made a personal visit to Rome. At the accession of
Henry II. (1154) he retired from the world and spent the rest of
his life in works of charity and penitence. He died in 1171.
Henry seems to have been a man of high character, great courage,
resolution and ability. Like most great bishops of his age he had
a passion for architecture. He built, among other castles, that
of Farnham ; and he began the hospital of St Cross at Winchester.
AUTHORITIES. Original: William of Malmesbury, De gestis
regum; the Gesta Stephani. Modern: Sir James Ramsay, Founda-
tions of England, vol. ii. ; Kate Norgate's Angevin Kings;
Kitchin's Winchester.
HENRY OF GHENT [Henricus a Gandavo] (c. 1217-1293),
scholastic philosopher, known as " Doctor Solennis," was born
in the district of Mude, near Ghent, and died at Tournai (or
Paris). He is said to have belonged to an Italian family named
Bonicolli, in Flemish Goethals, but the question of his name
has been much discussed (see authorities below). He studied
at Ghent and then at Cologne under Albertus Magnus. After
obtaining the degree of doctor he returned to Ghent, and is
said to have been the first to lecture there publicly on philosophy
and theology. Attracted to Paris by the fame of the university,
he took part in the many disputes between the orders and the
secular priests, and warmly defended the latter. A contemporary
of Aquinas, he opposed several of the dominant theories of the
time, and united with the current Aristotelian doctrines a strong
infusion of Platonism. He distinguished between knowledge
of actual objects and the divine inspiration by which we cognize
the being and existence of God. The first throws no light upon
the second. Individuals are constituted not by the material
element but by their independent existence, i.e. ultimately by
the fact that they are created as separate entities. Universals
must be distinguished according as they have reference to our
minds or to the divine mind. In the divine intelligence exist
exemplars or types of the genera and species of natural objects.
On this subject Henry is far from clear; but he defends Plato
against the current Aristotelian criticism, and endeavours to
show that the two views are in harmony. In psychology, his
view of the intimate union of soul and body is remarkable.
The body he regards as forming part of the substance of the
soul, which through this union is more perfect and complete.
WORKS. Quodlibeta theologica (Paris, 1518; Venice, 1608 and
1613); Summa theologiae (Paris, 1520; Ferrara, 1646); De scriptori-
bus ecclesiasticis (Cologne, 1580).
AUTHORITIES. F. Huet's Recherches hist, el crit. . . . de H. de G.
(Paris, 1838) has been superseded by F. Ehrle's monograph in
Archiv fur Lit. u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters, i. (1885); see
also A. Wauters and N. de Pauw in the Bull, de la Com. royale
d'histoire de Belgique (4th series, xiv., xv., xvi., 1887-1889); H.
Delehaye, Nouvelles Recherches sur Henri de Gand (1886) ; C.Werner,
Heinrich von Gent als Reprasentant des christlichen Platonismus im
I3ten Jahrh. (Vienna, 1878); A. Stockl, Phil. d. Mittelalters, ii.
738-758; C. Brdehillet Jourdain, La Philosophie de St Thomas
d'Aquin (1858), ii. 29-46; Alphonse le Roy in Biographic nationale
de Belgique, vii. (Brussels, 1880); and article SCHOLASTICISM.
HENRY OF HUNTINGDON, English chronicler of the i2th
century, was born, apparently, between the years 1080 and 1090.
His father, by name Nicholas, was a clerk, who became archdeacon
of Cambridge, Hertford and Huntingdon, in the time of Remigius,
bishop of Lincoln (d. 1092). The celibacy of the clergy was not
strictly enforced in England before 1102. Hence the chronicler
makes no secret of his antecedents, nor did they interfere with
his career. At an early age Henry entered the household of
Bishop Robert Bloet, who appointed him, immediately after
the death of Nicholas (mo), archdeacon of Hertford and
Huntingdon. Henry was on familiar terms with his patron;
and also, it would seem, with Bloet's successor, by whom he
was encouraged to undertake the writing of an English history
from the time of Julius Caesar. This work, undertaken before
1130, was first published in that year; the author subsequently
published in succession four more editions, of which the last
ends in 1 154 with the accession of Henry II. The only recorded
fact of the chronicler's later life is that he went with Archbishop
Theobald to Rome in 1139. On the way Henry halted at Bee,
and there made the acquaintance of Robert de Torigni, who
mentions their encounter in the preface to his Chronicle.
The Historia Anglorum was first printed in Savile, Rerum Angli-
carum scriptores post Bedam (London, 1596). The first six books,
excepting the third, which is almost entirely taken from Bede, are
given in Monumenta historica Britannica, vol. i. (ed. H. Petrie and
J. Sharpe, London, 1848). The standard edition is that of T. Arnold
in the Rolls Series (London, 1879). There is a translation by T.
Forester in Bonn's Antiquarian Library (London, 1853). The
Historia is of little independent value before 1126. Up to that point
the author compiles from Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Nennius, Bede
and the English chronicles, particularly that of Peterborough; in
some cases he professes to supplement these sources from oral
tradition; but most of his amplifications are pure rhetoric (see
F. Liebermann in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte for 1878,
pp. 265 seq.). Arnold prints, in an appendix, a minor work from
Henry's pen, the Epistola ad Walterum de contemptu mundi, which
was written in 1135. It is a moralizing tract, but contains some
interesting anecdotes about contemporaries. Henry also wrote
epistles to Henry I. (on the succession of kings and emperors in the
great monarchies of the world) and to " Warinus, a Briton " (on the
early British kings, after Geoffrey of Monmouth). A book, De
miraculis, composed of extracts from Bede, was appended along
with these three epistles to the later recensions of the Historia.
Henry composed eight books of Latin epigrams; two books survive
in the Lambeth MS., No. 118. His value as a historian, formerly
much overrated, is discussed at length by Liebermann and in T.
Arnold's introduction to the Rolls edition of the Historia.
(H. W. C. D.)
HENRY OF LAUSANNE (variously known as of Bruys, of
Cluny, of Toulouse, and as the Deacon), French heresiarch of
the first half of the 1 2th century. Practically nothing is known
of his origin or early life. He may have been one of those
hermits who at that time swarmed in the forests of western
Europe, and particularly in France, always surrounded by
popular veneration, and sometimes the founders of monasteries
or religious orders, such as those of Premontre or Fontevrault.
If St Bernard's reproach (Ep. 241) be well founded, Henry was
an apostate monk a " black monk " (Benedictine) according
to the chronicler Alberic de Trois Fontaines. The information
we possess as to his degree of instruction is scarcely more precise
or less conflicting. When he arrived at Le Mans in 1101, his
terminus a quo was probably Lausanne. At that moment
Hildebert, the bishop of Le Mans, was absent from his episcopal
town, and this is one of the reasons why Henry was granted
permission to preach (March to July 1101), a function jealously
guarded by the regular clergy. Whether by his prestige as a
hermit and ascetic or by his personal charm, he soon acquired
enormous influence over the people. His doctrine at that date
appears to have been very vague; he seemingly rejected the
invocation of saints and also second marriages, and preached
penitence. Women, inflamed by his words, gave up their jewels
and luxurious apparel, and young men married courtesans in
the hope of reclaiming them. Henry was peculiarly fitted for
a popular preacher. In person he was tall and had a long
beard; his voice was sonorous, and his eyes flashed fire. He
went bare-footed, preceded by a man carrying a staff surmounted
with an iron cross; he slept on the bare ground, and lived by
alms. At his instigation the inhabitants of Le Mans soon began
to slight the clergy of their town and to reject all ecclesiastical
authority. On his return from Rome, Hildebert had a public
disputation with Henry, in which, according to the bishop's
A eta episcoporum Cenomannensium, Henry was shown to be
less guilty of heresy than of ignorance. He, however, was forced
to leave Le Mans, and went probably to Poitiers and afterwards
to Bordeaux. Later we find him in the diocese of Aries, where
the archbishop arrested him and had his case referred to the
tribunal of the pope. In 1134 Henry appeared before Pope
Innocent III. at the council of Pisa, where he was compelled
HENRY, E. L. HENRY, J.
to abjure his errors and was sentenced to imprisonment. It
appears that St Bernard offered him an asylum at Clairvaux;
but it is not known if he reached Clairvaux, nor do we know
when or in what circumstances he resumed his activities.
Towards 1139, however, Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny,
wrote a treatise called Epistola sen traclatus adversus Petrobru-
sianos (Migne, Pair. Lai. clxxxix.) against the disciples
of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne, whom he calls Henry
of Bruys, and whom, at the moment of writing, he accuses of
preaching, in all the dioceses in the south of France, errors which
he had inherited from Peter of Bruys. According to Peter the
Venerable, Henry's teaching is summed up as follows: rejection
of the doctrinal and disciplinary authority of the church;
recognition of the Gospel freely interpreted as the sole rule of
faith; condemnation of the baptism of infants, of the eucharist,
of the sacrifice of the mass, of the communion of saints, and of
prayers for the dead; and refusal to recognize any form of
worship or liturgy. The success of this teaching spread very
rapidly in the south of France. Speaking of this region, St
Bernard (Ep. 241) says: " The churches are without flocks,
the flocks without priests, the priests without honour; in a
word, nothing remains save Christians without Christ." On
several occasions St Bernard was begged to fight the innovator
on the scene of his exploits, and in 1145, at the instance of the
legate Alberic, cardinal bishop of Ostia, he set out , passing through
the diocese of Angouleme and Limoges, sojourning for some time
at Bordeaux, and finally reaching the heretical towns of Bergerac,
Perigueux, Sarlat, Cahors and Toulouse. At Bernard's approach
Henry quitted Toulouse, leaving there many adherents, both of
noble and humble birth, and especially among the weavers.
But Bernard's eloquence and miracles made many converts,
and Toulouse and Albi were quickly restored to orthodoxy.
After inviting Henry to a disputation, which he refused to attend,
St Bernard returned to Clairvaux. Soon afterwards the heresi-
arch was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and
probably imprisoned for life. In a letter to the people of
Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, St Bernard
calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. In
1151, however, some Henricians still remained in Languedoc, for
Matthew Paris relates (Chron. maj., at date 1151) that a young
girl, who gave herself out to be miraculously inspired by the
Virgin Mary, was reputed to have converted a great number
of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne. It is impossible to
designate definitely as Henricians one of the two sects discovered
at Cologne and described by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, in
his letter to St Bernard (Migne, Pair. Lot., clxxxii. 676-680),
or the heretics of Perigord mentioned by a certain monk Heribert
(Martin Bouquet, Recueil des hisloriens des Gaules el de la France,
xii- 550-55 1 )-
See " Les Origines de 1'he're'sie albigeoise," by Vacandard in the
Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1894, pp. 67-83). (P. A.)
HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841- ), American genre
painter, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the I2th of
January 1841. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, and of Gleyre and Courbet
in Paris, and in 1870 was elected to the National Academy of
Design, New York. As a painter of colonial and early American
themes and incidents of rural life, he displays a quaint humour
and a profound knowledge of human nature. Among his best-
known compositions are some of early railroad travel, incidents
of stage coach and canal boat journeys, rendered with much
detail on a minute scale.
HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876), Irish classical scholar, was born
in Dublin on the i3th of December 1798. He was educated at
Trinity College, and until 1845 practised as a physician in the
city. In spite of his unconventionality and unorthodox views
on religion and his own profession, he was very successful. His
accession to a large fortune enabled him to devote himself
entirely to the absorbing occupation of his life the study of
Virgil. Accompanied by his wife and daughter, he visited all
those parts of Europe where he was likely to find rare editions
or MSS. of the poet. He died near Dublin on the i4th of July
299
1876. As a commentator on Virgil Henry will always deserve
to be remembered, notwithstanding the occasional eccentricity
of his notes and remarks. The first fruits of his researches were
published at Dresden in 1853 under the quaint title Notes of a
Twelve Years' Voyage of Discovery in the first six Books of the
Eneis. These were embodied, with alterations and additions,
in the Aeneidea, or Critical, Exegetical and Aesthetical Remarks
on the Aeneis (1873-1892), of which only the notes on the first
book were published during the author's lifetime. As a textual
critic Henry was exceedingly conservative. His notes, written
in a racy and interesting style, are especially valuable for their
wealth of illustration and references to the less-known classical
authors. Henry was also the author of several poems, some of
them descriptive accounts of his travels, and of various pamphlets
of a satirical nature.
See obituary notice by J. P. Mahaffy in the Academy of the I2th
of August 1876, where a list of his works, nearly all of which were
privately printed, is given.
HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878), American physicist, was born
in Albany, N.Y., on the i7th of December 1797. He received
his education at an ordinary school, and afterwards at the
Albany Academy, which enjoyed considerable reputation for
the thoroughness of its classical and mathematical courses.
On finishing his academic studies he contemplated adopting the
medical profession, and prosecuted his studies in chemistry,
anatomy and physiology with that view. He occasionally
contributed papers to the Albany Institute, in the years 1824
and 1825, on chemical and mechanical subjects; and in the
latter year, having been unexpectedly appointed assistant
engineer on the survey of a route for a state road from the Hudson
river to Lake Erie, a distance somewhat over 300 m., he at once
embarked with zeal and success in the new enterprise. This
diversion from his original bent gave him an inclination to the
career of civil and mechanical engineering; and in the spring
of 1826 he was elected by the trustees of the Albany Academy
to the chair of mathematics and natural philosophy in that
institution. In the latter part of 1827 he read before the Albany
Institute his first important contribution," On Some Modifications
of the Electro-Magnetic Apparatus." Struck with the great
improvements then recently introduced into such apparatus
by William Sturgeon of Woolwich, he had still further
extended their efficiency, with considerable reduction of battery-
power, by adopting in all the experimental circuits (where
applicable) the principle of J. S. C. Schweigger's " multiplier,"
that is, by substituting for single wire circuits, voluminous coils
(Trans. Albany Institute, 1827, i, p. 22). In June 1828 and in
March 1829 he exhibited before the institute small electro-
magnets closely and repeatedly wound with silk-covered wire,
which had a far greater lifting power than any then known.
Henry appears to have been the first to adopt insulated or silk-
covered wire for the magnetic coil; and also the first to employ
what may be called the " spool " winding for the limbs of the
magnet. He was also the first to demonstrate experimentally
the difference of action between what he called a " quantity "
magnet excited by a " quantity " battery of a single pair, and an
" intensity " magnet with long fine wire coil excited by an
" intensity " battery of many elements, having their resistances
suitably proportioned. He pointed out that the latter form alone
was applicable to telegraphic purposes. A detailed account
of these experiments and exhibitions was not, however, published
till 1831 (Sill.Journ., 19, p. 400). Henry's" quantity "magnets
acquired considerable celebrity at the time, from their un-
precedented attractive power one (August 1830) lifting 750 Ib,
another (March 1831) 2300, and a third (1834) 3500.
Early in 1831 he arranged a small office- bell to be tapped by
the polarized armature of an " intensity " magnet, whose coil
was in continuation of a mile of insulated copper wire, suspended
about one of the rooms of his academy. This was the first
instance of magnetizing iron at a distance, or of a suitable
combination of magnet and battery being so arranged as to be
capable of such action. It was, therefore, the earliest example
of a true " magnetic " telegraph, all preceding experiments to
300
HENRY, M. HENRY, P.
this end having been on the galvanometer or needle principle.
About the same time he devised and constructed the first
electromagnetic engine with automatic polechanger (Sill. Journ.,
1831, 20, p. 340; and Sturgeon's Annals Electr., 1839, 3,p. 554).
Early in 1832 he discovered the induction of a current on itself,
in a long helical wire, giving greatly increased intensity of
discharge (Sill. Journ., 1832, 22, p. 408). In 1832 he was elected
to the chair of natural philosophy in the New Jersey college
at Princeton. In 1834 he continued and extended his researches
" On the Influence of a Spiral Conductor in increasing the
Intensity of Electricity from a Galvanic Arrangement of a Single
Pair," a memoir of which was read before the American Philo-
sophical Society on the 5th of February 1835. In 1835 he
combined the short circuit of his monster magnet (of 1834) with
the small " intensity " magnet of an experimental telegraph
wire, thereby establishing the fact that very powerful mechanical
effects could be produced at a great distance by the agency
of a very feeble magnet used as a circuit maker and breaker,
or as a " trigger " the precursor of later forms of relay and
receiving magnets. In 1837 he paid his first visit to England
and Europe. In 1838 he made important investigations in
regard to the conditions and range of induction from electrical
currents showing that induced currents, although merely
momentary, produce still other or tertiary currents, and thus on
through successive orders of induction, with alternating signs,
and with reversed initial and terminal signs. He also discovered
similar successive orders of induction in the case of the passage
of frictional electricity (Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 6, pp. 303-337).
Among many minor observations, he discovered in 1842 the
oscillatory nature of the electrical discharge, magnetizing about
a thousand needles in the course of his experiments (Proc. Am.
Phil. Soc., I, p. 301). He traced the influence of induction to sur-
prising distances, magnetizing needles in the lower story of a
house through several intervening floors by means of electrical
discharges in the upper story, and also by the secondary current
in a wire 220 ft. distant from the wire of the primary circuit.
The five numbers of his Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism
(1835-1842) were separately republished from the Transactions.
In 1843 he made some interesting- original observations on
"Phosphorescence" (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. ,3, pp.38-44). In 1844,
by experiments on the tenacity of soap-bubbles, he showed that
the molecular cohesion of water is equal (if not superior) to that
of ice, and hence, generally, that solids and their liquids have
practically the same amount of cohesion (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4,
pp. 56 and 84). In 1845 he showed, by means of a thermo-galvano-
meter, that the solar spots radiate less heat than the general
solar surface (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 4, pp. 173-176).
In December 1846 Henry was elected secretary and director of
the Smithsonian Institution, then just established. While closely
occupied with the exacting duties of that office, he still found time
to prosecute many original inquiries as into the application of
acoustics to public buildings, and the best construction and
arrangement of lecture-rooms, into the strength of various
building 'materials, &c. Having early devoted much attention
to meteorology, both in observing and in reducing and discussing
observations, he (among his.first administrative acts) organized
a large and widespread corps of observers, and made arrange-
ments for simultaneous reports by means of the electric telegraph,
which was yet in its infancy (Smithson. Report for 1847, pp. 146,
147). He was the first to apply the telegraph to meteorological
research, to have the atmospheric conditions daily indicated
on a large map, to utilize the generalizations made in weather
forecasts, and to embrace a continent under a single system
British America and Mexico being included in the field of observa-
tion. In 1852, on the reorganization of the American lighthouse
system, he was appointed a member of the new board; and
in 1871 he became the presiding officer of the establishment
a position he continued to hold during the rest of his life. His
diligent investigations into the efficiency of various illuminants
in differing circumstances, and into the best conditions for
developing their several maximum powers of brilliancy, while
greatly improving the usefulness of the line of beacons along the
extensive coast of the United States, effected at the same time
a great economy of administration. His equally careful experi-
ments on various acoustic instruments also resulted in giving to
his country the most serviceable system of fog-signals known to
maritime powers. In the course of these varied and prolonged
researches from 1865 to 1877, he also made important contribu-
tions to the science of acoustics; and he established by several
series of laborious observations, extending over many years and
along a wide coast range, the correctness of G. G. Stokes's
hypothesis (Report Brit. Assoc., 1857, part ii. 27) that the wind
exerts a very marked influence in refracting sound-beams.
From 1868 Henry continued to be annually chosen as president
of the National Academy of Sciences; and he was also president
of the Philosophical Society of Washington from the date of its
organization in 1871. .
Henry was by general concession the foremost of American
physicists. He was a man of varied culture, of large breadth and
liberality of views, of generous impulses, of great gentleness and
courtesy of manner, combined with equal firmness of purpose and
energy of action. He died at Washington on the i3th of May
1878. (S. F. B.)
HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714), English nonconformist
divine, was born at Broad Oak, a farm-house on the confines of
Flintshire and Shropshire, on the i8th of October 1662. He
was the son of Philip Henry, who had, two months earlier, been
ejected by the Act of Uniformity. Unlike most of his fellow-
sufferers, Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was
thus enabled to give a good education to his son, who went first
to a school at Islington, and then to Gray's Inn. He soon
relinquished his legal studies for theology, and in 1687 became
minister of a Presbyterian congregation at Chester, removing
in 1712 to Mare Street, Hackney. Two years later (22nd of June
1714), he died suddenly of apoplexy at Nantwich while on a
journey from Chester to London. Henry's well-known Exposi-
tion of the Old and New Testaments (1708-1710) is a commentary
of a practical and devotional rather than of a critical kind,
covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and
Acts in the New. Here it was broken off by the author's death,
but the work was finished by a number of ministers, and edited
by G. Burder and John Hughes in 181 1. Of no value as criticism,
its unfailing good sense, its discriminating thought, its high moral
tone, its simple piety and its singular felicity of practical
application, combine with the well-sustained flow of its racy
English style to secure for it the foremost place among works
of its class.
His Miscellaneous Writings, including a Life of Mr Philip
Henry, The Communicant's Companion, Directions for Daily
Communion with God, A Method for Prayer, A Scriptural Cate-
chism, and numerous sermons, were edited in 1809 and in 1830.
See biographies by' W. Tong (1816), C. Chapman (1859), J. B.
Williams (1828, new ed. 1865); and M. H. Lee's Diaries and
Letters of Philip Henry (1883).
HENRY, PATRICK (1736-1799), American statesman and
orator, was born at Studley, Hanover county, Virginia, on the
29th of May 1736. He was the son of John Henry, a well-
educated Scotsman, among whose relatives was the historian
William Robertson, and who served in Virginia as county
surveyor, colonel and judge of a county court. His mother
was one of a family named Winston, of Welsh descent, noted for
conversational and musical talent. At the age of ten Patrick
was making slow progress in the study of reading, writing and
arithmetic at a small country school, when his father became
his tutor and taught him Latin, Greek and mathematics for
five years, but with limited success. His school days being
then terminated, he was employed as a store-clerk for one year.
Within the seven years next following he failed twice as a store-
keeper and once as a. farmer; but in the meantime acquired a
taste for reading, of history especially, and read and re-read the
history of Greece and Rome, -of England, and of her American
colonies. Then, poor but not discouraged, he resolved to be
a lawyer, and after reading Coke upon Littleton and the Virginia
laws for a few weeks only, he strongly impressed one of his
HENRY, R. HENRY, V.
301
examiners, and was admitted to the bar at the age of twenty-
four, on condition that he spend more time in study before
beginning to practise. He rapidly acquired a considerable
practice, his fee books shewing that for the first three years he
charged fees in 1185 cases. Then in 1763 was delivered his
speech in " The Parson's Cause " a suit brought by a clergy-
man, Rev. James Maury, in the Hanover County Court, to
secure restitution for money considered by him to be due on
account of his salary (16,000 pounds of tobacco by law) having
been paid in money calculated at a rate less than the current
market price of tobacco. This speech, which, according to
reports, was extremely radical and denied the right of the king
to disallow acts of the colonial legislature, made Henry the idol
of the common people of Virginia and procured for him an
enormous practice. In 1765 he was elected a member of the
Virginia legislature, where he became in the same year the author
of the " Virginia Resolutions," which were no less than a declara-
tion of resistance to the Stamp Act and an assertion of the right
of the colonies to legislate for themselves independently of the
control of the British parliament, and gave a most powerful
impetus to the movement resulting m the War of Independence.
In a speech urging their adoption appear the often-quoted'
words: " Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus, Charles the
First his Cromwell, and George the Third [here he was interrupted
by cries of " Treason "] and Geotge the Third may profit by
their example! If Ms be treason, make the most of it." Until
1775 he continued to sit in the House of Burgesses, as a leader
during all that eventful period. He was prominent as a radical
in all measures in opposition to the British government, and was
a member of the first Virginia committee of correspondence.
In 1774 and 1775 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress
and served on three of its most important committees: that on
colonial trade and manufactures, that for drawing up an address
to the king, and that for stating the rights of the colonies. In
1775, in the second revolutionary convention of Virginia, Henry,
regarding war as inevitable, presented resolutions for arming the
Virginia militia. The more conservative members strongly
opposed them as premature, whereupon Henry supported them
in a speech familiar to the American school-boy for several
generations following, closing with the words, " Is life so dear
or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and.
slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course
others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me
death! " The resolutions were passed and their author was made
chairman of the committee for which they provided. The chief
command of the newly organized army was also given to him,
but previously, at the head of a body of militia, he had demanded
satisfaction for powder removed from the public store by order
of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, with the result that 330
was paid in compensation. But his military appointment
required obedience to the Committee of Public Safety, and this
body, largely dominated by Edmund Pendleton, so restrained him
from active service that he resigned on the aStlji of February
1776. In the Virginia convention of 1776 he favoured the
postponement of a declaration of independence, until a firm
union of the colonies and the friendship of France and Spain haq\.
been secured. In the same convention he served on the com-
mittee which drafted the first constitution for Virginia, and was
elected governor of the State to which office he was re-elected
in 1777 and 1778, thus serving as long as the new constitution
allowed any man to serve continuously. As governor he gave
Washington able support and sent out the expedition under
George Rogers Clark (q.v.) into the Illinois country. In 1778 he
was chosen a delegate to Congress, but declined to serve. From
1780 to 1784 and from 1787 to 1790 he was again a member of
his State legislature; and from 1784 to 1786 was again governor.
Until 1786 he was a leading advocate of a stronger central
government but when chosen a delegate to the Philadelphia
constitutional convention of 1787, he had become cold in the
cause and declined to serve. Moreover, in the state convention
called to decide whether Virginia should ratify the Federal
Constitution he led the opposition, contending that the proposed
Constitution, because of its centralizing character, was dangerous
to the liberties of the country. This change of attitude is
thought to have been due chiefly to his suspicion of the North
aroused by John Jay's proposal to surrender to Spain for twenty-
five or thirty years the navigation of the Mississippi. From
1794 until his death he declined in succession the following
offices: United States senator (1794), secretary of state in
Washington's cabinet (1795), chief justice of the United States
Supreme Court (1795), governor of Virginia (1796), to which
office he had been electe'd by the Assembly, and envoy to France
(1799). In 1799, however, he consented to serve again in his
State legislature, where he wished to combat the Virginia
Resolutions; he never took his seat, since he died, on his Red
Hill estate in Charlotte county, Virginia, on the 6th of June of
that year. Henry was twice married, first to Sarah Skelton, and
second to Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, a grand-daughter
of Governor Alexander Spotswood.
See Moses Coit Tyler, Patrick Henry (Boston, 1887; new ed.,
1899), and William Wirt Henry (Patrick Henry's grandson), Patrick
Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches (New York, 1890-1891);
these supersede the very unsatisfactory biography by William Wirt,
Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry (Philadelphia,
1817). See also George Morgan, The True Patrick Henry (Phila-
delphia, 1907). (N. D. M.)
HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790), British historian, was the
son of James Henry, a farmer of Muirton, near Stirling. Born
on the 1 8th of February 1718 he was educated at the parish
school of St Ninians, and at the grammar school of Stirling, and,
after completing his course at Edinburgh University, became
master of the grammar school at Annan. In 1746 he was
licensed to preach, and in 1748 was chosen minister of a Presby-
terian-congregation at Carlisle, where he remained until 1760,
when he removed to a similar charge at Berwick-on-Tweed.
In 1768 he became minister of the New Greyfriars' Church,
Edinburgh, and having received the degree of D.D. from Edin-
burgh University in 1771, and served as moderator of the
general assembly of the church of Scotland in 1774, he was
appointed one of the ministers of the Old Greyfriars' Church,
Edinburgh, in 1776, remaining in this charge until his death
on the 24th of November 1 790. During his residence in Berwick,
Henry commenced his History of Great Britain, written on a new
plan; but, owing to the difficulty of consulting the original
authorities, he did not make much progress with the work until
his removal to Edinburgh in 1768. The first five volumes
appeared between 1771 and 1785, and the sixth, edited and
completed by Malcolm Laing, was published three years after the
author's death. A life of Henry was prefixed to this volume.
The History covers the years between the Roman invasion and
the death of Henry VIII., and the " new plan " is the combina-
tion of an account of the domestic life and commercial and social
progress of the people with the narrative of the political events
of each period. The work was virulently assailed by Dr Gilbert
Stuart (1742-1786), who appeared anxious to damage the sale
of the book; but the injury thus effected was only slight, as
Henry received 3300 for the volumes published during his
lifetime. In 1781, through the influence of the earl of Mans-
field, he obtained a pension of 100 a year from the British
government.
The History of Great Britain has been translated into French, and
has passed into several English editions. An account of Stuart's
attack on Henry is given in Isaac D'Israeli's Calamities of Authors.
HENRY, VICTOR (1850- ); French philologist, was born
at Colmar in Alsace. Having held appointments at Douai and
Lille, he was appointed professor of Sanskrit and comparative
grammar in the university of Paris. A prolific and versatile
writer, he is probably best known by the English translations
of his Precis de Grammaire comparee de I' anglais et de I'allemand
and Precis . . . du Grec et du Latin. Important works by him
on India and Indian languages are: Manuel pour etudier le
Sanscrit vedique (with A. Bergaigne, 1890); Elements de Sanscrit
classique (1902); Precis de grammaire Pdlie (1904); Les Littera-
tures dt I'Inde: Sanscrit, Pali, Prdcril (1904); La Magie dans
I'Inde antique (1904); Le Parsisme (1903); L'Agni^toma (1906).
302
HENRY, W. HENSELT
Obscure languages (such as Innok, Quichua, Greenland) and
local dialects (Lexique itymologique du Breton moderne; Le
Dicuecle Alaman de Colmar) also claimed his attention. Le
Langage Martien is a curious book. It contains a discussion of
some 40 phrases (amounting to about 300 words), which a certain
Mademoiselle Helene Smith (a well-known spiritualist medium
of Geneva), while on a hypnotic visit to the planet Mars, learnt
and repeated and even wrote down during her trance as specimens
of a language spoken there, explained to her by a disembodied
interpreter.
HENRY, WILLIAM (1775-1836), English chemist, son of
Thomas Henry (1734-1816), an apothecary and writer on
chemistry, was born at Manchester on the i2th of December
1775. He began to study medicine at Edinburgh in 1795,
taking his doctor's degree in 1807, but ill-health interrupted his
practice as a physician, and he devoted his time mainly to
chemical research, especially in regard to gases. One of his
best-known papers (Phil. Trans., 1803) describes experiments
on the quantity of gases absorbed by water at different tempera-
tures and under different pressures, the conclusion he reached
(" Henry's law ") being that " water takes up of gas condensed
by one, two or more additional atmospheres, a quantity which,
ordinarily compressed, would be equal to twice, thrice, &c. the
volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere."
Others of his papers deal with gas-analysis, fire-damp, illuminating
gas, the composition of hydrochloric acid and of ammonia,
urinary and other morbid concretions, and the disinfecting
powers of heat. His Elements of Experimental Chemistry (1799)
enjoyed considerable vogue in its day, going through 1 1 editions
in 30 years. He died at Pendlebury, near Manchester, on the
2nd of September 1836.
HENRYSON, ROBERT (c. 1425-0. 1500), Scottish poet, was
born about 1425. It has been surmised that he was connected
with the family of Henderson of Fordell, but of this there is
no evidence. He is described, on the title-page of the 1570
edition of his Fables, as " scholemaister of Dunfermeling,"
probably of the grammar-school of the Benedictine Abbey
there. There is no record of his having studied at St Andrews,
the only Scottish university at this time; but in 1462 a " Master
Robert Henryson " is named among those incorporated in the
recently founded university of Glasgow. It is therefore likely
that his first studies were completed abroad, at Paris or Louvain.
He would appear to have been in lower orders, if, in addition
to being master of the grammar-school, he is the notary Robert
Henryson who subscribes certain deeds in 1478. As Dunbar
(q.v.) refers to him as deceased in his Lament for the Makaris,
his death may be dated about 1500.
Efforts have been made to draw up a chronology of his poems;
but every scheme of this kind, is, in a stronger sense than in the
case of Dunbar, mere guess-work. There are no biographical
or bibliographical facts to guide us, and the " internal evidence "
is inconclusive.
Henryson's longest, and -in many respects his most original
and effective work, is his Morall Fabillis of Esope, a collection
of thirteen fables, chiefly based on the versions of Anonymus,
Lydgate and Caxton. The outstanding merit of the work
is its freshness of treatment. The old themes are retold with
such vivacity, such fresh lights on human character, and with
so much local " atmosphere," that they deserve the credit of
original productions. They are certainly unrivalled in English
fabulistic literature. The earliest available texts are the Char-
teris text printed by Lekpreuik in Edinburgh in 1570 and the
Harleian MS. No. 3865 in the British Museum.
In the Testament of Cresseid Henryson supplements Chaucer's
tale of Troilus with the story of the tragedy of Cresseid. Here
again his literary craftsmanship saves him from the disaster
which must have overcome another poet in undertaking to con-
tinue the part of the story which Chaucer had intentionally
left untold. The description of Cresseid's leprosy, of ner meeting
with Troilus, of his sorrow and charity, and of her death, give
the poem a high place in writings of this genre.
The poem entitled Orpheus and Eurydice, which is drawn from
Boethius, contains some good passages, especially the lyrical
lament of Orpheus, with the refrains " Quhar art thow gane,
my luf Erudices?" and " My lady quene and luf, Erudices."
It is followed by a long moralitas, in the manner of the Fables.
Thirteen shorter poems have been ascribed to Henryson.
Of these the pastoral dialogue " Robene and Makyne," perhaps
the best known of his work, is the most successful. Its model
may perhaps be found in the pastourclles, but it stands safely
on its own merits. Unlike most of the minor poems it is inde-
pendent of Chaucerian tradition. The other pieces deal with the
conventional 15th-century topics, Age: Death, Hasty Credence,
Want of Wise Men and the like. The verses entitled " Sum
Practysis of Medecyne," in which some have failed to see Henry-
son's hand, is an example of that boisterous alliterative burlesque
which is represented by a single specimen in the work of the
greatest makers, Dunbar, Douglas and Lyndsay. For this
reason, if not for others, the difference of its manner is no argu-
ment against its authenticity.
The MS. authorities for the text are the Asloan, Bannatyne,
Maitland Folio, Makculloch, Gray and Riddell. Chepman and
Myllar's Prints (1508) have preserved two of the minor poems and a
fragment of Orpheus and Eurydice. The first complete edition was
prepared by David Laing (l vol., Edinburgh, 1865). A more ex-
haustive edition in three volumes, containing all the texts, was
undertaken by the Scottish Text Society (ed. G. Gregory Smith),
the first volume of the text (vol. ii. of the work) appearing in 1907.
For a critical account of Henryson, see Irving's History of Scottish
Poetry, Henderson's Vernacular Scottish Literature, Gregory Smith's
Transition Period, J. H. Millar's Literary History of Scotland, and
the second volume of the Cambridge History of English Literature
(1908). (G. G. S.)
HENSCHEL, GEORGE [ISIDOR GEORG] (1850- ), English
musician (naturalized 1890), of German family, was born at
Breslau, and educated as a pianist, making his first public
appearance in Berlin in 1862. He subsequently, however, took
up singing, having developed a fine baritone voice; and in 1868
he sang the part of Hans Sachs in Meister -singer at Munich.
In 1877 he began a successful career in England, singing at the
principal concerts; and in 1881 he married the American
soprano, Lilian Bailey (d. 1901), who was associated with him
in a number of vocal recitals. He was also prominent as a con-
ductor, starting the London symphony concerts in 1886, and both
in England and America (where he was the first conductor of
the Boston symphony concerts, 1881) he took a leading part in
advancing his art. He composed a number of instrumental
works, a fine Stabat Mater (Birmingham festival, 1894), &c.,
and an opera, Nubia (Dresden, 1899).
HENSELT, ADOLF VON (1814-1889), German composer,
was born at Schwabach, in Bavaria, on the i2th of May 1814.
At three years old he began to learn the violin, and at five the
pianoforte under Frau v. Fladt. On obtaining financial help
from King Louis I. he went to study under Hummel in Weimar,
and thence in 1832 to Vienna, where, besides studying composition
under Simon Sechter, he made a great success as a concert
pianist. In order to recruit his health he made a prolonged tour
in 1836 through the chief German towns. In 1837 he settled
at Breslau, where he had married, but in the following year he
migrated to St Petersburg, where previous visits had made him
persona grata at Court. He then became court pianist and
inspector of musical studies in the Imperial Institute of Female
Education, and was ennobled. In 1852 and again in 1867 he
visited England, though in the latter year he made no public
appearance. St Petersburg was his home practically until his
death, which took place at Warmbrunn on the loth of October
1889. The characteristic of Henselt's playing was a combination
of Liszt's sonority with Hummel's smoothness. It was full of
poetry, remarkable for the great use he made of extended
chords, and for his perfect technique. He excelled in his own
works and in those of Weber and Chopin. His concerto in F
minor is frequently played on the continent; and of his many
valuable studies, Si oiseau j'elais is very familiar. His A minor
trio deserves to be better kncwn. At one time Henselt was
second to Rubinstein in the direction of the St Petersburg.
Conservatorium.
HENSLOW HENWOOD
303
HENSLOW, JOHN STEVENS (1796-1861), English botanist
and geologist, was born at Rochester on the 6th of February
1796. From his father, who was a solicitor in that city, he
imbibed a love of natural history which largely influenced his
career. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge,
where he graduated as sixteenth wrangler in 1818, the year in
which Sedgwick became Woodwardian professor of geology.
He accompanied Sedgwick in 1819 during a tour in the Isle
of Wight, and there he learned his first lessons in geology. He
also studied chemistry under Professor James Gumming and
mineralogy under E. D. Clarke. In the autumn of 1819 he made
some valuable observations on the geology of the Isle of Man
(Trans. Geol. Soc., 1821), and in 1821 he investigated the geology
of parts of Anglesey, the results being printed in the first volume
of the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1821),
the foundation of which society was originated by Sedgwick
and Henslow. Meanwhile, Henslow had studied mineralogy
with considerable zeal, so that on the death of Clarke he was in
1822 appointed professor of mineralogy in the university at
Cambridge. Two years later he took holy orders. Botany, how-
ever, had claimed much of his attention, and to this science he
became more and more attached, so that he gladly resigned the
chair of mineralogy in 1825, to succeed to that of botany. As
a teacher both in the class-room and in the field he was eminently
successful. To him Darwin largely owed his attachment to natural
history, and also his introduction to Captain Fitzroy of H.M.S.
" Beagle." In 1832 Henslow was appointed vicar of Cholsey-
cum-Moulsford in Berkshire, and in 1837 rector of Hitcham in
Suffolk, and at this latter parish he lived and laboured, endeared
to all who knew him, until the close of his life. His energies were
devoted to the improvement of his parishioners, but his influence
was felt far and wide. In 1843 he discovered nodules of coprolitic
origin in the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk, and two years
later he called attention to those also in the Cambridge Greensand
and remarked that they might be of use in agriculture. Although
Henslow derived no benefit, these discoveries led to the establish-
ment of the phosphate industry in Suffolk and Cambridgeshire;
and the works proved lucrative until the introduction of foreign
phosphates. The museum at Ipswich, which was established
in 1847, owed much to Henslow, who was elected president in
1850, and then superintended the arrangement of the collections.
He died at Hitcham on the i6th of May 1861. His publications
included A Catalogue of British Plants (1829; ed. 2, 1835);
Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany (1835);
Flora of Suffolk (with E. Skepper) (1860).
Memoir, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns (1862).
HENSLOWE, PHILIP (d. 1616), English theatrical manager,
was the son of Edmund Henslowe of Lindfield, Sussex, master of
the game in Ashdown Forest and Broil Park. He was originally
a servant in the employment of the bailiff to Viscount Montague,
whose property included Montague House in Southwark, and his
duties led him to settle there before 1577. He subsequently
married the bailiff's widow, and, with the fortune he got with her,
he developed into a clever business man and became a consider-
able owner of Southwark property. He started his connexion
with the stage when, on the 24th of March 1584, he bought land
near what is now the southern end of Southwark Bridge, on
which stood the Little Rose playhouse, afterwards rebuilt as the
Rose. Successive companies played in it under Henslowe's
financial management between 1592 and 1603. The theatre at
Newington Butts was also under him in 1594. A share of the
control in the Swan theatre, which like the Rose was on the
Bankside, fell to Henslowe before the close of the i6th century.
With the actor Edward Alleyn, who married his step-daughter
Joan Woodward, he built in Golden Lane, Cripplegate Without,
the Fortune Playhouse, opened in November 1600. In December
of 1594, they had secured the Paris Garden, a place for bear-
baiting, on the Bankside, and in 1604 they bought the office of
master of the royal game of bears, bulls and mastiffs from the
holder, and obtained a patent. Alleyn sold his share to Henslowe
in February 1610, and three years later Henslowe formed a new
partnership with Jacob Meade and built the Hope playhouse,
designed for stage performances as well as bull and bear-baiting,
and managed by Meade.
/In Henslowe's theatres were first produced many plays by the
famous Elizabethan dramatist^] What is known as " Henslowe's
Diary " contains some accounts referring to Ashdown Forest
between 1576 and 1581, entered by John Henslowe, while the
later entries by Philip Henslowe from 1592 to 1609 are those
which throw light on the theatrical matters of the time, and which
have been subjected to much controversial criticism as a result of
injuries done to the manuscript. " Henslowe's Diary " passed
into the hands of Edward Alleyn, and thence into the Library of
Dulwich College, where the manuscript remained intact for more
than a hundred and fifty years. In 1780 Malone tried to borrow
it, but it had been mislaid; in 1790 it was discovered and given
into his charge. He was then at work on his Variorum Shake-
speare. Malone had a transcript made of certain portions, and
collated it with the original; and this transcript, with various
notes and corrections by Malone, is now in the Dulwich
Library. An abstract of this transcript he also published
with his Variorum Shakespeare. The MS. of the diary was
eventually returned to the library in 1812 by Malone's executor.
In 1840 it was lent to J. P. Collier, who in 1845 printed for the
Shakespeare Society what purported to be a full edition, but it
was afterwards shown by G. F. Warner (Catalogue of the Dulwich
Library, 1881) that a number of forged interpolations have been
made, the responsibility for which rests on Collier.
The complicated history of the forgeries and their detection has
been exhaustively treated in Walter W. Greg's edition of Henslowe's
Diary (London, 1904; enlarged 1908).
HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED (1832-1902), English war-
correspondent and author, was born at Trumpington, near
Cambridge, in December 1832, and educated at Westminster
School and Caius College, Cambridge. He served in the Crimea
in the Purveyor's department, and after the peace filled various
posts in the department in England and Ireland, but he found the
routine little to his taste, and drifted into journalism for the
London Standard. He volunteered as Special Correspondent for
the Austro-Italian War of 1866, accompanied Garibaldi in his
Tirolese Campaign, followed Lord Napier through the mountain
gorges to Magdala, and Lord Wolseley across bush and swamp to
Kumassi. Next he reported the Franco-German War, starved in
Paris through the siege of the Commune, and then turned south to
rough it in the Pyrenees during the Carlist insurrection. He was
in Asiatic Russia at the time of the Khiva expedition, and later
saw the desperate hand-to-hand fighting of the Turks in the
Servian War. He found his real vocation in middle life. Invited
to edit a magazine for boys called the Union Jack, he became the
mainstay of the new periodical, to which he contributed several
serials in succession. The stories pleased their public, and had
ever increasing circulation in book form, until Henty became
a name to conjure with in juvenile circles. Altogether he wrote
about eighty of these books. Henty was an enthusiastic yachts-
man, having spent at least six months afloat each year, and he
died on board his yacht in Weymouth Harbour on the i6th
of November 1902.
HENWOOD, WILLIAM JORY (1805-1875), English mining
geologist, was born at Perron Wharf, Cornwall, on the i6th of
January 1805. In 182 2 he commenced work as a clerk in a mining
office, and soon took an active interest in the working of mines
and in the metalliferous deposits. In 183 2 he was appointed to the
office of assay-master and supervisor of tin in the duchy of
Cornwall, a post from which he retired in 1838. Meanwhile he
had commenced in 1826 to communicate papers on mining sub-
jects to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and the
Geological Society of London, and in 1840 he was elected F.R.S.
In 1843 he went to take charge of the Gongo-Soco mines in Brazil ;
afterwards he proceeded to India to report on certain metalliferous
deposits for the Indian government; and in 1858, impaired in
health, he retired and settled at Penzance. His most important
memoirs on the metalliferous deposits of Cornwall and Devon
were published in 1843 by the Royal Geological Society of
Cornwall. At a much later date he communicated with enlarged
304
HENZADA HEPHAESTUS
experience a second series of Observations on Metalliferous
Deposits, and on Subterranean Temperature (reprinted from
Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, 2 vols., 1871). In 1874 he con-
tributed a paper on the Detrital Tin-ore of Cornwall (Journ. R.
Inst. Cornwall). The Murchison medal of the Geological Society
was awarded to him in 1875, and the mineral Henwoodite was
named after him. He died at Penzance on the 5th of August
1875-
HENZADA, a district of Lower Burma, formerly in the Pegu,
but now in the Irrawaddy division. Area, 2870 sq. m. Pop.
(1901) 484,558. It stretches from north to south in. one vast
plain, forming the valley of the Irrawaddy, and is divided by
that river into two nearly equal portions. This country is
protected from inundation by immense embankments, so that
almost the whole area is suitable for rice cultivation. The chief
mountains are the Arakan and Pegu Yoma ranges. The greatest
elevation of the Arakan Yomas in Henzada, attained in the
latitude of Myan-aung, is 4003 ft. above sea-level. Numerous
torrents pour down from the two boundary ranges, and unite
in the plains to form large streams, which fall into the chief
streams of the district, which are the Irrawaddy, Hlaing and
Bassein, all of them branches of the Irrawaddy. The forests
comprise almost every variety of timber found in Burma.
The bulk of the cultivation is rice, but a number of acres are
under tobacco. The chief town of the district is HENZADA,
which had in 1901 a population of 24,756. It is a municipal
town, with ten elective and three ex-officio members. Other
municipal towns in the district are Zalun, with a population of
6642; Myan-aung, with a population of 6351 ; and Kyangin, with
a population of 7183, according to the 1901 census. The town
of Lemyethna had a population of 5831. The steamers of the
Irrawaddy Flotilla Company call at Henzada and Myan-aung.
The district was once a portion of the Talaing kingdom of
Pegu, afterwards annexed to the Burmese empire in 1753, and has
no history of its own. During the second Burmese war, after
Prome had been seized, the Burmese on the right bank of the
Irrawaddy crossed the river and offered resistance to the British,
but were completely routed. Meanwhile, in Tharawaddy, or
the country east of the Irrawaddy, and in the south of Henzada,
much disorder was caused by a revolt, the leaders of which were,
however, defeated by the British and their gangs dispersed.
HEPBURN, SIR JOHN (c. 1598-1636), Scottish soldier in
the Thirty Years' War, was a son of George Hepburn of Athel-
staneford near Haddington. In 1620 and in the following years
he served in Bohemia, on the lower Rhine and in the Netherlands,
and in 1623 he entered the service of Gustavus Adolphus, who,
two years later, appointed him colonel of a Scottish regiment
of his army. He took part with his regiment in Gustavus's
Polish wars, and in 1631, a few months before the battle of
Breitenfeld he was placed in command of the " Scots " or
" Green " brigade of the Swedish army. At Breitenfeld it was
Hepburn's brigade which delivered the decisive stroke, and
after this he remained with the king, who placed the fullest
reliance on his skill and courage, until the battle of the Alte
Veste near Nuremberg. He then entered the French service,
and raised two thousand men in Scotland for the French army,
to which force was added in France the historic Scottish archer
bodyguard of the French kings. The existing Royal Scots
(Lothian) regiment (late ist Foot) represents in the British army
of to-day Hepburn's French regiment, and indirectly, through
the amalgamation referred to, the Scottish contingent of the
Hundred Years,' War. Hepburn's claim to the right of the line
of battle was bitterly resented by the senior French regiments.
Shortly after this, in 1633, Hepburn was under a marechal de
camp, and he took part in the campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine
(1634-36). In 1635 Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, on entering the
French service, brought with him Hepburn's former Swedish
regiment, which was at once amalgamated with the French
" regiment d'Hebron," the latter thus attaining the unusual
strength of 8300 men. Sir John Hepburn was killed shortly
afterwards during the siege of Saverne (Zabern) on the 8th of
July 1636. He was buried in Toul cathedral. With his friend
Sir Robert Monro, Hepburn was the foremost of the Scottish
soldiers of fortune who bore so conspicuous a part in the Thirty
Years' War. He was a sincere Roman Catholic. It is stated
that he left Gustavuc owing to a jest about his religion, and at
any rate he found in the French service, in which he ended his
days, the opportunity of reconciling his beliefs with the desire
of military glory which had led him into the Swedish army, and
with the patriotic feeling which had first brought him out to the
wars to fight for the Stuart princess, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia.
See James Grant, Memoirs of Sir John Hepburn.
HEPHAESTION, a Macedonian general, celebrated as the
friend of Alexander the Great, who, comparing himself with
Achilles, called Hephaestion his Patroclus. In the later cam-
paigns in Bactria and India, he was entrusted with the task of
founding cities and colonies, and built the fleet intended to sail
down the Indus. He was rewarded with a golden crown and the
hand of Drypetis, the sister of Alexander's wife Stateira (324).
In the same year he died suddenly at Ecbatana. A general
mourning was ordered throughout Asia; at Babylon a funeral
pile was erected at enormous cost, and temples were built in
his honour (see ALEXANDER THE GREAT).
HEPHAESTION, a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished
in the age of the Antonines. He was the author of a manual
(abridged from a larger work in 48 books) of Greek metres
(''Eyxtiptiiov irepl ij.krpwv), which is most valuable as the
only complete treatise on the subject that has been preserved.
The concluding chapter (Ilept ironwares) discusses the various
kinds of poetical composition. It is written in a clear and simple
style, and was much used as a school-book.
Editions by T. Gaisford (1855, with the valuable scholia), R.
Westphal (1886, in Scriptores metrici Graeci) and M. Consbruch
(1906); translation by T. F. Barham (1843); see also W. Christ,
Gesch. der griech. Litt. (1898); M. Consbruch, De veterum Utpl
iron7/iaTos doctrina (1890) ; J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. i. (1906).
HEPHAESTUS, in Greek mythology, the god of fire, analogous
to, and by the ancients often confused with, the Roman god
Vulcan (q.v.); the derivation of the name is uncertain, but it
may well be of Greek origin. The elemental character of
Hephaestus is far more apparent than is the case with the
majority of the Olympian gods; the word Hephaestus was used
as a synonym for fire not only in poetry (Homer, //. ii. 426 and
later), but also in common speech (Diod. v. 74). It is doubtful
whether the origin of the god can be traced to any specific form
of fire. As all earthly fire was thought to have come from heaven,
Hephaestus has been identified with the lightning. This is
supported by the myth of his fall from heaven, and by the fact
that, according to the Homeric tradition, his father was Zeus,
the heaven-god. On the other hand, the lightning is not
associated with him in literature or cult, and his connexion with
volcanic fires is so close as to suggest that he was originally a
volcano-god. The connexion, however, though it may be early,
is probably not primitive, and it seems reasonable to conclude
that Hephaestus was a general fire-god, though some of his
characteristics were due to particular manifestations of the
element.
In Homer the fire-god was the son of Zeus and Hera, and
found a place in the Olympian system as the divine smith. The
Iliad contains two versions of his fall from heaven. In one
account (i. 590) he was cast out by Zeus and fell on Lemnos;
in the other, Hera threw him down immediately after his birth
in disgust at his lameness, and he was received by the sea-god-
desses Eurynome and Thetis. The Lemnian version is due to
the prominence of his cult at Lemnos in very early times; and
his fall into the sea may have been suggested by volcanic
activity in Mediterranean islands, as at Lipara and Thera.
The subsequent return of Hephaestus to Olympus is a favourite
theme in early art. His wife was Charis, one of the Graces
(in the Iliad) or Aphrodite (in the Odyssey). The connexion of
the rough Hephaestus with these goddesses is curious; it may
be due to the beautiful works of the smith-god (xo.pLtvra tpyo.),
but it is possibly derived from the supposed fertilizing and
productive power of fire, in which case Hephaestus is a natural
mate of Charis, a goddess of spring, and Aphrodite the goddess
HEPPENHEIM HEPPLEWHITE
305
of love. In Homer, the skill of Hephaestus in metallurgy is
often mentioned; his forge was on Olympus, where he was
served by images of golden handmaids which he had animated.
Similar myths are found in relation to the Finnish smith-god
Ilmarinen, who made a golden woman, and the Teutonic Wieland;
a belief in the magical power of metal-workers is a common
survival from an age in which their art was new and mysterious.
In epic poetry Hephaestus is rather a comic figure, and his
limping gait provokes " Homeric laughter " among the gods.
In Vedic poetry Agni, the fire-god, is footless; and the ancients
themselves attributed this lameness to the crooked appearance
of flame (Servius on Aen. viii. 814), and possibly no better
explanation can be found, though it has been suggested that in
an early stage of society the trade of a smith would be suitable
for the lame; Hephaestus and the lame Wieland would thus
conform to the type of their human counterparts.
. Except in Lemnos and Attica, there are few indications of
any cult of Hephaestus. His association with Lemnos can be
traced from Homer to the Roman age. A town in the island was
called Hephaestia, and the functions of the god must have been
wide, as we are told that his Lemnian priests could cure snake-
bites. Once a year every fire was extinguished on the island for
nine days, during which period sacrifice was offered to the gods
of the underworld and the dead. After the nine days were passed,
new fire was brought from the sacred hearth at Delos. The
significance of this and similar customs is examined by J. G.
Frazer, Golden Bough, iii. ch. 4. The close connexion of
Hephaestus with Lemnos and especially with its mountain
Mosychlus has been explained by the supposed existence of a
volcano; but no crater or other sign of volcanic agency is now
apparent, and the " Lemnian fire " a phenomenon attributed
to Hephaestus may have been due to natural gas (see LCMNOS).
In Sicily, however, the volcanic nature of the god is prominent
in his cult at Etna, as well as in the neighbouring Liparaean
isles. The Olympian forge had been transferred to Etna or
some other volcano, and Hephaestus had become a subterranean
rather than a celestial power.
The divine smith naturally became a " culture-god "; in
Crete the invention of forging in iron was attributed to him,
and he was honoured by all metal-workers. But we have little
record of his cult in this aspect, except at Athens, where his
worship was of real importance, belonging to the oldest stratum
of Attic religion. A tribe was called after his name, and Erich-
thonius, the mythical father of the Attic people, was the son of
Hephaestus. Terra-cotta statuettes of the god seem to have been
placed before the hearths of Athenian houses. This temple has
been identified, not improbably, with the so-called " Theseum ";
it contained a statue of Athena, and the two deities are often
associated, in literature and cult, as the joint givers of civilization
to the Athenians. The class of artisans was under their special
protection; and the joint festival of the two divinities the
Chalceia commemorated the invention of bronze-working by
Hephaestus. In the Hephaesteia (the particular festival of the
god) there was a torch race, a ceremonial not indeed confined
to fire-gods like Hephaestus and Prometheus, but probably
in its origin connected with them, whether its object was to
purify and quicken the land, or (according to another theory)
to transmit a new fire with all possible speed to places where the
fire was polluted. If the latter view is correct, the torch race
would be closely akin to the Lemnian fire-ritual which has been
mentioned. The relation between Hephaestus and Prometheus
is in some respects close, though the distinction between these
gods is clearly marked. The fire, as an element, belongs to the
Olympian Hephaestus; the Titan Prometheus, a more human
character, steals it for the use of man. Prometheus resembles
the Polynesian Maui, who went down to fetch fire from the
volcano of Mahuika, the fire-god. Hephaestus is a culture-god
mainly in his secondary aspect as the craftsman, whereas
Prometheus originates all civilization with the gift of fire. But
the importance of Prometheus is mainly mythological; the
Titan belonged to a fallen dynasty, and in actual cult was largely
superseded by Hephaestus.
In archaic art Hephaestus is generally represented as bearded,
though occasionally a younger beardless type is found, as on a
vase (in the British Museum), on which he appears as a young
man assisting Athena in the creation of Pandora. At a later
time the bearded type prevails. The god is usually clothed in a
short sleeveless tunic, and wears a round close-fitting cap. His
face is that of a middle-aged man, with unkempt hair. He is
in fact represented as an idealized Greek craftsman, with the
hammer, and sometimes the pincers. Some mythologists have
compared the hammer of Hephaestus with that of Thor, and
have explained it as the emblem of a thunder-god; but it is
Zeus, not Hephaestus, who causes the thunder, and the emblems
of the latter god are merely the signs of his occupation as a
smith. In art no attempt was made, as a rule, to indicate the
lameness of Hephaestus; but one sculptor (Alcamenes) is said
to have suggested the deformity without spoiling the statue.
AUTHORITIES. L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), Griech. Mythologie,
i. 174 f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, Lex. der griech. u. rom.
Mythologie, s.v. " Hephaistos " (Leipzig, 1884-1886); Harrison,
Myth, and Man. of Ancient Athens, p. 119 f. (London, 1890); O.
Gruppe, Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch. p. 1304 f. (Munich,
1906) ; O. Schrader and F. B. Jevons, Prehistoric Antiquities of the
Aryan People, p. 161, &c. (London, 1890); L. R. Farnell, Cults of the
Greek States, v. (1909). (E. E. S.)
HEPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Bergstrasse, between Darmstadt
and Heidelberg, 21 m. N. of the latter by rail. Pop. (1905), 6364.
It possesses a parish church, occupying the site of one reputed to
have been built by Charlemagne about 803, an interesting town
hall and several schools. On an isolated hill close by stand the
extensive ruins of the castle of Starkenburg, built by the abbot,
Ulrich von Lorsch, about 1064 and destroyed during the Seven
Years' War, and another hill, the Landberg, was a place of
assembly in the middle ages. Heppenheim, at first the property
of the abbey of Lorsch, became a town in 1318. After belonging
to the Rhenish Palatinate, it came into the possession of Hesse-
Darmstadt in 1803. Hops, wine and tobacco are grown, and
there are large stone quarries, and several small industries
in the town.
HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE (d. 1786), one of the most famous
English cabinet-makers oftheiSth century. There is practically
no biographical material relating to Hepplewhite. The only
facts that are known with certainty are that he was apprenticed
to Gillow at Lancaster, that he carried on business in the parish
of Saint Giles, Cripplegate, and that administration of his estate
was granted to his widow Alice on the 27th of June 1786. The
administrator's accounts, which were filed in the Prerogative
Court of Canterbury a year later, indicate that his property was
of considerable value. After his death the business was continued
by his widow under the style of A. Hepplewhite & Co. Our only
approximate means of identifying his work are The Cabinet-
Maker and Upholsterer's Guide, which was first published in
1788, two years after his death, and ten designs in The Cabinet-
maker's London Book of Prices (1788), issued by the London
Society of Cabinet-Makers. It is, however, exceedingly difficult
to earmark any given piece of furniture as being the actual work
or design of Hepplewhite, since it is generally recognized that to
a very large extent the name represents rather a fashion than
a man. Lightness, delicacy and grace are the distinguishing
characteristics of Hepplewhite work. The massiveness of
Chippendale had given place to conceptions that, especially in
regard to chairs which had become smaller as hoops went out
of fashion depended for their effect more upon inlay than upon
carving. In one respect at least the Hepplewhite style was
akin to that of Chippendale in both cases the utmost ingenuity
was lavished upon the chair, and if Hepplewhite was not the
originator he appears to have been the most constant and success-
ful user of the shield back. This elegant form was employed by
the school in a great variety of designs, and nearly always in
a way artistically satisfying. Where Chippendale, his contem-
poraries and his immediate successors had used the cabriole
and the square leg with a good deal of carving, the Hepplewhite
manner preferred a slighter leg, plain, fluted or reeded, tapering to
306
HEPTARCHY HERA
a spade foot which often became the " spider leg " that character-
ized much of the late iSth-century furniture; this form of leg
was indeed not confined to chairs but was used also for tables
and sideboards. Of the dainty drawing-room grace of the style
there can be no question. The great majority of modern chairs
are of Hepplewhite inspiration, while he, or those who worked
with him, appears to have a clear claim to have originated, or
at all events popularized, the winged easy-chair, in which the
sides are continued to the same height as the back. This is
probably the most comfortable type of chair that has ever been
made. The backs of Hepplewhite chairs were often adorned
with galleries and festoons of wheat-ears or pointed fern leaves,
and not infrequently with the prince of Wales's feathers in some
more or less decorative form. The frequency with which this
badge was used has led to the suggestion either that A. Hepple-
white & Co. were employed by George IV. when prince of Wales,
or that the feathers were used as a political emblem. The former
suggestion is obviously the more feasible, but there is little doubt
that the feathers were used by other makers working in the same
style. It has been objected as an artistic flaw in Hepplewhite 's
chairs that they have the appearance of fragility. They are,
however, constructionally sound as a rule. The painted and
japanned work has been criticized on safer grounds. This
delicate type of furniture, often made of satinwood, and painted
with wreaths and festoons, with amorini and musical instruments
or floral motives, is the most elegant and pleasing that can be
imagined. It has, however, no elements of decorative perman-
ence. With comparatively little use the paintings wear off
and have to be renewed. A piece of untouched painted satin-
wood is almost unknown, and one of the essential charms of
old furniture as of all other antiques is that it should retain the
patina of time. A large proportion of Hepplewhite furniture
is inlaid with the exotic woods which had come into high favour
by the third quarter of the i8th century. While the decorative
use upon furniture of so evanescent a medium as paint is always
open to criticism, any form of marquetry is obviously legitimate,
and, if inlaid furniture be less ravishing to the eye, its beauty
is but enhanced by time. It was not in chairs alone that
the Hepplewhite manner excelled. It acquired, for instance, a
speciality of seats for the tall, narrow Georgian sash windows,
which in the Hepplewhite period had almost entirely superseded
the more picturesque forms of an earlier time. These window-
seats had ends rolling over outwards, and no backs, and despite
their skimpiness their elegant simplicity is decidedly pleasing.
Elegance, in fact, was the note of a style which on the whole was
more distinctly English than that which preceded or immediately
followed it. The smaller Hepplewhite pieces are much prized
by collectors. Among these may be included urn-shaped knife-
boxes in mahogany and satinwood, charming in form and
decorative in the extreme; inlaid tea-caddies, varying greatly
in shape and material, but always appropriate and coquet;
delicate little fire-screens with shaped poles; painted work-
tables, and inlaid stands. Hepplewhite's bedsteads with carved
and fluted pillars were very handsome and attractive. The
evolution of the dining-room sideboard made rapid progress
towards the end of the i8th century, but neither Hepplewhite
nor those who worked in his style did much to advance it. Indeed
they somewhat retarded its development by causing it to revert
to little more than that side-table which had been its original
form. It was, however, a very delightful table with its undulat-
ing front, its many elegant spade-footed legs and its delicate
carving. If we were dealing with a less elusive personality it
would be just to say that Hepplewhite's work varies from the
extreme of elegance and the most delicious simplicity to an
unimaginative commonplace, and sometimes to actual ugliness.
As it is, this summary may well be applied to the style as a whole
a style which was assuredly not the creation of any one man,
but owed much alike of excellence and of defect to a school
of cabinet-makers who were under the influence of conflicting
tastes and changing ideals. At its best the taste was so fine and
so full of distinction, so simple, modest and sufficient, that it
amounted tc genius. On its lower planes it was clearly influenced
by commercialism and the desire to make what tasteless people
preferred. Yet this is no more than to say that the Hepplewhite
style succumbed sometimes, perhaps very often, to the eternal
enemy of all art the uninspired banality of the average
man. (J. P.-B.)
HEPTARCHY (Gr. brTO. seven, and dpx^, rule), a word
which is frequently used to designate the period of English
history between the coming of the Anglo-Saxons in 449 and the
union of the kingdoms under Ecgbert in 828. It was first used
during the i6th century because of the belief held by Camden
and other older historians, that during this period there were
exactly seven kingdoms in England, these being Northumbria,
Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex. This
belief is erroneous, as the number of kingdoms varied consider-
ably from time to time; nevertheless the word still serves a
useful purpose to denote the period.
HERA, in Greek mythology, the sister and wife of Zeus and
queen of the Olympian gods; she was identified by the Romans
with Juno. The derivation of the name is obscure, but there
is no reason to doubt that she was a genuine Greek deity. There
are no signs of Oriental influence in her cults, except at Corinth,
where she seems to have been identified with Astarte. It is
probable that she was originally a personification of some depart-
ment of nature; but the traces of her primitive significance are
vague, and have been interpreted to suit various theories. Some
of the ancients connected her with the earth; Plato, followed
by the Stoics, derived her name from arjp, the air. Both theories
have been revived in modern times, the former notably by F. G.
Welcker, the latter by L. Preller. A third view, that Hera is
the moon, is held by W. H. Roscher and others. Of these
explanations, that advanced by Preller has little to commend it,
even if, with O. Gruppe, we understand the air-goddess as a
storm deity; some of the arguments in support of the two other
theories will be examined in this article.
Whatever may have been the origin of Hera, to the historic
Greeks (except a few poets or philosophers) she was a purely
anthropomorphic goddess, and had no close relation to any
province of nature. -In literature, from the times of Homer
and Hesiod, she played an important part, appearing most
frequently as the jealous and resentful wife of Zeus. In this
character she pursues with vindictive hatred the heroines, such
as Alcmene, Leto and Semele, who were beloved by Zeus. She
visits his sins upon the children born of his intrigues, and is
thus the constant enemy of Heracles and Dionysus. This char-
acter of the offended wife was borrowed by later poets from the
Greek epic; but it belongs to literature rather than to cult, in
which the dignity and power of the goddess is naturally more
emphasized.
The worship of Hera is found, in different degrees of promi-
nence, throughout the Greek world. It was especially important
in the ancient Achaean centres, Argos, Mycenae and Sparta,
which she claims in the Iliad (iv. 51) as her three dearest cities.
Whether Hera was also worshipped by the early Dorians is un-
certain; after the Dorian invasion she remained the chief deity of
Argos, but her cult at Sparta was not so conspicuous. She received
honour, however, in other parts of the Peloponnese, particularly
in Olympia, where her temple was the oldest, and in Arcadia.
In several Boeotian cities she seems to have been one of the
principal objects of worship, while the neighbouring island of
Euboea probably derived its name from a title of Hera, who
was " rich in cows " (Eu/3oia). Among the islands of the Aegean,
Samos was celebrated for the cult of Hera; according to the
local tradition, she was born in the island. As Hera Lacinia
(from her Lacinian temple near Croton) she was extensively
worshipped in Magna Graecia.
The connexion of Zeus and Hera was probably not primitive,
since Dione seems to have preceded Hera as the wife of Zeus
at Dodona. The origin of the connexion may possibly be due
to the fusion of two " Pelasgic " tribes, worshipping Zeus and
Hera respectively; but speculation on the earliest cult of the
goddess, before she became the wife of Zeus, must be largely
conjectural. The close relation of the two deities appears in a
HERA
307
frequent community of altars and sacrifices, and also in the
itpos 7<i;uos, a dramatic representation of their sacred marriage.
The festival, which was certainly ancient, was held not only
in Argos, Samos, Euboea and other centres of Hera-worship,
but also in Athens, where the goddess was obscured by the
predominance of Athena. The details of the tepos 7ajuos may
have varied locally, but the main idea of the ritual was the same.
In the Daedala, as the festival was called at Plataea, an effigy
was made from an oak-tree, dressed in bridal attire, and carried
in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image
was called Daedale, and the ritual was explained by a myth;
Hera had left Zeus in her anger; in order to win her back,
Zeus announced that he was about to marry, and dressed up a
puppet to imitate a bride; Hera met the procession, tore the
veil from the false bride, and, on discovering the ruse, became
reconciled to her husband. The image was put away after each
occasion; every sixty years a large number of such images,
which had served in previous celebrations, were carried in
procession to the top of Mount Cithaeron, and were burned on
an altar together with animals and the altar itself. As Frazer
notes (Golden Bough? i. 227), this festival appears to belong
to the large class of mimetic charms designed to quicken the
growth of vegetation; the marriage of Zeus and Hera would
in this case represent the union of the king and queen of May.
But it by no means follows that Hera was therefore originally
a goddess of the earth or of vegetation. When the real nature
of the ritual had become lost or obscured, it was natural to
explain it by the help of an aetiological myth; in European
folklore, images, corresponding to those burnt at the Daedala,
were sometimes called Judas Iscariot or Luther (Golden Bough?
iii. 315). At Samos the tfpos yafjios was celebrated annually;
the image of Hera was concealed on the sea-shore and solemnly
discovered. This rite seems to reflect an actual custom of
abduction; or it may rather refer to the practice of intercourse
between the betrothed before marriage. Such intercourse was
sanctioned by the Samians, who excused it by the example of
Zeus and Hera (schol. on //. xiv. 296). There is nothing in the
Samian Upos 7<x/ios to suggest a marriage of heaven and earth,
or of two vegetation-spirits; as Dr Farnell points out, the
ritual appears to explain the custom of human nuptials. The
sacred marriage, therefore, though connected with vegetation
at the Daedala, was not necessarily a vegetation-charm in its
origin; consequently, it does not prove that Hera was an earth-
goddess or tree-spirit. It is at least remarkable that, except
at Argos, Hera had little to do with agriculture, and was not
closely associated with such deities as Cybele, Demeter, Perse-
phone and Dionysus, whose connexion with the earth, or with
its fruits, is beyond doubt.
In her general cult Hera was worshipped in two main capa-
cities: (i) as the consort of Zeus and queen of heaven; (2) as
the goddess who presided over marriage, and, in a wider sense,
over the various phases of a woman's life. Dionysius of Hali-
carnassus (Ars rhet. ii. 2) calls Zeus and Hera the first wedded
pair, and a sacrifice to Zeus rAeios and Hera TeXeia was a
regular feature of the Greek wedding. Girls offered their hair
or veils to Hera before marriage. In Aristophanes (Thesm.g-js)
she " keeps the keys of wedlock." The marriage-goddess
naturally became the protector of women in childbed, and bore
the title of the birth-goddess (Eileithyia), at Argos and Athens.
In Homer (77. xi. 270) and Hesiod (Theog. 922) she is the mother
of the Eileithyiae, or the single Eileithyia. Her cult-titles
irapdivos (or irais), reXeta and xrjpa the " maiden," " wife,"
and " widow " (or " divorced ") have been interpreted as
symbolical of the earth in spring, summer, and winter; but they
may well express the different conditions in the lives of her
human worshippers. The Argives believed that Hera recovered
her virginity every year by bathing in a certain spring (Paus.
viii. 22, 2), a belief which probably reflects the custom of cere-
monial purification after marriage (see Frazer, Adonis, p. 176).
Although Hera was not the bestower of feminine charm to the
same extent as Aphrodite, she was the patron of a contest
for beauty in a Lesbian festival (KaXXwreia). This intimate
relation with women has been held a proof that Hera was
originally a moon-goddess, as the moon is often thought to
influence childbirth and other aspects of feminine life. But
Hera's patronage of women, though undoubtedly ancient, is
not necessarily primitive. Further, the Greeks themselves,
who were always ready to identify Artemis with the moon,
do not seem to have recognized any lunar connexion in
Hera.
Among her particular worshippers, at Argos and Samos,
Hera was much more than the queen of heaven and the marriage-
goddess. As the patron of these cities (iroXtoOxos) she held a
place corresponding to that of Athena in Athens. The Argives
are called " the people of Hera " by Pindar; the Heraeum,
situated under a mountain significantly called Mt. Euboea,
was the most important temple in Argolis. Here the agricultural
character of her ritual is well marked; the first oxen used in
ploughing were, according to an Argive myth, dedicated to her
as tvi5la; and the sprouting ears of corn were called " the
flowers of Hera." She was worshipped as the goddess of flowers
(avBeia); girls served in her temple under the name of "flower-
bearers," and a flower festival ('UpocravBda, '~H.poa.vdia) was
celebrated by Peloponnesian women in spring. These rites
recall our May day observance, and give colour to the earth-
goddess theory. On the other hand it must be remembered that
the patron deity of a Greek state had very wide functions; and
it is not surprising to find that Hera (whatever her origin may
have been) assumed an agricultural character among her own
people whose occupations were largely agricultural. So, although
the warlike character of Hera was not elsewhere prominent,
she assumed a militant aspect in her two chief cities; a festival
called the Shield (dtrirts, in Pindar ay&v xaXxeos) was part of the
Argive cult, and there was an armed procession in her honour
at Samos. The city-goddess, whether Hera or Athena, must be
chief alike in peace and war.
The cow was the animal specially sacred to Hera both in ritual
and in mythology. The story of lo, metamorphosed into a cow,
is familiar; she was priestess of Hera, and was originally, no
doubt, a form of the goddess herself. The Homeric epithet
/Jocoiris may have meant " cow-faced " to the earliest worshippers
of Hera, though by Homer and the later Greeks it was understood
as " large-eyed," like the cow. A car drawn by oxen seems to
have been widely used in the processions of Hera, and the cow
was her most frequent sacrifice. The origin of Hera's association
with the cow is uncertain, but there is no need to see in it, with
Roscher, a symbol of the moon. The cuckoo was also sacred
to Hera, who, according to the Argive legend, was wooed by
Zeus in the form of the bird. In later times the peacock, which
was still unfamiliar to the Greeks in the $th century, was her
favourite, especially at Samos.
The earliest recorded images of Hera preceded the rise of
Greek sculpture; a log at Thespiae, a plank at Samos, a pillar
at Argos served to represent the goddess. In the archaic period
of sculpture the i^oavov or wooden statue of the Samian Hera
by Smilis was famous. In the first half of the 5th century the
sacred marriage was represented on an extant metope from a
temple at Selinus. The most celebrated statue of Hera was the
chryselephantine work of Polyclitus, made for the Heraeum at
Argos soon after 423 B.C. It is fully described by Pausanias,
who says that Hera was seated on a throne, wearing a crown
(a-rtyavos) , and carrying a sceptre in one hand and a pomegranate
in the other. Various ancient writers testify to the beauty and
dignity of the statue, which was considered equal to the Zeus
of Pheidias. Polyclitus seems to have fixed the type of Hera
as a youthful matron, but unfortunately the exact character
of her head cannot be determined. A majestic and rather
severe beauty marks the conception of Hera in later art, of
which the Farnese bust at Naples and the Ludovisi Hera are
the most conspicuous examples.
AUTHORITIES. F. G. Welcker, Griech. Gotterl. \. 362 f.
(Gottingen, 1857-1863); L. Preller (ed. C. Robert), Griech. Mytho-
logie, i. 160 f. (Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, Lex. der griech. u,
rom. Mythologie, s.v. (Leipzig, 1884) ; C. Daremberg and E. Saglio,
3 o8
HERACLEA HERACLIDAE
Diet, des ant. grecques et rom. s.v. "Juno" (Paris, 1877); L. R.
Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, i. 179 f. (Oxford, 1896); A. B.
Cook in Class. Rev. xx. 365 f. 416 f. ; O. Gruppe, Griech. Mytho-
logie u. Religionsgesch. p. 1121 f. (Munich, 1903). In the article
GREEK ART, fig. 24, will be found a roughly executed head of Hera,
from the pediment of the treasury of the Megarians. (E. E. S.)
HERACLEA, the name of a large number of ancient cities
founded by the Greeks.
1. HERACLEA (Gr. 'Hpa/cXeia), an ancient city of Lucania,
situated near the modern Policoro, 3 m. from the coast of the gulf
of Tarentum, between the rivers Aciris (Agri) and Siris (Sinni)
about 13 m. S.S.W. of Metapontum. It was a Greek colony
founded by the Tarentines and Thurians in 432 B.C., the former
being predominant. It was chosen as the meeting-place of the
general assembly of the Italiot Greeks, which Alexander of
Epirus, after his alienation from Tarentum, tried to transfer to
Thurii. Here Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, defeated the consul
Laevinus in 280 B.C., after he had crossed the river Siris. In
278 B.C., or possibly in 282 B.C., probably in order to detach it
from Tarentum, the Romans made a special treaty with Heraclea,
on such favourable terms that in 89 B.C. the Roman citizenship
given to the inhabitants by the Lex Plautia Papiria was only
accepted after considerable hesitation. We hear that Heraclea
surrendered under compulsion to Hannibal in 212 B.C. and that
in the Social war the public records were destroyed by fire.
Cicero in his defence of the poet Archias, an adopted citizen of
Heraclea, speaks of it as a flourishing town. As a consequence
of its having accepted Roman citizenship, it became a municipium ;
part of a copy of the Lex lulia Municipalis of 46 B.C. (engraved
on the back of two bronze tablets, on the front of which is a Greek
inscription of the 3rd century B.C. defining the boundaries of
lands belonging to various temples), which was found between
Heraclea and Metapontum, is of the highest importance for our
knowledge of that law. It was still a place of some importance
under the empire; a branch road from Venusia joined the coast
road here. The circumstances of its destruction and abandon-
ment was unknown; the site is now marked by a few heaps of
ruins. Its medieval representative was Anglona, once a bishopric,
but now itself a heap of ruins, among which are those of an
nth-century church.
2. HERACLEA MINOA, an ancient town on the south coast of
Sicily, at the mouth of the river Halycus, near the modern
Montallegro, some 20 m. N.W. of Girgenti. It was at first an
outpost of Selinus (Herod, v. 46), then overthrown by Carthage,
later a border town of Agrigentum. It passed into Carthaginian
hands by the treaty of 405 B.C., was won back by Dionysius in
his first Punic war, but recovered by Carthage in 383. From this
date onwards coins bearing its Semitic name, Ras Melkarl,
become common, and it was obviously an important border
fortress. It was here that Dion landed in 357 B.C., when he
attacked Syracuse. The Agrigentines won it back in 309, but
it soon fell under the power of Agathocles. It was temporarily
recovered for Greece by Pyrrhus. (T. As.)
3. HERACLEA PONTICA (mod. Bender Eregli), an ancient city
on the coast of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the
Kilijsu. It was founded by a Megarian colony, which soon
subjugated the native Mariandynians and extended its power
over a considerable territory. The prosperity of the city, rudely
shaken by the Galatians and the Bithynians, was utterly
destroyed in the Mithradatic war. It was the birthplace of
Heraclides Ponticus. The modern town is best known for its
lignite coal-mines, from which Constantinople receives a good
part of its supply.
4. HERACLEA SINTICA, a town in Thracian Macedonia, to the
south of the Strymon, the site of which is marked by the village
of Zervokhori, and identified by the discovery of local coins.
5. HERACLEA, a town on the borders of Caria and Ionia, near
the foot of Mount Latmus. In its neighbourhood was the
burial cave of Endymion.
6. HERACLEA-CYBISTRA (mod. Eregli in the vilayet of Konia),
under the name Cybistra, had some importance in Hellenistic
times owing to its position near the point where the road to the
Cilician Gates enters the hills. It lay in the way of armies and was
more than once sacked by the Arab invaders of Asia Minor
(A.D. 805 and 832). It became Turkish (Seljuk) in the nth
century. Modern Eregli had grown from a large village to a
town since the railway reached it from Konia and Karaman
in 1904; and it has now an hotel and good shops. Three hours'
ride S. is the famous " Hittite " rock-relief of Ivriz, representing
a king (probably of neighbouring Tyana) adoring a god (see
HITTITES). This was the first " Hittite " monument discovered
in modern times (early i8th century, by the Swede Otter, an
emissary of Louis XIV.).
For Heraclea Trachinia see TRACHIS, and for Heraclea Perinthus
see PERINTHUS.
HERACLEA was also the name of one of the Sporades, between
Naxos and los, which is still called Raklia, and bears traces of a
Greek township with temples to Tyche and Zeus Lophites.
(D. G. H.)
HERACLEON, a Gnostic who flourished about A.D. 125,
probably in the south of Italy or in Sicily, and is generally
classed by the early heresiologists with the Valentinian school
of heresy. In his system he appears to have regarded the
divine nature as a vast abyss in whose pleroma were aeons of
different orders and degrees, emanations from the source of
being. Midway between the supreme God and the material
world was the Demiurgus, who created the. latter, and under
whose jurisdiction the lower, animal soul of man proceeded after
death, while his higher, celestial soul returned to the pleroma
whence at first it issued. Though conspicuously uniting faith
in Christ with spiritual maturity, there are evidences that, like
other Valentinians, Heracleon did not sufficiently emphasize
abstinence from the moral laxity and worldliness into which his
followers fell. He seems to have received the ordinary Christian
scriptures; and Origen, who treats him as a notable exegete,
has preserved fragments of a commentary by him on the fourth
gospel (brought together by Grabe in the second volume of his
Spicilegium), while Clement of Alexandria quotes from him
what appears to be a passage from a commentary on Luke.
These writings are remarkable for their intensely mystical and
allegorical interpretations of the text.
HERACLEONAS, east-Roman emperor (Feb.-Sept. 641), was
the son of Heraclius (q.v.) and Martina. At the end of Heraclius'
reign he obtainer 1 through his mother's influence the title of
Augustus (638), and after his father's death was proclaimed
joint emperor with his half-brother Constantine III. The
premature death of Constantine, in May 641, left Heracleonas
sole ruler. But a suspicion that he and Martina had murdered
Constantine led soon after to a revolt, and to the mutilation
and banishment of the supposed offenders. Nothing further is
known about Heracleonas subsequent to 641.
HERACLIDAE, the general name for the numerous descend-
ants of Heracles (Hercules), and specially applied in a narrower
sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons
by Delaneirathe, conquerors of Peloponnesus. Heracles, whom
Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of Argos, Lacedaemon
and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the cunning of
Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of
Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles,
his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurys-
theus at Athens. Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender
being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain.
Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after
a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to quit. They with-
drew to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor of the
Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae,
adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory.
After the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphilus and Dymas,
voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the
Dorian tradition in Herodotus v. 72, really an Achaean), who
thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that
race being named after these three heroes. Being desirous
of reconquering his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the
Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for " the third fruit,"
and then enter Peloponnesus by " a narrow passage by sea."
HERACLIDES HERACLITUS
309
Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the
isthmus of Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus,
but was slain in single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This
second attempt was followed by a third under Cleodaeus and
a fourth under Aristomachus, both of which were equally un-
successful. At last, Temenus, Cresphontes and Aristodemus,
the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its
instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them.
They received the answer that by the " third fruit " the " third
generation " was meant, and that the " narrow passage " was not
the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of Rhium. They ac-
cordingly built a fleet at Naupactus, but before they set sail,
Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by Apollo) and
the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heraclidae had slain an
Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by
Temenus, bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish
the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three
eyes to act as guide. On his way back to Naupactus, Temenus
fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding
on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately
pressed him into his service. According to another account,
a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Hera-
clidae repaired their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium,
and thence to Rhium in Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was
fought with Tisamenus, son of Orestes, the chief ruler in the
peninsula, who was defeated and slain. The Heraclidae, who
thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to
distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos fell to
Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons
of Aristodemus ; and Messene to Cresphontes. The fertile district
of Elis had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Hera-
clidae ruled in Lacedaemon till 221 B.C., but disappeared much
earlier in the other countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus
by the Dorians, commonly called the " Return of the Heraclidae,"
is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles
of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons.
The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming
as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes,
but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as
entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Pelopon-
nesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven
southward from their original northern home under pressure
from the Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention
of these Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod.
Herodotus (vi. 52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their
deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding
the death of Heracles. The story was first amplified by the Greek
tragedians, who probably drew their inspiration from local
legends, which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the
rulers of Peloponnesus.
Apollodorus ii. 8; Diod. Sic. iv. 57, 58; Pausanias i. 32, 41,
ii. 13, 1 8, iii. I, iv. 3, v. 3; Euripides, Heraclidae; Pindar,
Pythia, ix. 137; Herodotus ix. 27. See Muller's Dorians, i. ch. 3;
Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. vii. ; Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. i.
ch. xviii. ; Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, i. ch. ii. sec. 7, where a list
of modern authorities is given.
HERACLIDES PONTICUS, Greek philosopher and miscel-
laneous writer, born at Heraclea in Pontus, flourished in the 4th
century B.C. He studied philosophy at Athens under Speusippus,
Plato and Aristotle. According to Suidas, Plato, on his departure
for Sicily, left his pupils in charge of Heraclides. The latter
part of his life was spent at Heraclea. He is said to have been
vain and fat, and to have been so fond of display that he was
nicknamed Pompicus, or the Showy (unless the epithet refers
to his literary style). Various idle stories are related about him.
On one occasion, for instance, Heraclea was afflicted with famine,
and the Pythian priestess at Delphi, bribed by Heraclides,
assured his inquiring townsmen that the dearth would be stayed
if they granted a golden crown to that philosopher. This was
done; but just as Heraclides was receiving his honour in a
crowded assembly, he was seized with apoplexy, while the
dishonest priestess perished at the same moment from the bite
of a serpent. On his death-bed he is said to have requested a
friend to hide his body as soon as life was extinct, and, by putting
a serpent in its place, induce his townsmen to suppose that he
had been carried up to heaven. The trick was discovered,
and Heraclides received only ridicule instead of divine honours
(Diogenes Laertius v. 6). Whatever may be the truth about
these stories, Heraclides seems to have been a versatile and
prolific writer on philosophy, mathematics, music, grammar,
physics, history and rhetoric. Many of the works attributed
to him, however, are probably by one or more persons of the
same name.
The extant fragment of a treatise On Constitutions (C.W. Miiller,
F.H.G. ii. 197-207) is probably a compilation from the Politics of
Aristotle by Heraclides Lembos, who lived in the time of Ptolemy
VI. Philpmetor (181-146). See Otto Voss, DeHeraclidis Ponticivita
etscriptis(i8<)6).
HERACLITUS ('HpaxXwros; c. 540-475 B.C.), Greek philo-
sopher, was born at Ephesus of distinguished parentage.
Of his early life and education we know nothing; from the
contempt with which he spoke of all his fellow-philosophers and
of his fellow-citizens as a whole we may gather that he regarded
himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. So intensely
aristocratic (hence his nickname 6xXoXoi5opos, " he who rails
at the people ") was his temperament that he declined to exercise
the regal-hieratic office of |3a0-iXei>s which was hereditary in his
family, and presented it to his brother. It is probable, however,
that he did occasionally intervene in the affairs of the city at
the period when the rule of Persia had given place to autonomy;
it is said that he compelled the usurper Melancomas to abdicate.
From the lonely life he led, and still more from the extreme
profundity of his philosophy and his contempt for mankind in
general, he was called the " Dark Philosopher " (6 anorfivos),
or the " Weeping Philosopher," in contrast to Democritus, the
" Laughing Philosopher."
Heraclitus is in a real sense the founder of metaphysics.
Starting from the physical standpoint of the Ionian physicists,
he accepted their general idea of the unity of nature, but entirely
denied their theory of being. The fundamental uniform fact
in nature is constant change (iravra x^P^ Kc " ovdtv ntvti);
everything both is and is not at the same time. He thus arrives
at the principle of Relativity; harmony and unity consist in
diversity and multiplicity. The senses are " bad witnesses "
(naKol ftapTvps) ; only the wise man can obtain knowledge.
To appreciate the significance of the doctrines of Heraclitus,
it must be borne in mind that to Greek philosophy the sharp
distinction between subject and object which pervades modern
thought was foreign, a consideration which suggests the conclusion
that, while it is a great mistake to reckon Heraclitus with the
materialistic cosmologists of the Ionic schools, it is, on the other
hand, going too far to treat his theory, with Hegel and Lassalle,
as one of pure Panlogism. I Accordingly, when he denies the
reality of Being, and declares Becoming, or eternal flux and
change, to be the sole actuality, Heraclitus must be understood
to enunciate not only the unreality of the abstract notion of being,
except as the correlative of that of not-being, but also the
physical doctrine that all phenomena are in a state of continuous
transition from non-existence to existence, and vice versa, without
either distinguishing these propositions or qualifying them by
any reference to the relation of thought to experience. " Every
thing is and is not "; all things are, and nothing remains. So
far he is in general agreement with Anaximander (q.v.), but he
differs from him in the solution of the problem, disliking, as a
poet and a mystic, trie primary matter which satisfied the patient
researcher, and demanding a more vivid and picturesque element.
'Naturally he selects fire, according to him the most complete
embodiment of the process of Becoming, as the principle of
empirical existence, out of which all things, including even the
souj, grow by way of a quasi condensation, and into which all
things must in course of time be again resolved. But this
primordial fire is in itself that divine rational process, the
harmony of which constitutes the law of the universe (see LOGOS).
Real knowledge consists in comprehending this all-pervading
harmony as embodied in the manifold of perception, and the
senses are " bad- witnesses," because they apprehend phenomena,
310
HERACLIUS HERALD
not as its manifestation, but as " stiff and dead." In like
manner real virtue consists in the subordination of the individual
to the laws of this harmony as the universal reason wherein alone
true freedom is to be found. '-' The law of things is a law of
Reason Universal (Xoyos), but most men live as though they
had a wisdom of their own." Ethics here stands to sociology
in a close relation, similar, in many respects, to that which we
find in Hegel and in Comte. For Heraclitus the soul approaches
most nearly to perfection when it is most akin to the fiery vapour
out of which it was originally created, and as this is most so in
death, " while we live our souls are dead in us, but when we die
our souls are restored to life." The doctrine of immortality
comes prominently forward in his ethics, but whether this must
not be reckoned with the figurative accommodation to the
popular theology of Greece which pervades his ethical teaching,
is very doubtful.
The school of disciples founded by Heraclitus flourished for
long after his death, the chief exponent of his teaching being
Cratylus. A good deal of the information in regard to his
doctrines has been gathered from the later Greek philosophy,
which was deeply influenced by it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The only authentic extant work of Heraclitus is
the irtpl 0u<reu>s. The best edition (containing also the probably
spurious 'EjrioToAai) is that of I. Bywater, Heracliti Ephesii reliquiae
(Oxford, 1877); of the epistles alone by A. Westermann (Leipzig,
1857). See also in A. H. Ritter and L. Preller's Historia philosophiae
Graecae (8th ed. by E. Wellmann, 1898); F. W. A. Mullach,
Fragm. philos. Graec. (Paris, 1860); A. Fairbanks, The First Philo-
sophers of Greece (1898); H. Diels, Heraklit von Ephesus (2nd ed.,
1909), Greek and German. English translation of Bywater's edition
with introduction by G. T. W. Patrick (Baltimore, 1889). For
criticism see, in addition to the histories of philosophy, F. Lassalle,
Die Philosophic Herakleitos' des Dunklen (Berlin, 1858; 2nd ed.,
1892), which, however, is too strongly dominated by modern
Hegelianism ; Paul Schuster, Heraklit von Ephesus (Leipzig, 1873);
J. Bernays, Die heraklitischen Briefe (Berlin, 1869); T. Gomperz,
Zu Heraclits Lehre und den Oberresten seines Werkes (Vienna, 1887),
and in his Greek Thinkers (English translation, L. Magnus, vol. i.
1901) ; J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1892) ; A. Patin, Heraklits
Einheitslehre (Leipzig, 1886); E. Pfleiderer, Die Philosophic des
Hsraklitus von Ephesus im Lichte der Mysterienidee (Berlin, 1886);
G. T. Schafer, Die Philosophic des Heraklit von Ephesus und die
moderne Heraklitforschung (Leipzig, 1902) ; Wolfgang Schultz, Studien
zur antiken Kultur, i. ; Pythagoras und Heraklit (Leipzig, 1905);
O. Spengler, Heraklit. Eine Studie uber den energetischen Grund-
gedanken seiner Philosophic (Halle, 1904); A. Brieger, " Die Grund-
ztige der heraklitischen Physik " in Hermes, xxxix. (1904) 182-223,
and " Heraklit der Dunkle " in Neue Jahrb. f. das klass. Altertum
(1904), p. 687. For his place in the development of early philosophy
see also articles IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY and LOGOS. Ancient
authorities: Diog. Laert. ix. ; Sext. Empiric., Adv. mathem. vii.
126, 127, 133; Plato, Cratylus, 402 A and Theaetetus, 152 E; Plutarch,
Isis and Osiris, 45, 48; Arist. Nic. Eth. vii. 3, 4; Clement of Alex-
andria, Stromata, v. 599, 603 (ed. Paris). (J. M. M.)
HERACLIUS ('HpaKXetos) (c. 575-642), East Roman emperor,
was born in Cappadocia. His father held high military command
under the emperor Maurice, and as governor of Africa maintained
his independence against the usurper Phocas (q.ii.). When
invited to head a rebellion against the latter, he sent his son with
a fleet which reached Constantinople unopposed, and precipitated
the dethronement of Phocas. Proclaimed emperor, Heraclius
set himself to reorganize the utterly disordered administration.
At first he found himself helpless before the Persian armies (see
PERSIA: Ancient History; and CHOSROES II.) of Chosroes II.,
which conquered Syria and Egypt and since 616 had encamped
opposite Constantinople; in 618 he even proposed in despair
to abandon his capital and seek a refuge in Carthage, but at the
entreaty of the patriarch he took courage. By securing a loan
from the Church and suspending the corn-distribution at
Constantinople, he raised sufficient funds for war, and after
making a treaty with the Avars, who had nearly surprised the
capital during an incursion in 619, he was at last able to take the
field against Persia. During his first expedition (622) he failed
to secure a footing in Armenia, whence he had hoped to take the
Persians in flank, but by his unwearied energy he restored the
discipline and efficiency of the army. In his second campaign
(624-26) he penetrated into Armenia and Albania, and beat the
enemy in the open field. After a short stay at Constantinople,
which his son Constantine had successfully defended against
renewed incursions by the Avars, Heraclius resumed his attacks
upon the Persians (627). Though deserted by the Khazars,
with whom he had made an alliance upon entering into Pontus,
he gained a decisive advantage by a brilliant march across the
Armenian highlands into the Tigris plain, and a hard-fought
victory over Chosroes' general, Shahrbaraz, in which Heraclius
distinguished himself by his personal bravery. A subsequent
revolution at the Persian court led to the dethronement of
Chosroes in favour of his son Kavadh II. (q.v.); the new king
promptly made peace with the emperor, whose troops were
already advancing upon the Persian capital Ctesiphon (628).
Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Heraclius returned
to Constantinople with ample spoils, including the true cross,
which in 629 he brought back in person to Jerusalem. On the
northern frontier of the empire he kept the Avars in check by
inducing the Serbs to migrate from the Carpathians to the
Balkan lands so as to divert the attention of the Avars.
The triumphs which Heraclius had won through his own
energy and skill did not bring him lasting popularity. In his
civil administration he followed out his own ideas without
deferring to the nobles or the Church, and the opposition which
he encountered from these quarters went far to paralyse his
attempts at reform. Worn out by continuous fighting and
weakened by dropsy, Heraclius failed to show sufficient energy
against the new peril that menaced his eastern provinces towards
the end of his reign. In 629 the Saracens made their first in-
cursion into Syria (see CALIPHATE, section A, i); in 636 they
won a notable victory on the Yermuk (Hieromax), and in the
following years conquered all Syria, Palestine and Egypt.
Heraclius made no attempt to retrieve the misfortunes of his
generals, but evacuated his possessions in sullen despair. The
remaining years of his life he devoted to theological speculation
and ecclesiastical reforms. His religious enthusiasm led him to
oppress his Jewish subjects; on the other hand he sought to
reconcile the Christian sects, and to this effect propounded in
his Ecthesis a conciliatory doctrine of monothelism. Heraclius
died of his disease in 642. He had been twice married; his
second union, with his niece Martina, was frequently made a
matter of reproach to him. In spite of his partial failures,
Heraclius must be regarded as one of the greatest of Byzantine
emperors, and his early campaigns were the means of saving the
realm from almost certain destruction.
AUTHORITIES. G. Finlay, History of Greece (Oxford, 1877) i.
311-358; J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London,
1889), ii. 207-273; T. E. Evangelides, 'Hpo/cXos 6 alrroKparup
TOV Bufacriou (Odessa, 1903) ; A. Pernice, L' Imperatore Eraclio
(Florence, 1905). On the Persian campaigns: the epic of George
Pisides (ed. 1836, Bonn); F. Macler, Histoire d' Heraclius par
I'eveque Sebeos (Paris, 1904) ; E. Gerland in Byzantinische Zeit-
schrift, iii. (1894) 330-337; N. H. Baynes in the English Historical
Review (1904), pp. 694-702. (M. O. B. C.)
HERALD (O. Fr. heraut, herawlt; the origin is uncertain, but
O.H.G. heren, to call, or hariwald, leader of an army, have been
proposed; the Gr. equivalent is Krjpv^: Lat. praeco, caduceator,
Jetialis), in Greek and Roman antiquities, the term for the
officials described below; in modern usage, while the word
" herald " is often used generally in a sense analogous to that
of the ancients, it is more specially restricted to that dealt with
in the article HERALDRY.
The Greek heralds, who claimed descent from Hermes, the
messenger of the gods, through his son Keryx, were public
functionaries of high importance in early times. Like Hermes,
they carried a staff of olive or laurel wood surrounded by two
snakes (or with wool as messengers of peace) ; their persons
were inviolable ; and they formed a kind of priesthood or corpora-
tion. In the Homeric age, they summoned the assemblies of
the people, at which they preserved order and silence; pro-
claimed war; arranged the cessation of hostilities and the
conclusion of peace; and assisted at public sacrifices and
banquets. They also performed certain menial offices for the
kings (mixing and pouring out the wine for the guests), by whom
they were treated as confidential servants. In later times v
HERALDRY
their position was a less honourable one; they were recruited
from the poorer classes, and were mostly paid servants of the
various officials. Pollux in his Onomasticon distinguishes four
classes of heralds: (i) the sacred heralds at the Eleusinian
mysteries; 1 (2) the heralds at the public games, who announced
the names of the competitors and victors; (3) those who super-
intended the arrangements of festal processions; (4) those
who proclaimed goods for sale in the market (for which purpose
they mounted a stone), and gave notice of lost children and run-
away slaves. To these should be added (5) the heralds of the
boule and demos, who summoned the members of the council and.
ecclesia, recited the solemn formula of prayer before the opening
of the meeting, called upon the orators to speak, counted the
votes and announced the results; (6) the heralds of the law courts,
who gave notice of the time of trials and summoned the parties.
The heralds received payment from the state and free meals
together with the officials to whom they were attached. Their
appointment was subject to some kind of examination, probably
of the quality of their voice. Like the earlier heralds, they were
also employed in negotiations connected with war and peace.
Among the Romans the praecones or " criers " exercised
their profession both in private and official business. As private
criers they were especially concerned with auctions; they adver-
tized the time, place and conditions of sale, called out the various
bids, and like the modern auctioneer varied the proceedings with
jokes. They gave notice in the streets of things that had been
lost, and took over various commissions, such as funeral arrange-
ments. Although the calling was held in little estimation, some
of these criers amassed great wealth. The state criers, who were
mostly freedmen and well paid, formed the lowest class of
apparitores (attendants on various magistrates). On the whole,
their functions resembled those of the Greek heralds. They called
the popular assemblies together, proclaimed silence and made
known the result of the voting; in judicial cases, they summoned
the plaintiff, defendant, advocates and witnesses; in criminal
executions they gave out the reasons for the punishment and
called on the executioner to perform his duty; they invited the
people to the games and announced the names of the victors.
Public criers were also employed at state auctions in themunicipia
and colonies, but, according to the lex Julia municipalis of
Caesar, they were prohibited from holding office.
Amongst the Romans the settlement of matters relating to
war and peace was entrusted to a special class of heralds called
Petioles (not Feciales), a word of uncertain etymology, possibly
connected with/a/<w,/an, and meaning " the speakers." They
formed a priestly college of 20 (or 15) members, the institution
of which was ascribed to one of the kings. They were chosen from
the most distinguished families, held office for life, and filled up
vacancies in their number by co-optation. Their duties were to
demand redress for insult or injury to the state, to declare war
unless satisfaction was obtained within a certain number of days
and to conclude treaties of peace. A deputation of four (or two),
one of whom was called pater patratus, wearing priestly garments,
with sacred herbs plucked from the Capitoline hill borne in front,
proceeded to the frontier of the enemy's territory and demanded
the surrender of the guilty party. This demand was called
clarigatio (perhaps from its being made in a loud, clear voice).
If no satisfactory answer was given within 30 days, the deputa-
tion returned to Rome and made a report. If war was decided
upon, the deputation again repaired to the frontier, pronounced
a solemn formula, and hurled a charred and blood-stained javelin
across the frontier, in the presence of three witnesses, which
was tantamount to a declaration of war (Livy i. 24, 32). With
1 These heralds are regarded by some as a branch of the Eumol-
pidae, by others as of Athenian origin. They enjoyed great prestige
and formed a hieratic caste like the Eumolpidae, with whom they
shared the most important liturgical functions. From them were
selected the S^SoOxos or torch-bearer, the lepofrijpuf, whose chief
duty was to proclaim silence, and 6 rl /3coM<e>, an official connected
with the service at the altar (see L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek
States, iii. 161 ; J. Topffer, Attische Genealogie (1889); Ditten-
berger in Hermes, xx. ; P. Foucart, " Les Grands Mysteres
d'Eleusis " in Mem. de I'lnstitut National de France, xxxvii. (1904).
the extension of the Roman empire, it became impossible to
carry out this ceremonial, for which was substituted the hurling
of a javelin over a column near the temple of Bellona in the
direction of the enemy's territory. When the termination of
a war was decided upon, the fetiales either made an arrangement
for the suspension of hostilities for a definite term of years,
after which the war recommenced automatically or they con-
cluded a solemn treaty with the enemy. Conditions of peace or
alliance proposed by the general on his own responsibility
(sponsio) were not binding upon the people, and in case of
rejection the general, with hands bound, was delivered by the
fetiales to the enemy (Livy ix. 10). But if the terms were
agreed to, a deputation carrying the sacred herbs and the flint
stones, kept in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius for sacrificial
purposes, met a deputation of fetiales from the other side.
After the conditions of the treaty had been read, the sacrificial
formula was pronounced and the victims slain by a blow from a
stone (hence the expression foedus ferire). The treaty was then
signed and handed over to the keeping of the fetial college.
These ceremonies usually took place in Rome, but in 201 a
deputation of fetiales went to Africa to ratify the conclusion of
peace with Carthage. From that time little is heard of the fetiales,
although they appear to have existed till the end of the 4th
century A.D. The caduceator (from caduceus, the latinized form
of KypvKtiov) was the name of a person who was sent to treat for
peace. His person was considered sacred; and like the fetiales he
carried the sacred herbs, instead of the caduceus, which was not
in use amongst the Romans.
For the Greek heralds, see Ch. Ostermann, De praeconibus Grae-
corum (1845); for the Roman Praecones, Mommsen, Romisches
Staatsrecht, i. 363 (3rd ed., 1887) ; also article PRAECONES in
Pauly's Realencyclopadie (1852 edition); for the Fetiales, mono-
graphs by F. C. Conradi (1734, containing all the necessary material),
and G. Fusinato (1884, from Atti della R. Accad. dei Lincei, series
iii. vol. 13); also Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. 415
(3rd ed., 1885), and A. Weiss in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiques. (J. H. F.)
HERALDRY. Although the word Heraldry properly belongs
to all the business of the herald (q.v.), it has long attached itself
to that which in earlier times was known as armory, the science
of armorial bearings.
History of Armorial Bearings. In all ages and in all quarters
of the world distinguishing symbols have been adopted by tribes
or nations, by families or by chieftains. Greek and Roman poets
describe the devices borne on the shields of heroes, and many
such painted shields are pictured on antique vases. Rabbinical
writers have supported the fancy that the standards of the tribes
set up in their camps bore figures devised from the prophecy ,of
Jacob, the ravening wolf for Benjamin, the lion's whelp for
Judah and the ship of Zebulon. In the East we have such ancient
symbols as the five-clawed dragon of the Chinese empire and the
chrysanthemum of the emperor of Japan. In Japan, indeed, the
systematized badges borne by the noble clans may be regarded as
akin to the heraldry of the West, and the circle with the three
asarum leaves of the Tokugawa shoguns has been made as
familiar to us by Japanese lacquer and porcelain as the red pellets
of the Medici by old Italian fabrics. Before the landing of the
Spaniards in Mexico the Aztec chiefs carried shields and banners,
some of whose devices showed after the fashion of a phonetic
writing the names of their bearers; and the eagle on the new
banner of Mexico may be traced to the eagle that was once carved
over the palace of Montezuma. That mysterious business of
totemism, which students of folk-lore have discovered among
most primitive peoples, must be regarded as another of the fore-
runners of true heraldry, the totem of a tribe supplying a badge
which was sometimes displayed on the body of the tribesman in
paint, scars or tattooing. Totemism so far touches our heraldry
that some would trace to its symbols the white horse of West-
phalia, the bull's head of the Mecklenburgers and many other
ancient armories.
When true heraldry begins in Western Europe nothing is more
remarkable than the suddenness of its development, once the
idea of hereditary armorial symbols was taken by the nobles and
312
HERALDRY
knights. Its earliest examples are probably still to be discovered
by research, but certain notes may be made which narrow the
dates between which we must seek its origin. The older writers
on heraldry, lacking exact archaeology, were wont to carry back
the beginnings to the dark ages, even if they lacked the assurance
of those who distributed blazons among the angelic host before
the Creation. Even in our own times old misconceptions give
ground slowly. Georg Ruexner's Thurnier Buck of 1522 is still
cited for its evidence of the tournament laws of Henry the Fowler,
by which those who would contend in tournaments were forced to
show four generations of arms-bearing ancestors. Yet modern
criticism has shattered the elaborated fiction of Ruexner. In
England many legends survive of arms borne by the Conqueror
and his companions. But nothing is more certain than that
neither armorial banners nor shields of arms were borne on either
side at Hastings. The famous record of the Bayeux tapestry
shows shields which in some cases suggest rudely devised armorial
bearings, but in no case can a shield be identified as one which is
recognized in the generations after the Conquest. So far is the
idea of personal arms from the artist, that the same warrior, seen
in different parts of the tapestry's history, has his shield with
differing devices. A generation later, Anna Comnena, the
daughter of the Byzantine emperor, describing the shields of the
French knights who came to Constantinople, tells us that their
polished faces were plain.
Of all men, kings and princes might be the first to be found
bearing arms. Yet the first English sovereign who appears on
his great seal with arms on his shield is Richard I. His seal of
1189 shows his shield charged with a lion ramping towards the
sinister side. Since one half only is seen of the rounded face of the
shield, English antiquaries have perhaps too hastily suggested
that the whole bearing was two lions face to face. But the
mounted figure of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, on his seal
of 1 164 bears a like shield charged with a like lion, and in this case
another shield on the counterseal makes it clear that this is the
single lion of Flanders. Therefore we may take it that, in 1189,
King Richard bore arms of a lion rampant, while, nine years later,
another seal shows him with a shield of the familiar bearings
which have been borne as the arms of England by each one of his
successors.
That seal of Philip of Alsace is the earliest known example of
the arms of the great counts of Flanders. The ancient arms of
the kings of France, the blue shield powdered with golden fleurs-
de-lys, appear even later. Louis le Jeune, on the crowning of his
son Philip Augustus, ordered that the young prince should be
clad in a blue dalmatic and blue shoes, sewn with golden fleurs-
de-lys, a flower whose name, as " Fleur de Leys," played upon
that of his own, and possibly upon his epithet name of Florus. A
seal of the same king has the device of a single lily. But the first
French royal seal with the shield of the lilies is that of Louis VIII.
(1223-1226). The eagle of the emperors may well be as ancient
a bearing as any in Europe, seeing that Charlemagne is said, as
the successor of the Caesars, to have used the eagle as his badge.
The emperor Henry III. (1030-1056) has the sceptre on his seal
surmounted by an eagle; in the i2th century the eagle was
embroidered upon the imperial gloves. At Molsen in 1080 the
emperor's banner is said by William of Tyre to have borne the
eagle, and with the beginning of regular heraldry this imperial
badge would soon be displayed on a shield. The double-headed
eagle is not seen on an imperial seal until after 1414, when the
bird with one neck becomes the recognized arms of the king of the
Romans.
There are, however, earlier examples of shields of arms than
any of these. A document of the first importance is the descrip-
tion by John of Marmoustier of the marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou
with Maude the empress, daughter of Henry I., when the king is
said to have hung round the neck of his son-in-law a shield with
golden " lioncels." Afterwards the monk speaks of Geoffrey in
fight, " pictos leones preferens in clypeo." Two notes may be
added to this account. The first is that the enamelled plate now
in the museum at Le Mans, which is said to have been placed over
the tomb of Geoffrey after his death in 1151, shows him bearing a
long shield of azure with six golden lioncels, thus confirming the
monk's story. The second is the well-known fact that Geoffrey's
bastard grandson, William with the Long Sword, undoubtedly
bore these same arms of the six lions of gold in a blue field, even
as they are still to be seen upon his tomb at Salisbury. Some ten
years before Richard I. seals with the three leopards, his brother
John, count of Mortain, is found using a seal upon which he bears
two leopards, arms which later tradition assigns to the ancient
dukes of Normandy and to their descendants the kings of England
before Henry II., who is said to have added the third leopard in
right of his wife, a legend of no value. Mr Round has pointed out
that Gilbert of Clare, earl of Hertford, who died in 1152, bears on
his seal to a document sealed after 1138 and not later than 1146,
the three cheverons afterwards so well known in England as the
bearings of his successors. An old drawing of the seal of his uncle
Gilbert, earl of Pembroke (Lansdowne MS. 203), shows a chever-
onny shield used between 1138 and 1 148. At some date between
1144 and 1150, Waleran, count of Meulan, shows on his seal a
pennon and saddle-cloth with a checkered pattern: the house of
Warenne, sprung from his mother's son, bore shields cheeky of
gold and azure. If we may trust the inventory of Norman seals
made by M. Demay, a careful antiquary, there is among the
archives of the Manche a grant by Eudes, seigneur du Pont,
sealed with a seal and counterseal of arms, to which M. Demay
gives a date as early as 1128. The writer has not examined this
seal, the earliest armorial evidence of which he has any knowledge,
but it may be remarked that the arms are described as varying on
the seal and counterseal, a significant touch of primitive armory.
Another type of seal common in this i2th century shows
the personal device which had not yet developed into an armorial
charge. A good example is that of Enguerrand de Candavene,
count of St Pol, where, although the shield of the horseman
is uncharged, sheaves of oats, playing on his name, are strewn at
the foot of the seal. Five of these sheaves were the arms of
Candavene when the house came to display arms. In the same
fashion three different members of the family of Armenteres in
England show one, two or three swords upon their seals, but here
the writer has no evidence of a coat of arms derived from these
devices.
From the beginning of the i3th century arms upon shields
increase in number. Soon the most of the great houses of the
west display them with pride. Leaders in the field, whether
of a royal army or of a dozen spears, saw the military advantage
of a custom which made shield and banner things that might
be recognized in the press. Although it is probable that armorial
bearings have their first place upon the shield, the charges of
the shield are found displayed on the knight's long surcoat,
his " coat of arms," on his banner or pennon, on the trappers
of his horse and even upon the peaks of his saddle. An attempt
has been made to connect the rise of armory with the adoption
of the barrel-shaped close helm; but even when wearing the
earlier Norman helmet with its long nasal the knight's face was
not to be recognized. The Conqueror, as we know, had to
bare his head before he could persuade his men at Hastings that
he still lived. Armory satisfied a need which had long been
felt. When fully armed, one galloping knight was like another;
but friend and foe soon learned that the gold and blue checkers
meant that Warenne was in the field and that the gold and
red vair was for Ferrers. Earl Simon at Evesham sent up his
barber to a spying place and, as the barber named in turn the
banners which had come up against him, he knew that his last
fight was at hand. In spite of these things the growth of the
custom of sealing deeds and charters had at least as much in-
fluence in the development of armory as any military need.
By this way, women and clerks, citizens and men of peace,
corporations and colleges, came to share with the fighting man
in the use of armorial bearings. Arms in stone, wood and brass
decorated the tombs of the dead and the houses of the living;
they were broidered in bed-curtains, coverlets and copes, painted
on the sails of ships and enamelled upon all manner of gold-
smiths' and silversmiths' work. And, even by warriors, the
full splendour of armory was at all times displayed more fully
HERALDRY
PLATE I
Ippw 1 I 1 1 ^
PART OF A ROLL OF ARMS PAINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 14TH CENTURY THE NAMES HAVE
BEEN ADDED BY A SOMEWHAT LATER HAND, AND ARE IN MANY CASES MISTAKEN AND MIS-SPELLED.
Drawn by William CM for the ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, ELEVENTH EDITION Niagara Lithe. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.
HERALDRY
3*3
in the fantastic magnificence of the tournament than in the
rougher business of war.
There can be little doubt that ancient armorial bearings were
chosen at will by the man who bore them, many reasons guiding
his choice. Crosses in plenty were taken. Old writers have
erted that these crosses commemorate the badge of the
crusaders, yet the fact that the cross was the symbol of the
faith was reason enough. No symbolism can be found in such
harges as bends and f esses; they are on the shield because a
broad band, aslant or athwart, is a charge easily recognized.
Medieval wisdom gave every noble and magnanimous quality
the lion, and therefore this beast is chosen by hundreds of
knights as their bearing. We have already seen how the arms
of a Candavene play upon his name. Such an example was
nitated on all sides. Salle of Bedfordshire has two ja/amanders
so/tirewise; Belet has his namesake the weasel. In ancient
shields almost all beasts and birds other than the lion and the
agle play upon the bearer's name. No object is so humble
bat it is unwelcome to the knight seeking a pun for his shield.
Trivet has a three-legged trivet; Trumpington two trumps; and
Montbocher three pots. The legends which assert that certain
arms were " won in the Holy Land " or granted by ancient
kings for heroic deeds in the field are for the most part
worthless fancies.
Tenants or neighbours of the great feudal lords were wont to
make their arms by differencing the lord's shield or by bringing
some charge of it into their own bearings. Thus a group of
Kentish shields borrow lions from that of Leyborne, which is
azure with six lions of silver. Shirland of Minster bore the same
arms differenced with an ermine quarter. Detling had the
silver lions in a sable field. Rokesle's lions are azure in a golden
field with a fesse of gules between them; while Wateringbury
has six sable lions in a field of silver, and Tilmanstone six
ermine lions in a field of azure. The Vipont ring or annelet is
in several shields of Westmorland knights, and the cheverons
of Clare, the cinquefoil badge of Beaumont and the sheaves of
Chester can be traced in the coats of many of the followers of
those houses. Sometimes the lord himself set forth such arms
in a formal grant, as when the baron of Greystock grants to
Adam of Blencowe a shield in which his own three chaplets
are charges. The Whitgreave family of Staffordshire still show
a shield granted to their ancestor in 1442 by the earl of Stafford,
in which the Stafford red cheveron on a golden field is four
times repeated.
Differences. By the custom of the middle ages the " whole
coat," which is the undifferenced arms, belonged to one man
only and was inherited whole only by his heirs. Younger
branches differenced in many ways, following no rule. In modern
armory the label is reckoned a difference proper only to an eldest
son. But in older times, although the label was very commonly
used by the son and heir apparent, he often chose another distinc-
tion during his father's lifetime, while the label is sometimes found
upon the shields of younger sons. Changing the colours or varying
the number of charges, drawing a bend or baston over the shield
or adding a border are common differences of cadet lines.
Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, bore " Gules with a fesse and six
crosslets gold." His cousins are seen changing the crosslets for
martlets or for billets. Bastards difference their father's arms,
as a rule, in no more striking manner than the legitimate cadets.
Towards the end of the i4th century we have the beginning of
the custom whereby certain bastards of princely houses differenced
the paternal arms by charging them upon a bend, a fesse or a
chief, a cheveron or a quarter. Before his legitimation the eldest
son of John of Gaunt by Katharine Swinford is said to have
borne a shield party silver and azure with the arms of Lancaster
on a bend. After his legitimation in 1397 he changed his bearings
to the royal arms of France and England within a border gobony
of silver and azure. Warren of Poynton, descended from the
last earl Warenne and his concubine, Maude of Neirford, bore
the checkered shield of Warenne with a quarter charged with the
ermine lion of Neirford. By the end of the middle ages the
baston under continental influence tended to become a bastard's
difference in England and the jingle of the two words may have
helped to support the custom. About the same time the border
gobony began to acquire a like character. The " bar sinister "
of the novelists is probably the baston sinister, with the ends
couped, which has since the time of Charles II. been familiar
on the arms of certain descendants of the royal house. But
it has rarely been seen in England over other shields; and,
although the border gobony surrounds the arms granted to a
peer of Victorian creation, the modern heralds have fallen into
the habit of assigning, in nineteen cases out of twenty, a wavy
border as the standard difference for illegitimacy.
Although no general register of arms was maintained it is
remarkable that there was little conflict between persons who
had chanced to assume the same arms. The famous suit in
which Scrope, Grosvenor and Carminow all claimed the blue
shield with the golden bend is well known, and there are a few
cases in the i4th century of like disputes which were never
carried to the courts. But the men of the middle ages would
seem to have had marvellous memories for blazonry; and we
know that rolls of arms for reference, some of them the records
of tournaments, existed in great numbers. A few examples of
these remain to us, with painted shields or descriptions in French
blazon, some of them containing many hundreds of names and
arms.
To women were assigned, as a rule, the undifferenced arms
of their fathers. In the early days of armory married women
well-born spinsters of full age were all
but unknown outside the walls of re-
ligious houses have seals on which appear
the shield of the husband or the father
or both shields side by side. But we have
some instances of the shield in which two
coats of arms are parted or, to use the
modern phrase, " impaled." Early in
the reign of King John, Robert de Pinkeny D Shield from seal of
i vu Vj u- u f\ ii Robert de Pinkeny, an
seals with a parted shield. On the right oarly e x a m p 1 e o f
or dexter side the right hand of a shield parted arms,
is at the right hand of the person covered
by it are two fusils of an indented fesse: on the left or
sinister side are three waves. The arms of Pinkeny being an
indented fesse, we may see in this shield the parted arms of
husband and wife the latter being probably a Basset. In
many of the earliest examples, as in this, the dexter half of ihe
husband's shield was united with the sinister half of that of
the wife, both coats being, as modern antiquaries have it,
dimidiated. This " dimidiation," however, had its incon-
venience. With some coats it was impossible. If the wife bore
arms with a quarter for the only charge, her half of the shield
would be blank. Therefore the
practice was early abandoned
by the majority of bearers of
parted shields although there
is a survival of it in the fact
that borders and tressures con-
tinue to be " dimidiated " in
order that the charges within
them shall not be cramped.
Parted shields came into com-
mon use from the reign of
Edward II., and the rule is
established that the husband's
arms should take the dexter
side. There are, however,
several instances of the con- Shield of Joan atte Pole,
trary practice. On the seal widow of Robert of Hcmenhale,
( I3 io) of Maude, wife of John from her seal (1403), showing
Boutetort of Halstead, the pal
engrailed saltire of the Boutetorts takes the sinister place. A
twice-married woman would sometimes show a shield charged
with her paternal arms between those of both of her husbands, as
did Beatrice Stafford in 1404, while in 1412 Elizabeth, Lady of
Clinton, seals with a shield paled with five coats her arms
3*4-
HERALDRY
A
A
of la Plaunche between those of four husbands. In most
cases the parted shield is found on the wife's seal alone. Even
in our own time it is recognized that the wife's arms should not
appear upon the husband's official seal, upon his banner or
surcoat or upon his shield when it is surrounded by the collar
of an order. Parted arms, it may be noted, do not always repre-
sent a husband and wife. Richard II. parted with his quartered
arms of France and England
those ascribed to Edward
the Confessor, and parting is
often used on the continent
where quartering would serve in
England. In 1497 the seal of
Giles Daubeney and Reynold
Bray, fellow justices in eyre,
shows their arms parted in one
shield. English bishops, by a
custom begun late in the I4th
century, part the see's arms
with their own. By modern
English custom a husband and
wife, where the wife is not
Shield of Beatrice Stafford an heir, use the parted coat
fromher seal (1404), showing her on a shield, a widow bearing
arms of Stafford between those th
of her husbands Thomas, Lord the
Roos, and Sir Richard Burley. on which, when a. spinster,
she
wme . llrlr , n *,
which, when a.
displayed her father's
coat alone. When the wife is an heir, her arms are now borne in
a little scocheon above those of her husband. If the husband's
arms be in an unquartered shield the central charge is often
hidden away by this scocheon.
The practice of marshalling arms by quartering spread in
England by reason of the example given by Eleanor, wife of
Edward I., who displayed the castle of Castile quartered with the
lion of Leon. Isabel of France, wife of Edward II., seals with a
shield in whose four quarters are the arms of England, France,
Navarre and Champagne. Early in the i4th century Simon de
Montagu, an ancestor of the earls of Salisbury, quartered with his
own arms a coat of azure with a golden griffon. In 1340 we
have Laurence Hastings, earl of Pembroke, quartering with the
Hastings arms the arms of Valence, as heir of his great-uncle
Aymer, earl of Pembroke. In the preceding year the king had
already asserted his claim to another kingdom by quartering
France with England, and after this quartered shields became
common in the great houses whose sons were carefully matched
with heirs female. When the wife was an heir the husband
would quarter her arms with his own, displaying, as a rule,
the more important coat in the
first quarter. Marshalling be-
comes more elaborate with shields
showing both quarterings and
partings, as in the seal (1368) of
Sibil Arundel, where Arundel
(Fitzalan) is quartered with
Warenne and parted with the
arms of Montagu. In all, save
one, of these examples the quart-
ering is in its simplest form,
with one coat repeated in the
first and fourth quarters of the
shield and another in the second
and third. But to a charter of 1434
Henry Bromflete sets a seal
upon which Bromflete quarters
Vesci in the second quarter, Aton
in the third and St John in the fourth, after the fashion of the
much earlier seal of Edward II. 's queen. Another development
is that of what armorists style the " grand quarter," a quarter
which is itself quartered, as in the shield of Reynold Grey of
Ruthyn, which bears Grey in the first and fourth quarters and
Hastings quartered with Valence in the third and fourth.
Humphrey Bourchier, Lord Cromwell, in 1469, bears one grand
Shield of John Talbot, first
earl of Shrewsbury (d. 1453). "
showing four coats quartered.
quarter quartered with another, the first having Bourchier
and Lovaine, the second Tatershall and Cromwell.
The last detail to be noted in medieval marshalling is the
introduction into the shield of another surmounting shield
called by old armorists the " innerscocheon " and by modern
blazoners the " inescutcheon." John the Fearless, count of
Flanders, marshalled his arms in 1409 as a quartered shield
of the new and old coats of Burgundy. Above these coats a
little scocheon, borne over the crossing of the quartering lines,
had the black lion of Flanders, the arms of his mother. Richard
Beauchamp, the adventurous earl of Warwick, who had seen
most European courts during his wanderings, may have had
this shield in mind when, over his arms of Beauchamp quartering
Newburgh, he set a scocheon of Clare quartering Despenser,
the arms of his wife Isabel Despenser, co-heir of the earls of
Gloucester. The seal of his son-in-law, the King-Maker, shows
four quarters Beauchamp quartering Clare, Montagu quartering
Monthermer, Nevill alone, and Newburgh quartering Despenser.
An interesting use of the scocheon en surtout is that made by
Richard Wydvile, Lord Rivers,
whose garter stall-plate has a
grand quarter of Wydvile and
Prouz quartering Beauchamp of
Hache, the whole surmounted
by a scocheon with the arms of
Reviers or Rivers, the house
from which he took the title
of his barony. On the continent
the common use of the scocheon
is to bear the paternal arms of a
sovereign or noble, surmounting
the quarterings of his kingdoms,
principalities, fiefs or seigniories.
Our own prince of Wales bears
the arms of Saxony above those Shield of Richard Beauchamp,
of the United Kingdom differ- earl of Warwick, from his garter
enced with his silver label. Mar- stall-plate (after 1423). The
shalling takes its most elaborate arms are Beauchamp quartering
, Newburgh, with a scocheon of
form, the most removed from Clare quartering Despenser.
the graceful simplicity of the
middle ages, in such shields as the " Great Arms " of the
Austrian empire, wherein are nine grand quarters each marshal-
ling in various fashions from three to eleven coats, six of the
grand-quarters bearing scocheons en surtout, each scocheon
ensigned with a different crown.
Crests. The most important accessory of the arms is the
crested helm. Like the arms it has its pre-heraldic history in
the crests of the Greek helmets, the wings, the wild boar's and
bull's heads of Viking headpieces. A little roundel of the arms
of a Japanese house was often borne as a crest in the Japanese
helmet, stepped in a socket above the middle of the brim. The
12th-century seal of Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, shows
a demi-lion painted or beaten on the side of the upper part of
his helm, and on his seal of 1198 our own Richard Cceur de
Lion's barrel-helm has a leopard upon the semicircular comb-
ridge, the edge of which is set off with feathers arranged as
two wings. Crests, however, came slowly into use in England,
although before 1250 Roger de Quincy, earl of Winchester,
is seen on his seal with a wyver upon his helm. Of the long roll
of earls and barons sealing the famous letter to the pope in 1301
only five show true crests on their seals. Two of them are the
earl of Lancaster and his brother, each with a wyver crest like
that of Quincy. One, and the most remarkable, is John St John
of Halnaker, whose crest is a leopard standing between two
upright palm branches. Ralph de Monthermer has an eagle
crest, while Walter de Money's helm is surmounted by a fox-like
beast. In three of these instances the crest is borne, as was often
the case, by the horse as well as the rider. Others of these
seals to the barons' letter have the fan-shaped crest without
any decoration upon it. But as the furniture of tournaments
grew more magnificent the crest gave a new field for display,
and many strange shapes appear in painted and gilded wood,
HERALDRY
metal, leather or parchment above the helms of the jousters.
The Berkeleys, great patrons of abbeys, bore a mitre as their
crest painted with their arms, like crests being sometimes seen
on the continent where the wearer was advocatm of a bishopric
or abbey. The whole or half figures or the heads and necks
of beasts and birds were employed by other families. Saracens'
heads topped many helms, that of the great Chandos among them.
Astley bore for his crest a silver harpy standing in marsh-sedge,
a golden chain fastened to a crown about her neck. Dymoke
played pleasantly on his name with a long-eared moke's scalp.
Stanley took the eagle's nest in which the eagle is lighting
down with a swaddled babe in his claws. Burnell had a burdock
bush, la Vache a cow's leg, and Lisle's strange fancy was to
perch a huge millstone on edge above his head. Many early
helms, as that of Sir John Loterel, painted in the Loterel psalter,
repeat the arms on the sides of a fan-crest. Howard bore for a
crest his arms painted on a pair of wings, while simple " bushes "
or feathers are seen in great plenty. The crest of a cadet is often
differenced like the arms, and thus a wyver or a leopard will
have a label about its neck. The Montagu griffon on the helm
of John, marquess of Montagu, holds in its beak the gimel ring
with which he differenced his father's shield. His brother,
Ralph de Monthermer (1301), showing shield of arms, helm with
crest and mantle, horse-crest and armorial trappers.
the King-Maker, following a custom commoner abroad than at
home, shows two crested helms on his seal, one for Montagu
and one for Beauchamp none for his father's house of Nevill.
It is often stated that a man, unless by some special grace or
allowance, can have but one. crest. This, however, is contrary
to the spirit of medieval armory in which a man, inheriting the
coat of arms of another house than his own, took with it all its
belongings, crest, badge and the like. The heraldry books,
with more reason, deny crests to women and to the clergy, but
examples are not wanting of medieval seals in which even this
rule is broken. It is perhaps unfair to cite the case of the bishops
of Durham who ride in full harness on their palatinate seals; but
Henry Despenser, bishop of Norwich, has a helm on which the
winged griffon's head of his house springs from a mitre, while
Alexander Nevill, archbishop of York, seals with shield, supporters
and crowned and crested helm like those of any lay magnate.
Richard Holt, a Northamptonshire clerk in holy orders, bears
on his seal in the reign of Henry V. a shield of arms and a mantled
helm with the crest of a collared greyhound's head. About the
middle of the same century a seal cut for the wife of Thomas
Chetwode, a Cheshire squire, has a shield of her husband's arms
parted with her own and surmounted by a crowned helm with the
crest of a demi-lion; and this is not the only example of such
bearings by a woman.
Before passing from the crest let us note that in England the i
juncture of crest and helm was commonly covered, especially
after the beginning of the isth century, by a torse or " wreath "
of silk, twisted with one, two or three colours. Coronets or
crowns and " hats of estate " often take the place of the wreath as
a base for the crest, and there are other curious variants. With
the wreath may be considered the
mantle, a hanging cloth which, in its
earliest form, is seen as two strips of
silk or sendal attached to the top of the
helm below the crest and streaming
like pennants as the rider bent his head
and charged. Such strips are often
displayed from the conical top of an
uncrested helm, and some ancient ex-
amples have the air of the two ends of
a stole or of the infulae of a bishop's
mitre. The general opinion of anti-
quaries has been that the mantle
originated among the crusaders as a
protection for the steel helm from the
rays of an Eastern sun; but the fact that
mantles take in England their fuller
form after our crusading days were over
seems against this theory. When the
fashion for slittering the edges of hef^'lith" hatband
clothing came in, the edges of the mantle of Thomas of
mantle were slittered like the edge Hengrave (1401).
of the sleeve or skirt, and, flourished
out on either side of the helm, it became the delight of
the painter of armories and the seal engraver. A worthless
tale, repeated by popular manuals, makes the slittered edge
represent the shearing work of the enemy's sword, a fancy
which takes no account of the like developments in civil dress.
Modern heraldry in England paints the mantle with the principal
colour of the shield, lining it with the principal metal. This in
cases where no old grant of arms is cited as evidence of another
usage. The mantles of the king and of the prince of Wales are,
however, of gold lined with ermine and those of other members
of the royal house of gold lined with silver. In ancient examples
there is great variety and freedom. Where the crest is the head
of a griffon or bird the feathering of the neck will be carried on
to cover the mantle. Other mantles will be powdered with
badges or with charges from the shield, others checkered, barred
or paled. More than thirty of the mantles enamelled on the
stall-plates of the medieval Garter-knights are of red with an
ermine lining, tinctures which in most cases have no reference
to the shields below them.
Supporters. Shields of arms, especially upon seals, are
sometimes figured as hung round the necks of eagles, lions,
swans and griffons, as strapped between the horns of a hart or to
the boughs of a tree. Badges may fill in the blank spaces at
the sides between the shield and the inscription on the rim, but
in the later i3th and early I4th centuries the commonest objects
so serving are sprigs of plants, lions, leopards, or, still more
frequently, lithe-necked wyvers. John of Segrave in 1301 flanks
his shields with two of the sheaves of the older coat of Segrave:
William Marshal of Hingham does the like with his two marshal's
staves. Henry of Lancaster at the same time shows on his seal
a shield and a helm crested with a wyver, with two like wyvers
ranged on either side of the shield as " supporters." It is
uncertain at what time in the I4th century these various fashions
crystallize into the recognized use of beasts, birds, reptiles, men
or inanimate objects, definitely chosen as " supporters " of the
shield, and not to be taken as the ornaments suggested by the
fancy of the seal engraver. That supporters originate in the
decoration of the seal there can be little doubt. Some writers,
the learned Menetrier among them, will have it that they were
first the fantastically clad fellows who supported and displayed
the knight's shield at the opening of the tournament. If the
earliest supporters were wild men, angels or Saracens, this theory
might be defended ; but lions, boars and talbots, dogs and trees
are guises into which a man would put himself with difficulty.
316
HERALDRY
By the middle of the i4th century we find what are clearly
recognizable as supporters. These, as in a lesser degree the
crest, are often personal rather than hereditary, being changed
generation by generation. The same person is found using more
Arms of William, Lord Hastings, from his seal (1477), showing
shield, crowned and crested helm with mantle and supporters.
than one pair of them. The kings of France have had angels as
supporters of the shield of the fleurs de lys since the 1 5th century,
but the angels have only taken their place as the sole royal
supporters since the time of Louis XIV. Sovereigns of
England from Henry IV. to Elizabeth changed about between
supporters of harts, leopards, antelopes, bulls, greyhounds, boars
and dragons. James I. at his accession to the English throne
brought the Scottish unicorn to face the English leopard rampant
across his shield, and, ever since, the " lion and unicorn " have
been the royal supporters.
An old herald wrote as his opinion that " there is little or
nothing in precedent to direct the use of supporters." Modern
custom gives them, as a rule, only to peers, to knights of the
Garter, the Thistle and St Patrick, and to knights who are " Grand
Badge of John of Whethamstede, Rudder badge of
abbot of St Albans (d. 1465), from Willoughby.
his tomb in the abbey church.
Crosses " or Grand Commanders of other orders. Royal
warrants are sometimes issued for the granting of supporters
to baronets, and, in rare cases, they have been assigned to un-
titled persons. But in spite of the jealousy with which official
heraldry hedges about the display of these supporters once
assumed so freely, a few old English families still assert their
Dacre of
I and Dacre of the
the
right by hereditary prescription to use these ornaments as their
forefathers were wont to use them.
Badges. The badge may claim a greater antiquity -and a
wider use than armorial bearings. The " Plantagenet " broom
is an early example in England, sprigs
of it being figured on the seal of
Richard I. In the i4th and i$th cen-
turies every magnate had his badge,
which he displayed on his horse-
furniture, on the hangings of his bed,
his wall and his chair of state, besides
giving it as a " livery " to his servants
and followers. Such were the knots of
Stafford, Bourchier and Wake, the
scabbard - crampet of La Warr, the
sickle of Hungerford, the swan of
Toesni, Bohun and Lancaster, the dun-
bull of Nevill, the blue boar of Vere and
the bear and ragged staff of Beauchamp,
Nevill of Warwick and Dudley of Northumberland. So well
known of all were these symbols that a political ballad of 1440
sings of the misfortunes of the great lords without naming one
of them, all men understanding what signified the Falcon, the
Water Bowge and the Cresset and the other badges of
doggerel. More famous still were the White
Hart, the Red Rose, the White Rose, the
Sun, the Falcon and Fetterlock, the Port-
cullis and the many other badges of the
royal house. We still call those wars that
blotted out the old baronage the Wars of
the Roses, and the Prince of Wales's feathers
are as well known to-day as the royal arms.
The Flint and Steel of Burgundy make a
collar for the order of the Golden Fleece.
Mottoes. The motto now accompanies
every coat of arms in these islands. Few of
these Latin aphorisms, these bald assertions
of virtue, high courage, patriotism, piety and
loyalty have any antiquity. Some few, how-
ever, like the " Esperance " of Percy, were
the war-cries of remote ancestors. " I mak'
sicker " of Kirkpatrick recalls pridefully a
bloody deed done on a wounded man,
and the "Dieu Ayde," "Agincourt" and
" D'Accomplir Agincourt " of the Irish
" Montmorencys " and the English Wode-
houses and Dalisons, glorious traditions badgeof Beaufort,
based upon untrustworthy genealogy. The p^a ofi^'o^The
often-quoted punning mottoes may be illus- silver feather has
trated by that of Cust, who says " Qui
Cust-odit caveat," a modern example and a
fair one. Ancient mottoes as distinct from
the war or gathering cry of a house are often cryptic sentences
whose meaning might be known to the user and perchance to
his mistress. Such are the " Plus est en vous " of Louis de
Bruges, the Flemish earl of Winchester, and the " So have I
cause " and " Till then thus " of two Englishmen. The word
motto is of modern use, our forefathers speaking rather of their
" word " or of their " reason."
Coronets of Rank. Among accessories of the shield may now
be counted the coronets of peers, whose present form is post-
medieval. When Edward III. made dukes of his sons, gold
circlets were set upon their heads in token of their new dignity.
In 1385 John de Vere, marquess of Dublin, was created in the
same fashion. Edward VI. extended the honour of the gold
circle to earls. Caps of honour were worn with these circles or
coronets, and viscounts wore the cap by appointment of James I.,
Vincent the herald stating that " a verge of pearls on top of
the circulet of gold " was added at the creation of Robert Cecil
as Viscount Cranborne. At the coronation of Charles I. the
viscounts walked in procession with their caps and coronets.
A few days before the coronation of Charles II. the privilege
Ostrich feather
a quill g
silver and
obony
azure.
HERALDRY
PLATE II.
SIXTEEN SHIELDS FROM A ROLL OF ARMS OF ENGLISH KNIGHTS AND BARONS MADE BY AN ENGLISH
PAINTER EARLY IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD III.
Drawn by William Gibb.
Niagara Lilho. Co.. Buffalo, N. Y.
HERALDRY
of the cap of honour was given to the lowest rank of the peerage,
and letters patent of January 1661 assign to them both cap and
coronet. The caps of velvet turned up with miniver, which are
nowalways worn with the peer's coronet, are therefore the ancient
caps of honour, akin to that " cap of maintenance " worn by
English sovereigns on their coronation days when walking to the
Abbey Church, and borne before them on occasions of royal state.
The ancient circles were enriched according to the taste of
the bearer, and, although used at creations as symbols of the
rank conferred, were worn in the i4th and isth centuries by men
and women of rank without the use signifying a rank in the
peerage. Edmund, earl of March, in his will of 1380, named his
sercle we roses, emeraudes et rubies d'alisaundre en les roses, and
bequeathed it to his daughter. Modern coronets are of silver-gilt,
without jewels, set upon caps of crimson velvet turned up with
ermine, with a gold tassel at the top. A duke's coronet has the
circle decorated with eight gold "strawberry leaves"; that of
a marquess has four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls.
The coronet of an earl has eight silver balls, raised upon points,
with gold strawberry leaves between the points. A viscount's
coronet has on the circle sixteen silver balls, and a baron's coronet
six silver balls. On the continent the modern use of coronets
is not ordered in the precise English fashion, men of gentle birth
displaying coronets which afford but slight indication of the
bearer's rank.
Lines. Eleven varieties of lines, other than straight lines,
which divide the shield, or edge our cheverons, pales, bars and
the like, are pictured in the heraldry books and named as en-
grailed, embattled, indented, invected, wavy or undy, nebuly,
dancetty, raguly, potente, dovetailed and urdy.
As in the case of many other such lists of the later armorists
these eleven varieties need some pruning and a new explanation.
The most commonly found is the line engrailed, which for the
student of medieval armory must be associated with the line
indented. In its earliest form the line which a roll of arms will
describe indifferently as indented or engrailed takes almost
invariably the form to which the name indented is restricted
by modern armorists.
The cross may serve as our first example. A cross, engrailed
or indented, the words being used indifferently, is a cross so
deeply notched at the edges that it seems made up of so many
lozenge-shaped wedges or fusils. About the middle of the i4th
century begins a tendency, resisted in practice by many conserva-
tive families, to draw the engrailing lines in the fashion to which
modern armorists restrict the word " engrailed," making
shallower indentures in the form of lines of half circles. -Thus
the engrailed cross of the
Mohuns takes either of the
two forms which we illustrate.
Bends follow the same fashion,
early bends engrailed or in-
dented being some four or
more fusils joined bendwise by
their blunt sides, bends of less
than four fusils being very rare.
Thus also the engrailed or in-
dented saltires, pales or cheverons, the exact number of the fusils
which go to the making of these being unconsidered. For the fesse
there is another law. The fesse indented or engrailed is made up
of fusils as is the engrailed bend. But although early rolls of
arms sometimes neglect this detail in their blazon, the fusils
making a fesse must always be of an ascertained number.
Montagu, earl of Salisbury, bore a fesse engrailed or indented
of three fusils only, very few shields imitating this. Medieval
armorists will describe his arms as a fesse indented of three
indentures, as a fesse fusilly of three pieces, or as a fesse engrailed
of three points or pieces, all of these blazons having the same
value. The indented fesse on the red shield of the Dynhams
has four such fusils of ermine. Four, however, is almost as rare
a number as three, the normal form of a fesse indented being that
of five fusils as borne by Percys, Pinkenys, Newmarches and
many other ancient houses. Indeed, accuracy of blazon is served \
Mohun.
if the number of fusils in a fesse be named in the cases of threes
and fours. Fesses of six fusils are not to be found. Note that
bars indented or engrailed are, for a reason which will be evi-
dent, never subject to this counting of fusils. Fauconberg, for
example, bore " Silver with two bars engrailed, or indented,
sable." Displayed on a shield of the flat-iron outline, the
lower bar would show fewer fusils than the upper, while on a
square banner each bar would have an equal number usually
five or six.
While bends, cheverons, crosses, saltires and pales often
follow, especially in the isth century, the tendency towards the
Montagu. Dynham.
Percy.
Fauconberg;
rounded " engrailing," fesses keep, as a rule, their bold indentures
neither Percy nor Montagu being ever found with his bearings
in aught but their ancient form. Borders take the newer fashion
as leaving more room for the charges of the field. But indented
chiefs do not change their fashion, although many saw-teeth
sometimes take the place of the three or four strong points of
early arms, and parti-coloured shields whose party line is indented
never lose the bold zig-zag.
While bearing in mind that the two words have no distinctive
force in ancient armory, the student and the herald of modern
times may conveniently allow himself to blazon the sharp and
saw-toothed line as " indented " and the scolloped line as
" engrailed," especially when dealing with the debased armory
in which the distinction is held to be a true one and one of the
first importance. One error at least he must avoid, and that
is the following of the heraldry-book compilers in their use of the
word "dancetty." A "dancetty" line, we are told, is a line
having fewer and deeper indentures than the line indented. But
no dancetty line could make a bolder dash across the shield than
do the lines which the old armorists recognized as " indented."
In old armory we have fesses dancy commonly
called " dances " bends dancy, or cheverons | |
dancy; there are no chiefs dancy nor borders
dancy, nor are there shields blazoned as parted
with a dancy line. Waved lines, battled lines
and ragged lines need little explanation that a
picture cannot give. The word invecked or
invected is sometimes applied by old-fashioned
heraldic pedants to engrailed lines; later
pedants have given it to a line found in
modern grants of arms, an engrailed line reversed. Dove-
tailed and urdy lines are mere modernisms. Of the very
rare nebuly or clouded line we can only say that the ancient
form, which imitated the conventional cloud-bank of the old
painters, is now almost forgotten, while the bold " wavy " lines
of early armory have the word " nebuly " misapplied to them.
The Ordinary Charges. The writers upon armory have given
the name of Ordinaries to certain conventional figures commonly
charged upon shields. Also they affect to divide these into
Honourable Ordinaries and Sub-Ordinaries without explaining
the reason for the superior honour of the Saltire or for the
subordination of the Quarter. - Disregarding such distinctions,
we may begin with the description of the " Ordinaries " most
commonly to be found.
From the first the Cross was a common bearing on English
shields, " Silver a cross gules " being given early to St George,
patron of knights and of England, for his arms; and under St
George's red cross the English were wont to fight. Our armorial
crosses took many shapes, but the " crosses innumerabill "
of the Book of St Albans and its successors may be left to the
heraldic dictionary makers who have devised them. It is more
West.
3 i8
HERALDRY
important to define those forms in use during the middle ages,
and to name them accurately after the custom of those who bore
them in war, a task which the heraldry books have never as yet
attempted with success.
The cross in its simple form needs no definition, but it will be
noted that it is sometimes borne " voided " and that in a very
few cases it appears as a lesser charge with its ends cut off square,
in which case it must be clearly blazoned as " a plain Cross."
Andrew Harcla, the march-warden, whom Edward II. made an
earl and executed as a traitor, bore the arms of St George with a
martlet sable in the quarter.
Crevequer of Kent bore " Gold a voided cross gules."
Newsom (Hth century) bore " Azure a fesse silver with three plain
crosses gules."
Next to the plain Cross may be taken the Cross paty, the
croiz patee or pate of old rolls of arms. It has several forms,
according to the taste of the artist and the age. So, in the
I3th and early i4th centuries, its limbs curve out broadly, while
at a later date the limbs become more slender and of even breadth,
the ends somewhat resembling fleurs-de-lys. Each of these forms
has been seized by the heraldic writers as the type of a distinct
cross for which a name must be found, none of them, as a rule,
being recognized as a cross paty, a word which has its misapplica-
St George.
Harcla.
Crevequer.
Latimer.
tion elsewhere. Thus the books have " cross patonce " for the
earlier form, while " cross clechee " and " cross fleurie " serve
for the others. But the true identification of the various crosses
is of the first importance to the antiquary, since without it
descriptions of the arms on early seals or monuments must needs
be valueless. Many instances of this need might be cited from
the British Museum catalogue of seals, where, for example,
the cross paty of Latimer is described twice as a " cross flory,"
six times as a " cross patonce," but not once by its own name,
although there is no better known example of this bearing in
England.
Latimer bore " Gules a cross paty gold."
The cross formy follows the lines of the cross paty save that its
broadening ends are cut off squarely.
Chetwode bore " Quarterly silver and gules with four crosses formy
countercoloured " that is to say, the two crosses in the gules are
of silver and the two in the silver of gules.
The cross flory or flowered cross, the " cross with the ends
flowered " od les boutes floreles as some of the old rolls have
it is, like the cross paty, a mark for the misapprehension of
writers on armory, who describe some shapes of the cross paty
by its name. Playing upon discovered or fancied variants of the
word, they bid us mark the distinctions between crosses " fleur-
de-lisee," " fleury " and " fleurettee," although each author has
his own version of the value which must be given these precious
words. But the facts of the medieval practice are clear to those
who take their armory from ancient examples
and not from phrases plagiarized from the
hundredth plagiarist. The flowered cross is one
whose limbs end in fleur-de-lys, which spring
sometimes from a knop or bud but more fre-
quently issue from the square ends of a cross of
the " formy " type.
Swynnerton bore" Silver a flowered cross sable."
The mill-rind, which takes its name from the
iron of a mill-stone fer de moline must be set with the
crosses. Some of the old rolls call it croiz recercele, from which
armorial writers have leaped to imagine a distinct type. Also
they call the mill-rind itself a " cross moline " keeping the word
V
Mill-rinds.
mill-rind for a charge having the same origin but of somewhat
differing form. Since this charge became common in Tudor
armory it is perhaps better that the original mill-rind should
be called for distinction a mill-rind cross.
Willoughby bore " Gules a mill-rind cross silver."
The crosslet, cross botonny or cross crosletted, is a cross whose
limbs, of even breadth, end as trefoils or treble buds. It is
rarely found in medieval examples in the shape that of a cross
with limbs ending in squarely cut plain crosses which it took
Chetwode. Swynnerton. Willoughby. Brerelegh.
during the 16th-century decadence. As the sole charge of a
shield it is very rare; otherwise it is one of the commonest of
charges.
Brerelegh bore " Silver a crosslet gules."
Within these modest limits we have brought the greater part
of that monstrous host of crosses which cumber the dictionaries.
A few rare varieties may be noticed.
Dukinfield bore " Silver a voided cross with sharpened ends."
Skirlaw, bishop of Durham (d. 1406), the son of a basket- weaver,
bore " Silver a cross of three upright wattles sable, crossed and
interwoven by three more."
Drury bore " Silver a chief vert with a St Anthony's cross gold
between two golden molets, pierced gules."
Brytton bore " Gold a patriarch's cross set upon three degrees or
steps of gules."
Hurlestone of Cheshire bore " Silver a cross of four ermine tails
sable."
Melton bore " Silver a Toulouse cross gules." By giving this cross
Skirlaw.
Drury. St Anthony's Cross. Brytton.
a name from the counts of Toulouse, its best-known bearers, some
elaborate blazonry is spared.
The crosses paty and formy, and more especially the crosslets,
are often borne fitchy, that is to say, with the lower limb some-
what lengthened and ending in a point, for which reason the
15th-century writers call these " crosses fixabill." In the 14th-
century rolls the word " potent " is sometimes used for these
crosses fitchy, the long foot suggesting a potent or staff. From
this source modern English armorists derive many of their
" crosses potent," whose four arms have the T heads of old-
fashioned walking staves.
Howard bore " Silver a bend between six crosslets fitchy gules."
Scott of Congerhurst in Kent bore " Silver a crosslet fitchy sable."
The Saltire is the cross in the form of that on which St Andrew
Hurlestone.
Melton.
Howard.
Scott.
suffered, whence it is borne on the banner of Scotland, and by
the Andrew family of Northamptonshire.
Nevile of Raby bore " Gules a saltire silver."
Nicholas Upton, the 15th-century writer on armory, bore " Silver
a saltire sable with the ends couped and five golden rings thereon."
HERALDRY
Aynho bore " Sable a saltire silver having the ends flowered between
four leopards gold."
" Mayster Elwett of Yorke chyre " in a 15th-century roll bears
" Silver a saltire of chains sable with a crescent in the chief."
Nevile.
Upton.
Aynho.
Elwett.
Fenwick.
Restwolde bore " Party saltirewise of gules and ermine."
The chief is the upper part of the shield and, marked out by a
line of division, it is taken as one of the Ordinaries. Shields
with a plain chief and no more are rare in England, but Tichborne
of Tichborne has borne since the i3th century " Vair a chief
_ gold." According to the heraldry books the
chief should be marked off as a third part of
the shield, but its depth varies, being broader
when charged with devices and narrower
when, itself uncharged, it surmounts a charged
field. Fenwick bore " Silver a chief gules
with six martlets countercoloured," and in this
case the chief would be the half of the shield.
Clinging to the belief that the chief must not
fill more than a third of the shield, the heraldry
books abandon the word in such cases, blazoning them as " party
per fesse."
Hastang bore " Azure a chief gules and a lion with a forked tail
over all."
Walter Kingston seals in the I3th century with a shield of " Two
rings or annelets in the chief."
Hilton of Westmoreland bore " Sable three rings gold and two
saltires silver in the chief."
With the chief may be named the Foot, the nether part of the
shield marked off as an Ordinary. So rare is this charge that
we can cite but one example of it, that of the shield of John
of Skipton, who in the i4th century bore " Silver with the foot
indented purple and a lion purple." The foot, however, is a
recognized bearing in France, whose heralds gave it the name
of champagne.
The Pale is a broad stripe running the length of the shield.
Of a single pale and of three pales there are several old examples.
Four red pales in a golden shield were borne by Eleanor of
Provence, queen of Henry III.; but the number did not com-
Restwolde.
Hastang.
Hilton.
Provence.
mend itself to English armorists. When the field is divided
evenly into six pales it is said to be paly; if into four or eight
pales, it is blazoned as paly of that number of pieces. But paly
of more or less than six pieces is rarely found.
The Yorkshire house of Gascoigne bore " Silver a pale sable with
a golden conger's head thereon, cut off at the shoulder."
Ferlington bore " Gules three pales vair and a chief gold."
Strelley bore " Paly silver and azure."
Rothinge bore " Paly silver and gules of eight pieces."
When the shield or charge is divided palewise down the middle
into two tinctures it is said to be " party." " Party silver
and gules " are the arms of the Waldegraves. Bermingham
bore " Party silver and sable indented." Caldecote bore " Party
silver and azure with a chief gules." Such partings of the
field often cut through charges whose colours change about on
either side of the parting line. Thus Chaucer the poet bore
" Party silver and gules with a bend countercoloured."
The Fesse is a band athwart the shield, filling, according to the
rules of the heraldic writers, a third part of it. By ancient use,
however, as in the case of the chief and pale, its width varies
with the taste of the painter, narrowing when set in a field full
of charges and broadening when charges are displayed on itself.
Rothinge.
When two or three fesses are borne they are commonly called
Bars. " Ermine four bars gules " is given as the shield of Sir
John Sully, a 14th-century Garter knight, on his stall-plate
at Windsor: but the plate belongs to a later generation, and
should probably have three bars only. Little bars borne in
couples are styled Gemels (twins). The field divided into an
even number of bars of alternate colours is said to be barry,
Bermingham. Caldecote.
Colevile.
Fauconberg.
barry of six pieces being the normal number. If four or eight
divisions be found the number of pieces must be named; but with
ten or more divisions the number is unreckoned and " burely "
is the word.
Colevile of Bitham bore " Gold a fesse gules."
West bore " Silver a dance (or fesse dancy) sable."
Fauconberg bore " Gold a fesse azure with three pales gules in the
chief."
Cayvile bore " Silver a fesse gules, flowered on both sides."
Cayvile.
Devereux. Chamberlayne. Harcourt.
Devereux bore " Gules a fesse silver with three roundels silver in
the chief."
Chamberlayne of Northamptonshire bore " Gules a fesse and three
scallops gold."
Harcourt bore " Gules two bars gold."
Manners bore " Gold two bars azure and a chief gules."
Wake bore " Gold two bars gules with three roundels gules in the
chief."
Bussy bore " Silver three bars sable."
Badlesmere of Kent bore " Silver a fesse between two gemels
gules."
Melsanby bore " Sable two gemels and a chief silver."
Manners.
Wake.
Melsanby.
Grey.
Grey bore " Barry of silver and azure."
Fitzalan of Bedale bore " Barry of eight pieces gold and gules.
Stutevile bore " Burely of silver and gules."
320
HERALDRY
The Bend is a band traversing the shield aslant, arms with
one, two or three bends being common during the middle ages
in England. Bendy shields follow the rule of shields paly and
barry, but as many as ten pieces have been counted in them.
The bend is often accompanied by a narrow bend on either
side, these companions being called Cotices. A single narrow
bend, struck over all other charges, is the Baston, which during
the i3th and i4th centuries was a common difference for the
shields of the younger branches of a family, coming in late?
times to suggest itself as a difference for bastards.
The Bend Sinister, the bend drawn from right to left beginning
at the " sinister " corner of the shield, is reckoned in the heraldry
books as a separate Ordinary, and has a peculiar significance
Fitzalan of Bedale. Mauley. Harley. Wallop.
accorded to it by novelists. Medieval English seals afford
a group of examples of Bends Sinister and Bastons Sinister,
but there seems no reason for taking them as anything more
than cases in which the artist has neglected the common rule.
Mauley bore " Gold a bend sable."
Harley bore " Gold a bend with two cotices sable."
Wallop bore " Silver a bend wavy sable."
Ralegh bore " Gules a bend indented, or engrailed, silver."
Ralegh.
Tracy.
Bodrugan. St Philibert.
Tracy bore " Gold two bends gules with a scallop sable in the chief
between the bends."
Bodrugan bore " Gules three bends sable."
St Philibert bore " Bendy of six pieces, silver and azure."
Bishopsdon bore " Bendy of six pieces, gold and azure, with a
quarter ermine."
Montfort of Whitchurch bore " Bendy of ten pieces gold and
azure."
Henry of Lancaster, second son of Edmund Crouchback, bore the
Bishopsdon. Montfort.
Lancaster. Fraunceys.
arms of his cousin, the king of England, with the difference of " a
baston azure."
Adam Fraunceys (i4th century) bore " Party gold and sable
bendwise with a lion countercoloured." The parting line is here
commonly shown as " sinister."
The Cheveron, a word found in medieval building accounts
for the barge-boards of a gable, is an Ordinary whose form is
explained by its name. Perhaps the very earliest of English
armorial charges, and familiarized by the shield of the great
house of Clare, it became exceedingly popular in England.
Like the bend and the chief, its width varies in different examples.
Likewise its angle varies, being sometimes so acute as to touch
the top of the shield, while in post-medieval armory the point
is often blunted beyond the right angle. One, two or three
cheverons occur in numberless shields, and five cheverons have
been found. Also there are some examples of the bearing of
cheveronny.
The earls of Gloucester of the house of Glare bore " Gold three
cheverons gules " and the Staffords derived from them their shield of
Gold a cheveron gules.''
Chaworth bore " Azure two cheverons gold."
Peytevyn bore " Cheveronny of ermine and gules."
St Quintin of Yorkshire bore " Gold two cheverons gules and a
chief vair."
Sheffield bore " Ermine a cheveron gules between three sheaves
gold."
Cobham of Kent bore " Gules a cheveron gold with three fleurs-
de-lys azure thereon."
Fitzwalter bore " Gold a fesse between two cheverons gules."
Chaworth.
Peytevyn.
Sheffield.
Cobham.
Shields parted cheveronwise are common in the isth century,
when they are often blazoned as having chiefs " enty " or
grafted. Aston of Cheshire bore " Party sable and silver chever-
onwise " or " Silver a chief enty sable."
The Pile or stake (estache) is a wedge-shaped figure jutting
from the chief to the foot of the shield, its name allied to the
pile of the bridge-builder. A single pile is found in the notable
arms of Chandos, and the black piles in the ermine shield of
Hollis are seen as an example of the bearing of two piles. Three
piles are more easily found, and when more than one is represented
the points are brought together at the foot. In ancient armory
piles in a shield are sometimes reckoned as a variety of pales,
and a Basset with three piles on his shield is seen with three
pales on his square banner.
Chandos bore " Gold a pile gules."
Bryene bore " Gold three piles azure."
The Quarter is the space of the first quarter of the shield
divided crosswise into four parts. As an Ordinary it is an
ancient charge and a common one in medieval England, although
it has all but disappeared from modern heraldry books, the
" Canton," an alleged " diminutive," unknown to early armory,
taking its place. Like the other Ordinaries, its size is found
to vary with the scheme of the shield's charges, and this has
persuaded those armorists who must needs call a narrow bend
a " bendlet," to the invention of the " Canton," a word which
in the sense of a quarter or small quarter appears for the first
time in the latter part of the isth century. Writers of the
i4th century sometimes give it the name of the Cantel, but this
word is also applied to the void space on the opposite. side of
the chief, seen above a bend.
Aston.
Hollis.
Bryene.
Blencowe.
Blencowe bore " Gules a quarter silver."
Basset of Dray ton bore " Gold three piles (or pales) gules with a
quarter ermine."
Wydvile bore " Silver a fesse and a quarter gules."
Odingseles bore " Silver a fesse gules with a molet gules in the
quarter."
Robert Dene of Sussex (i4th century) bore "Gules a quarter
azure ' embelif,' or aslant, and thereon a sleeved arm and hand of
silver."
Shields or charges divided crosswise with a downward line
and a line athwart are said to be quarterly. An ancient coat
of this fashion is that of Say who bore (i3th century) " Quarterly
gold and gules " the first and fourth quarters being gold and
the second and third red. Ever or Eure bore the same with the
PLATE III.
c j r t
SHIELDS OF ARMS OF "LE ROY DARRABE," "LE ROY DE TARSSE," AND OTHER SOVEREIGNS, MOSTLY MYTHICAL.
TAKEN FROM A ROLL OF ARMS MADE BY AN ENGLISH PAINTER IN THE TIME OF HENRY VI.
Draw by William CM. Niagara Lilho. Co,. Buffalo. N. Y.
HERALDRY
321
_ddition of " a bend sable with three silver scallops thereon."
Phelip, Lord Bardolf, bore " Quarterly gules and silver with an
agle gold in the quarter."
With the i sth century came a fashion of dividing the shield
ato more than four squares, six and nine divisions being often
ound in arms of that age. The heraldry books, eager to work
Basset.
Wydvile.
Odingseles.
Ever.
mt problems of blazonry, decide that a shield divided into
squares should be described as " Party per fesse with a pale
unterchanged," and one divided into nine squares as bearing
a cross quarter-pierced." It seems a simpler business to
illow a isth-century fashion and to blazon such shields as
being of six or nine " pieces." Thus John Garther (i sth century)
bore " Nine pieces erminees and ermine " and Whitgreave of
Staffordshire " Nine pieces of azure and of Stafford's arms,
which are gold with a cheveron gules." The Tallow Chandlers
of London had a grant in 1456 of " Six pieces azure and silver
with three doves in the azure, each with an olive sprig in her
beak."
Squared into more than nine squares the shield becomes
cheeky or checkered and the number is not reckoned. Warenne's
checker of gold and azure is one of the most ancient coats in
.ngland and checkered fields and charges follow in great numbers,
ven lions have been borne checkered.
Warenne bore " Cheeky gold and azure."
Clifford bore the like with " a fesse gules."
Cobhara bore " Silver a lion cheeky gold and sable."
Arderne bore " Ermine a fesse cheeky gold and gules."
Such charges as this fesse of Arderne's and other checkered
iesses, bars, bends, borders and the like, will commonly bear but
Tallow
Chandlers.
Warenne.
CO
S
an
wo rows of squares, or three at the most. The heraldry writers
e ready to note that when two rows are used " counter-
compony " is the word in place of cheeky, and " compony-
counter-compony " in the case of three rows. It is needless to
y that these words have neither practical value nor antiquity
commend them. But bends and bastons, labels, borders
and the rest are often coloured with a single row of alternating
tinctures. In this case the pieces are said to be " gobony."
Thus John Cromwell (i4th century) bore " Silver a chief gules
with a baston gobony of gold and azure."
The scocheon or shield used as a charge is found among the
earliest arms. Itself charged with arms, it served to indicate
alliance by blood or by tenure with another house, as in the
bearings of St Owen whose shield of " Gules with a cross silver "
has a scocheon of Clare in the quarter. In the latter half of the
i Sth century it plays an important part in the curious marshalling
of the arms of great houses and lordships.
Erpingham bore " Vert a scocheon silver with an orle (or border)
of silver martlets."
Davillers bore at the battle of Boroughbridge " Silver three
scodicons gules."
The scocheon was often borne voided or pierced, its field cut
away to a narrow border. Especially was this the case in the
ar North, where the Balliols, who bore such a voided scocheon,
XIII. II
were powerful. The voided scocheon is wrongly named in all
the heraldry books as an orle, a term which belongs to a number
of small charges set round a central charge. Thus the martlets
in the shield of Erpingham, already described, may be called an
orle of martlets or a border of martlets. This misnaming of the
voided scocheon has caused a curious misapprehension of its
form, even Dr Woodward, in his Heraldry, British and Foreign,
describing the " orle " as " a narrow border detached from the
edge of the shield." Following this definition modern armorial
artists will, in the case of quartered arms, draw the " orle " in
a first or second quarter of a quartered shield as a rectangular
figure and in a third or fourth quarter as a scalene triangle
with one arched side. Thereby the original voided scocheon
changes into forms without meaning.
Balliol bore " Gules a voided scocheon silver."
Surtees bore " Ermine with a quarter of the arms of Balliol."
The Tressure or flowered tressure is a figure which is correctly
described by Woodward's incorrect description of the orle as
cited above, being a narrow inner border of the shield. It is
distinguished, however, by the fleurs-de-lys which decorate it,
Arderne.
Cromwell.
Erpingham.
setting off its edges. The double tressure which surrounds the
lion in the royal shield of Scotland, and which is borne by many
Scottish houses who have served their kings well or mated with
their daughters, is carefully described by Scottish heralds as
" flowered and counter-flowered," a blazon which is held to
mean that the fleurs-de-lys show head and tail in turn from the
outer rim of the outer tressure and from the inner rim of the
innermost. But this seems to have been no essential matter
with medieval armorists and a curious isth-century enamelled
roundel of the arms of Vampage shows that in this English
case the flowering takes the more convenient form of allowing
all the lily heads to sprout from the outer rim.
Vampage bore "Azure an eagle silver within a flowered tressure
silver."
The king of Scots bore " Gold a lion within a double tressure
flowered and counterflowered gules."
Felton bore " Gules two lions passant within a double tressure
flory silver."
The Border of the shield when marked out in its own tincture
is counted as an Ordinary. Plain or charged, it was commonly
used as a difference. As the principal charge of a shield it is
very rare, so rare that in most cases where it apparently occurs
Davillers. Balliol. Surtees. Vampage.
we may, perhaps, be following medieval custom in blazoning
the shield as one charged with a scocheon and not with a border.
Thus Hondescote bore " Ermine a border gules " or " Gules a
scocheon ermine."
Somerville bore " Burely silver and gules and a border azure with
golden martlets."
Paynel bore " Silver two bars sable with a border, or orle, of
martlets gules."
The Flaunches are the flanks of the shield which, cut off by
rounded lines, are borne in pairs as Ordinaries. These charges
are found in many coats devised by isth-century armorists.
5
322
HERALDRY
" Ermine two flaunches azure with six golden wheat-ears "
was borne by John Greyby of Oxfordshire (isth century).
The Label is a narrow fillet across the upper part of the chief,
from which hang three, four, five or more pendants, the pendants
being, in most old examples, broader than the fillet. Reckoned
with ihe Ordinaries, it was commonly used as a means of differenc-
ing a cadet's shield, and in the heraldry books it has become the
accepted difference for an eldest son, although the cadets often
bore it in the middle ages. John of Hastings bore in 1300 before
Carlaverock " Gold a sleeve (or maunche) gules," while Edmund
his brother bore the same arms with a sable label. In modern
armory the pendants are all but invariably reduced to three,
which, in debased examples, are given a dovetailed form while
the ends of the fillet are cut off.
The Fret, drawn as a voided lozenge interlaced by a slender
saltire, is counted an Ordinary. A charge in such a shape is
extremely rare in medieval armory, its ancient form when the
field is covered by it being a number of bastons three being
the customary number interlaced by as many more from the
sinister side. Although the whole is described as a fret in certain
English blazons of the 1,5th century, the adjective " fretty "
Scotland.
Hondescote.
Greyby.
Hastings.
is more commonly used. Trussel's fret is remarkable for its
bezants at the joints, which stand, doubtless, for the golden
nail-heads of the " trellis " suggested by his name. Curwen,
Wyvile and other northern houses bearing a fret and a chief
have, owing to their fashion of drawing their frets, often seen
them changed by the heraldry books into " three cheverons
braced or interlaced."
Huddlestone bore " Gules fretty silver."
Trussel bore " Silver fretty gules, the joints bezanty.
Hugh Giffard (nth century) bore " Gules with an engrailed fret
of ermine."
Wyvile bore " Gules fretty vair with a chief gold.
Boxhull bore " Gold a lion azure fretty silver."
Another Ordinary is the Giron or Gyron a word now com-
monly mispronounced with a hard " g." It may be defined as the
Trussel.
Giffard.
Wyvile.
Mortimer.
lower half of a quarter which has been divided bendwise. No
old example of a single giron can be found to match the figure
in the heraldry books. Gironny, or gyronny, is a manner of
dividing the field into sections, by lines radiating from a centre
point, of which many instances may be given. Most of the
earlier examples have some twelve divisions although later
armory gives eight as the normal number, as Campbell bears
them.
Basslngbourne bore "Gironny of gold and azure of twelve
pieces."
William Stoker, who died Lord Mayor of London in 1484- bore
" Gironny of six pieces azure and silver with three popinjays m the
silver pieces."
A pair of girons on either side of a chief were borne in the strange
shield of Mortimer, commonly blazoned as " Barry azure and gold
of six pieces, the chief azure with two pales and two girons gold, a
scocheon silver over all." An early example shows that this shield
began as a plain field with a gobony border.
With the Ordinaries we may take the Roundels or Pellets,
disks or balls of various colours. Ancient custom gives the name
of a bezant to the golden roundel, and the folly of the heraldic
writers has found names for all the others, names which may
be disregarded together with the belief that, while bezants and
silver roundels, as representing coins, must be pictured with a
flat surface, roundels of other hues must needs be shaded by
the painter to represent rounded balls. Rings or Annelets
were common charges in the North, where Lowthers, Musgraves
Campbell. Bassingbourne.
Stoker.
Burlay.
and many more, differenced the six rings of Vipont by bearing
them in various colours.
Burlay of Wharfdale bore " Gules a bezant."
Courtenay, earl of Devon, bore " Gold three roundels gules with
a label azure."
Caraunt bore " Silver three roundels azure, each with three
cheverons gules."
Vipont bore " Gold six annelets gules."
Avenel bore " Silver a fesse and six annelets (aunels) gules."
Hawberk of Stapleford bore " Silver a bend sable charged with
three pieces of a mail hawberk, each of three linked rings of gold."
Stourton bore " Sable a bend gold between six fountains." The
fountain is a roundel charged with waves of white and blue.
The Lozenge is linked in the heraldry book with the Fusil.
This Fusil is described as a lengthened and sharper lozenge. But
Courtenay.
Caraunt.
Vipont.
Avenel.
it will be understood that the Fusil, other than as part of
an engrailed or indented bend, pale or fesse, is not known to
true armory. Also it is one of the notable achievements of
the English writers on heraldry that they should have allotted
to the lozenge, when borne voided, the name of Mascle. This
" mascle " is the word of the oldest armorists for the unvoided
charge, the voided being sometimes described by them as a
lozenge, without further qualifications. Fortunately the difficulty
can be solved by following the late 14th-century custom in
distinguishing between " lozenges " and " voided lozenges " and
by abandoning altogether this misleading word Mascle.
Thomas of Merstone, a clerk, bore on his seal in 1359 "Ermine a
lozenge with a pierced molet thereon."
Hawberk.
Stourton.
Charles.
Fitzwilliam.
Braybroke bore " Silver seven voided lozenges gules."
Charles bore " Ermine a chief gules with five golden lozenges
thereon."
Fitzwilliam bore " Lozengy silver and gules.
Billets are oblong figures set upright. Black billets in the
arms of Delves of Cheshire stand for " delves " of earth and the
gads of steel in the arms of the London Ironmongers' Company
took a somewhat similar form.
HERALDRY
323
Sir Ralph Mounchensy bore in the I4th century " Silver a cheveron
etween three billets sable."
Haggerston bore " Azure a bend with cotices silver and three billets
able on the bend."
With the Billet, the Ordinaries, uncertain as they are in number,
,y be said to end. But we may here add certain armorial
ges which might well have been counted with them.
First of these is the Molet, a word corrupted in modern heraldry
Mullet, a fish-like change with nothing to commend it. This
re is as a star of five or six points, six points being perhaps
'e commonest form in old examples, although the sixth point is,
a rule, lost during the later period. Medieval armorists are
it, it seems, inclined to make any distinction between molets
f five and six points, but some families, such as the Harpedens
id Asshetons, remained constant to the five-pointed form. It
as generally borne pierced with a round hole, and then represents,
its name implies, the rowel of a spur. In ancient rolls of arms
he word Rowel is often used, and probably indicated the pierced
lolet. That the piercing was reckoned an essential difference
shown by a roll of the time of Edward II., in which Sir John
f Pabenham bears " Barry azure and silver, with a bend gules
,nd three molets gold thereon," arms which Sir John his son
ifferences by piercing the molets. Beside these names is that
if Sir Walter Baa with " Gules a cheveron and three rowels
.ver," rowels which are shown on seals of this family as pierced
olets. Probably an older bearing than the molet, which would
popularized when the rowelled spur began to take the place
of the prick-spur, is the Star or Estoile, differing from the
lolet in that its five or six points are wavy. It is possible that
iveral star bearings of the i3th century were changed in the
4th for molets. The star is not pierced in the fashion of the
iolet; but, like the molet, it tends to lose its sixth point in armory
f the decadence. Suns, sometimes blazoned in old rolls as Sun-
,ys rays de soleil are pictured as unpierced molets of many
points, which in rare cases are waved.
Harpeden bore " Silver a pierced molet gules."
Gentil bore " Gold a cnief sable with two molets goles pierced
lies."
Grimston bore " Silver a fesse sable and thereon three molets silver
lierced gules."
Ingleby of Yorkshire bore " Sable a star silver."
Sir John de la Haye of Lincolnshire bore " Silver a sun gules."
The Crescent is a charge which has to answer for many idle
les concerning the crusading ancestors of families who bear
Mounchensy. Haggerston. Harpeden.
Gentil.
it. It is commonly borne with both points uppermost, but when
representing the waning or the waxing moon decrescent or
increscent its horns are turned to the sinister or dexter side
iof the shield.
Peter de Marines (i3th century) bore on his seal a shield charged
with a crescent in the chief.
William Gobioun (Hth century) bore " A bend between two
waxing moons."
Longchamp bore " Ermine three crescents gules, pierced silver."
Tinctures. The tinctures or hues of the shield and its charges
.re seven in number gold or yellow, silver or white, red, blue,
black, green and purple. Medieval custom gave, according to
a rule often broken, " gules," " azure " and " sable " as more
high-sounding names for the red, blue and black. Green was
often named as " vert," and sometimes as " synobill," a word
which as " sinople " is used to this day by French armorists.
The song of the siege of Carlaverock and other early documents
have red, gules or " vermeil," sable or black, azure or blue, but
gules, azure, sable and vert came to be recognized as armorists'
.
e"--3.
!
adjectives, and an early i sth-century romance discards the simple
words deliberately, telling us of its hero that
" His shield was black and blue, sanz fable,
Barred of azure and of sable."
But gold and silver served as the armorists' words for yellows
and whites until late in the i6th century, when, gold and silver
made way for " or " and " argent," words which those for whom
the interest of armory lies in its liveliest days will not be eager
to accept. Likewise the colours of " sanguine " and " tenne "
brought in by the pedants to bring the tinctures to the mystical
number of nine may be disregarded.
A certain armorial chart of the duchy of Brabant, published
in 1600, is the earliest example of the practice whereby later
engravers have indicated colours in uncoloured plates by the
use of lines and dots. Gold is indicated by a powdering of dots;
Grimston.
Ingilby.
Gobioun.
silver is left plain. Azure is shown by horizontal shading lines;
gules by upright lines; sable by cross-hatching of upright and
horizontal lines. Diagonal lines from sinister to dexter indicate
purple; vert is marked with diagonal lines from dexter to
sinister. The practice, in spite of a certain convenience, has been
disastrous in its cramping effects on armorial art, especially
when applied to seals and coins.
Besides the two " metals " and five " colours," fields and
charges are varied by the use of the furs ermine and vair. Ermine
is shown by a white field flecked with black ermine tails, and vair
by a conventional representation of a fur of small skins sewn in
rows, white and blue skins alternately. In the 15th century
there was a popular variant of ermine, white tails upon a black
field. To this fur the books now give the name of " ermines "
a most unfortunate choice, since ermines is a name used in old
documents for the original ermine. " Erminees," which has
at least a 15th-century authority, will serve for those who are
not content to speak of " sable ermined with silver." Vair,
although silver and blue be its normal form, may be made up
of gold, silver or ermine, with sable or gules or vert, but in these
latter cases the colours must be named in the blazon. To the
vairs and ermines of old use the heraldry books have added
" erminois," which is a gold field with black ermine tails, " pean,"
which is " erminois " reversed, and " erminites," which is
ermine with a single red hair on either side of each black tail.
The vairs, mainly by misunderstanding of the various patterns
found in old paintings, have been amplified with " countervair, "
" potent," " counter-potent " and " vair-en-point," no one of
which merits description.
No shield of a plain metal or colour has ever been borne by
an Englishman, although the knights at Carlaverock and Falkirk
saw Amaneu d'Albret with his banner all of red having no
charge thereon. Plain ermine was the shield of the duke of
Brittany and no Englishman challenged the bearing. But
Beauchamp of Hatch bore simple vair, Ferrers of Derby " Vairy
gold and gules," and Ward " Vairy silver and sable." Gresley
had "Vairy ermine and gules," and Beche "Vairy silver and
gules."
Only one English example has hitherto been discovered of a
field covered not with a fur but with overlapping feathers.
A isth-century book of arms gives " Plumetty of gold and
purple " for " Mydlam in Coverdale."
Drops of various colours which variegate certain fields and
charges are often mistaken for ermine tails when ancient seals
are deciphered. A simple example of such spattering is in the
shield of Grayndore, who bore " Party ermine and vert, the vert
324
HERALDRY
dropped with gold." Sir Richard le Brun (i4th century) bore
" Azure a silver lion dropped with gules."
A very common variant of charges and fields is the sowing
or " powdering " them with a small charge repeated many times.
Mortimer of Norfolk bore " gold powdered with fleurs-de-lys
sable " and Edward III. quartered for the old arms of France
" Azure powdered with fleurs-de-lys gold," such fields being often
Brittany.
Beauchamp.
Mydlam.
Grayndorge.
described as flowered or flory. Golden billets were scattered
in Cowdray's red shield, which is blazoned as " Gules billety
gold," and bezants in that of Zouche, which is " Gules bezanty
with a quarter ermine." The disposition of such charges varied
with the users. Zouche as a rule shows ten bezants placed four,
three, two and one on his shield, while the old arms of France
in the royal coat allows the pattern of flowers to run over the
edge, the shield border thus showing halves and tops and stalk
ends of the fleurs-de-lys. But the commonest of these powderings
is that with crosslets, as in the arms of John la Warr " Gules
crusily silver with a silver lion."
Trees, Leaves and Flowers. Sir Stephen Cheyndut, a 13th-
century knight, bore an oak tree, the cheyne of his first syllable,
while for like reasons a Piriton had a pear tree on his shield.
Three pears were borne (temp. Edward III.) by Nicholas Stivecle
of Huntingdonshire, and about the same date is Applegarth's
Mortimer.
Cowdray.
Zouche.
La Warr.
shield of three red apples in a silver field. Leaves of burdock
are in the arms (i4th century) of Sir John de Lisle and mulberry
leaves in those of Sir Hugh de Morieus. Three roots of trees
are given to one Richard Rotour in a 14th-century roll. Mal-
herbe (i3th century) bore the " evil herb " a teazle bush.
Pineapples are borne here and there, and it will be noted that
armorists have not surrendered this, our ancient word for the
" fir-cone," to the foreign ananas. Out of the cornfield English
armory took the sheaf, three sheaves being on the shield of an
earl of Chester early in the I3th century and Sheffield bearing
sheaves for a play on his name. For a like reason Peverel's
sheaves were sheaves of pepper. Rye bore three ears of rye on a
bend, and Graindorge had barley-ears. Flowers are few in this
Cheyndut.
Applegarth.
Chester.
Rye.
field of armory, although lilies with their stalks and leaves are
in the grant of arms to Eton College. Ousethorpe has water
flowers, and now and again we find some such strange charges
as those in the i sth-century shield of Thomas Porthelyne who
bore " Sable a cheveron gules between three ' popyebolles,' or
poppy-heads vert."
The fleur-de-lys, a conventional form from the beginnings of
armory, might well be taken amongst the "ordinaries." ID
England as in France it is found in great plenty.
Aguylon bore " Gules a fleur-de-lys silver."
Peyferer bore " Silver three fleur-de-lys sable."
Trefoils are very rarely seen until the isth century, although
Hervey has them, and Gausill, and a Bosville coat seems to have
borne them. They have always their stalk left
hanging to them. Vincent, Hattecliffe and
Massingberd all bore the quatrefoil, while
the Bardolfs, and the Quincys, earls of Win-
chester, had cinqfoils. The old rolls of arms
made much confusion between cinqfoils and
sixfoils (quintef allies e sisfoilles) and the rose.
It is still uncertain how far that confusion
extended amongst the families which bore Eton College,
these charges. The cinqfoil and sixfoil, how-
ever, are all but invariably pierced in the middle like
the spur rowel, and the rose's blunt-edged petals give it
definite shape soon after the decorative movement of the
Edwardian age began to carve natural buds and flowers in stone
and wood.
Hervey bore " Gules a bend silver with three trefoils vert thereon.'"
Vincent bore " Azure three quatrefoils silver."
Aguylon. Peyferer. Hervey. Vincent.
Quincy bore " Gules a cinqfoil silver."
Bardolf of Wormegay bore " Gules three cinqfoils silver."
Cosington bore " Azure three roses gold."
Hilton bore " Silver three chaplets or garlands of red roses."
Beasts and Birds. The book of natural history as studied in-
the middle ages lay open at the chapter of the lion, to which
royal beast all the noble virtues were set down." What is the
oldest armorial seal of a sovereign prince as yet discovered bears
the rampant lion of Flanders. In England we know of no royal
shield earlier than that first seal of Richard I. which has a like
device. A long roll of our old earls, barons and knights wore the
Quincy.
Bardolf.
Cosington.
Hilton.
lion on their coats Lacy, Marshal, Fitzalan and Montfort,
Percy, Mowbray and Talbot. By custom the royal beast is
shown as rampant, touching the ground with but one foot and
clawing at the air in noble rage. So far is this the normal
attitude of a lion that the adjective " rampant " was often
dropped, and we have leave and good authority for blazoning
the rampant beast simply as " a lion," leave which a writer on
armory may take gladly to the saving of much repetition. In
France and Germany this licence has always been the rule, and
the modern English herald's blazon of " Gules a lion rampant
or " for the arms of Fitzalan, becomes in French de gueules au
lion d'or and in German in Rot ein goldener Loewe. Other
positions must be named with care and the prowling " lion
passant " distinguished from the rampant beast, as well as from
such rarer shapes as the couchant lion, the lion sleeping, sitting
or leaping. Of these the lion passant is the only one commonly
encountered. The lion standing with his forepaws together is
not a figure for the shield, but for the crest, where he takes this
position for greater stableness upon the helm, and the sitting
lion is also found rather upon helms than in shields. For a
HERALDRY
PLATE IV.
:" 5 BEGINNING OF A ROLL OP THE ARMS OP THOSE JOUSTING IN A TOURNAMENT HELD ON THE FIELD OF
'HE CLOTH OF GOLD. BESIDES THE ARMS OF THE KINGS OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND ARE TWO COLUMNS
OF "CHEQUES," MARKED WITH THE NAMES AND SCORING POINTS OF THE JOUSTERS.
mby William Gikb. Niagara Lilho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y.
HERALDRY
325
couchant lion or a dormant lion one must search far afield,
although there are some medieval instances. The leaping lion
is in so few shields that no maker of a heraldry book has, it
would appear, discovered an example. In the books this " lion
salient " is described as with the hind paws together on the
ground and the fore paws together in the air, somewhat after the
fashion of a diver's first movement. But examples from seals
and monuments of the Felbrigges and the Merks show that the
leaping lion differed only from the rampant in that he leans
somewhat forward in his eager spring. The compiler of the
British Museum catalogue of medieval armorial seals, and others
equally unfamiliar with medieval armory, invariably describe
this position as " rampant," seeing no distinction from other
rampings. As rare as the leaping lion is the lion who looks
backward over his shoulder. This position is called " regardant "
by modern armorists. The old French blazon calls it rere
regardant or turnaunte le visage arere, " regardant " alone meaning
simply " looking," and therefore we shall describe it more
reasonably in plain English as " looking backward." The two-
headed lion occurs in a 15th-century coat of Mason, and at the
same period a monstrous lion of three bodies and one head is
borne, apparently, by a Sharingbury.
The lion's companion is the leopard. What might be the
true form of this beast was a dark thing to the old armorist, yet
knowing from the report of grave travellers that the leopard
was begotten in spouse-breach between the lion and the pard,
it was felt that his shape would favour his sire's. But nice
distinctions of outline, even were they ascertainable, are not to be
marked on the tiny seal, or easily expressed by the broad strokes
of the shield painter. The leopard was indeed lesser than the
lion, but in armory, as in the Noah's arks launched by the old
yards, the bear is no bigger than the badger. Then a happy
device came to the armorist. He would paint the leopard like
the lion at all points. But as the lion looks forward the leopard
should look sidelong, showing his whole face. The matter was
arranged, and until the end of the middle ages the distinction
held and served. The disregarded writers on armory, Nicholas
Upton, and his fellows, protested that a lion did not become a
leopard by turning his face sidelong, but none who fought in the
field under lion and leopard banners heeded this pedantry from
cathedral closes. The English king's beasts were leopards in
blazon, in ballad and chronicle, and in the mouths of liegeman
and enemy. Henry V.'s herald, named from his master's coat,
was Leopard Herald; and Napoleon's gazettes
never fail to speak of the English leopards. In
our own days, those who deal with armory as
antiquaries and students of the past will observe
the old custom for convenience' sake. Those
for whom the interest of heraldry lies in the
nonsense-language brewed during post-medieval
years may correct the medieval ignorance at
their pleasure. The knight who saw the king's
banner fly at Falkirk or Crecy tells us that it
with three leopards of gold." The modern
shame the uninstructed warrior with " Gules
I three lions passant gardant in pale or."
As the lion rampant is the normal lion, so the normal leopard
is the leopard passant, the adjective being needless. In a few
cases only the leopard rises up to ramp in the lion's fashion,
and here he must be blazoned without fail as a leopard rampant.
Parts of the lion and the leopard are common charges. Chief
of these are the demi-lion and the demi-leopard, beasts com-
plete above their slender middles, even to the upper parts of
their lashing tails. Rampant or passant, they follow the customs
of the unmaimed brute. Also the heads of lion and leopard
are in many shields, and here the armorist of the' modern hand-
books stumbles by reason of his refusal to regard clearly marked
medieval distinctions. The instructed will know a lion's head
because it shows but half the face and a leopard's head because
it is seen full-fa;e. But the handbooks of heraldry, knowing
naught of leopards, must judge by absence or presence of a
lane, speaking uncertainly of leopards' faces and lions' heads
England.
bore " Gules
armorist will
and faces. Here again the old path is the straighter. The head
of a lion, or indeed of any beast, bird or monster, is generally
painted as " razed," or torn away with a ragged edge which
is pleasantly conventionalized. Less of ten it is found " couped "
or cut off with a sheer line. But the leopard's head is neither
razed nor couped, for no neck is shown below it. Likewise the
lion's fore leg or paw " gamb " is the book word may be
borne, razed or coupled. Its normal position is raided upright,
although Newdegate seems to have borne " Gules three lions'
legs razed silver, the paws downward." With the strange
bearing of the lion's whip-like tail cut off at the rump, we may
end the list of these oddments.
Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, bore " Gules a lion gold."
Simon de Montfort bore " Gules a silver lion with a forked tail."
Scgrave bore " Sable a lion silver crowned gold."
Havering bore " Silver a lion rampant gules with a forked tail,
having a collar azure."
Felbrigge of Felbrigge bore " Gold a leaping lion gules."
Esturmy bore " Silver a lion sable (or purple) looking backward."
Marmion bore " Gules a lion vair."
Mason bore " Silver a two-headed lion gules."
Lovetot bore " Silver a lion parted athwart of sable and gules."
Richard le Jen bore " Vert a lion gold " the arms of Wakelin
of Arderne " with a fesse gules on the lion."
Fiennes bore " Azure three lions gold."
Leyburne of Kent bore "Azure six lions silver."
Fitzalan. Felbrigge. Fiennes. Leyburne.
Carew bore " Gold three lions passant sable."
Fotheringhay bore " Silver two lions passant sable, looking back-
ward."
Richard Norton of Waddeworth (1357) sealed with arms of " A
lion dormant."
Lisle bore " Gules a leopard silver crowned gold."
Ludlowe bore " Azure three leopards silver."
Brocas bore " Sable a leopard rampant gold."
Carew. Fotheringhay. Brocas. Lisle.
John Hardrys of Kent seals in 1372 with arms of "a. sitting
leopard."
John Northampton, Lord Mayor of London in 1381, bore " Azure*
a crowned leopard gold with two bodies rampant against each other."
Newenham bore " Azure three demi-lions silver."
A deed delivered at Lapworth in Warwickshire in 1466 is sealed
with arms of " a molet between three demi-leopards."
Kenton bore " Gules three lions' heads razed sable."
Kenton. Pole. Cantelou. Pynchebek.
Pole, earl and duke of Suffolk, bore " Azure a fesse between three
leopards' heads gold."
Cantelou bore " Azure three leopards' heads silver with silver
fleurs-de-lys issuing from them."
Wederton bore " Gules a cheveron between three lions' legs razed
silver."
Pynchebek bore " silver three forked tails of lions sable."
The tiger is rarely named in collections of medieval arms.
Deep mystery wrapped the shape of him, which was never during
326
HERALDRY
the middle ages standardized by artists. A crest upon a isth-
century brass shows him as a lean wolf-like figure, with a dash
of the boar, gazing after his vain wont into a looking-glass;
and the 16th-century heralds gave him the body of a lion with the
head of a wolf, head and body being tufted here and there with
thick tufts of hair. But it is noteworthy that the arms of Sir
John Norwich, a well-known knight of the I4th century, are
blazoned in a roll of that age as " party azure and gules with a
tiger rampant ermine." Now this beast in the arms of Norwich
has been commonly taken for a lion, and the Norwich family
seem in later times to have accepted the lion as their bearing.
But a portion of a painted roll of Sir John's day shows on careful
examination that his lion has been given two moustache-like
tufts to the nose. A copy made about 1600 of another roll gives
the same decoration to the Norwich lion, and it is at least possible
we have here evidence that the economy of the medieval armor-
ist allowed him to make at small cost his lion, his leopard and
his tiger out of a single beast form.
Take away the lions and the leopards, and the other beasts
upon medieval shields are a little herd. In most cases they
are here to play upon the names of their bearers. Thus Swin-
burne of Northumberland has the heads of swine in his coat
and Bacon has bacon pigs. Three white bears were borne by
Barlingham, and a bear ramping on his hind legs is for Barnard.
Lovett of Astwell has three running wolves, Videlou three
wolves' heads, Colfox three foxes' heads.
Three hedgehogs were in the arms of Heriz. Barnewall
reminds us of extinct natives of England by bearing two beavers,
and Otter of Yorkshire had otters. Harewell had hares' heads,
Lovett.
Talbot.
Saunders.
Cunliffe conies, Mitford moles or moldiwarps. A Talbot of
Lancashire had three purple squirrels in a silver shield. An
elephant was brought to England as early as the days of Henry
III., but he had no immediate armorial progeny, although
Saunders of Northants may have borne before the end of the
middle ages the elephants' heads which speak of Alysaunder
the Great, patron of all Saunderses. Bevil of the west had a red
bull, and Bulkeley bore three silver bulls' heads. The heads
in Neteham's 14th-century shield are neat's heads, ox heads
are for Oxwyk. Calves are for Veel, and the same mild beasts
are in the arms of that fierce knight Hugh Calveley. Stansfeld
bore three rams with bells at their necks, and a 14th-century
Lecheford thought no shame to bear the head of the ram who
is the symbol of lechery. Lambton had lambs. Goats were
borne by Chevercourt to play on his name, a leaping goat by
Bardwell, and goats' heads by Gateshead. Of the race of dogs
the greyhound and the talbot, or mastiff, are found most often.
Thus Talbot of Cumberland had talbots, and Mauleverer, running
greyhounds or " leverers " for his name's sake. The alaund,
a big, crop-eared dog, is in the i sth-century shield of John Woode
of Kent, and " kenets," or little tracking dogs, in a 13th-century
coat of Kenet. The horse is not easily found as an English charge,
but Moyle's white mule seems an old coat; horses' heads are
in Horsley's shield, and ass heads make crests for more than
one noble house. Askew has three asses in his arms. Three bats
or flittermice are in the shield of Burninghill and in that of
Heyworth of Whethamstede.
As might be looked for in a land where forest and greenwood
once linked from sea to sea, the wild deer is a common charge
in the shield. Downes of Cheshire bore a hart " lodged " or
lying down. Hertford had harts' heads, Malebis, fawns' heads
(tesles de bis), Bukingham, heads of bucks. The harts in Rother-
ham's arm-, are the roes of his name's first syllable. Reindeer
Griffin.
Drake.
heads were borne by Bowet in the I4th century. Antelopes,
fierce beasts with horns that have something of the ibex, show
by their great claws, their lion tails, and their boar muzzles
and tusks that they are midway between the hart and the
monster.
Of the outlandish monsters the griffon is the oldest and the
chief. With the hinder parts of a lion, the rest of him is eagle,
head and shoulders, wings and fore legs. The __^__^__
long tuft under the beak and his pointed ears
mark him out from the eagle when his head
alone is borne. At an early date a griffon
rampant, his normal position, was borne by
the great house of Montagu as a quartering,
and another griffon played upon Griffin's name.
The wyver, who becomes wyvern in the i6th
century, and takes a new form under the
care of inventive heralds, was in the middle
ages a lizard-like dragon, generally with small wings. Sir
Edmund Mauley in the i4th century is found differencing the
black bend of his elder brother by charging it with three wyvers
of silver. During the middle ages there seems small distinction
between the wyver and the still rarer dragon, which, with the
coming of the Tudors, who bore it as their ^_^____
badge, is seen as a four-legged monster with
wings and a tail that ends like a broad
arrow. The monster in the arms of Drake,
blazoned by Tudor heralds as a wyvern, is
clearly a fire-drake or dragon in his origin.
The unicorn rampant was borne by Harlyn
of Norfolk, unicorn's heads by the Cambridge-
shire family of Paris. The mermaid with her
comb and looking-glass makes a 14th-century
crest for Byron, while " Silver a bend gules with three silver
harpies thereon " is found in the 1 5th century for Entyrdene.
Concerning beasts and monsters the heraldry books have
many adjectives of blazonry which may be disregarded. Even
as it was once the pride of the cook pedant to carve each bird
on the board with a new word for the act, so it became the
delight of the pedant herald to order that the rampant horse
should be " forcen6," the rampant griffon <: segreant,"
the passant hart " trippant "; while the same hart must
needs be " attired " as to its horns and " unguled " as to
its hoofs. There is ancient authority for the nice blazonry
which sometimes gives a separate colour to the tongue and claws
of the lion, but even this may be set aside. Though a black lion
in a silver field may be armed with red claws, and a golden
leopard in a red field given blue claws and tongues, these trifles
are but fancies which follow the taste of the painter, and are never
of obligation. The tusks and hoofs of the boar, and often the
horns of the hart, are thus given in some paintings a colour of
their own which elsewhere is neglected.
As the lion is among armorial beasts, so is the eagle among
the birds. A bold convention of the earliest shield painters
displayed him with spread wing and claw, the feat of a few
strokes of the brush, and after this fashion he appears on many
scores of shields. Like the claws and tongue of the lion, the beak
and claws of the eagle are commonly painted of a second colour
in all but very small representations. Thus the golden eagle of
Lymesey in a red field may have blue beak and claws, and golden
beak and claws will be given to Jorce's silver eagle upon red.
A lure, or two wings joined and spread like those of an eagle,
is a rare charge sometimes found. When fitted with the cord by
which a falconer's lure is swung, the cord must be named.
Monthermer bore " Gold an eagle vert."
Siggeston bore " Silver a two-headed eagle sable."
Gavaston, earl of Cornwall, bore " Vert six eagles gold."
Bayforde of Fordingbridge sealed (in 1388) with arms of " An eagle
bendwise, with a border engrailed and a baston."
Graunson bore " Paly silver and azure with a bend gules and three
golden eagles thereon."
Seymour bore " Gules a lure of two golden wings."
Commoner than the eagle as a charge is the martlet, a humbler
bird which is never found as the sole charge of a shield. In all
HERALDRY
327
ut a few early representations the feathers of the legs are seen
rithout the legs or claws. The martlet indicates both swallow
ad martin, and in the arms of the Cornish Arundels the martlets
oust stand for " hirundels " or swallows.
The falcon or hawk is borne as a rule with close wings, so that
may not be taken for the eagle. In most cases he is there
Monthermer.
Siggeston.
Gavaston.
Graunson.
Arunc'el.
to play on the bearer's name, and this may be
said of most of the flight of lesser birds.
Naunton bore " Sable three martlets silver."
Heron bore " Azure three herons silver."
Fauconer bore " Silver three falcons gules."
Hauvile bore " Azure a dance between three
hawks gold."
Twenge bore " Silver a fesse gules between
three popinjays (or parrots) vert."
Cranesley bore " Silver a cheveron gules be-
tween three cranes azure."
Asdale bore " Gules a swan silver."
Dalston bore " Silver a cheveron engrailed between three daws'
ads razed sable."
Corbet bore " Gold two corbies sable."
Seymour.
Naunton.
Fauconer.
Twenge.
Cockfield bore " Silver three cocks gules."
Burton bore " Sable a cheveron sable between three silver owls."
Rokeby bore " Silver a cheveron sable between three rooks."
Duflfelde bore " Sable a cheveron silver between three doves."
Pelham bore " Azure three pelicans silver."
Asdale.
Corbet.
Cockfield.
Burton.
!? :
Sumcri (i3th century) sealed with arms of " A peacock with his
tail spread."
John Pyeshale of Suffolk (i4th century) scaled with arms of
" Three magpies."
Fishes, Reptiles and Insects. Like the birds, the fishes are
rne for the most part to call to mind their bearers' names.
Unless their position be otherwise named, they are painted as
upright in the shield, as though rising towards the water surface.
The dolphin is known by his bowed back, old artists making
him a grotesquely decorative figure.
Lucy bore " Gules three luces (or pike) silver."
Heringaud bore " Azure, crusilly gold, with six golden herrings."
Fishacre bore " Gules a dolphin silver."
La Roche bore " Three roach swimming."
John Samon (l4th century) sealed with arms of " Three salmon
swimming."
Sturgeon bore " Azure three sturgeon swimming gold, with a Iret
gules over all."
Whalley bore " Silver three whales' heads razed sable."
Shell-fish would hardly have place in English armory were
it not for the abundance of scallops which have followed their
appearance in the banners of Dacre and Scales. The crest
of the Yorkshire Scropes, playing upon their name, was a pair
of crabs' claws.
Dacre bore " Gules three scallops silver."
Shelley bore " Sable a fesse engrailed between three whelk-shells
gold."
Reptiles and insects are barely represented. The lizards
in the crest and supporters of the Ironmongers of London belong
to the isth century. Gawdy of Norfolk Tnay have borne the
tortoise in his shield in the same age. " Silver three toads
sable " was quartered as a second coat for Botreaux of Cornwall
Rokeby.
Pelham.
Lucy.
Fishacre.
Roche.
in the i6th century Botereau or Boterel
signifying a little toad in the old French
tongue but the arms do not appear on the
old Botreaux seals beside their ancient bearing
of the griffon. Beston bore " Silver a bend
between six bees sable " and a is-century
Harbottle seems to have sealed with arms of
three bluebottle flies. Three butterflies are in
the shield of Presfen of Lancashire in 1415, while
the winged insect shown on the seal of John Mayre, a King's
Lynn burgess of the age of Edward I., is probably a mayfly.
Human Charges. Man and the parts of him play but a small
part in English shields, and we have nothing to put beside such
a coat as that of the German Manessen, on which two armed
knights attack each other's hauberks with their teeth. But
certain arms of religious houses and the like have the whole
figure, the see of Salisbury bearing the Virgin and Child in a
Dacre.
Shelley. See of Salisbury. Isle of Man.
blue field. And old crests have demi-Saracens and falchion
men, coal-miners, monks and blackamoors. Sowdan bore in his
shield a turbaned soldan's head; Eady, three old men's " 'eads "!
Heads of maidens, the " winsome marrows " of the ballad, are
in the arms of Marow. The Stanleys, as kings of Man, quartered
the famous three-armed legs whirling mill-sail fashion, and
Tremayne of the west bore three men's arms in like wise. " Gules
three hands silver " was for Malmeyns as early as the I3th century,
and Tynte of Colchester displayed hearts.
Miscellaneous Charges. Other charges of the shield are less
frequent but are found in great variety, the reason for most of
them being the desire to play upon the bearer's name.
Weapons and the like are rare, having regard to the military
associations of armory. Daubeney bore three helms; Philip
Marmion took with his wife, the coheir of Kilpek, the Kilpek
shield of a sword (espek). Tuck had a stabbing sword or " tuck."
Bent bows were borne by Bowes, an arblast by Arblaster, arrows
by Archer, birding-bolts or bosouns by Bosun, the mangonel
by Mangnall. The three lances of Amherst is probably a medieval
coat; Leweston had battle-axes.
A scythe was in the shield of Praers; Picot had picks; Bilsby
a hammer or " beal " ; Malet showed mallets. The chamberlain's
key is in the shield of a Chamberlain, and the spenser's key
in that of a Spenser. Porter bore the porter's bell, Boteler
the butler's cup. Three-legged pots were borne by Monbocher.
328
HERALDRY
Crowns are for Coroun. Yarde had yard-wands; Bordoun a
burdon or pilgrim's staff.
Of horse-furniture we have the stirrups of Scudamore and
Giffard, the horse-barnacles of Bernake, and the horse-shoes
borne by many branches and tenants of the house of Ferrers.
Of musical instruments there are pipes, trumps and harps
for Pipe, Trumpington and Harpesfeld. Hunting horns are
common among families bearing such names as Forester or
Home. Remarkable charges are the three organs of Grenville,
who held of the house of Clare, the lords of Glamorgan.
Combs play on the name of Tunstall, and gloves (wauns or
gauns) on that of Wauncy. Hose were borne by Hoese; buckles
by a long list of families. But the most notable of the charges
derived from clothing is the hanging sleeve familiar in the arms
of Hastings, Conyers and Mansel.
Chess-rooks, hardly to be distinguished from the roc or roquet
at the head of a jousting-lance, were borne by Rokewode and
by many more. Topcliffe had pegtops in his shield, while
Ambesas had a cast of three dice which should each show the
point of one, for " to throw ambesace " is an ancient phrase
used of those who throw three aces.
Although we are a sea-going people, there are few ships in our
armory, most of these in the arms of sea-ports. Anchors are
commoner.
Castles and towers, bridges, portcullises and gates have all
examples, and a minster-church was the curious charge borne
by the ancient house of Musters of Kirklington.
Letters of the alphabet are very rarely found in ancient armory ;
but three capital T's, in old English script, were borne by Toft
of Cheshire in the i4th century. In the period of decadence
whole words or sentences, commonly the names of military or
naval victories, are often seen.
Blazonry. An ill-service has been done to the students of
armory by those who have pretended that the phrases in which
the shields and their charges are described or blazoned must
follow arbitrary laws devised by writers of the period of armorial
decadence. One of these laws, and a mischievous one, asserts
that no tincture should be named a second time in the blazon
of one coat. Thus if gules be the hue of the field any charge of
that colour must thereafter be styled " of the first." Obeying
this law the blazoner of a shield of arms elaborately charged
may find himself sadly involved among " of the first," " of the
second," and " of the third." It is needless to say that no such
law obtained among armorists of the middle ages. The only
rule that demands obedience is that the brief description should
convey to the reader a true knowledge of the arms described.
The examples of blazonry given in that part of this article
which deals with armorial charges will be more instructive to the
student than any elaborated code of directions. It will be
observed that the description of the field is first set down, the
blazoner giving its plain tincture or describing it as burely,
party, paly or barry, as powdered or sown with roses, crosslets
or fleurs-de-lys. Then should follow the main or central charges,
the lion or griffon dominating the field, the cheveron or the pale,
the fesse, bend or bars, and next the subsidiary charges in the
field beside the " ordinary " and those set upon it. Chiefs and
quarters are blazoned after the field and its contents, and the
border, commonly an added difference, is taken last of all.
Where there are charges both upon and beside a bend, fesse or
the like, a curious inversion is used by pedantic blazoners.
. The arms of Mr Samuel Pepys of the Admiralty Office would
have been described in earlier times as ' ' Sable a bend gold between
two horses' heads razed silver, with three fleurs-de-lys sable on the
bend." Modern heraldic writers would give the sentence as
" Sable, on a bend or between two horses' heads erased argent,
three fleurs-de-lys of the first." Nothing is gained by this
inversion but the precious advantage of naming the bend but
once. On the other side it may be said that, while the newer
blazon couches itself in a form that seems to prepare for the
naming of the fleurs-de-lys as the important element of the shield,
the older form gives the fleurs-de-lys as a mere postscript, and
rightly, seeing that charges in such a position are very commonlv
the last additions to a shield by way of difference. In like
manner when a crest is described it is better to say " a lion's
head out of a crown " than " out of a crown a lien's head."
The first and last necessity in blazonry is lucidity, which is cheaply
gained at the price of a few syllables repeated.
Modern Heraldry. With the accession of the Tudors armory
began a rapid decadence. Heraldry ceased to play its part in
military affairs, the badges and banners under which the medieval
noble's retinue came into the field were banished, and even the
tournament in its later days became a renascence pageant which
did not need the painted shield and armorial trappers. Treatises
on armory had been rare in the days before the printing press,
but even so early a writer as Nicholas Upton had shown himself
as it were unconcerned with the heraldry that any man might
see in the camp and the street. From the Book of St Albans
onward the treatises on armory are informed with a pedantry
which touches the point of crazy mysticism in such volumes
as that of Sylvanus Morgan. Thus came into the books those
long lists of " diminutions of ordinaries," the closets and escarpes,
the endorses and ribands, the many scores of strange crosses
and such wild fancies as the rule, based on an early German
pedantry, that the tinctures in peers shields should be given the
names of precious stones and those in the shields of sovereigns
the names of planets. Blazon became cumbered with that
vocabulary whose French of Stratford atte Bowe has driven
serious students from a business which, to use a phrase as true
as it is hackneyed, was at last " abandoned to the coachpainter
and the undertaker."
With the false genealogy came in the assumption or assigning
of shields to which the new bearers had often no better claim
than lay in a surname resembling that of the original owner.
The ancient system of differencing arms disappeared. Now and
again we see a second son obeying the book-rules and putting
a crescent in his shield or a third son displaying a molet, but
long before our own times the practice was disregarded, and the
most remote kinsman of a gentle house displayed the " whole
coat " of the head of his family.
The art of armory had no better fate. An absurd rule current
for some three hundred years has ordered that the helms of
princes and knights should be painted full-faced and those of
peers and gentlemen sidelong. Obeying this, the herald painters
have displayed the crests of knights and princes as sideways
upon a full-faced helm; the torse or wreath, instead of being
twisted about the brow of the helm, has become a sausage-shaped
bar see-sawing above the helm; and upon this will be balanced
a crest which might puzzle the ancient craftsman to mould in
his leather or parchment. A ship on a lee-shore with a thunder-
storm lowering above its masts may stand as an example of such
devices. " Tastes, of course, differ," wrote Dr Woodward, " but
the writer can hardly think that the epergne given to Lieut.-
General Smith by his friends at Bombay was a fitting ornament
for a helmet." As with the crest, so with the shield. It became
crowded with ill-balanced figures devised by those who despised
and ignored the ancient examples whose painters had followed
instinctively a simple and pleasant convention. Landscapes
and seascapes, musical lines, military medals and corrugated
boiler-flues have all made their appearance in the shield. Even
as on the signs of public houses, written words have taken the
place of figures, and the often-cited arms exemplified to the first
Earl Nelson marked, it may be hoped, the high watermark of
these distressing modernisms. Of late years, indeed, official
armory in England has shown a disposition to follow the lessons
of the archaeologist, although the recovery of medieval use has
not yet been as successful as in Germany, where for a long
generation a school of vigorous armorial art has flourished.
Officers of Arms. Officers of arms, styled kings of arms,
heralds and pursuivants, appear at an early period of the history
of armory as the messengers in peace and war of princes and
magnates. It is probable that from the first they bore in some
wise their lord's arms as the badge of their office. In the i4th
century we have heralds with.the arms on a short mantle, witness
the figure of the duke of Gelderland's herald painted in the
HERALDRY
329
rmorial de Gelre. The title of Blue Mantle pursuivant, as old
the reign of Edward III., suggests a like usage in England,
hen the tight-laced coat of arms went out of fashion among the
hthood the loose tabard of arms with its wide sleeves was
once taken in England as the armorial dress of both herald
id cavalier, and the fashion of it has changed but little since
ose days. Clad in such a coat the herald was the image of his
:er and, although he himself was rarely chosen from any
above that of the lesser gentry, his person, as a messenger,
:quired an almost priestly sacredness. To injure or to insult
was to affront the coat that he wore.
We hear of kings of arms in the royal household of the i3th
mtury, and we may compare their title with those of such
ifficers as the King of the Ribalds and the King of the Minstrels;
iut it is noteworthy that, even in modern warrants for heralds'
tents, the custom of the reign of Edward III. is still cited as
ring the necessary precedents for the officers' liveries. Officers
arms took their titles from their provinces or from the titles
.d badges of their masters. Thus we have Garter, Norroy
id Clarenceux, March, Lancaster, Windsor, Leicester, Leopard,
'alcon and Blanc Sanglier as officers attached to the royal house;
!handos, the herald of the great Sir John Chandos; Vert Eagle
the Nevill earls of Salisbury, Esperance and Crescent of the
'ercys of Northumberland. The spirit of Henry VII . 's legislation
against such usages in baronial houses, and in the age of the
'udors the last of the private heralds disappears.
In England the royal officers of arms were made a corporation
Richard III. Nowadays the members of this corporation,
lown as the College of Arms or Heralds' College, are Garter
ncipal King of Arms, Clarenceux King of Arms South of
ent, Norroy King of Arms North of Trent, the heralds Windsor,
icster, Richmond, Somerset, York and Lancaster, and the
lursuivants Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge Dragon and
'ortcullis. Another king of arms, not a member of this corpora-
x>n, has been attached to the order of the Bath since the reign
George I., and an officer of arms, without a title, attends the
'der of St Michael and St George.
There is no college or corporation of heralds in Scotland or
Jand. In Scotland " Lyon-king-of-arms," " Lyon rex ann-
ul, " or " Leo fecialis," so called from the lion on the royal
!eld, is the head of the office of arms. When first the dignity
constituted is not known, but Lyon was a prominent figure
the coronation of Robert II. in 1371. The office was at first,
in England, attached to the earl marshal, but it has long
n conferred by patent under the great seal, and is held direct
m the crown. Lyon is also king-of-arms for the national
T of the Thistle. He is styled " Lord Lyon," and the office
always been held by men of family, and frequently by a
r who would appoint a " Lyon depute." He is supreme
all matters of heraldry in Scotland. Besides the " Lyon
ute," there are the Scottish heralds, Albany, Ross and
.othesay, with precedence according to date of appointment;
id the pursuivants, Carrick, March and Unicorn. Heralds
d pursuivants are appointed by Lyon.
Ireland also there is but one king-of-arms, Ulster. The
ice was instituted by Edward VI. in 1553. The patent is
ven by Rymer, and refers to certain emoluments as " praedicto
'fficio . . . ab antique spectantibus." The allusion is to an
eland king-of-arms mentioned in the reign of Richard II. and
iperseded by Ulster. Ulster holds office by patent, during
easure; under him the Irish office of arms consists of two
raids, Cork and Dublin; and a pursuivant, Athlone. Ulster
king-of-arms to the order of St Patrick. He held visitations
parts of Ireland from 1 568 to 1620, and these and other records,
icluding all grants of arms from the institution of the office, are
pt in the Birmingham Tower, Dublin.
The armorial duties of the ancient heralds are not clearly
Defined. The patent of Edward IV., creating John Wrythe
king of arms of England with the style of Garter, speaks vaguely
of the care of the office of arms and those things which belong to
that office. We know that the heralds had their part in the
ering of tournaments, wherein armory played its greatest
C:
part, and that their expert knowledge of arms gave them such
duties as reckoning the noble slain on a battlefield. But it is
not until the i5th century that we find the heralds following
a recognized practice of granting or assigning arms, a practice
on which John of Guildford comments, saying that such arms
given by a herald are not of greater authority than those which
a man has taken for himself. The Book of St Albans, put forth
in 1486, speaking of arms granted by princes and lords, is careful
to add that " armys bi a mannys proper auctorite take, if an
other man have not borne theym afore, be of strength enogh,"
repeating, as it seems, Nicholas Upton's opinion which, in this
.matter, does not conflict with the practice of his day. It is
probable that the earlier grants of arms by heralds were made
by reason of persons uncunning in armorial lore applying
for a suitable device to experts in such matters and that such
setting forth of arms may have been practised even in the i4th
century.
The earliest known grants of arms in England by sovereigns
or private persons are, as a rule, the conveyance of a right in a
coat of arms already existing or of a differenced version of it.
Thus in 1391 Thomas Grendale, a squire who had inherited
through his grandmother the right in the shield of Beaumeys,
granted his right in it to Sir William Moigne, a knight who seems
to have acquired the whole or part of the Beaumeys manor
in Sawtry. Under Henry VI. we have certain rare and curious
letters of the crown granting nobility with arms " in signum
hujusmodi nobilitatis " to certain individuals, some, and perhaps
all of whom, were foreigners who may have asked for letters which
followed a continental usage. After this time we have a regular
series of grants by heralds who in later times began to assert
that new arms, to be valid, must necessarily be derived from
their assignments, although ancient use continued to be recog-
nized.
An account of the genealogical function of the heralds, so
closely connected with their armorial duties will be found in the
article GENEALOGY. In spite of the work of such distinguished
men as Camden and Dugdale they gradually fell in public
estimation until Blackstone could write of them that the marshal-
ling of coat-armour had fallen into the hands of certain officers
called heralds, who had allowed for lucre such falsity and con-
fusion to creep into their records that even their common seal
could no longer be received as evidence in any court of justice.
From this low estate they rose again when the new archaeology
included heraldry in its interests, and several antiquaries of
repute have of late years worn the herald's tabard.
In spite of the vast amount of material which the libraries
catalogue under the head of " Heraldry," the subject has as yet
received little attention from antiquaries working in the modern
spirit. The old books are as remarkable for their detachment
from the facts as for their folly. The work of Nicholas Upton,
De studio militari, although written in the first half of the isth
century, shows, as has been already remarked, no attempt to
reconcile the conceits of the author with the armorial practice
which he must have seen about him on every side. Gerard Leigh,
Bossewell, Feme and Morgan carry on this bad tradition, each
adding his own extravagances. The Display of Heraldry, first
published in 1610 under 'the name of John Guillim, is more
reasonable if not more learned, and in its various editions gives
a valuable view of the decadent heraldry of the i7th century.
In the 1 9th century many important essays on the subject are
to be found in such magazines as the Genealogist, the Herald and
Genealogist and the Ancestor, while Planche's Pursuivant oj
Arms contains some slight but suggestive work which attempts
original enquiry. But Dr Woodward's Treatise on Heraldry,
British and Foreign (1896), in spite of many errors arising from
the author's reliance upon unchecked material, must be counted
the only scholarly book in English upon a matter which has
engaged so many pens. Among foreign volumes may be cited
those of Menestrier and Spener, and the vast compilation of the
German Siebmacher. Notable ordinaries of arms are those of
Pap worth and Renesse, companions to the armorials of Burke and
Rietstap. The student may be advised to turn his attention tp
330
HERAT
all works dealing with the effigies, brasses and other monuments
of the middle ages, to the ancient heraldic seals and to the
heraldry of medieval architecture and ornament. (O. BA.)
HERAT, a city and province of Afghanistan. The city of
Herat lies in 34 20' 30* N., and 62 n' o* E., at an altitude
of 2500 ft. above sea-level. Estimated pop. about 10,000. It
is a city of great interest historically, geographically, politically
and strategically, but in modern days it has quite lost its ancient
commercial importance. From this central point great lines
of communication radiate in all directions to Russian, British,
Persian and Afghan territory. Sixty-six miles to the north lies
the terminus of the Russian railway system; to the south-east
is Kandahar (360 m.) and about 70 m. beyond that, New Chaman,
the terminus of the British railway system. Southward lies
Seistan (200 m.), and eastward Kabul (550 m.); while on the
west four routes lead into Persia by Turbet to Meshed (215 m.),
and by Birjend to Kerman (400 m.), to Yezd (500 m.), or to
Isfahan (600 m.). The city forms a quadrangle of nearly i m.
square (more accurately about 1600 yds. by 1500 yds.); on
the western, southern and eastern faces the line of defence is
almost straight, the only projecting points being the gateways,
but on the northern face the contour is broken by a double
outwork, consisting of the Ark or citadel, which is built of sun-
dried brick on a high artificial mound within the enceinte,
and a lower work at its foot, called the Ark-i-nao, or " new
citadel," which extends 100 yds. beyond the line of the city
wall. That which distinguishes Herat from all other Oriental
cities, and at the same time constitutes its main defence, is the
stupendous character of the earthwork upon which the city wall
is built. This earthwork averages 250 ft. in width at the base
and about 50 ft. in height, and as it is crowned by a wall 25 ft.
high and 14 ft. thick at the base, supported by about 150 semi-
circular towers, and is further protected by a ditch 45 ft. in
width and 16 in depth, it presents an appearance of imposing
strength. When the royal engineers of the Russo-Afghan
Boundary Commission entered Herat in 1885 they found its
defences in various stages of disrepair. The gigantic rampart
was unflanked, and the covered ways in the face of it subject to
enfilade from end to end. The ditch was choked, the gates were
unprotected; the tumbled mass of irregular mud buildings
which constituted the city clung tightly to the walls; there
were no gun emplacements. Outside, matters were almost
worse than inside. To the north of the walls the site of old
Herat was indicated by a vast mass of debris mounds of bricks
and pottery intersected by a network of shallow trenches,
where the only semblance of a protective wall was the irregular
line of the Tal-i-Bangi. South of the city was a vast area filled
in with the graveyards of centuries. Here the trenches dug by
the Persians during the last siege were still in a fair state of
preservation; they were within a stone's-throw of the walls.
Round about the city on all sides were similar opportunities
for close approach ; even the villages stretched out long irregular
streets towards the city gates. To the north-west, beyond the
Tal-i-Bangi, the magnificent outlines of the Mosalla filled a wide
space with the glorious curves of dome and gateway and the
stately grace of tapering minars, but the impressive beauty
of this, by far the finest architectural structure in all Afghanistan,
could not be permitted to weigh against the fact that the position
occupied by this pile of solid buildings was fatal to the interests
of effective defence. By the end of August 1885, when a political
crisis had supervened between Great Britain and Russia, under
the orders of the Amir the Mosalla was destroyed; but four
minars standing at the corners of the wide plinth still remain
to attest to the glorious proportions of the ancient structure,
and to exhibit samples of that decorative tilework, which for
intricate beauty of design and exquisite taste in the blending
of colour still appeals to the memory as unique. At the same time
the ancient graveyards round the city were swept smooth and
levelled; obstructions were demolished, outworks constructed,
and the defences generally renovated. Whether or no the strength
of this bulwark of North-Western Afghanistan should ever be
practically tested, the general result of the most recent in-
vestigations into the value of Herat as a strategic centre has
been largely to modify the once widely-accepted view that the
key to India lies within it. Abdur Rahman and his successor
Habibullah steadfastly refused the offer of British engineers
to strengthen its defences; and though the Afghans themselves
have occasionally undertaken repairs, it is doubtful whether
the old walls of Herat are maintained in a state of efficiency.
The exact position of Herat, with reference to the Russian
station of Kushk (now the terminus of a branch railway from
Merv), is as follows: From Herat, a gentle ascent northwards
for 3 m. reaches to the foot of the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, crossing
the Jui Nao or " new " canal, which here divides the gravel-
covered foot hills from the alluvial flats of the Hari Rud plain.
The crest of the outer ridges of this subsidiary range is about
700 ft. above the city, at a distance of 4 m. from it. For 28 m.
farther the road winds first amongst the broken ridges of the
Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, then over the intervening dasht into the
southern spurs of the Paropamisus to the Ardewan pass. This
is the highest point it attains, and it has risen about 2130 ft.
from Herat. From the pass it drops over the gradually decreas-
ing grades of a wide sweep of Choi (which here happens to be
locally free from the intersecting network of narrow ravines
which is generally a distinguishing feature of Turkestan loess
formations) for a distance of 35 m. into the Russian railway
station, falling some 2700 ft. from the crest of the Paropamisus.
To the south the road from Herat to India through Kandahar
lies across an open plain, which presents no great engineering
difficulties, but is of a somewhat waterless and barren character.
The city possesses five gates, two on the northern face, the
Kutab-chak near the north-east angle of the wall, and the Malik
at the re-entering angle of the Ark-i-nao; and three others
in the centres of the remaining faces, the Irak gate on the west,
the Kandahar gate on the south and the Kushk gate on the
east face. Four streets called the Chahar-stik, running from the
centre of each face, meet in the centre of the town in a small
domed quadrangle. The principal street runs from the south
or Kandahar gate to the market in front of the citadel, and is
covered in with a vaulted roof through its entire length, the
shops and buildings of this bazaar being much superior to those
of the other streets, and the merchants' caravanserais, several
of which are spacious and well built, all opening out on this
great thoroughfare. Near the central quadrangle of the city
is a vast reservoir of water, the dome of which is of bold and
excellent proportions. The only other public building of any
consequence in Herat is the great mosque or Mesjid-i-Juma,
which comprises an area of 800 yds. square, and must have been
a most magnificent structure. It was erected towards the close
of the isth century, during the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein
of the family of Timur, and is said when perfect to have been
465 ft. long by 275 ft. wide, to have had 408 cupolas,i3O windows,
444 pillars and 6 entrances, and to have been adorned in the
most magnificent manner with gilding, carving, precious mosaics
and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Now, however,
it is falling rapidly into ruin, the ever-changing provincial
governors who administer Herat having neither the means
nor the inclination to undertake the necessary repairs. Neither
the palace of the Charbagh within the city wall, which was the re-
sidence of the British mission in 1840-1841, nor the royal quarters
in the citadel deserve any special notice. At the present day,
with the exception of the Chahar-suk, where there is always
a certain amount of traffic, and where the great diversity of race
and costume imparts much liveliness to the scene, Herat presents
a very melancholy and desolate appearance. The mud houses
in rear of the bazaars are for the most part uninhabited and in
ruins, and even the burnt brick buildings are becoming every-
where dilapidated. The city is also one of the filthiest in the
East, as there are no means of drainage or sewerage, and garbage
of every description lies in heaps in the open streets.
Along the slopes of the northern hills there is a space of some
4 m. in length by 3 m. in breadth, the surface of the plain, strewn
over its whole extent with pieces of pottery and crumbling
bricks, and also broken here and* there by earthen mounds and
HERAT
ruined walls, the debris of palatial structures which at one time
were the glory and wonder of the East. Of these structures
indeed some have survived to the present day in a sufficiently
perfect state to bear witness to the grandeur and beauty of the
old architecture of Herat. Such was the mosque of the Mosalla
before its destruction. Scarcely inferior in beauty of design
and execution, though of more moderate dimensions, is the tomb
of the saint Abdullah Ansari, in the same neighbourhood. This
building, which was erected by Shah Rukh Mirza, the grandson
of Timur, over 500 years ago, contains some exquisite specimens
of sculpture in the best style of Oriental art. Adjoining the tomb
also are numerous marble mausoleums, the sepulchres of princes
of the house of Timur; and especially deserving of notice is a
royal building tastefully decorated by an Italian artist named
Geraldi, who was in the service of Shah Abbas the Great. The
locality, which is further enlivened by gardens and running
streams, is na-med Gazir-g&h, and is a favourite resort of the
Heratis. It is held indeed in high veneration by all classes, and
the famous Dost Mahommed Khan is himself buried at the foot
of the tomb of the saint. Two other royal palaces named
respectively Bagh-i-Shah and Takht-i-Sefer, are situated on the
same rising ground somewhat farther to the west. The buildings
are now in ruins, but the view from the pavilions, shaded by
splendid plane trees on the terraced gardens formed on the
slope of the mountain, is said to be very beautiful.
The population of Herat and the neighbourhood is of a very
mixed character. The original inhabitants of Ariana were no
doubt of the Aryan family, and immediately cognate with the
Persian race, but they were probably intermixed at a very early
period with the Sacae and Massagetae, who seem to have held
the mountains from Kabul to Herat from the first dawn of
history, and to whom must be ascribed rather than to an
infusion of Turco-Tartaric blood introduced by the armies of
Jenghiz and Timur the peculiar broad features and flatfish
countenance which distinguish the inhabitants of Herat, Seistan
and the eastern provinces of Persia from their countrymen
farther to the west. Under the government of Herat, however,
there are a very large number cf tribes, ruled over by separate
and semi-independent chiefs, and belonging probably to different
nationalities. The principal group of tribes is called the Chahar-
Aimdk, or " four races," the constituent parts of which, however,
are variously stated by different authorities both as to strength
and nomenclature. The Heratis are an agricultural race, and
are not nearly so warlike as the Pathans from the neighbourhood
of Kabul or Kandahar.
The long narrow valley of the Hari Rud, starting from the
western slopes of the Koh-i-Baba, extends almost due west
for 300 m. before it takes its great northern bend at
Kuhsan, ar >d passes northwards through the broken
ridges of the Siah Bubuk (the western extremity of the
range which we now call Paropamisus) towards Sarakhs. For
the greater part of its length it drains the southern slopes only
of the Paropamisus and the northern slopes of a parallel range
called Koh-i-Safed. The Paropamisus forms the southern face
of the Turkestan plateau, which contains the sources of the
Murghab river; the northern face of the same plateau is defined
by the Band-i-Turkestan. On the south of the plateau we find a
similar succession of narrow valleys dividing parallel flexures,
or anticlinals, formed under similar geological conditions to
those which appear to be universally applicable to the Himalaya,
the Hindu Kush, and the Indus frontier mountain systems.
From one of these long lateral valleys the Hari Rud receives its
principal tributary, which joins the main river below Obeh, 180
m. from its source; and it is this tributary (separated from the
Hari Rud by the narrow ridges of the Koh-i-Safed and Band-i-
Baian) that offers the high road from Herat to Kabul, and not
the Hari Rud itself. From its source to Obeh the Hari Rud is a
valley of sandy desolation. There are no glaciers nearits sources,
although they must have existed there in geologically recent
times, but masses of melting snow annually give rise to floods,
which rush through the midst of the valley in a turbid red stream,
frequently rendering the river impassable and cutting off the
crazy brick bridges at Herat and Tirpul. It is impossible,
whilst watching the rolling, seething volume of flood-water
which swirls westwards in April, to imagine the waste stretches
of dry river-bed which in a few months' time (when every
available drop of water is carried off for irrigation) will represent
the Hari Rud. The soft shales or clays of the hills bounding
the valley render these hills especially subject to the action
of denudation, and the result, in rounded slopes and easily
accessible crests, determines the nature of the easy tracks and
passes which intersect them. At the same time, any excessive
local rainfall is productive of difficulty and danger from the
floods of liquid mud and loose boulders which sweep like an
avalanche down the hill sides. The intense cold which usually
accompanies these sudden northern blizzards of Herat and
Turkestan is a further source of danger.
From Obeh, 50 m. east of Herat, the cultivated portion of the
valley commences, and it extends, with a width which varies
from 8 to 16 m., to Kuhsan, 60 m. west of the city. But the
great stretch of highly irrigated and valuable fruit-growing
land, which appears to spread from the walls of Herat east and
west as far as the eye can reach, and to sweep to the foot of the
hills north and south with an endless array of vineyards and
melon-beds, orchards and villages, varied with a brilliant patch-
work of poppy growth brightening the width of green wheat-fields
with splashes of scarlet and purple all this is really comprised
within a narrow area which does not extend beyond a ten-miles'
radius from the city. The system of irrigation by which these
agricultural results are attained is most elaborate. The despised
Herati Tajik, in blue shirt and skull-cap, and with no instrument
better than a three-cornered spade, is as skilled an agriculturist
as is the Ghilzai engineer, but he cannot effect more than the
limits of his water-supply will permit. He adopts the karez
(or, Persian, kandl) system of underground irrigation, as does the
Ghilzai, and brings every drop of water that he can find to the
surface; but it cannot be said that he is more successful than
the Ghilzai. It is the startling contrast of the Herati oasis with
the vast expanse of comparative sterility that encloses it which
has given such a fictitious value to the estimates of the material
wealth of the valley of the Hari Rud.
The valley about Herat includes a flat alluvial plain which
might, for some miles on any side except the north, be speedily
reduced to an impassable swamp by means of flood-water from
the surrounding canals. Three miles to the south of the city
the river flows from east to west, spanned by the Pal-i-Malun,
a bridge possessing grand proportions, but which was in 1885 in
a state ,of grievous disrepair and practically useless. East and
west stretches the long vista of the Hari Rud. Due north the
hills called the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja appear to be close and
dominating, but the foot of these hills is really about 3 m. distant
from the city. This northern line of barren, broken sandstone
hills is geographically no part of the Paropamisus range, from
which it is separated by a stretch of sandy upland about 20 m.
in width, called the Dasht-i-Hamdamao, or Dasht-i-Ardewan,
formed by the talus or drift of the higher mountains, which,
washed down through centuries of denudation, now forms long
sweeping spurs of gravel and sand, scantily clothed with worm-
wood scrub and almost destitute of water. Through this stretch
of dasht the drainage from the main water-divide breaks down-
wards to the plains of Herat, where it is arrested and utilized
for irrigation purposes. To the north-east of the city a very
considerable valley has been formed between the Paropamisus
and the subsidiary Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja range, called Korokh.
Here there are one or two important villages and a well-known
shrine marked by a. group of pine trees which is unique in this
part of Afghanistan. The valley leads to a group of passes
across the Paropamisus into Turkestan, of which the Zirmast is
perhaps the best known. The main water-divide between Herat
and the Turkestan Choi (the loess district) has been called
Paropamisus for want of any well-recognized general name.
To the north of the Korokh valley it exhibits something of the
formation of the Hindu Kush (of which it is apparently a geo-
logical extension), but as it passes westwards it becomes broken
332
HERAULT
into fragments by processes of denudation, until it is hardly
recognizable as a distinct range at all. The direct passes across
it from Herat (the Baba and the Ardewan) wind amongst masses
of disintegrating sandstone for some miles on each side of the
dividing watershed, but farther west the rounded knolls of the
rain-washed downs may be crossed almost at any point without
difficulty. The names applied to this debris of a once formidable
mountain system are essentially local and hardly distinctive.
Beyond this range the sand arid clay loess formation spreads
downwards like a tumbled sea, hiding within the folds of its
many-crested hills the twisting course of the Kushk and its
tributaries.
History. The origin of Herat is lost in antiquity. The name
first appears in the list of primitive Zoroastrian settlements
contained in the Vendidad Sade, where, however, like most of
the names in the same list, such as Sughudu (Sogdiana), Mouru
(Merv or Margus), Haraquiti (Arachotus or Arghand-ab), Haetu-
mant (Etymander or Helmund), and Ragha (or Argha-stan), it
seems to apply to the river or river-basin, which was the special
centre of population. This name of Haroyu, as it is written in
the Vendidad, or Hariiva, as it appears in the inscriptions of Darius,
is a cognate form with the Sanskrit Sarayu, which signifies " a
river," and its resemblance to the ethnic title of Aryan (Sans.
Arya) is purely fortuitous; though from the circumstance of
the city being named " Aria Metropolis " by the Greeks, and
being also recognized as the capital of Ariana, " the country of
the Arians," the two forms have been frequently confounded.
Of the foundation of Herat (or Heri, as it is still often called)
nothing is known. We can only infer from the colossal character
of the earth-works which surround the modern town, that, like
the similar remains at Bost on the Helmund and at Ulan Robat
of Arachosia, they belong to that period of Central-Asian history
which preceded the rise of Achaemenian power, and which in
Grecian romance is illustrated by the names of Bacchus, of
Hercules and of Semiramis. To trace in any detail the fortunes
of Herat would be to write the jnodern history of the East, for
there has hardly been a dynastic revolution, or a foreign invasion,
or a great civil war in Central Asia since the time of the prophet,
in which Herat has not played a conspicuous part and suffered
accordingly. Under the Tahirids of Khorasan, the Saffarids
of Seistan and the Samanids of Bokhara, it flourished for some
centuries in peace and progressive prosperity; but during the
succeeding rule of the Ghaznevid kings its metropolitan
character was for a time obscured by the celebrity of the neigh-
bouring capital of Ghazni, until finally in the reign of Sultan
San jar of Merv about 1157 the city was entirely destroyed by
an irruption of the Ghuzz, the predecessors, in race as well as in
habitat, of the modern Turkomans. Herat gradually recovered
under the enlightened Ghorid kings, who were indeed natives
of the province, though they preferred to hold their court amid
their ancestral fortresses in the mountains of Ghor, so that at the
time of Jenghiz Khan's invasion it equalled or even exceeded
in populousness and wealth its sister capitals of Balkh, Merv
and Nishapur, the united strength of the four cities being
estimated at three millions of inhabitants. But this Mogul
visitation was most calamitous; forty persons, indeed, are
stated to have alone survived the general massacre of 1232, and
as a similar catastrophe overtook the city at the hands of Timur
in 1398, when the local dynasty of Kurt, which had succeeded
the Ghorides in eastern Khorasan, was put an end to, it is
astonishing to find that early in the isth century Herat was again
flourishing and populous, and the favoured seat of the art and
literature of the East. It was indeed under the princes of the
house of Timur that most of the noble buildings were erected,
of which the remains still excite our admiration at Herat, while
all the great historical works relative to Asia, such as the Rozet-
es-Sefa, the Habib-es-seir, Hafiz Abru's Tarikh, the Matld' a-es-
Sa'adin, &c., date from the same place and the same age.
Four times was Herat sacked by Turkomans and Usbegs during
the centuries which intervened between the Timuride princes
and the rise of the Afghan power, and it has never in modern
times attained to anything like its old importance. Afghan
tribes, who had originally dwelt far to the east, were first settled
at Herat by Nadir Shah, and from that time they have mono-
polized the government and formed the dominant element in the
population. It will be needless to trace the revolutions and
counter-revolutions which have followed each other in quick
succession at Herat since Ahmad Shah Durani founded the
Afghan monarchy about the middle of the i8th century. Let
it suffice to say that Herat has been throughout the seat of an
Afghan government, sometimes in subordination to Kabul and
sometimes independent. Persia indeed for many years showed
a strong disposition to reassert the supremacy over Herat which
was exercised by the Safawid kings, but great Britain, dis-
approving of the advance of Persia towards the Indian frontier,
steadily resisted the encroachment; and, indeed, after helping
the Heratis to beat off the attack of the Persian army in 1838,
the British at length compelled the shah in 1857 at the close of
his war with them to sign a treaty recognizing the further in-
dependence of the place, and pledging Persia against any further
interference with the Afghans. In 1863 Herat, which for fifty
years previously had been independent of Kabul, was incor-
porated by Dost Mahomed Khan in the Afghan monarchy, and
the Amir, Habibullah of Afghanistan, like his father Abdur
Rahman before him, remained Amir of Herat and Kandahar, as
well as Kabul.
See Holdich, Indian Borderland (1901); C. E. Yate, Northern
Afghanistan (1888). (T. H. H.*)
HERAULT, a department in the south of France, formed
from Lower Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 482,779. Area, 2403 sq. m.
It is bounded N.E. by Card, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and
S. by Aude and the Golfe du Lion. The southern prolongation
of the Cevennes mountains occupies the north-western zone of
the department, the highest point being about 4250 ft. above
the sea-level. South-east of this range comes a region of hills
and plateaus decreasing in height as they approach the sea,
from which they are separated by the rich plains at the mouth
of the Orb and the Herault and, farther to the north-east, by
the line of intercommunicating salt lagoons (Etang de Thau, &c.)
which fringes the coast. The region to the north-west of Mont-
pellier comprises an extensive tract of country known as the
Garrigues, a district of dry limestone plateaus and hills, which
stretches into the neighbouring department of Card. The
mountains of the north-west form the watershed between the
Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. From them flow the
Herault, its tributary the Lergue, and more to the south-west
the Livrori and the Orb, which are the main rivers of the depart-
ment. Dry summers, varied by occasional violent storms, are
characteristic of Herault. The climate is naturally colder and
more rainy in the mountains.
A third of the surface of Herault is planted with vines, which
are the chief source of agricultural wealth, the department
ranking first in France with respect to the area of its vineyards;
the red wines of St Georges, Cazouls-les-Beziers, Picpoul and
Maranssan, and the white wines of Frontignan and Lunel (pop.
in 1906, 6769) are held in high estimation. The area given over
to arable land and pasture is small in extent. Fruit trees of
various kinds, but especially mulberries, olives and chestnuts
flourish. The rearing of silk-worms is largely carried on. Con-
siderable numbers of sheep are raised, their milk being utilized
for the preparation of Roquefort cheeses. The mineral wealth
of the department is considerable. There are mines of lignite,
coal in the vicinity of Graissessac, iron, calamine and copper,
and quarries of building -stone, limestone, gypsum, &c.;
the marshes supply salt. Mineral springs are numerous, the
most important being those of Lamalon-les-Bains and Balaruc-
les-Bains. The chief manufactures are woollen and cotton
cloth, especially for military use, silk (Ganges), casks, soap and
fertilizing stuffs. There are also oil-works, distilleries (Beziers)
and tanneries (Bedarieux). Fishing is an important industry.
Cette and Meze (pop. in 1906, 5574) are the chief ports. Herault
exports salt fish, wine, liqueurs, timber, salt, building-material,
&c. It imports cattle, skins, wool, cereals, vegetables, coal and
other commodities. The railway lines belong chiefly to the
HERAULT DE SECHELLES HERBARIUM
333
Southern and Paris-Lyon-M6diterranee companies. The Canal
du Midi traverses the south of the department for 44 m. and
terminates at Cette. The Canal des Etangs traverses the
department for about 20 m., forming part of a line of com-
munication between Cette and Aigues-Mortes. Montpellier, the
capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon, and
of a court of appeal and centre of an academie (educational
division). The department belongs to the i6th military region,
which has its headquarters at Montpellier. It is divided into
the arrondissements of Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve and St
Pons, with 36 cantons and 340 communes.
Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve, Bedarieux, Cette, Agde, Pezenas,
Lamalou-les-Bains and Clermont-l'Herault are the more note-
worthy towns and receive separate treatment. Among the other
interesting places in the department are St Pons, with a church
of the 1 2th century, once a cathedral, Villemagne, which has
several old houses and two ruined churches, one of the i3th, the
other of the I4th century; Pignan, a medieval town, near which
is the interesting abbey-church of Vignogoul in the early Gothic
style; and St Guilhem-le-Desert, which has a church of the
nth and I2th centuries. Maguelonne, which in the 6th century
became the seat of a bishopric transferred to Montpellier in 1536,
has a cathedral of the I2th century.
HERAULT DE SECHELLES, MARIE JEAN (1759-1794),
French politician, was born at Paris on the 2oth of September
1759, of a noble family connected with those of Contades and
Polignac. He made his debut as a lawyer at the Chatelet, and
delivered some very successful speeches; later he was avocat
general to the parlement of Paris. His legal occupations did not
prevent him from devoting himself also to literature, and after
1 789 he published an account of a visit he had made to the comte
de Buffon at Montbard. Herault's account is marked by a
delicate irony, and it has with some justice been called a master-
piece of interviewing, before the day of journalists. Herault,
who was an ardent champion of the Revolution, took part in
the taking of the Bastille, and on the 8th of December 1789
was appointed judge of the court of the first arrondissement
in the department of Paris. From the end of January to April
1791 Herault was absent on a mission in Alsace, where he had
been sent to restore order. On his return he was appointed
commissaire du roi in the court of cassation. He was elected
as a deputy for Paris to the Legislative Assembly, where he
gravitated more and more towards the extreme left; he was a
member of several committees, and, when a member of the
diplomatic committee, presented a famous report demanding
that the nation should be declared to be in danger (nth June
1793). After the revolution of the loth of August 1792 (see
FRENCH REVOLUTION), he co-operated with Danton, one of the
organizers of this rising, and on the 2nd of September was
appointed president of the Legislative Assembly. He was a
deputy to the National Convention for the department of
Seine-et-Oise, and was sent on a mission to organize the new
department of Mont Blanc. He was thus absent during the
trial of Louis XVI., but he made it known that he approved
of the condemnation of the king, and would probably have
voted for the death penalty. On his return to Paris, Herault was
several times president of the Convention, notably on the 2nd of
June 1793, the occasion of the attack on the Girondins, and
on the loth of August 1793, on which the passing of the new
constitution was celebrated. On this occasion Herault, as
president of the Convention, had to make several speeches. It
was he, moreover, who, on the rejection of the projected constitu-
tion drawn up by Condorcet, was entrusted with the task of
preparing a fresh one; this work he performed within a few days,
and his plan, which, however, differed very little from that of
Condorcet, became the Constitution of 1793, which was passed,
but never applied. As a member of the Committee of Public
Safety, it was with diplomacy that Herault was chiefly concerned,
and from October to December 1793 he was employed on a
diplomatic and military mission in Alsace. But this mission
helped to make him an object of suspicion to the other members
of the Committee of Public Safety, and especially to Robespierre,
who as a deist and a fanatical follower of the ideas of Rousseau,
hated Herault, the follower of the naturalism of Diderot. He
was accused of treason, and after being tried before the revolu-
tionary tribunal, was condemned at the same time as Danton,
and executed on the i6th Germinal in the year II. (jth April
1794). He was handsome, elegant and a lover of pleasure, and
was one of the most individual figures of the Revolution.
See the Voyage & Montbard, published by A. Aulard (Paris, 1890);
A. Aulard, Les Oraleurs de la Legislative el de la Convention, 2nd ed.
(Paris, 1906); J. Claretie, Camille Desmoulins . . . etude sur les
Dantonistes (Paris, 1875); Dr Robinet, Le Proems des Dantonistes
(Paris, 1879); " H6rault de S6chelles, sa premiere mission en
Alsace " in the review La Revolution Fran$aise, tome 22; E. Daudet,
Le Roman d'un conventionnel. Herault de Sechelles et les dames de
Bellegarde (1904). His QLuvres litteraires were edited (Paris, 1907)
by E. Dard. (R. A.*)
HERB (Lat. herba, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to
represent the Old La.t.forbea, Gr. 0op/3ij, pasture, (/>epj3eti',tofeed,
Sans, bharb, to eat), in botany, the name given to those plants
whose stem or stalk dies entirely or down to the root each year,
and does not become, as in shrubs or trees, woody or permanent,
such plants are also called " herbaceous." The term " herb "
is also used of those herbaceous plants, which possess certain
properties, and are used for medicinal purposes, for flavouring
or garnishing in cooking, and also for perfumes (see HORTI-
CULTURE and PHARMACOLOGY).
HERBARIUM, or HORTUS Siccus, a collection of plants so
dried and preserved as to illustrate as far as possible their
characters. Sincethesameplant, owing to peculiarities of climate,
soil and situation, degree of exposure to light and other influences
may vary greatly according to the locality in which it occurs,
it is only by gathering together for comparison and study a
large series of examples of each species that the flora of different
regions can be satisfactorily represented. Even in the best
equipped botanical garden it is impossible to have, at one and
the same time, more than a very small percentage of the repre-
sentatives of the flora of any given region or of any large group
of plants. Hence a good herbarium forms an indispensable part
of a botanical museum or institution. There are large herbaria
at the British Museum and at the Royal Gardens, Kew, and
smaller collections at the botanical institutions at the principal
British universities. The original herbarium of Linnaeus is in
the possession, of the Linnacan Society of London. It was
purchased from the widow of Linnaeus by Dr (afterwards Sir)
J. E. Smith, one of the founders of the Linnaean Society, and
after his death was purchased by the society. Herbaria are also
associated with the more important botanic gardens and museums
in other countries. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced
by the possession of " types," that is, the original specimens
on the study of which a species was founded. Thus the herbarium
at the British Museum, which is especially rich in the earlier
collections made in the i8th and early igth centuries, contains
the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in
botany. It is also rich in the types of Australian plants in the
collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains
in addition many valuable modern collections. The Kew
herbarium, founded by Sir William Hooker and greatly increased
by his son Sir Joseph Hooker, is also very rich in types, especially
those of plants described in the Flora of British India and
various colonial floras. The collection of Dillenius is deposited
at Oxford, and that of Professor W. H. Harvey at Trinity
College, Dublin. The collections of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu,
his son Adrien, and of Auguste de St Hilaire, are included in the
large herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and in the
same city is the extensive private collection of Dr Ernest Cosson.
At Geneva are three large collections Augustin Pyrame de
Candolle's, containing the typical specimens of the Prodromus,
a large series of monographs of the families of flowering plants,
Benjamin Delessert's fine series at the Botanic Garden, and the
Boissier Herbarium, which is rich in Mediterranean and Oriental
plants. The university of Gottingen has had bequeathed to it
the largest collection (exceeding 40,000 specimens) ever made
by a single individual that of Professor Grisebach. At the
334
HERBARIUM
herbarium in Brussels are the specimens obtained by the traveller
Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, the majority of which
formed the groundwork of his Flora Brasiliensis, The Berlin
herbarium is especially rich in more recent collections, and other
national herbaria sufficiently extensive to subserve the require-
ments of the systematic botanist exist at St Petersburg, Vienna,
Leiden, Stockholm, Upsala, Copenhagen and Florence. Of
those in the United States of America, the chief, formed by Asa
Gray, is the property of Harvard university; there is also a
large one at the New York Botanical Garden. The herbarium
at Melbourne, Australia, under Baron Miiller, attained large
proportions; and that of the Botanical Garden of Calcutta is
noteworthy as the repository of numerous specimens described
by writers on Indian botany.
Specimens of flowering plants and vascular cryptograms
are generally mounted on sheets of stout smooth paper, of
uniform quality; the size adopted at Kew is 17 in. long by n in.
broad, that at the British Museum is slightly larger; the palms
and their allies, however, and some ferns, require a larger size.
The tough but flexible coarse grey paper (German Fliesspapier),
upon which on the Continent specimens are commonly fixed by
gummed strips of the same, is less hygroscopic than ordinary
cartridge paper, but has the disadvantage of affording harbourage
in the inequalities of its surface to a minute insect, Atropos
pulsatoria, which commits great havoc in damp specimens,
and which, even if noticed, cannot be dislodged without difficulty.
The majority of plant specimens are most suitably fastened on
paper by a mixture of equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum
arabic made into a thick paste with water. Rigid leathery
leaves are fixed by means of glue, or, if they present too smooth
a surface, by stitching at their edges. Where, as in private
herbaria, the specimens are not liable to be handled with great
frequency, a stitch here and there round the stem, tied at the
back of the sheet, or slips of paper passed over the stem through
two slits in the sheet and attached with gum to' its back, or
simply strips of gummed paper laid across the stem, may be
resorted to.
To preserve from insects, the plants, after mounting, are
often brushed over with a liquid formed by the solution of
5 fb. each of corrosive sublimate and carbolic acid in i gallon
of methylated spirits. They are then laid out to dry on shelves
made of a network of stout galvanized iron wire. The use of
corrosive sublimate is not, however, recommended, as it forms
on drying a fine powder which when the plants are handled
will rub off and, being carried into the air, may prove injurious
to workers. If the plants are subjected to some process, before
mounting, by which injurious organisms are destroyed, such
as exposure in a closed chamber to vapour of carbon bisulphide
for some hours, the presence of pieces of camphor or naphthalene
in the cabinet will be found a sufficient preservative. After
mounting are written usually in the right-hand corner of the
sheet, or on a label there affixed the designation of each species,
the date and place of gathering, and the name of the collector.
Other particulars as to habit, local abundance, soil and claim
to be indigenous may be written on the back of the sheet or on
a slip of writing paper attached to its edge. It is convenient
to place in a small envelope gummed to an upper corner of the
sheet any flowers, seeds or leaves needed for dissection or
microscopical examination, especially where from the fixation
of the specimen it is impossible to examine the leaves for oil-
receptacles and where seed is apt to escape from ripe capsules
and be lost. The addition of a careful dissection of a flower
greatly increases the value of the specimen. To ensure that
all shall lie evenly in the herbarium the plants should be made
to occupy as far as possible alternately the right and left sides
of their respective sheets. The species of each genus are then
arranged either systematically or alphabetically in separate
covers of stout, usually light brown paper, or, if the genus be
large, in several covers with the name of the genus clearly in-
dicated in the lower left-hand corner of each, and opposite
it the names or reference numbers of the species. Undetermined
species are relegated to the end of the genus. Thus prepared,
the specimens are placed on shelves or movable trays, at intervals
of about 6 in., in an air-tight cupboard, on the inner side of the
door of which, as a special protection against insects, is suspended
a muslin bag containing a piece of camphor.
The systematic arrangement varies in different herbaria. In
the great British herbaria the orders and genera of flowering
plants are usually arranged according to Bentham and Hooker's
Genera plantarum; the species generally follow the arrangement
of the most recent complete monograph of the family. In non-
flowering plants the works usually followed are for ferns, Hooker
and Baker's Synopsis filicum; for mosses, Muller's Synopsis
muscorum frondosorum, Jaeger & Sauerbeck's Genera et species
muscorum, and Engler & Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien; for algae,
de Toni's Sylloge algarum; for hepaticae, Gottsche, Lindenberg
and Nees ab Esenbeck's Synopsis hepaticarum, supplemented
by Stephani's Species hepaticarum; for fungi, Saccardo's
Sylloge fungorum, and for mycetozoa Lister's monograph of
the group. For the members of laige genera, e.g. Piper and
Ficus, since the number of cosmopolitan or very widely dis-
tributed species is comparatively few, a geographical grouping is
found specially convenient by those who are constantly receiving
parcels of plants from known foreign sources. The ordinary
systematic arrangement possesses trie great advantage, in the
case of large genera, of readily indicating the affinities of any
particular specimen with the forms most nearly allied to it.
Instead of keeping a catalogue of the species contained in the
herbarium, which, owing to the constant additions, would be
almost impossible, such species are usually ticked off with a
pencil in the systematic work which is followed in arranging
them, so that by reference to this work it is possible to see at a
glance whether the specimen sought is in the herbarium and
what species are still wanted.
Specimens intended for the herbarium should be collected when
possible in dry weather, care being taken to select plants or portions
of plants in sufficient number and of a size adequate to illustrate
all the characteristic features of the species. When the root-leaves
and roots present any peculiarities, they should invariably be
collected, but the roots should be dried separately in an oven at a
moderate heat. Roots and fruits too bulky to be placed on the sheet
of the herbarium may be conveniently arranged in glass-covered
boxes contained in drawers. The best and most effective mode of
drying specimens is learned only by experience, different species
requiring special treatment according to their several peculiarities.
The chief points to be attended to are to have a plentiful supply of
botanical drying paper, so as to be able to use about six sheets for
each specimen; to change the paper at intervals of six to twelve
hours; to avoid contact of one leaf or flower with another; and to
increase the pressure applied only in proportion to the dry ness of the
specimen. To preserve the colour of flowers pledgets of cotton wool,
which prevent. bruising, should be introduced between them, as also,
if the stamens are thick and succulent, as in Digitalis, between these
and the corolla. A flower dissected and gummed on the sheets will
often retain the colour which it is impossible to preserve in a crowded
inflorescence. A flat sheet of lead or some other suitable weight
should be laid upon the top of the pile of specimens, so as to keep up
a continuous pressure. Succulent specimens, as many of the Orchi-
daceae and sedums and various other Crassulaceous plants, require
to be killed by immersion in boiling water before being placed in
drying paper, or, instead of becoming dry, they will grow between the
sheets. When, as with some plants like Verbascum, the thick hard
stems are liable to cause the leaves to wrinkle in drying by removing
the pressure from them, small pieces of bibulous paper or cotton wool
may be placed upon the leaves near their point of attachment to
the stem. When a number of specimens have to be submitted to
pressure, ventilation is secured by means of frames corresponding
in size to the drying paper, and composed of strips of wood or wires
laid across each other so as to form a kind of network. Another mode
of drying is to keep the specimens in a box of dry sand in a warm
place for ten or twelve hours, and then press them in drying paper.
A third method consists in placing; the specimen within bibulous
paper, and enclosing the whole between two plates of coarsely
perforated zinc supported in a wooden frame. The zinc plates are
then drawn close together by means of straps, and suspended before
a fire until the drying is effected. By the last two methods the
colour of the flowers may be well preserved. When the leaves are
finely divided, as in Conium, much trouble will be experienced in
lifting a half-dried specimen from one paper to another; but the
plant may be placed in a sheet of thin blotting paper, and the sheet
containing the plant, instead of the plant itself, can then be moved.
Thin straw-coloured paper, such as is used for biscuit bags, may be
conveniently employed by travellers unable to carry a quantity of
HERBART
335
bibulous paper. It offers the advantage of fitting closely to thick-
stemmed specimens and of rapidly drying. A light but strong
portfolio, to which pressure by means of straps can be applied, and
a few quires of this paper, if the paper be changed night and morning,
will be usually sufficient to dry all except very succulent . plants.
When a specimen is too large for one sheet, and it is necessary, in
order to show its habit, &c., to dry the whole of it, it may be divided
into two or three portions, and each placed on a separate sheet for
drying. Specimens may be judged to be dry when they no longer
cause a cold sensation when applied to the cheek, or assume a
rigidity not evident in the earlier stages of preparation.
Each class of flowerless or cryptogamic plants requires special
treatment for the herbarium.
Marine algae are usually mounted on tough smooth white cartridge
paper in the following manner. Growing specimens of good colour
and in fruit are if possible selected, and cleansed as much as practic-
able from adhering foreign particles, either in the sea or a rocky pool.
Some species rapidly change colour, and cause the decay of any
others with which they come in contact. This is especially the case
with the Ectocarpi, Desmarestiae, and a few others, which should
therefore be brought home in a separate vessel. In mounting, the
specimen is floated out in a flat white dish containing sea-water, so
that foreign matter may be detected, and a piece of paper of suitable
size is placed under it, supported either by the fingers of the left hand
or by a palette. It is then pruned, in order clearly to show the mode
of branching, and is spread out as naturaljy as possible with the
right hand. For this purpose a bone knitting-needle answers well
for the coarse species, and a camel's-hair pencil for the more delicate
ones. The paper with the specimen is then carefully removed from
the water by sliding it over the edge of the dish so as to drain it as
much as possible. If during this process part of the fronds run
together, the beauty of the specimen may be restored by dipping
the edge into water, so as to float out the part and allow it to subside
naturally on the paper. The paper, with the specimen upwards, is
then laid on bibulous paper for a few minutes to absorb as much as
possible of the superfluous moisture. When freed from excess of
water it is laid on a sheet of thick white blotting-paper, and a piece
of smooth washed calico is placed upon it (unwashed calico, on account
of its " facing," adheres to the sea-weed). Another sheet of blotting-
paper is then laid over it; and, a number of similar specimens
being formed into a pile, the whole is submitted to pressure, the paper
being changed every hour or two at first. The pressure is increased,
and the papers are changed less frequently as the specimens become
dry, which usually takes place in thirty-six hours. Some species,
especially those of a thick or leathery texture, contract so much in
drying that without strong pressure the edges of the paper become
puckered. Other species of a gelatinous nature, like Nemalion and
Dudresnaya, may be allowed to dry on the paper, and need not be
submitted to pressure until they no longer present a gelatinous
appearance. Large coarse algae, such, for instance, as the Fucaceae
and Laminariae, do not readily adhere to paper, and require soaking
for some time in fresh water before being pressed. The less robust
species, such as Sphacelaria scoparia, which do not adhere well to
paper, may be made to do so by brushing them over either with milk
carefully skimmed, or with a liquid formed by placing isinglass ( j oz.)
and water (i oz.) in a wide-mouthed bottle, and the bottle in a small
glue-pot or saucepan containing cold water, heating until solution is
effected, and then adding I oz. of rectified spirits of wine; the whole
is next stirred together, and when cold is kept in a stoppered bottle.
For use, the mixture is warmed to render it fluid, and applied by
means of a camel's hair brush to the under side of the specimen, which
is then laid neatly on paper. For the more delicate species, such
as the Callithamnia and Ectocarpi, it is an excellent plan to place a
small fruiting fragment, carefully floated out in water, on a slip of
mica of the size of an ordinary microscopical slide, and allow it to
dry. The plant can then be at any time examined under the micro-
scope without injuring the mounted specimen. Many of the fresh-
water algae which form a mere crust, such as Palmella cruenta, may
be placed in a vessel of water, where after a time they float like a
scum, the earthy matter settling down to the bottom, and may then
be mounted by slipping a piece of mica under them and allowing it
to dry. Oscillatorme may be mounted by laying a portion on a silver
coin placed on a piece of paper in a plate, and pouring in water until
the edge of the coin is just covered. The alga by its own peculiar
movement will soon form a radiating circle, perfectly free from dirt,
around the coin, which may then be removed. There is considerable
difficulty in removing mounted specimens of algae from paper, and
therefore a small portion preserved on mica should accompany each
specimen, enclosed for safety in a small envelope fastened at one
corner of the sheet of paper. Filamentous diatoms may be mounted
like ordinary seaweeds, and, as well as all parasitic algae, should
whenever possible be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the
alga on which they grow, some species being almost always found
found parasitical on particular plants. Ordinary diatoms and
desmids may be mounted on mica, as above described, by putting
a portion in a vessel of water and exposing it to sunlight, when they
rise to the surface, and may be thus removed comparatively free
from dirt or impurity. Owing to their want of adhesiveness, they are,
however, usually mounted on glass as microscopic slides, either in
glycerin jelly, Canada balsam or some other suitable medium.
| Lichens are generally mounted on sheets of paper of the ordinary
size, several specimens from different localities being laid upon one
sheet, each specimen having been first placed on a small square of
paper which is gummed on the sheet, and which has the locality,
date, name of collector, &c., written upon it. This mode has some
disadvantages, attending it; such sheets are difficult to handle;
the crustaceous species are liable to have their surfaces rubbed;
the f oliaceous species become so compressed as to lose their character-
istic appearance; and the spaces between the sheets caused by the
thickness of the specimen permit the entrance of dust. A plan which
has been found to answer well is to arrange them in cardboard boxes,
either with glass tops or in sliding covers, in drawers the name being
placed outside each box and the specimens gummed into the boxes.
Lichens for the herbarium should, whenever possible, be sought for
on a slaty or laminated rock, so as to procure them on flat thin pieces
of the same, suitable for mounting. Specimens on the bark of trees
require pressure until the bark is dry, lest they become curled;
and those growing on sand or friable soil, such as Coniocybefurfuracea,
should be laid carefully on a layer of gum in the box in which they
are intended to be kept. Many lichens, such as the Verrucariae and
Collemaceae, are found in the best condition during the winter
months. In mounting collemas it is advisable to let the specimen
become dry and hard, and then to separate a portion from adherent
mosses, earth, &c., and mount it separately so as to show the branch-
ing of the thallus. Pertusariae should be represented by both fruiting
and sorediate specimens.
The larger species of fungi, such as the Agaricini and Polyporei,
&c., are prepared for the herbarium by cutting a slice out of the
centre of the plant so as to show the outline of the cap or pileus, the
attachment of the gills, and the character of the interior of the stem.
The remaining portions of the pileus are then lightly pressed, as well
as the central slices, between bibulous paper until dry, and the whole
is then " poisoned," and gummed on a sheet of paper in such a manner
as to show the under surface of the one and the upper surface of the
other half of the pileus on the same sheet. A " map " of the spores
should be taken by separating a pileus and placing it flat on a piece
of thin paper for a few hours when the spores will fall and leave a
nature print of the arrangement of the gills which may be fixed by
gumming the other side of the paper. As it is impossible to preserve
the natural colours of fungi, the specimens should, whenever possible,
be accompanied by a coloured drawing of the plant. Microscopic
fungi are usually preserved in envelopes, or simply attached to sheets
of paper or mounted as microscopic slides. Those fungi which are
of a dusty nature, and the Myxomycetes or Mycetozoa may, like the
lichens, be preserved in small boxes and arranged in drawers.
Fungi under any circumstances form the least satisfactory portion
of an herbarium.
Mosses when growing in tufts should be gathered just before the
capsules have become brown, divided into small flat portions, and
pressed lightly in drying paper. During this process the capsules
ripen, and are thus obtained in a perfect state. They are then pre-
served in envelopes attached to a sheet of paper of the ordinary size, a
single perfect specimen being washed, and spread out under the
envelope so as to show the habit of the plant. For attaching it to the
paper a strong mucilage of gum tragacanth, containing an eighth
of its weight of spirit of wine, answers best. If not preserved in an
envelope the calyptra and operculum are very apt to fall off and
become lost. Scale-mosses are mounted in the same way, or may
be floated out in water like sea-weeds, and dried in white blotting
paper under strong pressure before gumming on paper, but are best
mounted as microscopic slides, care being taken to show the stipules.
The specimens should be collected when the capsules are just appear-
ing above or in the colesule or calyx; if kept in a damp saucer they
soon arrive at maturity, and can then be mounted in better condition,
the fruit-stalks being too fragile to bear carriage in a botanical tin
case without injury.
Of the Characeae many are so exceedingly brittle that it is best
to float them out like sea-weeds, except the prickly species, which
may be carefully laid out on bibulous paper, and when dry fastened
on sheets of white paper by means of gummed strips. Care should
be taken in collecting charae to secure, in the case of dioecious
species, specimens of both forms, and also to get when possible the
roots of those species on which the small granular starchy bodies or
gemmae are found, as in C. fragifera. Portions of the fructification
may be preserved in small envelopes attached to the sheets.
HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-1841), German
philosopher and educationist, was born at Oldenburg on the
4th of May 1776. After studying under Fichte at Jena he gave
his first philosophical lectures at Gottingen in 1805, whence
he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair formerly held by Kant
at Konigsberg. Here he also established and conducted a
seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more to
Gottingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till
his death on the i4th of August 1841.
Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our
empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elabora-
' tion of these its three primary divisions being determined by as
33^
HERBART
many distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has
to render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising
from them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that
the more distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements
become; so to change and supplement these as to make them at
length thinkable is the problem of the second part of philosophy,
or metaphysics. There is still a class of conceptions requiring more
than a logical treatment, but differing from the last in not involving
latent contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their
objects, the conceptions, viz. that embody our judgments of approval
and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions
falls to Aesthetic.
In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice;
he insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed
himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.
As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms " the higher
scepticism " of the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings
of which he discerns in Locke's perplexity about the idea of substance.
By this scepticism the real validity of even the forms of experience
is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found
to involve. And yet that these forms are " given " to us, as truly as
sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are
as little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage
a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be
doubly a mistake; for we should nave to use these unlegitimated
conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their
contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry
or not. But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us
a conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove
to be contradictory, say M and N ; and we can neither deny the unity
nor reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is
forbidden by experience ; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic.
We are thus driven to the assumption that the conception is con-
tradictory because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it?
What we have must point the way to what we want, or our procedure
will be arbitrary. Experience asserts that M is the same (i.e. a mark
of the same concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so it being
impossible for one and the same M to sustain these contradictory
positions there is but one way open to us; we must posit several
Ms. But even now we cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N,
another is not ; for every M must be both thinkable and valid. We
may, however, take the Ms not singly but together; and again, no
other course being open to us, this is what we must dp; we must
assume that N results from a combination of Ms. This is Herbart's
method of relations, the counterpart in his system of the Hegelian
dialectic.
In the Ontology this method is employed to determine what in
reality corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and
cause, or rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse
this notion of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led
us, for, though we could doubt whether " the given " is what it
appears, we cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the
real thus consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That
which we are compelled to " posit," which cannot be sublated, is
that which is, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception
of -being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited
as we are wont to posit the things we see and taste and handle.
If we were without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our will
to endure the persistence of a presentation, we should never know
what being is. Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position,
Herbart leads us next to the quality of the real, (i) This must
exclude everything negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing,
and is not absolute, but relative to A. (2) The real must be absolutely
simple; for if it contain two determinations, A and B, then either
these are reducible to one, which is the true quality, or they are not,
when each is conditioned by the other and their position is no longer
absolute. (3) All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity
implies parts, and these are incompatible with simplicity. (4) But
there may be a plurality of " reals," albeit the mere conception of
being can tell us nothing as to this. The doctrine here developed
is the first cardinal point of Herbart's system, and has obtained
for it the name of " pluralistic realism."
The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of
inherence, or of " a thing with several attributes," will now become
obvious. Let us take some thing, say A, having attributes, a, b,
c . . .: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented
in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not n positions, still less
n + l positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes
the absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we
ask, What is the one posited? we are told the possessor of a, b, c
. . . , or in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then
A, as a real, being simple, must=a; similarly it must = 6; and so
on. Now this would be possible if a, 6, c ... were but " contingent
aspects " of A, as e.g. 2',V64, 4+3 + 1 are contingent aspects of 8.
Such, of course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradic-
tions as there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b,
is not 6, &c. There must then, according to the method of relations,
be several As. For o let us assume Ai+Ai+Ai . . . ; for b,
A 2 +A 2 +A 2 . . .; and so on for the rest. But now what relation
can there be among these several As, which will restore to us
the unity of our original A or substance? There is but one; we
must assume that the first A of every series is identical, just as the
centre is the same point in every radius. By way of concrete
illustration Herbart instances " the common observation that the
properties of things exist only under external conditions. Bodies, we
say, are coloured, but colour is nothing without light, and nothing
without eyes. They sound, but only in a vibrating medium, and
for healthy ears. Colour and tone present the appearance of in-
herence, but on looking closer we find they are not really immanent
in things but rather presuppose a communion among several."
The result then is briefly thus: In place of the one absolute position,
which in some unthinkable way the common understanding sub-
stitutes for the absolute positions of the n attributes, we have really
a series of two or more positions for each attribute, every series,
however, beginning with the same (as it were, central) real (hence
the unity of substance in a group of attributes), but each being
continued by different reals (hence the plurality and difference of
attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the appearance of
inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of reals; no such
correlative to substance as attribute or accident can be admitted
at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality, and to this
as its true correlative we now turn.
The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the
same contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A
that was a, b, c . . . becomes a, b, d . . . ; and this, which experi-
ence thrusts upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The meta-
physical supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since c
depended on a series of reals As+As+As ... in connexion with
A, and d may be said similarly to depend on a series A<+A+A 4 . . .,
then the change from c to d means, not that the central real A or
any real has changed, but that A is now in connexion with A 4 , &c., and
no longer in connexion with A 3 , &c.
But to think a number of reals " in connexion " (Zusammensein)
will not suffice as an explanation of phenomena ; something or other
must happen when they are in connexion; what is it? The answer
to this question is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical
philosophy. What " actually happens " as distinct from all that
seems to happen, when two reals A and B are together is that,
assuming them to differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other
to the extent of that difference, at the same time that each preserves
itself intact by resisting, as it were, the other's disturbance. And
so by coming into connexion with different reals the " self-preserva-
ticns " of A will vary accordingly, A remaining the same through
all; just as, by way of illustration, hydrogen remains the same in
water and in ammonia, or as the same line may be now a normal
and now a tangent. But to indicate this opposition in the qualities
of the reals A+B, we must substitute for these symbols others,
which, though only " contingent aspects " of A and B, i.e. repre-
senting their relations, not themselves, yet like similar devices in
mathematics enable thought to advance. Thus we may put A =
0+/3 7, B=TO+n+-x; -y then represents the character of the self-
preservations in this case, and a+/3+i+n represents all that could
be observed by a spectator who did not know the simple qualities,
but was himself involved in the relations of A to B; and such is
exactly our position.
Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens,
our philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective
semblance (der objective Schein) that results from these. But if
this construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all intelligences,
ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in the forms of
Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we think the
reals as being in, or coming into, connexion and the opposite.
These forms then cannot be merely the products of our psychological
mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with these.
Meanwhile let us call them " intelligible," as being valid for all who
comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such forms
are predicable of the real and actual themselves. The elementary
spatial relation Herbart conceives to be " the contiguity (A neinander)
of two points," so that every " pure and independent line " is discrete.
But an investigation of dependent lines which are often incommensur-
able forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of partially over-
lapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the conception of
Continuity. 1 But the contradiction here is one we cannot eliminate
by the method of relations, because it does not involve anything
real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an " intelligible " form,
the fiction of continuity is valid for the " objective semblance,"
and no more to be discarded than say V I- By its help we are
enabled to comprehend what actually happens among reals to
produce the appearance of matter. When three or more reals are
together, each disturbance and self-preservation will (in general)
be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when only two reals are
together. But "objective semblance" corresponds with reality;
the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case must, there-
fore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the self-preservations
been perfect, the coincidence in space would have been complete,
and the group of reals would have been inextended ; or had the several
reals been simply contiguous, i.e. without connexion, then, as nothing
1 Hence Herbart gave the name Synechology to this branch of
metaphysics, instead of the usual one, Cosmology.
HERBART
337
would actually have happened, nothing would appear. As it is
we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive and
repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the
self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of
this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the con-
tradictory conception of continuity, and cannot, therefore, be a real
predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to the
comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think
of the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into con-
nexions. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally
moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with
uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed;
motion, in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is,
both alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no
concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we should
require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the self-preserva-
tions that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by means of such
motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves timeless,
fall for an observer in a definite time a time which becomes con-
tinuous through the partial coincidence of events.
But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the
objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or,
in other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the
problem of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition
from metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory con-
ception blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of
knowing and being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The
contradiction becomes more evident when the ego is denned to be
a subject (and so a real) that is its own object. As real and not
merely formal, this conception of the ego is amenable to the method
of relations. The solution this method furnishes is summarily that
there are several objects which mutually modify each other, and so
constitute that ego we take for the presented real. But to explain
this modification is the business of psychology ; it is enough now to
see that the subject like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that,
therefore, the idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though
the simple quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we
know what actually happens when it is in connexion with other's
reals, for its self-preservations then are what we call sensations.
And these sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but
they are not given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series,
whence we come to know the relations of those reals, which, though
themselves unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.
In his Psychology Herbart rejects altogether the doctrine of mental
faculties as one refuted by his metaphysics, and tries to show that
all psychical phenomena whatever result from the action and inter-
action of elementary ideas or presentations (Vorstellungen). The
soul being one and simple, its separate acts of self-preservation
or primary presentations must be simple too, and its several presenta-
tions must become united together. And this they can do at once
and completely when, as is the case, for example, with the several
attributes of an object, they are not of opposite quality. But other-
wise there ensues a conflict in which the opposed presentations
comport themselves like forces and mutually suppress or obscure
each other. The act of presentation (Vorstellen) then becomes
partly transformed into an effort, and its product, the idea, becomes
in the same proportion less and less intense till a position of equili-
brium is reached; and then at length the remainders coalesce.
We have thus a statics and a mechanics of mind which investigate
respectively the conditions of equilibrium and of movement among
presentations. In the statics two magnitudes have to be determined :
(i) the amount of the suppression or inhibition (Hemmungssumme) ,
and (2) the ratio in which this is shared among the opposing presenta-
tions. The first must obviously be as small as possible; thus for
two totally-opposed presentations a and b, of which a is the greater,
the inhibendum = b. For a given degree of opposition this burden
will be shared between the conflicting presentations in the inverse
ratio of their strength. When its remainder after inhibition = O,
a presentation is said to be on the threshold of consciousness, for on
a small diminution of the inhibition the " effort " will become actual
presentation in the same proportion. Such total exclusion from
consciousness is, however, manifestly impossible with only two
presentations, 1 though with three or a greater number the residual
value of one may even be negative. The first and simplest law in
psychological mechanics relates to the " sinking " of inhibited
presentations. As the presentations yield to the pressure, the
pressure itself diminishes, so that the velocity of sinking decreases, i.e.
we have the equation (S a) dt = da, where S is the total inhibendum,
and a the intensity actually inhibited after the time t. Hence
' = 'S S <r' and <7 = S(i e~'). From this law it follows, for example,
that equilibrium is never quite obtained for those presentations
which continue above the threshold of consciousness, while the rest
1 Thus, taking the casoabove supposed, the share of the inhibendum
falling to the smaller presentation b is the fourth term of the pro-
portion a+b:a: -b'-^fi,'- and so b's remainder is b^Tj > = i[+ ~'
which only =O when a = x.
which cannot so continue are very speedily driven beyond the
threshold. More important is the law" according to which a presenta-
tion freed from inhibition and rising anew into consciousness tends
to raise the other presentations with which it is combined. Suppose
two presentations p and IT united by the residua r and p; then the
amount of p's " help " to JT is r, the portion of which appropriated by
v is given by the ratio p: ir; and thus the initial help is .
But after a time /, when a portion of p represented by w has been
actually brought into consciousness, the help afforded in the next
instant will be found by the equation
rp p w,. ,
at = ddi,
7T p
from which by integration we have the value of a.
W = p I I
So that if there are several ITS connected with p by smaller and
smaller parts, there will be a definite " serial " order in which they
will be revived by p ; and on this fact Herbart rests all the phenomena
of the so-called faculty of memory, the development of spatial and
temporal forms and much besides. Emotions and volitions, he
holds, are not directly self-preservations of the soul, as our presenta-
tions are, but variable states of such presentations resulting from
their interaction when above the threshold of consciousness. Thus
when some presentations tend to force a presentation into con-
sciousness, and others at the same time tend to drive it out, that
presentation is the seat of painful feeling; when, on the other hand,
its entrance is favoured by all, pleasure results. Desires are presenta-
tions struggling into consciousness against hindrances, and when
accompanied by the supposition of success become volitions. Tran-
scendental freedom of will in Kant's sense is an impossibility.
Self-consciousness is the result of an interaction essentially the same
in kind as that which takes place when a comparatively simple
presentation finds the field of consciousness occupied by a long-
formed and well-consolidated " mass " of presentations as, e.g.
one's business or garden, the theatre, &c., which promptly inhibit
the isolated presentation if incongruent, and unite it to themselves
if not. What we call Self is, above all, such a central mass, and
Herbart seeks to show with great ingenuity and detail how this
position is occupied at first chiefly by the body, then by the seat of
ideas and desires, and finally by that first-personal Self which re-
collects the past and resolves concerning the future. But at any stage
the actual constituents of this "complexion" are variable; the
concrete presentation of Self is never twice the same. And, therefore,
finding on reflection any particular concrete factor contingent, we
abstract the position from that which occupies it, and so reach the
speculative notion of the pure Ego.
Aesthetics elaborates the " ideas " involved in the expression of
taste called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them
the attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful (na\6v) is
to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions of the useful
and the pleasant, which vary with time, place and person; whereas
beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by all who have
attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one branch of
aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations among
volitions (WMensverhaltnisse) as thus unconditionally please or dis-
please. These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five, which do
not admit of further simplification ; and corresponding to them are as
many moral ideas ( Musterbegriffe] , viz.: (i) Internal Freedom, the
underlying relation being that of the individual's will to his judgment
of it; (2) Perfection, the relation being that of his several volitions
to each other in respect of intensity, variety and concentration ; (3)
Benevolence, the relation being that between his own will and the
thought of another's; (4) Right, in case of actual conflict with
another; and (5) Retribution or Equity, for intended good or evil
done. The ideas of a final society, a system of rewards and punish-
ments, a system of administration, a system of culture and a
" unanimated society," corresponding to the ideas of law, equity,
benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively, result
when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the
perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas ; of this the single
virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty arises
from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A
general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the sub-
sumption of special cases under these must remain matter of tact.
The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the
realization of the moral ideas is moral technology (Tugendlehre) ,
of which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics.
In Theology Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid
For divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a super-
sensible real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is neither
attainable nor on practical grounds desirable.
Among the post-Kantian philosophers Herbart doubtless ranks
next to Hegel in importance, and this without taking into account
tiis very great contributions to the science of education. His
disciples speak of theirs as the " exact philosophy," and the term
well expresses their master's chief excellence and the character of
338
HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE HERBERT
the chief influence he has exerted upon succeeding thinkers of his
own and other schools. His criticisms are worth more than his
constructions; indeed for exactness and penetration of thought he
is quite on a level with Hume and Kant. His merits in this respect,
however, can only be appraised by the study of his works at first
hand. But we are most of all indebted to Herbart for the enormous
advance psychology has been enabled to make, thanks to his fruitful
treatment of it, albeit as yet but few among the many who have
appropriated and improved his materials have ventured to adopt
his metaphysical and mathematical foundations. (J. W.*)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Herbart's works were collected and published
by his disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850-1852; reprinted at
Hamburg, with supplementary volume, 1883-1893); another edition
by K. Kehrbach (Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887). The
following are the most important: Allgemeine Padagogik (1806; new
ed., 1894) ; Hauptpunkte der Metaphysik (1808) ; Allgemeine praktische
Philosophic (1808); Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie
(1813; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1883); Lehrbuch der Psychologic
(1816; new ed. by Hartenstein, 1887); Psychologic als Wissenschaft
(1824-1825); Allgemeine Metaphysik (1828-1829); Encyklopadie
der Philosophie (2nd ed., 1841); Umriss pddagogischer Vorlesungen
(2nd ed., 1841); Psychologische Untersuchungen (1839-1840).
Some of his works have been translated into English under the
following titles: Textbook in Psychology, by M. K. Smith (1891);
The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World
(1892), and Letters and Lectures on Education (1898), by H. M. and
E. Felkin ; A B C of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works
(New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others; Application of
Psychology to the Science of Education (1898), by B. C. Mulliner;
Outlines of Educational Doctrine, by A. F. Lange (1901).
There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein's introduction to his
Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen (1842-1843)
and by F. H. T. Allihn in Zeitschrift fur exacte Philosophie (Leipzig,
1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear
in 1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of
Education was originally founded as the National Herbart Society.
Of the large number of writings dealing with Herbart's works and
theories, the following may be mentioned: H. A. Fechner, Zur
Kritik der Grundlagen von Herbart's Metaphysik (Leipzig, 1853);
J. Kaftan, Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhdltniss zu einander: eine
Studie zur Kritik Herbarts (Leipzig, 1872); M. W. Drobisch, Uber
die Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart (Leipzig, 1876);
K. S. Just, Die Fortbildung der Kant'schen Ethik durch Herbart
(Eisenach, 1876); C. Ufer, Vorschule der Padagogik Herbarts (1883;
Eng. tr. by J. C. Zinser, 1895); G. Kozle, Die padagogische Schule
Herbarts und ihre Lehre (Gutersloh, 1889); L. Striimpell, Das
System der Padagogik Herbarts (Leipzig, 1894); J. Christinger,
Herbarts Erziehungslehre und ihre Fortbildner (Zurich, 1895) ; O. H.
Lang, Outline of Herbart's Pedagogics (1894); H. M. and E. Felkin,
Introduction to Herbart's Science and Practice of Education (1895);
C. de Garmo, Herbart and the Herbartians (New York, 1895); E.
Wagner, Die Praxis der Herbartianer (Langensalza, 1897) and
Vollstdndige Darstellung der Lehre Herbarts (to., 1899); J. Adams,
The Herbartian Psychology applied to Education (1897); F. H.
Hayward, The Student's Herbart (1902), The Critics of Herbart-
ianism (1903), Three Historical Educators: Pestalozzi, Frobel,
Herbart (1905), The Secret of Herbart (1907), The Meaning of Educa-
tion as interpreted by Herbart (1907); W. Kinkel, J. F. Herbart:
sein Leben und seine Philosophie (1903); A. Darroch, Herbart and the
Herbartian Theory of Education (1903); C. J. Dodd, Introduction
to the Herbartian Principles of Teaching (1904); J. Davidson, A
new Interpretation of Herbart's Psychology and Educational Theory
through the Philosophy of Leibnitz (1906); see also J. M. Baldwin,
Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy (1901-1905).
HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHElEMY D' ^625-
1695), French orientalist, was born on the I4th of December
1625 at Paris. He was educated at the university of Paris,
and devoted himself to the study of oriental languages, going
to Italy to perfect himself in them by converse with the orientals
who frequented its sea-ports. There he also made the acquaint-
ance of Holstenius, the Dutch humanist (1596-1661), and Leo
Allatius, the Greek scholar (1586-1669). On his return to
France after a year and a half, he was received into the house
of Fouquet, superintendent of finance, who gave him a pension
of 1500 livres. Losing this on the disgrace of Fouquet in 1661,
he was appointed secretary and interpreter of Eastern languages
to the king. A few years later he again visited Italy, when the
grand-duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany presented him with a
large number of valuable Oriental MSS., and tried to attach him
to his court. Herbelot, however, was recalled to France by
Colbert, and received from the king a pension equal to the one
he had lost. In 1692 he succeeded D'Auvergne in the chair of
Syriac, in the College de France. He died in Paris on the 8th
of December 1695. His great work is the Bibliotheque orientate,
ou dictionnaire unvoersd contenant tout ce qui regarde la connois-
sance des peuples de I'Orienl, which occupied him nearly all his
life, and was completed in 1697 by A. Galland. It is based
on the immense Arabic dictionary of Hadji Khalfa, of which
indeed it is largely an abridged translation, but it also contains
the substance of a vast number of other Arabic and Turkish
compilations and manuscripts.
The Bibliotheque was reprinted at Maestricht (fpl. 1776), and at the
Hague (4 vols. 410, 1777-1799). The latter edition is enriched with
the contributions of the Dutch orientalist Schultens, Johann Jakob
Reiske (1716-1774), and by a supplement provided by Visdelow
and Galland. Herbelot's other works, none of which have been
published, comprise an Oriental Anthology, and an Arabic, Persian,
Turkish and Latin Dictionary.
HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE (d. about 1557),
French translator, was born in Pic'ardy. He served in the
artillery, and at the expressed desire of Francis I. he translated
into French the first eight books of Amadis de Gaul (1540-1548).
The remaining books were translated by other authors. His
other translations from the Spanish include L'Amant maltraite
de so, mye (1539) ; Le Premier Lime de la chronique de dom Flares
de Greet (1552); and L'Horloge des princes (1555) from Guevara.
He also translated the works of Josephus (1557). He died
about 1557. The Amadis de Gaul was translated into English
by Anthony Munday in 1619.
HERBERT (FAMILY). The sudden rising of this English
family to great wealth and high place is the more remarkable
in that its elevation belongs to the isth century and not to
that age of the Tudors when many new men made their way
upwards into the ranks of the nobility. Earlier generations of
a pedigree which carries the origin of the Herberts to Herbert
the Chamberlain, a Domesday tenant, being disregarded, their
patriarch may be taken to be one Jenkin ap Adam (temp.
Edward III.), who had a small Monmouthshire estate at Llan-
vapley and the office of master sergeant of the lordship of
Abergavenny, a place which gave him precedence after the
steward of that lordship. Jenkin's son, Gwilim ap Jenkin, who
followed his father as master sergeant, is given six sons by the
border genealogists, no less than six score pedigrees finding their
origin in these six brothers. Their order is uncertain, although
the Progers of Werndee, the last of whom sold his ancestral
estate in 1780, are reckoned as the senior line of Gwilim 's
descendants. But Thomas ap Gwilim Jenkin, called the fourth
son, is ancestor of all those who bore the surname of Herbert.
Thomas's fifth son, William or Gwilim ap Thomas, who died
in 1446, was the first man of the family to make any figure in
history. This Gwilim ap Thomas was steward of the lordships
of Usk and Caerleon under Richard, duke of York. Legend
makes him a knight on the field of Agincourt, but his knighthood
belongs to the year 1426. He appears to have married twice,
his first wife being Elizabeth Bluet of Raglan, widow of Sir
James Berkeley, and his- second a daughter of David Gam, a
valiant Welsh squire slain at Agincourt. Royal favour enriched
Sir William, and he was able to buy Raglan Castle from the Lord
Berkeley, his first wife's son, the deed, which remains among
the Beaufort muniments, refuting the pedigree-maker's state-
ment that he inherited the castle as heir of his mother "Maude,
daughter of Sir John Morley." His sons William and Richard,
both partisans of the White Rose, took the surname of Herbert
in or before 1461. Playing a part in English affairs remote from
the Welsh Marches, their lack of a surname may well have
inconvenienced them, and their choice of the name Herbert
can only be explained by the suggestion that their long pedigree
from Herbert the Chamberlain, absurdly represented as a bastard
son of Henry I., must already have been discovered for them.
Copies exist of an alleged commission issued by Edward IV.
to a committee of Welsh bards for the ascertaining of the true
ancestry of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, whom " the
chief est men of skill " in the province of South Wales declare
to be the descendant of " Herbert, a noble lord, natural son to
King Henry the first," and it is recited that King Edward, after
the creation of the earldom, commanded the earl and Sir Richard
his brother to " take their surnames after their first progenitor
HERBERT, GEORGE
339
Herbert fitz Roy and to forego the British order and manner."
But this commission, whose date anticipates by some years the
true date of the creation of the earldom, is the work of one
of the many genealogical forgers who flourished under the
Tudors.
Sir William Herbert, called by the Welsh Gwilim Ddu or
Black William, was a baron in 1461 and a Knight of the Garter
in the following year. With many manors and castles on the
Marches he had the castle, town and lordship of Pembroke, and
after the attainder of Jasper Tudor in 1468 was created earl of
Pembroke. When in July 1469 he was taken by Sir John Conyers
and the northern Lancastrians on Hedgecote, he was beheaded
with his brother Sir Richard Herbert of Coldbrook. The second
earl while still a minor exchanged at the king's desire in 1479
his earldom of Pembroke for that of Huntingdon. In 1484 this
son of one whom Hall not unjustly describes as born " a mean
gentleman " contracted to marry Katharine the daughter of
King Richard III., but her death annulled the contract and the
earl married Mary, daughter of the Earl Rivers, by whom he had
a daughter Elizabeth, whose descendants, the Somersets, lived
in the Herbert's castle of Raglan until the cannon of the parlia-
ment broke it in ruins. With the second earl's death in 1491
the first Herbert earldom became extinct. No claim being set
up among the other descendants of the first earl, it may be taken
that their lines were illegitimate. One of the chief difficulties
which beset the genealogist of the Herberts lies in their Cambrian
disregard of the marriage tie, bastards and legitimate issue
growing up, it would seem, side by side in their patriarchal
households. Thus the ancestor of the present earls of Pembroke
and Carnarvon and of the Herbert who was created marquess
of Powis was a natural son of the first earl, one Richard Herbert,
whom the restored inscription on his tomb at Abergavenny
incorrectly describes as a knight. He was constable and porter
of Abergavenny Castle, and his son William, " a mad fighting
fellow " in his youth, married a sister of Catherine Parr and thus
in 1543 became nearly allied to the king, who made him one of
the executors of his will. The earldom of Pembroke was revived
for him in 1551. It is worthy of note that all traces of illegiti-
macy have long since been removed from the arms of the noble
descendants of Richard Herbert.
The honours and titles of this clan of marchmen make a long
list. They include the marquessate of Powis, two earldoms
with the title of Pembroke, two with that of Powis, and the
earldoms of Huntingdon and Montgomery, Torrington and
Carnarvon, the viscountcies of Montgomery and Ludlo w, fourteen
baronies and seven baronetcies. Seven Herberts have worn the
Garter. The knights and rich squires of the stock can hardly
be reckoned, more especially as they must be sought among
Raglans, Morgans, Parrys, Vaughans, Progers, Hugheses,
Thomases, Philips, Powels, Gwyns, Evanses and Joneses, as
well as among those who have borne the surname of Herbert, a
surname which in the igth century was adopted by the Joneses
of Llanarth and Clytha, although they claim no descent
from those sons of Sir William ap Thomas for whom it was
devised. (O. BA.)
HERBERT, GEORGE (1393-1633), English poet, was born at
Montgomery Castle on the 3rd of April 1593. He was the fifth
son of Sir Richard Herbert and a brother of Lord Herbert of
Cherbury. His mother, Lady Magdalen Herbert, a woman of
great good sense and sweetness of character, and a friend of
John Donne, exercised great influence over her son. Educated
privately until 1605, he was then sent to Westminster School,
and in 1609 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he was made B.A. in 1613, M.A. and major fellow of the
college in 1616. In 1618 he became Reader in Rhetoric, and in
1619 orator for the university. In this capacity he was several
times brought into contact with King James. From Cambridge
he wrote some Latin satiric verses * in defence of the universities
and the English Church against Andrew Melville, a Scottish
Presbyterian minister. He numbered among his friends Dr
1 Printed in 1662 as an appendix to J. Vivian's Ecclesiastes
Solomonis.
Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, Izaak Walton, Bishop Andrewes
and Francis Bacon, who dedicated to him his translation of the
Psalms. Walton tells us that " the love of a court conversation,
mixed with a laudable ambition to be something more than he
was, drew him often from Cambridge to attend the king whereso-
ever the court was," and James I. gave him hi 1623 the sinecure
lay rectory of Whitford, Flintshire, worth 120 a year. The
death of his patrons, the duke of Richmond and the marquess
of Hamilton, and of King James put an end to his hopes of
political preferment; moreover he probably distrusted the
conduct of affairs under the new reign. Largely influenced
by his mother, he decided to take holy orders, and in July 1626
he was appointed prebendary of Layton Ecclesia (Leighton
Bromswold), Huntingdon. Here he was within two miles of Little
Gidding, and came under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar.
It was at Ferrar's suggestion that he undertook to rebuild the
church at Layton, an undertaking carried through by his own
gifts and the generosity of his friends. There is little doubt
that the close friendship with Ferrar had a large share in Herbert's
adoption of the religious life. In 1630 Charles I., at the instance
of the earl of Pembroke, whose kinsman Herbert was, presented
him to the living of Fugglestone with Bemerton, near Salisbury,
and he was ordained priest in September. A year before, after
three days' acquaintance, he had married Jane Danvers, whose
father had been set on the marriage for a long time. He had
often spoken of his daughter Jane to Herbert, and " so much
commended Mr Herbert to her, that Jane became so much a
Platonic as to fall in love with Mr Herbert unseen." The story
of the poet's life at Bemerton, as told by Walton, is one of
the most exquisite pictures in literary biography. He devoted
much time to explaining the meaning of the various parts of the
Prayer-Book, and held services twice every day, at which many
of the parishioners attended, and some " let their plough rest
when Mr Herbert's saints-bell rung to prayers, that they might
also offer their devotions to God with him." Next to Christianity
itself he loved the English Church. He was passionately fond
of music, and his own hymns were written to the accompaniment
of his lute or viol. He usually walked twice a week to attend
the cathedral at Salisbury, and before returning home, would
" sing and play his part " at a meeting of music lovers. Walton
illustrates Herbert's kindness to the poor by many touching
anecdotes, but he had not been three years in Bemertnn when
he succumbed to consumption. He was buried beneath the
altar of his church on the 3rd of March 1633.
None of Herbert's English poems was published during his
lifetime. On his death-bed he gave to Nicholas Ferrar a manu-
script with the title The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private
Ejaculations. This was published at Cambridge, apparently for
private circulation, almost immediately after Herbert's death,
and a second imprint followed in the same year. On the title-page
of both is the quotation " In his Temple doth every man speak
of his honour." The Temple is a collection of religious poems
connected by unity of sentiment and inspiration. Herbert
tried to interpret his own devout meditations by applying
images of all kinds to the ritual and beliefs of the Church.
Nothing in his own church at Bemerton was too commonplace
to serve as a starting-point for the epigrammatic expression of
his piety. The church key reminds him that " it is my sin that
locks his handes," and the stones of the floor are patience and
humility, while the cement that binds them together is love and
charity. The chief faults of the book are obscurity, verbal
conceits and a forced ingenuity which shows itself in grotesque
puns, odd metres and occasional want of taste. But the quaint
beauty of Herbert's' style and its musical quality give The
Temple a high place. "The Church Porch," " The Agony,"
" Sin," " Sunday," " Virtue," " Man," " The British Church,"
" The Quip," " The Collar," " The Pulley," " The Flower,"
" Aaron " and " The Elixir " are among the best known of
these poems. Herbert and Keble are the poets of Anglican
theology. No book is fuller of devotion to the Church of England
than The Temple, and no poems in our language exhibit more
of the spirit of true Christianity. Every page is marked by
340
HERBERT, H. W. HERBERT OF CHERBURY
transparent sincerity, and reflects the beautiful character of
" holy George Herbert."
Nicholas Ferrar's translation (Oxford, 1638) of the Hundred and
Ten Considerations ... of Juan de Valdes contained a letter and
notes by Herbert. In 1652 appeared Herbert's Remains; or,
Sundry Pieces of that Sweet Singer of the Temple, Mr George Herbert.
This included A Priest to the Temple; or, The Country Parson, his
Character, and Rule of Holy Life, in prose; Jacula prudentum, a
collection of proverbs with a separate title-page dated 1651, which
had appeared in a shorter form as Outlandish Proverbs in 1640;
and some miscellaneous matter. The completest edition of his
works is that by Dr A. B. Grosart in 1874, this edition of the Poetical
works being reproduced in the " Aldine edition " in 1876. The
English Works of George Herbert ... (3 vols., 1905) were edited in
much detail by G. H. Palmer. A contemporary account of Herbert's
life by Barnabas Oley was prefixed to the Remains of 1652, but the
classic authority is Izaak Walton's Life of Mr George Herbert, pub-
lished in 1670, with some letters from Herbert to his mother. See
also A. G. Hyde, George Herbert and his Times (1907), and the
" Oxford " edition of his poems by A. Waugh (1908).
HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM [" Frank Forester "] (1807-
1858), English novelist and writer on sport, son of the Hon. and
Rev. William Herbert, dean of Manchester, a son of the first earl
of Carnarvon, was born in London on the 3rd of April 1807. He
was educated at Eton and at Caius College, Cambridge, where
he graduated B.A. in 1830. Having become involved in debt,
he emigrated to America, and from' 1831 to 1839 was teacher
of Greek in a private school in New York. In 1833 he started
the American Monthly Magazine, which he edited, in conjunction
with A. D. Patterson, till 1835. In 1834 he published his first
novel, The Brothers: a Tale of (he Fronde, which was followed
by a number of others which obtained a certain degree of popu-
larity. He also wrote a series of historical studies, including The
Cavaliers of England (1852), The Knights of England, France
and Scotland (1852), The Chevaliers of France (1853), and The
Captains of the Old World (1851); but he is best known for his
works on sport, published under the pseudonym of " Frank
Forester." These include The Field Sports of the United States
and British Provinces (1849), Frank Forester and his Friends
(1849), The Fish and Fishing of the United Slates (1850), The
Young Sportsman's Complete Manual (1852), and The Horse and
Horsemanship in the United States and British Provinces of North
America (1858). He also translated many of the novels of
Eugene Sue and Alexandre Dumas. Herbert was a man of
varied accomplishments, but of somewhat dissipated habits.
He died by his own hand in New York on the i7th of May 1858.
HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682), English traveller
and author, was born at York in 1606. Several of his ancestors
were aldermen and merchants in that city e.g. his grandfather
and benefactor, Alderman Herbert I'd. 1614) and they traced
a connexion with the earls of Pembroke. Thomas became a
commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621, but afterwards
removed to Cambridge, through the influence of his uncle
Dr Ambrose Akroyd. In 1627 the earl of Pembroke procured
his appointment in the suite of Sir Dodmore Cotton, then
starting as ambassador for Persia with Sir Robert Shirley.
Sailing in March they visited the Cape, Madagascar, Goa and
Surat; landing at Gambrun (loth of January 1627-1628),
they travelled inland to Ashraf and thence to Kazvin, where
both Cotton and Shirley died, and whence Herbert made exten-
sive travels in the Persian Hinterland, visiting Kashan, Bagdad,
&c. On his return voyage he touched at Ceylon, the Coromandel
coast, Mauritius and St Helena. He reached England in 1629,
travelled in Europe in 1630-1631, married in 1632 and retired
from court in 1634 (his prospects perhaps blighted by Pembroke's
death in 1630); after this he resided on his Tintern estate and
elsewhere till the Civil War, siding with the parliament till his
appointment to attend on the king in 1646. Becoming a devoted
royalist, he was rewarded with a baronetcy at the Restoration
(1660). He resided mainly in York Street, Westminster, till
the Great Plague (1666), when he retired to York, where he died
(at Petergate House) on the ist of March 1682.
Herbert's chief work is the Description of the Persian Monarchy
now beinge: the Orienta.ll Indyes, lies and other parts of the Greater
Asia and Africk (1634), reissued with additions, &c., in 1638 as
Some Yeares Travels into Africa and Asia the Great (al. into divers
parts of Asia and Afrique) ; a third edition followed in 1664, and a
fourth in 1677. This is one of the best records of 17th-century
travel. Among its illustrations are remarkable sketches of the dodo,
cuneiform inscriptions and Persepolis. Herbert's Threnodia Carolina;
or, Memoirs of the two last years of the reign of that unparallell'd prince
of ever blessed memory King Charles I., was in great part printed at
the author's request in Wood's Athenae Oxonienses; in full by Dr C.
Goodall in his Collection of Tracts (1702, repr. G. & W. Nicol, 1813).
Sir William Dugdale is understood to have received assistance from
Herbert in the Monasticon Anglicanum, vol. iv. ; see two of Herbert's
papers on St John's, Beverley and Ripon collegiate church, now
cathedral, in Drake's Eboracum (appendix). Cf. also Robert Davies'
account of Herbert in The Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical
Journal, part iii., pp. 182-214 (1870), containing a facsimile of the
inscription on Herbert's tomb; Wood's Athenae, iv. 15-41; and
Fasti, ii. 26, 131, 138, 143-144, 150.
HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT, BARON
(1583-1648), English soldier, diplomatist, historian and religious
philosopher, eldest son of Richard Herbert of Montgomery Castle
(a member of a collateral branch of the family of the earls of
Pembroke) and of Magdalen, daughter of Sir Richard Newport,
was born at Eyton-on-Severn near Wroxeter on the 3rd of
March 1583. After careful private tuition he matriculated
at University College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, in
May 1596. On the 28th of February 1599 he married his cousin
Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir William Herbert (d. 1593).
He returned to Oxford with his wife and mother, continued
his studies, and obtained proficiency in modern languages as
well as in music, riding and fencing. On the accession of James I.
he presented himself at court and was created a knight of the
Bath on the 24th of July 1603. In 1608 he went to Paris, en-
joying the friendship and hospitality of the old constable de
Montmorency, and being entertained by Henry IV. On his
return, as he says himself with nai've vanity, he was " in great
esteem both in court and city, many of the greatest desiring
my company." In 1610 he served as a volunteer in the Low
Countries under the prince of Orange, whose intimate friend
he became, and distinguished himself at the capture of Juliers
from the emperor. He offered to decide the war by engaging
in single combat with a champion chosen from among the
enemy, but his challenge was declined. During an interval
in the fighting he paid a visit to Spinola, in the Spanish camp
near Wezel, and afterwards to the elector palatine at Heidelberg,
subsequently travelling in Italy. At the instance of the duke
of Savoy he led an expedition of 4000 Huguenots from Languedoc
into Piedmont to help the Savoyards against Spain, but after
nearly losing his life in the journey to Lyons he was imprisoned
on his arrival there, and the enterprise came to nothing. Thence
he returned to the Netherlands and the prince of Orange, arriving
in England in 1617. In 1619 he was made by Buckingham am-
bassador at Paris, but a quarrel with de Luynes and a challenge
sent by him to the latter occasioned his recall in 1621. After
the death of de Luynes Herbert resumed his post in February
1622. He was very popular at the French court and showed
considerable diplomatic ability, his chief objects being to
accomplish the union between Charles and Henrietta Maria and
secure the assistance of Louis XIII. for the unfortunate elector
palatine. This latter advantage he could not obtain, and he
was dismissed in April 1624. He returned home greatly in
debt and received little reward for his services beyond the Irish
peerage of Castle island in 1624 and the English barony of
Cherbury, or Chirbury, on the 7th of May 1629. In 1632 he
was appointed a member of the council of war. He attended
the king at York in 1639, and in May 1642 was imprisoned by
the parliament for urging the addition of the words " without
cause " to the resolution that the king violated his oath by
making war on parliament. He determined after this to take
no further part in the struggle, retired to Montgomery Castle,
and declined the king's summons. On the sth of September
1644 he surrendered the castle to the parliamentary forces,
returned to London, submitted, and was granted a pension
of 20 a week. In 1647 he paid a visit to Gassendi at Paris,
and died in London on the 2oth of August 1648, being buried
in the church of St Giles's in the Fields.
HERBERT OF LEA
Lord Herbert left two sons, Richard (c. 1600-1655),
succeeded him as 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Edward,
the title becoming extinct in the person of Henry Herbert, the
4th baron, grandson of the ist Lord Herbert in 1691. In 1694,
however, it was revived in favour of Henry Herbert (1654-1709),
son of Sir Henry Herbert (1595-1673), brother of the ist Lord
Herbert of Cherbury. Sir Henry was master of the revels to
Charles I. and Charles II., being busily employed in reading
and licensing plays and in supervising all kinds of public enter-
tainments. He died in April 1673; his son Henry died in
January 1709, when the latter's son Henry became 2nd , Lord
Herbert of Cherbury of the second creation. He died without
issue in April 1738, and again the barony became extinct. In
1743 it was revived for Henry Arthur Herbert (c. 1703-1772),
who five years later was created earl of Powis. This nobleman
was a great-grandson of the 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of
the first creation, and since his time the barony has been held
by the earls of Powis.
Lord Herbert's cousin, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657),
was a member of parliament under James I. and Charles I.
Having become attorney-general he was instructed by Charles
to take proceedings against some members of parliament who
had been concerned in the passing of the Grand Remonstrance;
the only result, however, was Herbert's own impeachment by
the House of Commons and his imprisonment. Later in life
he was with the exiled royal family in Holland and in France,
becoming lord keeper of the great seal to Charles IE., an office
which he had refused in 1645. He died in Paris in December
1657. One of Herbert's son was Arthur Herbert, earl of Torring-
ton, and another was Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1648-1698),
titular earl of Portland, who was made chief justice of the king's
bench in 1685 in succession to Lord Jeffreys. It was Sir Edward
who declared for the royal prerogative in the case of Godden v.
Hales, asserting that the kings of England, being sovereign
princes, could dispense with particular laws in particular cases.
After the escape of James II. to France this king made Herbert
his lord chancellor and created him earl of Portland, although
he was a Protestant and had exhibited a certain amount of
independence during 1687.
The first Lord Herbert's real claim to fame and remembrance is
derived from his writings. Herbert's first and most important work
is the De veritate prout distinguitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a
possibili, et a falso (Paris, 1624; London, 1633; translated into
French 1639, but never into English; a MS. in add. MSS. 7081.
Another, Sloane MSS. 3957, has the author's dedication to his brother
George in his own hand, dated 1622). It combines a theory of
knowledge with a partial psychology, a methodology for the investiga-
tion of truth, and a scheme of natural religion. The author's
method is prolix and often far from clear; the book is no compact
system, but it contains the skeleton and much of the soul of a com-
plete philosophy. Giving up all past theories as useless, Herbert
professedly endeavours to constitute a new and true system. Truth,
which he defines as a just conformation of the faculties with one
another and with their objects, he distributed into four classes or
stages: (i) truth in the thing or the truth of the object; (2) truth
of the appearance; (3) truth of the apprehension (conceptus) ;
(4) truth of the intellect. The faculties of the mind are as numerous
as the differences of their objects, and are accordingly innumerable;
but they may be arranged in Tour groups. The first and fundamental
and most certain group is the Natural Instinct, to which belong the
Koivai tvvoitu, the notitiae communes, which are innate, of divine
origin and indisputable. The second group, the next in certainty,
is the sensus internus (under which head Herbert discusses amongst
others love, hate, fear, conscience with its communis notitia, and
free will); the third is the sensus externus; and the fourth is
discursus, reasoning, to which, as being the least certain, we have
recourse when the other faculties fail. The ratiocinative faculties
proceed by division and analysis, by questioning, and are slow and
gradual in their movement ; they take aid from the other faculties,
those of the instinctus naturalis being always the final test. Herbert's
categories or questions to be used in investigation are ten in number
whether (a thing is), what, of what sort, how much, in what relation,
how, when, where, whence, wherefore. No faculty, rightly used, can
err "even in dreams"; badly exercised, reasoning becomes the
source of almost all our errors. The discussion of the notitiae com-
munes is the most characteristic part of the book. The exposition
of them, though highly dogmatic, is at times strikingly Kantian in
substance. " So far are these elements or sacred principles from
being derived from experience or observation that without some
of them, or at least some one of them, we can neither experience
nor even observe." Unless we felt driven by them to explore the
nature of things, " it would never occur to us to distinguish one
thing from another." It cannot be said that Herbert proves the
existence of the common notions ; he does not deduce them or even
give any list of them. But each faculty has its common notion;
and they may be distinguished by six marks, their priority, inde-
pendence, universality, certainty, necessity (for the well-being of man),
and immediacy. Law is based on certain common notions; so is
religion. Though Herbert expressly defines the scope of his book as
dealing with the intellect, not faith, it is the common notions of
religion he has illustrated most fully; and it is plain that it is in
this part of his system that he is chiefly interested. The common
notions of religion are the famous five articles, which became the
charter of the English deists (see DEISM). There is little polemic
against the received form of Christianity, but Herbert's attitude
towards the Church's doctrine is distinctly negative, and he denies
revelation except to the individual soul. In the De religione
gentilium (completed 1645, published Amsterdam, 1663, translated
into English by W. Lewis, London, 1705) he gives what may be called,
in Hume's words, "a natural history of religion." By examining
the heathen religions Herbert finds, to his great delight, the uni-
versality of his five great articles, and that these are clearly recogniz-
able under their absurdities as they are under the rites, ceremonies
and polytheism invented by sacerdotal superstition. The same vein
is maintained in the tracts De cansis errorum, an unfinished work
on logical fallacies, Religio laid, and Ad sacerdotes de religione
laid (1645). In the De veritate Herbert produced the first purely
metaphysical treatise written by an Englishman, and in the De
religione gentilium one of the earliest studies extant in comparative
theology; while both his metaphysical speculations and his
religious views are throughout distinguished by the highest originality
and provoked considerable controversy. His achievements in histori-
cal writing are vastly inferior, and vitiated by personal aims and his
preoccupation to gain the royal favour. Herbert's first historical
work is the Expeditio Buckinghami duds (published in a Latin
translation in 1656 and in the original English by the earl of Powis
for the Philobiblon Society in 1860), a defence of Buckingham's
conduct of the ill-fated expedition of 1627. The Life and Raigne
of King Henry VIII. (1649) derives its chief value from its com-
position from original documents, but is ill-proportioned, and the
author judges the character and statesmanship of Henry with too
obvious a partiality.
His poems, published in 1665 (reprinted and edited by J. Churton
Collins in 1881), show him in general a faithful disciple of Donne,
obscure and uncouth. His satires are miserable compositions, but
a few of his lyrical verses show power of reflection and true inspira-
tion, while his use of the metre afterwards employed by Tennyson
in his " In Memoriam " is particularly happy and effective. His
Latin poems are evidence of his scholarship. Three of these had
appeared together with the De causis errorum in 1645. To these
works must be added A Dialogue between a Tutor and a Pupil
(1768; a treatise on education, MS. in the Bodleian Library); a
treatise on the king's supremacy in the Church (MS. in the Record
Office and at Queen's College, Oxford), and his well-known auto-
biography, first published by Horace Walpole in 1764, a naive and
amusing narrative, too much occupied, however, with his duels and
amorous adventures, to the exclusion of more creditable incidents
in his career, such as his contributions to philosophy and history,
his intimacy with Donne, Ben Jonson, Selden and Carew, Casaubon,
Gassendi and Grotius, or his embassy in France, in relation to which
he only described the splendour of his retinue and his social triumphs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The autobiography edited by Sidney Lee with
correspondence from add. MSS. 7082 (1886); article in the Diet, of
Nat. Biog. by the same writer and the list of authorities there
collated; Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep. x. app. iv., 378; Lord Herbert
de Cherbury, by Charles de Remusat (1874); Eduard, Lord Herbert
von Cherbury, by C. Guttler (a criticism of his philosophy; 1897);
Collections Historical and Archaeological relating to Montgomery-
shire, vols. vii., xi., xx.; R. Warner's Epistolary Curiosities, i. ser. ;
Reid's works, edited by Sir William Hamilton; National Review,
xxxv. 661 (Leslie Stephen) ; Locke's Essay on Human Understand-
ing; Wood, Alh. Oxon. (Bliss), iii. 239; Gentleman's Magazine
(1816), i. 201 (print of remains of his birthplace); Lord Herbert's
Poems, ed. by J. Churton Collins (1881) ; Aubrey's Lives of Eminent
Men ; also works quoted under DEISM.
HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT, IST BARON (1810-
1861), English statesman, was the younger son of the nth earl
of Pembroke. Educated at Harrow and Oriel, Oxford, he
made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a speaker, and entered
the House of Commons as Conservative member for a division
of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Peel he held minor offices, and in
1845 was included in the cabinet as secretary at war, and again
held this office in 1852-1855, being responsible for the War
Office during the Crimean difficulties, and in 1859. It was
Sidney Herbert who sent Florence Nightingale out to the Crimea,
and he led the movement for War Office reform after the war,
342
HERBERTON HERCULANEUM
the hard work entailed causing his breakdown in health, so that
in July 1861, having been created a baron, he had to resign office,
and died on the 2nd of August 1861. His statue was placed
in front of the War Office in Pall Mall. He was succeeded in the
title by his eldest son, who later became I3th earl of Pembroke,
and the barony is now merged in that earldom; his second son
became i4th earl. Another son, the Hon. Michael Herbert
(1857-1904), was British Ambassador at Washington in succes-
sion to Lord Pauncefote.
A life of Lord Herbert by Lord Stanmore was published in 1906.
HERBERTON, a mining town of Cardwell county, Queensland,
Australia, 55 m. S.W. of Cairns. Pop. (1901) 2806. Tin was
discovered in the locality in 1879, and to this mineral the town
chiefly owes its prosperity, though copper, bismuth and some
silver and gold are also found. Atherton, 12 m. from the town,
is served by rail from Cairns, which is the port for the Herberton
district.
HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Italy, situated about
two-thirds of a mile from the Portici station of the railway from
Naples to Pompeii. The ruins are less frequently visited than
those of Pompeii, not only because they are smaller in extent
and of less obvious interest, but also because they are more
difficult of access. The history of their discovery and explora-
tion, and the artistic and literary relics which they have yielded,
are worthy, however, of particular notice. The small part of
the city, which was investigated at the spot called Gli scavi
nuovi (the new excavations) was discovered in the 1 9th century.
But the more important works were executed in the i8th century;
and of the buildings then explored at a great depth, by means of
tunnels, none is visible except the theatre, the orchestra of
which lies 85 ft. below the surface.
The brief notices of the classical writers inform us that Hercu-
laneum 1 was a small city of Campania between Neapolis and
Pompeii, that it was situated between two streams at the foot
of Vesuvius on a hill overlooking the sea, and that its harbour
was at all seasons safe. With regard to its earlier history nothing
is known. The account given by Dionysius repeats a tradition
which was most natural for a city bearing the name of Hercules.
Strabo follows up the topographical data with a few brief
historical statements "Oencoi (l\ov Kal ravrriv Kal rriv* <eijs
HonTnjiav . . . (ITO. Tvpprjvol Kai IIeXatr7oi, utra TO.VTO. ZawTrai.
But leaving the questions suggested by these names (see ETRURIA,
&c.), 2 as well as those which relate to the origin of Pompeii (<?..),
it is sufficient here to say that the first historical record about
Herculaneum has been handed down by Livy (viii. 25), where he
relates how the city fell under the power of Rome during the
Samnite wars. It remained faithful to Rome for a long time, but
it joined the Italian allies in the Social .War. Having submitted
anew in June of the year 665 (88 B.C.), it appears to have been less
severely treated than Pompeii, and to have escaped the imposition
of a colony of Sulla's veterans, although Zumpt has suspected
the contrary (Comm. epigr. i. 259). It afterwards became a
municipium, and enjoyed great prosperity towards the close of
the republic and in the earlier times of the empire, since many
noble families of Rome selected this pleasant spot for the con-
struction of splendid villas, one of which indeed belonged to
the imperial house( Seneca, De ira, iii.), and another to the
1 A fragment of L. Sisenna calls it " Oppidum tumulo in excelso
'oco propter mare, parvis moenibus, inter duas fluvias, infra Vesuviura
collocatum " (lib. iv., fragm. 53, Peters). Of one of these rivers this
historian again makes mention in the passage where probably he
related the capture of Herculaneum by Minatius Magius and T. Didius
(Velleius Paterculus ii. 16). Further topographical details are sup-
plied by Strabo, who, after speaking about Naples, continues
Ixbuwo" & <t>po<jpibv karat 'HpaK\(toi> tKKtiiikvriv is TI)I> OAXaTTav (jipav
%X ov i KaraTfvtbfj,vov At/3t 0aujua<rru>$ 306* vyiivr)v irotftv rj\v KaroiKlav.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus relates that Heracles, in the place where
he stopped with his fleet on the return voyage from Iberia, founded
a little city (vo\lxyrtv), to which he gave his own name; and he adds
that this city was in his time inhabited by the Romans, and that,
situated between Neapolis and Pompeii, it had Xt^tcpas tv travrl
/3t/3cucus (i. 44).
2 See also Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, i. 76, and Mpmmsen, Die
unteritalischen Dialekte (1850), p. 314; for later discussions see
OSCA LINGUA, PELAGIANS.
family of Calpurnius Piso. By means of the Via Campana it
had easy communication north-westward with Neapolis, Puteoli
and Capua, and thence by the Via Appia with Rome; and
southwards with Pompeii and Nuceria, and thence with Lucania
and the Bruttii. In the year A.D. 63 it suffered terribly from
the earthquake which, according to Seneca, " Campaniam
nunquam securam huius mali, indemnem tamen, et toties
defunctam metu magna strage vastavit. Nam et Herculanensis
oppidi pars ruit dubieque slant etiam quae relicta sunt " (Nat.
quaest.vi. i). Hardly had Herculaneum completed the restora-
tion of some of its principal buildings (cf. Mommsen, I.N. n.
2384; Catalogo del Museo Nazionale di Napoli, n. 1151) when
it fell beneath the great eruption of the year 79, described by
Pliny the younger (Ep. vi. 16, 20), in which Pompeii also was
destroyed, with other flourishing cities of Campania. According
to the commonest account, on the 23rd of August of that year
Pliny the elder, who had command of the Roman fleet at Misenum,
set out to render assistance to a young lady of noble family
named Rectina and others dwelling on that coast, but, as there
was no escape by sea, the little harbour having been on a sudden
filled up so as to be inaccessible, he was obliged to abandon to their
fate those people of Herculaneum who had managed to flee from
their houses, overwhelmed in a moment by the material poured
forth by Vesuvius. But the text of Pliny the younger, where
this account is given, has been subjected to various interpreta-
tions; and from the comparison of other classical testimonies
and the study of the excavations it has been concluded that it is
impossible to determine the date of the catastrophe, though
there are satisfactory arguments to justify the statement that
the event took place in the autumn. The opinion that immedi-
ately after the first outbreak of Vesuvius a torrent of lava
was ejected over Herculaneum was refuted by the scholars of
the i8th century, and their refutation is confirmed by Beule
(Le Drame du Vfsuve, p. 240 seq.). And the last recensions of
the passage quoted from Pliny, aided by an inscription, 3 prove
that Rectina cannot have been the name of the harbour described
by Beule (ib. pp. 122, 247), but the name of a lady who had
implored succour, the wife of Caesius Bassus, or rather Tascius
(cf. Pliny, ed. Keil, Leipzig, 1870; Aulus Persius, ed. Jahn,
Sat. vi.). The shore, moreover, according to the accurate studies
of the engineer Michele Ruggiero, director of the excavations, was
not altered by the causes adduced by Beule (p. 125), but by a
simpler event. " It is certain," he says (Pompei e la regione
sotterrata dal Vesuvio I'anno 79, Naples, 1879, p. 21 seq.), " that
the districts between the south and west, and those between the
south and east, were overwhelmed in two quite different ways.
From Torre Annunziata (which is believed to be the site of the
ancient Oplontii) to San Giovanni a Teduccio, for a distance of
about 9 m., there flowed a muddy eruption which in Herculaneum
and the neighbouring places, where it was most abundant,
raised the level of the country more than 65 ft. The matter
transported consisted of soil of various kinds sand, ashes,
fragments of lava, pozzolana and whitish pumice, enclosing
grains of uncalcined lime, similar in every respect to those of
Pompeii. In the part of Herculaneum already excavated the
corridors in the upper portions of the theatre are compactly
filled, up to the head of the arches, with pozzolana and pumice
transformed into tufa (which proves that the formation of this
stone may take place in a comparatively short time). Tufa is
also found in the lowest part of the city towards the sea in front
of the few houses that have been discovered; and in the very
high banks that surround them, as also in the lowest part of the
theatre, there are plainly to be seen earth, sand, ashes, fragments
* C.I.L. ii. No. 3866. This Spanish inscription refers to a Rectina
who died at the age of 18 and was the wife of Voconius Romanus.
It is quite possible that she was the Rectina whom Pliny the elder
wished to assist during the disaster of Vesuvius, for her husband,
Voconius Romanus, was an intimate friend of Pliny the younger.
The latter addressed four letters to Voconius (i. 5, ii. I, iii. 13, ix. 28),
in another letter commended him to the emperor Trajan (x. 3),
and in another (ii. 13) says of him: " Hunc ego cum simul studere-
mus arte familiariterque dilexi; [lie meus in urbe, ille in secessu
contubernalis ; cum hoc seria et jocos miscui."
HERCULANEUM
343
of lava and pumice, with little distinction of strata, almost
always confused and mingled together, and varying from spot
to spot in degree of compactness. It is clear that this immense
congeries of earth and stones could not flow in a dry state over
those 5 m. of country (in the beginning very steep, and at
intervals almost level), where certainly it would have been
arrested and all accumulated in a mound; but it must have
been borne along by a great quantity of water, the effects of
which may be distinctly recognized, not only in the filling and
choking up even of the most narrow, intricate and remote
parts of the buildings, but also in the formation of the tufa, in
which water has so great a share; for it cannot be supposed
that enough of it has filtered through so great a depth of earth.
The torrent ran in a few hours to the sea, and formed that shallow
or lagoon called by Pliny Subilum Vadum, which prevented the
ships approaching the shores." Hence it is that, while many
made their escape from Pompeii (which was overwhelmed by
the fall of the small stones and afterwards by the rain of ashes),
comparatively few can have managed to escape from Hercu-
laneum, and these, according to the interpretation given to the
inscription preserved in the National Museum (Mommsen,
I.N. n. 2455), found shelter in the neighbouring city of Neapolis,
where they inhabited a quarter called that of the buried city
(Suetonius, Titus, 8; C.I.L. x. No. 1492, in Naples: " Regio
primaria splendidissima Herculanensium "). The name of
Herculaneum, which for some time remained attached to the
site of the disaster, is mentioned in the later itineraries; but
in the course of the middle ages all recollection of it perished.
In 1719, while Prince Elbeuf of the house of Lorraine, in command
of the armies of Charles VI., was seeking crushed marble to make
plaster for his new villa near Portici, he learned from the peasants
that there were in the vicinity some pits from which they not only
quarried excellent marble, but had extracted many statues in the
course of years (see Jorio, Notizia degli scavi d' Ercolano, Naples,
1827). In 1738, while Colonel D. Rocco de Alcubierre was directing
the works for the construction of the " Reali Delizie " at Portici,
he received orders from Charles IV. (later, Charles III. of Spain)
to begin excavations on the spot where it had been reported to the
king that the Elbeuf statues had been found. At first it was believed
that a temple was being explored, but afterwards the inscriptions
proved that the building was a theatre. This discovery excited the
greatest commotion among the scholars of all nations; and many of
them hastened to Naples to see the marvellous statues of the Balbi
and the paintings on the walls. But everything was kept private,
as the government wished to reserve to itself the right of illustrating
the monuments. First of all Monsignor Bayardi was brought from
Rome and commissioned to write about the antiquities which were
being collected in the museum at Portici under the care of Camillo
Paderni, and when it was recognized that the prelate had not suffi-
cient learning, and by the progress of the excavations other most
abundant material was accumulated, about which at once scholars
and courtiers were anxious to be informed, Bernardo Tanucci,
having become secretary of state in 1755, founded the Accademia
Ercolanese, which published the principal works on Herculaneum
(Le Pilture ed i bronzi d' Ercolano, 8 vols., 1757, 1792; Disserta-
tionis isagogicae ad Herculanensium voluminum explanationem pars
prima, 1797). The criterion which guided the studies of the
academicians was far from being worthy of unqualified praise, and
consequently their work did not always meet the approval of the
best scholars who had the opportunity of seeing the monuments.
Among these was Winckelmann, who in his letters gave ample
notices of the excavations and the antiquities which he was able to
visit on several occasions. Other notices were furnished by Gori,
Symbolae litterariae Florentinae (1748, 1751), by Marcello Venuti,
Descrizione delle prime scoperte d' Ercolano (Rome, 1 748) , and Scipione
Maffei, Tre lettere intorno alle scoperte d' Ercolano (Verona, 1748).
The excavations, which continued for more than forty years (1738-
1780), were executed at first under the immediate direction of
Alcubierre (1738-1741), and then with the assistance of the engineers
Rorro and Bardet (1741-1745), Carl Weber (1750-1764), and
Francesco La Vega. After the death of Alcubierre (1780) the
last-named was appointed director-in-chief of the excayations; but
from that time the investigations at Herculaneum were intermitted,
and the researches at Pompeii were vigorously carried on. Resumed
in 1827, the excavations at Herculaneum were shortly after sus-
pended, nor were the new attempts made in 1866 with the money
bestowed by King Victor Emmanuel attended with success, being
impeded by the many dangers arising from the houses built overhead.
The meagreness of the results obtained by the occasional works
executed m the last century, and the fact that the investigators were
unfortunate enough to strike upon places already explored, gave
rise to the opinion that the whole area of the city had been crossed
by tunnels in the time of Charles III. and in the beginning of the
reign of Ferdinand IV. And although it is recognized that the works
had not been prosecuted with the caution that they required, yet
in view of the serious difficulties that would attend the collection
of the little that had been left by the first excavators, every proposal
for new investigations has been abandoned. But in a memoir which
Professor Barnabei read in the Reale Accademia dei Lincei (Atti
delta R. Ac. series iii. vol. ii. p. 751) he undertook to prove that
the researches made by the government in the 1 8th century did not
cover any great area. The antiquities excavated at Herculaneum
in that century (i.e. the l8th) form a collection of the highest scientific
and artistic value. They come partly from the buildings of the ancient
city (theatre, basilica, houses and forum), and partly from the
private villa of a great Roman famijy (cf. Comparetti and de Petra,
La Villa Ercolanese dei Pisoni, Turin, 1883). From the city come,
among many other marble statues, the two equestrian statues of
the Balbi (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. pi. xxxviii.-xxxix.), and the great
imperial and municipal bronze statues. Mural paintings of extra-
ordinary beauty were also discovered here, such as those that repre-
sent Theseus after the slaughter of the Minotaur (Helbig, Wandge-
malde, Leipzig, 1878, No. 1214), Chiron teaching Achilles the art
of playing on the lyre (ibid. No. 1291), and Hercules finding Telephus
who is being suckled by the hind (ibid. No. 1 143).
Notwithstanding subsequent discoveries of stupendous paintings
in the gardens of the Villa Farnesina on the banks of the Tiber, the
monochromes of Herculaneum remain among the finest specimens
of the exquisite taste and consummate skill displayed by the ancient
artists. Among the best preserved is Leto and Niobe, which has
been the subject of so many studies and so many publications (ibid.
No. 1706). There is also a considerable number of lapidary inscrip-
tions edited in vol. ii. of the epigraphic collection of the Cat. del
Mus. Naz. di Napoli. The Villa Suburbana has given us a good
number of marble busts, and the so-called statue of Aristides, but
above all that splendid collection of bronze statues and busts mostly
reproductions of famous Greek works now to be found in the Naples
Museum. It is thence that we have obtained the reposing Hermes,
the drunken Silenus, the sleeping Faunus, the dancing girls, the
bust called Plato's, that believed to be Seneca's, the two quoit-
throwers or discoboli, and so many masterpieces more, figured by
the academicians in their volume on the bronzes. But a still further
discovery made in the Villa Suburbana contributed to magnify the
greatness of Herculaneum; within its walls was found the famous
library, of which, counting both entire and fragmentary volumes, 1 803
papyri are preserved. Among the nations which took the greatest
interest in the discovery of the Herculaneum library, the most
honourable rank belongs to England, which sent Hayter and other
scholars to Naples to solicit the publication of the volumes. Of the
341 papyri which have been unrolled, 195 have been published
(Herculanensium voluminum quae supersunt (Naples, 1793-1809);
Collectio_ altera, 1862-1876). They contain works by Epicurus,
Demetrius, Polystratus, Colotes, Chrysippus, Carniscus and Philo-
demus. The names of the authors are in themselves sufficient to
show that the library belonged to a person whose principal study
was the Epicurean philosophy. But of the great master of this
school only a few works have been found. Of his treatise Hipl <t>y<?eas,
divided into 37 books, it is known that there were three copies in the
library (Coll. alt. vi.). Professor Comparetti, studying the first
fasciculus of volume xi. of the same new collection, recognized most
important fragments of the Ethics of Epicurus, and these he published
in 1879 in Nos. ix. and xi. of the Rivista di jUologia e d' istruzione
classica (Turin). Even the other authors above mentioned are but
poorly represented, with the exception of Philodemus, of whom
26 different treatises have been recognized. Hut all these philosophic
discussions, belonging for the most part to an author less than
secondary among the Epicureans, fall short of the high expectations
excited by the first discovery of the library. Among the many
volumes unrolled only a few are of historical importance that
edited by Biicheler, which treats of the philosophers of the academy
(Acad. phil. index Hercul., Greifswald, 1859), and that edited by
Comparetti, which deals with the Stoics ("Papiro ercolanese inedito.
in Rivista difil. e d' ist. class, anno iii. fasc. x.-xii.). To appreciate the
value of the volumes unrolled but not yet published (for 146 vols.
were only copied and not printed) the student must read Cpm-
paretti's paper, " Relazione sui papiri ercolanesi." Contributions
of some value have been made to the study of Herculaneum frag-
ments by Spengel (" Die hercul. Rollen," in Philologus, 1863, suppl.
vol.), and Gomperz (Hercul. Studien, Leipzig, 1 865-1 866, cf.Zeitschr.
f. osterr. Gymn., 1867-1872). There are in the library some volumes
written in Latin, which, according to Boot (Notice sur les manuscrits
trouves d. Herculaneum, Amsterdam, 1845), were found tied up in a
bundle apart. Of these we know 18, but they are all so damaged
that hardly any of them can be deciphered. One with verses
relating to the battle of Actium is believed to belong to a poem of
Rabirius. The numerical preponderance of the works of Philodemus
led some people to believe that this had been the library of that
philosopher. Professor Comparetti has thrown out a conjecture
(cf. Comparetti and de Petra, op. cit.) that the library was collected
by Lucius Piso Caesoninus (see Regione sotterrata dal Vesuvio,
Naples, 1879, p. 159 sq.), but this conjecture has not found many
supporters. Professor de Petra (in the same work) has also published
the official notices upon the antiquities unearthed in the sumptuous
344
HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO
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VII Belvedere
villa, giving the plan executed by Weber and recovered by chance
by the director of excavations, Michele Ruggiero. This plan, which
is here reproduced from de Petra * is the only satisfactory document
for the topography of Herculaneum; for the plan of the theatre
published in the Bullettino archeologico italiano (Naples, 1861, i.
p. 53, tab. iii.) was executed in 1747, when the excavations were not
completed. And even for the history of the " finds " made in the
Villa Suburbana the necessity for further studies makes itself felt,
since there is a lack of agreement between the accounts given by
Alcubierre and Weber and those communicated to the Philosophical
Transactions (London, vol. x.) by Camillo Paderni, conservator of
the Portici Museum.
Among the older works relating to Herculaneum, in addition to
those already quoted, may be mentioned de Brosses, Lettre sur
I'etat actuel de la ville souterraine d'Heradea (Paris, 1750); Seigneux
de Correvon, Lettre sur la decouyerte de I'ancienne mile d'Herculane
(Yverdon, 1770); David, Les Antiquites d' Herculaneum (Paris, 1780);
D' Ancora Gaetano, Frospetto stprico-fisico degli scan d' Ercolano e
di Pompei (Naples, 1803) ; Venuti, Prime Scoverte di Ercolano (Rome,
1748); and Romanelli, Viaggio ad Ercolano (Naples, 1811). A full
list will be found in vol. i. of Museo Borbonico (Naples, 1824), pp. i-i i.
The most important reference work is C. Waldstein and L. Shoo-
bridge, Herculaneum, Past, Present and Future (London, 1908); it
contains full references to the history and the explorations, and to
the buildings and objects found (with illustrations). Miss E. R.
Barker's Buried Herculaneum (1908) is exceedingly useful.
In 1904 Professor Waldstein expounded both in Europe and in
America an international scheme for thorough investigation of the
site. Negotiations of a highly complex character ensued with the
Italian government, which ultimately in 1908 decided that the work
should be undertaken by Italian scholars with Italian funds. The
work was begun in the autumn of 1908, but financial difficulties with
property owners in Resina immediately arose with the result that
progress was practically stopped. (F. B.)
HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO, ALEXANDRE
(1810-1877), Portuguese historian, was born in Lisbon of humble
stock, his grandfather having been a foreman stonemason in the
royal employ. He received his early education, comprising
Latin, logic and rhetoric, at the Necessidades Monastery, and
spent a year at the Royal Marine Academy studying mathematics
with the intention of entering on a commercial career. In 1828
Portugal fell under the absolute rule of D. Miguel, and Herculano,
becoming involved in the unsuccessful military pronunciamento
of August 1831, had to leave Portugal clandestinely and take
refuge in England and France. In 1832 he accompanied the
Liberal expedition to Terceira as a volunteer, and was one of
D. Pedro's famous army of 7500 men who landed at the Mindello
and occupied Oporto. He took part in all the actions of the great
siege, and at the same time served as a librarian in the city
archives. He published his first volume of verses, A Voz de
Propheta, in 1832, and two years later another entitled A Harpa
do Crente. Privation had made a man of him, and in these
little books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and consider-
able power of expression. The stirring incidents in the political
emancipation of Portugal inspired his muse, and he describes
the bitterness of exile, the adventurous expedition to Terceira,
the heroic defence of Oporto, and the final combats of liberty.
In 1837 he founded the Panorama in imitation of the English
Penny Magazine, and there and in Illustra^do he published the
historical tales which were afterwards collected into Lendas e
Narratives; in the same year he became royal librarian at the
Ajuda Palace, which enabled him to continue his studies
of the past. The Panorama had a large circulation and in-
fluence, and Herculano's biographical sketches of great men
and his articles of literary and historical criticism did much to
educate the middle class by acquainting them with the story
of their nation, and with the progress of knowledge and the
state of letters in foreign countries. On entering parliament
in 1840 he resigned the editorship to devote himself to history,
but he still remained its most important contributor.
Up to the age of twenty-five Herculano had been a poet, but
he then abandoned poetry to Garrett, and after several essays
in that direction he definitely introduced the historical novel
into Portugal in 1844 by a book written in imitation of Walter
Scott. Eurico treats of the fall of the Visigothic monarchy
and the beginnings of resistance in the Asturias which gave
1 The diagram shows the arrangement and proportions of the Villa
Ercolanese. The dotted lines show the course taken by the excava-
tions, which began at the lower part of the plan.
HERCULES
345
fcirth to the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula, while the
Monge de Cister, published in 1848, describes the time of King
John I., when the middle class and the municipalities first
asserted their power and elected a king in opposition to the
nobility. From an artistic standpoint, these stories are rather
laboured productions, besides being ultra-romantic in tone;
but it must be remembered that they were written mainly with
an educational object, and, moreover, they deserve high praise
for their style. Herculano had greater book learning than
Scott, but lacked descriptive talent and skill in dialogue. His
touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic power, which
accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their influence was
as great as their followers were many, and they still find readers.
These and editions of two old chronicles, the Chronica de D.
Sebastiao (1839) and the Annaes del rei D. Joao III (1844),
prepared Herculano for his life's work, and the year 1846 saw
the first volume of his History of Portugal from the Beginning
of the Monarchy to the end of the Reign of Ajfonso III., a book
written on critical lines and based on documents. The difficulties
he encountered in producing it were very great, for the founda-
tions had been ill-prepared by his predecessors, and he was
obliged to be artisan and architect at the same time. He had to
collect MSS. from all parts of Portugal, decipher, classify and
weigh them before he could begin work, and then he found it
necessary to break with precedents and destroy traditions.
Serious students in Portugal and abroad welcomed the book
as an historical work of the first rank, for its evidence of careful
research, its able marshalling of facts, its learning and its painful
accuracy, while the sculptural simplicity of the style and the
correctness of the diction have made it a Portuguese classic.
The first volume, however, gave rise to a celebrated controversy,
because Herculano had reduced the famous battle of Ourique,
which was supposed to have seen the birth of the Portuguese
monarchy, to the dimensions of a mere skirmish, and denied the
apparition of Christ to King Affonso, a fable first circulated in
the i sth century. Herculano was denounced from the pulpit
and the press for his lack of patriotism and piety, and after
bearing the attack for some time his pride drove him to reply.
In a letter to the cardinal patriarch of Lisbon entitled Eu e o
Clero (1850), he denounced the fanaticism and ignorance of the
clergy in plain terms, and this provoked a fierce pamphlet war
marked by much personal abuse. The professor of Arabic in
Lisbon intervened to sustain the accepted view of the battle,
and charged Herculano and his supporter Gayangos with
ignorance of the Arab historians and of their language. The
conduct of the controversy, which, lasted some years, did credit
to none of the contending parties, but Herculano's statement
of the facts is now universally accepted as correct. The second
volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in 1849 and the
fourth in 1853. In his youth, the excesses of absolutism had
made Herculano a Liberal, and the attacks on his history turned
this man, full of sentiment and deep religious conviction, into an
anti-clerical who began to distinguish between political Catho-
licism and Christianity. His History of the Origin and Establish-
ment of the Inquisition (1854-1855), relating the thirty years'
struggle between King John III. and the Jews he to establish
the tribunal and they to prevent him was compiled, as the
preface showed, to stem the Ultramontane reaction, but none
the less carried weight because it was a recital of events with
little or no comment or evidence of passion in its author. Next
to these two books his study, Do Eslado das classes servas na
Peninsula desde o VII. ate o XII. seculo, is Herculano's most
valuable contribution to history. In 1856 he began editing a
series of Portugalliae monumenta historica, but personal differ-
ences between him and the keeper of the Archive office, which
he was forced to frequent, caused him to interrupt his historical
studies, and on the death of his friend King Pedro V. he left the
Ajuda and retired to a country house near Santarem.
Disillusioned with men and despairing of the future of his
country, he spent the rest of his life devoted to agricultural
pursuits, and rarely emerged from his retirement; when he
did so, it was to fight political and religious reaction. Once he
lad defended the monastic orders, advocating their reform and
not their suppression, supported the rural clergy and idealized
the village priest in his Parocho da Aldeia, after the manner of
Goldsmith in the Vicar of Wakefield. Unfortunately, however,
the brilliant epoch of the alliance of Liberalism and Catholicism,
represented on its literary side by Chateaubriand and byLamar-
tine, to whose poetic school Herculano had belonged, was past,
and fanatical attacks and the progress of events drove this
Former champion of the Church into conflict with the ecclesiastical
authorities. His protest against the Concordat of the zist of
February 1857 between Portugal and the Holy See, regulating
the Portuguese Padroado in the East, his successful opposition
to the entry of foreign religious orders, and his advocacy of civil
marriage, were the chief landmarks in his battle with Ultra-
montanism, and his Esludos sobre o Casamento Civil were put on
the Index. Finally in 1871 he attacked the dogmas of the
Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility, and fell into
line with the Old Catholics. In the domain of letters he remained
until his death a veritable pontiff, and an article or book of his
was an event celebrated from one end of Portugal to the other.
The nation continued to look up to him for mental leadership,
but, in his later years, lacking hope himself, he could not stimulate
others or use to advantage the powers conferred upon him. In
politics he remained a constitutional Liberal of the old type,
and for him the people were the middle classes in opposition to
the lower, which he saw to have been the supporters of tyranny
in all ages, while he considered Radicalism to mean a return via
anarchy to absolutism. However, though he conducted a political
propaganda in the newspaper press in his early days, Herculano
never exercised much influence in politics. Grave as most of
his writings are, they include a short description of a crossing
from Jersey to Granville, in which he satirizes English character
and customs, and reveals an unexpected sense of humour.
A rare capacity for tedious work, a dour Catonian rectitude, a
passion for truth, pride, irritability at criticism and independence
of character, are the marks of Herculano as a man. He could
be broken but never bent, and his rude frankness accorded
with his hard, sombre face, and alienated men's sympathies
though it did not lose him their respect. His lyrism is vigorous,
feeling, austere and almost entirely subjective and personal,
while his pamphlets are distinguished by energy of conviction,
strength of affirmation, and contempt for weaker and more
ignorant opponents. His History of Portugal is a great but
incomplete monument. A lack of imagination and of the
philosophic spirit prevented him from penetrating or drawing
characters, but his analytical gift, joined to persevering toil
and honesty of purpose enabled him to present a faithful account
of ascertained facts and a satisfactory and lucid explanation
of political and economic events. His remains lie in a majestic
tomb in the Jeronymos at Belem, near Lisbon, which was raised
by public subscription to the greatest modern historian of
Portugal and of the Peninsula. His more important works have
gone through many editions and his name is still one to conjure
with.
. AUTHORITIES. Antonio de Serpa Pimentel, Alexandre Herculano
e o sen tempo (Lisbon, 1881); A. Romero Ortiz, La Litteratura
Portuguesa en el siglo XIX. (Madrid, 1869); Moniz Barreto, Revista
de Portugal (July 1889). (E. PR.)
HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles), the latinized form
of the mythical Heracles, the chief national hero of Hellas.
The name 'HpaicXrjsC'Hpa, and xXeos = glory) is explained as " re-
nowned through Hera " (i.e. in consequence of her persecution)
or " the glory of Hera " i.e. of Argos. The thoroughly national
character of Heracles is shown by his being the mythical ancestor
of the Dorian dynastic tribe, while revered by Ionian Athens,
Lelegian Opus and Aeolo-Phoenician Thebes, and closely
associated with the Achaean heroes Peleus and Telamon. The
Perseid Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon of Tiryns, was Hercules'
mother, Zeus his father. After his father he is often called
Amphitryoniades, and also Alcides, after the Perseid Alcaeus,
father of Amphitryon. His mother and her husband lived at
Thebes in exile as guests of King Creon. By the craft of Hera,
34-6
HERCULES
his foe through life, his birth was delayed, and that of Eurystheus,
son of Sthenelus of Argos, hastened, Zeus having in effect sworn
that the elder of the two should rule the realm of Perseus. Hera
sent two serpents to destory the new-born Hercules, but he
strangled them. He was trained in all manly accomplishments
by heroes of the highest renown in each, until in a transport
of anger at a reprimand he slew Linus, his instructor in music,
with the lyre. Thereupon he was sent to tend Amphitryon's
oxen, and at this period slew the lion of Mount Cithaeron. By
freeing Thebes from paying tribute to the Minyansof Orchomenus
he won Creon's daughter, Megara, to wife. Her children by him
he killed in a frenzy induced by Hera. After purification he
was sent by the Pythia to serve Eurystheus. Thus began the
cycle of the twelve labours.
1. Wrestling with the Neraean lion.
2. Destruction of the Lernean hydra.
3. Capture of the Arcadian hind (a stag in art).
4. Capture of the boar of Erymanthus, while chasing which he
fought the Centaurs and killed his friends Chiron and Pholus, this
homicide leading to Demeter's institution of mysteries.
5. Cleansing of the stables of Augeas.
6. Shooting the Stymphalian birds.
7. Capture of the Cretan bull subsequently slain by Theseus at
Marathon.
8. Capture of the man-eating mares of the Thracian Diomedes.
9. Seizure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons.
10. Bringing the oxen of Geryones from Erythia in the far west,
which errand involved many adventures in the coast lands of the
Mediterranean, and the setting up of the " Pillars of Hercules " at
the Straits of Gibraltar.
11. Bringing the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides.
12. Carrying Cerberus from Hades to the upper world.
Most of the labours lead to various adventures called wapepya.
On Hercules' return to Thebes he gave his wife Megara to his
friend and charioteer lolaus, son of Iphicles, and by beating
Eurytus of Oechalia and his sons in a shooting match won a
claim to the hand of his daughter lole, whose family, however,
except her brother Iphitus, withheld their consent to the union.
Iphitus persuaded Hercules to search for Eurytus' lost oxen,
but was killed by him at Tiryns in a frenzy. He consulted the
Pythia about a cure for the consequent madness, but she declined
to answer him. Whereupon he seized the oracular tripod,
and so entered upon a contest with Apollo, which Zeus stopped
by sending a flash of lightning between the combatants. The
Pythia then sent him to serve the Lydian queen Omphale. He
then, with Telamon, Peleus and Theseus, took Troy. He next
helped the gods in the great battle against the giants. He
destroyed sundry sea-monsters, set free the bound Prometheus,
took part in the Argonautic voyage and the Calydonian boar
hunt, made war against Augeas, and against Nestor and the
Pylians, and restored Tyndareus to the sovereignty of Lacedae-
mon. He sustained many single combats, one very famous
struggle being the wrestling with the Libyan Antaeus, son of
Poseidon and Ge (Earth), who had to be held in the air, as he
grew stronger every time he touched his mother, Earth.
Hercules withstood Ares, Poseidon and Hera, as well as Apollo.
The close of his career is assigned to Aetolia and Trachis. He
wrestles with Achelous for Deianeira (" destructive to husband "),
daughter of Oeneus, king of Calydon, vanquishes the river
god, and breaks off one of his horns, which as a horn of plenty
is found as an attribute of Hercules in art. Driven from Calydon
for homicide, he goes with Deianeira to Trachis. On the way
he slays the centaur Nessus, who persuades Deianeira that
his blood is a love-charm. From Trachis he wages successful
war against the Dryopes and Lapithae as ally of Aegimius, king
of the Dorians, who promised him a third of his realm, and after
his death adopted Hyllus, his son by Deianeira. Finally Hercules
attacks Eurytus, takes Oechalia and carries off lola. Thereupon
Deianeira, prompted by love and jealousy, sends him a tunic
dipped in the blood of Nessus, and the unsuspecting hero puts
it on just before sacrificing at the headland of Cenaeum in
Euboea. (So far the dithyramb of Bacchylides xv. [xvi.],
agrees with Sophocles' Trachiniae as to the hero's end.) Mad
with pain, he seizes Lichas, the messenger who had brought
the fatal garment, and hurls him on the rocks; and then he
wanders in agony to Mount Oeta, where he mounts a pyre, which,
however, no one will kindle. At last Poeas, father of Philoctetes,
takes pity on him, and is rewarded with the gift of his bow and
arrows. The immortal part of Hercules passes to Olympus,
where he is reconciled to Hera and weds her daughter Hebe.
This account of the hero's principal labours, exploits and crimes
is derived from the mythologists Apollodorus and Diodorus,
who probably followed the Heradeia by Peisander of Rhodes
as to the twelve labours or that of Panyasis of Halicarnassus,
but sundry variations of order and incident are found in classical
literature.
In one aspect Hercules is clearly a sun-god, being identified,
especially in Cyprus and in Thasos (as Makar), with the Tyrian
Melkarth. The third and twelfth labours may be solar, the horned
hind representing the moon, and the carrying of Cerberus to the
upper world an eclipse, while the last episode of the hero's tragedy
is possibly a complete solar myth developed at Trachis. The
winter sun is seen rising over the Cenaean promontory to toil
across to Mount Oeta and disappear over it in a bank of fiery
cloud. But more important and less speculative is the hero's aspect
as a national type or an amalgamation of tribal types of physical
force, of dauntless effort and endurance, of militant civilization,
and of Hellenic enterprise, " stronger than everything except
his own passions," and " at once above and below the noblest
type of man " (Jebb). The fifth labour seems to symbolize
some great improvement in the drainage of Elis. Strenuous
devotion to the deliverance of mankind from dangers and
pests is the " virtue " which, in Prodicus' famous apologue on
the Choice of Hercules, the hero preferred to an easy and happy
life. Ethically, Hercules symbolizes the attainment of glory
and immortality by toil and suffering.
The Old-Dorian Hercules is represented in three cycles of
myth, the Argive, the Boeotian and the Thessalian; the legends
of Arcadia, Aetolia, Lydia, &c., and Italy are either local or
symbolical and comparatively late. The fatality by which
Hercules kills so many friends as well as foes recalls the destroying
Apollo; while his career frequently illustrates the Delphic views
on blood-guiltiness and expiation. As Apollo's champion
Hercules is Daphnephoros, and fights Cycnus and Amyntor
to keep open the sacred way from Tempe to Delphi. As the
Dorian tutelar he aids Tyndareus and Aegimius. As patron
of maritime adventure (riyftiovios) he struggles with Nereus
and Triton, slays Eryx and Busiris, and perhaps captures the
wild horses and oxen, which may stand for pirates. As a god of
athletes he is often a wrestler (iraXai^coi') , and founds the Olympian
games. In comedy and occasionally in myths he is depicted
as voracious (/3ou<d7oj). He is also represented as the com-
panion of Dionysus, especially in Asia Minor. The " Resting "
(avaTravonevos) Hercules is, as at Thermopylae and near Himera,
the natural tutelar of hot springs in conjunction with his
protectress Athena, who is usually depicted attending him on
ancient vases. The glorified Hercules was worshipped both
as a god and a hero. In the Attic deme Melita he was invoked
as dXetKo.Kos ("Helper in ills"), at Olympia as KaXXw/cos
(" Nobly-victorious "), in the rustic worship of the Oetaeans
as Kopvoviuv (Kopvoices, " locusts "), by the Erythraeans of
Ionia as ITTOKTOVOS (" Canker-worm-slayer "). He was oxorijp
(" Saviour "), i.e. a protector of voyagers, at Thasos and
Smyrna. Games in his honour were held at Thebes and Marathon
and annual festivals in every deme of Attica, in Sicyon and
Agyrium (Sicily). His guardian goddess was Athena (Homer,
//. viii. 638; Bacchylides v. 91 f.). In early poetry, as often
in art, he is an archer, afterwards a club-wielder and fully-
armed warrior. In early art the adult Hercules, is bearded,
but not long-haired. Later he is sometimes youthful and beard-
less, always with short curly hair and thick neck, the lower
part of the brow prominent. A lion's skin is generally worn
or carried. Lysippus worked out the finest type of sculptured
Hercules, of which the Farnese by Glycon is a grand specimen.
The infantine struggle with serpents was a favourite subject.
Quite distinct was the Idaean Hercules, a Cretan Dactyl con-
nected with the cult of Rhea or Cybele. The Greeks recognized
HERCULES HERDER
347
Hercules in an Egyptian deity Chons and an Indian Dorsanes,
not to mention personages of other mythologies.
Hercules is supposed to have visited Italy on his return from
Erythia, when he slew Cacus, son of Vulcan, the giant of the
Aventine mount of Rome, who had stolen his oxen. To this
victory was assigned the founding of the Ara maxima by Evander.
His worship, introduced from the Greek colonies in Etruria
and in the south of Italy, seems to have been established in Rome
from the earliest times, as two old Patrician genles were associated
with his cult and the Fabii claimed him as their ancestor. The
tithes vowed to him by Romans and men of Sora and Reate,
for safety on journeys and voyages, furnished sacrifices and (in
Rome) public entertainment (polluctum). Tibur was a special
seat of his cult. In Rome he was patron of gladiators, as of
athletes in Greece. With respect to the Roman relations of
the hero, it is manifest that the native myths of Recaranus,
or Sancus, or Dius Fidius, were transferred to the Hellenic
Hercules. (C. A. M. F.)
See L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed., Berlin, 1900) ;
W. H. Roscher, Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der griechischen und romischen
Mythologie (1884); Sir R. C. Jebb, Trachiniae of Sophocles (Introd.),
(1892); Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiyuites
grecques el romaines; Br6al, Hercule et Cacus, 1863; J. G. Winter,
Myth of Hercules at Rome (New York, 1910).
In the article GREEK ART, fig. 16 represents Heracles wrestling
with the river-god Achelous; fig. 20 (from a small pediment, possibly
of a shrine of the hero) the slaying of the Hydra; fig. 35 Heracles
holding up the sky on a cushion.
Hercules was a favourite figure in French medieval literature.
In the romance of Alexander the tent of the hero is decorated with
incidents from his adventures. In the prose romance Les Prouesscs
et vaillances du preux Hercule (Paris, 1500), the hero's labours are
represented as having been performed in honour of a Boeotian
princess; Pluto is a king dwelling in a dismal castle; the Fates are
duennas watching Proserpine; the entrance to Pluto's castle is
watched by the giant Cerberus. Hercules conquers Spain and takes
Merida from Geryon. The book is translated into English as Hercules
of Greece (n. d.). Fragments of a French poem on the subject will
be found in the Bulletin de la soc. des anciens textes franfais (1877).
Don Enrique de Villena took from Les Prouesses his prose Los Doze
Trabaips de Hercules (Zamora, 1483 and 1499), and Fernandez de
Heredia wrote Trabajos y afanes de Hercules (Madrid, 1682), which
belies its title, being a collection of adages and allegories. Le Fatiche
d' Ercole (1475) is a romance in poetic prose by Pietro Bassi, and the
Dodeci Travagli di Ercole (1544) a poem by J. Perillos.
HERCULES, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and
Aratus (3rd century B.C.) and catalogued by Ptolemy (29 stars)
and Tycho Brahe (28 stars). Represented by a man kneeling,
this constellation was first known as " the man on his knees,"
and was afterwards called Cetheus, Theseus and Hercules
by the ancient Greeks. Interesting objects in this constellation
are: a Herculis, a fine coloured double star, composed of an
orange star of magnitude 2|, and a blue star of magnitude 6;
f Herculis, a binary star, discovered by Sir William Herschel
in 1782; one component is a yellow star of the third magnitude,
the other a bluish, which appears to vary from red to blue, of
magnitude 6; g and u Herculis, irregularly variable stars;
and the cluster M . ij Herculis, the finest globular cluster in the
northern hemisphere, containing at least 5000 stars and of the
1000 determined only 2 are variable.
HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng.
form was heard; cf. Ger. Herde, Swed. and Dan. hjord; the
Sans, ca'rdhas, which shows the pre-Teutonic form, means
a troop), a number of animals of one kind driven or fed together,
usually applied to cattle as " flock " is to sheep, but used also
of whales, porpoises, &c., and of birds, as swans, cranes and
curlews. A " herd-book " is a book containing the pedigree
and other information of any breed of cattle or pigs, like the
" flock-book " for sheep or " stud-book " for horses. Formerly
the word " herdwick " was applied to the pasture ground under
the care of a shepherd, and it is now used of a special hardy
breed of sheep in Cumberland and Westmorland. The word
" herd " is also applied in a disparaging sense to a company of
people, a mob or rabble, as " the vulgar herd." As the name
for a keeper of a herd or flock of domestic animals, the herdsman,
it is usually qualified to denote the kind of animal under his
protection, as swine-herd, shepherd, &c., but in Ireland, Scotland
and the north of England, " herd " alone is commonly used.
HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON (1744-1803), one of
the most prolific and influential writers that Germany has pro-
duced, was born in Mohrungen, a small town in East Prussia,
on the 25th of August 1744. Like his contemporary Lessing,
Herder had throughout his life to struggle against adverse
circumstances. His father was poor, having to put together a
subsistence by uniting the humble offices of sexton, choir-singer
and petty schoolmaster. After receiving some rudimentary
instruction from his father, the boy was sent to the grammar
school of his native town. The mode of discipline practised
by the pedantic and irritable old man who stood at the head of
this institution was not at all to the young student's liking,
and the impression made upon him stimulated him later on to
work out his projects of school reform. The hardships of his
early years drove him to introspection and to solitary communion
with nature, and thus favoured a more than proportionate
development of the sentimental and poetic side of his mind.
When quite young he expressed a wish to become a minister
of the gospel, but his aspirations were discouraged by the
local clergyman. In 1762, at the age of eighteen, he went up
to Konigsberg with the intention of studying medicine, but
finding himself unequal to the operations of the dissecting-room,
he abandoned this object, and, by the help of one or two friends
and his own self-supporting labours, followed out his earlier
idea of the clerical profession by joining the university. There
he came under the influence of Kant, who was just then passing
from physical to metaphysical problems. Without becoming
a disciple of Kant, young Herder was deeply stimulated to fresh
critical inquiry by that thinker's revolutionary ideas in philo-
sophy. To Kant's lectures and conversations he further owed
something of his large interest in cosmological and anthropolo-
gical problems. Among the writers whom he most carefully read
were Plato, Hume, Shaftesbury, Leibnitz, Diderot and Rousseau.
Another personal influence under which he fell at Konigsberg,
and which was destined to be far more permanent, was that of
J. G. Hamann, " the northern Mage." This writer had already
won a name, and in young Herder he found a mind well fitted
to be the receptacle and vehicle of his new ideas on literature.
From this vague, incoherent, yet gifted writer our author acquired
some of his strong feeling for the naive element in poetry, and for
the earliest developments of national literature. Even before
he went to Konigsberg he had begun to compose verses, and at
the age of twenty he took up the pen as a chief occupation.
His first published writings were occasional poems and reviews
contributed to the Konigsbergische Zeitung. Soon after this he
got an appointment at Riga, as assistant master at the cathedral
school, and a few years later, became assistant pastor. In
this busy commercial town, in somewhat improved pecuniary
and social circumstances, he developed the main ideas
of his writings. In the year 1767 he published his first
considerable work Fragmenle uber die neuere deutsche Literatur,
which at once made him widely known and secured for him the
favourable interest of Lessing. From this time he continued
to pour forth a number of critical writings on literature, art, &c.
His bold ideas on these subjects, which were a great advance
even on Lessing's doctrines, naturally excited hostile criticism,
and in consequence of this opposition, which took the form of
aspersions on his religious orthodoxy, he resolved to leave
Riga. He was much carried away at this time by the idea of
a radical reform of social life in Livonia, which (after the example
of Rousseau) he thought to effect by means of a better method
of school-training. With this plan in view he began (1769) a
tour through France, England, Holland, &c., for the purpose of
collecting information , respecting their systems of education.
It was during the solitude of his voyage to France, when on deck
at night, that he first shaped his idea of the genesis of primitive
poetry, and of the gradual evolution of humanity. Having
received an offer of an appointment as travelling tutor and chap-
lain to the young prince of Eutin-Holstein, he abandoned his
somewhat visionary scheme of a social reconstruction of a
348
HERDER
Russian province. He has, however, left a curious sketch of
his projected school reforms. His new duties led him to Strass-
burg, where he met the young Goethe, on whose poetical develop-
ment he exercised so potent an influence. At Darmstadt he
made the acquaintance of Caroline Flachsland, to whom he soon
became betrothed, and who for the rest of his life supplied him
with that abundance of consolatory sympathy which his sensitive
and rather querulous nature appeared to require. The engage-
ment as tutor did not prove an agreeable one, and he soon threw
it up (1771) in favour of an appointment as court preacher
and member of the consistory at Biickeburg. Here he had to
encounter bitter opposition from the orthodox clergy and their
followers, among whom he was regarded as a freethinker. His
health continued poor, and a fistula in the eye, from which he
had suffered from early childhood, and to cure which he had
undergone a number of painful operations, continued to trouble
him. Further, pecuniary difficulties, from which he never
long managed to keep himself free, by delaying his marriage,
added to his depression. Notwithstanding these trying circum-
stances he resumed literary work, which his travels had inter-
rupted. For some time he had been greatly interested by the
poetry of the north, more particularly Percy's Reliques, the
poems of " Ossian " (in the genuineness of which he like many
others believed) and the works of Shakespeare. Under the
influence of this reading he now finally broke with classicism
and became one of the leaders of the new Sturm und Drang
movement. He co-operated with a band of young writers at
Darmstadt and Frankfort, including Goethe, who in a journal
of their own sought to diffuse the new ideas. His marriage took
place in 1773. In 1776 he obtained through Goethe's influence
the post of general superintendent and court preacher at Weimar,
where he passed the rest of his life. There he enjoyed the society
of Goethe, Wieland, Jean Paul (who came to Weimar in order
to be near Herder), and others, the patronage of the court, with
whom as a preacher he was very popular, and an opportunity
of carrying out some of his ideas of school reform. Yet the social
atmosphere of the place did not suit him. His personal relations
with Goethe again and again became embittered. This, added
to ill-health, served to intensify a natural irritability of tempera-
ment, and the history of his later Weimar days is a rather
dreary page in the chronicles of literary life. He had valued
more than anything else a teacher's influence over other minds,
and as he began to feel that he was losing it he grew jealous of
the success of those who nad outgrown this influence. Yet
while presenting these unlovely traits, Herder's character was
on the whole a worthy and attractive one. This seems to be
sufficiently attested by the fact that he was greatly liked and
esteemed, not only in the pulpit but in private intercourse,
by cultivated women like the countess of Buckeburg, the duchess
of Weimar and Frau von Stein, and, what perhaps is more,
was exceedingly popular among the gymnasium pupils, in whose
education he took so lively an interest. While much that Herder
produced after settling in Weimar has little value, he wrote
also some of his best works, among others his collection of popular
poetry on which he had been engaged for many years, Stimmen
der Volker in Liedern (1778-1779); his translation of the Spanish
romances of the Cid (1805); his celebrated work on Hebrew
poetry, Vom Geist der hebraiscken Poesie (1782-1783); and his
opus magnum, the Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte der
Menschheit (1784-1791). Towards the close of his life he occupied
himself, like Lessing, with speculative questions in philosophy
and theology. The boldness of some of his ideas cost him some
valuable friendships, as that of Jacobi, Lavater and even of
his early teacher Hamann. He died on the i8th of December
1803, full of new literary plans up to the very last.
Herder's writings were for a long time regarded as of temporary
value only, and fell into neglect. Recent criticism, however,
has tended very much to raise their value by tracing out their
wide and far-reaching influence. His works are very voluminous,
and to a large extent fragmentary and devoid of artistic finish;
nevertheless they are nearly always worth investigating for the
brilliant suggestions in which they abound. His place in German
literature has already been indicated in tracing his mental
development. Like Lessing, whose work he immediately
continued, he was a pioneer of the golden age of this literature.
Lessing had given the first impetus to the formation of a national
literature by exposing the folly of the current imitation of
French writers. But in doing this he did not so much call his
fellow-countrymen to develop freely their own national senti-
ments and ideas as send them back to classical example and
principle. Lessing was the exponent of German classicism;
Herder, on the contrary, was a pioneer of the romantic movement.
He fought against all imitation as such, and bade German
writers be true to themselves and their national antecedents.
As a sort of theoretic basis for this adhesion to national type
in literature, he conceived the idea that literature and art,
together with language and national culture as a whole, are
evolved by a natural process, and that the intellectual and
emotional life of each people is correlated with peculiarities of
physical temperament and of material environment. In this
way he became the originator of that genetic or historical
method which has since been applied to all human ideas and
institutions. Herder was thus an evolutionist, but an evolutionist
still under the influence of Rousseau. That is to say, in tracing
back the later acquisitions of civilization to impulses which are
as old as the dawn of primitive culture, he did not, as the modern
evolutionist does, lay stress on the superiority of the later to
the earlier stages of human development, but rather became
enamoured of the simplicity and spontaneity of those early
impulses which, since they are the oldest, easily come to look
like the most real and precious. Yet even in this way he helped
to found the historical school in literature and science, for it was
only after an excessive and sentimental interest in primitive
human culture had been awakened that this subject would
receive the amount of attention which was requisite for the
genetic explanation of later developments. This historical idea
was carried by Herder into the regions of poetry, art, religion,
language, and finally into human culture as a whole. It colours
all his writings, and is intimately connected with some of the
most characteristic attributes of his mind, a quick sympathetic
imagination, a fine feeling for local differences, and a scientific
instinct for seizing the sequences of cause and effect.
Herder's works may be arranged in an ascending series, corre-
sponding to the way in which the genetic or historical idea was
developed and extended. First come the works on poetic literature,
art, language and religion as special regions of development.
Secondly, we have in the Ideen a general account of the process of
human evolution. Thirdly, there are a number of writings which,
though inferior in interest to the others, may be said to supply the
philosophic basis of his leading ideas.
1. In the region of poetry Herder sought to persuade his country-
men, both by example and precept, to return to a natural and
spontaneous form of utterance. His own poetry has but little value ;
Herder was a skilful verse-maker but hardly a creative poet. He
was most successful in his translation of popular song, in which he
shows a rare sympathetic insight into the various feelings and ideas
of peoples as unlike as Greenlanders and Spaniards, Indians and
Scots. In the Fragmente he aims at nationalizing German poetry
and freeing it from all extraneous influence. He ridicules the ambi-
tion of German writers to be classic, as Lessing had ridiculed their
eagerness to be French. He looked at poetry as a kind of " proteus
among the people, which changes its form according to language,
manners, habits, according to temperament and climate, nay, even
according to the accent of different nations." This fact of the
idiosyncrasy of national poetry he illustrated with great fulness and
richness in the case of Homer, the nature of whose works he was one
of the first to elucidate, the Hebrew poets, and the poetry of the
north as typified in " Ossian." This same idea of necessary relation
to national character and circumstance is also applied to dramatic
poetry, and more especially to Shakespeare. Lessing had done much
to make Shakespeare known to Germany, but he had regarded him
in contrast to the French dramatists with whom he also contrasted
the Greek dramatic poets, and accordingly did not bring out his
essentially modern and Teutonic character. Herder does this, and
in doing so shows a far deeper understanding of Shakespeare's
genius than his predecessor had shown.
2. The views on art contained in Herder's Kritische Wdlder (1769),
Plastik (1778), &c., are chiefly valuable as a correction of the excesses
into which reverence for Greek art had betrayed Winckelmann and
Lessing, by help of his fundamental idea of national idiosyncrasy.
He argues against the setting up of classic art as an unchanging type,
HEREDIA
349
valid for all peoples and all times. He was one of the first to bring to
light the characteristic excellences of Gothic art. Beyond this, he
eloquently pleaded the cause of painting as a distinct art, whicl
Lessing in his desire to mark off the formative arts from poetry am
music had confounded with sculpture. He regarded this as the art
of the eye, while sculpture was rather the art of the organ of touch
Painting being less real than sculpture, because lacking the thirc
dimension of space, and a kind of dream, admitted of much greater
freedom of treatment than this last. Herder had a genuine apprecia-
tion for early German painters, and helped to awaken the modern
interest in Albrecht Dilrer.
3. By his work on language Uber den Ursprung der Sprache (1772).
Herder may be said to have laid the first rude foundations of the
science of comparative philology and that deeper science of the ulti-
mate nature and origin of language. It was specially directed against
the supposition of a divine communication of language to man
Its main argument is that speech is a necessary outcome of thai
special arrangement of mental forces which distinguishes man, and
more particularly from his habits of reflection. " If," Herder says,
" it is incomprehensible to others how a human mind could invent
language, it is as incomprehensible to me how a human mind could
be what it is without discovering language for itself." The writer
does not make that use of the fact of man's superior organic endow-
ments which one might expect from his general conception of the
relation of the physical and the mental in human development.
4. Herder's services in laying the foundations of a comparative
science of religion and mythology are even of greater value than his
somewhat crude philological speculations. In opposition to the
general spirit of the l8th century he saw, by means of his historic
sense, the naturalness of religion, its relation to man's wants and
impulses. Thus with respect to early religious beliefs he rejected
Hume's notion that religion sprang out of the fears of primitive
men, in favour of the theory that it represents the first attempts of
our species to explain phenomena. He thus intimately associated
religion with mythology and primitive poetry. As to later forms of
religion, he appears to have held that they owe their vitality to their
embodiment of the deep-seated moral feelings of our common
humanity. His high appreciation of Christianity, which contrasts
with the contemptuous estimate of the contemporary rationalists,
rested on a firm belief in its essential humanity, to which fact, and
not to conscious deception, he attributes its success. His exposition
of this religion in his sermons and writings was simply an unfolding
of its moral side. In his later life, as we shall presently see, he found
his way to a speculative basis for his religious beliefs.
5. Herder's masterpiece, the Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte,
has the ambitious aim of explaining the whole of human development
in close connexion with the nature of man's physical environment.
Man is viewed as a part of nature, and all his widely differing forms
of development as strictly natural processes. It thus stands in sharp
contrast to the anthropology of Kant, which opposes human develop-
ment conceived as the gradual manifestation of a growing faculty
of rational free will to the operations of physical nature. Herder
defines human history as " a pure natural history of human powers,
actions and propensities, modified by time and place." The Ideen
shows us that Herder is an evolutionist after the manner of Leibnitz,
and not after that of more modern evolutionists. The lower forms
of life prefigure man in unequal degrees of imperfection; they exist
for his sake, but they are not regarded as representing necessary
antecedent conditions of human existence. The genetic method is
applied to varieties of man, not to man as a whole. It is worth
noting, however, that Herder in his provokingly tentative way of
thinking comes now and again very near ideas made familiar to us by
Spencer and Darwin. Thus in a passage in book xv. chap, ii., which
unmistakably foreshadows Darwin's idea of a struggle for existence,
we read: "Among millions of creatures whatever could preserve
jtself abides, and still after the lapse of thousands of years remains
in the great harmonious order. Wild animals and tame, carnivorous
and graminivorous, insects, birds, fishes and man are adapted to each
other." With this may be compared a passage in the Ursprung der
Sprache, where there is a curious adumbration of Spencer's idea that
intelligence, as distinguished from instinct, arises from a growing
complexity of action, or, to use Herder's words, from the substitution
of a more for a less contracted sphere. Herder is more successful
in tracing the early developments of particular peoples than in con-
structing a scientific theory of evolution. Here he may be said to have
laid the foundations of the science of primitive culture as a whole.
His account of the first dawnings of culture, and of the ruder Oriental
civilizations, is marked by genuine insight. On the other hand the
development of classic culture is traced with a less skilful hand.
Altogether this work is rich in suggestion to the philosophic historian
and the anthropologist, though marked by much vagueness of con-
ception and hastiness of generalization.
6. Of Herder's properly metaphysical speculations little needs to
be said. He was too much under the sway of feeling and concrete
imagination to be capable of great things in abstract thought. It is
generally admitted that he had no accurate knowledge either of
Spinoza, whose monism he advocated, or of Kant, whose critical
philosophy he so fiercely attacked. Herder's Spinozism, which is
set forth in his little work, Vom Erkennen und Empfinden der
menschlichen Seele (1778), is much less logically conceived than
Lessing's. It is the religious aspect of it which attracts him, the
presentation in God of an object which at once satisfies the feelings
and the intellect. With respect to his attacks on the critical philo-
sophy in the Metakritik (1799), it is easy to understand how his
concrete mind, ever alive to the unity of things, instinctively rebelled
against that analytic separation of the mental processes which Kant
attempted. However crude and hasty this critical investigation, it
helped to direct philosophic reflection to the unity of mind, and so
to develop the post-Kantian line of speculation. Herder was much
attracted by Schelling's early writings, but appears to have disliked
Hegelianism because of the atheism it seemed to him to involve.
In the Kalligone (1800), work directed against Kant's Kritik der
Urteilskraft, Herder argues for the close connexion of the beautiful
and the good. To his mind the content of art, which he conceived
as human feeling and human life in its completeness, was much more
valuable than the form, and so he was naturally led to emphasize
the moral element in art. Thus his theoretic opposition to the
Kantian aesthetics is but the reflection of his practical opposition
to the form-idolatry of the Weimar poets. (J. S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. An edition of Herder's Sdmtliche Werke in 45
vols. was published after his death by his widow (1805-1820); a
second in 60 vols. followed in 1827-1830; a third in 40 vols. in 1852-
1854. There is also an edition by H. Duntzer (24 vols., 1869-1879).
But these have all been superseded by the monumental critical
edition by B. Suphan (32 vols., 1877 sqq.). Of the many " selected
works," mention may be made of those by B. Suphan (4 vols.,
1884-1887); by H. Lambel, H. Meyer and E. Kuhnemann in
Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur (10 vols., 1885-1894).
For Herder's correspondence, see Aus Herders Nachlass (3 vols.,
1856-1857), Herders Reise nach Ilalien (1859), Von und an Herder:
Ungedruckte Briefe (3 vols., 1861-1862) all three works edited by
H. Duntzer and F. G. von Herder. Herder's Briejwechsel mil Nicolai
and his Briefe an Hamann have been edited by O. Hoffmann (1887
and 1889). For biography and criticism, see Erinnerungen aus
dem Leben Herders, by his wife, edited by J. G. Muller (2 vols., 1820) ;
J. G. von Herders Lebensbild (with his correspondence), by his son,
E. G. von Herder (6 vols., 1846); C. Joret, Herder et la renaissance
liUeraire en Allemagne au XVIII' siecle (1875); F. von Barenbach,
Herder als Vorganger Darwins (1877) ; R. Haym, Herder nach seinem
Leben und seinen Werken (2 vols., 1880-1885); H. Nevinson, A
Sketch of Herder and his Times (1884); M. Kronenberg, Herders
Philosophic nach ihrem Entwicklungsgang (1889) ; E.Kiihnemann, Her-
ders Leben (1895) ; R. Burkner, Herder, sein Lebenund Wirken (1904).
HEREDIA, JOSE MARIA DE (1842-1905), French poet, the
modern master of the French sonnet, was born at Fortuna
Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba, on the 22nd of November 1842,
being in blood part Spanish Creole and part French. At the
age of eight he came from the West Indies to France, returning
thence to Havana at seventeen, and finally making France his
home not long afterwards. He received his classical education
with the priests of Saint Vincent at Senlis, and after a visit to
Havana he studied at the Ecole des Chartes at. Paris. In the
later 'sixties, with Francois Coppee, Sully-Prudhomme, Paul
Verlaine and others less distinguished, he made one of the band
of poets who gathered round Leconte de Lisle, and received the
name of Parnassiens. To this new school, form the technical
side of their art was of supreme importance, and, in reaction
against the influence of Mussel, they rigorously repressed in their
work the expression of personal feeling and emotion. " True
poetry," said M. de Heredia in his discourse on entering the
Academy " true poetry dwells in nature and in humanity,
which are eternal, and not in the heart of the creature of a day,
lowever great." M. de Heredia's place in the movement was
soon assured. He wrote very little, and published even less,
jut his sonnets circulated in MS., and gave him a reputation
acfore they appeared in 1893, together with a few longer poems,
as a volume, under the title of Les Trophees. He was elected
to the Academy on the 22nd of February 1894, in the place of
iouis de Mazade-Percin the publicist. Few purely literary
men can have entered the Academy with credentials so small in
quantity. A small volume of verse a translation, with intro-
duction, of Diaz del Castillo's History of the Conquest of New
Spain (1878-1881) a translation of the life of the nun Alferez
1894), de Quincey's " Spanish Military Nun" and one or two
ihort pieces of occasional verse, and an introduction or so this
s but small literary baggage, to use the French expression.
But the sonnets are of their kind among the most superb in
modern literature. " A Legende des siecles in sonnets " M.
'rancois Coppee called them. Each presents a picture, striking,
>rilliant, drawn with unfaltering hand the picture of some
350
HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO HEREDITY
characteristic scene in man's long history. The verse is flawless,
polished like a gem; and its sound has distinction and fine
harmony. If one may suggest a fault, it is that each picture
is sometimes too much of a picture only, and that the poetical
line, like that of M. de Heredia's master, Leconte de Lisle
himself, is occasionally overcrowded. M. de Heredia was none
the less one of the most skilful craftsmen who ever practised
the art of verse. In 1901 he became librarian of the BibUotheque
de l'Ars6nal at Paris. He died at the Chateau de Bourdonne
(Seine-et-Oise) on the 3rd of October 1905, having completed
his critical edition of Andre Chenier's works.
HEREDIA Y CAMPUZANO, JOSfi MARIA (1803-1839),
Cuban poet, was born at Santiago de Cuba on the 3ist of
December 1803, studied at the university of Havana, and was
called to the bar in 1823. In the autumn of 1823 he was arrested
on a charge of conspiracy against the Spanish government, and
was sentenced to banishment for life. He took refuge in the
United States, published a volume of verses at New York in
1825, and then went to Mexico, where, becoming naturalized, he
obtained a post as magistrate. In 1832 a collection of his poems
was issued at Toluca, and in 1836 he obtained permission to visit
Cuba for two months. Disappointed in his political ambitions,
and broken in health, Heredia returned to Mexico in January
1837, and died at Toluca on the 2ist of May 1839. Many of his
earlier pieces are merely clever translations from French, English
and Italian; but his originality is placed beyond doubt by such
poems as the Himno del deslerrado, the epistle to Emilia, Desen-
gaiios, and the celebrated ode to Niagara. Bello may be thought
to excel Heredia in execution, and a few lines of Olmedo's Canto
& Junin vibrate with a virile passion to which the Cuban poet
rarely attained; but the sincerity of his patriotism and the
sublimity of his imagination have secured for Heredia a real
supremacy among Spanish-American poets.
The best edition of his works is that published at Paris in 1893
with a preface by Elias Zerolo.
HEREDITAMENT (from Lat. hereditare, to inherit, heres,
heir), in law, every kind of property that can be inherited.
Hereditaments are divided into corporeal and incorporeal;
corporeal hereditaments are " such as affect the senses, and may
be seen and handled by the body; incorporeal are not the
subject of sensation, can neither be seen nor handled, are creatures
of the mind, and exist only in contemplation " (Blackstone,
Commentaries). An example of a corporeal hereditament is land
held in freehold, of incorporeal herditaments, tithes, advowsons,
pensions, annuities, rents, franchises, &c. It is still used in the
phrase " lands, tenements and hereditaments " to describe
property in land, as distinguished from goods and chattels or
movable property.
HEREDITY, in biological science, the name given to the
generalization, drawn from the observed facts, that animals
and plants closely resemble their progenitors. (That the
resemblance is not complete involves in the first place the
subject of variation (see VARIATION AND SELECTION); but it
must be clearly stated that there is no adequate ground for the
current loose statements as to the existence of opposing " laws "
or " forces " of heredity and variation.) In the simplest cases
there seems to be no separate problem of heredity. When a
creeping plant propagates itself by runners, when a Nais or
Myrianida breaks up into a series of similar segments, each of
which becomes a worm like the parent, we have to do with the
general fact that growing organisms tend to display a symmetrical
repetition of equivalent parts, and that reproduction by fission
is simply a special case of metamerism. When we try to answer
the question why the segments of an organism resemble one
another, whether they remain in association to form a segmented
animal, or break into different animals, we come to the conclusion,
which at least is on the way to an answer, that it is because they
are formed from pieces of the same protoplasm, growing under
similar conditions. It is apparently a fundamental property
of protoplasm to be able to multiply by division into parts,
the properties of which are similar to each other and to those
of the parent.
This leads us directly to the cases of reproduction where there
is an obvious problem of heredity. In the majority of cases
among animals and plants the new organisms arise from portions
of living matter, separated from the parents, but different from
the parents in size and structure. These germs of the new
organisms may be spores, reproductive cells, fused reproductive
cells or multicellular masses (see REPRODUCTION). For the
present purpose it is enough to state that they consist of portions
of the parental protoplasm. These pass through an embryo-
logical history, in which by growth, multiplication and specializa-
tion they form structures closely resembling the parents. Now,
if it could be shown that these reproductive masses arose directly
from the reproductive masses which formed the parent body,
the problems of heredity would be extremely simplified. If the
first division of a reproductive cell set apart one mass to lie
dormant for a time and ultimately to form the reproductive
cells of the new generation, while the other mass, exactly of the
same kind, developed directly into the new organism, then
heredity would simply be a delayed case of what is called organic
symmetry, the tendency of similar living material to develop
in similar ways under the stimulus of similar external conditions.
The cases in which this happens are very rare. In the Diptera
the first division of the egg-cell separates the nuclear material
of the subsequent reproductive cells from the material that is
elaborated into the new organism to contain these cells. In the
Daphnidae and in Sagitta a similar separation occurs at slightly
later stages; in vertebrates it occurs much later; while in some
hydroids the germ-cells do not arise in the individual which is
developed from the egg-cell at all, but in a much later generation,
which is produced from the first by budding. However, it is not
necessary to dismiss the fertile idea of what Moritz Nussbaum
and August Weismann, who drew attention to it, called " con-
tinuity of the germ-plasm." Weismann has shown that an
actual series of organic forms might be drawn up in which the
formation of germ-cells begins at stages successively more remote
from the first division of the egg-cell. He has also shown
evidence, singularly complete in the case of the hydroids, for
the existence of an actual migration of the place of formation
of the germ-cells, the migration reaching farther and farther
from the egg-cell. He has elaborated the conception of the
germ-track, a chain of cell generations in the development
of any creature along which the reproductive material saved
over from the development of one generation for the germ-cells
of the next generation is handed on in a latent condition to its
ultimate position. And thus he supposes a real continuity of
the germ-plasm, extending from generation to generation in
spite of the apparent discontinuity in the observed cases. The
conception certainly ranks among the most luminous and most
fertile contributions of the igth century to biological thought,
and it is necessary to examine at greater length the superstructure
which Weismann has raised upon it.
V/eismann's Theory of the Germ-plasm. A living being takes
its individual origin only where there is separated from the stock
of the parent a little piece of the peculiar reproductive plasm,
the so-called germ-plasm. In sexless reproduction one parent
is enough; in sexual reproduction equivalent masses of germ-
plasm from each parent combine to form the new individual.
The germ-plasm resides in the nucleus of cells, and Weismann
identifies it with the nuclear material named chromatin. Like
ordinary protoplasm, of which the bulk of cell bodies is composed,
germ-plasm is a living material, capable of growing in bulk
without alteration of structure when it is supplied with appro-
priate food. But it is a living material much more complex
than protoplasm. In the first place, the mass of germ-plasm
which is the starting-point of a new individual consists of several,
sometimes of many, pieces named " idants," which are either
the chromosomes into a definite number of which the nuclear
material of a dividing cell breaks up, or possibly smaller units
named chromomeres. These idants are a collection of " ids,"
which Weismann tentatively identifies with the microsomata
contained in the chromosomes, which are visible after treatment
with certain reagents. Each id contains all the possibilities
HEREDITY
generic, specific, individual of a new organism, or rather
the directing substance which in appropriate surroundings of
food, &c., forms a new organism. Each id is a veritable micro-
cosm, possessed of an historic architecture that has been elaborated
slowly .through the multitudinous series of generations that
stretch backwards in time from every living individual. This
microcosm, again, consists of a number of minor vital units
called " determinants," which cohere according to the architec-
ture of the whole id. The determinants are hypothetical units
corresponding to the number of parts of the organism inde-
pendently variable. Lastly, each determinant consists of a
number of small hypothetical units, the " biophores." These
are adaptations of a conception of H. deVries, and are supposed
to become active by leaving the nucleus of the cell in which they
lie, passing out into the general protoplasm of the cell and ruling
its activities. Each new individual begins life as a nucleated
cell, the nucleus of which contains germ-plasm of this complex
structure derived from the parent. The reproductive cell gives
rise to the new individual by continued absorption of food, by
growth, cell-divisions and cell-specializations. The theory
supposes that the first divisions of the nucleus are " doubling,"
or homogeneous divisions. The germ-plasm has grown in
bulk without altering its character in any respect, and, when it
divides, each resulting mass is precisely alike. From these
first divisions a chain of similar doubling divisions stretches
along the " germ-tracks," so marshalling unaltered germ-plasm
to the generative organs of the new individual, to be ready to
form the germ-cells of the next generation. In this mode the
continuity of the germ-plasm from individual to individual is
maintained. This also is the immortality of the germ-cells,
or rather of the germ-plasm, the part of the theory which has
laid so large a hold on the popular imagination, although it is
really no more than a reassertion in new terms of biogenesis.
With this also is connected the celebrated denial of the inheritance
of acquired characters. It seemed a clear inference that, if the
hereditary mass for the daughters were separated off from the
hereditary mass that was to form the mother, at the very first,
before the body of the mother was formed, the daughters were
in all essentials the sisters of their mother, and could take from
her nothing of any characters that might be impressed on her
body in subsequent development. In the later elaboration of his
theory Weismann has admitted the possibility of some direct
modification of the germ-plasm within the body of the individual
acting as its host.
The mass of germ-plasm which is not retained in unaltered
form to provide for the generative cells is supposed to be employed
for the elaboration of the individual body. It grows, dividing
and multiplying, and forms the nuclear matter of the tissues of
the individual, but the theory supposes this process to occur in
a peculiar fashion. The nuclear divisions are what Weismann
calls " differentiating " or heterogeneous divisions. In them
the microcosms of the germ-plasm are not doubled, but slowly
disintegrated in accordance with the historical architecture
of the plasm, each division differentiating among the determinants
and marshalling one set into one portion, another into another
portion. There are differences in the observed facts of nuclear
division which tend to support the theoretical possibility of two
sorts of division, but as yet these have not been correlated
definitely with the divisions along the germ-tracks and the
ordinary divisions of embryological organogeny. The theoretical
conception is, that when the whole body is formed, the cells
contain only their own kind of determinants, and it would follow
from this that the cells of the tissues cannot give rise to structures
containing germ-plasm less disintegrated than their own nuclear
material, and least of all to reproductive cells which must contain
the undisintegrated microcosms of the germ-plasm. Cases of
bud-formation and of reconstructions of lost parts (see RE-
GENERATION or LOST PARTS) are regarded as special adaptations
made possible by the provision of latent groups of accessory
determinants, to become active only on emergency.
It is to be noticed that Weismann 's conception of the processes
of ontogeny is strictly evolutionary, and in so far is a reversion
to the general opinion of biologists of the I7th and i8th centuries.
These supposed that the germ-cell contained an image-in-little
of the adult, and that the process of development was a mere
unfolding or evolution of this, under the influence of favouring
and nutrient forces. Hartsoeker, indeed, went so far as to
figure the human spermatozoon with a mannikin seated within
the " head," and similar extremes of imagination were indulged
in by other writers for the spermatozoon or ovum, according
to the view they took of the relative importance of these two
bodies. C. F. Wolff, in his Theoria generationis (1759), was
the first distinguished anatomist to make assault on these
evolutionary views, but his direct observations on the process
of development were not sufficient in bulk nor in clarity of
interpretation to convince his contemporaries. Naturally the
improved methods and vastly greater knowledge of modern
days have made evolution in the old sense an impossible con-
ception; we know that the egg is morphologically unlike the
adult, that various external conditions are necessary for its
subsequent progress through a slow series of stages, each of
which is unlike the adult, but gradually approaching it until
the final condition is reached. None the less, Weismann's
theory supposes that the important determining factor in these
gradual changes lies in the historical architecture of the germ-
plasm, and from the theoretical point of view his theory remains
strictly an unfolding, a becoming manifest of hidden complexity.
Hertwig's View. The chief modern holder of the rival view,
and the writer who has put together in most cogent form the
objections to Weismann's theory, is Oscar Hertwig. He points
out that there is no direct evidence for the existence of differ-
entiating as opposed to doubling divisions of the nuclear matter,
and, moreover, he thinks that there is very generally diffused
evidence as to the universality of doubling division. In the first
place, there is the fundamental fact that single-celled organisms
exhibit only doubling division, as by that the persistence of
species which actually occurs alone is possible. In the case of
higher plants, the widespread occurrence of tissues with power
of reproduction, the occurrence of budding in almost any part
of the body in lower animals and in plants, and the widespread
powers of regeneration of lost parts, are easily intelligible if
every cell like the egg-cell has been formed by doubling division,
and so contains the germinal material for every part of the
organism, and thus, on the call of special conditions, can become
a germ-cell again. He lays special stress on those experiments in
which the process of development has been interfered with in
various ways at various stages, as showing that the cells which
arise from the division of the egg-cell were not predestined
unalterably for a particular r61e, according to a predetermined
plan. He dismisses Weismann's suggestion of the presence of
accessory determinants which remain latent unless they happen
to be required, as being too complicated a supposition to be
supported without exact evidence, a view in which he has
received strong support from those who have worked most at
the experimental side of the question. From consideration of a
large number of physiological facts, such as the results of grafting,
transplantations of tissues and transfusions of blood, he con-
cludes that the cells of an organism possess, in addition to their
patent microscopical characters, latent characters peculiar to
the species, and pointing towards a fundamental identity of the
germinal substance in every cell.
The Nuclear Matter. Apart from these two characteristic
protagonists of extreme and opposing views, the general consensus
of biological opinion does not take us very far beyond the plainest
facts of observation. The resemblances of heredity are due to
the fact that the new organism takes its origin from a definite
piece of the substance of its parent or parents. This piece always
contains protoplasm, and as the protoplasm of every animal
and plant appears to have its own specific reactions, we cannot
exclude this factor; indeed many, following the views of
M. Verworn, and seeing in the specific metabolisms of proto-
plasm a large part of the meaning of life, attach an increasing
importance to the protoplasm in the hereditary mass. Next,
it always contains nuclear matter, and, in view of the extreme
352
HEREDITY
specialization of the nuclear changes in the process of matura-
tion and fertilization of the generative cells, there is more than
sufficient reason for believing that the nuclear substance, if not
actually the specific germ-plasm, is of vast importance in heredity.
The theory of its absolute dominance depends on a number of
experiments, the interpretation of which is doubtful. Moritz
Nussbaum showed that in Infusoria non-nucleated fragments
of a cell always died, while nucleated fragments were able to
complete themselves; but it may be said with almost equal
confidence that nuclei separated from protoplasm also invariably
die at least, all attempts to preserve them have failed. Hertwig
and others, in their brilliant work on the nature of fertilization,
showed that the process always involved the entrance into the
female cell of the nucleus of the male cell, but we now know
that part of the protoplasm of the spermatozoon also enters.
T. Boveri made experiments on the cross-fertilization of non-
nucleated fragments of the eggs of Sphaerechinus granularis
with spermatozoa of Echinus microtuberculatus, and obtained
dwarf larvae with only the paternal characters; but the nature
of his experiments was not such as absolutely to exclude doubt.
Finally, in addition to the nucleus and the protoplasm, another
organism of the cell, the centrosome, is part of the hereditary
mass. In sum, while most of the evidence points to a pre-
ponderating importance of the nuclear matter, it cannot be said
to be an established proposition that the nuclear matter is the
germ-plasm. Nor are we yet definitely in a position to say that
the germinal mass (nuclear matter, protoplasm, &c., of the repro-
ductive cells) differs essentially from the general substance of
the organism whether, in fact, there is continuity of germ-plasm
as opposed to continuity of living material from individual
to individual. The origin of sexual cells from only definite places,
in the vast majority of cases, and such phenomena as the phylo-
genetic migration of their place of origin amcng the Hydro-
medusae, tell strongly in favour of Weismann's conception.
Early experiments on dividing eggs, in which, by separation or
transposition, cells were made to give rise to tissues and parts
of the organism which in the natural order they would not have
produced, tell strongly against any profound separation between
germ-plasm and body-plasm. It is also to be noticed that the
failure of germ-cells to arise except in specific places may be
only part of the specialized ordering of the whole body, and does
not necessarily involve the interpretation that reproductive
material is absolutely different in kind.
Amphimixis. Hitherto we have considered the material
bearer of heredity apart from the question of sexual union, and
we find that the new organism takes origin from a portion of
living matter, forming a material which may be called germ-
plasm, in which resides the capacity to correspond to the same
kind of surrounding forces as stimulated the parent germ-plasm
by growth of the same fashion. In many cases (e.g. asexual
spores) the piece of germ-plasm comes from one parent, and
from an organ or tissue not associated with sexual reproduction;
in other cases (parthenogenetic eggs) it comes from the ovary
of a female, and may have the apparent characters of a sexual
egg, except that it develops without fertilization; here also are
to be included the cases where normal female ova have been
induced to develop, not by the entrance of a spermatozoon, but
by artificial chemical stimulation. In such cases the problem
of heredity does not differ fundamentally from the symmetrical
repetition of parts. In most of the higher plants and animals,
however, sexual reproduction is the normal process, and from
our present point of view the essential feature of this is that the
germ-plasm which starts the new individual (the fertilized egg)
is derived from the male (the spermatozoon) and from the female
parent (the ovum). Although it cannot yet be set down sharply
as a general proposition, there is considerable evidence to show
that in the preparation of the ovum and spermatozoon for
fertilization the nuclear matter of each is reduced by half (reduc-
ing division of the chromosomes), and that fertilization means
the restoration of the normal bulk in the fertilized cell by equal
contributions from male and female. So far as the known facts
of this process of union of germ-plasms go, they take us no
farther than to establish such a relation between the offspring
and two parents as exists between the offspring and one parent
in the other cases. Amphimixis has a vast importance in the
theory of evolution (Weismann, for instance, regards it as the
chief factor in the production of variations) ; for its relation to
heredity we are as yet dependent on empirical observations.
Heredity and Development. The actual process by which the
germinal mass slowly assumes the characters of the adult- that
is, becomes like the parent depends on the interaction of two
sets of factors: the properties of the germinal material itself,
and the influences of substances and conditions external to the
germinal material. Naturally, as K. W. von Nageli and Hertwig
in particular have pointed out, there is no perpetual sharp
contrast between the two sets of factors, for, as growth proceeds,
the external is constantly becoming the internal; the results
of influences, which were in one stage part of the environment,
are in the next and subsequent stages part of the embryo. The
differences between the exponents of evolution and epigenesis
offer practical problems to be decided by experiment. Every
phenomenon in development that is proved the direct result of
epigenetic factors can be discounted from the complexity of the
germinal mass. If, for instance, as H. Driesch and Hertwig have
argued, much of the differentiation of cells and tissues is a
function of locality and is due to the action of different external
forces on similar material, then just so much burden is removed
from what evolutionists have to explain. That much remains
cannot be doubted. Two eggs similar in appearance develop
side by side in the same sea-water, one becoming a mollusc, the
other an Amphioxus. Hertwig would say that the slight differ-
ences in the original eggs would determine slight differences in
metabolism and so forth, with the result that the segmentation
of the two is slightly different; in the next stage the differences
in metabolisms and other relations will be increased, and so on
indefinitely. But in such cases c'est le premier pas qui co&te, and
the absolute cost in theoretical complexity of the germinal
material can be estimated only after a prolonged course of
experimental wprk in a field which is as yet hardly touched.
Empirical Study of Heredity. The fundamental basis of
heredity is the separation of a mass from the parent (germ-plasm)
which under certain conditions grows into an individual resem-
bling the parent. The goal of the study of heredity will be
reached only when all the phenomena can be referred to the
nature of the germ-plasm and of its relations to the conditions
under which it grows, but we have seen how far our knowledge
is from any attempt at such references. In the meantime, the
empirical facts, the actual relations of the characters in the
offspring to the characters of the parents and ancestors, are
being collected and grouped. In this inquiry it at once becomes
obvious that every character found in a parent may or may not
be present in the offspring. When any character occurs in both,
it is generally spoken of as transmissible and of having been
transmitted. In this broad sense there is no character that is
not transmissible. In all kinds of reproduction, the characters
of the class, family, genus, species, variety or race, and of the
actual individual, are transmissible, the certainty with which
any character appears being almost in direct proportion to its
rank in the descending scale from order to individual. The
transmitted characters are anatomical, down to the most minute
detail; physiological, including such phenomena as diatheses,
timbre of voice and even compound phenomena, such as gau-
cherie and peculiarity of handwriting; psychological; patho-
logical; teratological, such as syndactylism and all kinds of
individual variations. Either sex may transmit characters
which in themselves are necessarily latent, as, for instance, a
bull may transmit a good milking strain. In forms of asexual
reproduction, such as division, budding, propagation by slips and
so forth, every character of the parent may appear in the
descendant, and apparently even in the descendants produced
from that descendant by the ordinary sexual processes. In
reproduction by spore formation, in parthenogenesis and in
ordinary sexual modes, where there is an embryological history
between the separated mass and the new adult, it is necessary
HEREDITY
353
to attempt a difficult discrimination between acquired and innate
characters.
Acquired Characters. Every character is the result of two
sets of factors, those resident in the germinal material and those
imposed from without. Our knowledge has taken us far beyond
any such idea as the formation of a germinal material by the
collection of particles from the adult organs and tissues (gem-
mules of C. Darwin). The inheritance of any character means
the transmission in the germinal material of matter which,
brought under the necessary external conditions, develops into
the character of the parent. There is necessarily an acquired
or epigenetic side to every character; but there is nothing in
our knowledge of the actual processes to make necessary or
even probable the supposition that the result of that factor in
one generation appears in the germ-plasm of the subsequent
generations, in those cases where an embryological development
separates parent and offspring. The development of any normal,
so-called " innate," character, such as, say, the assumption of
the normal human shape and relations of the frontal bone,
requires the co-operation of many factors external to the develop-
ing embryo, and the absence of abnormal distorting factors.
When we say that such an innate character is transmitted, we
mean only that the germ-plasm has such a constitution that,
in the presence of the epigenetic factors and the absence of
abnormal epigenetic factors, the bone will appear in due course
and in due form. If an abnormal epigenetic factor be applied
during development, whether to the embryo in utero, to the
developing child, or in after life, abnormality of some kind will
appear in the bone, and such an abnormality is a good type of
what is spoken of as an " acquired " character. Naturally such
a character varies with the external stimulus and the nature of
the material to which the stimulus is applied, and probability
and observation lead us to suppose that as the germ-plasm of
the offspring is similar to that of the parent, being a mass
separated from the parent, abnormal epigenetic influences
would produce results on the offspring similar to those which
they produced on the parent. Scrutiny of very many cases
of the supposed inheritance of acquired characters shows that
they may be explained in this fashion that is to say, that they
do not necessarily involve any feature different in kind from
what we understand to occur in normal development. The
effects of increased use or of disuse on organs or tissues, the
reactions of living tissues to various external influences, to
bacteria, to bacterial or other toxins, or to different conditions
of respiration, nutrition and so forth, we know empirically to
be different in the case of different individuals, and we may
expect that when the living matter of a parent responds in a
certain way to a certain external stimulus, the living matter of
the descendant will respond to similar circumstances in a similar
fashion. The operation of similar influences on similar material
accounts for a large proportion of the facts. In the important
case of the transmission of disease from parent to offspring it is
plain that three sets of normal factors may operate, and other
cases of transmission must be subjected to similar scrutiny:
(i) a child may inherit the anatomical and physiological con-
stitution of either parent, and with that a special liability of
failure to resist the attacks of a wide-spread disease; (2) the
actual bacteria may be contained in the ovum or possibly in the
spermatozoon; (3) the toxins of the disease may have affected
the ovum, or the spermatozoon, or through the placenta the
growing embryo. Obviously in the first two cases the offspring
cannot be said in any strict sense to have inherited the disease;
in the last case, the theoretical nomenclature is more doubtful,
but it is at least plain that no inexplicable factor is involved.
It is to be noticed, however, that " Lamarckians "and " Neo-
Lamarckians " in their advocacy of an inheritance of " acquired
characters " make a theoretical assumption of a different kind,
which applies equally to " acquired " and to " innate " char-
acters. They suppose that the result of the epigenetic factors
is reflected on the germ-plasm in such a mode that in develop-
ment the products would display the same or a similar character
without the co-operation of the epigenetic factors on the new
XIII. 12
individual, or would display the result in an accentuated form
if with the renewed co-operation of the external factors. Such
an assumption presents its greatest theoretical difficulty if, with
Weismann, we suppose the germ-plasm to be different in kind
from the general soma-plasm, and its least theoretical difficulty
if, with Hertwig, we suppose the essential matter of the repro-
ductive cells to be similar in kind to the essential substance of
the general body cells. But, apart from the differences between
such theories, it supposes, in all cases where an embryological
development lies between parent and descendant, the existence
of a factor towards which our present knowledge of the actual
processes gives us no assistance. The separated hereditary
mass does not contain the organs of the adult; the Lamarckian
factor would involve the translation of the characters of the adult
back into the characters of the germ-cell in such a fashion that
when the germ-cell developed these characters would be re-
translated again into those which originally had been produced
by co-operation between germ-plasm characters and epigenetic
factors. In the present state of our knowledge the theoretical
difficulty is not fatal to the Lamarckian supposition; it does
no more than demand a much more careful scrutiny of the
supposed cases. Such a scrutiny has been going on since Weismann
first raised the difficulty, and the present result is that no known
case has appeared which cannot be explained without the
Lamarckian factor, and the vast majority of cases have been
resolved without any difficulty into the ordinary events of which
we have full experience. Taking the ehipirical data in detail,
it would appear first that the effects of single mutilations are
not inherited. The effects of long-continued mutilations are
not inherited, but Darwin cites as a possible case the Mahom-
medans of Celebes, in whom the prepuce is very small. C. E.
Brown-S6quard thought that he had shown in the case of guinea-
pigs the inheritance of the results of nervous lesions, but analyses
of his results leave the question extremely doubtful. The
inheritance of the effects of use and disuse is not proved. The
inheritance of the effects of changed conditions of life is quite
uncertain. Nageli grew Alpine plants at Munich, but found
that the change was produced at once and was not increased
in a period of thirteen years. Alphonse de Candolle starved
plants, with the result of producing better blooms, and found
that seedlings from these were also above the average in luxuri-
ance of blossom, but in these experiments the effects of selection
during the starvation, and of direct effect on the nutrition of the
seeds, were not eliminated. Such results are typical of the
vast number of experiments and observations recorded. The
empirical issue is doubtful, with a considerable balance against
the supposed inheritance of acquired characters.
Empirical Study of Effects of Amphimixis. Inheritance is
theoretically possible from each parent and from the ancestry
of each. In considering the total effect it is becoming customary
to distinguish between " blended " inheritance, where the off-
spring appears in respect of any character to be intermediate
between the conditions in the parents; " prepotent " inheritance,
where one parent is supposed to be more effective than the other
in stamping the offspring (thus, for instance, Negroes, Jews
and Chinese are stated to be prepotent in crosses); " exclusive"
inheritance, where the character of the offspring is definitely
that of one of the parents. Such a classification depends on the
interpretation of the word character, and rests on no certain
grounds. An apparently blended character or a prepotent
character may on analysis turn out to be due to the inheritance
of a certain proportion of minuter characters derived exclusively
from either parent. H. de Vries and later on a number of other
biologists have advanced the knowledge of heredity in crosses
by carrying out further the experimental and theoretical work
of Gregor Mendel (see MENDELISM and HYBRIDISM), and results
of great practical importance to breeders have already been
obtained. These experiments and results, however, appear
to relate exclusively to sexual reproduction and almost entirely
to the crossing of artificial varieties of animals and plants. So
far as they go, they point strongly to the occurrence of alternate
inheritance instead of blended inheritance in the case of artificial
354
HEREFORD
varieties. On the other hand, in the case of natural varieties
it appears that blended inheritance predominates. The diffi-
culty of the interpretation of the word " character " still remains
and the Mendelian interpretation cannot be dismissed with regard
to the behaviour of any " character " in inheritance until it is
certain that it is a unit and not a composite. There is another
fundamental difficulty in making empirical comparisons between
the characters of parents and offspring. At first sight it seems
as if this mode of work were sufficiently direct and simple, and
involved no more than a mere collection of sufficient data. The
cranial index, or the height of a human being and of so many
of his ancestors being given, it would seem easy to draw an
inference as to whether or no in these cases brachycephaly or
stature were inherited. But our modern conceptions of the
individual and the race make it plain that the problems are not
so simple. With regard to any character, the race type is not a
particular measurement, but a curve of variations derived from
statistics, and any individual with regard to the particular
character may be referable to any point of the curve. A tall
race like the modern Scots may contain individuals of any height
within the human limits; a dolichocephalic race like the modern
Spaniards may contain extremely round-headed individuals.
What is meant by saying that one race is tall or the other dolicho-
cephalic, is merely that if a sufficiently large number be chosen
at random, the average height of the one race will be great,
the cranial index of the other low. It follows that the study
of variation must be associated with, or rather must precede,
the empirical study of heredity, and we are beginning to know
enough now to be certain that in both cases the results to be
obtained are practically useless for the individual case, and of
value only when large masses of statistics are collected. No
doubt, when general conclusions have been established, they must
be acted on for individual cases, but the results can be predicted
not for the individual case, but only for the average of a mass
of individual cases. It is impossible within the limits of this
article to discuss the mathematical conceptions involved in the
formation and applications of the method, but it is necessary
to insist on the fact that these form an indispensable part of any
valuable study of empirical data. One interesting conclusion,
which may be called the " ancestral law " of heredity, with regard
to any character, such as height, which appears to be a blend
of the male and female characters, whether or no the apparent
blend is really due to an exclusive inheritance of separate com-
ponents, may be given from the work of F. Gallon and K. Pearson.
Each parent, on the average, contributes j or (o-s) 2 , each grand-
parent iV or (o-s) 4 , and each ancestor of n th place (o^) 2 ". But
this, like all other deductions, is applicable only to the mass
of cases and not to any individual case.
Regression. An important result of quantitative work brings
into prominence the steady tendency to maintain the type
which appears to be one of the most important results of am-
phimixis. In the tenth generation a man has 1024 tenth grand-
parents, and is thus the product of an enormous population,
the mean of which can hardly differ from that of the general
population. Hence this heavy weight of mediocrity produces
regression or progression to type. Thus in the case of height,
a large number of cases being examined, it was found that
fathers of a stature of 72 in. had sons with a mean stature of
70-8 in., a regression towards the normal stature of the race.
Fathers with a stature of 66 in. had sons with a mean of 68-3 in.,
a progression towards the normal. It follows from this that where
there is much in-and-in breeding the weight of mediocrity will
be less, and the peculiarities of the breed will be accentuated.
Atavism. Under this name a large number of ordinary cases
of variation are included. A tall man with very short parents
would probably be set down as a case of atavism if the existence
of a very tall ancestor were known. He would, however, simply
be a case of normal variation, the probability of which may be
calculated from a table of stature variations in his race. Less
marked cases set down to atavism may be instances merely
of normal regression. Many cases of more abnormal structure,
which are really due to abnormal embryonic or post-embryonic
development, are set down to atavism, as, for instance, the
cervical fistulae, which have been regarded as atavistic per-
sistences of the gill clefts. It is also used to imply the reversion
that takes place when domestic varieties are set free and when
species or varieties are crossed (see HYBRIDISM). Atavism is,
in fact, a misleading name covering a number of very different
phenomena.
Telegony is the name given to the supposed fact that offspring
of a mother to one sire may inherit characters from a sire with
which the mother had previously bred. Although breeders
of stock have a strong belief in the existence of this, there are
no certain facts to support it, the supposed cases being more
readily explained as individual variations of the kind generally
referred to as " atavism." None the less, two theoretical
explanations have been suggested: (i) that spermatozoa, or
portions of spermatozoa, from the first sire may occasionally
survive within the mother for an abnormally long period; (2)
that the body, or the reproductive cells of the mother, may be
influenced by the growth of the embryo within her, so that
she acquires something of the character of the sire. The first
supposition has no direct evidence to support it, and is made
highly improbable from the fact that a second impregnation is
always necessary. Against the second supposition Pearson
brings the cogent empirical evidence that the younger children
of the same sire show no increased tendency to resemble him.
(See TELEGONY.)
AUTHORITIES. The following books contain a fair proportion
of the new and old knowledge on this subject : W.Bateson, Materials
for the Study of Variation (1894); Y. Delage, La Structure du proto-
plasma et les theories sur I her&dite (a very full discussion and list of
literature) ; G. H. T. Eimer, Organic Evolution, Eng. trans, by
Cunningham (1890) ; J. C. Ewart, The Penycuik Experiments (1899) ;
F. Gallon, Natural Inheritance (1887); O. Hertwig, Evolution or
Epigenesis? Eng. trans, by P. C. Milchell (1896); K. Pearson, The
Grammar of Science (1900) ; Verworn, General Physiology, Eng. Irans.
(1899); A. Weisraann, The Germ Plasm, Eng. Irans. by Parker
(1893). Lists of separate papers are given in the annual volumes of
the Zoological Record under heading " General Subject." (P.C.M.)
HEREFORD, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough,
and the county town of Herefordshire, England, on the river
Wye, 144 m. W.N.W. of London, on the Worcester-Cardiff line
of the Great Western railway and on the wesl-and-norlh joint
line of that company and the North- Weslern. It is connected
with Ross and Gloucester by a branch of the Great Western,
and is the terminus of a line from the west worked by the Mid-
land and Neath & Brecon companies. Pop. (1901) 21,382. It is
mainly on the left bank of the river, which here traverses a
broad valley, well wooded and pleasant. The cathedral of St
Elhelberl exemplifies all slyles from Norman lo Perpendicular.
The see was delached from Lichfield in 676, Pulla being ils first
bishop; and the modern diocese covers most of Herefordshire, a
considerable part of Shropshire, and small portions of Worcester-
shire, Staffordshire and Monmouthshire; extending also a short
distance across the Welsh border. The removal of murdered
Aethelbert's body from Marden lo Hereford led lo ihe foundalion
of a superior church, reconslrucled by Bishop Athelstane, and
burnt by the Welsh in 1055. Begun again in 1079 by Bishop
Robert Losinga, it was carried on by Bishop Reynelm and
completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de Betun. In 1786 Ihe great
western tower fell and carried with it the west front and the first
bay of the nave, when the church suffered much from unhappy
restoration by James Wyatl, bul his errors were parlly corrected
by the further work of Lewis Cottingham and Sir Gilbert Scott
in 1841 and 1863 respectively, while the presenl wesl fronl is
a reconslruclion compleled in 1905. The lotal length of the
cathedral outside is 342 ft., inside 327 ft. 5 in., the nave being
158 ft. 6 in., the choir from screen to reredos 75 ft. 6 in. and
the lady chapel 93 ft. 5 in. Without, the principal features are
the central lower, of Decoraled work wilh ball-flower ornamenl,
formerly surmounted by a timber spire; and the north porch,
rich Perpendicular with parvise. The lady chapel has a bold
east end wilh five narrow lancel windows. The bishop's clcislers,
of which only Iwo walks remain, are Perpendicular of curious
design, with heavy tracery in the bays. A picluresque tower
HEREFORDSHIRE
355
at the south-east corner, in the same style, is called the " Lady
Arbour," but the origin of the name is unknown. Of the former
fine decagonal Decorated chapter-house, only the doorway and
slight traces remain. Within, the nave has Norman arcades,
showing the wealth of ornament common to the work of this
period in the church. Wyatt shortened it by one bay, and the
clerestory is his work. There is a fine late Norman font, springing
from a base with the rare design of four lions at the corners.
The south transept is also Norman, but largely altered by the
introduction of Perpendicular work. The north transept was
wholly rebuilt in 1287 to contain the shrine of St Thomas de
Cantilupe, bishop of Hereford, of which there remains the
magnificent marble pedestal surmounted by an ornate arcade.
The fine lantern, with its many shafts and vaulting, was thrown
open to the floor of the bell-chamber by Cottingham. The choir
screen is a florid design by Sir Gilbert Scott, in light wrought
iron, with a wealth of ornament in copper, brass, mosaic and
polished stones. The dark choir is Norman in the arcades and
the stage above, with Early English clerestory and vaulting.
At the east end is a fine Norman arch, blocked until 1841 by
a Grecian screen erected in 1717. The choir stalls are largely
Decorated. The organ contains original work by the famous
builder Renatus Harris, and was the gift of Charles II. to the
cathedral. The small north-east and south-east transepts are
Decorated but retain traces of the Norman apsidal terminations
eastward. The eastern lady chapel, dated about 1220, shows
elaborate Early English work. On the south side opens the
little Perpendicular chantry of Bishop Audley (1492-1502).
In the north choir aisle is the beautiful fan-vaulted chantry
of Bishop Stanbury (1470). The crypt is remarkable as being,
like the lady chapel, Early English, and is thus the only cathedral
crypt in England of a later date than the nth century. The
ancient monastic library remains in the archive room, with its
heavy oak cupboards. Deeds, documents and several rare
manuscripts and relics are preserved, and several of the precious
books are still secured by chains. But the most celebrated relic
is in the south choir aisle. This is the Map of the World, dating
from about 1314, the work of a Lincolnshire monk, Richard of
Haldingham. It represents the world as surrounded by ocean,
and embodies many ideas taken from Herodotus, Pliny and other
writers, being filled with grotesque figures of men, beasts, birds
and fishes, together with representations of famous cities and
scenes of scriptural classical story, such as the Labyrinth of
Crete, the Egyptian pyramids, Mount Sinai and the journeyings
of the Israelites. The map is surmounted by representations of
Paradise and the Day of Judgment.
From the south-east transept of the cathedral a cloister leads
to the quadrangular college of the Vicars-Choral, a beautiful
Perpendicular building. On this side of the cathedral, too,
the bishop's palace, originally a Norman hall, overlooks the Wye,
and near it lies the castle green, the site of the historic castle,
which is utterly effaced. There is here a column (1809) com-
memorating the victories of Nelson. The church of All Saints
is Early English and Decorated, and has a lofty spire. Both
this and St Peter's (originally Norman) have good carved stalls,
but the fabric of both churches is greatly restored. One only of
the six gates and a few fragments of the old walls are still to be
seen, but there are ruins of the Black Friars' Monastery in
Widemarsh, and a mile out of Hereford on the Brecon Road,
the White Cross, erected in 1347 by Bishop Louis Charlton, and
restored by Archdeacon Lord Saye and Sele, commemorates
the departure of the Black Plague. Of domestic buildings the
" Old House " is a good example of the picturesque half-timbered
style, dating from 1621, and the Coningsby Hospital (almshouses)
date from 1614. The inmates wear a remarkable uniform of
red, designed by the founder, Sir T. Coningsby. St Ethelbert's
hospital is an Early English foundation. Old-established schools
are the Cathedral school (1384) and the Blue Coat school (1710);
there is also the County College (1880). The public buildings
are the shire hall in St Peter's Street, in the Grecian Doric style,
with a statue in front of it of Sir George Cornewall Lewis, who
represented the county in parliament from 1847 to 1852, the
town hall (1904), the corn-exchange (1858), the free library and
museum in Broad Street; the guildhall and mansion house.
A musical festival of the choirs of Hereford, Gloucester and
Worcester cathedrals is held annually in rotation at these cities.
The government is in the hands of a municipal council con-
sisting of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
5031 acres.
Hereford (Herefortuna), founded after the crossing of the
Severn by the West Saxons early in the 7th century, had a
strategic importance due to its proximity to the Welsh March.
The foundation of the castle is ascribed to Earl Harold, afterwards
Harold II. The castle was successfully besieged by Stephen,
and was the prison of Prince Edward during the Barons' Wars.
The pacification of Wales deprived Hereford of military signifi-
cance until it became a Royalist stronghold during the Civil Wars.
It surrendered easily to Waller in 1643; but was reoccupied
by the king's troops and received Rupert on his march to Wales
after Naseby. It was besieged by the Scots during August
1645 and relieved by the king. It fell to the Parliamentarians
in this year. In 1086 the town included fees of the bishop, the
dean and chapter, and the Knights Hospitallers, but was other-
wise royal demesne. Richard I. in 1189 sold their town to
the citizens at a fee farm rent, which grant was confirmed by
John, Henry III., Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Henry
IV. and Edward IV. Incorporation was granted to the mayor,
aldermen and citizens in 1597, and confirmed in 1620 and
1697-1698. Hereford returned two members to parliament
from 1295 until 1885, when the Redistribution Act deprived it of
one representative. In 1116-1117 a fair beginning on St Ethel-
berta's day was conferred on the bishop, the antecedent of the
modern fair in the beginning of May. A fair beginning on St
Denis' day, granted to the citizens in 1226-1227, is represented
by that held in October. The fair of Easter Wednesday was
granted in 1682. In 1792 the existing fairs of Candlemas week
and the beginning of July were held. Market days were, under
Henry VIII. and in 1792, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday;
the Friday market was discontinued before 1835. Hereford was
the site of a provincial mint in 1086 and later. A grant of an
exclusive merchant gild, in 1215-1216, was several times con-
firmed. The trade in wool was important in 1202, and eventually-
responsible for gilds of tailors, drapers, mercers, dyers, fullers,
cloth workers, weavers and haberdashers; it brought into the
market Welsh friezes and white cloth; but declined in the i6th
cenfury, although it existed in 1835. The leather trade was
considerable in the I3th century. In 1835 the glove trade had
declined. The city anciently had an extensive trade in bread
with Wales. It was the birthplace of David Garrick, the actor,
in 1716, and probably of Nell Gwyn, mistress of Charles II., to
whose memory a tablet was erected in 1883, marking the supposed
site of her house.
See R. Johnson, Ancient Customs of Hereford (London, 1882);
J. Duncumbe, History of Hereford (Hereford, 1882); Journal of
Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxvi.
HEREFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England on the
south Welsh border, bounded N. by Shropshire, E. by Worcester-
shire, S. by Monmouthshire and Gloucestershire, and W. by
Radnorshire and Brecknockshire. The area is 839-6 sq. m.
The county is almost wholly drained by the Wye and its tribu-
taries, but on the north and east includes a small portion of the
Severn basin. The Wye enters Herefordshire from Wales at Hay,
and with a sinuous and very beautiful course crosses the south-
western part of the county, leaving it close above the town of
Monmouth. Of its tributaries, the Lugg enters in the north-west
near Presteign, and has a course generally easterly to Leominster,
where it turns south, receives the Arrow from the west, and
joins the Wye 6 m. below Hereford, the Frome flowing in from
the east immediately above the junction. The Monnow rising
in the mountains of Brecknockshire forms the boundary between
Herefordshire and Monmouthshire over one-half of its course
(about 20 m.), but it joins the main river at Monmouth. Its
principal tributary in Herefordshire is the Dore, which traverses
the picturesque Golden Valley. The Wye is celebrated for its
356
HEREFORDSHIRE
salmon fishing, which is carefully preserved, while the Lugg,
Arrow and Frome abound in trout and grayling, as does the
Teme. This last is a tributary of the Severn, and only two short
reaches lie within this county in the north, while it also forms
parts of the northern and eastern boundary. The Leddon, also
flowing to the Severn, rises in the east of the county and leaves
it in the south-east, passing the town of Ledbury. High ground,
of an elevation from 500 to 800 ft., separates the various valleys,
while on the eastern boundary rise the Malvern Hills, reaching
1194 ft. in the Herefordshire Beacon, and 1395 ft. in the
Worcestershire Beacon, and on the boundary with Brecknock-
shire the Black Mountains exceed 2000 ft. The scenery of the
Wye, with its wooded and often precipitous banks, is famous,
the most noteworthy point in this county being about Symond's
Yat, on the Gloucestershire border below Ross.
Geology. The Archean or Pre-Cambrian rocks, the most ancient
in the county, emerge from beneath the newer deposits in three small
isolated areas. On the western border, Stanner Rock, a picturesque
craggy hill near Kington, consists of igneous materials (granitoid
rock, felstone, dolerite and gabbro), apparently of intrusive origin
and possibly of Uriconian age. In Brampton Bryan Park, a few
miles to the north-east, some ancient conglomerates emerge and may
be of Longmyndian age. On the east of the county the Herefordshire
Beacon in the Malvern chain consists of gneisses and schists and
Uriconian volcanic rocks; these have been thrust over various
members of the Cambrian and Silurian systems, and owing to their
hard and durable nature they form the highest ground in the county.
The Cambrian rocks (Tremadoc Beds) come next in order of age and
consist of quartzites, sandstones and shales, well exposed at the
southern end of the Malvern chain and also at Pedwardine near
Brampton Bryan. The Silurian rocks are well developed in the
north-west part of the county, between Presteign and Ludlow; also
along the western flanks of the Malvern Hills and in the eroded dome
of Woolhope. Smaller patches come to light at Westhide east of
Hereford and at May Hill near Newent. They consist of highly
fossiliferous sandstones, mudstones, shales and limestones, known
as the Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow Series; the Woolhope,
Wenlock and Aymestry Limestones are famed for their rich fossil
contents. The remainder and by far the greater part of the county
is occupied by the Old Red Sandstone, through which the rocks
above described project in detached areas. The Old Red Sandstone
consists of a great thickness of red sandstones and marls, with
impersistent bands of impure concretionary limestone known as
cornstones, which by their superior hardness give rise to scarps and
rounded ridges; they have yielded remains of fishes and crustaceans.
Some of the upper beds are conglomeratic. On its south-eastern
margin the county just reaches the Carboniferous Limestone cliffs
of the Wye Valley near Ross. Glacial deposits, chiefly sand and
gravel, are found in the lower ground along the river-courses, while
caves in the Carboniferous Limestone have yielded remains of the
hyena, cave-lion, rhinoceros, mammoth and reindeer.
Agriculture and Industries. The soil is generally marl and
clay, but in various parts contains calcareous earth in mixed
proportions. Westward the soil is tenacious and retentive of
water; on the east it is a stiff and often reddish clay. In the
south is found a light sandy loam. More than four-fifths of the
total area of the county is under cultivation and about two-thirds
of this is in permanent pasture. Ash and oak coppices and
larch plantations clothe its hillsides and crests. The rich red
soil of the Old Red Sandstone formation is famous for its pear
and apple orchards, the county, notwithstanding its much
smaller area, ranking in this respect next to Devonshire. The
apple crop, generally large, is enormous one year out of four.
Twenty hogsheads of cider have been made from an acre of
orchard, twelve being the ordinary yield. Cider is the staple
beverage of the county, and the trade in cider and perry is large.
Hops are another staple of the county, the vines of which are
planted in rows on ploughed land. As early as Camden's day a
Herefordshire adage coupled Weobley ale with Leominster
bread, indicating the county's capacity to produce fine wheat
and barley, as well as hops.
Herefordshire is also famous as a breeding county for its
cattle of bright red hue, with mottled or white faces and sleek
silky coats. The Herefords are stalwart and healthy, and,
though not good milkers, put on more meat and fat at an early
age, in proportion to food consumed, than almost any other
variety. They produce the finest beef, and are more cheaply
fed than Devons or Durhams, with which they are advantageously
crossed. As a dairy county Herefordshire does not rank high.
Its small, white-faced, hornless, symmetrical breed of sheep-
known as " the Ryelands," from the district near Ross, where
it was bred in most perfection, made the county long famous
both for the flavour of its meat and the merino-like texture of
its wool. Fuller says of this that it was best known as " Lempster
ore," and the finest in all England. In its original form the
breed is extinct, crossing with the Leicester having improved
size and stamina at the cost of the fleece, and the chief breeds
of sheep on Herefordshire farms at present are Shropshire
Downs, Cotswolds and Radnors, with their crosses. Agricultural
horses of good quality are bred in the north, and saddle and
coach horses may be met with at the fairs. Breeders' names
from the county are famous at the national cattle shows, and
the number, size and quality of the stock are seen in their supply
of the metropolitan and other markets. Prize Herefords are
constantly exported to the colonies.
Manufacturing enterprise is small. There are some iron
foundries and factories for agricultural implements, and some
paper is made. There are considerable limestone quarries, as
near Ledbury.
Communications. Hereford is an important railway centre.
The Worcester and Cardiff line of the Great Western railway,
entering on the east, runs to Hereford by Ledbury and then
southward. The joint line of the Great Western and North-
Western companies runs north from Hereford by Leominster,
proceeding to Shrewsbury and Crewe. At Leominster a Great
Western branch crosses, connecting Worcester, Bromyard and
New Radnor. From Hereford a Great Western branch follows
the Wye south to Ross, and thence to the Forest of Dean and
to Gloucester; a branch connects Ledbury with Gloucester,
and the Golden Valley is traversed by a branch from Pontrilas
on the Worcester-Cardiff line. From Hereford the Midland and
Neath and Brecon line follows the Wye valley westward. None
of the rivers is commercially navigable and the canals are out
of use.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 537,363 acres, with a population in 1891 of 115,949
and in 1901 of 114,380. The area of the administrative county
is 538,921 acres. The county contains 12 hundreds. It is
divided into two parliamentary divisions, Leominster (N.) and
Ross (S.), and it also includes the parliamentary borough of
Hereford, each returning one member. There are two municipal
boroughs Hereford (pop. 21,382) and Leominster (5826).
The other urban districts are Bromyard (1663), Kington (1944),
Ledbury (3259) and Ross (3303). The county is in the Oxford
circuit, and assizes are held at Hereford. It has one court of
quarter sessions and is divided into 1 1 petty sessional divisions.
The boroughs of Hereford and Leominster have separate com-
missions of the peace, and the borough of Hereford has in
addition a separate court of quarter sessions. There are 260
civil parishes. The ancient county, which is almost entirely
in the diocese of Hereford, with small parts in those of Gloucester,
Worcester and Llandaff, contains 222 ecclesiastical parishes or
districts, wholly or in part.
History. At some time in the 7th century the West Saxons
pushed their way across the Severn and established themselves
in the territory between Wales and Mercia, with which kingdom
they soon became incorporated. The district which is now
Herefordshire was occupied by a tribe the Hecanas, who con-
gregated chiefly in the fertile area about Hereford and in the
mining districts round Ross. In the 8th century Offa extended
the Mercian frontier to the Wye, securing it by the earthwork
known as Offa's dike, portions of which are visible at Knighton
and Moorhampton in this county. In 91 5 the Danes made their
way up the Severn to the district of Archenfield, where they
took prisoner Cyfeiliawg bishop of Llandaff, and in 921 they
besieged Wigmore, which had been rebuilt in that year by Edward.
From the time of its first settlement the district was the scene
of constant border warfare with the Welsh, and Harold, whose
earldom included this county, ordered that any Welshman
caught trespassing over the border should lose his right hand.
In the period preceding the Conquest much disturbance was
HEREFORDSHIRE
357
caused by the outrages of the Norman colony planted in this
county by Edward the Confessor. Richard's castle in the north
of the county was the first Norman fortress erected on English
soil, and Wigmore, Ewyas Harold, Clifford, Weobley, Hereford,
Donnington and Caldecot were all the sites of Norman strong-
holds. The conqueror entrusted the subjugation of Hereford-
shire to William FitzOsbern, but Edric the Wild in conjunction
with the Welsh prolonged resistance against him for two years.
In the wars of Stephen's reign Hereford and Weobley castles
were held against the king, but were captured in 1 138. Edward,
afterwards Edward I., was imprisoned in Hereford Castle, and
made his famous escape thence in 1265. In 1326 the parliament
assembled at Hereford which deposed Edward II. In the i4th
and isth centuries the forest of Deerfold gave refuge to some
of the most noted followers of Wycliffe. During the Wars of
the Roses the influence of the Mortimers led the county to
support the Yorkist cause, and Edward, afterwards Edward
IV., raised 23,000 men in this neighbourhood. The battle
of Mortimer's Cross was fought in 1461 near Wigmore. Before
the outbreak of the civil war of the i7th century, complaints
of illegal taxation were rife in Herefordshire, but a strong anti-
puritan feeling induced the county to favour the royalist cause.
Hereford, Goodrich and Ledbury all endured sieges.
The earldom of Hereford was granted by William I. to William
FitzOsbern, about 1067, but on the outlawry of his son Roger
in 1074 the title lapsed until conferred on Henry de Bohun
about 1199. It remained in the possession of the Bohuns until
the death of Humphrey de Bohun in 1373; in 1397 Henry,
earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., who had married
Mary Bohun, was created duke of Hereford. Edward VI.
created Walter Devereux, a descendant of the Bohun family,
Viscount Hereford, in 1550, and his grandson, the famous earl
of Essex, was born in this county. Since this date the viscounty
has been held by the Devereux family, and the holder ranks
as the premier viscount of England. The families of Clifford,
Giffard and Mortimer figured prominently in the warfare on
the Welsh border, and the Talbots, Lacys, Crofts and Scuda-
mores abo had important seats in the county, Sir James Scuda-
more of Holme Lacy being the original of the Sir Scudamore of
Spenser's Faery Queen. Sir John Oldcastle, the leader of the
Lollards, was sheriff of Herefordshire in 1406.
Herefordshire probably originated as a shire in the time of
.lEthelstan, and is mentioned in the Saxon Chroncile in 1051.
In the Domesday Survey parts of Monmouthshire and Radnor-
shire are assessed under Herefordshire, and the western and
southern borders remained debatable ground until with the
incorporation of the Welsh marches in 1535 considerable territory
was restored to Herefordshire and formed into the hundreds of
Wigmore, Ewyas Lacy and Huntingdon, while Ewyas Harold
was united to Webtree. At the time of the Domesday Survey
the divisions of the county were very unsettled. As many as
nineteen hundreds are mentioned, but these were of varying
extent, some containing only one manor, some from twenty
to thirty. Of the twelve modern hundreds, only Greytree,
Radlow, Stretford, Wolphy and Wormelow retain Domesday
names. Herefordshire has been included in the diocese of
Hereford since its foundation in 676. In 1291 it comprised the
deaneries of Hereford, Weston, Leominster, Weobley, Frome,
Archenfield and Ross in the archdeaconry of Hereford, and the
deaneries of Burford, Stottesdon, Ludlow, Pontesbury, Clun
and Wenlock, in the archdeaconry of Shropshire. In 1877 the
name of the archdeaconry of Shropshire was changed to Ludlow,
and in 1899 the deaneries of Abbey Dore, Bromyard, Kingsland,
Kington and Ledbury were created in the archdeaconry of
Hereford.
Herefordshire was governed by a sheriff as early as the reign
of Edward the Confessor, the shire-court meeting at Hereford
where later the assizes and quarter sessions were also held. In
1606 an act was passed declaring Hereford free from the juris-
diction of the council of Wales, but the county was not finally
relieved from the interference of the Lords Marchers until the
reign of William and Mary.
Herefordshire has always been esteemed an exceptionally
rich agricultural area, the manufactures being unimportant,
with the sole exception of the woollen and the cloth trade which
flourished soon after the Conquest . Iron was worked in Wormelow
hundred in Roman times, and the Domesday Survey mentions
iron workers in Marcle. At the time of Henry VIII. the towns
had become much impoverished, and Elizabeth in order to
encourage local industries, insisted on her subjects wearing
English-made caps from the factory of Hereford. Hops were
grown in the county soon after their introduction into England
in 1524. In 1580 and again in 1637 the county was severely
visited by the plague, but in the i7th century it had a flourishing
timber trade and was noted for its orchards and cider.
Herefordshire was first represented in parliament in 1295,
when it returned two members, the boroughs of Ledbury, Here-
ford, Leominster and Weobley being also represented. Hereford
was again represented in 1299, and Bromyard and Ross in 1304,
but the boroughs made very irregular returns, and from 1306
until Weobley regained representation in 1627, only Hereford
and Leominster were represented. Under the act of 1832 the
county returned three members and Weobley was disfranchised.
The act of 1868 deprived Leominster of one member, and under
the act of 1885 Leominster was disfranchised, and Hereford
lost one member.
Antiquities. There are remains of several of the strongholds
which Herefordshire possessed as a march county, some of which
were maintained and enlarged, after the settlement of the border,
to serve in later wars. To the south of Ross are those of Wilton
and Goodrich, commanding the Wye on the right bank, the
latter a ruin of peculiar magnificence, and both gaining pictur-
esqueness from their beautiful situations. Of the several castles
in the valleys of the boundary-river Monnow and its tributaries,
those in this county include Pembridge, Kilpeck and Longtown;
of which the last shows extensive remains of the strong keep and
thick walls. In the north the finest example is Wigmore,
consisting of a keep on an artificial mound within outer walls,
the seat of the powerful family of Mortimer.
Beside the cathedral of Hereford, and the fine churches of
Ledbury, Leominster' and Ross, described under separate
headings, the county contains some churches of almost unique
interest. In that of Kilpeck remarkable and unusual Norman
work is seen. It consists of the three divisions of nave, choir
and chancel, divided by ornate arches, the chancel ending in
an apse, with a beautiful and elaborate west end and south
doorway. The columns of the choir arch are composed of
figures. A similar plan is seen in Peterchurch in the Golden
Valley, and in Moccas church, on the Wye above Hereford.
Among the large number of churches exhibiting Norman details
that at Bromyard is noteworthy. At Abbey Dore, the Cistercian
abbey church, still in use, is a large and beautiful specimen of
Early English work, and there are slight remains of the monastic
buildings. At Madley, south of the Wye 5 m. W. of Hereford,
is a fine Decorated church (with earlier portions), with the
rare feature of a Decorated apsidal chancel over an octagonal
crypt. Of the churches in mixed styles those in the larger
towns are the most noteworthy, together with that of Weobley.
The half-timbered style of domestic architecture, common in
the west and midlands of England in the i6th and i7th centuries,
beautifies many of the towns and villages. Among country
houses, that of Treago, 9 m. W. of Ross, is a remarkable example
of a fortified mansion of the i3th century, in a condition little
altered. Rudhall and Sufton Court, between Ross and Hereford,
are good specimens of 15th-century work, and portions of
Hampton Court, 8 m. N. of Hereford, are of the same period,
built by Sir Rowland Lenthall, a favourite of Henry IV. Holme
Lacy, 5 m. S.E. of Hereford, is a fine mansion of the latter part
of the 1 7th century, with picturesque Dutch gardens, and much
wood-carving by Grinling Gibbons within. This was formerly
the seat of the Scudamores, from whom it was inherited by
the Stanhopes, earls of Chesterfield, the gth earl of Chester-
field taking the name of Scudamore-Stanhope. His son, the
loth earl, has recently (1909) sold Holme Lacy to Sir Robert
HERERO HERESY
Lucas-Tooth, Bart. Downton Castle possesses historical interest
in having been designed in 1774, in a strange mixture of Gothic
and Greek styles, by Richard Payne Knight (1750-1824), a
famous scholar, numismatist and member of parliament for Leo-
minster and Ludlow; while Eaton Hall, now a farm, was the
seat of the family of the famous geographer Richard Hakluyt.
See Victoria County History, Herefordshire; ]. Duncomb, Collec-
tions towards the History and Antiquities of the County of Hereford
(Hereford, 1804-1812); John Allen, Bibliotheca Herefordiensis (Here-
ford, 1821); John Webb, Memorials of the Civil War between Charles
I. and the Parliament of England as it affected Herefordshire and the
adjacent Counties (London, 1879); R. Cooke, Visitation of Hereford-
shire, 1569 (Exeter, 1886); F. T. Havergal, Herefordshire Words
and Phrases (Walsall, 1887); J. Hutchinson, Herefordshire Bio-
graphies (Hereford 1 , 1890).
KERERO, or OVAHERERO (" merry people "), a Bantu people
of German South- West Africa, living in the region known as
Damaraland or Hereroland. They call themselves Ovaherero
and their language Otshi-herero. Sometimes they are described
as Cattle Damara or " Damara of the Plains " in distinction
from the Hill Damara who are of mixed blood and Hottentots
in language. The Herero, whose main occupation is that of
cattle-rearing, are a warlike race, possessed of considerable mili-
tary skill, as was shown in their campaigns of 1904-5 against
the Germans. (See further GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.)
HERESY, the English equivalent of the Greek word oXpecris
which 'is used in the Septuagint for " free choice," in later
classical literature for a philosophical school or sect as " chosen "
by those who belong to it, in Philo for religion, in Josephus for
a religious party (the Sadducees, the Pharisees and the Essenes).
It is in this last sense that the term is used in the New Testa-
ment, usually with an implicit censure of the factious spirit to
which such divisions are due. The term is applied
Testa- to tne Sadducees (Acts v. 17) and Pharisees (Acts xv.
meat. 5, xxvi. 5). From the standpoint of opponents,
Christianity is itself so described (Acts xxiv. 14, xxviii.
22). In the Pauline Epistles it is used with severe condemnation
of the divisions within the Christian Church itself. Heresies
with " enmities, strife, jealousies, wraths, factions, divisions,
envyings " are reckoned among " the works of the flesh "
(Gal. v. 20). Such divisions, proofs of a carnal mind, are censured
in the church of Corinth (i Cor. iii. 3, 4); and the church of
Rome is warned against those who cause them (Rom. xvi. 17).
The term " schism," afterwards distinguished from " heresy,"
is also used of these divisions (i Cor. i. 10). The estrangements
of the rich and the poor in the church at Corinth, leading to
a lack of Christian fellowship even at the Lord's Supper, is
described as " heresy " (i Cor. xi. 10). Breaches of the law of
love, not errors about the truth of the Gospel, are referred to in
these passages. But the first step towards the ecclesiastical
use of the term is found already in 2 Peter ii. i, " Among you
also there shall be false teachers who shah 1 privily bring in
destructive heresies (R.V. margin " sects of perdition "), denying
even the Master that bought them, bringing upon themselves
swift destruction." The meaning here suggested is " falsely
chosen or erroneous tenets. Already the emphasis is moving
from persons and their temper to mental products from the
sphere of sympathetic love to that of objective truth " (Bartlet,
art. "Heresy," Hastings's Bible Dictionary). As the parallel
passage in Jude, verse 4, shows, however, that these errors had
immoral consequences, the moral reference is not absent even
from this passage. The first employment of the term outside
the New Testament is also its first use for theological error.
Ignatius applies it to Docetism (Ad Trail. 6). As doctrine came
to be made more important, heresy was restricted to any de-
parture from the recognized creed. Even Constantine the Great
describes the Christian Church as " the Catholic heresy," " the
most sacred heresy " (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, x. c. 5,
the letter to Chrestus, bishop of Syracuse); but this use was
very soon abandoned, and the Catholic Church distinguished
itself from the dissenting minorities, which it condemned as
" heresies." The use of the term heresy in the New Testament
cannot be regarded as defining the attitude of the Christian
Gnostic-
ism,
Church, even in the Apostolic age, towards errors in belief.
The Apostolic writings show a vehement antagonism towards all
teaching opposed to the Gospel. Paul declares anathema the
Judaizer, who required the circumcision of the Gentiles (Gal. i. 8),
and even calls them the " dogs of the concision " and " evil
workers " (Phil. iii. 2). The elders of Ephesus are warned
against the false teachers who would appear in the church after
the apostle's death as " grievous wolves not sparing the flock "
(Acts xx. 29) ; and the speculations of the Gnostics are denounced
as " seducing spirits and doctrines of devils " (i Tim. iv. i), as
" profane babblings and oppositions of the knowledge which is
falsely so called " (vi. 20). John's warnings are as earnest and
severe. Those who deny the fact of the Incarnation are described
as " antichrist," and as " deceivers " (i John iv. 3; 2 John 7).
The references to heretics in 2 Peter and Jude have already been
dealt with. This antagonism is explicable by the character of
the heresies that threatened the Christian Church in the Apostolic
age. Each of these heresies involved such a blending of the
Gospel with either Jewish or pagan elements, as would not only
pollute its purity, but destroy its power. In each of these the
Gospel was in danger of being made of none effect by the environ-
ment, which it must resist in order that it might transform (see
Burton's Bampton Lectures on The Heresies of the Apostolic Age).
These Gnostic heresies, which threatened to paganize the
Christian Church, were condemned in no measured terms by the
fathers. These false teachers are denounced as
" servants of Satan, beasts in human shape, dealers
in deadly poison, robbers and pirates." Polycarp,
Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian and
even Clement of Alexandria and Origen are as severe in con-
demnation as the later fathers (cf. Matt. xiii. 35-43; Tertullian,
Praescr. 31). While the necessity of the heresies is admitted in
accordance with i Cor. xi. 19, yet woe is pronounced on those
who have introduced them, according to Matt, xviii. 7. (This
application of these passages, however, is of altogether doubtful
validity.) " It was necessary," says Tertullian (ibid. 30), " that
the Lord should be betrayed; but woe to the traitor." The
very worst motives, " pride, disappointed ambition, sensual
lust, and avarice," are recklessly imputed to the heretics; and
no possibility of morally innocent doubt, difficulty or difference
in thought is admitted. Origen and Augustine do, however,
recognize that even false teachers may have good motives.
.While we must admit that there was a very serious peril to the
thought and life of the Christian Church in the teaching thus
denounced, yet we must not forget that for the most part these
teachers are known to us only in the ex parte representation that
their opponents have given of them; and we must not assume
that even their doctrines, still less their characters, were so bad
as they are described.
The attitude of the church in the post-Nicene period differs
from that in the ante-Nicene in two important respects, (i)
As has already been indicated, the earlier heresies threatened to
introduce Jewish or pagan elements into the faith of the church,
and it was necessary that they should be vigorously resisted
if the church was to retain its distinctive character. Many of
the later heresies were differences in the interpretation of Christian
truth, which did not in the same way threaten the very life of
the church. No vital interest of Christian faith justified the
extravagant denunciations in which theological partisanship
so recklessly and ruthlessly indulged. (2) In the ante-Nicene
period only ecclesiastical penalties, such as reproof, deposition
or excommunication, could be imposed. In the post-Nicene the
union of church and state transformed theological error into
legal offence (see below).
We must now consider the definition of heresy which was
gradually reached in the Christian Church. It is " a religious
error held in wilful and persistent opposition to the
truth after it has been defined and declared by the
church in an authoritative manner," or " pertinax
defensio dogmatis ecclesiae universalis judicio con-
demnati " (Schaff's Ante-Nicene Christianity, ii. 512-516).
(i.) It " denotes an opinion antagonistic to a fundamental
HERESY
359
article of the Christian faith," due to the introduction of " foreign
elements " and resulting in a perversion of Christianity, and an
amalgamation with it of ideas discordant with its nature (Fisher's
History of Christian Doctrine, p. 9). It has been generally
assumed that the ecclesiastical authority was always competent
to determine what are the fundamental articles of the Christian
faith, and to detect any departures from them; but it is necessary
to admit the possibility that the error was in the church, and the
truth was with the heresy, (ii.) There cannot be any heresy
where there is no orthodoxy, and, therefore, in the definition
it is assumed that the church has declared what is the truth
or the error in any matter. Accordingly " heresy is to be
distinguished from defective stages of Christian knowledge.
For example, the Jewish believers, including the Apostles
themselves, at the outset required the Gentile believers to be
circumcised. They were not on this account chargeable with
heresy. Additional light must first come in, and be rejected,
before that earlier opinion could be thus stigmatized. Moreover,
heresies are not to be confounded with tentative and faulty
hypotheses broached in a period prior to the scrutiny of a topic
of Christian doctrine, and before that scrutiny has led the general
mind to an assured conclusion. Such hypotheses for example,
the idea that in the person of Christ the Logos is substituted
for a rational human spirit are to be met with in certain early
fathers " (ibid. p. 10). Origen indulged in many speculations
which were afterwards condemned, but, as these matters were
still open questions in his day, he was not reckoned a heretic,
(iii.) In accordance with the New Testament use of the term
heresy, it is assumed that moral defect accompanies the intel-
lectual error, that the false view is held pertinaciously, in spite
of warning, remonstrance and rebuke; aggressively to win
over others, and so factiously, to cause division in the church,
a breach in its unity.
A distinction is made between " heresy " and " schism "
(from Gr. crxifeii', rend asunder, divide). " The fathers
Schism. commonly use ' heresy ' of false teaching in opposition
to Catholic doctrine, and ' schism ' of a breach of
discipline, in opposition to Catholic government " (Schaff). But
as the claims of the church to be the guardian through its
episcopate of the apostolic tradition, of the Christian faith
itself, were magnified, and unity in practice as well as in doctrine
came to be regarded as essential, this distinction became a
theoretical rather than a practical one. While severely condemn-
ing, both Irenaeus and Tertullian distinguished schismatics
from heretics. " Though we are by no means entitled to say
that they acknowledged orthodox schismatics they did not yet
venture to reckon them simply as heretics. If it was desired
to get rid of these, an effort was made to impute to them some
deviation from the rule of faith; and under this pretext the
church freed herself from the Montanists and the Monarchians.
Cyprian was the first to proclaim the identity of heretics and
schismatics by making a man's Christianity depend on his
belonging to the great episcopal church confederation. But
in both East and West, this theory of his became established
only by very imperceptible degrees, and indeed, strictly speaking,
the process was never completed. The distinction between
heretics and schismatics was preserved because it prevented a
public denial of the old principles, because it was advisable
on political grounds to treat certain schismatic communities
with indulgence, and because it was always possible in case of
need to prove heresy against the schismatics." (Harnack's
History of Dogma, ii. 92-93).
There was considerable controversy in the early church as
to the validity of heretical baptism. As even " the Christian
, , virtues of the heretics were described as hypocrisy
Heretical '
baptism an " ' ove * ostentation, so no value whatever was
attached by the orthodox party to the sacraments
performed by heretics. Tertullian declares that the church
can have no communion with the heretics, for there is nothing
common; as they have not the same God, and the same Christ,
so they have not the same baptism (De bapt. 15). Cyprian
agreed with him. The validity of heretical baptism was denied
"
by the church of Asia Minor as well as of Africa; but the practice
of the Roman Church was to admit without second baptism
heretics who had been baptized with the name of Christ, or of
the Holy Trinity. Stephen of Rome attempted to force the
Roman practice on the whole church in 253. The controversy
his intolerance provoked was closed by Augustine's controversial
treatise De Baplismo, in which the validity of baptism ad-
ministered by heretics is based on the objectivity of the sacra-
ment. Whenever the name of the three-one God is used, the
sacrament is declared valid by whomsoever it may be performed.
This was a triumph of sacramentarianism, not of charity.
Three types of heresy have appeared in the history of the
Christian Church. 1 The earliest may be called the syncretic;
it is the fusion of Jewish or pagan with Christian
elements. Ebionitism asserted " the continual obliga-
tion to observe the whole of the Mosaic law," and
" outran the Old Testament monotheism by a barren monarchian-
ism that denied the divinity of Christ " (Kurtz, Church History,
i. 120). Gnosticism was the result of the attempt to blend
with Christianity the religious notions of pagan mythology,
mysterology, theosophy and philosophy " (p. 98). The Judaizing
and the paganizing tendency were combined in Gnostic Ebionitism
which was prepared for in Jewish Essenism. In the later heresy
of Manichaeism there were affinities to Gnosticism, but it was
a mixture of many elements, Babylonian-Chaldaic theosophy,
Persian dualism and even Buddhist ethics (p. 126).
The next type of heresy may be called evolutionary orformatory.
When the Christian faith is being formulated, undue emphasis
may be put on one aspect, and thus so partial a statement of
truth may result in error. Thus when in the ante-Nicene age
the doctrine of the Trinity was under discussion, dynamic
Monarchianism " regarded Christ as a mere man, who, like the
prophets, though in a much higher measure, had been endued
with divine wisdom and power "; modal Monarchianism saw
in the Logos dwelling in Christ " only a mode of the activity of
the Father "; Palripassianism identified the Logos with the
Father; and Sabellianism regarded Father, Son and Spirit
as "the roles which the God who manifests Himself in the world
assumes in succession" (Kurtz, Church History, i. 175-181).
When Arius asserted the subordination of the Son to the Father,
and denied the eternal generation, Athanasius and his party
asserted the Homoousia, the cosubstantiality of the Father and
the Son. This assertion of the divinity of Christ triumphed,
but other problems at once emerged. How was the relation
of the humanity to the divinity in Christ to be conceived?
Apollinaris denied the completeness of the human nature, and
substituted the divine Logos for the reasonable soul of man.
Nestorius held the two natures so far apart as to appear to sacrifice
the unity of the person of Christ. Eutyches on the contrary
" taught not only that after His incarnation Christ had only
one nature, but also that the body of Christ as the body of God
is not of like substance with our own " (Kurtz, Church History,
i. 330-334). The Church in the Creed of Chalcedon in A.D. 451
affirmed " that Christ is true God and true man, according to
His Godhead begotten from eternity and like the Father in
everything, only without sin; and that after His incarnation
the unity of the person consists in two natures which are con-
joined without confusion, and without change, but also without
rending and without separation." The problem was not solved,
but the inadequate solutions were excluded, and the data to be
considered in any adequate solution were affirmed. After this
decision the controversies about the Person of Christ degenerated
into mere hair-splitting; and the interference of the imperial
authority from time to time in the dispute was not conducive
to the settlement of the questions in the interests of truth alone.
This problem interested the East for the most part; in the
West there was waged a theological warfare around the nature
of man and the work of Christ. To Augustine's doctrine of man's
total depravity, his incapacity for any good, and the absolute
sovereignty of the divine grace in salvation according to the
divine election, Pelagius opposed the view that " God's grace
1 For fuller details see separate articles.
3 6
HERESY
is destined for all men, but man must make himself worthy
of it by honest striving after virtue " (Kurtz, Church History,
i. 348). While Pelagius was condemned, it was only a modified
Augustinianism which became the doctrine of the church. It is
not necessary in illustration of the second type of heresy that
which arises when the contents of the Christian faith are being
defined to refer to the doctrinal controversies of the middle
ages. It may be added that after the Reformation Arianism
was revived in Socinianism, and Pelagianism in Arminianism;
but the conception of heresy in Protestantism demands sub-
sequent notice.
The third type of heresy is the revolutionary or reformatory.
This is not directed against doctrine as such, but against the
church, its theory and its practice. Such movements of antagon-
ism to the errors or abuses of ecclesiastical authority may be
so permeated by defective conceptions and injurious influences
as by their own character to deserve condemnation. But on
the other hand the church in maintaining its place and power
may condemn as heretical genuine efforts at reform by a return,
though partial, to the standard set by the Holy Scriptures or the
Apostolic Church. On the one hand there were during the
middle ages sects, like the Catharists and Albigenses, whose
"opposition as a rule developed itself from dualistic or panthe-
istic premises (surviving effects of old Gnostic or Manichaean
views) " and who " stood outside of ordinary Christendom,
and while no doubt affecting many individual members within
it, had no influence on church doctrine." On the other hand
there were movements, such as the Waldensian, the Wycliffite
and Hussite, which are of ten described as " reformations anticipat-
ing the Reformation " which " set out from the Augustinian
conception of the Church, but took exception to the develop-
ment of the conception," and were pronounced by the medieval
church as heretical foT (i) " contesting the hierarchical gradation
of the priestly order; or (2) giving to the religious idea of the
Church implied in the thought of predestination a place superior
to the conception of the empirical Church; or (3) applying to
the priests, and thereby to the authorities of the Church, the
test of the law of God, before admitting their right to exercise,
as holding the keys, the power of binding and loosing " (Harnack's
History of Dogma, vi. 136-137). The Reformation itself was
from the standpoint of the Roman Catholic Church heresy and
schism.
" In the present divided state of Christendom," says Schaff
(Ante-Nicens Christianity, ii. 513-514), " there are different
kinds of orthodoxy and heresy. Orthodoxy is con-
n der " formity to the recognized creed or standard of public
"term. ' doctrine; heresy is a wilful departure from it. The
Greek Church rejects as heretical, because contrary
to the teaching of the first seven ecumenical councils, the Roman
dogmas of the papacy, of the double procession of the Holy
Ghost, the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, and the
infallibility of the Pope. The Roman Church anathematized,
in the council of Trent, all the distinctive doctrines of the Pro-
testant Reformation. Among Protestant churches again there
are minor doctrinal differences, which are held with various
degrees of exclusiveness or liberality according to the degree
of departure from the Roman Catholic Church. Luther, for
instance, would not tolerate Zwingli's view on the Lord's Supper,
while Zwingli was willing to fraternize with him notwithstanding
this difference." At the colloquy of Marburg " Zwingli offered
his hand to Luther with the entreaty that they be at least
Christian brethren, but Luther refused it and declared that the
Swiss were of another spirit. He expressed surprise that a man
of such views as Zwingli should wish brotherly relations with the
Wittenberg reformers" (Walker, The Reformation, p. 174).
A difference of opinion on the question of the presence of Christ
in the elements at the Lord's Supper was thus allowed to divide
and to weaken the forces of the Reformation. On the problem
of divine election Lutheranism and Calvinism remained divided.
The Formula of Concord (1577), which gave to the whole Lutheran
Church of Germany a common doctrinal system, declined to
accept the Calvinistic position that man's condemnation as well
as his salvation is an object of divine predestination. Within
Calvinism itself Pelagianism was revived in Arminianism,
which denied the irresistibility, and affirmed the universality
of grace. This heresy was condemned by the synod of Dort
(1619). The standpoint of the Reformed churches was the
substitution of the authority of the Scriptures for the authority
of the church. Whatever was conceived as contrary to the
teaching of the Bible was regarded as heresy. The position is
well expressed in the Scotch Confession (1559). "Protesting,
that if any man will note in this our Confession any article or
sentence repugning to God's Holy Word, that it would please
him, of his gentleness, and for Christian charity's sake, to ad-
monish us of the same in writ, and we of our honour and fidelity
do promise unto him satisfaction from the mouth of God; that
is, from His Holy Scripture, or else reformation of that which
he shall prove to be amiss. In God we take to record in our
consciences that from our hearts we abhor all sects of heresy,
and all teachers of erroneous doctrines; and that with all
humility we embrace purity of Christ's evangel, which is the only
food of our souls " (Preface).
Although subsequently to the Reformation period the Pro-
testant churches for the most part relapsed into the dogmatism
of the Roman Catholic Church, and were ever ready with
censure for every departure from orthodoxy yet to-day a spirit
of diffidence in regard to one's own beliefs, and of tolerance
towards the beliefs of others, is abroad. The enlargement of
the horizon of knowledge by the advance of science, the recogni-
tion of the only relative validity of human opinions and beliefs as
determined by and adapted to each stage of human development,
which is due to the growing historical sense, the alteration of
view regarding the nature of inspiration, and the purpose of the
Holy Scriptures, the revolt against all ecclesiastical authority,
and the acceptance of reason and conscience as alone authorita-
tive, the growth of the spirit of Christian charity, the clamorous
demand of the social problem for immediate attention, all com-
bine in making the Christian churches less anxious about the
danger, and less zealous in the discovery and condemnation
of heresy.
Having traced the history of opinion in the Christian churches
on the subject of heresy, we must now return to resume a sub-
ject already mentioned, the persecution of heretics.
According to the Canon Law, which " was the ecclesi-
11 T-. r
astical law of medieval Europe, and is still the law of
the Roman Catholic Church," heresy was defined as
" error which is voluntarily held in contradiction to a doctrine
which has been clearly stated in the creed, and has become part
of the defined faith of the church," and which is " persisted in by
a member of the church." It was regarded not only as an error,
but also as a crime to be detected and punished. As it belongs,
however, to a man's thoughts and not his deeds, it often can be
proved only from suspicions. The canonists define the degrees
of suspicion as " light " calling for vigilance, " vehement "
demanding denunciation, and " violent " requiring punishment.
The grounds of suspicion have been formulated " Pope Innocent
III. declared that to lead a solitary life, to refuse to accommodate
oneself to the prevailing manners of society, and to frequent
unauthorized religious meetings were abundant grounds of
suspicion; while later canonists were accustomed to give lists
of deeds which made the doers suspect: a priest who did not
celebrate mass, a layman who was seen in clerical robes, those
who favoured heretics, received them as guests, gave them safe
conduct, tolerated them, trusted them, defended them, fought
under them or read their books were all to be suspect " (T.M.
Lindsay in article " Heresy," Ency. Brit, gth edition). That
the dangers of heresy might be avoided, laymen were forbidden
to argue about matters of faith by Pope Alexander IV., an oath
" to abjure every heresy and to maintain in its completeness
the Catholic faith " was required by the council of Toledo (1129),
the reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue was not allowed
to the laity by Pope Pius IV. The reading of books was restricted
and certain books were prohibited. Regarding heresy as a crime,
the church was not content with inflicting its spiritual penalties,
heretics.
HERESY
361
such as excommunication and such civil disabilities as its own
organization allowed it to impose (e.g. the heretics were forbidden
to give evidence in ecclesiastical courts, fathers were forbidden
to allow a son or a daughter to marry a heretic, and to hold
social intercourse with a heretic was an offence). It regarded
itself as justified in invoking the power of the state to suppress
heresy by civil pains and penalties, including even torture and
death.
The story of the persecution of heretics by the state must be
briefly sketched.
As long as the Christian Church was itself persecuted by ,the
pagan empire, it advocated freedom of conscience, and insisted
that religion could be promoted only by instruction and per-
suasion (Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Lactantius); but almost
immediately after Christianity was adopted as the religion of
the Roman empire the persecution of men for religious opinions
began. While Constantine at the beginning of his reign (313)
declared complete religious liberty, and kept on the whole to
this declaration, yet he confined his favours to the orthodox
hierarchical church, and even by an edict of the year 326 formally
asserted the exclusion from these of heretics and schismatics.
Arianism, when favoured by the reigning emperor, showed itself
even more intolerant than Catholic Orthodoxy. Theodosius
the Great, in 380, soon after his baptism, issued, with his co-
emperors, the following edict: " We, the three emperors, will
that all our subjects steadfastly adhere to the religion which was
taught by St Peter to the Romans, which has been faithfully
preserved by tradition, and which is now professed by the pontiff
Damasus of Rome, and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of
apostolic holiness. According to the institution of the Apostles,
and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Godhead
of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, of equal majesty
in the Holy Trinity. We order that the adherents of this faith
be called Catholic Christians; we brand all the senseless followers
of the other religions with the infamous name of heretics, and
forbid their conventicles assuming the name of churches. Besides
the condemnation of divine justice, they must expect the heavy
penalties which our authority, guided by heavenly wisdom,
shall think proper to inflict " (Schaff's Nicene and Post-Nicene
Christianity, i. 142). The fifteen penal laws which this emperor
issued in as many years deprived them of all right to the exercise
of their religion, " excluded them from all civil offices, and
threatened them with fines, confiscation, banishment and even
in some cases with death." In 385 Maximus, his rival and
colleague, caused seven heretics to be put to death at Treves
(Trier). Many bishops approved the act, but Ambrose of Milan
and Martin of Tours condemned it. While Chrysostom dis-
approved of the execution of heretics, he approved " the pro-
hibition of their assemblies and the confiscation of their churches."
Jerome by an appeal to Deut. xiii. 6-10 appears to defend even
the execution of heretics. Augustine found a justification for
these penal measures in the " compel them to come in " of
Luke xiv. 23, although his personal leanings were towards
clemency. Only the persecuted themselves insisted on toleration
as a Christian duty. In the middle ages the church showed no
hesitation about persecuting unto death all who dared to con-
tradict her doctrine, or challenge her practice, or question her
authority. The instruction and persuasion which St Bernard
favoured found little imitation. Even the Dominicans, who
began as a preaching order to convert heretics, soon became
persecutors. In the Albigensian Crusade (A.D. 1209-1229)
thousands were slaughtered. As the bishops were not zealous
enough in enforcing penal laws against heretics, the Tribunal of
the Inquisition was founded in 1232 by Gregory IX., and was
entrusted to the Dominicans who " as Domini canes subjected
to the most cruel tortures all on whom the suspicion of heresy
fell, and ah 1 the resolute were handed over to the civil authorities,
who readily undertook their execution " (Kurtz, Church History,
137-138).
At the Reformation Luther laid down the principle that the
civil government is concerned with the province of the external
and temporal life, and has nothing to do with faith and conscience.
" How could the emperor gain the right," he asks, " to rule my
faith?" With that only the Word of God is concerned.
" Heresy is a spiritual thing," he says, " which one cannot hew
with any iron, burn with any fire, drown with any water. The
Word of God alone is there to do it." Nevertheless Luther
assigned to the state, which he assumes to be Christian, the
function of maintaining the Gospel and the Word of God in
public life. He was not quite consistent in carrying out his
principle (see Luthard's Geschichte der chrisllichen Ethik, ii.
33). In the Religious Peace of Augsburg the principle " cujus
regio ejus religio " was accepted; by it a ruler's choice between
Catholicism and Lutheranism bound his subjects, but any
subject unwilling to accept the decision might emigrate without
hindrance.
In Geneva under Calvin, while the Consistoire, or ecclesiastical
court, could inflict only spiritual penalties, yet the medieval
idea of the duty of the state to co-operate with the church to
maintain the religious purity of the community in matters of
belief as well as of conduct so far survived that the civil authority
was sure to punish those whom the ecclesiastical had censured.
Calvin consented to the death of Servetus, whose views on the
Trinity he regarded as most dangerous heresy, and whose denial
of the full authority of the Scriptures he dreaded as overthrow-
ing the foundations of all religious authority. Protestantism
generally, it is to be observed, quite approved the execution of
the heretic. The Synod of Dort (1619) not only condemned
Arminianism, but its defenders were expelled from the Nether-
lands; only in 1625 did they venture to return, and not till 1630
were they allowed to erect schools and churches. In modern
Protestantism there is a growing disinclination to deal even with
errors of belief by ecclesiastical censure; the appeal to the civil
authority to inflict any penalty is abandoned. During the
course of the igth century in Scottish Presbyterianism the
affirmation of Christ's atoning death for all men, the denial of
eternal punishment, the modification of the doctrine of the
inspiration of the Scriptures by acceptance of the results of the
Higher Criticism, were all censured as perilous errors.
The subject cannot be left without a brief reference to the
persecution of witches. To the beginning of the i3th century
the popular superstitions regarding sorcery, witchcraft and
compacts with the devil were condemned by the ecclesiastical
authorities as heathenish, sinful and heretical. But after the
establishment of the Inquisition " heresy and sorcery were
regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on and service-
able to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore treated in
the same way as offences to be punished with torture and the
stake " (Kurtz, Church History, ii. 195). While the Franciscans
rejected the belief in witchcraft, the Dominicans were most
zealous in persecuting witches. In the i $th century this delusion ,
fostered by the ecclesiastical authorities, took possession of the
mind of the people, and thousands, mostly old women, but also
a number of girls, were tortured and burned as witches. Pro-
testantism took over the superstition from Catholicism. It
was defended by James I. of England. As late as the i8th
century death was inflicted in Germany and Switzerland on men,
women and even children accused of this crime. This superstition
dominated Scotland. Not till 1736 were the statutes against
witchcraft repealed; an act which the Associate Presbytery
at Edinburgh in 1743 declared to be " contrary to the express
law of God, for which a holy God may be provoked in a way of
righteous judgment."
The recognition and condemnation of errors in religious
belief is by no means confined to the Christian Church. Only
a few instances of heresy in other religions can be
given. In regard to the fetishism of the Gold Coast r i oa ~
of Africa, Jevons (Introduction to the History of religions.
Religion, pp. 165-166) maintains that " public opinion
does not approve of the worship by an individual of a suhman,
or private tutelary deity, and that his dealings with it are
regarded in the nature of ' black art ' as it is not a god of
the community." In China there is a " classical or canonical,
primitive and therefore alone orthodox (tsching) and true
362
HERESY
religion," Confucianism and Taoism, while the " heterodox
(sic)," Buddhism especially, is " partly tolerated, but generally
forbidden, and even cruelly persecuted " (Chantepie de la
Saussaye, Religionsgeschichte, i. 57). In Islam " according
to an unconfirmed tradition Mahomet is said to have foretold
that his community would split into seventy-three sects (see
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION, Sects), of which only one would
escape the flames of hell." The first split was due to uncertainty
regarding the principle which should rule the succession to the
Caliphate. The Arabic and orthodox party (i.e. the Sunnites,
who held by the Koran and tradition) maintained that this
should be determined by the choice of the community. The
Persian and heterodox party (the Shiites) insisted on heredity.
But this political difference was connected with theological
differences. The sect of the Mu'tazilites which affirmed that the
Koran had been created, and denied predestination, began to
be persecuted by the government in the pth century, and
discussion of religious questions was forbidden (see CALIPHATE,
sections B and C). The mystical tendency in Islam, Sufism, is
also regarded as heretical (see Kuenen's Hibbert Lecture, pp.
45-50). Buddhism is a wide departure in doctrine and practice
from Brahmanism, and hence after a swift unfolding and quick
spread it was driven out of India and had to find a home in
other lands. Essenism from the standpoint of Judaism was
heterodox in two respects, the abandonment of animal sacrifices
and the adoration of the sun.
Although in Greece there was generally wide tolerance, yet
in 399 B.C. Socrates " was indicted as an irreligious man, a
corrupter of youth, and an innovator in worship."
Besides the works quoted above, see Gottfried Arnold's Unpar-
teiische Kitchen- und Ketzer-Historie (1699-1700; ed. Schaffhausen,
1740). A very good list of writers on heresy, ancient and medieval,
is given in Burton's Bampton Lectures on Heresies of the Apostolic Age
(1829). The various Trinitarian and Christological heresies may be
studied in Dorner's History of the Doctrine of the Person of C&m(i 845-
1856; Eng. trans., 1861-1862) ; the Gnostic and Manichaean heresies
in the works of Mansel, Matter and Beausobre ; the medieval heresies
in Hahn's Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittelalter (1846-1850), and
Preger's Geschichte der deutschen Mystik (1875) ; Quietism in Heppe's
Geschichte der quietistischen Mystik (1875); the Pietist sects in
Palmer's Gemeinschaften und Secten Wilrttembergs (1875); the
Reformation and 17th-century heresies and sects in the Anabaptis-
ticum et enthusiasticum Pantheon und geistliches Rust-Haus (1702).
Bohmer's Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium (1714-1723), and van
Espen's Jus ecclesiasticum (1702) detail at great length the relations
of heresy to canon and civil law. On the question of the baptism
of heretics see Smith and Cheetham's Diet, of Eccl. Antiquities,
" Baptism, Iteration of "; and on that of the readmission of heretics
into the church, compare Martene, De ritibus, and Morinus, De
poenilentia. (A. E. G.*)
Heresy according to the Law of England. The highest point reached
by the ecclesiastical power in England was in the Act De Haeretico
comburendo (2 Henry IV. c. 15). Some have supposed that a writ
of that name is as old as the common law, but its execution might
be arrested by a pardon from the crown. The Act of Henry IV.
enabled the diocesan alone, without the co-operation of a synod,
to pronounce sentence of heresy, and required the sheriff to execute
it by burning the offender, without waiting for the consent of the
crown. 1 A large number of penal statutes were enacted in the
following reigns, and the statute I Eliz. c. I is regarded by lawyers as
limiting for the first time the description of heresy to tenets declared
heretical either by the canonical Scripture or by the first four general
councils, or such as should thereafter be so declared by parliament
with theassent of Convocation. The writ was abolished by 29 Car.II.
c. 9, which reserved to the ecclesiastical courts their jurisdiction over
heresy and similar offences, and their power of awarding punishments
not extending to death. Heresy became henceforward a purely
ecclesiastical offence, although disabling laws of various kinds
continued to be enforced against Jews, Catholics and other dissenters.
The temporal courts have no knowledge of any offence known as
heresy, although incidentally (e.g. in questions of copyright) they
have refused protection to persons promulgating irreligious or
blasphemous opinions. As an ecclesiastical offence it would at this
moment be almost impossible to say what opinion, in the case of a
layman at least, would be deemed heretical. Apparently, if a proper
case could be made out, an ecclesiastical court might still sentence
a layman to excommunication for heresy, but by no other means
could his opinions be brought under censure. The last case on the
subject (Jenkins v. Cook, L.R. I P.D. 80) leaves the matter in the
same uncertainty. In that case a clergyman refused the communion
1 Stephen's Commentaries, bk. iv. ch. 7.
to a parishioner who denied the personality of the devil. The judicial
committee held that the rights of the parishioners are expressly
defined in the statute of I Edw. VI. c. i, and, without admitting that
the canons of the church, which are not binding on the laity, could
specify a lawful cause for rejection, held that no lawful cause within
the meaning of either the canons or the rubric had been shown.
It was maintained at the bar that the denial of the most fundamental
doctrines of Christianity would not be a lawful cause for such
rejection, but the judgment only queries whether a denial of the
personality of the devil or eternal punishment is consistent with
membership of the church. The right of every layman to the offices
of the church is established by statute without reference to opinions,
and it is not possible to say what opinions, if any, would operate to
disqualify him.
The case of clergymen is entirely different. The statute 13 Eliz.
c. 12, 2, enacts that " if any person ecclesiastical, or which shall
have an ecclesiastical living, shall advisedly maintain or affirm any
doctrine directly contrary or repugnant to any of the said articles,
and by conventicle before the bishop of the diocese, or the ordinary,
or before the queen's highness's commissioners in matters ecclesiasti-
cal, shall persist therein or not revoke his error, or after such revoca-
tion eftsoons affirm such untrue doctrine," he shall be deprived of
his ecclesiastical promotions. The act it will be observed applies
only to clergymen, and the punishment is strictly limited to depriva-
tion of benefice. The judicial committee of the privy council, as
the last court of appeal, has on several occasions pronounced judg-
ments by which the scope of the act has been confined to its narrowest
legal effect. The court will construe the Articles of Religion and
formularies according to the legal rules for the interpretation of statutes
and written instruments. No rule of doctrine is to be ascribed to the
church which is not distinctly and expressly stated or plainly involved
in the written law of the Church, and where there is no rule, a clergy-
man may express his opinion without fear of penal consequences.
In the Essays and Reviews cases (Williams v. the Bishop of Salisbury,
and Wilson v. Kendall, 2 Moo. P.C.C., -N.S. 375) it was held to be
not penal fora clergyman to speak of merit by transfer as a " fiction,"
or to express a hope of the ultimate pardon of the wicked, or to
affirm that any part of the Old or New Testament, however uncon-
nected with religious faith or moral duty, was not written under
the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. In the case of Noble v. Voysey
(L.R. 3 P.C. 357) in 1871 the committee held that it was not bound
to affix a meaning to articles of really dubious import, as it
would have been in cases affecting property. At the same time
any manifest contradiction of the Articles, or any obvious evasion
of them, would subject the offender to the penalties of deprivation.
In some of the cases the question has been raised how far the doctrine
of the church could be ascertained by reference to the opinions
generally expressed by divines belonging to its communion. Such
opinions, it would seem, might be taken into account as showing the
extent of liberty which had been in practice, claimed and exercised
on the interpretation of the articles, but would certainly not be
allowed to increase their stringency. It is not the business of the
court to pronounce upon the absolute truth or falsehood of any given
opinion, but simply to say whether it is formally consistent with the
legal doctrines of the Church of England. Whether Convocation
has any jurisdiction in cases of heresy is a question which has
occasioned some difference of opinion among lawyers. Hale, as
quoted by Phillimore (Ecc. Law) , say s that before the time of Richard
II., that is, before any acts of Parliament were made about heretics,
it is without question that in a convocation of the clergy or provincial
synod " they might and frequently did here in England proceed to
the sentencing of heretics." But later writers, while adhering to the
statement that Convocation might declare opinions to be heretical,
doubted whether it could proceed to punish the offender, even when
he was a clerk in orders. Phillimore states that there is no longer
any doubt, even apart from the effect of the Church Discipline Act
1840, that Convocation has no power to condemn clergymen for
heresy. The supposed right of Convocation to stamp heretical
opinions with its disapproval was exercised on a somewhat memorable
occasion. In 1864 the Convocation of the province of Canterbury,
having taken the opinion of two of the most eminent lawyers of the
day (Sir Hugh Cairns and Sir John Roll), passed judgment upon
the volume entitled Essays and Reviews. The judgment purported
to " synodically condemn the said volume as containing teaching
contrary to the doctrine received by the United Church of England
and Ireland, in common with the whole Catholic Church of Christ."
These proceedings were challenged in the House of Lords by Lord
Houghton, and the lord chancellor (Westbury), speaking on behalf
of the government, stated that if there was any "synodical judgment"
it would be a violation of the law, subjecting those concerned in it
to the penalties of a praemunire, but that the sentence in question
was " simply nothing, literally no sentence at all." It is thus at
least doubtful whether Convocation has a right even to express an
opinion unless specially authorized to do so by the crown, and it is
certain that it cannot do anything more. Heresy or no heresy, in
the last resort, like all other ecclesiastical questions, is decided by
the judicial committee of the council.
The English lawyers, following the Roman law, distinguish
between heresy and apostasy. The latter offence is dealt with by an
act which still stands on the statute book, although it has long been
HEREWARD HERIOT, G.
363
virtually obsolete the o & 10 Will. III. c. 35. If any person who has
been educated in or has professed the Christian religion shall, by writing,
printing, teaching, or advised speaking, assert or maintain that there
are more Gods than one, or shall deny any of the persons of the Holy
Trinity to be God, or shall deny the Christian religion to be true or the
Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be ot divine
authority, he shall for the first offence be declared incapable of
holding any ecclesiastical, civil, or military office or employment,
and for the second incapable of bringing any action, or of being
guardian, executor, legatee, or grantee, and shall suffer three years'
imprisonment without bail. Unitarians were saved from these
atrocious penalties by a later act (53 Geo. III. c. 160), which permits
Christians to deny any of the persons in the Trinity without penal
consequences.
HEREWARD, usually but erroneously styled " the Wake "
(an addition of later days), an Englishman famous for his re-
sistance to William the Conqueror. It is now established that
he was a tenant of Peterborough Abbey, from which he held
lands at Witham-on-the-Hill and Barholme with Stow in the
south-western corner of Lincolnshire, and of Crowland Abbey
at Rippingale in the neighbouring fenland. His first authentic
act is the storm and sacking of Peterborough in 1070, in company
with outlaws and Danish invaders. The next year he took part
in the desperate stand against the Conqueror's rule made in
the isle of Ely, and, on its capture by the Normans, escaped
with his followers through the fens. That his exploits made
an exceptional impression on the popular mind is certain from
the mass of legendary history that clustered round his name;
he became, says Mr Davis, " in popular eyes the champion of
the English national cause." The Hereward legend has been
fully dealt with by him and by Professor Freeman, who observed
that " with no name has fiction been more busy."
See E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, vol. iv. ;
J. H. Round, Feudal England; H. W. C. Davis, England under the
Normans and Angevins. (J- H. R.)
HERFORD, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
situated at the confluence of the Werre and Aa, on the Minden
& Cologne railway, 9 m. N.E. of Bielefeld, and at the junction
of the railway to Detmold and Altenbeken. Pop. (1885) 15,902;
(1905) 24,821. It possesses six Evangelical churches, notably the
Munsterkirche, a Romanesque building with a Gothic apse of the
1 5th century; the Marienkirche, in the Gothic style; and the
Johanniskirche, with a steeple 280 ft. high. The other principal
buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the
gymnasium founded in 1540, the agricultural school and the
theatre. There is a statue of Frederick William of Brandenburg.
The industries include cotton and flax-spinning, and the manu-
facture of linen cloth, carpets, furniture, machinery, sugar,
tobacco and leather.
Herford owes its origin to a Benedictine nunnery which is
said to have been founded in 832, and was confirmed by the
emperor Louis the Pious in 839. From the emperor Frederick
I. the abbess obtained princely rank and a seat in the imperial
diet. Among the abbesses was the celebrated Elizabeth (1618-
1680), eldest daughter of the elector palatine Frederick V., who
was a philosophical princess, and a pupil of Descartes. Under
her rule the sect of the Labadists settled for some time in Herford.
The foundation was secularized in 1803. Herford was a member
of the Hanseatic League, and its suzerainty passed in 1 547 from
the abbesses to the dukes of Juliers. In 1631 it became a free
imperial town, but in 1647 it was subjugated by the elector of
Brandenburg. It came into the possession of Westphalia in
1807, and in 1813 into that of Prussia.
See L. Holscher, Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Herford (Guters-
loh, 1888).
HERGENROTHER, JOSEPH VON (1824-1890), German
theologian, was born at Wiirzburg in Bavaria on the isth of
September 1824. He studied at Wiirzburg and at Rome.
After spending a year as parish priest at Zellingen, near bis
native city, he went, in 1850, at his bishop's command, to the
university of Munich, where he took his degree of doctor of
theology the same year, becoming in 1851 Privatdozent, and in
1855 professor of ecclesiastical law and history. At Munich
he gained the reputation of being one of the most learned
theologians on the Ultramontane side of the Infallibility question,
which had begun to be discussed; and in 1868 he was sent to
Rome to arrange the proceedings of the Vatican Council. He
was a stanch supporter of the infallibility dogma; and in 1870
ic wrote Anti- Janus, an answer to The Pope and the Council,
" Janus " (Dollinger and J. Friedrich), which made a great
sensation at the time. In 1877 he was made prelate of the
sapal household; he became cardinal deacon in 1879, and was
afterwards made curator of the Vatican archives. He died in
Rome on the 3rd of October 1890.
Hergenrother's first published work was a dissertation on the
doctrine of the Trinity according to Gregory Nazianzen (Regensburg,
1850), and from this time onward his literary activity was immense.
After several articles and brochures on Hippolytus and the question
of the authorship of the Philosophumena, he turned to the study of
Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, and the history of the Greek
schism. For twelve years he was engaged upon this work, the
result being his monumental Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel.
Sein Leben, seine Schriften und das griechische Schisma (3 vols.,
Regensburg, 1867-1869); an additional volume (1869) gave, under
;he title Monumenta Graeca ad Photium . . . pertinentia, a collection
of the unpublished documents on which the work was largely based.
3f Hergenrother's other works, the most important are his history
of the Papal States since the Revolution (Der Kirchenstaat seit der
'ranzosischen Revolution, Freiburg i. B., 1860; Fr. trans., Leipzig,
1 860), his great work on the relations of church and state (Katholische
Kirche und christlicher Stoat in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung
und in Beziehung auf Fragen der Gegenwart, 2 parts, Freiburg i. B.,
1872; 2nd ed. expanded, 1876; Eng. trans., London, 1876, Balti-
more, 1889), and his universal church history (Handbuch der allge-
meinen Kirchengeschichte, 3 vols., Freiburg i. B., 1876-1880; 2nd
ed., 1879, &c.; 3rd ed., 1884-1886; 4th ed., by Peter Kirsch,
1902, &c.; French trans., Paris, 1880, &c.). He also found time
for a while to edit the new edition of Wetzer and Welte's Kirchen-
lexikon (1877), to superintend the publication of part of the Regesta
of Pope Leo X. (Freiburg i. B., 1884-1885), and to add two volumes to
Hefele's Conciliengeschichte (ib., 1887 and 1890).
HERINGSDORF, a seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian
province, of Pomerania, on the north coast of the island of
Usedom, 5 m. by rail N.W. of Swinemiinde. It is surrounded by
beech woods, and is perhaps the most popular seaside resort
on the German shore of the Baltic, being frequented by some
12,000 visitors annually
HERIOT, GEORGE (1563-1623), the founder of Heriot's
Hospital, Edinburgh, was descended from an old Haddington
family; his father, a goldsmith in Edinburgh, represented
the city in the Scottish parliament. George was born in 1563,
and after receiving a good education was apprenticed to his
father's trade. In 1586 he married the daughtes of a deceased
Edinburgh merchant, and with the assistance of her patrimony
set up in business on his own account. At first he occupied a
small " buith " at the north-east corner of St Giles's church,
and afterwards a more pretentious shop at the west end of the
building. To the business of a goldsmith he joined that of a
money-lender, and in 1597 he had acquired 'such a reputation
that he was appointed goldsmith to Queen Anne, consort of
James VI. In 1601 he became jeweller to the king, and followed
him to London, occupying a shop opposite the Exchange. Heriot
was largely indebted for his fortune to the extravagance of the
queen, and the imitation of this extravagance by the nobility.
Latterly he had such an extensive business as a jeweller that
on one occasion a government proclamation was issued calling
upon all the. magistrates of the kingdom to aid him in securing
the workmen he required. He died in London on the loth of
February 1623. In 1608, having some time previously lost his
first wife, he married Alison Primrose, daughter of James
Primrose, grandfather of the first earl of Rosebery, but she died
in 1612; by neither marriage had he any issue. The surplus
of his estate, after deducting legacies to his nearest relations
and some of his more intimate friends, was bequeathed to found
a hospital for the education of freemen's sons of the town of
Edinburgh; and its value afterwards increased so greatly as to
supply funds for the erection of several Heriot foundation
schools in different parts of the city.
Heriot takes a leading part in Scott's novel, The Fortunes of Nigel
(see also the Introduction). A History of Heriot's Hospital, with
a Memoir of the Founder, by William Steven, D.D., appeared in
1827; 2nd ed. 1859.
3 6 4
HERIOT HERLEN
HERIOT, by derivation the arms and equipment (geatwa) of a
soldier or army (here); the O. Eng. word is thus here-geatwa.
The lord of a fee provided his tenant with arms and a horse,
either as a gift or loan, which he was to use in the military
service paid by him. On the death of the tenant the lord claimed
the return of the equipment. When by the loth century land
was being given instead of arms, the heriot was still paid, but
more in the nature of a " relief " (<?..). There seems to have
been some connexion between the payment of. the heriot and
the power of making a will (F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book
and Beyond, p. 298). By the I3th century the payment was
made either in money or in kind by the handing over of the best
beast or of the best other chattel of the tenant (see Pollock and
Maitland, History of English Law, i. 270 sq.). For the
manorial law relating to heriots, see COPYHOLD.
HERISAU, the largest town in the entire Swiss canton of
Appenzell, built on the Glatt torrent, and by light railway
7 m. south-west of St Gall or 135 m. north of Appenzell. In
1900 it had 13,497 inhabitants, mainly Protestant and German-
speaking. The lower portion of the massive tower of the parish
church (Protestant) dates from the nth century or even earlier.
It is a prosperous little industrial town in the Ausser Rhoden
half of the canton, especially busied with the manufacture of
embroidery by machinery, and of muslins. Near it is the
goats' whey cure establishment of Heinrichsbad, and the two
castles of Rosenberg and Rosenburg, ruined in 1403 when the
land rose against its lord, the abbot of St Gall. About 5 m.
to the south-east is Hundwil, a village of 1523 inhabitants,
where the Landsgemeinde of Ausser Rhoden meets in the odd
years (in other years at Trogen) on the last Sunday in April.
HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS, in the law of Scotland, grants
of jurisdiction made to a man and his heirs. They were a usual
accompaniment to feudal tenures, and the power which they
conferred on great families, being recognized as a source of
danger to the state, led to frequent attempts being made by
statute to restrict them, both before and after the Union. They
were all abolished in 1746.
HERKIMER, a village and the county-seat of Herkimer
county, New York, U.S.A., in the township of the same name,
on the Mohawk river, about 15 m. S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1900)
5555 (7 2 4 being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 6596; (1910)
7520. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River
railway, a branch of which (the Mohawk & Malone railway)
extends through the Adirondacks to Malone, N.Y. ; by inter-
urban electric railway to Little Falls, Syracuse, Richfield Springs,
Cooperstown and Oneonta, and by the Erie canal. The village
has a public library, and is the seat of the Foils Mission Institute
(opened 1893), a training school for young women, controlled
by the Women's .Foreign Missionary Society o'f the Methodist
Episcopal Church. Herkimer is situated in a rich dairying
region, and has various manufactures. The municipality owns
and operates its water-supply system and electric-lighting
plant. Herkimer, named in honour of General Nicholas Herkimer
(c. 1728-1777), who was mortally wounded in the Battle cf
Oriskany, and in whose memory there is a monument (unveiled
on the 6th of August 1907) in the village, was settled about 1725
by Palatine Germans, who bought from the Mohawk Indians
a large tract of land including the present site of the village
and established thereon several settlements which became
known collectively as the " German Flats." In 1756 a stone
house, built in 1740 by General Herkimer's father, John Jost
Herkimer (d. 1775) apparently one of the original group of
settlers a stone church, and other buildings, standing within
what is now Herkimer village, were enclosed in a stockade and
ditch fortifications by Sir William Johnson, and this post, at
first known as Fort Kouari (the Indian name), was subsequently
called Fort Herkimer. Another fort (Ft. Dayton) was built
within the limits of the present village in 1776 by Colonel Elias
Dayton (1737-1807), who later became a brigadier-general
(1783) and served in the Confederation Congress in 1787-1788.
During the French and Indian War the settlement was attacked
(i2th November 1757) and practically destroyed, many of the
settlers being killed or taken prisoners; and it was again attacked
on the 3oth of April 1758. In the War of Independence General
Herkimer assembled here the force which on the 6th of August
1777 was ambushed near Oriskany on its march from Ft. Dayton
to the relief of Ft. Schuyler (see ORISKANY); and the settlement
was attacked by Indians and " Tories " in September 1778 and
in June 1782. The township of Herkimer was organized in 1788,
and in 1807 the village was incorporated.
See Nathaniel I. Benton, History of Herkimer County (Albany,
1856) ; and Phoebe S. Cowen, The Herkimer s and Schuylers, 1903).
HERKOMER, SIR HUBERT VON (1840- ), British painter,
was born at Waal, in Bavaria, and eight years later was brought
to England by his father, a wood-carver of great ability. He
lived for some time at Southampton and in the school of art
there began his art training; but in 1866 he entered upon a
more serious course of study at the South Kensington Schools,
and in 1869 exhibited for the first time at the Royal Academy.
By his picture, " The Last Muster," at the Academy in 1875, he
definitely established his position as an artist of high distinction.
He was elected an associate of the Academy in 1879, and academi-
cian in 1890; an associate of the Royal Society of Painters in
Water Colours in 1893, and a full member in 1894; and in 1885
he was appointed Slade professor at Oxford. He exhibited a
very large number of memorable portraits, figure subjects and
landscapes, in oil and water colour ; he achieved marked success
as a worker in enamel, as an etcher, mezzotint engraver and
illustrative draughtsman; and he exercised wide influence upon
art education by means of the Herkomer School (Incorporated),
at Bushey, which he founded in 1883 and directed gratuitously
until I9P4 ,when he retired. It was then voluntarily wound up, and
is now conducted privately. Two of his pictures, " Found " (1885)
and "The Chapel of the Charterhouse " (1889) , are in the National
Gallery of British Art. In the year 1 907 he received the honorary
degree of D.C.L. at Oxford, and a knighthood was conferred upon
him by the king in addition to the commandership of the Royal
Victorian Order with which he was already decorated.
See Hubert von Herkomer, R.A., a Study and a Biography, by
A. L. Baldry (London, 1901); Professor Hubert Herkomer, Royal
Academician, His Life and Work, by W. L. Courtney (London, 1892).
HERLEN (or HERLIN), FRITZ, of Nordlingen, German artist of
the early Swabian school, in the isth century. The date and
place of his birth are unknown, but his name is on the roll of the
tax-gatherers of Ulm in 1449; and in 1467 he was made citizen
and town painter at Nordlingen, " because of his acquaintance
with Flemish methods of painting." One of the first of his
acknowledged productions is a shrine on one of the altars of
the 'church of Rothenburg on the Tauber, the wings of which
were finished in 1466, with seven scenes from the lives of
Christ and the Virgin Mary. In the town-hall of Rothenburg is a
Madonna and St Catherine of 1467; and in the choirof Nordlingen
cathedral a triptych of 1488, representing the " Nativity " and
" Christ amidst the Doctors," at the side of a votive Madonna
attended by St Joseph and St Margaret as patrons of a family.
In each of these works the painter's name certifies the picture,
and the manner is truly that of an artist " acquainted with
Flemish methods." We are not told under whom Herlen
laboured in the Netherlands, but he probably took the same
course as Schongauer and Hans Holbein the elder, who studied in
the school of van der Weyden. His altarpiece at Rothenburg
contains groups and figures, as well as forms of action and drapery,
which seem copied from those of van der Weyden's or Memlinc's
disciples, and the votive Madonna of 1488, whilst characterized
by similar features, only displays such further changes as may
be accounted for by the master's constant later contact with
contemporaries in Swabia. Herlen had none of the genius of
Schongauer. He failed to acquire the delicacy even of the
second-rate men who handed down to Matsys the traditions of the
1 5th century; but his example was certainly favourable to the
development of art in Swabia. By general consent critics have
assigned to him a large altar-piece, with scenes from the gospels
and figures of St Florian and St Floriana, and a Crucifixion, the
principal figure of which is carved in high relief on the surface of
HERMAE HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES
365
a large panel in the church of DinkelsbUhl. A Crucifixion, with
eight scenes from the New Testament, is shown as his in the
cathedral, a " Christ in Judgment, with Mary and John," and the
" Resurrection of Souls " in the town-hall of Nordlingen. A small
Epiphany, once in the convent of the Minorites of Ulm, is in
the Holzschuher collection at Augsburg, a Madonna and Circum-
cision in the National Museum at Munich. Herlen's epitaph,
preserved by Rathgeber, states that he died on the I2th of
October 1491, and was buried at Nordlingen.
HERMAE, in Greek antiquities, quadrangular pillars, broader
above than at the base, surmounted by a head or bust, so called
either because the head of Hermes was most common or from
their etymological connexion with the Greek word 'ipnara (blocks
of stone), which originally had no reference to Hermes at all. In
the oldest times Hermes, like other divinities, was worshipped in
the form of a heap of stones or of an amorphous block of wood or
stone, which afterwards took the shape of a phallus, the symbol
of productivity. The next step was the addition 01 a nead to this
phallic column which became quadrangular (the number 4 was
sacred to Hermes, who was born on the fourth day of the month),
with the significant indication of sex still prominent. In this
shape the number of herms rapidly increased, especially those of
Hermes, for which the distinctive name of Hermhermae has been
suggested. In Athens they were found at the corners of streets;
before the gates and in the courtyards of houses, where they
were worshipped by women as having the power to make them
prolific; before the temples; in the gymnasia and palaestrae. On
each side of the road leading from the Stoa Poikile to the Stoa
Basileios, rows of Hermae were set up in such numbers by the
piety of private individuals or public corporations, that the Stoa
Basileios was called the Stoa of the Hermae. The function of
Hermes as protector of the roads, of merchants and of commerce,
explains the number of Hermae that served the purpose of sign-
posts on the roads outside the city. It is stated in the pseudo-
Platonic Hipparchus that the son of Peisistratus had set up
marble pillars at suitable places on the roads leading from the
different country districts to Athens, having the places connected
with the roads inscribed on the one side in a hexameter verse,
and on the other a pentameter containing a short proverb or
moral precept for the edification of travellers. Sometimes they
bore inscriptions celebrating the valour of those who had fought
for their country. Just as it was customary for the passer-by to
show respect to the rudest form of the god (the heap of stones) by
contributing a stone to the heap or anointing it with oil, in like
manner small offerings, generally of dried figs, were deposited
near the Hermae, to appease the hunger of the necessitous way-
farer. Garlands of flowers were also suspended on the two arm-
like tenons projecting from either side of the column at the top
(for the oracle at Pharae see HERMES). These pillars were also
used to mark the frontier boundaries or the limits of different
estates. The great respect attaching to them is shown by the
excitement caused in Athens by the " Mutilation of the Hermae "
just before the departure of the Sicilian expedition (May 41 5 B.C.).
They formed the object of a special industry, the makers of them
being called Hermoglyphi. The surmounting heads were not,
however, confined to those of Hermes; those of other gods and
heroes, and even of distinguished mortals, were of frequent
occurrence. In this case a compound was formed: Hermathena
(a herm of Athena), Hermares, Hermaphroditus, Hermanubis,
Hermalcibiades, and so on. In the case of these compounds it is
disputed whether they indicated a herm with the head of Athena,
or with a Janus-like head of both Hermes and Athena, or a
figure compounded of both deities. The Romans not only
borrowed the Hermes pillars for their deities which at an early
period they assimilated to those of the Greeks (as Heracles
Hercules) but also for the indigenous gods who preserved their
individuality. Thus herms of Jupiter Terminalis (the hermae
being identified with the Roman termini) and of Silvanus occur.
Under* the empire, the function of the hermae was rather archi-
tectural than religious. They were used to keep up the draperies
in the interior of a hous'e, and in the Circus Maximus they were
used to support the barriers.
See the article with bibliography by Pierre Paris in Daremberg
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites-, for the mutilation of the
Hermae, Thucydides vi. 27; Andocides, De mysteriis; Grote,
Hist, of Greece, ch. 58; H. Weil, Etudes sur I'antiquite grecque (1900);
Burolt, Griech. Gesch. (ed. 1904), III. ii. p. 1287.
HERMAGORAS, of Temnos, Greek rhetorician of the Rhodian
school and teacher of oratory in Rome, flourished during the
first half of the ist century B.C. He obtained a great reputation
among a certain section and founded a special school, the members
of which called themselves Hermagorei. His chief opponent
was Posidonius of Rhodes, who is said to have contended with
him in argument in the presence of Pompey (Plutarch, Pompey,
42). Hermagoras devoted himself particularly to the branch of
rhetoric known as oi/cowjuto. (inventio), and is said to have
invented the doctrine of the four araatis (status) and to have
arranged the parts of an oration differently from his predecessors.
Cicero held an unfavourable opinion of his methods, which were
approved by Quintilian, although he considers that Hermagoras
neglected the practical side of rhetoric for the theoretical.
According to Suidas and Strabo, he was the author of rix vai
TopiKai (rhetorical manuals) and of other works, which should
perhaps be attributed to his younger namesake, surnamed
Carion, the pupil of Theodorus of Gadara.
See Strabo xiii. p. 621; Cicero, De inventione, i. 6. 8, Brutus,
76, 263. 78, 271; Quintilian, Instil, iii. I. 16, 3. 9, n. 22;
C. W. Piderit, De Hermagora rhetore (1839); G. Thiele, Hermagoras
Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Rlietorik (1893).
HERMANDAD (from hermano, Lat. germanus, a brother), a
Castiiian word meaning, strictly speaking, a brotherhood. In
the Romance language spoken on the east coast of Spain in
Catalonia it is written germandat or germania. In the form
germania it has acquired the significance of " thieves' Latin "
or " thieves' cant," and is applied to any jargon supposed to be
understood only by the initiated. But the typical "germania"
is a mixture of slang and of the gipsy language. The herman-
dades have played a conspicuous part in the history of Spain.
The first recorded case of the formation of an hermandad
occurred in the i2th century when the towns and the peasantry
of the north united to police the pilgrim road to Santiago in
Galicia, and protect the pilgrims against robber knights.
Throughout the middle ages such alliances were frequently
formed by combinations of towns to protect the roads connecting
them, and were occasionally extended to political purposes.
They acted to some extent like the Fehmic courts of Germany.
The Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, adapted an
existing hermandad to the purpose of a general police acting
under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with
large powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases.
The hermandad became, in fact, a constabulary, which, however,
fell gradually into neglect. In Catalonia and Valencia the
" germanias " were combinations of the peasantry to resist
the exactions of the feudal lords.
HERMAN DE VALENCIENNES, 12th-century French poet,
was born at Valenciennes, of good parentage. His father and
mother, Robert and Herembourg, belonged to Hainault, and
gave him for god-parents Count Baldwin and Countess Yoland
doubtless Baldwin IV. of Hainault and his mother Yoland.
Herman was a priest and the author of a verse Histoire de la
Bible, which includes a separate poem on the Assumption of the
Virgin. The work is generally known as Le Roman de sapience,
the name arising from a copyist's error in the first line of the
poem:
" Comens de sapiense, ce est la cremors de Deu "
the first word being miswritten in one MS. Romens, and in
another Romanz. His work has, indeed, the form of an ordinary
romance, and cannot be regarded as a translation. He selects
such stories from the Bible as suit his purpose, and adds freely
from legendary sources, displaying considerable art in the
selection and use of his materials. This scriptural poem, very
popular in its day, mentions Henry II. of England as already
dead, and must therefore be assigned to a date posterior to 1189.
See Notices et extraits aes manuscrits (Paris, vol. 34), and Jean
Bonnard, Les Traductions de la Bible en vers fran$ais au may en age
(1884).
3 66
HERMANN I. HERMANN, F. B. W. VON
HERMANN I. (d. 1217), landgrave of Thuringia and count
palatine of Saxony, was the second son of Louis II. the Hard,
landgrave of Thuringia, and Judith of Hohenstaufen, sister of
the emperor Frederick I. Little is known of his early years,
but in 1 1 So he joined a coalition against Henry the Lion, duke
of Saxony, and with his brother, the landgrave Louis III.,
suffered a short imprisonment after his defeat at Weissensee by
Henry. About this time he received from his brother Louis the
Saxon palatinate, over which he strengthened his authority by
marrying Sophia, sister of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg,
a former count palatine. In 1190 Louis died and Hermann
by his energetic measures frustrated the attempt of the emperor
Henry VI. to seize Thuringia as a vacant fief of the Empire,
and established himself as landgrave. Having joined a league
against the emperor he was accused, probably wrongly, of an
attempt to murder him. Henry was not only successful in
detaching Hermann from the hostile combination, but gained
his support for the scheme to unite Sicily with the Empire. In
1197 Hermann went on crusade. When Henry VI. died in 1198
Hermann's support was purchased by the late emperor's brother
Philip, duke of Swabia, but as soon as Philip's cause appeared
to be weakening he transferred his allegiance to Otto of Bruns-
wick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV. Philip accordingly
invaded Thuringia in 1204 and compelled Hermann to come to
terms by which he surrendered the lands he had obtained in 1198.
After the death of Philip and the recognition of Otto he was
among the princes who invited Frederick of Hohenstaufen,
afterwards the emperor Frederick II., to come to Germany and
assume the crown. In consequence of this step the Saxons
attacked Thuringia, but the landgrave was saved by Frederick's
arrival in Germany in 1212. After the death of his first wife in
1195 Hermann married Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of
Bavaria. By her he had four sons, two of whom, Louis arid
Henry Raspe, succeeded their father in turn as landgrave.
Hermann died at Gotha on the 25th of April 1217, and was
buried at Reinhardsbrunn. He was fond of the society of men
of letters, and Walther von der Vogelweide and other Minne-
singers were welcomed to his castle of the Wartburg. In this
connexion he figures in Wagner's Tannhauser.
See E. Winkelmann, Phttipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von
Braunschweig (Leipzig, 18731878); T. Knochenhauer, Geschichte
Thiiringens (Gotha, 1871); and F. Wachter, Thuringische und ober-
sdchsische Geschichte (Leipzig, 1826).
HERMANN OF REICHENAU (HERIMANNUS AUGIENSIS),
commonly distinguished as Hermannus Contractus, i.e. the Lame
(1013-1054), German scholar and chronicler, was the son of
Count Wolferad of Alshausen in Swabia. Hermann, who
became a monk of the famous abbey of Reichenau, is at once one
of the most attractive and one of the most pathetic figures of
medieval monasticism. Crippled and distorted by gout from
his childhood, he was deprived of the use of his legs; but, in
spite of this, he became one of the most learned men of his time,
and exercised a great personal and intellectual influence on the
numerous band of scholars he gathered round him. He died on
the 24th of September 1054, at the family castle of Alshausen near
Biberach. Besides the ordinary studies of the monastic scholar,
he devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy and music,
and constructed watches and instruments of various kinds.
His chief work is a Chronicon ad annum 1054, which furnishes
important and original material for the history ofthe emperor Henry
III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by
J. Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued by Heinrich Peter in 1549;
another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1790 under the supervision
of Ussermann; and a third, as a result of the collation of numerous
MSS., forms part of vol. v. of Pertz's Monumenta Germaniae historica.
A German translation of the last is contributed by K. F. A. Nobbe
to Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit (ist ed., Berlin,
1851; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893). The separate lives of Conrad II.
and Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann : appear to have perished.
His treatises De mensura astrolabii and De utilitatibus astrolabii
(to be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, Thesaurus
anecdotorum novissimus, iii.) being the first contributions of moment
furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time
considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his
pen, De octo vitiis principalibus, is printed in Haupt's Zeitschrift
fur deutsches Alterthum (vol. xiii.); and he is sometimes credited
with the composition of the Latin hymns Veni Sancte Spiritus, Salve
Regina, and Alma Redemptoris. A martyrologium by Hermann was
discovered by E. Dummler in a MS. at Stuttgart, and was published
by him in " Das Martyrologium Notkers und seine Verwandten "
in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, xxv. (Gottingen, 1885).
See H. Hansjakob, Herimann der Lahme (Mainz, 1875) ; Potthast,
Bibliotlieca nied. aev. s. " Herimannus Augiensis."
HERMANN OF WIED (1477-1552), elector and archbishop
of Cologne, was the fourth son of Frederick, count of Wied
(d. 1487), and was born on the i4th of January 1477. Educated
for the Church, he became elector and archbishop in 1515, and
ruled his electorate with vigour and intelligence, taking up at
first an attitude of hostility towards the reformers and their
teaching. A quarrel with the papacy turned, or helped to turn,
his thoughts in the direction of Church reform, but he hoped
this would come from within rather than from without, and with
the aid of his friend John Cropper (1503-1559), began, about
1 536, to institute certain reforms in his own diocese. One step led
to another, and as all efforts at union failed the elector invited
Martin Bucer to Cologne in 1542. Supported by the estates
of the electorate, and relying upon the recess of the diet of
Regensburg in 1541, he encouraged Bucer to press on with
the work of reform, and in 1543 invited Melanchthon to his
assistance. His conversion was hailed with great joy by the
Protestants, and the league of Schmalkalden declared they were
resolved to defend him; but the Reformation in the electorate
received checks from the victory of Charles V. over William,
duke of Cleves, and the hostility of the citizens of Cologne.
Summoned both before the emperor and the pope, the elector
was deposed and excommunicated by Paul III. in 1546. He
resigned his office in February 1547, and retired to Wied.
Hermann, who was also a bishop of Paderborn from 1532 to
1547, died on the isth of August 1552.
See C. Varrentrapp, Hermann von Wied (Leipzig, 1878).
HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON (1795-
1868), German economist, was born on the sth of December
1795, at Dinkelsbiihl in Bavaria. After finishing his primary
education he was for some time employed in a draughtsman's
office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the gymnasium
in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and
Wiirzburg. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg,
where he remained for four years. After filling an appointment
as teacher of mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he
became in 1823 Privatdozent at the university in that town.
His inaugural dissertation was on the notions of political economy
among the Romans (Dissertatio exhibens sententias Romanorum
ad oeconomiam politicam pertinentes, Erlangen, 1823). He after-
wards acted as professor of mathematics at the gymnasium
and polytechnic school in Nuremberg, where he continued till
1827. During his stay there he published an elementary
treatise on arithmetic and algebra (Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb.,
1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization
and conduct of technical schools in that country. The results
of his investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (Uber
technische Unterrichts-Anstalten). Soon after his return from
France he was made professor extraordinarius of political
science of the university of Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced
to the rank of ordinary professor. In 1832 appeared the first
edition of his great work on political economy, Staatswirth-
schaftliche Untersuchungen. In 1835 he was made member of the
Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. From the year 1836 he
acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made
frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in -order to study the
methods there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which
he devoted himself, he rose rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on
the council for superintendence of church and school work; in
1839 he was entrusted with the direction of the bureau of
statistics; in 1845 he was one of the councillors for the interior;
in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the national assembly
at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Johann Heckscher
and others, was mainly instrumental in organizing the so-called
" Great German " party, and was selected as one of the represen-
tatives of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs
HERMANN, J. G. J. HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF
3 6 7
union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners
at the great industrial exhibition at London, and published
an elaborate report on the woollen goods. Three years later
he was president of the committee of judges at the similar
exhibition at Munich, and the report of its proceedings was
drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of state, the
highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he contributed
a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical subjects,
to the Miinchener gelehrte Anzeigen and also wrote for Rau's
Archiv der politischen Okonomie and the Augsburger allgemeine
Zeitung. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a
series of valuable annual reports (Beitrdge zur Statistik des
Konigreichs Bayern, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged
at the time of his death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon
a second edition of his Staatswirthschaflliche Untersuchungen,
which was published in 1870.
Hermann's rare technological knowledge gave him a great
advantage in dealing with some economic questions. He
reviewed the principal fundamental ideas of the science with
great thoroughness and acuteness. " His strength," says
Roscher, " lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive distinction between
the several elements of a complex conception, or the several
steps comprehended in a complex act." For keen analytical
power his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But
he avoids several one-sided views of the English economist.
Thus he places public spirit beside egoism as an economic motor,
regards price as not measured by labour only but as a product
of several factors, and habitually contemplates the consumption
of the labourer, not as a part of the cost of production to the
capitalist, but as the main practical end 'of economics.
See Katitz, Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Okonomik, pp. 633-638 ;
Roscher, Gesch. d. Nat.-Okon. in Deutschland, pp. 860-879.
HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772-1848),
German classical scholar and philologist, was born at Leipzig on
the 28th of November 1772. Entering the university of his
native city at the age of fourteen, Hermann at first studied law,
which he soon abandoned for the classics. After a session at
Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical literature in
Leipzig, in 1798 professor exlraordinarius of philosophy in the
university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry, 1809).
He died on the 3ist of December 1848. Hermann maintained
that an accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was
the only road to a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the
ancient world, and the chief, if not the only, aim of philology.
As the leader of this grammatico-critical school, he came into
collision with A. Bb'ckh and Otfried Miiller, the representatives of
the historico-antiquarian school, which regarded Hermann's view
of philology as inadequate and one-sided.
Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical
metres, and published several works on that subject, the most
important being Elementa doctrinae metricae (1816), in which he
set forth a scientific theory based on the Kantian categories.
His writings on Greek grammar are also valuable, especially De
emendanda ralione Graecae grammaticae (1801), and notes and
excursus on Viger's treatise on Greek idioms. His editions of
the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the Clouds
of Aristophanes (1799); Trinummus of Plautus (1800); Poetica
of Aristotle (1802); Orphica (1805); the Homeric Hymns
(1806); and the Lexicon of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann
finished the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition
of Aeschylus was published after his death in 1852. The Opuscula,
a collection of his smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven
volumes between 1827 and 1839.
See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Kochly (1874); C.
Bursian, Geschichte der klassischen Philolpgie in Deutschland (1883);
art. in Allgem. deutsche Biog, ; Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. iii.
HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804-1855), German classical
scholar and antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at
Frankfort-on-Main. Having studied at the universities oi
Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went for a tour in Italy, on his return
from which he lectured as Privatdozent in Heidelberg. In 1832
he was called to Marburg as professor ordinarius of classical
iterature; and in 1842 he was transferred to Gottingen to the
chair of philology and archaeology, vacant by the death of
Otfried Miiller. He died at Gottingen on the 3ist of December
1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning was
Drofound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek
antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be
mentioned the Lehrbuch der griechischen Anliquitdten (new ed.,
1889) dealing with political, religious and domestic antiquities;
the Geschichte und System der Platonischen Philosophic (1839),
unfinished; an edition of the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 1851-
1853); and Culturgeschichle der Griechen und Romer (1857-
1858), published after his death by C. G. Schmidt. He also
;dited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and Lucian's
De conscribenda historia (1828). A collection of Abhandlungen
und Beilrage appeared in 1849.
See M. Lechner, Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann (1864), and
article by C. Halm in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xii. (1880).
HERMAPHRODITUS, in Greek mythology, a being, partly male,
partly female, originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception
undoubtedly had its origin in the East, where deities of a similar
dual nature frequently occur. The oldest traces of the cult in
Greek countries are found in Cyprus. Here, according to
Macrobius (Saturnalia, iii. 8) there was a bearded statue of a
male aphrodite, called Aphrodites by Aristophanes (probably in
his Ntc/3os, a similar variant). Philochorus in his Atlhis (ap.
Macrobius loc. cit.) further identified this divinity, at whose
sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon.
This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus the
union in one being of the two principles of generation and con-
ception denotes extensive fertilizing and productive powers.
This Cyprian Aphrodite is the same as the later Hermaphro-
dites, which simply means Aphrodites in the form of a herm
(see HERMAE), and first occurs in the Characteres (16) of
Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the
5th century B.C.), the importance of this being seems to have
declined. It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but
limited to the homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious
rites of obscure significance. The still later form of the legend, a
product of the Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology
of the name. In accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son
of Hermes and Aphrodite, of whom the nymph of the fountain of
Salmacis in Caria became enamoured while he was bathing. When
her overtures were rejected, she embraced him and entreated
the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The result
was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story
is told by Ovid (Metam. iv. 285) to explain the peculiarly enervat-
ing qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656)
attributes its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of
the country to find some excuse for the demoralization caused by
their own luxurious and effeminate habits of life. There was a
famous statue of Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably
the younger of the two statuaries of that name. In later Greek
art he was a favourite subject.
See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites,
and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; and for art, A. Baumeister,
Denkmdler des klassischen Altertums (1884-1888).
HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF, one of the works representing the
Apostolic Fathers (q.v.), a hortatory writing which " holds the
mirror up " to the Church in Rome during the 3rd Christian
generation. This is the period indicated by the evidence of the
Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother of Pius,
Roman bishop c. 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a
single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him
piecemeal and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian
"prophet," extending over a period of years; and, like certain
Old Testament prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences
he became the medium of a divine message to his church and to
God's " elect " people at .large.
In its present form it falls under three heads: Visions, Mandates,
Similitudes. But these divisions are misleading. The personal
and preliminary revelation embodied in Vision i. brings the
prophet a new sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart,
3 68
HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF
and an awakened conscience as before the " glory of God," the
Creator and Upholder of all things. His responsibility also for the
sad state of religion at home is emphasized, and he is given a
mission of repentance to his erring children. How far in all this
and in the next vision the author is describing facts, and how far
transforming his personal history into a type ( after the manner of
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress), the better to impress his moral
upon his readers, is uncertain. But the whole style of the work,
with its use of conventional apocalyptic forms, favours the more
symbolic view. Vision ii. records his call proper, through revela-
tion of his essential message, to be delivered both to his wife and
children and to " all the saints who have sinned unto this day "
(2. 4). It contains the assurances of forgiveness even for the
gravest sins after baptism (save blasphemy of the Name and
betrayal of the brethren, Sim. ix. 19)," if they repent with their
whole heart and remove doubts from their minds. For the Master
hath sworn by His glory (' His Son,' below) touching His elect,
that if there be more sinning after this day which He hath
limited, they shall not obtain salvation. For the repentance of
the righteous hath an end; the days of repentance for all saints
are fulfilled. . . . Stand fast, then, ye that work righteousness and
be not of doubtful mind. . . . Happy are all ye that endure the
great tribulation which is to come. . . . The Lord is nigh unto
them that turn to Him, as it is written in the book of Eldad and
Modad, who prophesied to the people in the wilderness."
Here, in the gist of the " booklet " received from the hand of
a female figure representing the Church, we have in germ the
message of The Shepherd. But before Hermas announces it to the
Roman Church, and through " Clement " J to the churches
abroad, there are added two Visions (iii. iv.) tending to heighten
its impressiveness. He is shown the " holy church " under the
similitude of a tower in building, and the great and final tribu-
lation (already alluded to as near at hand) under that of a
devouring beast, which yet is innocuous to undoubting faith.
Hermas begins to deliver the message of Vis. i.-iv., as bidden.
But as he does so, it is added to, in the way of detail and illustra-
tion, by a fresh series of revelations through an angel in the
guise of a Shepherd, who in a preliminary interview announces
himselt as the Angel of Repentance, sent to administer the
special " repentance " which it was Hermas's mission to declare.
This interview appears in our MSS. as Vis. v., 2 but is really a
prelude to the Mandates and Similitudes which form the bulk of
the whole work, hence known as " The Shepherd." The relation of
this second part to Vis. i.-iv. is set forth by the Shepherd himself.
" I was sent, quoth he, to show thee again all that thou sawest
before, to wit the sum of the things profitable for thee. First of
all write thou my mandates and similitudes; and the rtst, as I
will show thee, so shalt thou write." This programme is fulfilled
in the xii. Mandates perhaps suggested by the Teaching of the
Twelve Apostles (see DIDACHE), which Hermas knows- and
Similitudes i.-viii., while Simil. ix. is " the rest " and constitutes
a distinct " book " (Sim. ix. i. i, x. i. i). In this latter the
building of the Tower, already shown in outline in Vis. iii., is
shown " more carefully " in an elaborate section dealing with the
same themes. One may infer that Sim. ix. represents a distinctly
later stage in Hermas's ministry during the whole of which he
seems to have committed to writing what he received on each
occasion, 3 possibly for recital to the church (cf. Vis. ii. fin.).
Finally came Sim. x., really an epilogue in which Hermas is
" delivered " afresh to the Shepherd, for the rest of his days.
He is " to continue in this ministry " of proclaiming the Shepherd's
1 More than one interpretation, typical or otherwise, of this
" Clement " is possible; but none justifies us in assigning even to
this Vision a date consistent with that usually given to the tradi-
tional bishop of this name (see CLEMENT I.). Yet we may have to
correct the dubious chronology of the first Roman bishops by this
datum, and prolong his life to about A.D. no. This is Harnack's
date for the nucleus of Vis. ii., though he places our Vis. i.-iii. later
in Trajan's reign, and thinks Vis. iv. later still.
2 That a prior vision in which Hermas was " delivered " to the
Shepherd's charge, has dropped out, seems implied by Vis. v. 3 f.,
Sim. x. i. I.
* Harnack places " The Shepherd " proper mostly under Hadrian
(117-138), and the completed work c. 140-145.
teaching, " so that they who have repented or are about to repent
may have the same mind with thee," and so receive a good report
before God (Sim. x. 2 2-4). Only they must " make haste to do
aright," lest while they delay the tower be finished (4. 4), and the
new aeon dawn (after the final tribulation: cf. Vis. iv. 3. 5).
The relation here indicated between the Shepherd's instruction
and the initial message of one definitive repentance, open to those
believers who have already "broken" their "seal" of baptism by
deadly sins, as announced in Visions i.-iv. is made yet plainer by
Sim. vi. i. 3 f. " These mandates are profitable to such as are
about to repent; for except they walk in them their repentance
is in vain." Hermas sees that mere repentance is not enough to
meet the backsliding condition in which so many Christians then
were, owing to the recoil of inveterate habits of worldliness 4
entrenched in society around and within. It is, after all, too
negative a thing to stand by itself or to satisfy God." " Cease,
Hermas," says the Church, " to pray all about thy sins. Ask for
righteousness also " (Vis. iii. i. 6). The positive Christian ideal
which " the saints " should attain, " the Lord enabling," it is the
business of the Shepherd to set forth.
Here lies a great merit of Hermas's book, his insight into
experimental religion and the secret of failure in Christians about
him, to many of whom Christianity had come by birth rather than
personal conviction. They shared the worldly spirit in its various
forms, particularly the desire for wealth and the luxuries it
affords, and for a place in " good society " which meant a pagan
atmosphere. Thus they were divided in soul between spiritual
goods and worldly pleasures, and were apt to doubt whether the
rewards promised by God to the life of " simplicity " (all Christ
meant by the childlike spirit, including generosity in giving and
forgiving) and self-restraint, were real or not. For while the
expected " end of the age " delayed, persecutions abounded.
Such " doubled-souled " persons, like Mr Facing-both-ways,
inclined to say, " The Christian ideal may be glorious, but is it
practicable?" It is this most fatal doubt which evokes the
Shepherd's sternest rebuke; and he meets it with the ultimate
religious appeal, viz. to " the glory of God." He who made man
" to rule over all things under heaven," could He have given
behests beyond man's ability? If only a man " hath the Lord in
his heart," he " shall know that there is nothing easier nor
sweeter nor gentler than these mandates " (Mand. xii. 3-4).
So in the forefront of the Mandates stands the secret of all:
" First of all believe that there is one God. . . . Believe therefore
in Him, and fear Him, and fearing Him have self-mastery. For
the fear of the Lord dwelleth in the good desire," and to " put on "
this master-desire is to possess power to curb " evil desire " in all
its shapes (Mand. xii. 1-2). Elsewhere " good desire " is analysed
into the "spirits" of the several virtues, which yet are organically
related, Faith being mother, and Self-mastery her daughter, and
so on (Vis. iii. 8. 3 seq.; cf. Sim. ix. 15). These are the specific
forms of the Holy Spirit power, without whose indwelling the
mandates cannot be kept (Sim. x. 3; cf. ix. 13. 2, 24. 2).
Thus the " moralism " sometimes traced in Hermas is apparent
rather than real, for he has a deep sense of the enabling grace of
God. His defect lies rather in not presenting the historic Christ
as the Christian's chief inspiration, a fact which connects itself
with the strange absence of the names " Jesus " and " Christ."
He uses rather " the Son of God," in a peculiar Adoptianist
sense, which, as taken for granted in a work by the bishop's own
brother, must be held typical of the Roman Church of his day.
But as it is implicit and not part of his distinctive message, it did
not hinder his book from enjoying wide quasi-canonical honour
during most of the Ante-Nicene period.
The absence of the historic names, " Jesus " and " Christ," may
be due to the form of the book as purporting to quote angelic com-
munications. This would also explain the absence of explicit
scriptural citations generally, though knowledge both of the Old
Testament and of several New Testament books including the
congenially symbolic Gospel of John is clear (cf. The New Testa-
ment in the Apostolic Fathers, Oxford, 1905, 105 seq.). The one excep-
tion is a prophetic writing, the apocryphal Book of Eldad and Modad,
4 A careful study of practical Christian ethics at Rome as implied
in the Shepherd, will be found in E. von Dobschiitz, Christian Life
in the Primitive Church (1904).
HERMENEUTICS HERMES
3 6 9
which is cited apparently as being similar in the scope of its message.
Among its non-scriptural sources may be named the allegoric picture
of human life known as Tabula Cebetis (cf. C. Taylor, as below), the
Didache, and perhaps certain " Sibylline Oracles. '
Hermas regarded Christians as " justified by the most reverend
Angel " (i.e. the pre-existent Holy Spirit or Son, who dwelt in
Christ's " flesh "), in baptism, the " seal " which even Old Testament
saints had to receive in Hades (Sim. ix. 16. 3-7) and so attain to
" life." Yet the degree of " honour " (e.g. that of martyrs, Vis.
iii. 2; Sim. ix. 28), the exact place in the kingdom or consummated
church (the Tower), is given as reward for zeal in doing God's will
beyond the minimum requisite in all. Here comes in Hermas's
doctrine of works of supererogation, in fulfilment of counsels of
perfection, on lines already seen in Did. vi. 2, cf. i. 4, and reappearing
in the two types of Christian recognized by Clement and Origen and
in later Catholicism. Again his doctrine of fasting is a spiritualizing
of a current opus operatum conception on Jewish lines as though
" keeping a watch " (statio) in that way atoned for sins (Sim. v.).
The Shepherd enjoins instead, first, as " a perfect fast," a fast
" from every evil word and every evil desire, . . . from all the
vanities of this world-age " (3. 6; cf. Barn. iii. and the Oxyrhynchus
Saying, " except ye fast from the world "); and next, as a counsel
of perfection, a fast to yield somewhat for the relief of the widow
and orphan, that this extra " service " may be to God for a
" sacrifice."
Generally speaking, Hermas's piety, especially in its language,
adheres closely to Old Testament forms. But it is doubtful (pace
Spitta and Volter, who assume a Jewish or a proselyte basis) whether
this means more than that the Old Testament was still the Scriptures
of the Church. In this respect, too, Hermas faithfully reflects the
Roman Church of the early 2nd century (cf. the language of I Clem.,
esp. the liturgical parts, and even the Roman Mass). Indeed the
prime value of the Shepherd is the light it casts on Christianity at
Rome in the otherwise obscure period c. 110140, when it had as
yet hardly felt the influences converging on it from other centres
of tradition and thought. Thus Hermas's comparatively mild
censures on Gnostic teachers in Sim. ix. suggest that the greater
systems, like the Valentinian and Marcionite, had not yet made an
impression there, as Harnack argues that they must have done by
c. 145. This date, then, is a likely lower limit for Hermas's revision
of his earlier prophetic memoranda, and their publication in a single
homogeneous work, such as the Shepherd appears to be. Its wider
historic significance it was felt by its author to be adapted to the
needs of the Church at large, and was generally welcomed as such
is great but hard to determine in detail. 1 What is certain is its
influence on the development of the Church's policy as to discipline
in grave cases, like apostasy and adultery a burning question for
some generations from the end of the 2nd century, particularly in
Rome and North Africa. Indirectly, too, Hermas tended to keep
alive the idea of the Christian prophet, even after Montanism had
helped to discredit it.
LITERATURE. The chief modern edition is by O. von Gebhardt
and A. Harnack, in Fasc. iii. of their Pair, apost. opera (Leipzig,
1877); it is edited less fully by F. X. Funk, Pair, apost. (Tubingen,
1901), and in an English trans., with Introduction and occasional
notes, by Dr C. Taylor (S.P.C.K., 2 vols., 1903-1906). For the wide
literature of the subject, see the two former editions, also Harnack's
Chronologie der altchr. Lit. i. 257 seq., and O. Bardenhewer, Gesch.
der altkirc.hl. Lit. i. 557 seq. For the authorship see APOCALYPTIC
'LITERATURE, sect. III. (J. V. B.)
HERMENEUTICS (Gr. (pwvevTiKri, sc. rkxvri, Lat. ars
hermeneutica, from tpiaiveiittv, to interpret, from Hermes, the
messenger of the gods), the science or art of interpretation or
explanation, especially of the Holy Scriptures (see THEOLOGY).
HERMES, a Greek god, identified by the Romans with
Mercury. The derivation of his name and his primitive character
are very uncertain. The earliest centres of his cult were Arcadia,
where Mt. Cyllene was reputed to be his birthplace, the islands
of Lemnos, Imbros and Samothrace, in which he was associated
with the Cabeiri and Attica. In Arcadia he was specially
worshipped as the god of fertility, and his images were ithyphallic,
as also were the " Hermae " at Athens. Herodotus (ii. 51)
states that the Athenians borrowed this type from the Pelasgians,
thus testifying to the great antiquity of the phallic Hermes. At
Cyllene in Elis a mere phallus served as his emblem, and was
highly venerated in the time of Pausanias (vi. 26. 3). Both in
literature and cult Hermes was constantly associated with the
protection of cattle and sheep; at Tanagra and elsewhere his
title was Kpu>4>6pos, the ram-bearer. As a pastoral god he was
often closely connected with deities of vegetation, especially Pan
and the nymphs. His pastoral character is recognized in the
1 Note the prestige of martyrs and confessors, the ways of true and
false prophets in Mand. xi., and the different types of evil and good
" walk " among Christians, e.g. in Vis. iii. 5-7 ; Mand. viii. ; Sim. viii.
Iliad (xiv. 490) and the later epic hymn to Hermes; and his
Homeric titles dKafajra, epiomos, 5amop law, probably refer to
him as the giver of fertility. In the Odyssey, however, he appears
mainly as the messenger of the gods, and the conductor of the
dead to Hades. Hence in later times he is often represented in
art and mythology as a herald. The conductor of souls was
naturally a chthonian god; at Athens there was a festival in
honour of Hermes and the souls of the dead, and Aeschylus
(Persae, 628) invokes Hermes, with Earth and Hades, in sum-
moning a spirit from the underworld. The function of a messenger-
god may have originated the conception of Hermes as a dream-
god; he is called the " conductor of dreams " (riyfiriap bvdpuv),
and the Greeks offered to him the last libation before sleep. As a
messenger he may also have become the god of roads and door-
ways; he was the protector of travellers and his images were
used for boundary-marks (see HEEMAE). It was a custom to
make a cairn of stones near the wayside statues of Hermes, each
passer-by adding a stone; the significance of the practice,
which is found in many countries, is discussed by Frazer (Golden
Bough, 2nd ed., iii. rof.) and Hartland (Legend of Perseus, ii. 228).
Treasure found in the road (tpp.a.Lov) was the gift of Hermes, and
any stroke of good luck was attributed to him; but it may be
doubted whether his patronage of luck in general was developed
from his function as a god of roads. As the giver of luck he
became a deity of gain and commerce (/cep5<5os, 0.70 polos), an
aspect which caused his identification with Mercury, the Roman
god of trade. From this conception his thievish character may
have been evolved. The trickery and cunning of Hermes is a
prominent theme in literature from Homer downwards, although
it is very rarely recognized in official cult. 2 In the hymn to
Hermes the god figures as a precocious child (a type familiar in
folk-lore), who when a new-born babe steals the cows of Apollo.
In addition to these characteristics various other functions were
assigned to Hermes, who developed, perhaps, into the most
complete type of the versatile Greek. In many respects he was a
counterpart of Apollo, less dignified and powerful, but more
human than his greater brother. Hermes was a patron of music,
like Apollo, and invented the cithara; he presided over the
games, with Apollo and Heracles, and his statues were common in
the stadia and gymnasia. He became, in fact, the ideal Greek
youth, equally proficient in the " musical " and " gymnastic "
branches of Greek education. On the " musical " side he was
the special patron of eloquence (Xo-yios) ; in gymnastic, he was
the giver of grace rather than of strength, which was the province
of Heracles. Though athletic, he was one of the least militant of
the gods; a title Trpo^axos, the Defender, is found only in con-
nexion with a victory of young men (" ephebes ") in a battle at
Tanagra. A further point of contact between Hermes and Apollo
may here be noted: both had prophetic powers, although
Hermes held a place far inferior to that of the Pythian god, and
possessed no famous oracle. Certain forms of popular divination
were, however, under his patronage, notably the world-wide
process of divination by pebbles (Opiai). The " Homeric " Hymn
to Hermes explains these minor gifts of prophecy as delegated by
Apollo, who alone knew the mind of Zeus. Only a single oracle is
recorded for Hermes, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea,
and here the procedure was akin to popular divination. An altar,
furnished with lamps, was placed before the statue; the inquirer,
after lighting the lamps and offering incense, placed a coin in the
right hand of the god; he then whispered his question into the
ear of the statue, and, stopping his own ears, left the market
place. The first sound which he heard outside was an omen.
From the foregoing account it will be seen that it is difficult to
derive the many-sided character of Hermes from a single ele-
mental conception. The various theories which identified him
with the sun, the moon or the dawn, may be dismissed,, as they do
not rest on evidence to which value would now be attached. The
Arcadian or " Pelasgic " Hermes may have been an earth-deity,
as his connexion with fertility suggests; but his symbol at Cyllene
2 We only hear of a Hermes 66\ios at Pellene (Paus. vii. 27. i)
and of the custom of allowing promiscuous thieving during the
festival of Hermes at Samos (Plut. Quaest. Graec. 55).
37
HERMES, G. HERMES TRISMEGISTUS
rather points to a mere personification of reproductive powers.
According to Plutarch the ancients " set Hermes by the side of
Aphrodite," i.e. the male and female principles of generation;
and the two deities were worshipped together in Argos and else-
where. But this phallic character does not explain other aspects
of Hermes, as the messenger-god, the master-thief or the ideal
Greek ephebe. It is impossible to adopt the view that the
Homeric poets turned the rude shepherd-god of Arcadia into a
messenger, in order to provide him with a place in the Olympian
circle. To their Achaean audience Hermes must have been more
than a phallic god. It is more probable that the Olympian
Hermes represents the fusion of several distinct deities. Some
scholars hold that the various functions of Hermes may have
originated from the idea of good luck which is so closely bound up
with his character. As a pastoral god he would give luck to the
flocks and herds; when worshipped by townspeople, he would
give luck to the merchant, the orator, the traveller and the
athlete. But though the notion of luck plays an important part
in early thought, it seems improbable that the primitive Greeks
would have personified a mere abstraction. Another theory,
which has much to commend it, has been advanced by Roscher,
who sees in Hermes a wind-god. His strongest arguments are
that the wind would easily develop into the messenger of the
gods (Atos oCpos), and that it was often thought to promote
fertility in crops and cattle. Thus the two aspects of Hermes
which seem most discordant are referred to a single origin. The
Homeric epithet 'Ap7i<^>6vr7)s, which the Greeks interpreted as
" the slayer of Argus," inventing a myth to account for Argus, is
explained as originally an epithet of the wind (d/xyeerrijs), which
clears away the mists (a/yyos, <t>aiv<a). The uncertainty of the
wind might well suggest the trickery of a thief, and its whistling
might contain the germ from which a god of music should be
developed. But many of Roscher's arguments are forced, and
his method of interpretation is not altogether sound. For
example, the last argument would equally apply to Apollo, and
would lead to the improbable conclusion that Apollo was a
wind-god. It must, in fact, be remembered that men make
their gods after their own likeness; and, whatever his origin,
Hermes in particular was endowed with many of the qualities and
habits of the Greek race. If he was evolved from the wind, his
character had become so anthropomorphic that the Greeks
had practically lost the knowledge of his primitive significance;
nor did Greek cult ever associate him with the wind.
The oldest form under which Hermes was represented was that
of the Hermae mentioned above. Alcamenes, the rival or pupil
of Pheidias, was the sculptor of a herm at Athens, a copy of which,
dating from Roman times, was discovered at Pergamum in 1903.
But side by side with the Hermae there grew up a more anthropo-
morphic conception of the god. In archaic art he was portrayed
as a full-grown and bearded man, clothed in a long chiton, and
often wearing a cap (KVVTJ) or a broad-brimmed hat (ireratros),
and winged boots. Sometimes he was represented in his pastoral
character, as when he bears a sheep on his shoulders; at other
times he appears as the messenger or herald of the gods with the
KijpvKeiov, or herald's staff, which is his most frequent attribute.
From the latter part of the 5th century his art-type was changed
in conformity with the general development of Greek sculpture.
He now became a nude and beardless youth, the type of the
young athlete. In the 4th century this type was probably fixed
by Praxiteles in his statue of Hermes at Olympia.
AUTHORITIES. F. G. Welcker, Griech. Gdttetl. i. 342 f. (Gottingen,
1857-1863); L. Preller, ed. C. Robert, Griech. Mythologie, ii. 385 seq.
(Berlin, 1894); W. H. Roscher, Lex. der griech. u. roin. Mythologie,
s.v. (Leipzig, 1884-1886); A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion,
ii. 225 seq. (London, 1887); C. Daremberg and E. Saglio, Diet, des
ant. grecques et rom.; Farnell, Cults v. (1909); O. Gruppe, Griech.
Mythologie ^. Religionsgesch. p. 1318 seq. (Munich, 1906). In the
article GREEK ART, figs. 43 and 82 (Plate VI.) represent the Hermes
of Praxiteles; fig. 57 (Plate II.), a professed copy of the Hermes of
Alcamenes. (E. E. S.)
HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831), German Roman Catholic
theologian, was born on the 22nd of April 1775, at Dreyerwalde,
in Westphalia, and was educated at the gymnasium and univer-
sity of Munster, in both of which institutions he afterwards
taught. In 1820 he was appointed professor of theology at
Bonn, where he died on the 26th of May 1831. Hermes had
a devoted band of adherents, of whom the most notable was
Peter Josef Elvenich (1796-1886), who became professor at
Breslau in 1829, and in 1870 threw in his lot with the Old Catholic
movement. His works were Unlcrsitchungen ilbcr die inncre
Wahrheit des Christenthums (Munster, 1805), and Einleitung in
die christkalholische Thcologie, of which the first part, a philo-
sophical introduction, was published in 1819, the second part,
on positive theology, in 1829. The Einleitung was never com-
pleted. His Christkalholische Dogmalik was published, from
his lectures, after his death by two of his students, Achterfeld
and Braun (3 vols., 1831 1834).
The Einleitung is a remarkable work, both in itself and in its
effect upon Catholic theology in Germany. Few works of modern
times have excited a more keen and bitter controversy. Hermes
himself was very largely under the influence of the Kantian and
Fichtean ideas, and though in the philosophical portion of his
Einleitung he criticizes both these thinkers severely, rejects
their doctrine of the moral law as the sole guarantee for the
existence of God, and condemns their restricted view of the
possibility and nature of revelation, enough remained of purely
speculative material to render his system obnoxious to his church.
After his death, the contests between his followers and their
opponents grew so bitter that the dispute was referred to the
papal see. The judgment was adverse, and on the 25th of
September 1835 a papal bull condemned both parts of the
Einleitung and the first volume of the Dogmalik. Two months
later the remaining volumes of the Dogmatik were likewise
condemned. The controversy did not cease, and in 1845 a
systematic attempt was made anonymously by F. X. Werner to
examine and refute the Hermesian doctrines, as contrasted with
the orthodox Catholic faith (Der Hermesianismus, 1845). In
1847 the condemnation of 1835 was confirmed by Pius IX.
See K. Werner, Geschichte der kalholischen Theologie (1866),
pp. 405 sqq.
HERMES TRISMEGISTUS (" the thrice greatest Hermes "),
an honorific designation of the Egyptian Hermes, i.e. Thoth
(<?..), the god of wisdom. In late hieroglyphic the name of
Thoth often has the epithet " the twice very great," sometimes
" the thrice very great "; in the popular language (demotic)
the corresponding epithet is " the five times very great," found
as early as the 3rd century B.C. Greek translations give 6 piyas
Kal fj.eyas and jueyioros : Tpiffpeyas occurs in a late magical
text. 6 TpLaniyio-Tos has not yet been found earlier than the
2nd century A.D., but there can now be no doubt of its origin in
the above Egyptian epithets.
Thoth was " the scribe of the gods," " Lord of divine words,"
and to Hermes was attributed the authorship of all the strictly
sacred books generally called by Greek authors Hermetic.
These, according to Clemens Alexandrinus, our sole ancient
authority (Strom, vi. p. 268 et seq.), were forty-two in number,
and were subdivided into six divisions, of which the first, con-
taining ten books, was in charge of the " prophet " and dealt
with laws, deities and the education of priests; the second,
consisting of the ten books of the stolistes, the official whose
duty it was to dress and ornament the statues of the gods,
treated of sacrifices and offerings, prayers, hymns, festive
processions; the third, of the " hierogrammatist," also in ten
books, was called " hieroglyphics," and was a repertory of
cosmographical, geographical and topographical information;
the four books of the " horoscopus " were devoted to astronomy
and astrology; the two books of the "chanter" contained
respectively a collection of songs in honour of the gods and a
description of the royal life and its duties; while the sixth and
last division, consisting of the six books of the " pastophorus,"
was medical. Clemens's statement cannot be contradicted.
Works are extant in papyri and on temple walls, treating of
geography, astronomy, ritual, myths, medicine, &c. It is
probable that the native priests would have been ready to
ascribe the authorship or inspiration, as well as the care and
protection of all their books of sacred lore to Thoth, although
HERMESIANAX HERMON
37 1
there were a goddess of writing (Seshit), and the ancient deified
scribes Imuthes and Amenophis, and later inspired doctors
Petosiris, Nechepso, &c., to be reckoned with; there are indeed
some definite traces of such an attribution extant in individual
cases. Whether a canon of such books was ever established,
even in the latest times, may be seriously doubted. We know,
however, that the vizier of Upper Egypt (at Thebes) in the
eighteenth dynasty, had 40 (not 42) parchment rolls laid before
him as he sat in the hall of audience. Unfortunately we have
no hint of their contents. Forty-two was the number of divine
assessors at the judgment of the dead before Osiris, and was
the standard number of the nomes or counties in Egypt.
The name of Hermes seems during the 3rd and following
centuries to have been regarded as a convenient pseudonym
to place at the head of the numerous syncretistic writings in
which it was sought to combine Neo-Platonic philosophy,
Philonic Judaism and cabalistic theosophy, and so provide the
world with some acceptable substitute for the Christianity
which had even at that time begun to give indications of the
ascendancy it was destined afterwards to attain. Of these
pseudepigraphic Hermetic writings some have come down to
us in the original Greek; others survive in Latin or Arabic
translations; but the majority appear to have perished. That
which is best known and has been most frequently edited is the
HoiiJ.d.v8prft sive De potestate et sapientia divina (IIoi;uai'5p7js
being the Divine Intelligence, minriv avdpuv), which consists
of fifteen chapters treating of such subjects as the nature of God,
the origin of the world, the creation and fall of man, and the
divine illumination which is the sole means of his deliverance.
The edilio princeps appeared in Paris in 1554; there is also
an edition by G. Parthey (1854); the work has also been trans-
lated into German by D. Tiedemann (1781). Other Hermetic
writings which have been preserved, and which have been
for the most part collected by Patricius in the Nova de uni-
versis philosophia (1593), are (in Greek) 'laTpo^adi^aTiKa irpos
"KniJMva MyvTTTiav, Hepl KaraMaews VOVOVVTUV irfpiyvutTTiKa.,
'E/c rijs nadrinaTiKrjs en-lories 7rp6s"Awoi'a: (in Latin) Aphorismi
she Centiloquium, Cyranid.es ; (in Arabic, but doubtless from a
Greek original) an address to the human soul, which has been
translated by H. L. Fleischer (An die menschliche Seek, 1870).
The connexion of the name of Hermes with alchemy will
explain what is meant by hermetic sealing, and will account for
the use of the phrase " hermetic medicine " by Paracelsus, as
also for the so-called " hermetic freemasonry " of the middle ages.
Besides Thoth, Anubis (q.v.) was constantly identified with
Hermes; see also HORUS.
See Ursinus, De Zoroastre, Hermete, &c. (Nuremberg, 1661);
Nicolas Lenglet-Dufresnoy, L'Histoire de la philosophic hermetique
(Paris, 1742); Baumgarten-Crusius, De librorum hermeticorum
origine atque indole (Jena, 1827); B. J. Hilgers, De Hermetis Trisme-
gisli Poemand.ro (1855); R. M6nard, Hermes Trismegiste, Iraduction
complete, precedee d'une etude surl' origine des livres hermetiques (1866) ;
R. Pietschmann, Hermes Trismegistus, nach agyptischen, grie-
chischen, und orientalischen Uberlieferungen (1875); R. Reitzenstein,
Poimandres, Studien zur griechisch-dgyptischen und fruhchrist-
lichen Literalur (Leipzig, 1904); G. R. S. Mead, Thrice Greatest
Hermes (1907), introduction and translation. (F. LL. G.)
HERMESIANAX, of Colophon, elegiac poet of the Alexandrian
school, flourished about 330 B.C. His chief work was a poem
in three books, dedicated to his mistress Leontion. Of this
poem a fragment of about one hundred lines has been preserved
by Athenaeus (xiii. 597). Plaintive in tone, it enumerates
instances, mythological and historical, of the irresistible power
of love. Hermesianax, whose style is characterized by alternate
force and tenderness, was exceedingly popular in his own times,
and was highly esteemed even in the Augustan period.
Many separate editions have been published of the fragment,
the text of which is in a very unsatisfactory condition: by F. W.
Schneidewin (1838), J. Bailey (1839, with notes, glossary, and
Latin and English versions), and others; R. Schulze s Quaestiones
Hermesianacleae (1858), contains an account of the life and writings
of the poet and a section on the identity of Leontion.
HERMIAS. (i) A Greek philosopher of the Alexandrian
school. A disciple of Proclus, he was known best for the lucidity
of his method rather than for any original ideas. His chief works
were a study of the Isagoge of Porphyry and a commentary on
Plato's Phaedrus. Unlike the majority of logicians of the time, he
admitted the absolute validity of the second and third figures of
the syllogism.
(2) A Christian apologist and philosopher who flourished
probably in the 4th and 5th centuries. Nothing is known about
his life, but there has been preserved of his writings a small thesis
entitled Aiauupjuos TUIV ew <t>i\off6<jx*)v. In this work he attacked
pagan philosophy for its lack of logic in dealing with the root
problems of life, the soul, the cosmos and the first cause or vital
principle. There is an edition by von Otto published in the
Corpus apologetarum (Jena, 1872). It is interesting, but without
any claim to profundity of reasoning.
Two minor philosophers of the same name are known. Of these,
one was a disciple of Plato and a friend of Aristotle; he became
tyrant of Atarneus and invited Aristotle to his court. Aristotle
subsequently married Pythias, who was either niece or sister of
Hermias. Another Hermias was a Phoenician philosopher of the
Alexandrian school; when Justinian closed the school of Athens,
he was one of the five representatives of the school who took refuge
at the Persian court.
HERMIPPUS, " the one-eyed," Athenian writer of the Old
Comedy, flourished during the Peloponnesian War. He is said
to have written 40 plays, of which the titles and fragments
of nine are preserved. He was a bitter opponent of Pericles,
whom he accused (probably in the Molpcu) of being a bully and a
coward, and of carousing with his boon companions while the
Lacedaemonians were invading Attica. He also accused Aspasia
of impiety and offences against morality, and her acquittal was
only secured by the tears of Pericles (Plutarch, Pericles, 32). In
the 'AproircoXito (" Bakeresses ") he attacked the demagogue
Hyperbolus. The 4>op/io</i6poi (Mat-carriers) contains many
parodies of Homer. Hermippus also appears to have written
scurrilous iambic poems after the manner of Archilochus.
Fragments in T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta, i. (1880),
and A. Meineke, Poetarum Graecorum comicorum fragmenta (1855).
HERMIT, a solitary, one who withdraws from all intercourse
with other human beings in order to live a life of religious con-
templation, and so marked off from a " coenobite " ( Gr. KOIVOS,
common, and ftios, life), one who shares this life of withdrawal
with others in a community (see ASCETICISM and MONASTICISM).
The word " hermit " is an adaptation through the O. Fr. ermite
or hermite, from the Lat. form, eremite, of the Gr. pe/ur7;s, a
solitary, from ^prjfua, a desert. The English form " eremite,"
which was used, according to the New English Dictionary, quite
indiscriminately with " hermit " till the middle of the i7th
century, is now chiefly used in poetry or rhetorically, except with
reference to the early hermits of the Libyan desert, or sometimes
to such particular orders as the erejnites of St Augustine (see
AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS). Another synonym is " anchoret " or
" anchorite." This comes through the French and Latin forms
from the Gr. avaxcaoriTris, from avaxuptw, to withdraw. A
form nearer to the Greek original, " anachoret," is sometimes
used of the early Christian recluses in the East.
HERMOGENES, of Tarsus, Greek rhetorician, surnamed Svarfip
(the polisher), flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (A.D.
161-180). His precocious ability secured him a public appoint-
ment as teacher of his art while as yet he was only a boy; but
at the age of twenty-five his faculties gave way, and he spent the
remainder of his long life in a state of intellectual impotence.
During his early years, however, he had composed a series of
rhetorical treatises, which became popular text-books, and the
subject of subsequent commentaries. Of his Tex*"? pVoptw? we
still possess the sections Ilepi rSiv arao-twv (on legal issues),
Ilepi tvpto-ttas (on the invention of arguments), Ilepl Ideuv (on the
various kinds of style) Jlepi ptBodov otivbrriTos (on the method of
speaking effectively), and HpoyvtJ.va.o-ti.aTa rhetorical exercises).
Editions by C. Walz (1832)* and by L. Spengel (1854), in their
Rhetores Graeci; bibliographical note on the commentaries in
W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur (1898).
HERMON, the highest mountain in Syria (estimated at 9050
to 9200 ft.), an outlier of the Anti-Lebanon. As the Hebrew name
(I 110 !?, " belonging to a sanctuary," " separate ") shows, it was
always a sacred mountain. The Sidonians called it Sirion, and the
372
HERMSDORF HERNIA
Amorites Shenir (Deut. iii.p). According to one theory it is the
<l high mountain " near Caesarea Philippi, which was the scene of
the Transfiguration (Mark ix. 2). A curious reference in Enoch
vi. 6, says that in the days of Jared the wicked angels descended
on the summit of the mountain and named it Hermon. The
modern name is Jebel es-Sheikh, or " mountain of the chief or
elder." It is also called Jebel eth-Thelj, " snowy mountain."
The ridge of Hermon. rising into a dome-shaped summit, is 20 m.
long, extending north-east and south-west. The formation of the
lower part is Nubian sandstone, that of the upper part is a hard
dark-grey crystalline limestone belonging to the Neocomian
period, and full of fossils. The spurs consist in some cases of
white chalk covering the limestone, and on the south there are
several basaltic outbreaks. The view from Hermon is very ex-
tensive, embracing all Lebanon and the plains east of Damascus,
with Palestine as far as Carmel and Tabor. On a clear day Jaffa
also may be seen. The mountain in spring is covered with snow,
but in autumn there is occasionally none left, even in the ravines.
To the height of 500 ft. it is clothed with oaks, poplars and
brush, while luxuriant vineyards abound. Foxes, wolves and
Syrian bears are not infrequently met with, and there is a heavy
dew or night mist. Above the snow-limit the mountain is bare
and covered with fine limestone shingle. The summit is a
plateau from which three rocky knolls rise up, that on the west
being the lowest, that on the south-east the highest. On the
south slope of the latter are remains of a small temple or sacellum
described by St Jerome. A semicircular dwarf wall of good
masonry runs round this peak, and a trench excavated in the
rock may perhaps indicate the site of an altar. On the plateau
is a cave about 25 ft. sq. with the entrance on the east. A rock
column supports the roof, and a building (possibly a Mithraeum)
once stood above. Other small temples are found on the sides of
Hermon, of which twelve in all have been explored. They face
the east and are dated by architects about A.D. 200. The most
remarkable are those of Deir el 'Ashaiyir, Hibbariyeh, Hosn
Niha and Tell Thatha. At the ruined town called Rukleh on the
northern slopes are remains of a temple, the stones of which have
been built into a church. A large medallion, 5 ft. in diameter,
with a head supposed to represent the sun-god, is built into the
wall. Several Greek inscriptions occur among these ruins. In
the 1 2th century Psalm Ixxxix. 12 was supposed to indicate the
proximity of Hermon to Tabor. The conical hill immediately
south of Tabor was thus named Little Hermon, and is still so
called by some of the inhabitants of the district.
HERMSDORF, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia. Pop. (1900) 10,975. There are coal and iron mines
and lime quarries in the vicinity, and in the town there are large
iron-works. Hermsdorf is known as Niederhermsdorf to dis-
tinguish it from other places of the same name. Perhaps the
most noteworthy of these is a village in Silesia at the foot of the
Riesengebirge, chiefly famous for the ruins of the castle of Kynast.
This castle, formerly the seat of the Schaffgotsch family, was
destroyed by lightning in 1675. A third Hermsdorf is a village
in Saxe-Altenburg, where porcelain is made.
HERNE, JAMES A. [originally AHERNE] (1840-1901), American
actor and playwright, was born in Troy, New York, and after
theatrical experiences in various companies produced his own
first play, Hearts of Oak, in 1878, and his great success Shore
Acres in 1882. It was in rural drama that his humour and pathos
found their proper setting, and Shore Acres was seen throughout
the United States almost continuously for six seasons, being
followed by the less successful Sag Harbor, 190x3.
HERNE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, 15 m. by rail N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905)
33,258. It has coal mines, boiler-works, gunpowder mills, &c.
Herne was made a town in 1897.
HERNE BAY, a seaside resort in the St Augustine's parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, 8 m. N. by E. of Canterbury,
on the South Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 6726. It has grown up since 1830, above a
sandy and pebbly shore, and has a pier f m. long. The
church of St Martin in the village of Herne, 15 m. inland,
is Early English and later; the living was held by Nicholas
Ridley (1538), afterwards Bishop of London. At Reculver,
3 m. E. of Herne Bay on the coast, is the site of the Roman
station of Regulbium. The fortress occupied about 8 acres, but
only traces of the south and east walls remain. In Saxon times
it was converted into a palace by King Ethelbert, and in 669 a
monastery was founded here by Egbert. The Early English
church was taken down early in the igth century owing to the
encroachment of the sea, and parts of its fabric were preserved
in the modern church of St Mary. But its twin towers, known
as the Sisters from the tradition that they were built by a
Benedictine abbess of Faversham in memory of her sister, were
preserved by Trinity House as a conspicuous landmark.
HERNE THE HUNTER, a legendary huntsman who was alleged
to haunt Windsor Great Park at night, especially around an
aged tree, long known as Herne's oak, said to be nearly 700
years old. This was blown down in 1863, and a young oak was
planted by Queen Victoria on the spot. Herne has his French
counterpart in the Grand Veneur of Fontainebleau. Mention
is made of Herne in The Merry Wives of Windsor and in Harrison
Ainsworth's Windsor Castle. Nothing definite is known of the
Herne legend. It is suggested that it originated in the life-
story of some keeper of the forest; but more probably it is only
a variant of the " Wild Huntsman" myth common to folk-lore,
which (E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 4th ed. pp. 361-362) is
almost certainly the modern form of a prehistoric storm-myth.
HERNIA (Lat. hernia, perhaps from Gr. tpvos, a sprout), in
surgery, the protrusion of a viscus, or part of a viscus, from its
normal cavity; thus, hernia cerebri is a protrusion of brain-
substance, hernia pulmonum, a protrusion of a portion of lung,
and hernia iridis, a protrusion of some of the iris through an
aperture in the cornea. But, used by itself, hernia implies a
protrusion from the abdominal cavity, or, in common language,
a " rupture." A rupture may occur at any weak point in the
abdominal wall. The common situations are the groin (inguinal
hernia), the upper part of the thigh (femoral' hernia), and the
navel (umbilical hernia). The more movable the viscus the
greater the liability to protrusion, and therefore one commonly
finds some of the small intestine, or of the fatty apron (omen turn),
in the hernia. The tumour may contain intestine alone (entero-
cele), omentum alone (epiplocele) , or both intestine and omentum
(entero-epiplocele). The predisposing cause of rupture is
abnormal length of the suspensory membrane of the bowel
(the mesentery), or of the omentum, in conjunction with some
weak spot in the abdominal wall, as in an inguinal hernia, which
descends along the canal in which the spermatic cord lies in the
male and the round ligament of the womb in the female. A
femoral hernia comes through a weak spot in the abdomen to
the inner side of the great femoral vessels; a ventral hernia takes
place by the yielding of the scar tissue left after an operation
for appendicitis or ovarian disease. The exciting cause of
hernia is generally some over-exertion, as in lifting a heavy
weight, jumping off a high wall, straining (as in difficult micturi-
tion), constipation or excessive coughing. The pressure of the
diaphragm above and the abdominal wall in front acting on the
abdominal viscera causes a protrusion at the weakest point.
Rupture is either congenital or acquired. A child may be
born with a hernia in the inguinal or umbilical region, the result
of an arrest of development in these parts; or the rupture may
be acquired, first appearing, perhaps, in adult life as the result
of a strain or hurt. Men suffer more frequently than women,
because of their physical labours, because they are more liable
to accidents, and because of the passage for the spermatic cord
out of the abdomen being more spacious than that for the round
ligament of the womb.
At first the rupture is small, and it gradually increases in bulk.
It varies from the size of a marble to a child's head. The swelling
consists of three parts the coverings, sac and contents. The
" coverings " are the structures which form the abdominal wall
at the part where the rupture occurs. In femoral hernia the
coverings are the structures at the upper part of the thigh which
are stretched, thinned and matted together as the result of
HERNIA
373
pressure; in other cases there is an increase in their thickness,
the result of repeated attacks of inflammation. The " sac " is
composed of the peritoneum or membrane lining the abdominal
cavity; in some rare cases the sac is wanting. The neck of the
sac is the narrowed portion where the peritoneum forming the
sac becomes continuous with the general peritoneal cavity.
The neck of the sac is often thickened, indurated and adherent
to surrounding parts, the result of chronic inflammation. The
" contents " are bowel, omental fat, or, in children, an ovary.
The hernia may be reducible, irreducible or strangulated.
A " reducible " hernia is one in which the contents can be
pushed back into the abdomen. In some cases this reduction is
effected with ease, in others it is a matter of great difficulty.
At any moment a reducible hernia may become " irreducible,"
that is to say, it cannot be pushed back into the abdominal
cavity, perhaps because of inflammatory adhesions in and
around the fatty contents, or because of extra fullness of the
bowel in the sac. A " strangulated " hernia is one in which the
circulation of the blood through the hernial contents is interfered
with, by the pinching at the narrowest part of the passage.
The interference is at first slight, but it quickly becomes more
pronounced; the pinched bowel in the hernial sac swells as a
finger does when a string is tightly wound round its base. At first
there is congestion, and this may go on to inflammation, to
infection by micro-organisms and to mortification. The rapidity
with which the change from simple congestion to mortification
takes place depends on the tightness of the constriction, and on
the virulence of the bacterial infection fiom the bowel. As a
rule, the more rapidly a hernia forms the greatei the rapidity
of serious change in the conditions of the bowel or omentum,
and the more urgent are the symptoms. The constricting band
may be one of the structures which form the boundaries of the
openings through which the hernia has travelled, or it may be
the neck of the sac, which has become thickened in consequence
of inflammation especially is this the case in an inguinal hernia.
Reducible Hernia. With a reducible hernia there is a soft
compressible tumour (elastic when it contains intestine, doughy
when it contains omentum), its size increasing in the erect, and
diminishing in the horizontal posture. As a rule, it causes no
trouble during the night. It gives an impulse on coughing, and
when the intestinal contents aie pushed back into the abdomen
a gurgling sensation is perceptible by the fingers. Such a tumour
may be met with in any part of the abdominal wall, but the chief
situations are as follows. The inguinal region, in which the neck
of the tumour lies immediately above Poupart's ligament (a
cord-like ligamentous structure which can be felt stretching
from the front of the hip-bone to a ridge of bone immediately
above the genital organs) ; the femoral region, in the upper part
of the thigh, in which the neck of the sac lies immediately below
the inner end of Poupart's ligament; the umbilical region,
in which the tumour appears at or near the navel. As the
inguinal hernia increases in size it passes into the scrotum in the
male, into the labium in the female; while the femoral hernia
gradually pushes upwards to the abdomen.
The palliative treatment of a reducible hernia consists in
pushing back the contents of the tumour into the abdomen
and applying a truss or elastic bandage to prevent their again
escaping. The younger the patient the more chance there is
of the truss acting as a curative agent. The truss may generally
be left off at night, but it should be put on in the morning
before the patient leaves his bed. If, after the hernia has been
once returned, it is not allowed again to come down, there is a
probability of an actual cure taking place; but if it is allowed
to come down occasionally, as it may do, even during the night,
in consequence of a cough, or from the patient turning suddenly
in bed, the weak spot is again opened out, and the improvement
which might have been going on for weeks is undone. It is
sometimes found impossible to keep up a hernia by means of a
truss, and an operation becomes necessary. The operation is
spoken of as " the radical treatment of hernia," in contra-
distinction to the so-called "palliative treatment" by means
of a truss. It should not be spoken of as the radical cure, for
skilfully as the operation may have been performed it is not
always a cure. The principles involved in the operation are the
emptying of the sac and its entire removal, and the closure of the
opening into the abdomen by strong sutures: and, in this way,
great advance has been made by modern surgery. Without
tiresome delay, and the tedious and sometimes disappointing
application of trusses, the weak spot in the abdominal wall is
exposed, the sac of the hernia is tied and removed, and the canal
by which the rupture descended is blockaded by buried sutures,
and with no material risk to life. Thus the patient's worries
become a thing of the past, and he is rendered a fit and normal
member of society. Experience has shown that very few ruptures
are unsuited for successful treatment by operation. No boy
should now be sent to school compelled to wear a truss, and so
hindered in his games and rendered an object of remark.
Irreducible Hernia. The main symptom is a tumour in one
of the situations already referred to, of long standing and
perhaps of large size, in which the contents of the tumour, in
whole or in part, cannot be pushed back into the abdomen.
The irreducibility is due either to its large size or to changes
which have taken place by indurations or adhesions. Such a
tumour is a constant source of danger: its contents are liable,
from their exposed situation, to injury from external violence;
it has a constant risk of increase; it may at any time become
strangulated, or the contents may inflame, and strangulation
may occur secondarily to the inflammation. It gives rise to
dragging sensations (referred to the abdomen), colic, dyspepsia
and constipation, which may lead to obstruction, that is to say, a
stoppage may occur of the passage of the contents of that portion
of the intestinal canal which lies in the hernia. When an ir-
reducible hernia becomes painful and tender, a local peritonitis
has occurred, which resembles in many of its symptoms a case
of strangulation, and must be regarded with suspicion and
anxiety. Indeed, the only safe treatment is by operation.
The treatment of irreducible hernia may be palliative; a
" bag truss " may be worn in the hope of preventing the hernia
getting larger; the bowels must be kept open, and all irregu-
larities of diet avoided. A person with such a hernia is in constant
danger, and if his general condition does not centra-indicate it
he should be submitted to operative treatment. That is to say,
the surgeon should cut down on the hernia, open the sac, divide
any omental adhesions, tie and cut away indurated omentum,
return the bowel, and complete the radical operation by closing
the aperture by strong sutures.
In Strangulated Hernia the bowel or omentum is being nipped
at the neck of the sac, and the flow of blood into and from the
delicate tissues is stopped. The symptoms are nausea, vomiting
of bilious matter, and after a time of faecal-smelling matter;
a twisting, burning pain generally referred to the region of the
navel, intestinal obstruction; a quick, wiry pulse and pain on
pressure over the tumour; the expression grows anxious, the
abdomen becomes tense and drum-like, and there is no impulse
in the tumour on coughing, because its contents are practically
pinched off from the general abdominal cavity. Sometimes there
is complete absence of pain and tenderness in the hernia itself,
and in an aged person all the symptoms may be very slight.
Sooner or later, from eight hours to eight days, if the strangula-
tion is unrelieved, the tumour becomes livid, crackling with gas,
mortification of the bowel at the neck of the sac takes place,
followed by extravasation of the intestinal contents into the
abdominal cavity; the patient has hiccough; he becomes
collapsed; and dies comatose from blood-poisoning.
The treatment of a strangulated hernia admits of no delay;
if the hernia does not " go back " on the surgeon trying to reduce
it, it must be operated on at once, the constriction being relieved,
the bowel returned and the opening closed. There should be
no treatment by hot-bath or ice-bag: operation is urgently
needed. An anaesthetic should be administered, and perhaps
one gentle attempt to return the contents by pressure (termed
" taxis") may be made, but no prolonged attempts are justi-
fiable, because the condition of the hernial contents may be
such that they cannot bear the pressure of the fingers. " Think
374
HERNICI HERO
well of the hernia," says the aphorism, " which has been little
handled."
The taxis to be successful should be made in a direction
opposite to the one in which the hernia has come down. The
inguinal hernia should be pressed upwards, outwards and
backwards, the femoral hernia downwards, backwards and
upwards. The larger the hernia the greater is the chance of
success by taxis, and the smaller the hernia the greater the risk
of its being injured by manipulation and delay. In every case
the handling must be absolutely gentle. If taxis does not succeed
the surgeon must at once cut down on the tumour, carefully
dividing the different coverings until he reaches the sac. The
sac is then opened, the constriction divided, care being taken
not to injure the bowel. The bowel must be examined before it
is returned into the abdomen, and if its lustreless appearance,
its dusky colour, or its smell, suggests that it is mortified, or is
on the point of mortifying, it must not be put back or perforation
would give rise to septic peritonitis which would probably have
a fatal ending. In such a case the damaged piece of bowel must
be resected and the healthy ends of the bowel joined together
by fine suturing. Matted or diseased omeritum must be tied off
and removed. Should peritonitis supervene after the operation
on account of bacillary infection, the bowels should be quickly
made to act by repeated doses of Epsom salts in hot water.
A person who is the subject of a reducible hernia should take
great care to obtain an accurately fitting truss, and should
remember that whenever symptoms resembling in any degree
those of strangulation occur, delay in treatment may prove
fatal. A surgeon should at once be communicated with, and he
should come prepared to operate. (E. O.*)
HERNICI, an ancient people of Italy, whose territory was
in Latium between the Fucine Lake and the Trerus, bounded
by the Volscian on the S., and by the Aequian and the Marsian
on the N. They long maintained their independence, and in
486 B.C. were still strong enough to conclude an equal treaty
with the Latins (Dion. Hal. viii. 64 and 68). They broke away
from Rome in 362 (Livy vii. 6 ff.) and in 306 (Livy ix. 42), when
their chief town Anagnia (q.v.) was taken and reduced to a
praefecture, but Ferentinum, Aletrium and Verulae were
rewarded for their fidelity by being allowed to remain free
municipia, a position which at that date they preferred to the
ciiiitas. The name of the Hernici, like that of the Volsci, is
missing from the list of Italian peoples whom Polybius (ii. 24)
describes as able to furnish troops in 225 B.C.; by that date,
therefore, their territory cannot have been distinguished from
Latium generally, and it seems probable (Beloch, Ital. Bund,
p. 123) that they had then received the full Roman citizenship.
The oldest Latin inscriptions of the district (from Ferentinum,
C.I.L. x. 5837-5840) are earlier than the Social War, and present
no local characteristic.
For further details of their history see C.I.L. x. 572.
There is no evidence to show that the Hernici ever spoke a
really different dialect from the Latins; but one or two glosses
indicate that they had certain peculiarities of vocabulary, such
as might be expected among folk who clung to their local customs.
Their name, however, with its Co-termination, classes them
along with the Co-tribes, like the Volsci, who would seem to have
been earlier inhabitants of the west coast of Italy, rather than
with the tribes whose names were formed with the JVo-suffix.
On this question see VOLSCI and SABINI.
See Conway's Italic Dialects (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897), p. 306 ff.,
where the glosses and the local and personal names of the district
will be found. (R- S. C.)
HERNOSAND, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district
(liin) of Vesternorrland on the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900)
7890. It stands on the island of Herno (which is connected
with the mainland by bridges) near the mouth of the Angerman
river, 423 m. N. of Stockholm by rail. It is the seat of a bishop
and possesses a fine cathedral. There are engine-works, timber-
yards and saw-mills. The harbour is good, but generally ice-
bound from December to May. Timber, iron and wood-pulp are
exported. There are a school of navigation and an institute for
pisciculture. Hernosand was founded in 1584, and received its
first town-privileges from John III. in 1587. It was the first
town in Europe to be lighted by electricity (1885). The poet'
Franzen (q.v.), Bishop of Hernosand, is buried here.
HERO (Gr. 7Jpo>s), a term specially applied to warriors of
extraordinary strength and courage, and generally to all who
were distinguished from their fellows by superior moral, physical
or intellectual qualities. No satisfactory derivation of the
word has been suggested.
Ancient Greek Heroes.
In ancient Greece, the heroes were the object of a special cult,
and as such were intimately connected with its religious life.
Various theories have been put forward as to the nature of these
heroes. According to some authorities, they were idealized
historical personages; according to others, symbolical repre-
sentations of the forces of nature. The view most commonly
held is that they were degraded or " depotentiated " gods,
occupying a position intermediate between gods and men.
According to E. Rohde (in Psyche) they are souls of the dead,
which after separation from the body enter upon a higher,
eternal existence. But it is only a select minority who
attain to the rank of heroes after death, only the distinguished
men of the past. The worship of these heroes is in reality an
ancestor worship, which existed in pre-Homeric times, and was
preserved in local cults. Instances no doubt occur of gods being
degraded to the ranks of heroes, but these are not the real
heroes, the heroes who are the object of a cult. The cult-heroes
were all persons who had lived the life of man on earth, and it
was necessary for the degraded gods to pass through this stage.
They did not at once become cult-heroes, but only after they had
undergone death like other mortals. Only one who has been a
man can become a hero. The heroes are spirits of the dead, not
demi-gods; their position is not intermediate between gods and
men, but by the side of these they exist as a separate class.
In Homer the term is applied especially to warrior princes, to
kings and kings' sons, even to distinguished persons of lower
rank, and free men generally. In Hesiod it is chiefly con-
fined to those who fought before Troy and Thebes; in view
of their supposed divine origin, he calls them demi-gods
(finldeoi ). This name is also given them in an interpolated
passage in the Iliad (xii. 23), which is quite at variance with the
general Homeric idea of the heroes, who are no more than men,
even if of divine origin and of superior strength and prowess.
But neither in Homer nor in Hesiod is there any trace of the idea
that the heroes after death had any power for good or evil over
the lives of those who survived them; and consequently, no
cult. Nevertheless, traces of an earlier ancestor worship
appear, e.g. in funeral games in honour of Patroclus and other
heroes, while the Hesiodic account of the five ages of man is a
reminiscence of the belief in the continued existence of souls in a
higher life. This pre-historic worship and belief, for a time
obscured, were subsequently revived. According to Porphyry
(De abstinentia, iv. 22), Draco ordered the inhabitants of Attica
to honour the gods and heroes of their country "in accordance
with the usage of their fathers " with offerings of first fruits and
sacrificial cakes every year, thereby clearly pointing to a custom
of high antiquity. Solon also ordered that the tombs of the
heroes should be treated with the greatest respect, and Cleis-
thenes (q.v.) sought to create a pan-Athenian enthusiasm by
calling his new tribes after Attic heroes and setting up their
statues in the Agora. Heroic honours were at first bestowed upon
the founders of a colony or city, and the ancestors of families; if
their name was not known, one was adopted from legend. In
many cases these heroes were purely fictitious; such were the
supposed ancestors of the noble and priestly families of Attica
and elsewhere (Butadae at Athens, Branchidae at Miletus
Ceryces at Eleusis), of the eponymi of the tribes and demes.
Again, side by side with gods of superior rank, certain heroes
were worshipped as protecting spirits of the country or state;
such were the Aeacidae amongst the Aeginetans, Ajax son of
O'ileus amongst the Epizephyrian Locrians and Hector at
Thebes. Neglect of the worship of these heroes was held to be
HERO
375
responsible for pestilence, bad crops and other misfortunes,
while, on the other hand, if duly honoured, their influence was
equally beneficent. This belief was supported by the Delphic
oracle, which was largely instrumental in promoting hero-worship
and keeping alive its due observance. Special importance was
attached to the grave of the hero and to his bodily remains, with
which the spirit of the departed was inseparably connected. The
grave was regarded as his place of abode, from which he could
only be absent for a brief period; hence his bones were fetched
from abroad (e.g. Cimon brought those of Theseus from Scyros),
or if they could not be procured, at least a cenotaph was erected
in his honour. Their relics also were carefully preserved: the
house of Cadmus at Thebes, the hut of Orestes at Tegea, the stone
on which Telamon had sat at Salamis (in Cyprus). Special
shrines (fipqa) were also erected in their honour, usually over their
graves. In these shrines a complete set of armour was kept, in
accordance with the idea that the hero was essentially a warrior,
who on occasion came forth from his grave and fought at the
head of his countrymen, putting the enemy to flight as during his
lifetime. Like the gods, the cult heroes were supposed to exercise
an influence on human affairs, though not to the same extent,
their sphere of action being confined to their own localities.
Amongst the earliest known historical examples of the elevation
of the dead to the rank of heroes are Timesius the founder of
Abdera, Miltiades, son of Cypselus, Harmodius and Aristogiton
and Brasidas, the victor of Amphipolis, who ousted the local
Athenian hero Hagnon. In course of time admission to the rank
of a hero became far more common, and was even accorded to the
living, such as Lysimachus in Samothrace and the tyrant Nicias
of Cos. Antiochus of Commagene instituted an order of priests
to celebrate the anniversary of his birth and coronation in a
special sanctuary, and the kings of Pergamum claimed divine
honours for themselves and their wives during their lifetime.
The birthday of Eumenes was regularly kept, and every month
sacrifice was offered to him and games held in his honour. In
addition to persons of high rank, poets, legendary and others
(Linus, Orpheus, Homer, Aeschylus and Sophocles), legislators
and physicians (Lycurgus, Hippocrates), the patrons of various
trades or handicrafts (artists, cooks, bakers, potters), the heads of
philosophical schools (Plato, Democritus, Epicurus) received the
honours of a cult. At Teos incense was offered before the statue
of a flute-player during his lifetime. In some countries the
honour became so general that every man after death was
described as a hero in his epitaph in Thessaly even slaves.
The cult of the heroes exhibits points of resemblance with that
of the chthonian divinities and of the dead, but differs from that
of the ordinary gods, a further indication that they were not
" depotentiated " gods. Thus, sacrifice was offered to them at
night or in the evening; not on a high, but on a low altar (faxapa),
surrounded by a trench to receive the blood of the victim, which
was supposed to make its way through the ground to the
occupant of the grave; the victims were black male animals,
whose heads were turned downwards, not upwards; their blood
was allowed to trickle on the ground to appease the departed
(alpaKovpia); the body was entirely consumed by fire and no
mortal was allowed to eat of it; the technical expression for the
sacrifice was not Bvtiv but kvayi^tiv (less commonly kvrtiu>v.v).
The chthonian aspect of the heft) is further shown by his attribute
the snake, and in many cases he appears under that form himself.
On special occasions a sacrificial meal of cooked food was set out
for the heroes, of which they were solemnly invited to partake.
The fullest description of such a festival is the account given by
Plutarch (Aristides, 21) of the festival celebrated by the Plataeans
in honour of their countrymen who had fallen at the battle of
Plataea. On the i6th of the month Maimacterion, a long pro-
cession, headed by a trumpeter playing a warlike air, set out for
the graves; wagons decked with myrtle and garlands of flowers
followed, young men (who must be of free birth) carried jars of
wine, milk, oil and perfumes; next came the black bull destined
for the sacrifice, the rear being brought up by the archon, who
wore the purple robe of the general, a naked sword in one hand,
in the other an urn. When he came near the tombs, he drew
some water with which he washed the gravestones, afterwards
anointing them with perfume; he then sacrificed the bull on the
altar calling upon Zeus Chthonios and Hermes Psychopompos, and
inviting them in company with the heroes to the festival of blood.
Finally, he poured a libation of wine with the words: " I drink
to those who died for the freedom of the Hellenes."
See especially E. Rohde, Psyche (1905) and in Rheinisches Museum,
1! - (1895), 28; P. Stengel, Die griechischen Kultusaltertumer
(Munich, 1898), p. 124; G. F. Schomann, Griechische AUerlumer,
n. (1897), 159; J. Wassner, De heroum apud Graecos cullu (Kiel,
1883); article by F. Deneken in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie,
in which a large amount of material is accumulated; J. A. Hild,
Etude sur les demons (1881) and article in Daremberg and Saglio's
Dictionnaire des antiquites.
Teutonic Legend.
Many of the chief characteristics of the ancient Greek
heroes are reproduced in those of the Teutonic North, the
parallel being in some cases very striking; Siegfried, for instance,
like Achilles, is vulnerable only in one spot, and Wayland Smith,
like Hephaestus, is lame. Superhuman qualities and powers,
too, are commonly ascribed to both, an important difference,
however, being that whatever worship may have been paid to the
Teutonic heroes never crystallized into a cult. This applies
equally to those who have a recognized historical origin and to
those who are regarded as purely mythical. Of the latter the
number has tended to diminish in the light of modern scholarship.
The fashion during the igth century set strongly in the other
direction, and the " degraded gods " theory was applied not
only to such conspicuous heroes as Siegfried, Dietrich and
Beowulf, but to a host of minor characters, such as the good
marquis Riideger of the Nibelungenlied and our own Robin
Hood (both identified with Woden Hruodperaht). The reaction
from one extreme has, indeed, tended to lead to another, until
not only the heroes, but the very gods themselves, are being
traced to very human, not to say commonplace, origins. Thus
M. Henri de Tourville, in his Histoire de la formation particulariste
(1903), basing his argument on the Ynglinga Saga, interpreted
in the light of " Social Science," reveals Odin, " the traveller,"
as a great " caravan-leader " and warrior, who, driven from
Asgard a trading city on the borders of the steppes east of the
Don by " the blows that Pompey aimed at Mithridates,"
brought to the north the arts and industries of the East. The
argument is developed with convincing ingenuity, but it may be
doubted whether it has permanently " rescued Odin from the
misty dreamland of mythology and restored him to history."
It is now, however, admitted that, whatever influence the one
may have from time to time exercised on the other, Teutonic
myth and Teutonic heroic legend were developed on independent
lines. The Teutonic heroes are, in the main, historical personages,
never gods; though, like the Greek heroes, they are sometimes
endowed with semi-divine attributes or interpreted as symbolical
representations of natural forces.
The origin of Teutonic heroic saga, which may be regarded
as including that of the Germans, Goths, Anglo-Saxons and
Scandinavians, is to be looked for in the period of the so-called
migration of nations (A.D. 350-650). It consequently rests
upon a distinct basis of fact, the saga (in the older and wider
sense of any story said or sung) being indeed the oldest form
of historical tradition; though this of course does not exclude
the probability of the accretion of mythical elements round
persons and episodes from the very first. As to the origin of the
heroic sagas as we now have them, Tacitus tells us that the deeds
of Arminius were still celebrated in song a hundred years after
his death (Annals, ii. 88) and in the Germania he speaks of " old
songs " as the only kind of " annals " which the ancient Germans
possessed; but, whatever relics of the old songs may be embedded
in the Teutonic sagas, they have left no recognizable mark on the
heroic poetry of the German peoples. The attempt to identify
Arminius with Siegfried is 'now generally abandoned. Teutonic
heroic saga, properly so-called, consists of the traditions connected
with the migration period, the earliest traces of which are found
in the works of historical writers such as Ammianus Marcellinus
and Cassiodorus. According to Jordanes (the epitomator of
HERO
Cassiodorus's History of the Goths) at the funeral of Attila his
vassals, as they rode round the corpse, sang of his glorious deeds.
The next step in the development of epic narrative was the
single lay of an episodic character, sung by a single individual,
who was frequently a member of a distinguished family, not
merely a professional minstrel. Then, as different stories grew
up round the person of a particular hero, they formed a connected
cycle of legend, the centre of which was the person of the hero
(e.g. Dietrich of Bern). The most important figures of these
cycles are the following.
(i) Beowulf, king of the Geatas (Jutland), whose story in its
present form was probably brought from the continent by the
Angles. It is an amalgamation of the myth of Beowa, the
slayer of the water-demon and the dragon, with the historical
legend of Beowulf, nephew and successor of Hygelac (Chochil-
aicus), king of the Geatas, who was defeated and slain (c. 520)
while ravaging the Frisian coast. The water-demon Grendel
and the dragon (probably), by whom Beowulf is mortally
wounded, have been supposed to represent the powers of autumn
and darkness, the floods which at certain seasons overflow the
low-lying countries on the coast of the North Sea and sweep
away all human habitations; Beowulf is the hero of spring and
light who, after overcoming the spirit of the raging waters,
finally succumbs to the dragon of approaching winter. Others
regard him as a wind-hero, who disperses the pestilential vapours
of the fens. Beowulf is also a culture-hero. His father Sceaf-
Scyld (i.e. Scyld Scefing," the protector with the sheaf ") lands
on the Anglian or Scandinavian coast when a child, in a rudder-
less ship, asleep on a sheaf of grain, symbolical of the means
whereby his kingdom shall become great; the son indicates
the blessings of a fixed habitation, secured against the attacks
of the sea. (2) Hildebrand, the hero of the oldest German epic.
A loyal supporter of Theodoric, he follows his master, when
threatened by Odoacer, to the court of Attila. After thirty
years' absence, he returns to his home in Italy; his son Hadu-
brand, believing his father to be dead, suspects treachery and
refuses to accept presents offered by the father in token of
good-will. A fight takes place, in which the son is slain by the
father. In a later version, recognition and reconciliation take
place. Well-known parallels are Odysseus and Telegonis,
Rustem and Sohrab. (3) Ermanaric, the king of the East Goths,
who according to Ammianus Marcellinus slew himself (c. 375)
in terror at the invasion of the Huns. With him is connected
the old German Dioscuri myth of the Harlungen. (4)Dietrich
of Bern (Verona), the legendary name of Theodoric the Great.
Contrary to historical tradition, Italy is supposed to have been
his ancestral inheritance, of which he has been deprived by
Odoacer, or by Ermanaric, who in his altered character of a
typical tyrant appears as his uncle and contemporary. He takes
refuge in Hungary with Etzel (Attila), by whose aid he finally
recovers his kingdom. In the later middle ages he is represented
as fighting with giants, dragons and dwarfs, and finally disappears
on a black horse. Some attempts have been made to identify
him as a kind of Donar or god of thunder. (5) Siegfried (M.H.
Ger. Sivrit), the hero of the Niebelungenlied, the Sigurd of the
related northern sagas, is usually regarded as a purely mythical
figure, a hero of light who is ultimately overcome by the powers
of darkness, the mist-people (Niebelungen). He is, however,
closely associated with historical characters and events, e.g.
with the Burgundian king Gundahari (Gunther, Gunnar) and the
overthrow of his house and nation by the Huns; the scholars
have exercised considerable ingenuity in attempting to identify
him with various historical figures. Theodor Abeling (Das
Nibelungenlied, Leipzig, 1907) traces the Nibelung sagas to
three groups of Burgundian legends, each based on fact: the
Frankish-Burgundian tradition of the murder of Segeric, son
of the Burgundian king Sigimund, who was slain by his father
at the instigation of his stepmother; the Frankish-Burgundian
story, as told by Gregory of Tours (iii. n), of the defeat of the
Burgundian kings Sigimund and Godomar, and the captivity
and murder of Sigimund, by the sons of Clovis, at the instigation
of their mother Chrothildis, in revenge for the murder of her
father Chilperich and of her mother, by Godomar; the Rhenish-
Burgundian story of the ruin of Gundahari's kingdom by Attila's
Huns. Herr Abeling identifies Siegfried (Sigurd) with Segeric,
while according to him the heroine of the Nibelung sagas,
Kriemhild (Gudrun), represents a confusion of two historical
persons: Chrothildis, the wife of Clovis, and Ildico (Hilde),.
the wife of Attila. (See also the articles KRIEMHILD, NIBELUN-
GENLIED).
(6)Hugdietrich, Wolfdietrich and Ortnit, whose legend, like
that of Siegfried, is of Prankish origin. It is preserved in four
versions, the best of which is the oldest, and has an historical
foundation. Hugdietrich is the " Prankish Dietrich " ( = Hugo
Theodoric), king of Austrasia (d. 534), who like his son and
successor Theodebert, was illegitimate; both had to fight for
their inheritance with relatives. The transference of the scene ta
Constantinople is a reminiscence of the events of the Crusades
and Theodebert's projected campaign against that city. The
version in which Hugdietrich gains access to his future wife by
disguising himself as a woman has also a foundation in fact. As
the myth of the Harlungen is connected with Ermanaric, so
another Dioscuri myth (of the Hartungen) is combined with the
Ortnit-Wolfdietrich legend. The Hartungen are probably
identical with the divine youths (mentioned in Tacitus as
worshipped by the Vandal Naharvali or Nahanarvali), from
whom the Vandal royal family, the Asdingi, claimed descent.
Asdingi ("A<m77oO would be represented in Gothic by Hazdiggos,
" men with women's hair " (cf. muliebri ornatu in Tacitus), and
in middle high German by Hartungen. (7)Rother, king of
Lombardy. Desiring to wed the daughter of Constantine, king of
Constantinople, he sends twelve envoys to ask her in marriage.
They are arrested and thrown into prison by the king. Rother,
who appears under the name of Dietrich, sets out with an army,
liberates the envoys and carries off the princess. One version
places the scene in the land of the Huns. The character of
Constantine in many respects resembles that of Alexius Com-
nenus; the slaying of a tame lion by one of the gigantic followers
of Rother is founded on an incident which actually took place at
the court of Alexius during the crusade of not under duke Welf
of Bavaria, when King Rother was composed about 1160 by a
Rhenish minstrel. Rother may be the Lombard king Rothari
(636-650), transferred to the period of the Crusades. (S)Walther
of Aquitaine, chiefly known from the Latin poem Waltharius,
written by Ekkehard of St Gall at the beginning of the loth
century, and fragments of an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon Epic
Waldere. Walther is not an historical figure, although the legend
undoubtedly represents typical occurrences of the migration
period, such as the detention and flight of hostages of noble
family from the court of the Huns, and the rescue of captive
maidens by abduction. (9)WieIand (Volundr), Wayland the
Smith, the only Teutonic hero (his original home was lower
Saxony) who firmly established himself in England. There is
absolutely no historical background for his legend. He is a fire-
spirit, who is pressed into man's service, and typifies the advance
from the stone age to a higher stage of civilization (working in
metals). As the lame smith he reminds us of Hephaestus, and in
his flight with wings of Daedalus escaping from Minos. (10) Hogni
(Hagen) and Hedin (Hetel) , whose personalities are overshadowed
by the heroines Hilde and Gudrun (Kudrun, Kutrun). In one
version occurs the incident of the never-ending battle between
the forces of Hagen and Hedin. Every night Hilde revives the
fallen, and " so will it continue till the twilight of the gods." The
battle represents the eternal conflict between light and darkness,
the alternation of day and night. Hilde here figures as a typical
Valkyr delighting in battle and bloodshed, who frustrates a
reconciliation. Hedin had sent a necklace as a peace-offering to
Hagen, but Hilde persuades her father that it is only a ruse.
This necklace occurs in the story of the goddess Freya (Frigg),
who is said to have caused the battle to conciliate the wrath of
Odin at her infidelity, the price paid by her for the possession of
the necklace Brisnigamen; again, the light god Heimdal is said to
have fought with Loki for the necklace (the sun) stolen by the
latter. Hence the battle has been explained as the necklace
HERO
377
myth in epic form. The historical background is the raids of the
Teutonic maritime tribes on the coasts of England and Ireland;
Famous heroes who are specially connected with England are
Alfred the Great, Richard Coeur-de-Lion, King Horn, Havelok
the Dane, Guy of Warwick, Sir Bevis of Hampton (or South-
ampton), Robin Hood and his companions.
Celtic Heroes.
The Celtic heroic saga in the British islands may be divided into
thetwo principal groups of Gaelic (Irish) andBrython (Welsh), the
first, excluding the purely mythological, into the Ultonian (con-
nected with Ulster) and the Ossianic. The Ultonianis grouped
round the names of King Conchobar and the heroCuchulainn, " the
Irish Achilles," the defender of Ulster against all Ireland, regarded
by some as a solar hero. The second cycle contains the epics
of Finn (Fionn, Fingal) mac Cumhail, and his son Oisin (Ossian),
the bard and warrior, chiefly known from the supposed Ossianic
poems of Macpherson. (See CELT, sec. Celtic Literature.)
Of Brython origin is the cycle of King Arthur (Art us), the
adopted national hero of the mixed nationalities of whom the
" English " people was composed. Here he appears as a chiefly
mythical personality, who slays monsters, such as the giant of
St Michel, the boar Troit, the demon cat, and goes down to the
underworld. The original Welsh legend was spread by British
refugees in Brittany, and was thus celebrated by both English and
French Celts. From a literary point of view, however, it is
chiefly French and forms " the matter of Brittany. " Arthur,
the leader (comes Britanniae, dux bellorum) of the Siluri or
Dumnonii against the Saxons, flourished at the beginning of the
6th century. He is first spoken of in Nennius's History of the
Britons (gth century), and at greater length in Geoffrey of
Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain (i2th century),
at the end of which the French Breton cycle attained its fullest
development in the poems of Chretien de Troyes and others.
Speaking generally, the Celtic heroes are differentiated from
the Teutonic by the extreme exaggeration of their superhuman,
or rather extra-human, qualities. Teutonic legend does not
lightly exaggerate, and what to us seems incredible in it may be
easily conceived as credible to those by whom and for whom the
tales were told; that Sigmund and his son Sinfiotli turned them-
selves into wolves would be but a sign of exceptional powers to
those who believed in werewolves; Fafnir assuming the form of
a serpent would be no more incredible to the barbarous Teuton
than the similar transformation of Proteus to the Greek. But in
the characterization of their heroes the Celtic imagination runs
riot, and the quality of their persons and their acts becomes
exaggerated beyond the bounds of any conceivable probability.
Take, for instance, the description of some of Arthur's knights in
the Welsh tale of Kilhivch and Olwen (in the Mabinogion) . Along
with Kai and Bedwyr (Bedivere), Peredur (Perceval), Gwalchmai
(Gawain), and many others, we have such figures as Sgilti
Yscandroed, whose way through the wood lay along the tops of the
trees, and whose tread was so light that no blade of grass bent
beneath his weight; Sol, who could stand all day upon one leg;
Sugyn the son of Sugnedydd, who was "broad-chested" to such
a degree that he could suck up the sea on which were three
hundred ships and leave nothing but dry land; Gweyyl, the son of
Gwestad, who when he was sad would let one of his lips drop
beneath his waist and turn up the other like a cap over his head;
and Uchtry Varyf Draws, who spread his red untrimmed beard
over the eight-and-forty rafters of Arthur's hall. Such figures as
these make no human impression, and criticism has busied itself
in tracing them to one or other of the shadowy divinities of the
Celtic pantheon. However this may be, remnants of their
primitive superhuman qualities cling to the Celtic heroes long
after they have been transfigured, under the influence of Christi-
anity and chivalry, into the heroes of the medieval Arthurian
romance, types for the most part of the knightly virtues as
these were conceived by the middle ages; while shadowy
memories of early myths live on, strangely disguised, in certain of
the episodes repeated uncritically by the medieval poets. So
Merlin preserves his diabolic origin; Arthur his mystic coming and
his mystic passing; while Gawain, and after him Lancelot, journey
across the river, as the Irish hero Bran had done before them to
the island of fair women the Celtic vision of the realm of death.
The chief heroes of the medieval Arthurian romances are
the following. Arthur himself, who tends however to become
completely overshadowed by his knights, who make his court
the starting-point of their adventures. Merlin (Myrddin), the
famous wizard, bard and warrior, perhaps an historical figure,
first introduced by Geoffrey of Monmouth, originally called
Ambrose from the British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus, under
whom he is said to have first served. Perceval (Parzival,
Parsifal), the Welsh Peredur, " the seeker of the basin," the most
intimately connected with the quest of the Grail (q.v.). Tristan
(Tristram), the ideal lover of the middle ages, whose name is
inseparably associated with that of Iseult. Lancelot, son of
Ban king of Brittany, a creation of chivalrous romance, who
only appears in Arthurian literature under French influence,
known chiefly from his amour with Guinevere, perhaps in
imitation of the story of Tristan and Iseult. Gawain (Welwain,
Welsh Gwalchmai), Arthur's nephew, who in medieval romance
remains the type of knightly courage and chivalry, until his
character is degraded in order to exalt that of Lancelot. Among
less important, but still conspicuous, figures may be mentioned
Kay (the Kai of the Mabinogion), Arthur's foster-brother and
sensechal, the type of the bluff and boastful warrior, and Bedivere
(Bedwyr), the type of brave knight and faithful retainer, who
alone is with Arthur at his passing, and afterwards becomes
" a hermit and a holy man." (See ARTHUR, MERLIN, PERCEVAL,
TRISTAN, LANCELOT, GAWAIN.)
Heroes of Romance.
Another series of heroes, forming the central figures of stories
variously derived but developed in Europe by the Latin-speaking
peoples, may be conveniently grouped under the heading
of " romance." Of these the most important are Alexander
of Macedon and Charlemagne, while alongside of them Priam
and other heroes of the Trojan war appear during the middle ages
in strangely altered guise. Of all heroes of romance Alexander
has been the most widely celebrated. His name, in the form of
Iskander, is familiar in legend and story all over the East to this
day; to the West he was introduced through a Latin translation
of the original Greek romance (by the pseudo-Callisthenes)
to which the innumerable Oriental versions are likewise traceable
(see ALEXANDER III., KING OF MACEDON; sec. The Romance of
Alexander). More important in the West, however, was the
cycle of legends gathering round the figure of Charlemagne,
forming what was known as " the matter of France." The
romances of this cycle, of Germanic (Prankish) origin and
developed probably in the north of France by the French
(probably in the north of France) contain reminiscences
of the heroes of the Merovingian period, and in their later
development were influenced by the Arthurian cycle. Just
as Arthur was eclipsed by his companions, so Charlemagne's
vassal nobles, except in the Chanson de Roland, are exalted at
the expense of the emperor, probably the result of the changed
relations between the later emperors and their barons. The
character of Charlemagne himself undergoes a change; in the
Chanson de Roland he is a venerable figure, mild and dignified,
while later he appears as a cruel and typical tyrant (as is also the
case with Ermanaric). The basis of his legend is mainly histori-
cal, although the story of his journey to Constantinople and the
East is mythical, and incidents have been transferred from the
reign of Charles Martel to his. Charlemagne is chiefly venerated as
the champion of Christianity against the heathen and the Saracens.
(See CHARLEMAGNE, ad fin. " The Charlemagne Legends.")
The most famous heroes who are associated with him are
Roland, praefect of the marches of Brittany, the Orlando of
Ariosto, slain at Roncevaux (Roncevalles) in the Pyrenees,
and his friend and rival Oliver (Olivier); Ogier the Dane, the
Holger Danske of Hans Andersen, and Huon of Bordeaux,
probably both introduced from the Arthurian cycle; Renaud
(Rinaldo) of Montauban, one of the four sons of Aymon, to
HERO AND LEANDER HERO OF ALEXANDRIA
whom the wonderful horse Bayard was presented by Charlemagne ;
the traitor Doon of Mayence; Ganelon, responsible for the
treachery that led to the death of Roland; Archbishop Turpin,
a typical specimen of muscular Christianity; William Fierabras,
William au court nez, William of Toulouse, and William of
Orange (all probably identical), and Vivien, the nephew of the
latter and the hero of Aliscans. The late Charlemagne romances
originated the legends, in English form, of Sowdoneof Babylone,
Sir Otnel, Sir Firumbras and Huon of Bordeaux (in which Oberon,
the king of the fairies, the son of Julius Caesar and Morgan the
Fay, was first made known to England).
The chief remains of the Spanish heroic epic are some poems
on the Cid, on the seven Infantes of Lara, and on Fern&n
Gonzalez, count of Castile. The legend of Charlemagne as told
in the Crdnica general of Alfonso X. created the desire for a
national hero distinguished for his exploits against the Moors,
and Roland was thus supplanted by Bernardo del Carpio.
Another famous hero and centre of a 14th-century cycle of
romance was Amadis of Gaul; its earliest form is Spanish,
although the Portuguese have claimed it as a translation from
their own language. There is no trace of a French original.
Slavonic Heroes. The Slavonic heroic saga of Russia centres
round Vladimir of Kiev (980-1015), the first Christian ruler
of that country, whose personality is eclipsed by that of Ilya
(Elias) of Mourom, the son of a peasant, who was said to have
saved the empire from the Tatars at the urgent request of his
emperor. It is not known whether he was an historical personage ;
many of the achievements attributed to him border on the
miraculous. A much-discussed work is the Tale of Igor, the oldest
of the Russian medieval epics. Igor was the leader of a raid
against the heathen Polovtsi in 1185; at first successful, he was
afterwards defeated and taken prisoner, but finally managed
to escape. Although the Finns are not Slavs, on topographical
grounds mention may here be made of Wainamoinen, the great
magician and hero of the Finnish epic Kalevala (" land of
heroes "). The popular hero of the Servians and Bulgarians is
Marko Kralyevich (q.v.), son of Vukashin, characterized by
Goethe as a -counterpart of the Greek Heracles and the Persian
Rustem. For the Persian, Indian, &c., heroes see the articles on
the literature and religions of the various countries.
AUTHORITIES. On the subject generally, see J. G. T. Grasse, Die
grossen Sagenkreise des Miltelalters (Dresden, 1842), forming part of
his Lehrbuch einer Literargeschichte der beruhmtesten Volker des
Mittelalters; W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance (2nd ed., 1908). TEU-
TONIC. B. Symons, " Germanische Heldensage " in H. Paul's
Grundris der germanischen Philologie, iii. (Strassburg, 1900), 2nd
revised edition, separately printed (ib., 1905); W. Grimm, Die
deutsche Heldensage (1829, 3rd ed., 1889), still one of the most
important works; W. Miiller, Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage
(Heilbronn, 1886) and supplement, Zur Mythologie der griechischen
und deutschen Heldensage (ib., 1889); O. L. Jiriczek, Deutsche
Heldensagen, i. (Strassburg, 1898) and Die deutsche Heldensage
(3rd revised edition, Leipzig, 1906) ; Chantepie de la Saussaye, The
Religion of the Teutons (Eng. tr., Boston, U.S.A., 1902) ; J. G.
Robertson, History of German Literature (1902). See also HELDEN-
BUCH.
CELTIC. M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Cours de lUlerature
celtiaue (12 vols., 1883-1902), one vol. trans, into English by R. I.
Best, The Irish Mythological Cycle and Celtic Mythology (1903) ;
L. Petit de Julleville, Hist, de la langue et de la lilt, franfaise, i.
Moyen Age (1896); C. Squire, The Mythology of the British Isles:
an Introduction to Celtic Myth and Romance (1905); J. Rhys, Celtic
Britain (3rd ed., 1904). SLAVONIC. A. N. Rambaud, La Russie
epique (1876); W. Wollner, Untersuchungen iiber die Volksepik der
Grossrussen (1879); W. R. Morfill, Slavonic Literature (1883).
HERO AND LEANDER, two lovers celebrated in antiquity.
Hero, the beautiful priestess of Aphrodite at Sestos, was seen by
Leander, a youth of Abydos, at the celebration of the festival
of Aphrodite and Adonis. He became deeply enamoured of
her; but, as her position as priestess and the opposition of her
parents rendered their marriage impossible they agreed to carry
on a clandestine intercourse. Every night Hero placed a lamp
in the top of the tower where she dwelt by the sea, and Leander,
guided by it, swam across the dangerous Hellespont. One
stormy night the lamp was blown out and Leander perished.
On finding his body next morning on the shore, Hero flung
herself into the waves. The story is referred to by Virgil (Georg.
iii. 258), Statius (Theb. vi. 535) and Ovid (Her. xviii. and xix.).
The beautiful little epic of Musaeus has been frequently trans-
lated, and is expanded in the Hero and Leander of C. Marlowe
and G. Chapman. It is also the subject of a ballad by Schiller
and a drama by F. Grillparzer.
See M. H. Jellinek, Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Dichtung
(1890), and G. Knaack " Hero und Leander " in Festgabe fur Franz
Susemihl (1898). A careful collection of materials will be found in
F. Koppner, Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der Lileratur und
Kunst des Altertums (1894).
HERO OF ALEXANDRIA, Greek geometer and writer on
mechanical and physical subjects, probably flourished in the
second half of the ist century. This is the more modern view,
in contrast to the earlier theory most generally accepted, according
to which he flourished about 100 B.C. The earlier theory started
from the superscription of one of his works, "Ilpuvos Krncnfliov
j3t\oirouKa, from which it was inferred that Hero was a pupil of
Ctesibius. Martin, Hultsch and Cantor took this Ctesibius to be
a barber of that name who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes
II. (d. 117 B.C.) and is credited with having invented an improved
water-organ. But this identification is far from certain, as a
Ctesibius mechanicus is mentioned by Athenaeus as having lived
under Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). Nor can the
relation of master and pupil be certainly inferred from the super-
scription quoted (observe the omission of any article), which
really asserts no more than that Hero re-edited an earlier treatise
by Ctesibius, and implies nothing about his being an immediate
predecessor. Further, it is certain that Hero used physical and
mathematical writings by Posidonius, the Stoic, of Apamea,
Cicero's teacher, who lived until about the middle of the ist
century B.C. The positive arguments for the more modern view
of Hero's date are (i) the use by him of Latinisms from which
Diels concluded that the ist century A.D. was the earliest pos-
sible date, (2) the description in Hero's Mechanics iii. of a small
olive-press with one screw whiifli is alluded to by Pliny (Nat.
Hist, viii.) as having been introduced since A.D. 55, (3) an
allusion by Plutarch (who died A.D. 120) to the proposition that
light is reflected from a surface at an angle equal to the angle of
incidence, which Hero proved in his Catoptrica, the words used
by Plutarch fitting well with the corresponding passage of that
work (as to which see below) . Thus we arrive at the latter half of
the ist century A.D. as the approximate date of Hero's activity.
The geometrical treatises which have survived (though not
interpolated) in Greek are entitled respectively Defmitiones,
Geometria, Geodaesia, Stereometrica (i. and ii.), Mensurae, Liber
Geoponicus, to which must now be added the Melrica recently dis-
covered by R. Schone in a MS. at Constantinople. These books,
except the Definitiones, mostly consist of directions for obtaining,
from given parts, the areas or volumes, and other parts, of plane or
solid figures. A remarkable feature is the bare statement of a
number of very close approximations to the square roots of
numbers which are not complete squares. Others occur in the
Melrica where also a method of finding such approximate square,
and even approximate cube, roots is shown. Hero's expressions
for the areas of regular polygons of from 5 to 12 sides in terms of
the squares of the sides show interesting approximations to the
values of trigonometrical ratios. Akin to the geometrical works
is that On the Dioplra, a remarkable book on land-surveying,
so called from the instrument described in it, which was used for
the same purposes as the modern theodolite. It is in this book
that Hero proves the expression for the area of a triangle in
terms of its sides. The Pneumalica in two books is also extant in
Greek as is also the Aulomalopoietica. In the former will be
found such things as siphons, " Hero's fountain," " penny-in-the-
slot " machines, a fire-engine, a water-organ, and arrangements
employing the force of steam. Pappus quotes from three books
of Mechanics and from a work called Barulcus, both by Hero.
The three books on Mechanics survive in an Arabic translation
which, however, bears a title "On the lifting of heavy objects."
This corresponds exactly to Barulcus, and it is probable that
Barulcus and Mechanics were only alternative titles for one and
the same work. It is indeed not credible that Hero wrote two
HERO HEROD
379
separate treatises on the subject of the mechanical powers,
which are fully discussed in the Mechanics, ii., iii. The Belopoiica
(on engines of war) is extant in Greek, and both this and the
Mechanics contain Hero's solution of the problem of the two
mean proportionals. Hero also wrote Ca'toptrica (on reflecting
surfaces), and it seems certain that we possess this in a Latin
work, probably translated from the Greek by Wilhelm van
Moerbeek, which was long thought to be a fragment of
Ptolemy's Optics, because it bore the title Plolemaei de speculis
in the MS. But the attribution to Ptolemy was shown to be
wrong as soon as it was made clear (especially by Martin) that
another translation by an Admiral Eugenius Siculus (izth
century) of an optical work from the Arabic was Ptolemy's
Optics. Of other treatises by Hero only fragments remain. One
was four books on Water Clocks (Hepl vdpluv upoaKom'uiiv), of
which Proclus (Hypotyp. astron., ed. Halma) has preserved a
fragment, and to which Pappus also refers. Another work was a
commentary on Euclid (referred to by the Arabs as " the book of
the resolution of doubts in Euclid ") from which quotations have
survived in an-NairizI's commentary.
The Pneumatica, Automatopoietica, Belopoiica and Cheiroballistra
of Hero were published in Greek and Latin in Th6venot's Veterum
mathematicorum opera graece et latine pleraque nunc primum edita
(Paris, 1693); the first important critical researches on Hero
were G. B. Venturi's Commentari sopra la storia e la teoria del-
I'oUica (Bologna, 1814) and H. Martin's " Recherches sur la vie et les
ouvrages d'Hdron d'Alexandrie disciple de Ct&ibius et sur tous les
ouvrages math6matiques grecs conserves ou perdus.publids ou ine'dits,
qui ont e'te' attribu<5s a un auteur nomm6 H6ron " (Mem. presentes a
l"Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, i. serie, iv., 1854). The
geometrical works (except of course the Metrica) were edited (Greek
only) by F. Hultsch (Heronis Alcxandrini geomelricorum et stereo-
metricorum reliquiae, 1864), the Dioptra by Vincent (Extraits des
manuscrits relatifs d la geometric pratique des Grecs, Notices et extraits
des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Imperiale, xix. 2, 1858), the
treatises on Engines of War by C. Wescher (Poliorcetique des Grecs,
Paris, 1867). The Mechanics was first published by Carra de Vaux
in the Journal asiatique (ix. serie, ii., 1893). In 1899 began the
publication in Teubner's series of Heronis Alexandrini opera quae
supersunt omnia. Vol. i. and Supplement (by W. Schmidt) contains
the Pneumatica and Automata, the fragment on Water Clocks, the
De ingeniis spir.itualibus of Philon of Byzantium and extracts on
Pneumatics by Vitruyius. Vol. ii. pt. i., by L. Nix and W. Schmidt,
contains the Mechanics in Arabic, Greek fragments of the same, the
Catoptrica in Latin with appendices of extracts from Olympiodorus,
Vitruvius, Pliny, &c. Vol. iii. (by Hermann Schone) contains the
Metrica (in three books) and the Dioptra. A German translation is
added throughout. The approximation to square roots in Hero
has been the subject of papers too numerous to mention. But
reference should be made to the exhaustive studies on Hero's
arithmetic by Paul Tannery, " L'Arithme'tique des Grecs dans H6ron
d'Alexandrie " (Mem. dela Soc. des sciences phys. etmath. de Bordeaux,
ii. serie, iv., 1882), " La Stere'ome'trie d'Heron d'Alexandrie " and
" Etudes Heroniennes (ibid, v., 1883), " Questions H6roniennes "
' (Bulletin des sciences math., ii. sdrie, viii., 1884), " Un Fragment des
Mdtriques d'Heron " (Zeitschrift fur Math, und Physik, xxxix., 5894;
Bulletin des sciences math., ii. se'rie, xviii., 1894). A good account
of Hero's works will be found in M. Cantor's Geschichte der Mathe-
matik, i. 2 (1894), chapters 18 and 19, and in G. Loria's studies, Le
Scienze esatte nell' antica Grecia, especially libro iii. (Modena, 1900),
pp. 103-128. (T. L. H.)
HERO, THE YOUNGER, the name given without any sufficient
reason to a Byzantine land-surveyor who wrote (about A.D. 938)
a treatise on land-surveying modelled on the works of Hero of
Alexandria, especially the Dioptra.
See " Geodesic de Heron de Byzance," published by Vincent in
Notires et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Imperiale, xix. 2
(Paris, 1858), and T. H. Martin in Memoires presentes a I' Academie
des Inscriptions, 1st series, iv. (Paris, 1854).
HEROD, the name borne by the princes of a dynasty which
reigned in Judaea from 40 B.C.
HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT), the son of Antipater, who
supported Hyrcanus II. against Aristobulus II. with the aid first
of the Nabataean Arabs and then of Rome. The family seems to
have been of Idumaean origin, so that its members were liable to
the reproach of being half- Jews or even foreigners. Justin Martyr
has a tradition that they were originally Philistines of Ascalon
(Dial. c. 52), and on the other hand Nicolaus of Damascus (apud
Jos. Ant. xiv. i. 3) asserted that Herod, his royal patron, was
descended from the Jews who first returned from the Babylonian
Captivity. The tradition and the assertion are in all probability
equally fictitious and proceed respectively from the foes and the
friends of the Herodian dynasty.
Antipas (or Antipater), the father of Antipater, had been
governor of Idumaea under Alexander Jannaeus. His son allied
himself by marriage with the Arabian nobility and became the
real ruler of Palestine under Hyrcanus II. When Rome inter-
vened in Asia in the person of Pompey, the younger Antipater
realized her inevitable predominance and secured the friendship
of her representative. After the capture of Jerusalem in 63 B.C.
Pompey installed Hyrcanus, who was little better than a
figurehead, in the high-priesthood; and when in 55 B.C. the son
of Aristobulus renewed the civil war in Palestine, the Roman
governor of Syria in the exercise of his jurisdiction arranged a
settlement " in accordance with the wishes of Antipater " (Jos.
Ant. xiv. 6. 4). To this policy of dependence upon Rome
Antipater adhered, and he succeeded in commending himself to
Mark Antony and Caesar in turn. After the battle of Pharsalia
Caesar made him procurator and a Roman citizen.
At this point Herod appears on the scene as ruler of Galilee
(Jos. Ant. xiv. o. 2) appointed by his father at the age of fifteen
or, since he died at seventy, twenty-five. In spite of his youth he
soon found an opportunity of displaying his mettle; for he
arrested Hezekiah the arch-brigand, who had overrun the Syrian
border, and put him to death. The Jewish nobility at Jerusalem
seized upon this high-handed action as a pretext for satisfying
their jealousy of their Idumaean rulers. Herod was cited in the
name of Hyrcanus to appear before the Sanhedrin, whose pre-
rogative he had usurped in executing Hezekiah. He appeared
with a bodyguard, and the Sanhedrin was overawed. Only
Sameas, a Pharisee, dared to insist upon the legal verdict of con-
demnation. But the governor of Syria had sent a demand for
Herod's acquittal, and so Hyrcanus adjourned the trial and
persuaded the accused to abscond. Herod returned with an
army, but his father prevailed upon him to depart to Galilee
without wreaking his vengeance upon his enemies. About this
time (47-46 B.C.) he was created strategus of Coelesyria by the
provincial governor. The episode is important for the light
which it throws upon Herod's relations with Rome and with
the Jews.
In 44 B.C. Cassius arrived in Syria for the purpose of filling
his war-chest: Antipater and Herod collected the sum of money
at which the Jews of Palestine had been assessed. In 43 B.C.
Antipater was poisoned at the instigation of one Malichus, who
was perhaps a Jewish patriot animated by hatred of the Herods
and their Roman patrons.
With the connivance of Cassius Herod had Malichus assassin-
ated; but the country was in a state of anarchy, thanks to the
extortions of Cassius and the encroachments of neighbouring
powers. Antony, who became master of the East after Philippi,
was ready to support the sons of his friend Antipater; but he
was absent in Egypt when the Parthians invaded Palestine to
restore Antigonus to the throne of his father Aristobulus (40 B.C.) .
Herod escaped to Rome: the Arabians, his mother's people, had
repudiated him. Antony had made him tetrarch, and now with
the assent of Octavian persuaded the Senate to declare him king
of Judaea.
In 39 B.C. Herod returned to Palestine and, when the presence
of Antony put the reluctant Roman troops entirely at his disposal ,
he was able to lay siege to Jerusalem two years later. Secure of
the support of Rome he was concerned also to legitimize his
position in the eyes of the Jews by taking, for love as well as
policy, the Hasmonaean princess Mariamne to be his second wife.
Jerusalem was taken by storm; the Roman troops withdrew
to behead Antigonus the usurper at Antioch. In 37 B.C. Herod
was king of Judaea, being the client of Antony and the husband
of Mariamne.
The Pharisees, who dominated the bulk of the Jews, were
content to accept Herod's rule as a judgment of God. Hyrcanus
returned from his prison : mutilated, he could no longer hold
office as high-priest; but his mutilation probably gave him the
prestige of a martyr, and his influence whatever it was worth
3 8o
HERODAS
seems to have been favourable to the new dynasty. On the other
hand Herod's marriage with Mariamne brought some of his
enemies into his own household. He had scotched the faction
of Hasmonaean sympathizers by killing forty-five members of
the Sanhedrin and confiscating their possessions. But so long
as there were representatives of the family alive, there was always
a possible pretender to the throne which he occupied; and the
people had not lost their affection for their former deliverers.
Mariamne's mother used her position to further her plots for the
overthrow of her son-in-law; and she found an ally in Cleopatra
of Egypt, who was unwilling to be spurned by him, even if she
was not weary of his patron, Antony.
The events of Herod's reign indicate the temporary triumphs
of his different adversaries. His high-priest, a Babylonian,
was deposed in order that Aristobulus III., Mariamne's brother,
might hold the place to which he had some ancestral right.
But the enthusiasm with which the people received him at the
Feast of Tabernacles convinced Herod of the danger; and the
youth was drowned by order of the king at Jericho. Cleopatra
had obtained from Antony a grant of territory adjacent to
Herod's domain and even part of it. She required Herod to
collect arrears of tribute. So it fell out that, when Octavian and
the Senate declared war against Antony and Cleopatra, Herod
was preoccupied in obedience to her commands and was thus
prevented from fighting against the future emperor of Rome.
After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Herod executed Hyrcanus
and proceeded to wait upon the victorious Octavian at Rhodes.
His position was confirmed and his territories were restored.
On his return he took in hand to heal with the Hasmonaeans,
and in 25 B.C. the old intriguers, their victims like Mariamne,
and all pretenders were dead. From this time onwards Herod
was free to govern Palestine, as a client-prince of the Roman
Empire should govern his kingdom. In order to put down the
brigands who still infested the country and to check the raids
of the Arabs on the frontier, he built or rebuilt fortresses, which
were of material assistance to the Jews in the great revolt against
Rome. Within and without Judaea he erected magnificent
buildings and founded cities. He established games in honour
of the emperor after the ancient Greek model in Caesarea and
Jerusalem and revived the splendour of the Olympic games.
At Athens and elsewhere he was commemorated as a benefactor;
and as Jew and king of the Jews he restored the temple at
Jerusalem. The emperor recognized his successful government
by putting the districts of Ulatha and Panias under him in 20 B.C.
But Herod found new enemies among the members of his
household. His brother Pheroras and sister Salome plotted for
their own advantage and against tht two sons of Mariamne.
The people still cherished a loyalty to the Hasmonaean lineage,
although the young princes were also the sons of Herod. The
enthusiasm with which they were received fed the suspicion,
which their uncle instilled into their father's mind, and they
were strangled at Sebaste. On his deathbed Herod discovered
that his eldest son, Antipater, whom Josephus calls a " monster
of iniquity," had been plotting against him. He proceeded to
accuse him before the governor of Syria and obtained leave
from Augustus to put him to death. The father died five days
after his son in 4 B.C. He had done much for the Jews, thanks
to the favour he had won and kept in spite of all from the
successive heads of the Roman state; he had observed the
Law publicly in fact, as the traditional epigram of Augustus
says, " it was better to be Herod's swine than a son of Herod."
Josephus, Ant. xv., xvi., xvii. 1-8, B.J. i. 18-33; Schurer, Gesch.
d.jiid. Volk., 4th ed., i. pp. 360-418.
HEROD ANTIPAS, son of Herod the Great by the Samaritan
Malthace, and full brother of Archelaus, received as his share
of his father's dominions the provinces of Galilee and Peraea,
with the title of tetrarch. Like his father, Antipas had a turn
for architecture: he rebuilt and fortified the town of Sepphoris
in Galilee; he also fortified Betharamptha in Peraea, and called
it Julias after the wife of the emperor. Above all he founded the
important town of Tiberias on the west shore of the Sea of Galilee,
with institutions of a distinctly Greek character. He reigned
4 B.C.-A.D. 39. In the gospels he is mentioned as Herod. He
it was who was called a " fox " by Christ (Luke xiii. 32). He is
erroneously spoken of as a king in Mark vi. 14. It was to him
that Jesus was sent by Pilate to be tried. But it is in connexion
with his wife Herodias that he is best known, and it was through
her that his misfortunes arose. He was married first of all to a
daughter of Aretas, the Arabian king; but, making the acquaint-
ance of Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip (not the tetrarch),
during a visit to Rome, he was fascinated by her and arranged
to marry her. Meantime his Arabian wife discovered the plan
and escaped to her father, who made war on Herod, and com-
pletely defeated his army. John the Baptist condemned his
marriage with Herodias, and in consequence was put to death
in the way described in the gospels and in Josephus. When
Herodias's brother Agrippa was appointed king by Caligula, she
was determined to see her husband attain to an equal eminence,
and persuaded him, though naturally of a quiet and unambitious
temperament, to make the journey to Rome to crave a crown
from the emperor. Agrippa, however, managed to influence
Caligula against him. Antipas was deprived of his dominions
and banished to Lyons, Herodias voluntarily sharing his exile.
HEROD PHILIP, son of Herod the Great by Cleopatra of
Jerusalem, received the tetrarchate of Ituraea and other districts
to E. and N.E. of the Lake of Galilee, the poorest part of his
father's kingdom. His subjects were mainly Greeks or Syrians,
and his coins bear the image of Augustus or Tiberius. He is
described as an excellent ruler, who loved peace and was careful
to maintain justice, and spent his time in his own territories.
He was also a builder of cities, one of which was Caesarea Philippi,
and another was Bethsaida, which he called Julias. He died after
a reign of thirty-seven years (4 B.C.-A.D. 34); and his dominions
were incorporated in the province of Syria. (J. H. A. H.)
HERODAS .(Gr. 'Hp<j)6as), or HERONDAS (the name is spelt
differently in the few places where he is mentioned), Greek poet,
the author of short humorous dramatic scenes in verse, written
under the Alexandrian empire in the 3rd century B.C. Apart
from the intrinsic merit of these pieces, they are interesting in the
history of Greek literature as being a new species, illustrating
Alexandrian methods. They are called Mijua/a/3ot, " Mime-
iambics." Mimes were the Dorian product of South Italy and
Sicily, and the most famous of them from which Plato is said
to have studied the drawing of character were the work of
Sophron. These were scenes in popular life, written in the
language of the people, vigorous with racy proverbs such as we
get in other reflections of that region in Petronius and the
Pentamerone. Two of the best known and the most vital
among the Idylls of Theocritus, the 2nd and the i5th, we know
to have been derived from mimes of Sophron. What Theocritus
is doing there, Herodas, his younger contemporary, is doing
in another manner casting old material into novel form, upon a
small scale, under strict conditions of technique. The method
is entirely Alexandrian: Sophron had written in a peculiar kind
of rhythmical prose; Theocritus uses the hexameter and Doric,
Herodas the season or " lame" iambic (with a dragging spondee
at the end) and the old Ionic dialect with which that curious
metre was associated. That, however, hardly goes beyond the
choice and form of words; the structure of the sentences is
close-knit Attic. But the grumbling metre and quaint language
suit the tone of common life which Herodas aims at realizing;
for, as Theocritus may be called idealist, Herodas is a realist
unflinching. His persons talk in vehement exclamations and
emphatic turns of speech, with proverbs and fixed phrases;
and occasionally, where it is designed as proper to the part, with
the most naked coarseness of expression.
The scene of the second and the fourth is laid at Cos, and the
speaking characters in each are never more than three. In
Mime I. the old nurse, now the professional go-between or bawd,
calls on Metriche, whose husband has been long away in Egypt,
and endeavours to excite her interest in a most desirable young
man, fallen deeply in love with her at first sight. After hearing
all the arguments Metriche declines with dignity, but consoles the
old woman with an ample glass of wine, this kind being always
HERODIANS HERODOTUS
represented with the taste of Mrs Gamp. II. is a monologue by
the IlopvopoaKos (" Whoremonger ") prosecuting a merchant-
trader for breaking into his establishment at night and attempt-
ing to carry off one of the inmates, who is produced in court.
The vulgar blackguard, who is a stranger to any sort of shame,
remarking that he has no evidence to call, proceeds to a perora-
tion in the regular oratorical style, appealing to the Coan judges
not to be unworthy of their traditional glories. In fact, the
whole oration is also a burlesque in every detail of an Attic
speech at law; and in this case we have the material from which
to estimate the excellence of the parody. In III. a desperate
mother brings to the schoolmaster a truant urchin, with whom
neither she nor his incapable old father can do anything. In a
voluble stream of interminable sentences she narrates his mis-
deeds and implores the schoolmaster to flog him. The boy
accordingly is hoisted on another's back and flogged; but his
spirit does not appear to be subdued, and the mother resorts
to the old man after all. IV. is a visit of two poor women with
an offering to the temple of Asclepius at Cos. While the humble
cock is being sacrificed, they turn, like the women in the Ion of
Euripides, to admire the works of art; among them a small boy
strangling a vulpanser doubtless the work of Boethus that we
know and a sacrificial procession by Apelles, " the Ephesian,"
of whom we have an interesting piece of contemporary eulogy.
The oily sacristan is admirably painted in a few slight strokes.
V. brings us very close to some unpleasant facts of ancient life.
The jealous woman accuses one of her slaves, whom she has
made her favourite, of infidelity; has him bound and sent
degraded through the town to receive 2000 lashes; no sooner is
he out of sight than she recalls him to be branded " at one job."
The only pleasing person in the piece is the little maidservant
permitted liberties as a iierna brought up in the house whose
ready tact suggests to her mistress an excuse for postponing
execution of a threat made in ungovernable fury. VI. is a
friendly chat or a private conversation. The subject is an ugly
one, but the dialogue is as clever and amusing as the rest, with
some delicious touches. Our interest is engaged here in a certain
Kerdon, the artistic shoemaker, to whom we are introduced in
VII. (the name had already become generic for the shoemaker
as the typical representative of retail trade), a little bald man with
a fluent tongue, complaining of hard times, who bluffs and
wheedles by turns. VII. opens with a mistress waking up her
maids to listen to her dream; but we have only the beginning,
and the other fragments are very short.
Within the limits of 100 lines or less Herodas presents us with
a highly entertaining scene and with characters definitely drawn.
Some of these had been perfected no doubt upon the Attic stage,
where the tendency in the 4th century had been gradually to
evolve accepted types not individuals, but generalizations
from a class, an art in which Menander's was esteemed the
master-hand. The Hopvofto&Kos and the Maorpoiros we can
piece together from succeeding literature, and see how skilfully
the established traits are indicated here. This is achieved by
true dramatic means, with .touches never wasted and the more
delightful often because they do not clamour for attention.
The execution has the qualities of first-rate Alexandrian work
in miniature, such as the. epigrams of Asclepiades possess, the
finish and firm outlines; and these little pictures bear the test
of all artistic work they do not lose their freshness with
familiarity, and gain in interest as one learns to appreciate their
subtle points.
The papyrus MS., obtained from the Fayum, is in the possession of
the British Museum, and was first printed by F. G. Kenyon in 1891.
Editions by O. Crusius (1905, text only, in Teubner series) and
J. A. Nairn (1904), with introduction, notes and bibliography.
There is an English verse translation of the mimes by H. Snarpley
(1906) under the title A Realist of the Aegean. (W. G. H.)
HERODIANS ('Hpudiavoi), a sect or party mentioned in
Scripture as having on two occasions once in Galilee, and again
in Jerusalem manifested an unfriendly disposition towards
Jesus (Mark iii. 6, xii. 13; Matt. xxii. 6; cf. also Mark viii. 15).
In each of these cases their name is coupled with that of the
Pharisees. According to many interpreters the courtiers or
soldiers of Herod Antipas (" Milites Herodis," Jerome) are
intended; but more probably the Herodians were a public
political party, who distinguished themselves from the two great
historical parties of post -exilian Judaism by the fact that they
were and had been sincerely friendly to Herod the Great and to
his dynasty (cf. such formations as " Caesarian!," " Pom-
peiani "). It is possible that, to gain adherents, the Herodian
party may have been in the habit of representing that the
establishment of a Herodian dynasty would be favourable to
the realization of the theocracy; and this in turn may account
for Tertullian's (De praescr.) allegation that the Herodians
regarded Herod himself as the Messiah. The sect was called
by the Rabbis Boethusians as being friendly to the family of
Boethus, whose daughter Mariamne was one of Herod the
Great's wives. (J. H. A. H.)
HERODIANUS, Greek historian, flourished during the third
century A.D. He is supposed to have been a Syrian Greek.
In 203 he was in Rome, where he held some minor posts. He does
not appear to have attained high official rank; the statement
that he was imperial procurator and legate of the Sicilian pro-
vinces rests upon conjecture only. His historical work ('Hp<o5ia-
vov TTJS fitTO. Map/cop /3a(uXtas laTopi&v /3ift\ia OKTCO) narrates
the events of the fifty-eight years between the death of Marcus
Aurelius and the proclamation of Gordianus III. (180-238).
The narrative is of special value as supplementing Dion Cassius,
whose history ends with Alexander Severus. His work has
the value that attaches to a record written by one chronicling
the events of his own times, gifted with ordinary powers of
observation, indubitable candour and independence of view.
But while he gives a lively account of external events such as
the death of Commodus and the assassination of Pertinax
the barbarian invasions, the spread of Christianity, the extension
of the franchise by Caracalla are unnoticed. The dates are often
wrong, and little attention is paid to geographical details, which
makes the narrative of milita/y expeditions beyond the borders
of the empire difficult to understand. Herodian has been accused
of prejudice against Alexander Severus. His style, modelled
on that of Thucydides and unreservedly praised by Photius, is
on the whole pure, though somewhat rhetorical and showing a
fondness for Latinisms.
Extensive use has been made of Herodianus by later chroniclers,
especially the " Scriptores historiae Augustae " and John of Antioch.
His history was first translated into Latin at the end of the I5th
century by Politian. The most complete edition is by G. W. Irmisch
(1789-1805), with elaborate indices, but the notes are very diffuse;
critical editions by I. Bekker (1855), L. Mendelssohn (1883); see
also C. Dandliker.
HERODIANUS, AELIUS, called 6 Tx"tx6s, Alexandrian
grammarian, flourished in the and century A.D. He early took
up his residence at Rome, where he enjoyed the patronage of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180), to whom he dedicated his great
treatise on prosody. This work in twenty-one books (KotfoXuo)
irpoa&dia) included also an account of the etymological part of
grammar. The work itself is lost, but several epitomes of it have
been preserved. His 'Eiri/nepw/xoi dealt with difficult words
and peculiar forms in Homer. Herodianus also wrote numerous
grammatical treatises, of which only one has come down to us in a
complete form (Ilept povripovs Xeos, on peculiar style), articles
on exceptional or anomalous words. Numerous quotations and
fragments still exist, chiefly in the Homeric scholiasts and
Stephanus of Byzantium. Herodianus enjoyed a great reputation
as a grammarian, and Priscian styles him " maximus auctor
artis grammaticae."
The best edition is by A. Lentz, Herodiani Technici reliquiae
(18671870); a supplementary volume is included in Uhling's Corpus
grammaticorum Graecorum; for further bibliographical information
see W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Literalur (1898).
HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.), Greek historian, called the
Father of History, was born-at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, then
dependent upon the Persians, in or about the year 484 B.C.
Herodotus was thus born a Persian subject, and such he con j
tinued until he was thirty or five-and-thirty years of age. At the
time of his birth Halicarnassus was under the rule of a queen
HERODOTUS
Artemisia (?..) The year of her death is unknown; but she
left her crown to her son Pisindelis (born about 498 B.C.), who
was succeeded upon the throne by his son Lygdamis about the
time that Herodotus grew to manhood. The family of Herodotus
belonged to the upper rank of the citizens. His father was
named Lyxes, and his mother Rhaeo, or Dryo. He had a brother
Theodore, and an uncle or cousin Panyasis (q.v.), the epic poet,
a personage of so much importance that the tyrant Lygdamis,
suspecting him of treasonable projects, put him to death.
It is probable that Herodotus shared his relative's political
opinions, and either was exiled from Halicarnassus or quitted
it voluntarily at the time of his execution.
Of the education of Herodotus no more can be said than that it
was thoroughly Greek, and embraced no doubt the three subjects
essential to a Greek liberal education grammar, gymnastic
training and music. His studies would be regarded as completed
when he attained the age of eighteen, and took rank among the
ephebi or eirenes of his native city. In a free Greek state he
would at once have begun his duties as a citizen, and found
therein sufficient employment for his growing energies. But in a
city ruled by a tyrant this outlet was wanting; no political life
worthy of the name existed. Herodotus may thus have had his
thoughts turned to literature as furnishing a not unsatisfactory
career, and may well have been encouraged in his choice by the
example of Panyasis, who had already gained a reputation by his
writings when Herodotus was still an infant. At any rate it is
clear from the extant work of Herodotus that he must have
devoted himself early to the literary life, and commenced that
extensive course of reading which renders him one of the most
instructive as well as one of the most charming of ancient writers.
The poetical literature of Greece was already large; the prose
literature was more extensive than is generally supposed; yet
Herodotus shows an intimate acquaintance with the whole of it.
The Iliad and the Odyssey are as familiar to him as Shakespeare to
the educated Englishman. He is^icquainted with the poems of
the epic cycle, the Cypria, the Epigoni, &c. He quotes or other-
wise shows familiarity with the writings of Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus,
Bacis, Lysistratus, Archilochus of Paros, Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon,
Aesop, Aristeas of Proconnesus, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus,
Aeschylus and Pindar. He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the
best of the prose writers who had preceded him, and makes
numerous allusions to other authors of the same class.
It must not, however, be supposed that he was at any time a
mere student. It is probable that from an early age his inquiring
disposition led him to engage in travels, both in Greece and in
foreign countries. He traversed Asia Minor and European
Greece probably more than once; he visited all the most im-
portant islands of the Archipelago Rhodes, Cyprus, Delos, Paros,
Thasos, Samothrace, Crete, Samos, Cythera and Aegina. He
undertook the long and perilous journey from Sardis to the
Persian capital Susa, visited Babylon, Colchis, and the western
shores of the Black Sea as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he
travelled in Scythia and in Thrace, visited Zante and Magna
Graecia, explored the antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores
of Palestine, saw Gaza, and made a long stay in Egypt. At the
most moderate estimate, his travels covered a space of thirty-one
degrees of longitude, or 1700 miles, and twenty-four of latitude,
or nearly the same distance. At all the more interesting sites he
took up his abode for a time; he examined, he inquired, he made
measurements, he accumulated materials. Having in his mind
the scheme of his great work, he gave ample time to the elabora-
tion of all its parts, and took care to obtain by personal observation
a full knowledge of the various countries.
The travels of Herodotus seem to have been chiefly accomplished
between his twentieth and his thirty-seventh year (464-447 B.C.). 1
It was probably in his early manhood that as a Persian subject
he visited Susa and Babylon, taking advantage of the Persian
system of posts which he describes in his fifth book. His residence
1 The date of his travels is difficult to determine. E. Meyer
inclines to put all the longer journeys, except the Scythian, between
440 and 430 B.C. The journey to Susa and Babylon is put by
C. F. Lehmann c. 450 B.C., and by H. Stein before 450.
in Egypt must, on the other hand, have been subsequent to 460
B.C., since he saw the skulls of the Persians slain by Inarus in that
year. Skulls are rarely visible on a battlefield for more than two
or three seasons after the fight, and we may therefore presume
that it was during the reign of Inarus (460-454 B.C.), 2 when the
Athenians had great authority in Egypt, that he visited the
country, making himself known as a learned Greek, and therefore
receiving favour and attention on the part of the Egyptians, who
were so much beholden to his countrymen (see ATHENS, CIMON,
PERICLES). On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the
Syrian shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and from thence
to have gone to Thasos. His Scythian travels are thought to have
taken place prior to 450 B.C.
It is a question of some interest from what centre or centres
these various expeditions were made. Up to the time of the
execution of Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about
the year 457 B.C., there is every reason to believe that Herodotus
lived at Halicarnassus. His travels in Asia Minor, in European
Greece, and among the islands of the Aegean, probably belong to
this period, as also his journey to Susa and Babylon. We are
told that when he quitted Halicarnassus on account of the
tyranny of Lygdamis, in or about the year 457 B.C., he took up
his abode in Samos. That island was an important member of the
Athenian confederacy, and in making it his home Herodotus
would have put himself under the protection of Athens. The
fact that Egypt was then largely under Athenian influence (see
CIMON, PERICLES) may have induced him to proceed, in 457 or
456 B.C., to that country. The stories that he had heard in Egypt
of Sesostris may then have stimulated him to make voyages from
Samos to Colchis, Scythia and Thrace. He was thus acquainted
with almost all the regions which were to be the scene of his
projected history.
After Herodotus had resided for some seven or eight years in
Samos, events occurred in his native city which induced him to
return thither. The tyranny of Lygdamis had gone from bad
to worse, and at last he was expelled. According to Suidas,
Herodotus was himself an actor, and indeed the chief actor, in the
rebellion against him; but no other author confirms this state-
ment, which is intrinsically improbable. It is certain, however,
that Halicarnassus became henceforward a voluntary member of
the Athenian confederacy. Herodotus would now naturally
return to his native city, and enter upon the enjoyment of those
rights of free citizenship on which every Greek set a high value.
He would also, if he had by this time composed his history, or any
considerable portion of it, begin to make it known by recitation
among his friends. There is reason to believe that these first
attempts were not received with much favour, and that it was
in chagrin at his failure that he precipitately withdrew from his
native town, and sought a refuge in Greece proper (about 447
B.C.). 3 We learn that Athens was the place to which he went, and
that he appealed from the verdict of his countrymen to Athenian
taste and judgment. His work won such approval that in the
year 445 B.C., on the proposition of a certain Anytus, he was voted
a sum of ten talents (2400) by decree of the people. At one of
the recitations, it was said, the future historian Thucydides was
present with his father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst
into tears, whereupon Herodotus remarked to the father
" Olorus, your son has a natural enthusiasm for letters." 4
Athens was at this time the centre of intellectual life, and
could boast an almost unique galaxy of talent Pericles,
Thucydides the son of Melesias, Aspasia, Antiphon, the musician
Damon, Pheidias, Protagoras, Zeno, Cratinus, Crates, Euripides
and Sophocles. Accepted into th'is brilliant society, on familiar
terms with all probably, as' he certainly was with Olorus,
2 Most recent critics (e.g. Stein, Meyer, Busolt) put the visit to
Egypt after the suppression of the revolt under Inarusand Amyrtaeus
(i.e. after 449 B.C.), on the strength of Herod. 2. 30, which implies
the restoration of Persian authority.
3 Stein, Meyer, Busolt, and other recent writers attribute his
departure from Halicarnassus to political causes, e.g. the ascendancy
of the anti-Athenian party in the state.
* This story is on chronological grounds rejected by all recent
critics.
HERODOTUS
383
Thucydides and Sophocles, he must have been tempted, like many
another foreigner, to make Athens his permanent home. It is to
his credit that he did not yield to this temptation. At Athens
he must have been a dilettante, an idler, without political rights
or duties. As such he would have soon ceased to be respected
in a society where literature was not recognized as a separate
profession, where a Socrates served in the infantry, a Sophocles
commanded fleets, a Thucydides was general of an army, and an
Antiphon was for a time at the head of the state. Men were not
men according to Greek notions unless they were citizens; and
Herodotus, aware of this, probably sharing in the feeling, was
anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus; to
obtain such status elsewhere. At Athens the franchise, jealously
guarded at this period, was not to be attained without great
expense and difficulty. Accordingly, in the spring of the follow-
ing year he sailed from Athens with the colonists who went out
to found the colony of Thurii (see PERICLES), and became a
citizen of the new town.
From this point of his career, when he had reached the age
of forty, we lose sight of him almost wholly. He seems to have
made but few journeys, one to Crotona, one to Metapontum,
and one to Athens (about 430 B.C.) being all that his work
indicates. 1 No doubt he was employed mainly, as Pliny testifies,
in retouching and elaborating his general history. He may also
have composed at Thurii that special work on the history of
Assyria to which he twice refers in his first book, and which is
quoted by Aristotle. It has been supposed by many that he
lived to a great age, and argued that " the never-to-be-mistaken
fundamental tone of his performance is the quiet talkativeness
of a highly cultivated, tolerant, intelligent, old man " (Dahlmann).
But the indications derived from the later touches added to his
work, which form the sole evidence on the subject, would rather
lead to the conclusion that his life was not very prolonged.
There is nothing in the nine books which may not have been
written as early as 430 B.C.; there is no touch which, even
probably, points to a later date than 424 B.C. As the author was
evidently engaged in polishing his work to the last, and even
promises touches which he does not give, we may assume that
he did not much outlive the date last mentioned, or in other
words, that he died at about the age of sixty. The predominant
voice of antiquity tells us that he died at Thurii, where his tomb
was shown in later ages.
The History. In estimating the great work of Herodotus,
and his genius as its author, it is above all things necessary to
conceive aright what that work was intended to be. It has
been called " a universal history," " a history of the wars
between the Greeks and the barbarians," and " a history of
the struggle between Greece and Persia." But these titles are all
of them too comprehensive. Herodotus, who omits wholly
the histories of Phoenicia, Carthage and Etruria, three of the
most important among the states existing in his day, cannot have
intended to compose a " universal history," the very idea of
which belongs to a later age. He speaks in places as if his object
was to record the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians;
but as he omits the Trojan war, in which he fully believes,
the expedition of the Teucrians and Mysians against Thrace
and Thessaly, the wars connected with the Ionian colonization
of Asia Minor and others, it is evident that he does not really
aim at embracing in his narrative all the wars between Greeks
and barbarians with which he was acquainted. Nor does it
even seem to have been his object to give an account of the
entire struggle between Greece and Persia. That struggle was
not terminated by the battle of Mycale and the capture of Sestos
in 479 B.C. It continued for thirty years longer, to the peace
of Callias (but see CALLIAS and CIMON). The fact that Herodotus
ends his history where he does shows distinctly that his intention
1 Opinion is divided as to this visit to Athens after his settlement
at Thurii. Stein, Meyer and Busolt hold that much of his work
(especially the later books) was composed at Athens soon after 430
B.C. See further Wachsmuth, Rheinisches Museum, Ivi. (1901)
215-218. Macan, Herodotus VII. -IX. (Introduction, pp. xlv.-lxvi.,
seeks to prove that the last three books were the first part of the
Histories to be composed. He is followed in this view by Bury.
was, not to give an account of the entire long contest between
the two countries, but to write the history of a particular war
the great Persian war of invasion. His aim was as definite as
that of Thucydides, or Schiller, or Napier or any other writer
who has made his subject a particular war; only he determined
to treat it jn a certain way. Every partial history requires
an "introduction"; Herodotus, untrammelled by examples,
resolved to give his history a magnificent introduction. Thucy-
dides is content with a single introductory book, forming little
more than one-eighth of his work; Herodotus has six such books,
forming two-thirds of the entire composition.
By this arrangement he is enabled to treat his subject in
the grand way, which is so characteristic of him. Making it his
main object in his " introduction " to set before his readers the
previous history of the two nations who were the actors in the
great war, he is able in tracing their history to bring into his
narrative some account of almost all the nations of the known
world, and has room to expatiate freely upon their geography,
antiquities, manners and customs and the like, thus giving his
work a " universal " character, and securing for it, without
trenching upon unity, that variety, richness and fulness which
are a principal charm of the best histories, and of none more than
his. In tracing the growth of Persia from a petty subject
kingdom to a vast dominant empire, he has occasion to set out
the histories of Lydia, Media, Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Scythia,
Thrace, and to describe the countries and the peoples inhabiting
them, their natural productions, climate, geographical position,
monuments, &c. ; while, in noting the contemporaneous changes
in Greece, he is led to tell of the various migrations of the Greek
race, their colonies, commerce, progress in the arts, revolutions,
internal struggles, wars with one another, legislation, religious
tenets and the like. The greatest variety of episodical matter
is thus introduced; but the propriety of the occasion and the
mode of introduction are such that no complaint can be made;
the episodes never entangle, encumber or even unpleasantly
interrupt the main narrative.
It has been questioned, both in ancient and in modern times,
whether the history of Herodotus possesses the essential requisite
of trustworthiness. Several ancient writers accuse him of
intentional untruthfulness. Moderns generally acquit him of this
charge; but his severer critics still urge that, from the inherent
defects of his character, his credulity, his love of effect and his
loose and inaccurate habits of thought, he was unfitted for the
historian's office, and has produced a work of but small historical
value. Perhaps it may be sufficient to remark that the defects
in question certainly exist, and detract to some extent from the
authority of the work, more especially of those parts of it which
deal with remoter periods, and were taken by Herodotus on
trust from his informants, but that they only slightly affect
the portions which treat of later times and form the special
subject of his history. In confirmation of this view, it may be
noted that the authority of Herodotus for the circumstances
of the great Persian war, and for all local and other details which
come under his immediate notice, is accepted by even the most
sceptical of modern historians, and forms the basis of their
narratives.
Among the merits of Herodotus as an historian, the most
prominent are the diligence with which he collected his materials,
the candour and impartiality with which he has placed his facts
before the reader, the absence of party bias and undue national
vanity, and the breadth of his conception of the historian's
office. On the other hand, he has no claim to rank as a critical
historian; he has no conception of the philosophy of history,
no insight into the real causes that underlie political changes,
no power of penetrating below the surface, or even of grasping
the real interconnexion of the events which he describes. He
belongs distinctly to the romantic school; his forte is vivid and
picturesque description, the lively presentation of scenes and
actions, characters and states of society, not the subtle analysis
of motives, the power of detecting the undercurrents or the
generalizing faculty.
But it is as a writer that the merits of Herodotus are most
HEROET HEROIC ROMANCES
conspicuous. " O that I were in a condition," says Lucian
" to resemble Herodotus, if only in some measure! I by no means
say in all his gifts, but only in some single point ; as, for instance
the beauty of his language, or its harmony, or the natural and
peculiar grace of the Ionic dialect, or his fulness of thought, or by
whatever name those thousand beauties are called which to
the despair of his imitator are united in him." Cicero calls
his style " copious and polished," Quintilian, " sweet, pure
and flowing"; Longinus says he was "the most Homeric of
historians "; Dionysius, his countryman, prefers him to Thucy-
dides, and regards him as combining in an extraordinary degree
the excellences of sublimity, beauty and the true historical
method of composition. Modern writers are almost equally
complimentary. " The style of Herodotus," says one, " is
universally allowed to be remarkable for its harmony and
sweetness." " The charm of his style," argues another, " has
so dazzled men as to make them blind to his defects." Various
attempts have been made to analyse the charm which is so
universally felt; but it may be doubted whether any of them
are very successful. All, however, seem to agree that among
the qualities for which the style of Herodotus is to be admired
are simplicity, freshness, naturalness and harmony of rhythm.
Master of a form of language peculiarly sweet and euphonical,
and possessed of a delicate ear which instinctively suggested
the most musical arrangement possible, he gives his sentences,
without art or effort, the most agreeable flow, is never abrupt,
never too diffuse, much less prolix or wearisome, and being
himself simple, fresh, naif (if we may use the word), honest and
somewhat quaint, he delights us by combining with this melody of
sound simple, clear and fresh thoughts, perspicuously expressed,
often accompanied by happy turns of phrase, and always
manifestly the spontaneous growth of his own fresh and un-
sophisticated mind. Reminding us in some respects of the
quaint medieval writers, Froissart and Philippe de Comines,
he greatly excels them, at once in the beauty of his language
and the art with which he has combined his heterogeneous
materials into a single perfect harmonious whole. See also
GREECE, section History, " Authorities."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The history of Herodotus has been translated
by many persons and into many languages. About 1450, at the time
of the revival of learning, a Latin version was made and published
by Laurentius Valla. This was revised in 1537 by Heusbach, and
accompanies the Greek text of Herodotus in many editions. The
first complete translation into a modern language was the English
one of Littlebury, published in 1737. This was followed in 1786
by the French translation of Larcher, a valuable work, accompanied
by copious notes and essays. Bcloe, the second English translator,
based his work on that of Larcher. His first edition, in 1791, was
confessedly very defective; the second, in 1806, still left much to
be desired. A good German translation, but without note or com-
ment, was brought out by Friedrich Lange at Berlin in 181 1. Andrea
Mustoxidi, a native of Corfu, published an Italian version in 1820.
In 1822 Auguste Miot endeavoured to improve on Larcher; and in
1828-1832 Dr Adolf Scholl brought out a German translation with
copious notes (new ed., 1855), which has to some extent superseded
the work of Lange. About the same time a new English version
was made by Isaac Taylor (London, 1829). In i858-l86o,the history
of Herodotus was translated by Canon G. Rawlinson, assisted in
the copious notes and appendices accompanying the work by
Sir Gardner Wilkinson and Sir Henry Rawlinson. More recently
we have translations in English by G. C. Macaulay (2 vols., 1890);
in German by Biihr (Stuttgart, 1867) and Stein (Oldenburg, 1875);
in French by Giguet (1857) and Talbot (1864); in Italian by Ricci
(Turin, 1871-1876), Grandi (Asti, 1872) and Bertini (Naples, 1871-
1872). A Swedish translation by F. Carlstadt was published at
Stockholm in 1871.
The best of the older editions of the Greek text are the following:
Herodoti historiae, ed. Schweighauser (5 vols., Strassburg, 1816);
Herodoti Halicarnassei historiarum libri IX. (ed. Gaisford, Oxford,
1840); Herodotus, with a Commentary, by J. W. Blakesley (2 vols.,
London, 1854); Herodoti musae (ed. Biihr, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1856-
1861, 2nd ed.) ; and Herodoti historiae (ed. Abicht, Leipzig, 1869).
The most recent editions of the text, or of portions of it, with
and without commentaries are the following: H. Stein, Herodoti
Historiae (ed. Major, 2 vols., Berlin, 1869-1871, with apparatus
criticus; still the best edition of the text); H. Kellenberg, Histo-
riarum libri IX. (2 vols., Leipzig, 1887); van Herwerden, 'loropiai
(Leiden, 1885); H. Stein, Herodotus, erklart (Berlin, 1856-1861,
and several editions since; the best short commentary and intro-
duction); A. H. Sayce, The Ancient Empires of the East. Herodotus
I --II I-, with introductions and appendices (1883 ; an attempt to prove
the unveracity of Herodotus, especially in regard to the extent of his
travels, which has found little support amongst more recent English
or German writers); R. W. Macan, Herodotus IV. -VI. (2 vols
1895) and Herodotus VII. -IX. (2 vols., 1908), with exhaustive intro-
duction, appendices and notes; the only scientific edition of these
books in English ; E. Abbott, Herodotus V. and VI. (Oxford, 1893);
A. Wiedemann, Herodots zweites Buck mit sachlichen Bemerkungen
(Leipzig, 1890 ; the best and fullest commentary on book ii.).
Among works of value illustrative of Herodotus may be mentioned
Bpuhier, Recherches sur Herodote (Dijon, 1746); Rennell, Geography
of Herodotus (London, 1800); Niebuhr, Geography of Herodotus
and Scythia (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830); Dahlmann, Herodot,
aus semem Buche sein Leben (Altona, 1823); Eltz, Quaestiones
Herodoteae (Leipzig, 1841); Kenrick, Egypt of Herodotus (London,
1841); Mure, Literature of Greece, vol. iv. (London, 1852); Abicht,
Ubersicht ilber den Herodoteischen Dialekt (Leipzig, 1869, 3rd ed.,
1874), and De codicum Herodoti fide ac auctorilate (Naumburg
1869); Melander, De anacoluthis Herodoteis (Lund, 1860); Matzat,
" Uber die Glaubenswurdigkeit der geograph. Angaben Herodots
iiber Asien, m Hermes, vi. ; Biidinger, Zur agyplischen Forschung
Herodots (Vienna, 1873, reprinted from the Sitzungsber. of the Vienna
Acad.); Merzdorf, Quaestiones grammatical de dialecto Herodolea
(Leipzig, 1875); A. Kirchhoff, Uber die Entstehungszeit des Hero-
dohschen Geschichtswerkes (Berlin, 1878); Adolf Bauer, Herodots
Biographie (Vienna, 1878); H. Delbriick, Perser und Burgunder-
kriege (Berlin, 1887; of great importance for the criticism of tfie
Persian Wars); N. Wecklein, Uber die Tradition der Perserkriege
(Munich, 1876); A. Hauvette-Besnault, Herodote historien des
guerres mediques (Paris, 1894); J. A. R. Munro, Some Observations
on the Persian Wars (in various vols. of the Journal of Hellenic
Studies; acute and suggestive); G. B. Grundy, The Great Persian
War (London, 1901); J. P. Mahaffy, History of Greek Classical
Literature, ii. 16 ff. (London, 1880); E. Meyer, Forschungen zur
alien Geschichte, i. 151 ff., and ii. 196 ff. (Halle, 1892-1899); Busolt,
Griechische Geschichte, ii. 602 ff. (2nd ed., Gotha, 1895) ; J. B. Bury,
Ancient Greek Historians (1908), lecture 2. For notices of current
literature see Bursian's Jahresbericht. Students of the original may
also consult with advantage the lexicons of Aemilius Portus (Oxford,
1817) and of Schweighauser (London, 1824). On Herodotus' debt
to Hecataeus see Wells, in Journ. Hell. Stud., 1909, pt. i.
(G. R.;E. M. W.)
HlSROET, ANTOINE, surnamed LA MAISON-NEUVE (d. 1568),
French poet, was born in Paris of a family connected with the
famous chancellor, Francois Olivier. His poetry belongs to his
early years, for after he had taken orders he ceased to write
profane poetry, no doubt because he considered it out of keeping
with his calling, in which he attained the dignity of bishop of
Digue. His chief work is La Parfaicte ^4wye(Lyons,i542)inwhich
he developed the idea of a purely spiritual love, based chiefly on
the reading of the Italian Neo-Platonists. The book aroused
great controversy. La Borderie replied in L'Amye de cour with
a description of a very much more human woman, and Charles
Fontaine contributed a Contr' amye de cour to the dispute.
Heroet, in addition to some translations from the classics, wrote
the Complainle d'une dame nouvellement surprise d'amour, an
Epistre a Francois I", and some pieces included in the now
very rare Opuscules d'amour par Heroet, La Borderie et autres
divins poe'tes (Lyons, 1547). Heroet belongs to the Lyonnese
school of which Maurice Sceve may be regarded as the leader.
Clement Marot praises him, and Ronsard was careful to exempt
him with one or two others from the scorn he poured on his
immediate predecessors.
See H. F. Gary, The Early French Poets (1846).
HEROIC ROMANCES, the name by which is distinguished a
class of imaginative literature which flourished in the i7th
century, principally in France. The beginnings of modern
fiction in that country took a pseudo-bucolic form, and the cele-
brated Astree (1610) of Honore d'Urfe (1568-1625), which is the
earliest French novel, is properly styled a pastoral. But this
ingenious and diffuse production, in which all is artificial, was
the source of a vast literature, which took many and diverse
ms. Although its action was, in the main, languid and
sentimental, there was a side of the Astree which encouraged
that extravagant love of glory, that spirit of " panache," which
was now rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which
animated Marin le Roy, sieur de Gomberville (160x3-1674),
who was the inventor of what have since been known as the
Heroical Romances. In these there was experienced a violent
recrudescence of the old medieval elements of romance, the
HEROIC VERSE
385
impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible beauty,
but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere
of the age in which the books were written. In order to give
point to the chivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always
hinted that they were well-known public characters of the day
in a romantic disguise.
In the Astree of Honore d'Urfe, which was a pure pastoral,
in the religious romances of Pierre Camus (1582-1653), in the
comic Francion of Charles Sorel, piquancy had been given to
the recital by this belief that real personages could be recognized
under the disguises. But in the Carithee of Gomberville (1621)
we have a pastoral which is already beginning to be a heroic
romance, arid a book in which, under a travesty of Roman
history, an appeal is made to an extravagantly chivalrous
enthusiasm. A further development was seen in the Polyxene
(1623) of Frangois de Moliere, and the Endymion (1624) of
Gombauld; in the latter the elderly queen, Marie de' Medici,
was celebrated under the disguise of Diana, for whom a beautiful
shepherd of Caria (the author himself) nourishes a hopeless
passion. The earliest of the Heroic Romances, pure and simple,
is, however, the celebrated Polexandre (1629) of Gomberville.
The author began by intending his hero to represent Louis XIII.,
but he changed his mind, and drew a portrait of Cardinal
Richelieu. In this novel, for the first time, the romantic char-
acter proper to this class of books is seen undiluted; there is no
intrusion of a personage who is not celebrated for his birth, his
beauty or his exploits. The story deals with the adventures of
a hero who visits all the sea-coasts of the world, the most remote
as well as the most fabulous, in search of an ineffable princess,
Alcidiane. This absurd and pretentious, yet very original piece
of invention enjoyed an immense success, and historical romances
of a similar class competed for the favour of the public. There
was an equal amount of geography and more of ancient history
in the Ariane (1632) of Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676),
a book which, long neglected, has in late years been rediscovered,
and which has been greeted by M. Paul Morillot as the most
readable and the least tiresome of all the Heroic Romances.
The type of that class of literature, however, has always been
found in the highly elaborate writings of Gauthier de Coste de
la Calprenede (1609-1663), which enjoyed for a time a prodigious
celebrity, and were read and imitated all over Europe. La
Calprenede was a Gascon soldier, imbued with all the extrava-
gance of his race, and in full sympathy with the audacity and
violence of the aristocratic society of France in his day. His
Cassandre, which appeared in ten volumes between 1642 and 1645,
is perhaps the most characteristic of all the Heroic Romances.
It deals with a highly romantic epoch of ancient history, the
decline of the empire of Alexander the Great.' The wars of the
Persians and of the Scythians are introduced, and among the
characters are discovered such personages as Artaxerxes, Roxana
and Ephestion. It must not be supposed, however, that la
Calprenede makes the smallest effort to deal with the subject
accurately or realistically. The figures are those of his own day ;
they are seigneurs and great ladies of the court of Louis XIII.,
masquerading in Macedonian raiment. The passion of love is
dominant throughout, and it is treated in the most exalted and
hyperbolical spirit. The central heroes of the story, Oroondate
and Lysimachus, are dignified, eloquent and amorous; they
undergo unexampled privations in the quest of incomparable
ladies whose beauty and whose nobility is only equalled by their
magnificent loyalty. These books were written with an aim
that was partly didactic. Their object was to entertain the
ladies and to gratify a taste for endlessly wire-drawn sentimen-
tality, but it was also to teach fortitude and grandeur of soul
and to inculcate lessons of practical chivalry. La Calprenede
followed up the success of his Cassandre with a Cleopdtre (1647)
in twelve volumes, and a Faramond (1661) which he did not live
to finish. He became more extravagant, more rhapsodical as
he proceeded, aVid he lost all the little hold on history which he
had ever held. Cleopdtre, nevertheless, enjoyed a prodigious
popularity, and it became the fashion to emulate as far as
possible the prowess of its magnificent hero, the proud Artaban.
xm. 13
It should be said that la Calprenede objected to his books being
styled romances, and insisted that they were specimens of
" history embellished with certain inventions." He may, in
opposition to his wishes, claim the doubtful praise of being, in
reality, the creator of the modern historical novel. He was
immediately imitated or accompanied by a large number of
authors, of whom two have achieved a certain immortality,
which, unhappily, must be confessed to be partly of ridicule.
The vogue of the historical romance was carried to its height by
a brother and a sister, Georges de Scudery (1601-1667) and
Madeleine de Scudery (1608-1701), who represented in their
own persons all the extravagant, tempestuous and absurd
elements of the age, and whose elephantine romances remain as
portents in the history of literature. These novels there
are five of them were signed by Georges de Scudery, but it is
believed that all were in the main written by Madeleine. The
earliest was Ibrahim, ou I'llluslre Bassa (1641); it was followed
by Le Grand Cyrus (1648-1653) and the final, and most pre-
posterous member of the series was Clelie (1649-1654). The
romances of Mile de Scudery (for to her we may safely attribute
them) are much inferior in style to those of la Calprenede. They
are pretentious, affected and sickly. The author abuses the
element of analysis, and 'pushes a psychology, which was beyond
the age in penetration, to a wearisome and excessive extent.
Nothing, it is probable, in the whole evolution of the Historical
Romances has attracted so much attention as the " Carte de
Tendre " which occurs in the opening book of Clelie. This
celebrated map, drawn by the heroine in order to show the route
from New Friendship to Tender, and a geographical symbol,
therefore, of the progress of love, with its city of Tender-upon-
Esteem, its sea of Enmity, its river of Inclination, its rock-built
citadel of Pride, its cold lake of Indifference, is a miracle of
elaborate and incongruous ingenuity. But, amusing as it is,
it shows into what depths of puerility the amorous casuistry of
these romances had fallen. These novels formed the chief
topic of conversation and of correspondence in the literary
society which gathered at and around the Hotel de Rambouillet,
and in the personages of Mile de Scudery's romances could be
recognized all the famous leaders of that society. The mawkish
love-making and the false heroism of these monstrous novels
went rapidly out of fashion in France soon after 1660, when the
epoch of the Heroic Romance came to an end. In England the
Heroic Romance had a period of flourishing popularity. All
the principal French examples were very promptly translated,
and " he was not to be admitted into the academy of wit who
had not read Aslrea and The Grand Cyrus." The great vogue
of these books in England lasted from about 1645 to 1660.
It led, of course, to the composition of original works in imitation
of the French. The most remarkable and successful of these
was Parthenissa, published in 1654 by Roger Boyle, Lord
Broghill and afterwards Earl of Orrery (1621-1679), which was
greatly admired by Dorothy Osborne and her correspondents.
Addison speaks in the " Spectator " of the popularity of all
these huge books, " the Grand Cyrus, with a pin stuck in one of
the middle leaves, Clelie, which opened of itself in the place that
describes two lovers in a bower." When the drama, and in
particular tragedy, was reinstituted in England, sentimental
readers found a field for their emotions on the stage, and the
heroic romances immediately began to go out of fashion. They
lingered, however, for a quarter of a century more, and M.
Jusserand has analysed what may be considered the very
latest of the race, Pandion and Amphigenia, published in 1665
by the dramatist, John Crowne.
See Gordon de Percel, De I' usage des romans (1734); Andrfi Le
Breton, Le Roman au XVII" siecle (1890); Paul Morillot, Le Roman
en France depuis 1610 (1894); J. J. Jusserand, Le Roman anglais au
XVII' siecle (1888). (E. G.)
HEROIC VERSE, a term exclusively used in English to
indicate the rhymed iambic line or HEROIC COUPLET. In ancient
literature, the heroic verse, fipui.Kov fierpov, was synonymous
with the dactylic hexameter. It was in this measure that those
typically heroic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey and the Aeneid
3 86
HEROLD HERON
were written. In English, however, it was not enough to
designate a single iambic line of five beats as heroic verse, because
it was necessary to distinguish blank verse from the distich,
which was formed by the heroic couplet. This had escaped the
notice of Dryden, when he wrote " The English Verse, which we
call Heroic, consists of no more than ten syllables." If that
were the case, then Paradise Lost would be written in heroic
verse, which is not true. What Dryden should have said is
" consists of two rhymed lines, each of ten syllables." In French
the alexandrine has always been regarded as the heroic measure
of that language. The dactylic movement of the heroic line in
ancient Greek, the famous pufljuos i?ptpos of Homer, is expressed
in modern Europe by the iambic movement. The consequence
is that much of the rush and energy of the antique verse, which
at vigorous moments was like the charge of a battalion, is lost.
It is owing to this, in part, that the heroic couplet is so often
required to give, in translation, the full value of a single Homeric
hexameter. It is important to insist that it is the couplet, not
the single line, which constitutes heroic verse. It is interesting
to note that the Latin poet Ennius, as reported by Cicero, called
the heroic metre of one line iiersum longum, to distinguish it
from the brevity of lyrical measures. The current form of
English heroic verse appears to be the invention of Chaucer,
who used it in his Legend of Good Women and afterwards, with
still greater freedom, in the Canterbury Tales. Here is an
example of it in its earliest development:
" And thus the longe day in fight they spend,
Till, at the last, as everything hath end,
Anton is shent, and put him to the flight,
And all his folk to go, as best go might."
This way of writing was misunderstood and neglected by Chaucer's
English disciples, but was followed nearly a century later by the
Scottish poet, called Blind Harry (c. 1475), whose Wallace holds
an important place in the history of versification as having
passed on the tradition of the heroic couplet. Another Scottish
poet, Gavin Douglas, selected heroic verse for his translation of
the Aencid (1513), and displayed, in such examples as the follow-
ing, a skill which left little room for improvement at the hands of
later poets:
" One sang, ' The ship sails over the salt foam,
Will bring the merchants and my leman home' ;
Some other sings, ' I will be blithe and light,
Mine heart is leant upon so goodly wight.' "
The verse so successfully mastered was, however, not very
generally used for heroic purposes in Tudor literature. The early
poets of the revival, and Spenser and Shakespeare after them,
greatly preferred stanzaic forms. For dramatic purposes blank
verse was almost exclusively used, although the French had
adopted the rhymed alexandrine for their plays. In the earlier
half of the iyth century, heroic verse was often put to somewhat
unheroic purposes, mainly in prologues and epilogues, or other short
poems of occasion; but it was nobly redeemed by Marlowe in his
Hero and Leander and respectably by Browne in his Britannia's
Pastorals. It is to be noted, however, that those Elizabethans
who, like Chapman, Warner and Drayton, aimed at producing a
warlike and Homeric effect, did so in shambling fourteen-syllable
couplets. The one heroic poem of that age written at considerable
length in the appropriate national metre is the Bosworth Field of
Sir John Beaumont (1582-1628). Since the middle of the I7th
century, when heroic verse became the typical and for a while
almost the solitary form in which serious English poetry was
written, its history has known many vicissitudes. After having
been the principal instrument of Dryden and Pope, it was almost
entirely rejected by Wordsworth and Coleridge, but revised,
with various modifications, by Byron, Shelley (in Julian and
Maddalo) and Keats (in Lamia). In the second half of the igth
century its prestige was restored by the brilliant work of Swin-
burne in Tristram and elsewhere. (E. G.)
HAROLD, LOUIS JOSEPH FERDINAND (1791-1833), French
musician, the son of Francois Joseph Herold, an accomplished
pianist, was born in Paris, on the 28th of January 1791. It was
not till after his father's death that Herold in 1806 entered the
Paris conservatoire, where he studied under Catal and Mehul.
In 1812 he gained the grand prix de Rome with the cantata
La Duchesse de la Valliere, and started for Italy, where he re-
mained till 1815 and composed a symphony, a cantata and
several pieces of chamber music. During his stay in Italy also
Herold for the first time ventured on the stage with the opera
La Gioventu di Enrico V., first performed at Naples in 1815 with
moderate success. During a short stay in Vienna he was much
in the society of Salieri. Returning to Paris he was invited by
Boieldieu to collaborate with him on an opera called Charles de
France, performed in 1816, and soon followed by Herold's first
French opera, Les Rosieres (1817), which was received very
favourably. Herold produced numerous dramatic works for the
next fifteen years in rapid succession. Only the names of some of
the more important need here be mentioned: La Clochelte (1817),
L'Auteur mart et vivant (1820), Marie (1826), and the ballets La
Fille mal gardee (1828) and La Belle au bois dormant (1829).
Herold also wrote a vast quantity of pianoforte music, in spite of
his time being much occupied by his duties as accompanist at the
Italian opera in Paris. In 1831 he produced the romantic opera
Zampa, and in the following year Le Pre aux dercs (first perform-
ance December 15, 1832), in which French esprit and French
chivalry find their most perfect embodiment. These two operas
secured immortality for the name of the composer, who died on
the i8th of January 1833, of the lung disease from which he had
suffered for many years, and the effects of which he had accelerated
by incessant work. Herold's incomplete opera Ludovic was
afterwards printed by J. F. F. Halevy.
HERON (Fr. heron; Ital. aghirone, air one; Lat. ardea;
Gr. epo>5toj: A.-S. hragra; Icelandic, hegre; Swed. hager;
Dan. heire; Ger. Heiger, Reiher, Heergans; Dutch, reiger), a
long-necked, long-winged and long-legged bird, the typical
representative of the group Ardeidae. It is difficult or even im-
possible to estimate with any accuracy the number of species of
Ardeidae which exist. Professor Hermann Schlegel in 1863
enumerated 61, besides 5 of what he terms " conspecies," as
FIG. I. Heron.
contained in the collection at Leyden (Mus. des Pays-Bas,
Ardeae, 64 pp.), on the other hand, G. R. Gray in 1871
(Handlist, &c. iii. 26-34) admitted above 90, while Dr Anton
Reichenow (Journ.furOrnithologie, 187 7, pp. 232-275) recognizes
67 as known, besides 15 " subspecies " and 3 varieties, arranging
them in 3 genera, Nycticorax, Botaurus and Ardea, with 17 sub-
genera. But it is difficult to separate the family, with any
satisfactory result, into genera, if structural characters have to
be found for these groups, for in many cases they run almost
insensibly into each other though in common language it is
I easy to speak of herons, egrets, bitterns, night-herons and
HERON
387
boatbills. With the exception of the last, Professor Schlegel
retains all in the genus Ardea, dividing it into eight sections, the
names of which may perhaps be Englished great herons, small
herons, egrets, semi-egrets, rail-like herons, little bitterns, bitterns
and night-herons.
The common heron of Europe, Ardea cinerea of Linnaeus, is
universally allowed to be the type of the family, and it may also
be regarded as that of Professor Schlegel's first section. The
species inhabits suitable localities throughout the whole of
Europe, Africa and Asia, reaching Japan, many of the islands
of the Indian Archipelago and even Australia. Though by no
means so numerous as formerly in Britain, it is still sufficiently
common, 1 and there must be few persons who have not seen it
rising slowly from some river-side or marshy flat, or passing over-
head in its lofty and leisurely flight on its way to or from its
daily haunts; while they are many who have been enter-
tained by watching it as it sought its food, consisting chiefly
of fishes (especially eels and flounders) and amphibians though
young birds and small mammals come not amiss wading midleg
in the shallows, swimming occasionally when out of its depth, or
standing motionless to strike its prey with its formidable and sure
beak. When sufficiently numerous the heron breeds in societies,
known as heronries, which of old time were protected both by law
and custom in nearly all European countries, on account of the
sport their tenants afforded to the falconer. Of late years, partly
owing to the withdrawal of the protection they had enjoyed, and
still more, it would seem, from agricultural improvement, which,
by draining meres, fens and marshes, has abolished the feeding-
places of a great population of herons, many of the larger
heronries have broken up the birds composing them dispersing
to neighbouring localities and forming smaller settlements, most
of which are hardly to be dignified by the name of heronry, though
commonly accounted such. Thus the number of so-called
heronries in the United Kingdom, and especially in England and
Wales, has become far greater than formerly, but no one can
doubt that the number of herons has dwindled. The sites chosen
by the heron for its nest vary greatly. It is generally built in the
top of a lofty tree, but not unf requently (and this seems to have
been much more usual in former days) near or on the ground
among rough vegetation, on an island in a lake, or again on a
rocky cliff of the coast. It commonly consists of a huge mass of
sticks, often the accumulation of years, lined with twigs, and in it
are laid from four to six sea-green eggs. The young are clothed
in soft flax-coloured down, and remain in the nest for a consider-
able time, therein differing remarkably from the " pipers " of the
crane, which are able to run almost as soon as they are hatched.
The first feathers assumed by young herons in a general way
resemble those of the adult, but the pure white breast, the
black throat-streaks and especially the long pendent plumes,
which characterize only the very old birds, and are most beautiful
in the cocks, are subsequently acquired. The heron measures
about 3 ft. from the bill to the tail, and the expanse of its wings is
sometimes not less than 6 ft., yet it weighs only between 3 and
4 Ib.
Large as is the common heron of Europe, it is exceeded in
size by the great blue heron of America (Ardea herodias), which
generally resembles it in appearance and habits, and both are
smaller than the A. sumalrana or A. typhon of India and the
Malay Archipelago, while the A. goliath, of wide distribution in
Africa and Asia, is the largest of all. The purple heron, A.
purpurea, as a well-known European species having a great
range over the Old World, also deserves mention here. The
species included in Professor Schlegel's second section inhabit the
tropical parts of Africa, Australasia and America. The egrets,
forming his third group, require more notice, distinguished as they
are by their pure white plumage, and, when in breeding-dress, by
1 In many parts of England it is generally called a " hernser "
being a corruption of " heronsewe," which, as Professor Skeat states
(Elymol. Dictionary, p. 264), is a perfectly distinct word from
" heronshaw," commonly confounded with it. The further corrup-
tion of " hernser " into handsaw," as in the well-known proverb,
was easy in the mouth of men to whom hawking the heronsewe was
unfamiliar.
the beautiful dorsal tufts of decomposed feathers that ordinarily
droop over the tail, and are so highly esteemed as ornaments by
Oriental magnates. The largest species is A. occidentalis, only
known apparently from Florida and Cuba; but one not much
less, the great egret (4. alba), belongs to the Old World, breeding
regularly in south-eastern Europe, and occasionally straying to
Britain. A third, A. egretta, represents it in America, while much
the same may be said of two smaller species, A. garzetta, the little
egret of English authors, and A. candidissima; and a sixth,
A. intermedia, is common in India, China and Japan, besides
occurring in Australia. The group of semi-egrets, containing
some nine or ten forms, among which the buff-backed heron
(A. bubulcus), is the only species that is known to have occurred in
Europe, is hardly to be distinguished from the last section except
by their plumage being at certain seasons varied in some species
with slaty-blue and in others with rufous. The rail-like herons
form Professor Schlegel's next section, but it can scarcely be
satisfactorily differentiated, and the epithet is misleading, for its
members have no rail-like affinities, though the typical species,
FIG. 2. Bittern.
which inhabits the south of Europe, and occasionally finds its
way to England, has long been known as A. ralloid.es? Nearly
all these birds are tropical or subtropical. Then there is the
somewhat better defined group of little bitterns, containing
about a dozen species the smallest of the whole family. One
of them, A. minuta, though very local in its distribution, is a
native of the greater part of Europe, and has bred in England.
It has a close counterpart in the A. exilis of North America, and
is represented by three or four forms in other parts of the world,
the A. pusilla of Australia especially differing very slightly from
it. Ranged by Professor Schlegel with these birds, which are all
remarkable for their skulking habits, but more resembling the true
herons in their nature, are the common green bittern of America
(A. mrescens) and its very near ally the African A. atricapilla,
from which last it is almost impossible to distinguish the A.
javanica, of wide range throughout Asia and its islands, while
other species, less closely related, occur elsewhere as A.flavicollis
one form of which, A. gouldi, inhabits Australia.
The true bitterns, forming the genus Botaurus of most authors,
seem to be fairly separable, but more perhaps on account of their
wholly nocturnal habits and correspondingly adapted plumage
than on strictly structural grounds, though some differences of
proportion are observable. The common bittern (q.v.) of
J It is the " Squacco-Heron " of modern British authors the
distinctive name, given " Sguacco " by Willughby and Ray from
Aldrovandus, having been misspelt by Latham.
3 88
HERPES HERRERA
Europe (B. stellaris), is widely distributed over the eastern
hemisphere. 1 Australia and New Zealand have a kindred species,
B. pocciloptilus, and North America a third, B. mugitans* or
B. lentiginosus. Nine other species from various parts of the
world are admitted by Professor Schlegel, but some of them
should perhaps be excluded from the genus Botaurus.
Of the night-herons the same author recognizes six species, all
of which may be reasonably placed in the genus Nycticorax,
characterized by a shorter beak and a few other peculiarities,
among which the large eyes deserve mention. The first is N.
griseus, a bird widely spread over the Old World, and not un-
frequently visiting England, where it would undoubtedly breed if
permitted. Professor Schlegel unites with it the common night-
heron of America; but this, though very closely allied, is generally
deemed distinct, and is the N. naevius or If, gardcni of most
writers. A clearly different American species, with a more
southern habitat, is the N. violaceus or N. cayennensis, while others
are found in South America, Australia, some of the Asiatic Islands
and in West Africa. The Galapagos have a peculiar species,
N. pauper, and
another, so far
as is known,
peculiar to
Rodriguez, N.
megacephalus,
existed in that
island at the
time of its being
first colonized,
but is now
extinct.
The boatbill,
of which only
one species is
known, seems
to be merely
a night-heron
with an ex-
aggerated bill,
so much
widened as to
suggest its
English name,
but has al-
ways been allowed generic rank. This curious bird, the
Cancroma cochlearia of most authors, is a native of tropical
America, and what is known of its habits shows that they are
essentially those of a Nycticorax?
Bones of the common heron and bittern are not uncommon in
the peat of the East-Anglian fens. Remains from Sansan and
Langy in France have been referred by Alphonse Milne-Edwards
to herons under the names of Ardea perplexa and A.formosa; a
tibia from the Miocene of Steinheim am Albuch by Dr Fraas to an
A. similis, while Sir R. Owen recognized a portion of a sternum
from the London Clay as most nearly approaching this family.
It remains to say that the herons form part of Huxley's section
Pelargomorphae, belonging to his larger group Desmognathae, and
to draw attention to the singular development of the patches
of " powder-down " which in the family Ardeidae attain a
magnitude hardly to be found elsewhere. Their use is utterly
unknown. (A. N.)
1 The last-recorded instance of the bittern breeding in England
was in 1868, as mentioned by Stevenson (Birds of Norfolk, ii.
164).
2 Richardson, a most accurate observer, asserts (Fauna Boreali-
Amerirana, ii. 374) that its booming (whence the epithet) exactly
resembles that of its Old-World congener, but American ornitholo-
gists seem only to have heard the croaking note it makes when
disturbed.
3 The very wonderful shoe-bird (Balaeniceps) has been regarded by
many authorities as allied to Cancroma ; but there can be little doubt
that it is more nearly related to the genus Scopus belonging to the
storks. The sun-bittern (Eurypyga) forms a family of itself, allied
to the rails and cranes.
FIG. 3. Boatbill.
HERPES (from the Gr. epirfiv, to creep), an inflammation of
the true skin resulting from a lesion of the underlying nerve or
its ganglion, attended with the formation of isolated or grouped
vesicles of various sizes upon a reddened base. They contain a
clear fluid, and either rupture or dry up. Two well-marked
varieties of herpes are frequently met with, (a) In herpes
labialis el nasalis the eruption occurs about the lips and nose.
It is seen in cases of certain acute febrile ailments, such as fevers,
inflammation of the lungs or even in a severe cold. It soon passes
off. (6) In the herpes zoster, zona or " shingles " the eruption
occurs in the course of one or more cutaneous nerves, often on one
side of the trunk, but it may be on the face, limbs or other parts.
It may occur at any age, but is probably more frequently met
with in elderly people. The appearance of the eruption is usually
preceded by severe stinging neuralgic pains for several days, and,
not only during the continuance of the herpetic spots, but long
after they have dried up and disappeared, these pains sometimes
continue and give rise to great suffering. The disease seldom
recurs. The most that can be done for its relief is to protect the
parts with cotton wool or some dusting powder, while the pain
may be allayed by opiates or bromide of potassium. Quinine
internally is often of service.
HERRERA, FERNANDO DE (c. 1534-1597), Spanish lyrical
poet, was born at Seville. Although in minor orders, he addressed
many impassioned poems to the countess of Gelves, wife of Alvaro
Colon de Portugal; but it is suggested that these should be
regarded as Platonic literary exercises in the manner of Petrarch.
As is shown by his Anotaciones a las obras de Garcilaso de la Vega
(1580), Herrera had a boundless admiration for the Italian
poets, and continued the work of Boscan in naturalizing the
Italian metrical system in Spain. His commentary on Garcilaso
involved him in a series of literary polemics, and his verbal
innovations laid him open to attack. But, even if his amatory
sonnets are condemned as insincere in sentiment, their work-
manship is admirable, while his odes on the battle of Lepanto. on
Don John of Austria, and the elegy on King Sebastian of Portugal
entitle him to rank as the greatest of Andalusian poets and as the
most important of the followers of Garcilaso de la Vega (see
VEGA). His poems were published in 1582, and reprinted with
additions in 1619; they are reissued in the Biblioleca de autores
cspanoles, vol. xxxii. Of Herrera's prose works only the Vida y
mucrla de Tomas Moro (1592) survives; it is a translation of the
life in Thomas Stapleton's Tres Thomae (1588).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Bourciez, " Les Sonnets de Fernando de
Herrera," Annales de la Faculte des Lettres de Bordeaux (1891);
Fernando de Herrera, controversia sobre sus anotaciones a les obras
de Garcilaso de la Vega (Seville, 1870); A. Morel-Fatio, L'Hymne
sur Lepanle (Paris, 1893).
HERRERA, FRANCISCO (1576-1656), surnamed el Viejo (the
old), Spanish historical and fresco painter, studied under Luis
Fernandez in Seville, his native city, where he spent most of his
life. Although so rough and coarse in manners that neither
scholar nor child could remain with him, the great talents of
Herrera, and the promptitude with which he used them, brought
him abundant commissions. He was also a skilful worker in
bronze, an accomplishment that led to his being charged with
coining base money. From this accusation, whether true or
false, he sought sanctuary in the Jesuit college of San Hermene-
gildo, which he adorned with a fine picture of its patron saint.
Philip IV., on his visit to Seville in 1624, having seen this picture,
and learned the position of the artist, pardoned him at once, warn-
ing him, however, that such powers as his should not be degraded.
In 1 6 50 Herrera removed to Madrid, where he lived in great honour
till his death in 1656. Herrera was the first to relinquish the
timid Italian manner of the old Spanish school of painting, and
to initiate the free, vigorous touch and style which reached such
perfection in Velazquez, who had been for a short time his pupil.
His pictures are marked by an energy of design and freedom of
execution quite in keeping with his bold, rough character. He is
said to have used very long brushes in his painting; and it is also
said that, when pupils failed, his servant used to dash the colours
on the canvas with a broom under his directions, and that he
worked them up into his designs before they dried. The drawing
HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS HERRICK
389
in his pictures is correct, and the colouring original and skilfully
managed, so that the figures stand out in striking relief. What
has been considered his best easel-work, the " Last Judgment," in
the church of San Bernardo at Seville, is an original and striking
composition, showing in its treatment of the nude how ill-founded
the common belief was that Spanish painters, through ignorance
of anatomy, understood only the draped figure. Perhaps his best
fresco is that on the dome of the church of San Buenaventura;
but many of his frescoes have perished, some by the effects of the
weather and others by the artist's own carelessness in preparing
his surfaces. He has, however, preserved several of his own
designs in etchings. For his easel-works Herrera often chose such
humble subjects as fairs, carnivals, ale-houses and the like.
His son FRANCISCO HERRERA (1622-1685), surnamed el Mozo
(the young), was also an historical and fresco painter. Unable to
endure his father's cruelty, the younger Herrera, seizing what
money he could find, fled from Seville to Rome. There, instead
of devoting himself to the antiquities and the works of the old
Italian masters, he gave himself up to the study of architecture
and perspective, with the view of becoming a fresco-painter. He
did not altogether neglect easel-work, but became renowned for
his pictures of still-life, flowers and fruit, and from his skill in
painting fish was called by the Italians Lo Spagnuolo degli pcsci.
In later life he painted portraits with great success. He returned
to Seville on hearing of his father's death, and in 1660 was
appointed subdirector of the new academy there under Murillo.
His vanity, however, brooked the superiority of no one; and
throwing up his appointment he went to Madrid. There he was
employed to paint a San Hermenegildo for the barefooted
Carmelites, and to decorate in fresco the roof of the choir of San
Felipe el Real. The success of this last work procured for him a
commission from Philip IV. to paint in fresco the roof of the
Atocha church. He chose as his subject for this the Assumption
of the Virgin. Soon afterwards he was rewarded with the title of
painter to the king, and was appointed superintendent of the
royal buildings. He died at Madrid in 1685. Herrera el Mozo
was of a somewhat similar temperament to his father, and offended
many people by his inordinate vanity and suspicious jealousy.
His pictures are inferior to the older Herrera's both in design and
in execution; but in some of them traces of the vigour of his
father, who was his first teacher, are visible. He was by no
means an unskilful colourist, and was especially master of the
effects of chiaroscuro. As his best picture Sir Edmund Head in
his Handbook names his " San Francisco," in Seville Cathedral.
An elder brother, known as Herrera el Rubio (the ruddy), who
died very young, gave great promise as a painter.
HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS, ANTONIO DE (1549-1625),
Spanish historian, was born at Cuellar, in the province of Segovia
in Spain. His father, Roderigo de Tordesillas, and his mother,
Agnes de Herrera, were both of good family. After studying for
some time in his native country, Herrera proceeded to Italy, and
there became secretary to Vespasian Gonzago, with whom, on
his appointment as viceroy of Navarre, he returned to Spain.
Gonzago, sensible of his secretary's abilities, commended him to
Philip II. of Spain; and that monarch appointed Herrera first
historiographer of the Indies, and one of the historiographers of
Castile. Placed thus in the enjoyment of an ample salary,
Herrera devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of literature,
retaining his offices until the reign of Philip IV., by whom he was
appointed secretary of state very shortly before his death,
which took place at Madrid on the 2gth of March 1625. Of
Herrera's writings, the most valuable is his Historia general de
los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas y tierra firme del Mar
Oceano (Madrid, 1601-1615, 4 vols.), a work which relates the
history of the Spanish-American colonies from 1492 to 1554.
The author's official position gave him access to the state papers
and to other authentic sources not attainable by other writers,
while he did not scruple to borrow largely from other MSS.,
especially from that of Bartolome de Las Casas. He used his
facilities carefully and judiciously; and the result is a work on
the whole accurate and unprejudiced, and quite indispensable
to the student either of the history of the early colonies, or of the
institutions and customs of the aboriginal American peoples.
Although it is written in the form of annals, mistakes are not
wanting, and several glaring anachronisms have been pointed
out by M. J. Quintana. " If," to quote Dr Robertson,
" by attempting to relate the various occurrences in the New
World in a strict chronological order, the arrangement of events
in his work had not been rendered so perplexed, disconnected
and obscure that it is an unpleasant task to collect from different
parts of his book and piece together the detached shreds of a
story, he might justly have been ranked among the most eminent
historians of his country." This work was republished in 1730,
and has been translated into English by J. Stevens (London,
1740), and into other European languages.
Herrera's other works are the following: Historia de lo sucedido
en Escocia e Inglalerra en quarenta y quatro anos que vii'io la reyna
Maria Estuarda (Madrid, 1589); Cinco libros de la historia de
Portugal, y conquista de las islas de los Azores, 1582-1583 (Madrid,
1591); Historia de lo sucedido en Francia, 1585-1594 (Madrid,
1598); Historia general del mundo del tiempo del rey Felipe II,
desde 1559 hasla su muerte (Madrid, 1601-1612, 3 vols.); Tralado,
relacion, y discurso historico de los movimientos de Aragon (Madrid,
1612); Comentarios de los hechos de los Espanoles, Franceses, y
Venecianos en Italia, &c., 1281-1550 (Madrid, 1624, seq.). See W. H.
Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico, vol. ii.
HERRICK, ROBERT (1591-1674), English poet, was born at
Cheapside, London, and baptized on the 24th of August 1591.
He belonged to an old Leicestershire family which had settled in
London. He was the seventh child of Nicholas Herrick, gold-
smith, of the city of London, who died in 1592, under suspicion
of suicide. The children were brought up by their uncle, Sir
William Herrick, one of the richest goldsmiths of the day, to
whom in 1607 Robert was bound apprentice. He had probably
been educated at Westminster school, and in 1614 he proceeded to
Cambridge; and it was no doubt during his apprenticeship that
the young poet was introduced to that circle of wits which he was
afterwards to adorn. He seems to have been present at the first
performance of The Alchemist in 1610, and it was probably about
this time that Ben Jonson adopted him as his poetical " son."
He entered the university as fellow-commoner of St John's
College, and he remained there until, in 1616, upon taking his
degree, he removed to Trinity Hall. A lively series of fourteen
letters to his uncle, mainly begging for money, exists at Beau-
manoir, and shows that Herrick suffered much from poverty at
the university. He took his B.A. in 1617, and in 1620 he became
master of arts. From this date until 1627 we entirely lose sight of
him; it has been variously conjectured that he spent these years
preparing for the ministry at Cambridge, or in much looser
pursuits in London. In 1629 (September 30) he was presented by
the king to the vicarage of Dean Prior, not far from Totnes in
Devonshire. At Dean Prior he resided quietly until 1648, when
he was ejected by the Puritans. The solitude there oppressed
him at first; the village was dull and remote, and he felt very
bitterly that he was cut off from all literary and social associa-
tions; but soon the quiet existence in Devonshire soothed and
delighted him. He was pleased with the rural and semi-pagan
customs that survived in the village, and in some of his most
charming verses he has immortalized the morris-dances, wakes
and quintains, the Christmas mummers and the Twelfth Night
revellings, that diversified the quiet of Dean Prior. Herrick
never married, but lived at the vicarage surrounded by a happy
family of pets, and tended by an excellent old servant named
Prudence Baldwin. His first appearance in print was in some
verses he contributed to A Description of the King and Queen
of Fairies, in 1635. In 1650 a volume of Wit's Recreations
contained sixty-two small poems afterwards acknowledged by
Herrick in the Hesperides, and one not reprinted until our own
day. These partial appearances make it probable that he visited
London from time to time. We have few hints of his life as a
clergyman. Anthony Wood says that Herricks's sermons were
florid and witty, and that he was " beloved by the neighbouring
gentry." A very aged woman, one Dorothy King, stated that
the poet once threw his sermon at his congregation, cursing them
for their inattention. The same old woman recollected his
favourite pig, which he taught to drink out of a tankard. He
39
HERRIES, J. C. HERRING
was a devotedly loyal supporter of the king during the Civil
War, and immediately upon his ejection in 1648 he published his
celebrated collection of lyrical poems, entitled Hesperides; or the
Works both Human and Divine of Robert Herrick. The " divine
works " bore the title of Noble Numbers and the date 1647.
That he was reduced to great poverty in London has been stated,
but there is no evidence of the fact. In August 1662 Herrick
returned to Dean Prior, supplanting his own supplanter, Dr
John Syms. He died in his eighty-fourth year, and was buried
at Dean Prior, October 15, 1674. A monument was erected to his
memory in the parish church in 1857, by Mr Perry Herrick, a
descendant of a collateral branch of the family. The Hesperides
(and Noble Numbers) is the only volume which Herrick published,
but he contributed poems to Lachrymae Musarum (1649) an d to
Wit's Recreations.
As a pastoral lyrist Herrick stands first among English poets.
His genius is limited in scope, and comparatively unambitious,
but in its own field it is unrivalled. His tiny poems and of the
thirteen hundred that he has left behind him not one is long
are like jewels of various value, heaped together in a casket.
Some are of the purest water, radiant with light and colour,
some were originally set in f?lse metal that has tarnished, some
were rude and repulsive from the first. Out of the unarranged,
heterogeneous mass the student has to select what is not worth
reading, but, after he has cast aside all the rubbish, he is astonished
at the amount of excellent and exquisite work that remains.
Herrick has himself summed up, very correctly, the themes of his
sylvan muse when he says:
" I sing of brooks, of blossoms, birds and bowers,
Of April, May, of June and July flowers,
I sing of May-poles, hock-carts, wassails, wakes,
Of bridegrooms, brides and of their bridal-cakes."
He saw the picturesqueness of English homely life as no
one before him had seen it, and he described it in his verse
with a certain purple glow of Arcadian romance over it, in
tones of immortal vigour and freshness. His love poems are
still more beautiful; the best of them have an ardour and
tender sweetness which give them a place in the forefront of
modern lyrical poetry, and remind us of what was best in Horace
and in the poets of the Greek anthology.
After suffering complete extinction for more than a century, the
fame of Herrick was revived by John Nichols, who introduced his
poems to the readers of the Gentleman's Magazine of 1796 and 1797.
Dr Drake followed in 1798 with considerable enthusiasm. By 1810
interest had so far revived in the forgotten poet that Dr Nott ventured
to print a selection from his poems, which attracted the favourable
notice of the Quarterly Review. In 1823 the Hesperides and the
Noble Numbers were for the first time edited by Mr T. Maitland,
afterwards Lord Dundrennan. Since then the reprints of Herrick's
have been too numerous to be mentioned here; there are few
English poets of the .I7th century whose writings are now more
accessible. See F. W. Moorman, Robert Herrick (1910). (E. G.)
HERRIES, JOHN CHARLES (1778-1855), English politician,
son of a London merchant, began his career as a junior clerk
in the treasury, and became known for his financial abilities
as private secretary to successive ministers. He was appointed
commissary-in-chief (1811), and, on the abolition of that office
(1816), auditor of the civil list. In 1823 he entered parliament
as secretary to the treasury, and in 1827 became chancellor of the
exchequer under Lord Goderich; but in consequence of internal
differences, arising partly out of a slight put upon Herries, the
ministry was broken up, and in 1828 he was appointed master
of the mint. In 1830 he became president of the board of trade,
and for the earlier months of 1835 he was secretary at war.
From 1841 to 1847 he was out of parliament, but during 1852
he was president of the board of control under Lord Derby.
He was a consistent and upright Tory of the old school, who
carried weight as an authority on financial subjects. His eldest
son, SIR CHARLES JOHN HERRIES (1815-1882), was chairman
of the board of inland revenue.
See the Life by his younger son, Edward Herries (1880).
HERRIES, JOHN MAXWELL, 4 TH LORD (c. 1512-1583),
Scottish politician, was the second son of Robert Maxwell, 4th
Lord Maxwell (d. 1546). In 1547 he married Agnes (d. 1594),
daughter of William Herries, 3rd Lord Herries (d. 1543), a
grandson of Herbert Herries (d. c. 1500) of Terregles, Kirkcud-
brightshire, who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament
about 1490, and in 1567 he obtained the title of Lord Herries.
But before this event Maxwell had become prominent among
the men who rallied round Mary queen of Scots, although
during the earlier part of his public life he had been associated
with the religious reformers and had been imprisoned by the
regent, Mary of Lorraine. He was, moreover at least until
1563 very friendly with John Knox, who calls him " a man
zealous and stout in God's cause." But the transition from one
party to the other was gradually accomplished, and from March
1566, when Maxwell joined Mary at Dunbar after the murder
of David Rizzio and her escape from Holyrood, he remained one
of her staunches! friends, although he disliked her marriage with
Bothwell. He led her cavalry at Langside, and after this battle
she committed herself to his care. Herries rode with the queer
into England in May 1568, and he and John Lesley, bishop of
Ross, were her chief commissioners at the conferences at York.
He continued to labour in Mary's cause after returning to
Scotland, and was imprisoned by the regent Murray; he also
incurred Elizabeth's displeasure by harbouring the rebel Leonard
Dacres, but he soon made his peace with the English queen.
He showed himself in general hostile to the regent Morton, but
he was among the supporters of the regent Lennox until his
death on the 2oth of January 1583. His son William, 5th Lord
Herries (d. 1604), was, like his father, warden of the west marches.
William's grandson John, 7th Lord Herries (d. 1677), became
3rd earl of Nithsdale in succession to his cousin Robert Maxwell,
the 2nd earl, in 1667. John's grandson was William, 5th earl of
Nithsdale, the Jacobite (see NITHSDALE). William was deprived
of his honours in 1716, but in 1858 the House of Lords decided
that his descendant William Constable-Maxwell (1804-1876) was
rightly Lord Herries of Terregles. In 1876 William's son Marma-
duke Constable-Maxwell (b. 1837) became i2th Lord Herries,
and in 1884 he was created a baron of the United Kingdom.
HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng
in French, sill in Swedish), a fish belonging to the genus Clupea,
of which more than sixty different species are known in various
parts of the globe. The sprat, pilchard or sardine and shad
are species of the same genus.. Of all sea-fishes Clupeae are the
most abundant; for although other genera may comprise a
greater variety of species, they are far surpassed by Clupea
with regard to the number of individuals. The majority of the
species of Clupea are of greater or less utility to man; it is only
a few tropical species that acquire, probably from their food,
highly poisonous properties, so as to be dangerous to persons
eating them. But no other species equals the common herring
in importance as an article of food or commerce. It inhabits in
incredible numbers the North Sea, the northern parts of the
Atlantic and the seas north of Asia. The herring inhabiting
the corresponding latitudes of the North Pacific is another
species, but most closely allied to that of the eastern hemisphere.
Formerly it was the general belief that the herring inhabits
the open ocean close to the Arctic Circle, and that it migrates
at certain seasons towards the northern coasts of Europe and
America. This view has been proved to be erroneous, and we
know now that this fish lives throughout the year in the vicinity
of our shores, but at a greater depth, and at a greater distance
from the coast, than at the time when it approaches land for
the purpose of spawning.
Herrings are readily recognized and distinguished from the
other species of Clupea by having an ovate patch of very small
teeth on the vomer (that is, the centre of the palate). In the
dorsal fin they have from 17 to 20 rays, and in the anal fin from
1 6 to 18; there are from 53 to 59 scales in the lateral line and
54 to 56 vertebrae in the vertebral column. They have a
smooth gill-cover, without those radiating ridges of bone which
are so conspicuous in the pilchard and other Clupeae. The
sprat cannot be confounded with the herring, as it has no teeth
on the vomer and only 47 or 48 scales in the lateral line.
The spawn of the herring is adhesive, and is deposited on
HERRING-BONE HERSCHEL, SIR F. W.
39 1
rough gravelly ground at varying distances from the coast and
always in comparatively shallow water. The season of spawning
is different in different places, and even in the same district, e.g.
the east coast of Scotland, there are herrings spawning in spring
and others in autumn. These are not the same fish but different
races. Those which breed in winter or spring deposit their
spawn near the coast at the mouths of estuaries, and ascend the
estuaries to a considerable distance at certain times, as in the
Firths of Forth and Clyde, while those which spawn in summer or
autumn belong more to the open sea, e.g. the great shoals that
visit the North Sea annually.
Herrings grow very rapidly; according to H. A. Meyer's
observations, they attain a length of from 17 to 18 mm. during
the first month after hatching, 34 to 36 mm. during the second,
45 to 50 mm. during the third, 55 to 61 mm. during the fourth,
and 65 to 72 mm. during the fifth. The size which they finally
attain and their general condition depend chiefly on the abund-
ance of food (which consists of crustaceans and other small
marine animals), on the temperature of the water, on the season
at which they have been hatched, &c. Their usual size is
about 12 in., but in some particularly suitable localities they
grow to a length of 15 in., and instances of specimens measuring
17 in. are on record. In the Baltic, where the water is gradually
losing its saline constituents, thus becoming less adapted for
the development of marine species, the herring continues to
exist in large numbers, but as a dwarfed form, not growing
either to the size or to the condition of the North-Sea herring.
The herring of the American side of the Atlantic is specifically
identical with that of Europe. A second species (Clupea leachii)
has been supposed to exist on the British coast; but it comprises
only individuals of a smaller size, the produce of an early or
late spawn. Also the so-called " white-bait " is not a distinct
species, but consists chiefly of the fry or the young of herrings
and sprats, and is obtained "in perfection" at localities where
these small fishes find an abundance of food, as in the estuary
of the Thames.
Several excellent accounts of the herring have been published,
as by Valenciennes in the 2oth vol. of the Histoire naturette des
poissons, and more especially by Mr J. M. Mitchell, The Herring,
Us Natural History and National Importance (Edinburgh, 1864).
Recent investigations are described in the Reports of the Fishery
Board for Scotland, and in the reports of the German Kommisxion
zur Untersuchung der Deutschen Meere (published at Kiel). (J. T. C.)
HERRING-BONE, a term in architecture applied to alternate
courses of bricks or stone, which are laid diagonally with binding
courses above and below: this is said to give a better bond to
the wall, especially when the stone employed is stratified, such
as Stonefield stone, and too thin to be laid in horizontal courses.
Although it is only occasionally found in modern buildings, it
was a type of construction constantly employed in Roman,
Byzantine and Romanesque work, and in the latter is regarded
as a test of very early date. It is frequently found in the Byzan-
tine walls in Asia Minor, and in Byzantine churches was employed
decoratively to give variety to the wall surface. Sometimes the
diagonal courses are reversed one above the other. Examples
in France exist in the churches at Querqueville in Normandy
and St Christophe at Suevres (Loir et Cher), both dating from
the loth century, and in England herring-bone masonry is
found in the walls of castles, such as at Guildford, Colchester and
Tamworth. The term is also applied to the paving of stable
yards with bricks laid flat diagonally and alternating so that the
head of one brick butts against the side of another; and the
effect is more pleasing than when laid in parallel courses.
HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE, the name applied to the
action of Rouvray, fought in 1429 between the French (and
Scots) and the English, who, under Sir John Falstolfe (or
Falstaff), were convoying Lenten provisions, chiefly herrings,
to the besiegers of Orleans. (See ORLEANS and HUNDRED
YEARS' WAR.)
HERRNHUT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
18 m. S.E. of Bautzen, and situated on the Lobau-Zittau rail-
way. Pop. 1200. It is chiefly known as the principal seat of
the Moravian or Bohemian brotherhood, the members of which
ire called Herrnhuter. A colony of these people, fleeing from
persecution in Moravia, settled at Herrnhut in 1722 on a site
presented by Count Zinzendorf. The buildings of the society
include a church, a school and houses for the brethren, the sisters
and the widowed of both sexes, while it possesses an ethno-
graphical museum and other collections of interest. The town
is remarkable for its ordered, regular life and its scrupulous
cleanliness. Linen, paper (to varieties of which Herrnhut gives
its name), tobacco and various minor articles are manufactured.
The Hutberg, at the foot of which the town lies, commands a
pleasant view. Berthelsdorf, a village about a mile distant, has
been the seat of the directorate of the community since about
1789.
HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA (1750-1848), English
astronomer, sister of Sir William Herschel, the eighth child and
fourth daughter of her parents, was born at Hanover on the
1 6th of March 1750. On account of the prejudices of her mother,
who did not desire her to know more than was necessary for
being useful in the family, she received in youth only the first
elements of education. After the death of her father in' 1767 she
obtained permission to learn millinery and dressmaking with a
view to earning her bread, but continued to assist her mother
in the management of the household until the autumn of 1772,
when she joined her brother William, who had established himself
as a teacher of music at Bath. At once she became a valuable
co-operator with him both in his professional duties and in the
astronomical researches to which he had already begun to devote
all his spare time. She was the principal singer at his oratorio
concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist that she
was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival, which,
however, she declined. When her brother accepted the office
of astronomer to George III., she became his constant assistant
in his observations, and also executed the laborious calcula-
tions which were connected with them. For these services
she received from the king in 1787 a salary of 50 a year. Her
chief amusement during her leisure hours was sweeping the
heavens with a small Newtonian telescope. By this means she
detected in 1783 three remarkable nebulae, and during the
eleven years 1786-1797 eight comets, five of them with un-
questioned priority. In 1797 she presented to the Royal
Society an Index to Flamsteed s observations, together with a
catalogue of 561 stars accidentally omitted from the " British
Catalogue," and a list of the errata in that publication. Though
she returned to Hanover in 1822 she did not abandon her astro-
nomical studies, and in 1828 she completed the reduction, to
January 1800, of 2500 nebulae discovered by her brother. In
1828 the Astronomical Society, tc mark their sense of the benefits
conferred on science by such a series' of laborious exertions,
unanimously'resolved to present her with their gold medal, and
in 1835 elected her an honorary member of the society. In 1846
she received a gold medal from the king of Prussia. She died on
the gth of January 1848.
See The Memoir and Correspondence of Caroline Herschel, by Mrs
John Herschel (1876).
HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1738-1822),
generally known as Sir William Herschel, English astronomer,
was born at Hanover on the isth of November 1738. His
father was a musician employed as hautboy player in the
Hanoverian guard. The family had quitted Moravia for Saxony
in the early part of the i7th century on account of religious
troubles, they themselves being Protestants. Herschel's earlier
education was necessarily of a very limited character, chiefly
owing to the warlike commotions of his country; but being at
all times an indomitable student, he, by his own exertions, more
than repaired this deficiency. He became a very skilful musician,
both theoretical and practical; while his attainments as a
self-taught mathematician were fully adequate to the prosecution
of those branches of astronomy which he so eminently advanced
and adorned. Whatever he did he did methodically and
thoroughly; and in this methodical thoroughness lay the secret
of what Arago very properly termed his astonishing scientific
success.
392
HERSCHEL, SIR F. W.
In 1752, at the age of fourteen, he joined the band of the
Hanoverian guard, and with his detachment visited England
in 1755, accompanied by his father and eldest brother; in the
following year he returned to his native country; but the
hardships of campaigning during the Seven Years' War imperil-
ling his health, his parents privately removed him from the
regiment, and on the 26th of July 1757 despatched him to
England. There, as might have been expected, the earlier part
of his career was attended with formidable difficulties and much
privation. We find him engaged in several towns in the north
of England as organist and teacher of music, which were not
lucrative occupations. But the tide of his fortunes began to
flow when he obtained in 1766 the appointment of organist to
the Octagon chapel in Bath, at that time the resort of the wealth
and fashion of the city.
During the next five or six years he became the leading musical
authority, and the director of all the chief public musical enter-
tainments at Bath. His circumstances having thus become
easier, he revisited Hanover for the purpose of bringing back
with him his sister Caroline, whose services he much needed in
his multifarious undertakings. She arrived in Bath in August
1772, being at that time in her twenty-third year. She thus
describes her brother's life soon after her arrival: " He used
to retire to bed with a bason of milk or a glass of water, with
Smith's Harmonics and Ferguson's Astronomy, &c., and so went
to sleep buried under his favourite authors; and his first thoughts
on waking were how to obtain instruments for viewing those
objects himself of which he had been reading." It is not without
significance that we find him thus reading Smith's Harmonics;
to that study loyalty to his profession would impel him; as a
reward for his thoroughness this led him to Smith's Optics;
and this, by a natural sequence, again led him to astronomy,
for the purposes of which the chief optical instruments were
devised. It was in this way that he was introduced to the
writings of Ferguson and Keill, and subsequently to those of
Lalande, whereby he educated himself to become an astronomer
of undying fame. In those days telescopes were very rare, very
expensive and not very efficient, for the Dollonds had not as yet
perfected even their beautiful little achromatics of zf in. aperture.
So Herschel was obliged to content himself with hiring a small
Gregorian reflector of about 2 in. aperture, which he had seen
exposed for loan in a tradesman's shop. Not satisfied with this
implement, he procured a small lens of about 18 ft. focal length,
and set his sister to work on a pasteboard tube to match it, so as
to make him a telescope. This unsatisfactory material was soon
replaced by tin, and thus a sorry sort of vision was obtained of
Jupiter, Saturn and the moon. He then sought in London for
a reflector of much larger dimensions; but no such instrument
was on sale; and the terms demanded for the construction of a
reflecting telescope of 5 or 6 ft. focal length he regarded as too
exorbitant even for the gratification of such desires as his own.
So he was driven to the only alternative that remained; he
must himself build a large telescope. His first step in this
direction was to purchase the debris of an amateur's implements
for grinding and polishing small mirrors; and thus, by slow
degrees, and by indomitable perseverance, he in 1774 had, as
he says, the satisfaction of viewing the heavens with a Newtonian
telescope of 6 ft. focal length made by his own hands. But he
was not contented to be a mere star-gazer; on the contrary,
he had from the very first conceived the gigantic project of
surveying the entire heavens, and, if possible, of ascertaining
the plan of their general structure by a settled mode of procedure,
if only he could provide himself with adequate instrumental
means. For this purpose he, his brother and his sister toiled
for many years at the grinding and polishing of hundreds of
specula, always retaining the best and recasting the others, until
the most perfect of the earlier products had been surpassed.
This was the work of the daylight in those seasons of the year
when the fashionable visitors of Bath had quitted the place, and
had thus freed the family from professional duties. After 1774
every available hour of the night was devoted to the long-hoped-
for scrutiny of the skies. In those days no machinery had been
invented for the construction of telescopic mirrors; the man
who had the hardihood to undertake polishing them doomed
himself to walk leisurely and uniformly round an upright post
for many hours, without removing his hands from the mirror, until
his work was done. On these occasions Herschel received his food
from the hands of his faithful sister. But his reward was nigh.
In May 1780 his first two papers containing some results of his
observations on the variable star " Mira " and the mountains of
the moon were communicated to the Royal Society through
the influential introduction of Dr William Watson. Herschel
had made his acquaintance in a characteristic manner. In order
to obtain a sight of the moon the astronomer had taken his
telescope into the street opposite his house; the celebrated
physician happening to pass at the time, and seeing his eye
removed for a moment from the instrument, requested permission
to take his place. The mutual courtesies and intelligent conversa-
tion which ensued soon ripened this casual acquaintance into a
solid and enduring regard.
The phenomena of variable stars were examined by Herschel
as a guide to what might be occurring in our own sun. The sun,
he knew, rotated on its axis, and he knew that dark spots often
exist on its photosphere; the questions that he put to himself
were Are there dark spots also on variable stars? Do the stars
also rotate on their axes? or are they sometimes partially
eclipsed by the intervention of opaque bodies? And he went on
to enquire, What are these singular spots upon the sun? and
have they any practical relation to the inhabitants of this planet?
To these questions he applied his telescopes and his thoughts;
and he communicated the results to the Royal Society in no less
than six memoirs, occupying very many pages in the Philosophical
Transactions, and extending in date from 1780 to 1 80 1. It was
in the latter year that these remarkable papers culminated in the
inquiry whether any relation could be traced in the recurrence of
sun-spots, regarded as evidences of solar activity, and the varying
seasons of our planet, as exhibited by the varying price of corn.
Herschel's reply was inconclusive; nor has a final solution of the
related problems yet been obtained.
In 1781 he communicated to the Royal Society the first of a
series of papers on the rotation of the planets and of their several
satellites. The object which he had in view was not so much to
ascertain the times of their rotation as to discover whether
those rotations are strictly uniform. From the result he expected
to gather, by analogy, the probability of an alteration in the
length of our own day. These inquiries occupy the greaterpart of
seven memoirs extending from 1781 to 1797. While engaged on
them he noticed the curious appearance of a white spot near to
each of the poles of the planet Mars. On investigat ing the inclina-
tion of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and finding that it differed
little from that of the earth, he concluded that its changes of
climate also would resemble our own, and that these white
patches were probably polar snow. Modern researches have con-
firmed his conclusion. He also discovered that, as far as his
observations extended, the times of the rotations of the various
satellites round their axes conform to the analogy of our moon by
equalling the times of their revolution round their primaries.
Here again we perceive that his discoveries arose out of the
systematic and comprehensive nature of his investigation.
Nothing with such a man is accidental.
In the same year (1781) Herschel made a discovery which
completely altered the character of his professional life. In the
course of a methodical review of the heavens he lighted on an
object which at first he supposed to be a comet, but which, by
its subsequent motions and appearance, averred itself to be a
new planet, moving outside the orbit of Saturn. The name of
Georgium Sidus was by him assigned to it, but has by general
consent been laid aside in favour of Uranus. The object was
detected with a 7-ft. reflector having an aperture of 65 in.; sub-
sequently, when he had provided himself with a much more
powerful telescope, of 20 ft. focal length, he discovered, as he
believed, no less than six Uranian satellites. Modern observations,
while abolishing four of these supposed attendants, have added
two others apparently not observed by Herschel. Seven memoirs
HERSCHEL, SIR J. F. W.
on the subject were communicated by him to the Royal Society,
extending from the date of the discovery in 1781 to 1815. A
noteworthy peculiarity in Herschel's mode of observation led to
the discovery of this planet. He had observed that the spurious
diameters of stars are not much affected by increasing the magni-
fying powers, but that the case is different with other celestial
objects; hence if anything in his telescopic field struck him as
unusual in aspect, he immediately varied the magnifying power
in order to decide its nature. Thus Uranus was discovered ; and
had a similar method been applied to Neptune, that planet
would have been found at Cambridge some months before it was
recognized at Berlin.
We now come to the beginning of Herschel's most important
series of observations, culminating in what ought probably to be
regarded as his capital discovery. A material part of the task
which he had set himself embraced the determination of the
relative distances of the stars from our sun and from each other.
Now, in the course of his scrutiny of the heavens, he had observed
many stars in apparently very close contiguity, but often
differing greatly in relative brightness. He concluded that, on
the average, the brighter star would be the nearer to us, the
smaller enormously more distant; and considering that an
astronomer on the earth, in consequence of its immense orbital
displacement of some 180 millions of miles every six months,
would see such a pair of stars under different perspective aspects,
he perceived that the measurement of these changes should lead
to an approximate determination of the stars' relative distances.
He therefore mapped down the places and aspects of all the
double stars that he met with, and communicated in 1782 and
1785 very extensive catalogues of the results. Indeed, his very
last scientific memoir, sent to the Royal Astronomical Society in
the year 1822, when he was its first president and already in the
eighty-fourth year of his age, related to these investigations.
In the memoir of 1 78 2 he threw out the hint that these apparently
contiguous stars might be genuine pairs in mutual revolution;
but he significantly added that the time had not yet arrived for
settling the question. Eleven years afterwards (1793), he re-
measured the relative positions of many such couples, and we
may conceive what his feelings must have been at finding his
prediction verified. For he ascertained that some of these stars
circulated round each other, after the manner required by the
laws of gravitation, and thus demonstrated the action among the
distant members of the starry firmament of the same mechanical
laws which bind together the harmonious motions of our solar
system. This sublime discovery, announced in 1802, would of
itself suffice to immortalize his memory. If only he had lived
long enough to learn the approximate distances of some of
these binary combinations, he would at once have been able to
calculate their masses relative to that of our own sun; and the
quantities being, as we now know, strictly comparable, he would
have found another of his analogical conjectures realized.
In the year 1782 Herschel was invited to Windsor by
George III., and accepted the king's offer to become his private
astronomer, and henceforth devote himself wholly to a scientific
career. His salary was fixed at 200 per annum, to which an
addition of 50 per annum was subsequently made for the
astronomical assistance of his sister. Dr Watson, to whom alone
the amount was mentioned, made the natural remark, " Never
before was honour purchased by a monarch at so cheap a rate."
In this way the great astronomer removed from Bath, first to
Datchet and soon afterwards permanently to Slough, within easy
access of his royal patron at Windsor.
The old pursuits at Bath were soon resumed at Slough, but
with renewed vigour and without the former professional
interruptions. The greater part, in fact, of the papers already
referred to are dated from Datchet and Slough; for the magnifi-
cent astronomical speculations in which he was engaged, though
for the most part conceived in the earlier portion of his philo-
sophical career, required years of patient observation before
they could be fully examined and realized.
It was at Slough in 1783 that he wrote his first memorable
paper on the " Motion of the Solar System in Space," a sublime
393
speculation, yet through his genius realized by considerations
of the utmost simplicity. He returned to the same subject
with fuller details in 1805. It was also after his removal to
Slough that he published his first memoir on the construction
of the heavens, which from the first had been the inspiring idea
of his varied toils. In a long series of remarkable papers,
addressed as usual to the Royal Society, and extending from
the year 1784 to 1818, when he was eighty years of age, he demon-
strated the fact that our sun is a star situated not far from the
bifurcation of the Milky Way, and that all the stars visible to
us lie more or less in clusters scattered throughout a comparatively
thin, but immensely extended stratum. At one time he imagined
that his powerful instruments had pierced through this stellar
stratum, and that he had approximately determined the form
of some of its boundaries. In the last of his memoirs, having
convinced himself of his error, he admitted that to his telescopes
the Milky Way was " fathomless." On either side of this
assemblage of stars, presumably in ceaseless motion round their
common centre of gravity, Herschel discovered a canopy of
discrete nebulous masses, such as those from the condensation
of which he supposed the whole stellar universe to have been
formed, a magnificent conception, pursued with a force of
genius and put to the practical test of observation with an
industry almost incredible.
Hitherto we have said nothing about the great reflecting
telescope, of 40 ft. focal length and 4 ft. aperture, the construction
of which is often, though mistakenly, regarded as his chief
performance. The full description of this celebrated instrument
will be found in the 8sth volume of the Transactions of the Royal
Society. On the day that it was finished (August 28, 1789)
Herschel saw at the first view, in a grandeur not witnessed
before, the Saturnian system with six satellites, five of which
had been discovered long before by C. Huygens and G. D.
Cassini, while the sixth, subsequently named Enceladus, he had,
two years before, sighted by glimpses in his exquisite little
telescope of 6% in. aperture, but now saw in unmistakable
brightness with the towering giant he had just completed. On
the 1 7th of September he discovered a seventh, which proved
to be the nearest to the globe of Saturn. It has since received
the name of Mimas. It is somewhat remarkable that, notwith-
standing his long and repeated scrutinies of this planet, the
eighth satellite, Hyperion, and the crape ring should have
escaped him.
Herschel married, on the 8th of May 1788, the widow of Mr
John Pitt, a wealthy London merchant, by whom he had an
only son, John Frederick William. The prince regent conferred
a Hanoverian knighthood upon him in 1816. But a far more
valued and less tardy distinction was the Copley medal assigned
to him by his associates in the Royal Society in 1781.
He died at Slough on the 25th of August 1822, in the eighty-
fourth year of his age, and was buried under the tower of St
Laurence's Church, Upton, within a few hundred yards of the
old site of the 4o-ft. telescope. A mural tablet on the wall of
the church bears a Latin inscription from the pen of the late
Dr Goodall, provost of Eton College.
See Mrs John Herschel, Memoir of Caroline Herschel (1876);
E. S. Holden, Herschel, his Life and Works (1881); A. M. Clerke,
The Herschels and Modern Astronomy (1895); E. S. Holden and
C. S. Hastings, Synopsis of the Scientific Writings of Sir William
Herschel (Washington, 1881); Baron Laurier, loge historique, Paris
Memoirs (1823), p. Ixi. ; F. Arago, Analyse historique, Annuaire du
Bureau des Longitudes (1842), p. 249; Arago, Biographies of Scientific
Men, p. 167; Madame d'Arblay's Diary, passim; Public Characters
(1798-1799), p. 384 (with portrait); J. Sime, William Herschel and
his Work (1900). Herschel's photometric Star Catalogues were
discussed and reduced by E. C. Pickering in Harvard Annals, vols.
xiv. p. 345, xxiii. p. 185, and xxiv. (C. P. ; A. M. C.)
HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM, BAKT.
(1792-1871), English astronomer, the only son of Sir William
Herschel, was born at Slough, Bucks, on the 7th of March 1792.
His scholastic education commenced at Eton, but maternal
fears or prejudices soon removed him to the house of a private
tutor. Thence, at the early age of seventeen, he was sent to
St John's College, Cambridge, and the form and method of the
HERSCHEL, SIR J. F. W.
394
mathematical instruction he there received exercised a material
influence on the whole complexion of his scientific career. In
due time the young student won the highest academical distinc-
tion of his year, graduating as senior wrangler in 1813. It was
during his undergraduateship that he and two of his fellow-
students who subsequently attained to very high eminence,
Dean Peacock and Charles Babbage, entered into a compact
that they would " do their best to leave the world wiser than they
found it," a compact loyally and successfully carried out by
all three to the end. As a commencement of this laudable
attempt we find Herschel associated with these two friends in
the production of a work on the differential calculus, and on
cognate branches of mathematical science, which changed the
style and aspect of mathematical learning in England, and brought
it up to the level of the Continental methods. Two or three
memoirs communicated to the Royal Society on new applica-
tions of mathematical analysis at once placed him in the front
rank of the cultivators of this branch of knowledge. Of these
his father had the gratification of introducing the first, but the
others were presented in his own right as a fellow.
With the intention of being called to the bar, he entered his
name at Lincoln's Inn on the 24th of January 1814, and placed
himself under the guidance of an eminent special pleader.
Probably this temporary choice of a profession was inspired
by the extraordinary success in legal pursuits which had attended
the efforts of some noted Cambridge mathematicians. Be that
as it may, an early acquaintance with Dr Wollaston in London
soon changed the direction of his studies. He experimented
in physical optics; took up astronomy in 1816; and in 1820,
assisted by his father, he completed for a reflecting telescope a
mirror of 18 in. diameter and 20 ft. focal length. This, subse-
quently improved by his own hands, became the instrument
which enabled him to effect the astronomical observations
forming the chief basis of his fame. In 1821-1823 we find him
associated with Sir James South in the re-examination of his
father's double stars, by the aid of two excellent refractors, of
7 and 5 ft. focal length respectively. For this work he was
presented in 1826 with the Astronomical Society's gold medal;
and with the Lalande medal of the French Institute in 1825;
while the Royal Society had in 1821 bestowed upon him the
Copley medal for his mathematical contributions to their
Transactions. From 1824 to 1827 he held the responsible post
of secretary to that society; and was in 1827 elected to the chair
of the Astronomical Society, which office he also filled on two
subsequent occasions. In the discharge of his duties to the last-
named society he delivered presidential addresses and wrote
obituary notices of deceased fellows, memorable for their
combination of eloquence and wisdom. In 1831 the honour of
knighthood was conferred on him by William IV., and two years
later he again received the recognition of the Royal Society by
the award of one of their medals for his memoir " On the In-
vestigation of the Orbits of Revolving Double Stars." The
award significantly commemorated his completion of his father's
discovery of gravitational stellar systems by the invention of a
graphical method whereby the eye could as it were see the
two component stars of the binary system revolving under the
prescription of the Newtonian law.
Before the end of the year 1833, being then about forty years
of age, Sir John Herschel had re-examined all his father's double
stars and nebulae, and had added many similar bodies to his
own lists; thus accomplishing, under the conditions then pre-
vailing, the full work of a lifetime. For it should be remembered
that astronomers were not as yet provided with those valuable
automatic contrivances which at present materially abridge
the labour and increase the accuracy of their determinations.
Equatorially mounted instruments actuated by clockwork,
electrical chronographs for recording the times of the phenomena
observed, were not available to Sir John Herschel; and he had
no assistant.
His scientific life now entered upon another and very char-
acteristic phase. The bias of his mind, as he subsequently was
wont to declare, was towards chemistry and the phenomena
of light, rather than towards astronomy. Indeed, very shortly
after taking his degree at Cambridge, he proposed himself as a
candidate for the vacant chair of chemistry in that university;
but, as he said with some humour, the result of the election was
to leave him in a glorious minority of one. In fact Herschel
had become an astronomer from a sense of duty, and it was by
filial loyalty to his father's memory that he was now impelled
to undertake the completion of the work nobly begun at Slough.
William Herschel had searched the northern heavens; John
Herschel determined to explore the southern, besides re-explor-
ing northern skies. " I resolved," he said, " to attempt the
completion of a survey of the whole surface of the heavens;
and for this purpose to transport into the other hemisphere the
same instrument which had been employed in this, so as to give
a unity to the results of both portions of the survey, and to
render them comparable with each other." In accordance with
this resolution, he and his family embarked for the Cape on the
i3th November 1833; they arrived in Table Bay on the isth
January 1834; and proceedings, he says, " were pushed forward
with such effect that on the 22nd of February I was enabled to
gratify my curiosity by a view of K Crucis, the nebula about TJ
Argus, and some other remarkable objects in the zo-ft. reflector,
and on the night of the 4th of March to commence a regular
course of sweeping."
To give an adequate description of the vast mass of labour com-
pleted during the next four busy years of his life at Feldhausen
would require the transcription of a considerable portion of the
Cape Observations, a volume of unsurpassed interest and importance;
although it might perhaps be equalled by a judicious selection from
Sir William's " Memoirs," now scattered through some thirty
volumes of the Philosophical Transactions. It was published, at
the sole expense of the late duke of Northumberland, but not till
1847, nine years after the author's return to England, for the cogent
reason, that as he said, " The whole of the observations, as well
as the entire work of reducing, arranging and preparing them for
the press, have been executed by myself." There are 164 pages of
catalogues of southern nebulae and clusters of stars. There are then
careful and elaborate drawings of the great nebula in Orion, and of
the region surrounding the remarkable star in Argo. The labour
and the thought bestowed upon some of these objects are almost
incredible; several months were spent upon a minute spot in the
heavens containing 1216 stars, but which an ordinary spangle, held
at a distance of an arm's length, would eclipse. These catalogues
and charts being completed, he proceeded to discuss their significance.
He confirmed his father's hypothesis that these wonderful masses of
glowing vapours are not irregularly scattered over the visible heavens,
but are collected in a sort of canopy, whose vertex is at the pole of
that vast stratum of stars in which our solar system finds itself buried,
as Herschel supposed, at a depth not greater than that of the average
distance from us of an eleventh magnitude star. Then follows his
catalogue of the relative positions and magnitudes of the southern
double stars, to one of which, y Virginis, he applied the beautiful
method of orbital determination invented by himself, and he had
the satisfaction of witnessing the fulfilment of his prediction that the
components would, in the course of their revolution, appear to close up
into a single star, inseparable by any telescopic power. In the next
chapter he proceeded to describe his observations on the varying
and relative brightness of the stars. It has been already detailed
how his father began his scientific career by similar observations on
stellar light-fluctuations, and how his remarks culminated years
afterwards in the question whether the radiative changes of our
sun, due to the presence or absence of sun-spots, affected our harvests
and the price of corn. Sir John carried speculation still farther,
pointing out that variations to the extent of half a magnitude in
the sun's brightness would account for those strange alternations
of semi-arctic and semi-tropical climates which geological researches
show to have occurred in various regions of our globe.
Herschel returned to his English home in the spring of 1838.
As was natural and right, he was welcomed with an enthusiastic
greeting. By the queen at her coronation he was created a
baronet; and, what to him was better than all such rewards,
other men caught the contagion of his example, and laboured
in fields similar to his own, with an adequate portion of his success.
Herschel was a highly accomplished chemist. His discovery
in 1819 of the solvent power of hyposulphite of soda on the
otherwise insoluble salts of silver was the prelude to its use
as a fixing agent in photography; and he invented in 1839,
independently of Fox Talbot, the process of photography on
sensitized paper. He was the first person to apply the now
well-known terms positive and negative to photographic images,
HERSCHELL, BARON
395
and to imprint them upon glass prepared by the deposit of a
sensitive Mm. He also paved the way for Sir George Stokes's
discovery of fluorescence, by his addition of the lavender rays to
the spectrum, and by his announcement in 1845 of " epipolic dis-
persion," as exhibited by sulphate of quinine. Several other
important researches connected with the undulatory theory of
light are embodied in his treatise on " Light " published in the
Encyclopaedia metropolitana.
Perhaps no man can become a truly great mathematician or
philosopher if devoid of imaginative power. John Herschel
possessed this endowment to a large extent; and he solaced
his declining years with the translation of the Iliad into verse,
having earlier executed a similar version of Schiller's Walk. But
the main work of his later life was the collection of all his father's
catalogues of nebulae and double stars combined with his own
observations and those of other astronomers each into a single
volume. He lived to complete the former, to present it to the
Royal Society, and to see it published in a separate form in the
Philosophical Transactions, vol. cliv). The latter work he left
unfinished, bequeathing it, in its imperfect form, to the Astro-
nomical Society. That society printed a portion of it, which
serves as an index to the observations of various astronomers on
double stars up to the year 1866.
A complete list of his contributions to learned societies will
be found in the Royal Society's great catalogue, and from them
may be gathered most of the records of his busy scientific life.
Sir John Herschel met with an amount of public recognition
which was unusual in the time of his illustrious father. Naturally
he was a member of almost every important learned society in
both hemispheres. For five years he held the same office of
master of the mint, which more than a century before had
belonged to Sir Isaac Newton; his friends also offered to propose
him as president of the Royal Society and again as member of
parliament for the university of Cambridge, but neither position
was desired by him.
In private life Sir John Herschel was a firm and most active
friend; he had no jealousies; he avoided all scientific feuds;
he gladly lent a helping hand to those who consulted him in
scientific difficulties; he never discouraged, and still less dis-
paraged, men younger than or inferior to himself; he was
pleased by appreciation of his work without being solicitous for
applause; it was said of him by a discriminating critic, and
without extravagance, that " his was a life full of serenity of the
sage and the docile innocence of a child."
He died at Collingwood, his residence near Hawkhurst in
Kent, on the nth of May 1871, in the seventy-ninth year of his
age, and his remains are interred in Westminster Abbey close to
the grave of Sir Isaac Newton.
Besides the laborious Cape Observations, Sir John Herschel was
the author of several books, one of which at least, On the Study
of Natural Philosophy (1830), possesses an interest which no future
advances of the subjects on which he wrote can obliterate. In
1849 came the Outlines of Astronomy, a volume still replete with
charm and instruction. His articles, " Meteorology," Physical
Geography," and " Telescope," contributed to the 8th edition of
the Encyclopaedia Britannica, were afterwards published separately.
When he was at the Cape he was more than once assisted in the
attempts there made to diffuse a love of knowledge among men not
engaged in literary pursuits; and with the same purpose he, on his
return to England, published, in Good Words and elsewhere, a series
of papers on interesting points of natural philosophy, subsequently
collected in a volume called Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects.
Another less widely known volume is his Collected Addresses, in which
he is seen in his happiest and most instructive mood.
See also Mrs John Herschel, "Memoir of Caroline Herschel,"
Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xxxii. 122 (C. Pritchard); Pro-
ceedings Roy. Society, xx. p. xvii. (T. Romney Robinson) ; Proceedings
Roy. Society of Edinburgh yii. 543 (P. G. Tait); Nature iv. 69;
E. Dunkin, Obituary Notices, p. 47; Report Brit. Association
(1871), p. Ixxxv. (Lord Kelvin); The Times (May 13, 1871); R.
Grant, History of Phys. Astronomy; A. M. Clerke, Popular Hist,
of Astronomy; A. M. Clerke, The Herschels and Modern Astronomy;
J. H. Madler, Geschichte der Himmelskunde,Bd. ii. ; Memoires de la
Societe Physique de Geneve, xxi. 586 (E. Gautier). Reductions,
based on standard magnitudes of 919 southern stars, observed by
Herschel in sequences of relative brightness, were published by W.
Doberck in the Astrophysical Journal, xi. 192, 270, and in Harvard
Annals, vol. xli., No. viii. (C. P.; A. M. C.)
HERSCHELL, FARRER HERSCHELL, IST BARON (1837-
1899), lord chancellor of England, was born on the 2nd of
November 1837. His father was the Rev. Ridley Haim Herschell,
a native of Strzelno, in Prussian Poland, who, when a young
man, exchanged the Jewish faith for Christianity, took a leading
part in founding the British Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel among the Jews, and, after many journeyings, settled
down to the charge of a Nonconformist chapel near the Edgware
Road, in London, where he ministered to a large congregation.
His mother was a daughter of William Mowbray, a merchant of
Leith. He was educated at a private school and at University
College, London. In 1857 he took his B.A. degree at the Uni-
versity of London. He was reckoned the best speaker in the
school debating society, and he displayed there the same command
of language and lucidity of thought which were his characteristics
during his official life. The reputation which Herschell enjoyed
during his school days was maintained after he became a law-
student at Lincoln's Inn. In 1858 he entered the chambers of
Thomas Chitty, the famous common law pleader, father of the
late Lord Justice Chitty. His fellow pupils, amongst whom
were A. L. Smith, afterwards master of the rolls, and Arthur
Charles, afterwards judge of the queen's bench division, gave
him the sobriquet of " the chief baron" in recognition of his
superiority. He subsequently read with James Hannen, after-
wards Lord Hannen. In 1860 he was called to the bar and
joined the northern circuit, then in its palmy days of undivided-
ness. For four or five years he did not obtain much work.
Fortunately, he was never a poor man, and so was not forced
into journalism, or other paths of literature, in order to earn a
living. Two of his contemporaries, each of whom achieved
great eminence, found themselves in like case. One of these,
Charles Russell, became lord chief justice of England ; the other,
William Court Gully, speaker of the House of Commons. It is
said that these three friends, dining together during a Liverpool
assize some years after they had been called, agreed that their
prospects were anything but cheerful. Certain it is that about
this time Herschell meditated quitting England for Shanghai and
practising in the consular courts there. Herschell, however, soon
made himself useful to Edward James, the then leader of the
northern circuit, and to John Richard Quain, the leading stuff-
gownsman. For the latter he was content to note briefs and
draft opinions, and when, in 1866, Quain donned " silk," it was
on Herschell that a large portion of his mantle descended.
In 187 2 Herschell was made a queen's counsel. He had all the
necessary qualifications for a leader a clear, though not resonant
voice; a calm, logical mind; a sound knowledge of legal prin-
ciples; and (greatest gift of all) an abundance of common sense.
He never wearied the judges by arguing at undue length, and
he knew how to retire with dignity from a hopeless cause. His
only weak point was cross-examination. In handling a hostile
witness he had neither the insidious persuasiveness of a Hawkins
nor the compelling, dominating power of a Russell. But he
made up for all by his speech to the jury, marshalling such facts
as told in his client's favour with the most consummate skill.
He very seldom made use of notes, but trusted to his memory,
which he had carefully trained. By this means he was able to
conceal his art, and to appear less as a paid advocate than as an
outsider interested in the case anxious to assist the jury in
arriving at the truth. By 1874 Herschell's business had become
so good that he turned his thoughts to parliament. In February
of that year there was a general election, with the result that the
Conservative party came into power with a majority of fifty.
The usual crop of petitions followed. The two Radicals (Thompson
and Henderson) who had been returned for Durham city were
unseated, and an attack was then made on the seats of two other
Radicals (Bell and Palmer) who had been returned for Durham
county. For one of these last Herschell was briefed. He made
so excellent an impression on_the local Radical leaders that they
asked him to stand for Durham city; and after a fortnight's
electioneering, he was elected as junior member. Between 1874
and 1880 Herschell was most assiduous in his attendance in the
House of Commons. He was not a frequent speaker, but a few
39 6
HERSCHELL, BARON
great efforts sufficed in his case to gain for him a reputation as a
debater. The best examples of his style as a private member
will be found in Hansard under the dates i8th February 1876,
23rd May 1878, 6th May 1879 On the last occasion he carried a
resolution in favour of abolishing actions for breach of promise of
marriage except when actual pecuniary loss had ensued, the
damages in such cases to be measured by the amount of such
loss. The grace of manner and solid reasoning with which he
acquitted himself during these displays obtained for him the
notice of Gladstone, who in 1880 appointed Herschell solicitor-
general.
Herschell's public services from 1880 to 1885 were of great
value, particularly in dealing with the " cases for opinion "
submitted by the Foreign Office and other departments. He was
also very helpful in speeding government measures through the
House, notably the Irish Land Act 1881, the Corrupt Practices
and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County Franchise Act 1884 and
the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. This last was a bitter pill
for Herschell, since it halved the representation of Durham city,
and so gave him statutory notice to quit. Reckoning on the
local support of the Cavendish family, he contested the North
Lonsdale division of Lancashire; but in spite of the powerful
influence of Lord Hartington, he was badly beaten at the poll,
though Mr Gladstone again obtained a majority in the country.
Herschell now thought he saw the solicitor-generalship slipping
away from him, and along with it all prospect of high promotion.
Lord Selborne and Sir Henry James, however, successively
declined Gladstone's offer of the Woolsack, andin 1886 Herschell,
by a sudden turn of fortune's wheel, found himself in his forty-
ninth year lord chancellor.
Herschell's chancellorship lasted barely six months, for in
August 1886 Gladstone's Home Rule Bill was rejected in the
Commons and his administration fell. In August 1892, when
Gladstone returned to power, Herschell again became lord
chancellor. In September 1893, when the second Home Rule
Bill came on for second reading in the House of Lords, Herschell
took advantage of the opportunity to justify the " sudden con-
version" to Home Rule of himself and his colleagues in 1885 by
comparing it to the duke of Wellington's conversion to Catholic
Emancipation in 1829 and to that of Sir Robert Peel to Free
Trade in 1846. In 1895, however, his second chancellorship
came to an end with the defeat of the Rosebery ministry.
Whether sitting at the royal courts in the Strand, on the
judicial committee of the privy council, or in the House of Lords,
Lord Herschell's judgments were distinguished for their acute
and subtle reasoning, for their grasp of legal principles, and,
whenever the occasion arose, for their broad treatment of con-
stitutional and social questions. He was not a profound lawyer,
but his quickness of apprehension was such that it was an
excellent substitute for great learning. In construing a real
property will or any other document, his first impulse was to
read it by the light of nature, and to decline to be influenced by
the construction put by the judges on similar phrases occurring
elsewhere. But when he discovered that certain expressions had
acquired a technical meaning which could not be disturbed with-
out fluttering the dovecotes of the conveyancers, he would yield
to the established rule, even though he did not agree with it. He
was perhaps seen at his judicial best in Vagliano v. Bank of
England ( 1 89 1 ) and A lien v. Flood ( 1 898) . Latterly he showed a
tendency, which seems to grow on some judges, to interrupt
counsel overmuch. The case last mentioned furnishes an
example of this. The question involved was what constituted a
molestation of a man in the pursuit of his lawful calling. At the
close of the argument of counsel, whom he had frequently
interrupted, one of their lordships, noted for his pretty wit,
observed that although there might be a doubt as to what
amounted to such molestation in point of law, the House could
well understand, after that day's proceedings, what it was in
actual practice. In addition to his political and judicial work,
Herschell rendered many public services. In 1888 he presided
over an inquiry directed by the House of Commons with regard to
the Metropolitan Board of Works. He acted as chairman of two
royal commissions, one on Indian currency, the other on vaccina-
tion. He took a great interest in the National Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children, not only promoting the acts
of 1889 and 1894, but also bestowing a good deal of time in
sifting the truth of certain allegations which had been brought
against the management of that society. In June 1893 he was
appointed chancellor of the university of London in succession to
the earl of Derby, and he entered on his new duties with the
usual thoroughness. " His views of reform," according to
Victor Dickins, the accomplished registrar of the university,
" were always most liberal and most frankly stated, though at
first they were not altogether popular with an important section
of university opinion. He disarmed opposition by his intellectual
power, rather than conciliated it by compromise, and sometimes
was perhaps a little masterful, after a fashion of his own, in his
treatment of the various burning questions that agitated the
university during his tenure of office. His characteristic power
of detachment was well illustrated by his treatment of the
proposal to remove the university to the site of the Imperial
Institute at South Kensington. Although he was at that time
chairman of the Institute, the most irreconcilable opponent of the
removal never questioned his absolute impartiality." With the
Imperial Institute Herschell had been officially connected from
its inception. He was chairman of the provisional committee
appointed by the prince of Wales to formulate a scheme for its
organization, and he took an active part in the preparation of its
charter and constitution in conjunction with Lord Thring, Lord
James, Sir Frederick Abel and Mr John Hollams. He was the
first chairman of its council, and, except during his tour in India
in 1888, when he brought the Institute under the notice of the
Indian authorities, he was hardly absent from a single meeting.
For his special services in this connexion he was made G.C.B. in
1893, this being the only instance of a lord chancellor being
decorated with an order.
In 1897 he was appointed, jointly with Lord Justice Collins, to
represent Great Britain on the Venezuela Boundary Commission,
which assembled in Paris in the spring of 1899. So complicated a
business involved a great deal of preparation and a careful study
of maps and historic documents. Not content with this, he
accepted in 1898 a seat on the joint high commission appointed to
adjust certain boundary and other important questions pending
between Great Britain and Canada on the one hand and the
United States on the other hand. He started for America in
July of that year, and was received most cordially at Washington.
His fellow commissioners elected him their president. In
February 1899, while the commission was in full swing, he had
the misfortune to slip in the street and in falling to fracture a hip
bone. His constitution, which at one time was a robust one,
had been undermined by constant hard work, and proved unequal
to sustaining the shock. On the ist of March, only a fortnight
after the accident, he died at the Shoreham Hotel, Washington,
a. post-mortem examination revealing disease of the heart. Mr
Hay, secretary of state, at once telegraphed to Mr Choate, the
United States ambassador in London, the "deep sorrow" felt by
President McKinley; and Sir Wilfred Laurier said the next day,
in the parliament chamber at Ottawa, that he regarded Herschell's
death " as a misfortune to Canada and to the British Empire."
A funeral service held in St John's Episcopal Church, Washington,
was attended by the president and vice-president of the United
States, by the cabinet ministers, the judges of the Supreme
Court, the members of the joint high commission, and a large
number of senators and other representative men. The body
was brought to London in a British man-of-war, and a second
funeral service was held in Westminster Abbey before it was
conveyed to its final resting-place at Tincleton, Dorset, in the
parish church of which he had been married. Herschell left a
widow, granddaughter of Vice-Chancellor Kindersley; a son,
Richard Farrer (b. 1878), who succeeded him as second baron ;
and two daughters.
A "reminiscence" of Herschell by Mr Speaker Gully (LordSelby)
will be found in The Law Quarterly Review for April 1899. The
Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation (of which he had been
HERSENT HERTFORD, EARLS OF
397
president from its formation in 1893) contains, in its part for July
of the same year, notices of him by Lord James of Hereford, Lord
Dayey, Mr Victor Williamson (his executor and intimate friend),
and also by Mr Justice D. J. Brewer and Senator C. W. Fairbanks
(both of the United States). (M. H. C.)
HERSENT, LOUIS (1777-1860), French painter, was born at
Paris on the loth of March 1777, and becoming a pupil of David,
obtained the Prix de Rome in 1797; in the Salon of 1802
appeared his " Metamorphosis of Narcissus," and he continued to
exhibit with rare interruptions up to 183 1 . His most considerable
works under the empire were " Achilles parting from Briseis," and
" Atala dying in the arms of Chactas " (both engraved in Landon's
Annales du Musfe) ; an " Incident of the life of Fenelon," painted
in 1810, found a place at Malmaison, and "Passage of the Bridge
atLandshut," which belongs to the same date, is now at Versailles.
Hersent's typical works, however, belong to the period of the Re-
storation; " Louis XVI. relieving the Afflicted" (Versailles) and
" Daphnis and Chloe " (engraved by Langier and by Gelee) were
both in the Salon of 1817; at that of 1819 the " Abdication of
Gustavus Vasa " brought to Hersent a medal of honour, but the
picture, purchased by the duke of Orleans, was destroyed at the
Palais Royal in 1848, and the engraving by Henriquel-Dupont is
now its sole record. " Ruth," produced in 1822, became the
property of Louis XVIII., who from the moment that Hersent
rallied to the Restoration jealously patronized him, made him
officer of the legion of honour, and pressed his claims at the
Institute, where he replaced van Spaendonck. He continued in
favour under Charles X., for whom was executed " Monks of Mount
St Gotthard," exhibited in 1824. In 1831 Hersent made his last
appearance at the Salon with portraits of Louis Philippe, Marie-
Amelie and the duke of Montpensier; that of the king though
good, is not equal to the portrait of Spontini (Beilin), which is
probably Hersent's chef-d'oeuvre. After this date Hersent ceased
to exhibit at the yearly salons. Although in 1846 he sent an
excellent likeness of Delphine Gay and one or two other works to
the rooms of the Societe d'Artistes, he could not be tempted
from his usual reserve even by the international contest of 1855.
He died on the 2nd of October 1860.
HERSFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the
Geis and Haun with the Fulda, on the railway from Frankfort-
on-Main to Bebra, 24 m. N.N.E. of Fulda. Pop. (1905) 8688.
Some of the old fortifications of the town remain, but the ramparts
and ditches have been laid out as promenades. The principal
buildings are the Stadt Kirche, a beautiful Gothic building,
erected about 1320 and restored in 1899, with a fine tower and a
large bell; the old and interesting town hall (Rathaus) and the
ruins of the abbey church. This church was erected on the site of
the cathedral in the beginning of the i2th century; it was built
in the Byzantine style and was burnt down by the French in 1761.
Outside the town are the Frauenberg and the Johannesberg, on
both of which are monastic ruins. Among the public institutions
are a gymnasium and a military school. The town has important
manufactures of cloth, leather and machinery; it has also dye-
works, worsted mills and soap-boiling works.
Hersfeld owes its existence to the Benedictine abbey (see
below). It became a town in the i2th century and in 1370 the
burghers, having meanwhile shaken off the authority of the
abbots, placed themselves under the protection of the landgraves
of Hesse. It was taken and retaken during the Thirty Years'
War and later it suffered from the attacks of the French.
The Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld was founded by Lullus,
afterwards archbishop of Mainz, about 769. It was richly
endowed by Charlemagne and became an ecclesiastical princi-
pality in the i2th century, passing under the protection of the
landgraves of Hesse in 1423. It was secularized in 1648, having
been previously administered for some years by a member of the
ruling family of Hesse. As a secular principality Hersfeld passed
to Hesse, and with electoral Hesse was united with Prussia in
1866. In the middle ages the abbey was famous for its library.
See Vigelius, Denkwurdigkeiten von Hersfeld (Hersfeld, 1888);
Demme, Nachrichten und Urkunden zur Chronik von Hersfeld (Hersfeld,
1891-1901), and P. Hafner, Die Reichsabtei Hersfeld bis zur Mitte
des I3ten Jahrhunderts (Hersfeld, 1889).
HERSTAL, or HERISTAL, a town of Belgium, less than 2 m. N.
of Liege and practically one of its suburbs. The name is supposed
to be derived from Heerstelle, i.e. " Permanent Camp." The
second Pippin was born here, and this mayor of the palace
acquired the control of the kingdom of the Franks. His grand-
son, Pippin the Short, died at Herstal in A.D. 768, and it disputes
with Aix la Chapelle the honour of being the birthplace of
Charlemagne. It is now a very active centre of iron and 'steel
manufactures. The Belgian national small arms factory and
cannon foundry are fixed here. Pop. (1904) 20,114.
HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The English
earldom of Hertford was held by members of the powerful family
of Clare from about 1138, when Gilbert de Clare was created
earl of Hertford, to 1314 when another earl Gilbert was killed
at Bannockburn. In 1537 EDWARD SEYMOUR, viscount Beau-
champ, a brother of Henry VIII. 's queen, Jane Seymour, was
created earl of Hertford, being advanced ten years later to the
dignity of duke of Somerset and becoming protector of England.
His son EDWARD (c. 1540-1621) was styled earl of Hertford from
1547 until the protector's attainder and death in January 1552,
when the title was forfeited; in 1559, however, he was created
earl of Hertford. In 1560 he was secretly married to Lady
Catherine Grey (c. 1538-1568), daughter of Henry Grey, duke of
Suffolk, and a descendant of Henry VII. Queen Elizabeth
greatly disliked this union, and both husband and wife were
imprisoned, while the validity of their marriage was questioned.
Catherine died on the 27th of January 1568 and Hertford on the
6th of April 1621. Their son Edward, Lord Beauchamp (1561-
1612), who inherited his mother's title to the English throne,
predeceased his father; and the latter was succeeded in the
earldom by his grandson WILLIAM SEYMOUR (1588-1660), who
was created marquess of Hertford in 1640 and was restored to his
ancestor's dukedom of Somerset in 1660. The title of marquess
of Hertford became extinct when JOHN, 4th duke of Somerset,
died in 1675, and the earldom when ALGERNON, the 7th duke,
died in February 1750.
In August 1750 FRANCIS SEYMOUR CONWAY, 2nd Baron
Conway (1718-1794), who was a direct descendant of the
protector Somerset, was created earl of Hertford; this noble-
man was the son of Francis Seymour Conway (1670-1732), who
had taken the name of Conway in addition to that of Seymour,
and was the brother of Field-marshal Henry Seymour Conway.
Hertford was ambassador to France from 1763 to 1765; was lord-
lieutenant of Ireland in 1765 and 1766; and lord chamberlain of
the household from 1766 to 1782. Horace Walpole speaks of his
" decorum and piety " and refers to him as a " perfect courtier,"
but says that he had " too great propensity to heap emoluments
on his children." In 1793 he became earl of Yarmouth and
marquess of Hertford, and he died on the i4th of June 1 794. His
son, FRANCIS INGRAM SEYMOUR CONWAY (1743-1822), who was
known during his father's lifetime as Lord Beauchamp, took a
prominent part in the debates of the House of Commons from
1766 until he succeeded to the marquessate in 1794. He was
sent as ambassador to Berlin and Vienna in 1793 and from 1812
to 1821 he was lord chamberlain. His son FRANCIS CHARLES,
the 3rd marquess (1777-1842), was an intimate friend of the
prince regent, afterwards George IV., and is the original of the
" Marquis of Steyne " in Thackeray's Vanity Fair and of " Lord
Monmouth " in Disraeli's Coningsby. The 4th marquess was his
son, RICHARD (1800-1870), whose mother was the great heiress,
Maria Emily Fagniani, and whose brother was Lord Henry
Seymour (1805-1859), the founder of the Jockey Club at Paris.
When Richard died unmarried in Paris in August 1870. his title
passed to his kinsman, FRANCIS HUGH GEORGE SEYMOUR (1812-
1884), a descendant of the ist marquess, whose son, HUGH DE
GREY (b. 1843) became 6th marquess in 1884. The 4th mar-
quess left his great wealth and his priceless collection of art
treasures to Sir Richard Wallace (1818-1890), his reputed half-
brother, and Wallace's widow, who died in 1897, bequeathed
the collection to the British nation. It is now in Hertford
House, formerly the London residence of the marquesses of
Hertford.
39^
HERTFORD HERTFORDSHIRE
HERTFORD, a market-town and municipal borough, and the
county town of Hertfordshire, England, in the Hertford parlia-
mentary division of the county, 24 m. N. from London, the
terminus of branch lines of the Great Eastern and Great
Northern railways. Pop. (1901) 9322. It is pleasantly situated
in the valley of the river Lea. The chief buildings are the modern
churches of St Andrew and of All Saints, on the sites of old
ones,' a town hall, corn exchange, public library, school of art and
the old castle, which retains the wall and part of a tower dating
from the Norman period, and is represented by a picturesque
Jacobean building of brick, largely modernized. There are
several educational establishments, including the preparatory
school for Christ's Hospital, a picturesque building (in great part,
however, rebuilt) at the east end of the town, Kale's grammar
school, the Cowper Testimonial school, and a Green-coat school
for boys and girls. Two miles S.E. is Haileybury College, one of
the principal public schools of England, founded in 1805 by the
East India Company for their civil service students, who were
then temporarily housed in Hertford Castle. The school lies
high above the Lea valley, towards Hoddesdon, in the midst of a
stretch of finely-wooded country. Hertford has a considerable
agricultural trade, and there are mailings, breweries, iron
foundries, and oriental printing works. The town is governed
by a mayor, 5 aldermen and 15 councillors. Area, 1134
acres.
Hertford (Herutford, Heorolford, Hurtford) was the scene of a
synod in 673. Its communication with London by way of the
Lea and the Thames gave it strategic importance during the
Danish occupation of East Anglia. In 1066 and later it was a
royal garrison and burgh. It made separate payments for aids
to the Norman and Angevin kings; and in 1331 was governed by
a bailiff annually elected by the commonalty. A charter in-
corporated the bailiffs and burgesses in 1555, and was confirmed
under Elizabeth and in 1606. A charter of 1680 to the mayor,
aldermen and commonalty was effective until the Municipal
Corporation Act. Hertford returned two burgesses to the
parliament of 1298, and to others until, after 1375/6, such
right became abeyant, to be restored by order of parliament in
1623/4. One representative was lost by the Representation
Act in 1868, and separate representation by the Redistribution
Act in 1885. A grant of fairs in 1226 probably originated or
confirmed those held in 1331 on the feasts of the Assumption and
of St Simon and St Jude, their vigils and morrows, which fairs
were confirmed by Elizabeth and Charles II. Another on the
vigil, morrow and feast of the Nativity of the Virgin was granted
by Elizabeth: its date was changed to May-day under James I.
Modern fairs are on the third Saturda> before Easter, the I2th of
May, the sth of July and the 8th of November. Markets were
held in 1331 on Wednesday and Saturday; after 1368 on
Thursday and Saturday; and they returned to Wednesdays and
Saturdays in 1680.
HERTFORDSHIRE [HERTS], a county of England, bounded
N. by Cambridgeshire, N.W. by Bedfordshire, E. by Essex,
S. by Middlesex, and S.W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is
634-6 sq. m., the county being the sixth smallest in England.
Its aspect is always pleasant, the surface generally undulating,
while in some parts, where these undulations form a quick
succession of hills and valleys, the woodland scenery becomes
very beautiful, as in the upper Lea valley, in the neighbourhood
of Tewin near Hertford, and elsewhere. To the north-west and
north considerable elevations are reached, a line of hills, facing
north-westward with a sharp descent, crossing this portion of
the county, and overlooking the flat lands of Bedfordshire and
Cambridgeshire. They continue the line of the Chiltern Hills,
under the name of the East Anglian Ridge. They exceed 800 ft.
near Dunstable, sinking gradually north-eastward. These
uplands are generally bare, and in parts remarkably sparsely
populated as compared with the home counties at large. In the
greater part of the county, however, rich arable lands are inter-
mingled with the parks and woodlands of numerous fine country
seats, which impart to the county a peculiar luxuriance. Of the
principal rivers, the Lea, rising beyond Luton in Bedfordshire,
enters Hertfordshire near East Hyde, flows S.E. to near Hatfield,
then E. by N. to Hertford and Ware, whence it bends S. and
passing along the eastern boundary of the county falls into the
Thames below London. It receives in its course the Maran, or
Mimram, the Beane, the Rib and the Stort, all joining on the
north side; the Stort for some distance forming the county
boundary with Essex. The Colne flows through the south-
western part of the county, to fall into the Thames at Staines.
It receives the Ver, the Bulborne and the Chess. The Ivel,
rising in the N.W. soon passes into Bedfordshire to join the
Great Ouse. To the south of Hatfield, near North Mimms, two
streams of moderate size are lost in pot-holes, except in the
highest floods. The New River, one of the water supplies of
London, has its source near Ware, and runs roughly parallel
with the Lea. Most of the rivers are full of fish, including trout
in the upper parts (of the Lea and Colne especially), which are
carefully preserved.
Geology. The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the shallow
syncl'ne known as the London basin, the beds dipping in a south-
easterly direction. The two most important formations are the
Chalk, which forms the high ground in the north and west; and the
Eocene Reading beds and London Clay which occupy the remaining
southern part of the county. On the northern boundary, at the foot
of the chalk hills, a small strip of Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand
above it falls just within the county. The lowest subdivision of the
chalk is the Chalk Marl, which with the Totternhoe Stone above it,
lies at the base of the Chalk escarpment, by Ashwell, Pirton and
Miswell to Tring. Above these beds, the Lower Chalk, without
flints, rises up sharply to form the downs which are the easterly
continuation of the Chiltern Hills. Next comes the Chalk Rock,
which being a hard bed, lies near the hilltops by Boxmoor, Apsley
End and near Baldock. The Upper Chalk slopes southward towards
the Eocene boundary previously mentioned. The Reading beds
consist of mottled and yellow clays and sands, the latter are frequently
hardened into masses made up of pebbles in a siliceous cement,
known locally as Hertfordshire puddingstone. The London Clay, a
stiff blue clay which weathers brown, rests nearly everywhere upon the
Reading beds. Outliers of Eocene rocks rest on the chalk at Mickle-
field Green, Sarrat, Bedmont, &c. The Chalk is often covered by
the Clay-with-flints, a detrital deposit, formed of the remnants of
Tertiary rocks and Chalk. Glacial gravels, clays and loams cover a
great deal of the whole area, and the Upper Chalk itself has been
disturbed at Reed and Barley by the same agency. Chalk was
formerly used for building purposes; it is now burned for lime.
Reading beds and London clay are dug for brickmaking at Watford,
Hertford and Hatfield. Phosphatic nodules have been excavated
from the base of the Chalk Marl at several places along the outcrop;
the Marl is worked for cement.
Climate and Agriculture. The climate is mild, dry and
generally healthy. On this account London physicians were
formerly accustomed to recommend the county to persons in
weak health, and it was so much coveted by the noble and
wealthy as a place of residence that it was a common saying that
" he who buys a home in Hertfordshire pays two years' purchase
for the air." Of the total area about four-fifths is under cultiva-
tion, and of this more than one-third is in permanent pasture.
The principal grain crop is wheat, occupying about two-fifths of
the area under corn, but gradually decreasing. The varieties
mostly grown are white, and they are unsurpassed by those of
any English county. Wheathampstead on the upper Lea
receives its name from the fine quality of the wheat grown in that
district. Barley is largely used in the county for malting
purposes. Vetches are grown for the London stables, and the
greater part of the permanent grass is used for hay. There are
some very rich pastures on the banks of the Stort, and also near
Rickmansworth on the Colne. Some two-thirds of the area
occupied by green crops is under turnips, swedes and mangolds,
many cows being kept for the supply of milk and butter to
London. The quantity of stock is generally small, but increasing
except in the case of sheep, of which the numbers have greatly
decreased. Of cows the most common breed is the Suffolk
variety; of sheep, Southdowns, Wiltshires and a cross between
Cotteswolds and Leicesters. In the south-west large quantities
of cherries, apples and strawberries are grown for the London
market; and on the best soils near London vegetables are forced
by the aid of manure, and more than one crop is sometimes
obtained in a year. A considerable industry lies in the growth of
watercresses in the pure water of the upper parts of the rivers and
HERTFORDSHIRE
399
the smaller streams. There are a number of rose-gardens and
nurseries.
Other Industries. The manufacturing industries are slight;
though the great brewing establishments at Watford may be
mentioned, and straw-plaiting, paper-making, coach-building,
tanning and brick-making are carried on in various towns.
Communications. Owing to its proximity to the metropolis,
Hertfordshire is particularly well served by railways. On the
eastern border there is the Great Eastern (Cambridge line)
with branches to Hertford and to Buntingford. The main line
of the Great Northern passes through the centre by Hatfield,
Stevenage and Hitchin, with branches from Hatfield to Hertford,
to St Albans and to Luton and Dunstable, and from Hitchin to
Baldock, Royston and so to Cambridge. The Midland passes
through St Albans and Harpenden, with a branch to Hemel
Hempstead. The London & North- Western traverses the south-
west by Watford, Berkhampstead and Tring, with branches to
Rickmansworth and to St Albans. The Metropolitan & Great
Central joint line serves Rickmansworth, and suburban lines
of the Great Northern the Barnet district. The existence of
these communications has combined with the natural attractions
of the county to cause many villages to become large residential
centres. Water communications are supplied from Hertford,
Ware and Bishop Stortford, southward to the Thames by the
Lea and Stort Navigation; and the Grand Junction canal from
London to the north-west traverses the south-western corner
of the county by Rickmansworth and Berkhampstead. Three
great highways from London to the north traverse the county.
The Holyhead Road passes Chipping Barnet, South Mimms and
St Albans, quitting the county near Dunstable. The Great
North Road branches from the Holyhead Road at Barnet, and
passes Potter's Bar, Hatfield, Stevenage and Baldock, with a
branch from Welwyn to Hitchin and beyond. Another road
follows the Lea valley to Ware, whence it runs to Royston,
being here coincident with the Roman Ermine Street and known
as the Old North Road.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 406,157 acres with a population in 1891 of 220,162,
and in 1901 of 250,152. The area of the administrative county
is 404,518 acres. The county comprises eight hundreds. The
municipal boroughs are: Hemel Hempstead (11,264), Hertford
9322), St Albans, a city (16,019). The other urban districts are:
Baldock (2057), Barnet (7876), Berkhampstead (Great Berk-
hampstead, 5140), Bishop Stortford (7143), Bushey (4564),
Cheshunt (12,292), East Barnet Valley (10,094), Harpenden
(4725), Hitchin (10,072), Hoddesdon (4711),' Rickmansworth
(5627), Royston (3517), Sawbridgeworth (2085), Stevenage (3957),
Tring (4349), Ware (5573) and Watford (29,327). The county
is in the home circuit, and assizes are held at Hertford. It has
two courts of quarter-sessions, and is divided into 15 petty-
sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hertford and St Albans
have separate commissions of the peace. The total number
of civil parishes is 158. All the civil parishes within 12 m. of,
or in which no portion is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross,
London, are included in the metropolitan police district. The
county contains 1 70 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or
in part; it is nearly all in the diocese of St Albans, but small
parts are in the dioceses of Ely, Oxford and London. It is
divided into four parliamentary divisions Northern or Hitchin,
Eastern or Hertford, Mid or St Albans, Western or Watford,
each returning one member. There is no parliamentary borough
within the county.
History. Relics of Saxon occupation have been found in
Hertfordshire for the most part near St Albans and Hitchin.
The diocesan limits show that part of the shire was included in
the West Saxon kingdom. The East Saxons, as early as the
6th century, were settled about Hertford, which in 673 was
sufficiently important to be the meeting-place of a synod con-
vened by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, while in 675 the
Witenagemot assembled at a place which has been identified with
Hatfield. In the gth century the district was frequently visited
by the Danes; and after the peace of Wedmore the country east
of the Lea was included in the Danelaw; in 911 Edward the
Elder erected forts on both sides of the river at Hertford.
After the battle of Hastings William advanced on Hertford-
shire and ravaged as far as Berkhampstead, where the Conquest
received its formal ratification. In the sweeping confiscation
of estates which followed, the church was generously endowed,
the abbey of St Albans alone holding 172 hides, while Count
Eustace of Boulogne, the chief lay tenant, held a.vast fief in the
north-east of the county. Large estates were held by Geoffrey
de Mandeville, and the barony of Peter de Valognes, sheriff of the
county in 1086, though extending over six counties in the east
of England, was returned in 1166 as a Hertfordshire barony.
Berkhampstead was the head of an honour carved from the
fief of Robert of Mortain. The Hertfordshire estates, however,
for the most part changed hands very frequently and the county
is noticeably lacking in historic families. Edmund Langley,
fifth son of Edward III., was born at King's Langley in this
county.
During the war between John and his barons, William, earl of
Salisbury and Falkes de Breaute had the king's orders to ravage
Hertfordshire, and in 1216 Hertford Castle was captured and
Berkhampstead Castle besieged by Louis of France, who had
come over by invitation of the barons. At the time of the rising
of 1381 the abbot's tenants broke into the abbey of St Albans and
forced the abbot to grant them a charter. During the Wars of the
Roses, Henry VI. was defeated at St Albans in 1455; at the
second battle of St Albans the earl of Warwick was defeated by
Queen Margaret; and in 1471 Edward IV. again defeated the
earl at Barnet. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the i7th
century, Hertfordshire joined with Bedfordshire and Essex in
petitioning for peace, and St Albans again played an important
part in the struggle, being at different times the headquarters
of Essex and Fairfax.
As a shire Hertfordshire is of purely military origin, being the
district assigned to the fortress which Edward the Elder erected
at Hertford. It is first mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 101 1 .
At the time of the Domesday Survey the boundaries were ap-
proximately those of the present day, but part of Meppershall in
Bedfordshire formed a detached portion of the shire and is still
assessed for land and income tax in Hertfordshire. Of the nine
Domesday hundreds, those of Danais and Tring were consolidated
about 1 200 under the name of Dacorum; the modern hundred of
Cashio, from being held by the abbots of St Albans, was known
as Albaneston, while the remaining six hundreds correspond
approximately both in name and extent with those of the present
day.
Hertfordshire was originally divided between the dioceses of
London and Lincoln. In 1291 that part included in the Lincoln
diocese formed part of the archdeaconry of Huntingdom and
comprised the deaneries of Berkhampstead, Hitchin, Hertford and
Baldock, and the archdeaconry and deanery of St Albans; while
that part within the London diocese formed the deanery of
Braughing within the archdeaconry of Middlesex. In 1535
the jurisdiction of St Albans had been transferred to the London
diocese, the division being otherwise unchanged. In 1846 the
whole county was placed within the diocese of Rochester and
archdeaconry of St Albans, and in the next year the deaneries of
Welwyn, Bennington, Buntingford, Bishop Stortford and Ware
were created, and that of Braughing abolished. In 1864 the
archdeaconries of Rochester and St Albans were united under
the name of the archdeaconry of Rochester and St Albans. In
1878 the county was placed in the newly created diocese of St
Albans, and formed the archdeaconry of St Albans, the deaneries
being unchanged.
Hertfordshire was closely associated with Essex from the time
of its first settlement, and the counties paid a joint fee-farm and
were united under one sheriff until 1565, the shire-court being held
at Hertford. The hundred of St Albans was at an early date
constituted a separate liberty, with independent courts and
coroners under the control of the abbot; it preserved a separate
commission of the peace until 1874, when by act of parliament
the county was arranged in two divisions, the eastern division
HERTHA HERTZ, H. R.
being named Hertford, and the western the liberty of St Albans.
These divisions have since been abolished.
Hertfordshire has always been an agricultural county, with few
manufactures, and at the time of the Domesday Survey its wealth
was derived almost entirely from its rural manors, with their
water meadows, woodlands, fisheries paying rent in eels, and
water-mills, the shire on its eastern side being noticeably free from
waste land. In Norman times the woollen trade was considerable,
and the great corn market at Royston has been famous since the
reign of Elizabeth. At the time of the Civil War the malting
industry was largely carried on, and saltpetre was produced in
the county. In the i7th century Hertfordshire was famous
for its horses, and the i8th century saw the introduction of
several minor industries, such as straw-plaiting, paper-making
and silk weaving.
In 1290 Hertfordshire returned two members to parliament,
and in 1298 the borough of Hertford was represented. St
Albans, Bishop Stortford and Berkhampstead acquired repre-
sentation in the I4th century, but from 1375 to 1553 no returns
were made for the boroughs. St Albans regained representation
> n J 5S3 an d Hertford in 1623. Under the Reform Act of 1832
the county returned three members. St Albans was dis-
franchised on account of bribery in 1852. Hertford lost one
member in 1868, and was disfranchised by the act of 1885.
Antiquities. Among the objects of antiquarian interest may
be mentioned the cave of Royston, doubtless once used as a
hermitage; Waltham Cross, erected to mark the spot where
rested the body of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., on its way to
Westminster for interment; and the Great Bed of Ware referred
to in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night and preserved at Rye House.
The principal monastic buildings are the noble pile of St Albans
abbey; the remains of Sopwell Benedictine nunnery near St
Albans, founded in 1140; the remains of the priory of Ware,
dedicated to St Francis, and originally a cell to the monastery of
St Ebrulf at Utica in Normandy; and the remains of the priory
at Hitchin built by Edward II. for the Carmelites. Among the
more interesting churches may be mentioned those of Abbots
Langley and Hemel Hempstead, both of Late Norman archi-
tecture; Baldock, a handsome mixed Gothic building supposed
to have been erected by the Knights Templars in the reign of
Stephen; Royston, formerly connected with the priory of canons
regular; Hitchin of the i5th century; Hatfield, dating from the
i3th century but in the main later; Berkhampstead, chiefly in
the Perpendicular style, with a tower of the i6th century.
Sandridge church shows good Norman work with the use of
Roman bricks; Wheathampstead church, mainly very fine
Decorated, has pre-Norman remains. The remains of secular
buildings of importance are those of Berkhampstead castle,
Hertford castle, Hatfield palace of the bishops of Ely, the slight
traces at Bishop Stortford, and the earthworks at Anstey.
Among the numerous mansions of interest, Rye House, erected in
the reign of Henry VI., was tenanted by Rumbold, one of the
principal agents in the plot to assassinate Charles II. Moor
Park, Rickmansworth, once the property of St Albans abbey,
was granted by Henry VII. to John de Vere, earl of Oxford, and
was afterwards the property of the duke of Monmouth, who
built the present mansion, which, however, was subsequently
cased with Portland stone and received various other additions.
Knebworth, the seat of the Lyttons, was originally a Norman
fortress, rebuilt in the time of Elizabeth in the Tudor style and
restored in the igth century. Hatfield House is the seat of the
marquis of Salisbury; but its earlier history is of great interest,
as is that of Theobalds near Cheshunt. Panshanger House, until
recently the principal seat of the Cowpers, is a splendid mansion
in Gothic style erected at the beginning of the igth century. The
manor of Cashiobury House, the seat of the earls of Essex, was
formerly held by the abbot of St Albans, but the mansion was
rebuilt in the beginning of the igth century from designs by
Wyatt. Gorhambury House, near St Albans, the seat of the earl
of Verulam, formerly the seat of the Bacons, and the residence of
the great chancellor, was rebuilt at the close of the i8th century.
At Kings Langley and Hunsdon were also former royal residences.
See Sir H. Chauncy, Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire (London,
1700, 2nd cd., Bishop Stortford, 1826); N. Salmon, History of
Hertfordshire (London, 1728); R. Clutterbuck, History and
Antiquities of the County of Hertford (London, 1815-1827); W.
Berry, Pedigrees of the Hertfordshire Families (London, 1844);
J. E. Cussans, History of Hertfordshire (London, 1870-1881);
Victoria County History, Hertfordshire (London, 1902, &c.) ; see
also " Visitation of Hertfordshire, 1572-1634," in Harleian Society's
Publ. vol. xvii., and various papers in Middlesex and Hertfordshire
Notes and Queries (1895-1898), which in January 1899 was incor-
porated in the Home Counties Magazine.
HERTHA, or NERTHUS, in Teutonic mythology, the goddess
of fertility, "Mother Earth." Tacitus states that many Teutonic
tribes worshipped her with orgies and mysterious rites celebrated
at night. The chief seat of her cult was an island which has not
been identified. A single priest performed the service. Her
veiled statue was moved from place to place by sacred cows on
which none but the priest might lay hands. At the conclusion of
the rites the image, its vestments and its vehicle were bathed in
a lake.
HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF (1857-1894), German physicist,
was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1857. On leaving
school he determined to adopt the profession of engineering, and
in the pursuance of this decision went to study in Munich in 1877.
But soon coming to the conclusion that engineering was not his
vocation he abandoned it in favour of physical science, and in
October 1878 began to attend the lectures of G. R. Kirchhoff and
H. von Helmholtz at Berlin. In preparation for these he spent
the winter of 1877-1878 in reading up original treatises like those
of Laplace and Lagrange on mathematics and mechanics, and in
attending courses on practical physics under P. G. von Jolly and
J. F. W. von Bezold; the consequence was that within a few days
of his arrival in Berlin in October 1878 he was able to plunge into
original research on a problem of electric inertia. For the best
solution a prize was offered by the philosophical faculty of the
University, and this he succeeded in winning with the paper
which was published in 1 880 on the " Kinetic Energy of Electricity
in Motion." His next investigation, on " Induction in Rotating
Spheres," he offered in 1880 as his dissertation for his doctor's
degree, which he obtained with the rare distinction of sttmnia
cum laude. Later in the same year he became assistant to
Helmholtz in the physical laboratory of the Berlin Institute.
During the three years he held this position he carried out
researches on the contact of elastic solids, hardness, evaporation
and the electric discharge in gases, the last earning him the
special commendation of Helmholtz. In 1883 he went to Kiel,
becoming Privatdozent, and there he began the studies in Maxwell's
electro-magnetic theory which a few years later resulted in the
discoveries that rendered his name famous. These were actually
made between 1885 and 1889, when he was professor of physics
in the Carlsruhe Polytechnic. He himself recorded that their
origin is to be sought in a prize problem proposed by the Berlin
Academy of Sciences in 1879, having reference to the experi-
mental establishment of some relation between electromagnetic
forces and the dielectric polarization of insulators. Imagining
that this would interest Hertz and be successfully attacked by
him, Helmholtz specially drew his attention to it, and promised
him the assistance of the Institute if he decided to work on the
subject; but Hertz did not take it up seriously at that time,
because he could not think of any procedure likely to prove
effective. It was of course well known, as a necessity of Maxwell's
mathematical theory, that the polarization and depolarization of
an insulator must give rise to the same electromagnetic effects in
the neighbourhood as a voltaic current in a conductor. The ex-
perimental proof, however, was still lacking, and though several
experimenters had come very near its discovery, Hertz was the first
who actually succeeded in supplying it, in 1887. Continuing his
inquiries for the next year or two, he was able to discover the pro-
gressive propagation of electromagnetic action through space, to
measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves, and to
show that in the transverse nature of their vibration and their sus-
ceptibility to reflection, refraction and polarization they are in
complete correspondence with the waves of light and heat. The
result, was in Helmholtz's words, to establish beyond doubt that
HERTZ, H. HERTZBERG
401
ordinary light consists of electrical vibrations in an all-pervading
ether which possesses the properties of an insulator and of a
magnetic medium. Hertz himself gave an admirable account of
the significance of his discoveries in a lecture on the relations
between light and electricity, delivered before the German Society
for the Advancement of Natural Science and Medicine at Heidel-
berg in September 1889. Since the time of these early experi-
ments, various other modes of detecting the existence of electric
waves have been found out in addition to the spark-gap which
he first employed, and the results of his observations, the earliest
interest of which was simply that they afforded a confirmation of
an abstruse mathematical theory, have been applied to the
practical purposes of signalling over considerable distances
(see TELEGRAPHY, WIRELESS). In 1889 Hertz was appointed to
succeed R. J. E. Clausius as ordinary professor of physics in the
university of Bonn. There he continued his researches on the
discharge of electricity in rarefied gases, only just missing the
discovery of the X-rays described by W. C. Rontgen a few years
later, and produced his treatise on the Principles of Mechanics.
This was his last work, for after a long illness he died at Bonn on
the ist of January 1894. By his premature death science lost one
of her most promising disciples. Helmholtz thought him the one
of all his pupils who had penetrated farthest into his swn circle of
scientific thought, and looked to him with the greatest confidence
for the further extension and development of his work.
Hertz's scientific papers were translated into English by Professor
D. E. Jones, and published in three volumes: Electric Waves (1893),
Miscellaneous Papers (1896), and Principles of Mechanics (1899).
The preface contributed to the first of these by Lord Kelvin, and the
introductions to the second and third by Professors P. E. A. Lenard
and Helmholtz, contain many biographical details, together with
statements of the scope and significance of his investigations.
HERTZ, HENRIK (1797-1870), Danish poet, was born of
Jewish parents in Copenhagen on the 2$th of August 1798. In
1817 he was sent to the university. His father died in his
infancy, and the family property was destroyed in the bombard-
ment of 1807. The boy was brought up by his relative, M. L.
Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor. Young Hertz
passed his examination in law in 1825. But his taste was all for
polite literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced,
Mr Burchardt and his Family and Love and Policy; in 1828
followed the comedy of Flytledagen. In 1830 he brought out
what was a complete novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in
rhymed verse, A mor's Strokes of Genius. In the same year Hertz
published anonymously Gengangerbrevene, or Letters from a
Ghost, which he pretended were written by Baggesen, who had
died in 1826. The book was written in defence of J. L. Heiberg,
and was full of satirical humour and fine critical insight. Its
success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his anonymity,
and the secret was not known until many years later. In 1832
he published a didactic poem, Nature and Art, and Four Poetical
Epistles. A Day on the Island of Als was his next comedy, followed
in 1835 by The Only Fault. Hertz passed through Germany and
Switzerland into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and
returned the following autumn through France to Denmark. In
1836 his comedy of The Sailings Bank enjoyed a great success.
But it was not till 1837 that he gave the full measure of his genius
in the romantic national drama of Svend Dyrings Hus, a beautiful
and original piece. His historical tragedy Valdemar Alter dag was
not so well received in 1839; but in 1845 he achieved an immense
success with his lyrical drama Kong Rene's Dalter (King Rene's
Daughter), which has been translated into almost every European
language. To this succeeded the tragedy of Ninon in 1848, the
romantic comedy of Tonietta in 1849, A Sacrifice in 1833, The
Youngest in 1854. His lyrical poems appeared in successive
collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he
edited a literary journal entitled Weekly Leaves. His last drama,
Three Days in Padua, was produced in 1869, and he died on
the 2$th of February of the next year.
Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems
are full of colour and passion, his versification has more witch-
craft in it than any other poet's of his age, and his style is grace
itself. He has all the sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity
to the antique. As a romantic dramatist he is scarcely less
original. He has bequeathed to the Danish theatre, in Svend
Dyrings Hus and King Rene's Daughter, two pieces which have
become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he has little
or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best
when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing
south.
His Dramatic Works (18 vols.) were published at Copenhagen in
1854-1873; and his Foems (4 vols.) in 1851-1862.
HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH, COUNT VON (1725-1795),
Prussian statesman, who came of a noble family which had been
settled in Pomerania since the i3th century, was born at Lottin,
in that province, on the 2nd of September 1725. After 1739 he
studied, chiefly classics and history at the gymnasium at Stettin,
and in 1742 entered the university of Halle as a student of juris-
prudence, becoming in due course a doctor of laws in 1745. In
addition to this principal study, he was also interested while at
the university in historical and philosophical (Christian Wolff)
studies. A first thesis for his doctcrate, entitled Jus publicum
Brandenburgicum, was not printed, because it contained a
criticism of the existing condition of the state. Shortly after-
wards Hertzberg entered the government service, in which he
was first employed in the department of the state archives (of
which he became director in 1750), soon after in the foreign
office, and finally in 1763 as chief minister (Cabinelsminisler).
In 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen, a marriage
which was happy, but childless.
For more than forty years Hertzberg played an active part
in the Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a decisive
influence on Prussian policy, both under Frederick the Great and
Frederick William II. At the beginning of the Seven. Years'
War (1756) he took part as a political writer in the Hohenzollern-
Habsburg quarrel, both in his Ursachen, die S.K.M. in Preussen
bewogen haben, sick wider die Absichlen dcs Wiencrischcn Hofes
zu setzen und deren Ausfuhrung zuvorzukommen (" Motives which
have induced the king of Prussia to oppose the intentions of the
court of Vienna, and to prevent them from being carried into
effect"), and in his M emoire raisonne sur la conduite dcs cours de
Vienne et de Saxe, based on the secret papers taken by Frederick
the Great from the archives of Dresden. After the defeat at
Kolin (1757) he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the
national defence there and collect the necessary troops for the
protection of the fortresses of Stettin and Colberg. In the
same year he conducted the peace negotiations with Sweden,
and was of great service in bringing about the peace of Huberts-
burg (1763), on the conclusion of which the king received him
with the words, " I congratulate you. You have made peace
as I made war, one against many."
In the later years, too, of Frederick the Great's reign, Hertzberg
played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a
memoir based upon comprehensive historical studies, he defended
the Prussian claims to certain provinces of Poland. He also took
part successfully as a publicist in the negotiations concerning the
question of the Bavarian succession (1778) and those of the peace
of Teschen (1779). But in 1780 he failed to uphold Prussian
interests at the election of the bishop of Munster. In 1784
appeared Hertzberg's memoir containing a thorough study of the
Ftirstenbund. He championed this latest creation of Frederick
the Great's mainly with a view to an energetic reform of the
empire, though the idea of German unity was naturally still
far from his mind. In 1785 followed " An explanation of the
motives which have led the king of Prussia to propose to the other
high estates of the empire an association for the maintenance of
the system of the empire " (Erkldrung der Ursachen, welche S.M.
in Preussen bewogen haben, ihren hohen Milstanden des Reichs
eine Association zur Erhaltung des Reichssystems anzutragen).
By upholding the Fiirstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies,
prominent among whom was the king's brother, Prince Henry.
Though the Fiirstenbund failed to effect a reform of the empire,
it at any rate prevented the fulfilment of Joseph II. 's old desire
for the incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of
state in which Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great
402
HERTZEN
was the commercial treaty concluded in 1785 between Prussia
and the United States.
With Frederick, especially in his later years, Hertzberg stood
in very intimate personal relations and was often the king's guest
at Sans-Souci. Under Frederick William II. his influential
position at the court of Berlin was at first unshaken. The king
at once received him with favour, as is clearly proved by Hertz-
berg's elevation to the rank of count in i786;and Mirabeau would
never have attacked him with such violence in his Secret History
of the Court of Berlin, which appeared in 1788, if he had not
seen in him the most powerful man after the king. In this attack
Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzberg's personal
enemies at the court. Hertzberg's political system remained
on the whole the same under Frederick William II. as it had
been under his predecessor. It was mainly characterized by a
sharp opposition to the house of Habsburg and by a desire to
win for Prussia the support of England, a policy supported by
him in important memoirs of the years 1786 and 1787. His
diplomacy was directed also against Austria's old ally, France.
Hence it was chiefly owing to Hertzberg that in 1787, in spite of
the king's unwillingness at first, Prussia intervened in Holland
in support of the stadtholder William V. against the demo-
cratic French party (see HOLLAND: History). The success of
this intervention, which was the practical realization of -a plan
very characteristic of Hertzberg, marks the culminating point in
his career.
But the opposition between him and the new king, which had
already appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple
alliance between Holland, England and Prussia, became more
marked in the following years, when Hertzberg, relying upon this
alliance, and in conscious imitation of Frederick II. 's policy at the
time of the first partition of Poland, sought to take advantage of
the entanglement of Austria with Russia in the war with Turkey
to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by diplomatic
intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her
mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjust-
ments that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and
Thorn as her portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the
restoration of the hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and
secretly cherished the hope of restoring Frederick the Great's
Russian alliance.
With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims
even when, owing to military and diplomatic events, they were
already partly out of date. His personal position became
increasingly difficult, as deep-rooted differences between him and
the king were revealed during these diplomatic campaigns.
Hertzberg wished to effect everything by peaceful means, while
Frederick William II. was for a time determined on war with
Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into
conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the
total annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the
attitude of king and minister towards Great Britain. At the con-
ferences at Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition
became more and more acute, and Hertzberg was only with
difficulty persuaded to come to an agreement merely on the
basis of the status quo, as demanded by Pitt. The king's renuncia-
tion of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg's eyes
impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck.
A letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which
Hertzberg severely criticized the king's foreign policy, and
especially his plans for attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on
the sth of July 1791. He afterwards made several attempts to
exert an influence over foreign affairs, but in vain. The king
showed himself more and more personally hostile to the ex-
minister, and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now quite
embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering
his letters to be opened.
Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in
the ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance,
made it so difficult for him to use the archives that in the end
Hertzberg entirely gave up the attempt. He found, however,
some recompense for all his disillusionment and discouragement
in learning, and, Wilhelm von Humboldt excepted, he was the
most learned of all the Prussian ministers. As a member of the
Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1 786 onwards, as its curator,
Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable activity in the world of
learning. His yearly reports dealt with history, statistics and
political science. The most interesting is that of 1784: Sur la
forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure. This is directed
exclusively against the absolute system (following Montesquieu),
upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending to
the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke
for the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages
of monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensa-
tion, since Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the
financial situation, which in the days of absolutism seemed an
unprecedented innovation. Besides this, Hertzberg exerted
himself as an academician to change the strongly French character
of the Academy and make it into a truly German institution. He
showed a keen interest in the old German language and literature.
A special " German deputation " was set aside at the Academy
and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and
dictionary. He also stood in very close relations with many of
the German poets of the time, and especially with Daniel
Schubart. Among the German historians in whom he took a great
interest, he had the greatest esteem for Pufendorf. He was
equally concerned in the improvement of the state of education.
In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature,
which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous
writing De la literature allemande.
Hertzberg's frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be
a successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified
many of his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is
honoured. He died at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795.
AUTHORITIES. (i) By Hertzberg himself: The Memoires de
I' Academic from 1780 on contain Hertzberg's discourses. The most
noteworthy of them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found:
Histoire de la dissertation [du. roi] sur la litterature allemande; see
also Recueil des deductions, &c., qui ont ete rediges . . . pour la cour
de Prusse par le ministre (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an "Auto-
biographical Sketch " published by Hopke in Schmidt's Zeitschrift
fur Geschichtswissenschaft, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with
Hertzberg: Mirabeau, Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin (1788);
P. F. Weddigen, Hertzbergs Leben (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt,
Hertzbergs Leben (Tubingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in Neustettiner
Programm (1862); E. Fischer, in Staatsanzeiger (1873); M. Duncker,
in Historische Zeitschrift (1877); Paul Bailleu, in Historische Zeit-
schrift (1879); and Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1880); H.
Petnch, Pommersche Lebensbilder i. (1880); G. Dressier, Friedrich
II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den hollandischen Wirren,
Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, Hertzberg als Minister
Friedrich Wilhelms II. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in
Historische Vierteljahrschnft, 9 (1906) ; A. Th. Preuss, Ewald
Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F.
K. Wittichen, Preussen und England, 1785-1788 (Heidelberg, 1902) ;
F. Luckwaldt, Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den
Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte, Bd. 15,
and in the Delbruckfestschrift (Berlin, 1908) ; L. Sevin, System der
preussischen Geheimpolitik 17901791 (Heidelberger Dissertation,
1903) ; P. Wittichen, Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790
(Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, Preussische und russische Politik in
Polen 1787-1780 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905) ; also W. Wenck,
Deulschland vor 100 Jahren (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack,
Geschichte der preussischen Akademie (4 vols., 1899); Consentius,
Preussische Jahrbucher (1904); J. Hashagen, " Hertzbergs Verhalt-
nis zur deutschen Literatur," in Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie
for 1903. . (J. HN.)
HERTZEN, ALEXANDER (1812-1870), Russian author, was
born at Moscow, a very short time before the occupation of that
city by the French. His father, Ivan Yakovlef , after a personal
interview with Napoleon, was allowed to leave, when the invaders
arrived, as the bearer of a letter from the French to the Russian
emperor. His family attended him to the Russian lines. Then
the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German Protestant
of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von
Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak
Russian, was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant's
hut. A year later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen
passed his youth remaining there, after completing his studies
at the university, till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a
HERULI
403
charge of having assisted, with some other youths, at a festival
during which verses by Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary
to the emperor, were sung. The special commission appointed to
try the youthful culprits found him guilty, and in 1835 he was
banished to Viatka. There he remained till the visit to that
city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards Alexander II.),
accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being allowed to
quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of the
official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the
ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of
having spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer's
violence, he was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life,
with the title of " state councillor," till 1842. In 1846 his father
died, leaving him by his will a very large property. Early in
1847 he left Russia, never to return. From Italy, on hearing of
the revolution of 1848, he hastened to Paris, whence he after-
wards went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted Geneva for
London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned to
Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the
2ist of January 1870.
His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an
essay, in Russian, on Dilettantism in Science, under the pseudonym
of " Iskander," the Turkish form of his Christian name con-
victs, even when pardoned, not being allowed in those days to
publish under their own names. His second work, also in Russian,
was his Letters on the Study of Nature (1845-1846). In 1847
appeared his novel Klo Vinovat? (Whose Fault?), and about the
same time were published in Russian periodicals the stories
which were afterwards collected and printed in London in 1854,
under the title of Prervannuie Razskazui (Interrupted Tales).
In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian
manuscript, Vom anderen Ufer (From another Shore) and Lettres
de France et d'llalie. In French appeared also his essay Du
Developpement des idees revolutionnaires en Russie, and his
Memoirs, which, after being printed in Russian, were translated
under the title of Le Monde russe el la Revolution (3 vols., 1860-
1862), and were in part translated into English as My Exile to
Siberia (2 vols., 1855)- From a literary point of view his most
important work is Kto Vinovat? a story describing how the
domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the unacknow-
ledged daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull,
ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the
new school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there
being any possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the
tragic termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen
gained the vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having
founded in London his " Free Russian Press," of the fortunes of
which, during ten years, he gave an interesting account in a
book published (in Russian) in 1863, he issued from it a great
number of Russian works, all levelled against the system of
government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays,
such as his Baptized Property, an attack on serfdom; others were
periodical publications, the Polyarnaya Zvyezda (or Polar Star),
the Kolokol (or Bell), and the Colosa iz Rossii (or Voices from
Russia) . The Kolokol soon obtained an immense circulation, and
exercised an extraordinary influence. For three years, it is
true, the founders of the " Free Press " went on printing, " not
only without selling a single copy, but scarcely being able to get
a single copy introduced into Russia "; so that when at last a
bookseller bought ten shillings' worth of Baptized Property, the
half-sovereign was set aside by the surprised editors in a special
place of honour. But the death of the emperor Nicholas in 1855
produced an entire change. Hertzen's writings, and the journals
he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and their words
resounded throughout that country, as well as all over Europe.
Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden,
evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into
light and disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly
expressed the thoughts which had long been secretly stirring
Russian minds, and were now beginning to find a timid utterance
at home. For some years his influence in Russia was a living
force, the circulation of his writings was a vocation zealously
pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a merchant, who had
bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod, found that
they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at another
time a supposititious copy of the Kolokol was printed for the
emperor's special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading
statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was
omitted. At length the sweeping changes introduced by
Alexander II. greatly diminished the need for and appreciation
of Hertzen's assistance in the work of reform. The freedom he
had demanded for the serfs was granted, the law-courts he had so
long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury was established,
liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It became
clear that Hertzen's occupation was gone. When the Polish
insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents'
cause, his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From
that time it was only with the revolutionary party that he was in
full accord.
In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in
Paris. A volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published
at Geneva in 1870. His Memoirs supply the principal information
about his life, a sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach's
Zeitgenossen, pt. 7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the Revue des deux
mondes for July 15 and Sept. I, 1854. Kto Vinovat? has been trans-
lated into German under the title of Wer ist schuld? in Wolffsohn's
Russlands Novellendichter, vol. iii. The title of My Exile in Siberia
is misleading; he was never in that country. (W. R. S.-R.)
HERULI, a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the
history of the migration period. The name does not occur in
writings of the first two centuries A.D. Where the original home
of the Heruli was situated is never clearly stated. Jordanes says
that they had been expelled from their territories by the Danes,
from which it may be inferred that they belonged either to what
is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern portion of the
Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign of
Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths
ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly
afterwards, in A.D. 289, they appear in the region about the mouth
of the Rhine. During the 4th century they frequently served
together with the Batavi in the Roman armies. In the sth
century we again hear of piratical incursions by the Heruli in the
western seas. At the same time they had a kingdom in central
Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the Elbe. Together
with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon byTheodoric
the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form
an alliance with him against the Prankish king Clovis, but very
shortly afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by
the Langobardi. A portion of them migrated to Sweden, where
they settled among the Gotar, while others crossed the Danube
and entered the Roman service, where they are frequently
mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars. After the
middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely
disappears. It is curious that in English, Prankish and Scandin-
avian works they are never mentioned, and there can be little
doubt that they were known, especially among the western
Teutonic peoples, by some other name. Probably they are
identical either with the North Suabi or with the luti. The
name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S. eorlas
(nobles), O.S.erlos (men), the singular of which (erilaz) frequently
occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a title
of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow
of their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs.
When threatened with death by disease or old age, they were
required to call in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre.
Suttee was also customary. They were entirely devoted to war.
fare and served not only in the Roman armies, but also in
those of all the surrounding nations. They disdained the use of
helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves only with
shields.
See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus Paneg. Maximi; Ammianus
Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, Chronica; Jordanes, De
origine Getarum; Procopius, esp. Bellum Goticum, ii. 14 f. ; Bellum
Persicum, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, Hist. Langobardorum, i. 20;
K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstumme, pp. 476 ff. (Munich,
1837). (F. G. M. B.)
HERVAS Y PANDURO HERVEY OF ICKWORTH
HERVAS Y PANDURO, LORENZO (1735-1809), Spanish
philologist, was born at Horcajo (Cuenca) on the loth of May
1735. He joined the Jesuits on the agth of September 1745
and in course of time became successively professor of philosophy
and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and Murcia. When
the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervas settled
at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his Idea del-
l' Universe (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798,
he published his famous Caldlogo de las lenguas de las naciones
conocidas (6 vols., 1800-1805), i n which he collected the philo-
logical peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up
grammars of forty languages. In 1802 he was appointed
librarian of the Quirinal Palace in Rome, where he died on the 24th
of August 1809. Max Miiller credits him with having anticipated
Humboldt, and with making " one of the most brilliant dis-
coveries in the history of the science of language " by establishing
the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of speech.
HERVEY, JAMES (1714-1758), English divine, was born at
Hardingstone, near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714,
and was educated at the grammar school of Northampton, and
at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he came under the influence
of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists; ultimately, however,
while retaining his regard for the men and his sympathy with
their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic creed,
and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken
orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded
his father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree.
He was never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous
writer. His style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare
appreciation of natural beauty, and his simple piety made him
many friends. His earliest work, Meditations and Contempla-
tions, said to have been modelled on Robert Boyle's Occasional
Reflexions on various Subjects, within fourteen years passed
through as many editions. Theron and Aspasio, or a series of
Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects, which
appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some
adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies
which were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly
objected to by Wesley in his Preservative against unsettled Notions
in Religion. Besides carrying into England the theological
disputes to which the Marrow of Modern Divinity had given rise
in Scotland, it also led to what is known as the Sandemanian
controversy as to the nature of saving faith. Hervey died on
the 25th of December 1758.
A " new and complete " edition of his Works, with a memoir,
appeared in 1797. See also Collection of the Letters of James Hervey,
to which is prefixed an account of his Life and Death, by Dr Birch
(1760).
HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LEON, MARQUIS
D' (1823-1892), French Orientalist and man of letters, was born
in Paris in 1823. He devoted himself to the study of Chinese,
and in 1851 published his Recherches sur I' agriculture et I' horti-
culture des Chinois, in which he dealt with the plants and animals
that might be acclimatized in the West. At the Paris Exhibition
of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese exhibits; in
1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese at
the College de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of
the Academic des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works
include Poesies de I'epoque des T'ang (1862), translated from the
Chinese; Ethnographic des peuples etrangers a la Chine, translated
from Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); Li-Sao (1870), from the
Chinese; Memoires sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius
et de I'ecole des leltres (1887); and translations of some Chinese
stories not of classical interest but valuable for the light they
throw on oriental custom. Hervey de Saint Denys also trans-
lated some works from the Spanish, and wrote a history of the
Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of November 1892.
HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY, BARON (1696-
1743), English statesman and writer, eldest son of John, ist earl
of Bristol, by his second marriage, was born on the i3th of
October 1696. He was educated at Westminster school and at
Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A. degree in 1715.
In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to Hanover to
pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the
court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in
1720 he married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess's
ladies-in-waiting, and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received
the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the death of his half-brother
Carr, and in 1725 he was elected M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He
had been at one time on very friendly terms with Frederick,
prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him, apparently
because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These
differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws
of the prince's callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating
between William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) andWalpole,
but in 1730 he definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he
was thenceforward a faithful adherent. He was assumed by
Pulteney to be the author of Sedition and Defamation displayed
with aDedicatlon tothe patrons of 'TheCraflsman(\i 3 1 )- Pulteney,
who, up to this time, had been a firm friend of Hervey, replied
with A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous Libel, and the quarrel
resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly escaped with his
life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of both the
pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth,
apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He
was able to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence
over the queen. Through him the minister governed Queen
Caroline and indirectly George II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain
in the royal household and a member of the privy council. In
1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ in virtue of his
father's barony. In spite of repeated requests he received no
further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord privy
seal. After the fall of Sic Robert Walpole he was dismissed
(July 1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet,
Miscellaneous Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and
Domestic Affairs, shows that he still retained his mental vigour,
but he was liable to epilepsy, and his weak appearance and rigid
diet were a constant source of ridicule to his enemies. He
died on the sth of August 1743. He predeceased his father, but
three of his sons became successively earls of Bristol.
Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court
of George II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering
account of the king, and.of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their
family squabbles. For the queen and her daughter, Princess
Caroline, he had a genuine respect and attachment, and the
princess's affection for him was commonly said to be the reason
for the close retirement in which she lived after his death. The
MS. of Hervey's memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son,
Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that
they should not be published until after the death of George III.
In 1848 they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker,
but the MS. had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation
before it came into his hands. Croker also softened in some cases
the plainspokenness of the original. Hervey's bitter account of
court life and intrigues resembles in many points the memoirs of
Horace Walpole, and the two books corroborate one another in
many statements that might otherwise have been received with
suspicion.
Until the publication of the Memoirs Hervey was chiefly known
as the object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works
he figured as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The
quarrel is generally put down to Pope's jealousy of Hervey's
friendship with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In the first of the
Imitations of Horace, addressed to William Fortescue, "Lord
Fanny " and " Sappho " were generally identified with Hervey
and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal intention.
Hervey had already been attacked in the Dunciad and the
Bathos, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a
share in the Verses to the Imitator of Horace (1732) and it is
possible that he was the sole author. In the Letter from a noble-
man at Hampton Court to a Doctor of Divinity (17 33), he scoffed at
Pope's deformity and humble birth. Pope's reply was a Letter to
a Noble Lord, dated November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in
the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot (1735), which forms the prologue to
HERVIEU HERZL
405
the satires. Many of the insinuations and insults contained in it
are borrowed from Pulteney's libel. The malicious caricature of
Sporus does Hervey great injustice, and he is not much better
treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting his death in a letter
(i4th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had outlived his
last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him to
have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole's tactics
and distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the
weapons of which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost
adroitness. His wife Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768),
of whom an account is to be found in Lady Louisa Stuart's
Anecdotes, was a warm partisan of the Stuarts. She retained her
wit and charm throughout her life, and has the distinction of
being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire.
See Hervey 's Memoirs of the Court of George II., edited by J. W.
Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the Diet.
Nat. Biog. (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the Memoirs he wrote numerous
political pamphlets, and some occasional verses.
HERVIEU, PAUL (1857- ), French dramatist and novelist,
was born at Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He
was called to the bar in 1877, and, after serving some time in the
office of the president of the council, he qualified for the diplomatic
service, but resigned on his nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship
in the French legation in Mexico. He contributed novels, tales
and essays to the chief Parisian papers and reviews, and published
a series of clever novels, including L'Inconnu (1887), Flirl( 1890),
L'Exorcisee (1891), Peinls pareux-ntemes(i8g^),a.n ironical study
written in the form of letters, and L' Armature (1895), dramatized
in 1905 by Eugene Brieux. But his most important work con-
sists of a series of plays: Les Paroles restent (Vaudeville, I7th of
November 1892); Les Tenailles (Theatre Francais, 28th of
September 1895); La Loi de I'homme (Theatre Francais, i$th of
February 1897); La Course du flambeau (Vaudeville, I7th of
April 1901); Point de lendemain (Odeon, i8th of October 1901), a
dramatic version of a story by Vivaut Denon; L'Enig.r.e (Theatre
Francais, 5th of November 1901); Theroigne de Mericourt
(Theatre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd of September 1902); Le Dedale
(Theatre Frangais, i gth of December 1903) , and Le Reveil (Theatre
Francais, i8th of December 1905). These plays are built upon a
severely logical method, the mechanism of which is sometimes so
evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion. The closing
words of La Course du flambeau "Pour mafitte, j'aitulmamere "
are an example of his selection of a plot representing an extreme
theory. The riddle in L'Engime (staged at Wyndham's Theatre,
London, March ist 1902,33 Caesar' sWife) is, however, worked out
with great art, and Le Dedale, dealing with the obstacles to the
remarriage of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the master-
pieces of the modern French stage. He was elected to the
French Academy in 1900.
See A. Binet, in L'Annee psychologique, vol. x. Hervieu's Theatre
was published by Leraerre (3 vols., 19001904).
HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD (1796-
1884), Prussian general field-marshal, came of an aristocratic
family which had supplied many distinguished officers to the
Prussian army. He entered the Guard infantry in 1811, and
served through the War of Liberation (1813-15), distinguishing
himself at Lutzen and Paris. During the years of peace he rose
slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848
he was on duty at the royal palace as colonel of the ist Guards.
Major-general in 1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received
the grade of general of infantry and the command of the VHth
(Westphalian) Army Corps in 1860. In the Danish War of 1864
he succeeded to the command of the Prussians when Prince
Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the Allies,
r.nd it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the
passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866
Herwarth commanded the " Army of the Elbe " which overran
Saxony and invaded Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser.
His troops won the actions of Huhnerwasser and Munchengratz,
and at Koniggratz formed the right wing of the Prussian army.
Herwarth himself directed the battle against the Austrian left
flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but was in
charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing
and forwarding all the reserves and material required for the
armies in France. In 1871 his great services were recognized
by promotion to the rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life
was spent in retirement at Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since
1889 the i3th (ist Westphalian) Infantry has borne his name.
See G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld (Miinster, 1896).
HERWEGH, GEORG (i8i7-:875), German political poet, was
born at Stuttgart on the 3 ist of May 181 7, the son of a restaurant
keeper. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native city,
and in 1835 proceeded to the university of Tubingen as a theo-
logical student, where, with a view to entering the ministry,
he entered the protestant theological seminary. But the strict
discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was expelled
in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest
of August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned
to Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalisitic post.
Called out for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment
when he committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled
to Switzerland to avoid punishment. Here he published his
Gedichte eines Lebendigen (1841), a volume of political poems,
which gave expression to the fervent aspirations of the German
youth of the day. The work immediately rendered him famous,
and although confiscated, it soon raft through several editions.
The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions of Prince
Piickler-Muskau (q.v.) in his Briefe eines Verstorbenen. He
next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany,
visiting Jena, Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin a journey which was
described as being a " veritable triumphal progress." His
military insubordination appears to have been forgiven and
forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William IV. had him
introduced to him and used the memorable words: " ich Hebe
eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition" ("I admire an opposition, when
dictated by principle.") Herwegh next returned tc Paris, where
he published in 1844 the second volume of his Gedichte eines
Lebendigen, which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the
German police. At the head of a revolutionary column of German
working men, recruited in Paris, Herwegh took an active part
in the South German rising in 1848; but his raw troops were
defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in Baden and, after
a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to escape to
Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of his
literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to
Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th
of April 1875. A monument was erected to his memory there
in 1904. Besides the above-mentioned works, Herwegh pub-
lished Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der Sckweiz (1843), and transla-
tions into German of A. de Lamartine's works and of seven of
Shakespeare's plays. Posthumously appeared Neue Gedichte
(1877).
Herwegh's correspondence was published by his son Marcel in
1898. See also Johannes Scherr, Georg Herwegh; literarische
und politische Blatter (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in
the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic.
HERZBRG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz,
on the Sieber, 25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to
Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop. (1905) 3896. It contains an Evan-
gelical and a Roman Catholic church, and a botanical garden,
and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and weaving and
dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively carried on
here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the town
lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession
of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of
the residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick.
HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, on the Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Juterbog
by the railway Berlin-Roderau-Dresden. It has a church
(Evangelical) dating from the I3th century and a medieval
town hall. Its industries include the founding and turning of
metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making. Pop. (1905)
443-
HERZL, THEODOR (1860-1904), founder of modern political
Zionism (<?..), was born in Budapest on the 2nd of May 1860,
406
HERZOG, H. HESILRIGE
and died at Edlach on the 3rd of July 1904. The greater part of
his career was associated with Vienna, where he acquired high
repute as a literary journalist. He was also a dramatist, and
apart from his prominence as a Jewish Nationalist would have
found a niche in the temple of fame. All his other claims to
renown, however, sink into insignificance when compared with his
work as the reviver of Jewish hopes for a restoration to political
autonomy. Herzl was stirred by sympathy for the misery of
Jews under persecution, but he was even more powerfully moved
by the difficulties experienced under conditions of assimilation.
Modern anti-Semitism, he felt, was both like and unlike the
medieval. The old physical attacks on the Jews continued in
Russia, but there was added the reluctance of several national
groups in Europe to admit the Jews to social equality. Herzl
believed that the humanitarian hopes which inspired men at the
end of the i8th and during the larger part of the igth centuries
had failed. The walls of the ghettos had been cast down, but
the Jews could find no entry into the comity of nations. The
new nationalism of 1848 did not deprive the Jews of political
rights, but it denied them both the amenities of friendly inter-
course and the opportunity of distinction in the university, the
army and the professions. t Many Jews questioned this diagnosis,
and refused to see in the new anti-Semitism (q.v.) which spread
over Europe in 1881 any more than a temporary reaction against
the cosmopolitanism of the French Revolution. In 1896 Herzl
published his famous pamphlet " Der Judenstaat." Holding
that the only alternatives for the Jews were complete merging
by intermarriage or self-preservation by a national re-union,
he boldly advocated the second course. He did not at first insist
on Palestine as the new Jewish home, nor did he attach himself
to religious sentiment. The expectation of a Messianic restora-
tion to the Holy Land has always been strong, if often latent,
in the Jewisn consciousness. But Herzl approached the subject
entirely on its secular side, and his solution was economic and
political rather than sentimental. He was a strong advocate for
the complete separation of Church and State. The influence
of Herzl's pamphlet, the progress of the movement he initiated,
the subsequent modifications of his plans, are told at length in
the article ZIONISM.
His proposals undoubtedly roused an extraordinary enthusiasm,
and though he almost completely failed to win to his cause the
classes, he rallied the masses with sensational success. He un-
expectedly gained the accession of many Jews by race who were
indifferent to the religious aspect of Judaism, but he quite failed
to cgnvince the leaders of Jewish thought, who from first to last
remained (with such conspicuous exceptions as Nordau and
Zangwill) deaf to his pleading. The orthodox were at first cool
because they had always dreamed of a nationalism inspired by
messianic ideals, while the liberals had long come to dissociate
those universalistic ideals from all national limitations. Herzl,
however, succeeded in assembling several congresses at Basel
(beginning in 1807), and at these congresses were enacted remark-
able scenes of enthusiasm for the cause and devotion to its leader.
At all these assemblies the same ideal was formulated: " the
establishing for the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured
home in Palestine." Herzl's personal charm was irresistible.
Among his political opponents he had some close personal friends.
His sincerity, his eloquence, his tact, his devotion, his power,
were recognized on all hands. He spent his whole strength in the
furtherance of his ideas. Diplomatic interviews, exhausting
journeys, impressive mass meetings, brilliant literary propa-
ganda all these methods were employed by him to the utmost
limit of self-denial. In 1901 he was received by the sultan; the
pope and many European statesmen gave him audiences. The
British government was ready to grant land for an autonomous
settlement in East Africa. This last scheme was fatal to Herzl's
peace of mind. Even as a temporary measure, the choice of an
extra-Palestinian site for the Jewish state was bitterly opposed
by many Zionists; others (with whom Herzl appears to have
sympathized) thought that as Palestine was, at all events
momentarily, inaccessible, it was expedient to form a settlement
elsewhere. Herzl's health had been failing and he did not long
survive the initiation of the somewhat embittered " territorial '*
controversy. He died in the summer of 1904, amid the con-
sternation of supporters and the deep grief of opponents of his
Zionistic aims.
Herzl was beyond question the most influential Jewish person-
ality of the i gth century. He had no profound insight into the
problem of Judaism, and there was no lasting validity in his
view that the problem the thousands of years' old mystery
could be solved by a retrogression to local nationality. But he
brought home to Jews the perils that confronted them; he
compelled many a " semi-detached " son of Israel to rejoin the
camp; he forced the "assimilationists " to realize their position
and to define it; his scheme gave a new impulse to "Jewish
culture," including the popularization of Hebrew as a living
speech; and he effectively roused Jews all the world over to an
earnest and vital interest in their present and their future.
Herzl thus left an indelible mark on his time, and his renown is
assured whatever be the fate in store for the political Zionism
which he founded and for which he gave his life. (I. A.)
HERZOG, HANS (1819-1894), Swiss general, was born at
Aarau. He became a Swiss artillery lieutenant in 1840, and then
spent six years in travelling (visiting England among other
countries), before he became a partner in his father's business in
1846. In 1847 he saw his first active service (as artillery captain)
in the short Swiss Sonderbund war. In 1860 he abandoned
mercantile pursuits for a purely military career, becoming
colonel and inspector-general of the Swiss artillery. In 1870 he
was commander-in-chief of the Swiss army, which guarded the
Swiss frontier, in the Jura, during the Franco-German War, and
in February 1871, as such, concluded the Convention of Verrieres
with General Clinchant for the disarming and the interning of the
remains of Bourbaki's army, when it took refuge in Switzerland.
In 1875 he became the commander-in-chief of the Swiss artillery,
which he did much to reorganize, helping also in the reorganiza-
tion of the other branches of the Swiss army. He died in 1894-31
his native town of Aarau. (W. A. B. C.)
HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882), German Protestant
theologian, was born at Basel on the i2th of September 1805.
He studied at Basel and Berlin, and eventually (1854) settled at
Erlangen as professor of church history. He died there on the
30th of September 1882, having retired in 1877. His most note-
worthy achievement was the publication of the Realencyklopadie
fur protesta ntische Theologie und Kirche (1853-1868, 22 vols.),
of which he undertook a new edition with G. L. Plitt (1836-
1880) in 1877, and after Plitt's death with Albert Hauck
(b. 1845). Hauck began the publication of the third edition in
1896 (completed in 22 vols., 1909).
His other works include Joh. Calvin (1843), Leben Okolampads
(1843), Die romanischen Waldenser (1853), Abriss der gesamten
Kirchengeschichte (3 vols., 18761882, 2nd ed., G. Koffmane, Leipzig,
1890-1892).
HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG (1810-1874), German
author, was born on the i2th of August 1819 in Halle, where his
father, distinguished as a writer of sacred poetry, was a Lutheran
pastor. Hesekiel studied history and philosophy in Halle, Jena
and Berlin, and devoted himself in early life to journalism and
literature. In 1848 he settled in Berlin, where he lived until his
death on the 26th of February 1874, achieving a considerable re-
putation as a writer and as editor of the Neue Preussische Zeitung.
He attempted many different kinds of literary work, the most
ambitious being perhaps his patriotic songs Preussenlieder, of which
he published a volume during the revolutionary excitement of
1848-1849. Another collection Neue Preussenlieder appeared
in 1864 after the Danish War, and a third in 1870 Gegen die
Franzosen, Preussische Kriegs- und Konigslieder. Among his
novels may be mentioned Unler dem Eisenzahn (1864) and Der
Schultheiss vom Zeyst (1875). The best known of his works is his
biography of Prince Bismarck (Das Buck vom Fiirsten Bismarck)
(3rd ed.,i873; English trans, by R. H. Mackenzie).
HESILRIGE (or HESELRIG), SIR ARTHUR, 2nd Bart. (d. 1661),
English parliamentarian, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas
Hesilrige, ist baronet (c. 1622), of Noseley, Leicestershire, a
HESIOD
407
member of a very ancient family settled in Northumberland
and Leicestershire, and of Frances, daughter of Sir William
Gorges, of Alderton, Northamptonshire. He early imbibed
strong puritanical principles, and showed a special antagonism
to Laud. He sat for Leicestershire in the Short and Long
Parliaments in 1640, and took a principal part in Strafford's
attainder, the Root and Branch Bill and the Militia Bill of the
7th of December 1641, and was one of the five members im-
peached on the 3rd of January 1642. He showed much activity
in the Great Rebellion, raised a troop of horse for Essex, fought
at Edgehill, commanded in the West under Waller, being nick-
named his fidus Achates, and distinguished himself at the head
of his cuirassiers, " The Lobsters," at Lansdown on the sth
of July 1643, at Roundway Down on the I3th of July, at both
of which battles he was wounded, and at Cheriton, March 29th
1644. On the occasion of the breach between the army and
the parliament, Hesilrige supported the former, took Cromwell's
part in his dispute with Manchester and Essex, and on the passing
of the Self-denying Ordinance gave up his commission and
became one of the leaders of the Independent party in parlia-
ment. On the 30th of December 1647 he was appointed
governor of Newcastle, which he successfully defended, besides
defeating the Royalists on the 2nd of July 1648 and regaining
Tynemouth. In October he accompanied Cromwell to Scotland,
and gave him valuable support in the Scottish expedition in
1650. Hesilrige, though he approved of the king's execution,
had declined to act as judge on his trial. He was one of the
leading men in the Commonwealth, but Cromwell's expulsion
of the Long Parliament threw him into antagonism, and he
opposed the Protectorate and refused to pay taxes. He was
returned for Leicester to the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and
1659, but was excluded from the two former. He refused a
seat, in the Lords, whither Cromwell sought to relegate him,
and succeeded in again obtaining admission to the Commons
in January 1658. On Cromwell's death Hesilrige refused support
to Richard, and was instrumental in effecting his downfall.
He was now one of the most influential men in the council
and in parliament. He attempted to maintain a republican
parliamentary administration, " to keep the sword subservient
to the civil magistrate," and opposed Lambert's schemes.
On the latter succeeding in expelling the parliament, Hesilrige
turned to Monk for support, and assisted his movements by
securing Portsmouth on the 3rd of December 1659. He marched
to London, and was appointed one of the council of state on the
2nd of January 1660, and on the nth of February a commissioner
for the army. He was completely deceived by Monk, and trust-
ing to his assurance of fidelity to " the good old cause " consented
to the retirement of his regiment from London. At the Restora-
tion his life was saved by Monk's intervention, but he was
imprisoned in the Tower, where he died on the 7th of January
1661. Clarendon describes Hesilrige as " an absurd, bold man."
He was rash, " hare-brained," devoid of tact and had little
claim to the title of a statesman, but his energy in the field
and in parliament was often of great value to the parliamentary
cause. He exposed himself to considerable obloquy by his
exactions and appropriations of confiscated landed property,
though the accusation brought against him by John Lilburne
was examined by a parliamentary committee and adjudged
to be false. Hesilrige married U) Frances, daughter of Thomas
Elmes of Lilford, Northamptonshire, by whom he had two sons
and two daughters, and (2) Dorothy, sister of Robert Greville,
2nd Lord Brooke, by whom he had three sons and five daughters.
The family was represented in 1907 by his descendant Sir Arthur
Grey Hazlerigg of Noseley, i3th Baronet.
AUTHORITIES. Article on Hesilrige by C. H. Firth in the Diet,
of Nat. Biography, and authorities there quoted; Early History
of the Family of Hesilrige, by W. G. D. Fletcher ; Col. of State Papers,
Domestic, 1631-1664, where there are a large number of important
references, as also in Hist. MSS., Comm. Series, MSS. of Earl
Cowper, Duke of Leeds and Duke of Portland; Egerton MSS. 2618,
Harleian 7001 f. 198, and in the Sloane, Stowe and Additional collec-
tions in the British Museum; also S. R. Gardiner, Hist, of England,
Hist, of the Great Civil War and Commonwealth; Clarendon's History,
State Papers and Col. of Slate Papers, J. L. Sanford's Studies of the
Great Rebellion. His life is written by Noble in the House of Cromwell,
i. 403. For his public letters and speeches in parliament see the
catalogue of the British Museum.
HESIOD, the father of Greek didactic poetry, probably
flourished during the Sth century B.C. His father had migrated
from the Aeolic Cyme in Asia Minor to Boeotia; and Hesiod
and his brother Perses were born at Ascra, near mount Helicon
(Works and Days, 635). Here, as he fed his father's flocks,
he received his commission from the Muses to be their prophet
and poet a commission which he recognized by dedicating to
them a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at
some funeral games at Chalcis in Euboea, still in existence at
Helicon in the age of Pausanias (Theogony, 20-34, W. and p.,
656; Pausanias ix. 38. 3). After the death of his father Hesiod
is said to have left his native land in disgust at the result of a
law-suit with his brother and to have migrated to Naupactus.
There was a tradition that he was murdered by the sons of his
host in the sacred enclosure of the Nemean Zeus at Oeneon in
Locris (Thucydides iii. 96; Pausanias ix. 31); his remains
were removed for burial by command of the Delphic oracle to
Orchomenus in Boeotia, where the Ascraeans settled after the
destruction of their town by the Thespians, and where, according
to Pausanias, his grave was to be seen.
Hesiod's earliest poem, the famous Works and Days, andaccord-
ing to Boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the
experiences of his daily life and work, and, interwoven with
episodes of fable, allegory, and personal history, forms a sort
of Boeotian shepherd's calendar. The first portion is an ethical
enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive of strife and idle-
ness (1-383); the second consists of hints and rules as to hus-
bandry (384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the
months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary
for rural or nautical employments. The connecting link of the
whole poem is the author's advice to his brother, who appears
to have bribed the corrupt judges to deprive Hesiod of his already
scantier inheritance, and to whom, as he wasted his substance
lounging in the agora, the poet more than once returned good
for evil, though he tells him there will be a limit to this un-
merited kindness. In the Works and Days the episodes which
rise above an even didactic level are the " Creation and Equip-
ment of Pandora," the " Five Ages of the World " and the much-
admired " Description of Winter " (by some critics judged post-
Hesiodic). The poem also contains the earliest known fable
in Greek literature, that of " The Hawk and the Nightingale."
It is in the Works and Days especially that we glean indications
of Hesiod's rank and condition in life, that of a stay-at-home
farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea was
a single voyage of 40 yds. across the Euripus, and an old-fashioned
bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony
have been conjecturally traced to his brother Perses having
a wife as extravagant as himself.
The other poem attributed to Hesiod or his school which
has come down in great part to modern times is The Theogony,
a work of grander scope, inspired alike by older traditions and
abundant local associations. It is an attempt to work into
system, as none had essayed to do before, the floating legends of
the gods and goddesses and their offspring. This task Herodotus
(ii. 53) attributes to Hesiod, and he is quoted by Plato in
the Symposium (178 B) as the author of the Theogony. The
first to question his claim to this distinction was Pausanias,
the geographer (A.D. 200). The Alexandrian grammarians had
no doubt on the subject; and indications of the hand that
wrote the Works and Days may be found in the severe strictures
on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver Plutus
and in coincidences of verbal expression. Although, no doubt,
of Hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different
recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations.
The Theogony consists of three divisions (i) a cosmogony,
or creation; (2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of
the dynasties of Zeus and Cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly
terminated heroogony, the starting-point not improbably of
the supplementary poem, the KaraKovos, or " Lists of Women "
408
HESPERIDES HESS
who wedded immortals, of which all but a few fragments are
lost. 1 The proem ( i- 1 16) addressed to the Heliconian and Pierian
muses, is considered to have been variously enlarged, altered
and arranged by successive rhapsodists. The poet has inter-
woven several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of
Zeus and the Olympian gods with the Titans, and the description
of the prison-house in which the vanquished Titans are confined,
with the Giants for keepers and Day and Night for janitors
(735 seq.).
The only other poem which has come down to us under Hesiod's
name is the Shield of Heracles, the opening verses of which are
attributed by a nameless grammarian to the fourth book of
Eoiai. The theme of the piece is the expedition of Heracles
ami lolaus against the robber Cycnus; but its main object
apparently is to describe the shield of Heracles ^141-31 1). It
is clearly an imitation of the Homeric account of the shield of
Achilles (Iliad, xviii. 479) and is now generally considered
spurious. Titles and fragments of other lost poems of Hesiod
have come down to us: didactic, as the Maxims of Cheiron;
genealogical, as the Aegimius, describing the contest of that
mythical ancestor of the Dorians with the Lapithae; and
mythical, as the Marriage of Ceyx and the Descent of Theseus
to Hades.
Recent editions of Hesiod include the 'A.y<j>v 'Ojuwoy /cat
'HoLodov, the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the
funeral games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis.
This little tract belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually
mentioned as having been present during its recitation, but is
founded on an earlier account by the sophist Alcidamas (q.T.).
Quotations (old and new) are made from the works of both
poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience, the judge
decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of
Homer and Hesiod are also given.
A strong characteristic of Hesiod's style is his sententious
and proverbial philosophy (as in Works and Days, 24-25, 40,
218, 345, 371). There is naturally less of this in the Theogony,
yet there too not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or
adage. He has undying fame as the first of didactic poets
(see DIDACTIC POETRY), the accredited systematizer of Greek
mythology and the rough but not unpoetical sketcher of the
lines on which Virgil wrought out his exquisitely finished
Georgia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Complete works : Editio princeps (Milan, 1493);
Gottling-Flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of publica-
tion; C. Sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and explanatory
notes in Greek; F. A. Paley (1883); A. Rzach (1902), including
the fragments. Separate works: Works and Days: Van Lennep
(1847); A. Kirchhoff (1889); A. Steitz, Die Werke und Tage des
Hesiodos (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrange-
ment of the poem; G. Wlastoff, Promethee, Pandore, et la Ugende
des siecles (1883). Theogony: Van Lennep (1843); F. G. Welcker
(1865), valuable edition; G. F. Schomann (1868), with text, critical
notes and exhaustive commentary; H. Flach, Die Hesiodische
Theogonie (1873), with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma
in Hesiod, System der Hesiodischen Kosmogonie (1874), and Classen
und Scholien zur Theogonie (1876); Meyer, De compositione
Theogoniae (1887). Shield of Heracles: Wolf-Ranke (1840); Van
Lennep-Hullemann (1854) ; F. Stegemann, De scuti Herculis Hesiodei
poeta Homeri carminum imitator e (1904); the fragments were
published by W. Marckscheffel in 1840; for the Aydiv 'O^pov
(ed. A. Rzach, 1908) see F. Nietzsche in Rheinisches Museum (new
series), xxy. p. 528. For papyrus fragments of the " Catalogue,"
some 50 lines on the wooing of Helen, and a shorter fragment in
praise of Peleus, see Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in Sitzungsber. der
konigl. preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaften, for 26th of July 1900;
for fragments relating to Meleager and the suitors of Helen, Berliner
Klassikertexte, v. (1907) ; of the Theogony, Oxyrh. Pap. vi. (1908).
On the subject generally, consult G. F. Schomann, Opuscula, ii.
(1857); H. Flach, Die Hesiodischen Gedichte (1874); A. Rzach,
Der Dialekt des Hesiodos (1876); P. O. Gruppe, Die griechischen
Kulte und Mythen, i. (1887); O. Friedel, Die Sage vom Tode Hesiods
(1879), from Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie (loth suppl. Band,
1879); J. Adam, Religious Teachers of Greece (1908). There is a
full bibliography of the publications relating to Hesiod (1884-1898)
by A. Rzach in Bursian's Jahresbericht liber die Fortschritte der
klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, xxvii. (1900).
1 Part of the poem was called Eoiai, because the description of
each heroine began with fl OITJ, " or like as." (See Bibliography.)
There are translations of the Hesiodic poems in English by Cooke
(1728), C. A. Elton (1815), J. Banks (1856), and specially by A. W.
Mair, with introduction and appendices (Oxford Library of Transla-
tions, 1908) ; in German (metrical version) with valuable intro-
ductions and notes by R. Peppmuller (1896) and in other modern
languages. (J. DA.; J. H. F.)
HESPERIDES, in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded
the golden apples which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to
Zeus. According to Hesiod (Theogony, 215) they were the
daughters of Erebus and Night; in later accounts, of Atlas and
Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on Apoll. Rhod. iv.
1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27) They were usually supposed to be
three in number Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa) ;
according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away
in the west at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence
the sun (according to Mimnermus ap. Athenaeum xi. p. 470)
sails in the golden bowl made by Hephaestus from the abode
of the Hesperides to the land where he rises again. According
to other accounts their home was among the Hyperboreans.
The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the ever-
watchful dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian
legends described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the
nightly heaven, while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the
light back from men till some beneficent power takes it from
him. Heracles is the hero who biings back the golden apples
to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies to the Nymphs,
who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there he
slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally,
like Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are,
like the Sirens, possessed of the gift of delightful song. The
apples appear to have been the symbol of love and fruitfulness,
and are introduced at the marriages of Cadmus and Harmonia
and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the gift of Aphrodite
to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also plucked
from the garden of the Hesperides.
HESPERUS (Gr. "Eo-xepos, Lat. Vesper), the evening star,
son or brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus Siculus (iii.
60, iv. 27), he ascended Mount Atlas to observe the motions of
the stars, and was suddenly swept away by a whirlwind. Ever
afterwards he was honoured as a god, and the most brilliant star
in the heavens was called by his name. Although as a mytho-
logical personality he is regarded as distinct from Phosphoros
or Heosphoros (Lat. Lucifer), the morning star or bringer of
light, the son of Astraeus (or Cephalus) and Eos, the two stars
were early identified by the Greeks.
Diog. Lae'rt. viii. I. 14; Cicero, De nat. deorum, ii. 20; Pliny,
Nat. Hist. ii. 6 [8].
HESS, the name of a family of German artists.
HEINRICH MARIA HESS (1798-1863) von Hess, after he
received a patent of personal nobility was born at Diisseldorf
and brought up to the profession of art by his father, the engraver
Karl Ernst Christoph Hess (1755-1828). Karl Hess had already
acquired a name when in 1806 the elector of Bavaria, having been
raised to a kingship by Napoleon, transferred the Diisseldorf
academy and gallery to Munich. Karl Hess accompanied the
academy to its new home, and there continued the education
of his children. In time Heinrich Hess became sufficiently
master of his art to attract the attention of King Maximilian.
He was sent with a stipend to Rome, where a copy which he made
of Raphael's Parnassus, and the study of great examples of
monumental design, probably caused him to become a painter
of ecclesiastical subjects on a large scale. In 1828 he was made
professor of painting and director of all the art collections at
Munich. He decorated the Aukirche, the Glyptothek and the
Allerheiligencapelle at Munich with frescoes; and his cartoons
were selected for glass windows in the cathedrals of Cologne
and Regensburg. Then came the great cycle of frescoes in the
basilica of St Boniface at Munich, and the monumental picture
of the Virgin and Child enthroned between the four doctors,
and receiving the homage of the four patrons of the Munich
churches (now in the Pinakothek). His last work, the " Lord's
Supper," was found unfinished in his atelier after his death in
1863. Before testing his strength as a composer Heinrich Hess
HESS HESSE
409
tried genre, an example of which is the Pilgrims entering Rome,
now in the Munich gallery. He also executed portraits, and
twice had sittings from Thorwaldsen (Pinakothek and Schack
collections). But his fame rests on the frescoes representing
scenes from the Old and New Testaments in the Allerheiligen-
capelle, and the episodes from the life of St Boniface and other
German apostles in the basilica of Munich. Here he holds
rank second to none but Overbeck in monumental painting,
being always true to nature though mindful of the traditions
of Christian art, earnest and simple in feeling, yet lifelike and
powerful in expression. Through him and his pupils the sentiment
of religious art was preserved and extended in the Munich school.
PETER HESS (1792-1871) afterwards von Hess was born
at Diisseldorf and accompanied his younger brother Heinrich
Maria to Munich in 1806. Being of an age to receive vivid
impressions, he felt the stirring impulses of the time and became a
painter of skirmishes and battles. In 1813-1815 he was allowed to
join the staff of General Wrede, who commanded the Bavarians in
the military operations which led to the abdication of Napoleon ;
and there he gained novel experiences of war and a taste for
extensive travel. In the course of years he successively visited
Austria, Switzerland and Italy. On Prince Otho's election to
the Greek throne King Louis sent Peter Hess to Athens to gather
materials for pictures of the war of liberation. The sketches
which he then made were placed, forty in number, in the Pina-
kothek, after being copied in wax on a large scale (and little to
the edification of German feeling) by Nilsen, in the northern
arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich. King Otho's entrance
into Nauplia was the subject of a large and crowded canvas now
in the Pinakothek. which Hess executed in person. From these,
and from battlepieces on a scale of great size in the Royal
Palace, as well as from military episodes executed for the czar
Nicholas, and the battle of Waterloo now in the Munich Gallery,
we gather that Hess was a clever painter of horses. His con-
ception of subject was lifelike, and his drawing invariably correct,
but his style is not so congenial to modern taste as that of the
painters of touch. He finished almost too carefully with thin
medium and pointed tools; and on that account he lacked to a
certain extent the boldness of Horace Vernet, to whom he was
not unaptly compared. He died suddenly, full of honours,
at Munich, in April 1871. Several of his genre pictures, horse
hunts, and brigand scenes may be found in the gallery of Munich.
KARL HESS (1801-1874), the third son of Karl Christoph Hess,
born at Diisseldorf, was also taught by his father, who hoped
that he would obtain distinction as an engraver. Karl, however,
after engraving one plate after Adrian Ostade, turned to painting
under the guidance of Wagenbauer of Munich, and then studied
under his elder brother Peter. But historical composition
proved to be as contrary to his taste as engraving, and he gave,
himself exclusively at last to illustrations of peasant life in the
hill country of Bavaria. He became clever alike in representing
the people, the animals and the landscape of the Alps, and with
constant means of reference to nature in the neighbourhood
of Reichenhall, where he at last resided, he never produced
anything that was not impressed with the true stamp of a kindly
realism. Some of his pictures in the museum of Munich will
serve as examples of his manner. He died at Reichenhall on
the 1 6th of November 1874.
UESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF, FREIHERR VON
(1788-1870), Austrian soldier, entered the army in 1805 and was
soon employed as a staff officer on survey work. He distinguished
himself as a subaltern at Aspern and Wagram, and in 1813, as a
captain, again served on the staff. In 1815 he was with Schwarz-
enberg. He had in the interval between the two wars been
employed as a military commissioner in Piedmont, and at the
peace resumed this post, gaining knowledge which later proved
invaluable to the Austrian army. In 1831, when Radetzky
became commander-in-chief in Austrian Italy, he took Hess as
his chief-of-staff, and thus began the connexion between two
famous soldiers which, like that of Blucher and Gneisenau, is a
classical example of harmonious co-operation of commander and
chief-of-staff. Hess put into shape Radetzky's military ideas, in
the form of new drill for each arm, and, under their guidance,
the Austrian army in North Italy, always on a war footing,
became the best in Europe. From 1834 to 1848 Hess was
employed in Moravia, at Vienna, &c., but, on the outbreak of
revolution and war in the latter year, was at once sent out to
Radetzky as chief-of-staff. In the two campaigns against King
Charles Albert which followed, culminating in the victory of
Novara, Hess's assistance to his chief was made still more
valuable by his knowledge of the enemy, and the old field-marshal
acknowledged his services in general orders. Lieut.-Fieldmarshal
Hess was at once promoted Feldzeugmeister, made a member of
the emperor's council, and Freiherr, assuming at the same time
the duties of the quartermaster-general. Next year he became
chief of the staff to the emperor. He was often employed in
missions to variouscapitals, and he appeared in the fieldin 1854 at
the head of the Austrian army which intervened so effectually
In the Crimean war. In 1859 he was sent to Italy after the early
defeats. He became field-marshal in 1860, and a year later, on
resigning his position as chief-of-staff, he was made captain of the
Trabant guard. He died in Vienna in 1870.
See " General Hess " in Lebensgeschicktlichen Hinrissen (Vienna,
1855).
HESSE (Lat. Hessia, Ger. Hessen), a grand duchy forming a
state of the German empire. It was known until 1866 as Hesse-
Darmstadt, the history of which is given under a separate heading
below. It consists of two main parts, separated from each other
by a narrow strip of Prussian territory. The northern part is the
province of Oberhessen; the southern consists of the contiguous
provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen. There are also
eleven very small exclaves, mostly grouped about Homburg to
the south-west of Oberhessen; but the largest is Wimpfen on
the north-west frontier of Wiirttemberg. Oberhessen is hilly;
though of no great elevation it extends over the water-parting
between the basins of the Rhine and the Weser, and in the
Vogelsberg it has as its culminating point the Taufstein (2533 ft.).
In the north-west it includes spurs of the Taunus. Between
these two systems of hills lies the fertile undulating tract known
as the Wetteraii, watered by the Wetter, a tributary of the
Main. Starkenburg occupies the angle between the Main and
the Rhine, and in its south-eastern part includes some of the
ranges of the Odenwald, the highest part beingthe Seidenbucher
Hohe (1965 ft.). Rheinhessen is separated from Starkenburg by
the Rhine, and has that river as its northern as well as its eastern
frontier, though it extends across it at the north-east corner,
where the Rhine, on receiving the Main, changes its course
abruptly from south to west. The territory consists of a fertile
tract of low hills, rising towards the south-west into the northern
extremity of the Hardt range, but at no point reaching a height of
more than 1050 ft.
The area and population of the three provinces of Hesse are
as follow:
Oberhessen
Starkenburg .
Rheinhessen .
Total
Area.
Population.
sq. m.
1895-
1905-
1267
1169
530
27L524
444,562
322,934
296,755
542,996
369,424
2966
1 ,039,020
1,209,175
The chief towns of the grand duchy are Darmstadt (the
capital) and Offenbach in Starkenburg, Mainz and Worms in
Rheinhessen and Giessen in Oberhessen. More than two-thirds
of the inhabitants are Protestants; the majority of the remainder
are Roman Catholics, and there are about 25,000 Jews. The
grand duke is head of the Protestant church. Education is
compulsory, the elementary schools being communal, assisted by
state grants. There are a university at Giessen and a technical
high school at Darmstadt. Agriculture is important, more than
three-fifths of the total area being under cultivation. The
largest grain crops are rye and barley, and nearly 40,000 acres
are under vines. Minerals, in which Oberhessen is much richer
HESSE-CASSEL
than the two other provinces, include iron, manganese, salt and
some coal.
The constitution dates from 1820, but was modified in 1856,
1862, 1872 and 1000. There are two legislative chambers. The
upper consists of princes of the grand-ducal family, heads of
mediatized houses, the head of the Roman Catholic and the
superintendent of the Protestant church, the chancellor of the
university, two elected representatives of the land-owning
nobility, and twelve members nominated by the grand duke.
The lower chamber consists of ten deputies from large town? and
forty from small towns and rural districts. They are indirectly
elected, by deputy electors (Wahlmanner) nominated by the
electors, who must be Hessians over twenty-five years old, paying
direct taxes. The executive ministry of state is divided into the
departments of the interior, justice and finance. The three
provinces are divided for local administration into 18 circles and
989 communes. The ordinary revenue and expenditure amount
each to about 4,000,000 annually, the chief taxes being an
income-tax, succession duties and stamp tax. The public debt,
practically the whole of which is on railways, amounted to
i9,97,48 in 1907.
History. The name of Hesse, now used principally for the
grand duchy formerly known as Hesse-Darmstadt, refers to a
country which has had different boundaries and areas at different
times. The name is derived from that of a Prankish tribe, the
Hessi. The earliest known inhabitants of the country were the
Chatti, who lived here during the ist century A.D. (Tacitus,
Germania, c. 30), and whose capital, Mattium on the Eder, was
burned by the Romans about A.D. 15. " Alike both in race and
language," says Walther Schultze, " the Chatti and the Hessi are
identical." During the period of the V olkerwanderung many of
these people moved westward, but some remained behind to give
their name to the country, although it was not until the 8th
century that the word Hesse came into use. Early Hesse was
the district around the Fulda, the Werra, the Eder and the Lahn,
and was part of the Prankish kingdom both during Merovingian
and during Carolingian times. Soon Hessegau is mentioned, and
this district was the headquarters of Charlemagne during his
campaigns against the Saxons. By the treaty of Verdun in 843
it fell to Louis the German, and later it seems to have been partly
in the duchy of Saxony and partly in that of Franconia. The
Hessians were converted to Christianity mainly through the
efforts of St Boniface; their land was included in the arch-
bishopric of Mainz; and religion and culture were kept alive
among them largely owing to the foundation of the Benedictine
abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld. Like other parts of Germany
during the gth century Hesse felt the absence of a strong central
power, and, before the time of the emperor Otto the Great,
several counts, among whom were Giso and Werner, had made
themselves practically independent; but after the accession of
Otto in 936 the land quietly accepted the yoke of the medieval
emperors. About 1120 another Giso, count of Gudensberg,
secured possession of the lands of the Werners; on his death in
1137 his daughter and heiress, Hedwig, married Louis, land-
grave of Thuringia; and from this date until 1247, when the
Thuringian ruling family became extinct, Hesse formed part of
Thuringia. The death of Henry Raspe, the last landgrave of
Thuringia, in 1247, caused a long war over the disposal of his
lands, and this dispute was not settled until 1264 when Hesse,
separated again from Thuringia, was secured by his niece Sophia
(d. 1284), widow of Henry II., duke of Brabant. In the following
year Sophia handed over Hesse to her son Henry (1244-1308),
who, remembering the connexion of Hesse and Thuringia, took
the title of landgrave, and is the ancestor of all the subsequent
rulers of the country. In 1292 Henry was made a prince of the
Empire, and with him the history of Hesse properly begins.
For nearly 300 years the history of Hesse is comparatively
uneventful. The land, which fell into two main portions, upper
Hesse round Marburg, and lower Hesse round Cassel, was twice
divided between two members of the ruling family, but no per-
manent partition took place before the Reformation. A Landtag
was first called together in 1387, and the landgraves were con-
stantly at variance with the electors of Mainz, who had large
temporal possessions in the country. They found time, however,
to increase the area of Hesse. Giessen, part of Schmalkalden,
Ziegenhain, Nidda and, after a long struggle, Katzenelnbogen
were acquired, while in 1432 the abbey of Hersfeld placed itself
under the protection of Hesse. The most noteworthy of the
landgraves were perhaps Louis I. (d. 1458), a candidate for the
German throne in 1440, and William II. (d. 1509), a comrade of
the German king, Maximilian I. In 1509 William's young son,
Philip (q.v.), became landgrave, and by his vigorous personality
brought his country into prominence during the religious troubles
of the i6th century. Following the example of his ancestors
Philip cared for education and the general welfare of his land,
and the Protestant university of Marburg, founded in 1527, owes
to him its origin. When he died in 1567 Hesse was divided
between his four sons into Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt,
Hesse-Marburg and Hesse-Rheinfels. The lines ruling in Hesse-
Rheinfels and Hesse-Marburg, or upper Hesse, became extinct
in 1583 and 1604 respectively, and these lands passed to the two
remaining branches of the family. The small landgraviate of
Hesse-Homburg was formed in 1622 from Hesse-Darmstadt.
After the annexation of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Homburg by
Prussia in 1866 Hesse-Darmstadt remained the only independent
part of Hesse, and it generally receives the common name.
Hesse-Philippsthal is an offshoot of Hesse-Cassel, and was
founded in 1685 by Philip (d. 1721), son of the Landgrave
William VI. In 1909 the representative of this family was the
Landgrave Ernest (b. 1846). Hesse-Barchfeld was founded
in 1721 by Philip's son, William (d. 1761), and in 1909 its repre-
sentative was the Landgrave Clovis (b. 1876). The lands of both
these princes are now mediatized. Hesse-Nassau is a province
of Prussia formed in 1866 from part of Hesse-Cassel and part of
the duchy of Nassau.
See H. B. Wenck, Hessische Landesgeschichte (Frankfort, 1783-
1803); C. von Rommel, Geschichte von Hesse (Cassel, 1820-1858);
F. Miinscher, Geschichte von Hesse (Marburg, 1894); F. Gundlach,
Hesse und die Mainzer Stiftsfehde (Marburg, 1899); Walther,
Literarisches Handbuch fur Geschichte und Landeskunde von Hesse
(Darmstadt, 1841; Supplement, 1850-1869); K. Ackermann,
Bibliotheca Hessiaca (Cassel, 1884-1899); Hoffmeister, Historisch-
genealogisches Handbuch uber alle Linien des Regentenhauses Hesse
(Marburg, 1874), and the Zeitschrift des Vereins fur hessische Geschichte
(1837-1904).
HESSE-CASSEL (in German Kurhessen, i.e. Electoral Hesse),
now the government district of Cassel in the Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau. It was till 1866 a landgraviate and electorate
of Germany, consisting of several detached masses of territory,
to the N.E. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contained a superficial
area of 3699 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was 745,063.
History. The line of Hesse-Cassel was founded by William
IV., surnamed the Wise, eldest son of Philip the Magnanimous.
On his father's death in 1567 he received one half of Hesse, with
Cassel as his capital; and this formed the landgraviate of Hesse-
Cassel. Additions were made to it by inheritance from his
brother's possessions. His son, Maurice the Learned (1592-1627),
turned Protestant in 1605, became involved later in the Thirty
Years' War, and, after being forced to cede some of his territories
to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in favour of his son William V.
(1627-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which created
several cadet lines of the house, of which that of Hesse-Rheinfels-
Rotenburg survived till 1834. On the death of William V.,
whose territories had been conquered by the Imperialists, his
widow Amalie Elizabeth, as regent for her son William VI.
(1637-1663), reconquered the country and, with the aid of the
French and Swedes, held it, together with part of Westphalia.
At the peace of Westphalia (1648), accordingly, Hesse-Cassel
was augmented by the larger part of the countship of Schaum-
burg and by the abbey of Hersfeld, secularized as a principality
of the Empire. The Landgravine Amalie Elizabeth introduced
the rule of primogeniture. William VI., who came of age in 1650,
was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was
succeeded by his son William VII., an infant, who died in 1670,
and was succeeded by his brother Charles (1670-1730). Charles's,
chief claim to remembrance is that he was the first ruler to adopt
HESSE-CASSEL
411
the system of hiring his soldiers out to foreign powers as mer-
cenaries, as a means of improving the national finances. Frederick
I., the next landgrave (1730-1751), had become by marriage king
of Sweden, and on his death was succeeded in the landgraviate
by his brother William VIII. (1751-1760), who fought as an ally
of England during the Seven Years' War. From his successor
Frederick II. (1760-1785), who had become a Roman Catholic,
22,000 Hessian troops were hired by England for about 3, 191,000,
to assist in the war against the North American colonies. This
action, often bitterly criticized, has of late years found apologists
(cf. v. Werthern, Die hessischen Hilfstruppen im nordamerika-
nischen Unabhiingigkeitskriege, Cassel, 1895). It is argued that
the troops were in any case mercenaries, and that the practice
was quite common. Whatever opinion may be held as to
this, it is certain that Frederick spent the money well: he did
much for the development of the economic and intellectual
improvement of the country. The reign of the next landgrave,
William IX. (1785-1821), was an important epoch in the history
of Hesse-Cassel. Ascending the throne in 1785, he took part
in the war against France a few years later, but in 1795 peace
was arranged by the treaty of Basel. For the loss in 1801
of his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine he was in 1803
compensated by some of the former French territory round
Mainz, and at the same time was raised to the dignity of Elector
(Kurfilrst) as William I. In 1806 he made a treaty of neutrality
with Napoleon, but after the battle of Jena the latter, suspect-
ing William's designs, occupied his country, and expelled him.
Hesse-Cassel was then added to Jerome Bonaparte's new kingdom
of Westphalia; but after the battle of Leipzig in 1813 the
French were driven out and on the 2 ist of November the elector
returned in triumph to his capital. A treaty concluded by
him with the Allies (Dec. 2) stipulated that he was to receive
back all his former territories, or their equivalent, and at the
same time to restore the ancient constitution of his country.
This treaty, so far as the territories were concerned, was carried
out by the powers at the congress of Vienna. They refused,
however, the elector's request to be recognized as " King of
the Chatti " (Konig der Katten), a request which was again
rejected at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). He
therefore retained the now meaningless title of elector, with
the predicate of " royal highness."
The elector had signalized his restoration by abolishing
with a stroke of the pen all the reforms introduced under the
French regime, repudiating the Westphalian debt and declaring
null and void the sale of the crown domains. Everything was
set back to its condition on the ist of November 1806; even
the officials had to descend to their former rank, and the army
to revert to the old uniforms and powdered pigtails. The
estates, indeed, were summoned in March 1815, but the attempt
to devise a constitution broke down; their appeal to the federal
diet at Frankfort to call the elector to order in the matter of
the debt and the domains came to nothing owing to the inter-
vention of Metternich; and in May 1816 they were dissolved,
never to meet again. William I. died on the 27th of February
1821, and was succeeded by his son, William II. Under him
the constitutional crisis in Hesse-Cassel came to a head. He
was arbitrary and avaricious like his father, and moreover
shocked public sentiment by his treatment of his wife, a popular
Prussian princess, and his relations with his mistress, one
Emilie Ortlopp, created countess of Reichenbach,' whom he
loaded with wealth. The July revolution in Paris gave the
signal for disturbances; the elector was forced to summon
the estates; and on the sth of January 1831 a constitution
on the ordinary Liberal basis was signed. The elector now
retired to Hanau, appointed his son Frederick William regent,
and took no further part in public affairs.
The regent, without his father's coarseness, had a full share
of his arbitary and avaricious temper. Constitutional restric-
tions were intolerable to him; and the consequent friction with
the diet was aggravated when, in 1832, Hassenpflug (q.v.) was
placed at the head of the administration. The whole efforts of
the elector and his minister were directed to nullifying the
constitutional control vested in the diet; and the Opposition was
fought by manipulating the elections, packing the judicial
bench, and a vexatious and petty persecution of political
" suspects," and this policy continued after the retirement of
Hassenpflug in 1837. The situation that resulted issued in the
revolutionary year 1848 in a general manifestation of public
discontent; and Frederick William, who had become elector
on his father's death (November 20, 1847), was forced to dismiss
his reactionary ministry and to agree to a comprehensive pro-
gramme of democratic reform. This, however, was but short-
lived. After the breakdown of the Frankfort National Parlia-
ment, Frederick William joined the Prussian Northern Union,
and deputies from Hesse-Cassel were sent to the Erfurt parlia-
ment. But as Austria recovered strength, the elector's policy
changed. On the 23rd of February 1850 Hassenpflug was again
placed at the head of the administration and threw himself
with renewed zeal into the struggle against the constitution and
into opposition to Prussia. On the 2nd of September the diet
was dissolved; the taxes were continued by electoral ordinance;
and the country was placed under martial law. It was at once
clear, however, that the elector could not depend on his officers
or troops, who remained faithful to their oath to the constitution.
Hassenpflug persuaded the elector to leave Cassel secretly with
him, and on the isth of October appealed for aid to the recon-
stituted federal diet, which willingly passed a decree of " inter-
vention. " On the ist of November an Austrian and Bavarian
force marched into the electorate.
This was a direct challenge to Prussia, which under conventions
with the elector had the right to the use of the military roads
through Hesse that were her sole means of communication with
her Rhine provinces. War seemed imminent; Prussian troops
also entered the country, and shots were actually exchanged
between the outposts. But Prussia was in no condition to take
up the challenge; and the diplomatic contest that followed
issued in the Austrian triumph at Olmiitz (1851). Hesse was
surrendered to the federal diet; the taxes were collected by the
federal forces, and all officials who refused to recognize the new
order were dismissed. In March 1852 the federal diet abolished
the constitution of 1831, together with the reforms of 1848, and
in April issued a new provisional constitution. The new diet
had, under this, very narrow powers; and the elector was free
to carry out his policy of amassing money, forbidding the con-
struction of railways and manufactories, and imposing strict
orthodoxy on churches and schools. In 1855, however, Hassen-
.pflug who had returned with the elector was dismissed; and
five years later, after a period of growing agitation, a new
constitution was granted with the consent of the federal diet
(May 30, 1860). The new chambers, however, demanded the
constitution of 1831 ; and, after several dissolutions which always
resulted in the return of the same members, the federal diet
decided to restore the constitution of 1831 (May 24, 1862).
This had been due to a threat of Prussian occupation; and it
needed another such threat to persuade the elector to reassemble
the chambers, which he had dismissed at the first sign of opposi-
tion; and he revenged himself by refusing to transact any
public business. In 1866 the end came. The elector, full of
grievances against Prussia, threw in his lot with Austria; the
electorate was at once overrun with Prussian troops; Cassel
was occupied (June 20) ; and the elector was carried a prisoner
to Stettin. By the treaty of Prague Hesse-Cassel was annexed
to Prussia. The elector Frederick William (d. 1875) had been,
by the terms of the treaty of cession, guaranteed the entailed
property of his house. This was, however, sequestered in 1868
owing to his intrigues against Prussia; part of the income was
paid, however, to the eldest agnate, the landgrave Frederick
(d. 1884), and part, together with certain castles and palaces,
was assigned to the cadet lines of Philippsthal and Philippsthal-
Barchfeld.
See K. W. Wippermann, Kurhessen seit den Freiheitskriegen
(Cassel, 1850); Roth, Geschichte von Hessen-Kassel (Cassel, 1856;
2nd ed. continued by Stamford, 1883-1885); H. Grafe, Der Ver-
fassungskampf in Kurhessen (Leipzig, 1851) and works under
HESSE.
412
HESSE-DARMSTADT HESSE-HOMBURG
HESSE-DARMSTADT, a grand-duchy in Germany, the history
of which begins with the partition of Hesse in 1567. George I.
(1547-1597), the youngest son of the landgrave Philip, received
the upper county of Katzenelnbogen, and, selecting Darmstadt
as his residence, became the founder of the Hesse-Darmstadt
line. Additions to the landgraviate were made both in the
reigns of George and of his son and successor, Louis V. (1577-
1626), but in 1622 Hesse-Homburg was cut off to form an apanage
for George's youngest son, Frederick (d. 1638). Although Louis
V., who founded the university of Giessen in 1607, was a Lutheran,
he and his son, George II. (1605-1661), sided with the im-
perialists in the Thirty Years' War, during which Hesse-Darm-
stadt suffered very severely from the ravages of the Swedes.
In this struggle Hesse-Cassel took the other side, and the rivalry
between the two landgraviates was increased by a dispute over
Hesse-Marburg, the ruling family of which had become extinct
in 1604. This quarrel was interwoven with the general thread
of the Thirty Years' War, and was not finally settled until 1648,
when the disputed territory was divided between the two claim-
ants. Louis VI. (d. 1678), a careful and patriotic prince, followed
the policy of the three previous landgraves, but the anxiety of
his son, Ernest Louis (d. 1739), to emulate the French court
under Louis XIV. led his country into debt. Under Ernest
Louis and his son and successor, Louis VIII. (d. 1768), another
dispute occurred between Darmstadt and Cassel; this time
it was over the succession to the county of Hanau, which was
eventually divided, Hesse-Darmstadt receiving Lichtenberg.
During the i8th century the War of the Austrian Succession and
the Seven Years' War dealt heavy blows at the prosperity of
the landgraviate, which was always loyal to the house of Austria.
Louis IX. (1719-1790). who served in the Prussian army under
Frederick the Great, is chiefly famous as the husband of Caroline
(1721-1774), " the great landgravine," who counted Goethe,
Herder and Grimm among her friends and was described by
Frederick the Great as femina sexu, ingenio vir. In April 1790,
just after the outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis X.
(1753-1830), an educated prince who shared the tastes and
friendships of his mother, Caroline, became landgrave. In 1792
he joined the allies against France, but in 1799 he was compelled
to sign a treaty of neutrality. In 1803, having formally sur-
rendered the part of Hesse on the left bank of the Rhine which
had been taken from him in the early days of the Revolution,
Louis received in return a much larger district which had formerly
belonged to the duchy of Westphalia, the electorate of Mainz
and the bishopric of Worms. In 1806, being a member of the
confederation of the Rhine, he took the title of Louis I., grand-
duke of Hesse; he supported Napoleon with troops from 1805
to 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig he joined the allies.
In 1815 the congress of Vienna made another change in the
area and boundaries of Hesse-Darmstadt. Louis secured again
a district on the left bank of the Rhine, including the cities of
Mainz and Worms, but he made cessions of territory to Prussia
and to Bavaria and he recognized the independence of Hesse-
Homburg, which had recently been incorporated with his lands.
However, his title of grand-duke was confirmed, and as grand-
duke of Hesse and of the Rhine he entered the Germanic con-
federation. Soon the growing desire for liberty made itself
felt in Hesse, and in 1820 Louis gave a constitution to the land;
various forms were carried through; the system of government
was reorganized, and in 1828 Hesse-Darmstadt joined the
Prussian Zolherein. Louis I., who did a great deal for the
welfare of his country, died on the 6th of April 1830, and was
followed on the throne by his son, Louis II. (1777-1848). This
grand-duke had some trouble with his Landtag, but, dying on
the i6th of June 1848, he left his son, Louis III. (1806-1877),
to meet the fury of the revolutionary year 1848. Many conces-
sions were made to the popular will, but during the subsequent
reaction these were withdrawn, and the period between 1850
and 1871, when Karl Friedrich Reinhard, Freiherr von Dalwigk
(1802-1880), was chiefly responsible for the government of Hesse-
Darmstadt, was one of repression, although some benefits were
conferred upon the people. Dalwigk was one of Prussia's
enemies, and during the war of 1866 the grand-duke fought on
the Austrian side, the result being that he was compelled to
pay a heavy indemnity and to cede certain districts, including
Hesse-Homburg, which he had only just acquired, to Prussia.
In 1867 Louis entered the North German Confederation, but only
for his lands north of the Main, and in 1871 Hesse-Darmstadt
became one of the states of the new German empire. After the
withdrawal of Dalwigk from public life at this time a more
liberal policy was adopted in Hesse. Many reforms in ecclesi-
astical, educational, financial and administrative matters were
introduced, and in general the grand-duchy may be said to have
passed largely under the influence of Prussia, which, by an
arrangement made in 1896, controls the Hessian railway system.
The constitution of 1820, subject to four subsequent modifica-
tions, is still the law of the land, the legislative power being
vested in two chambers and the executive power being exercised
by the three departments of the ministry of state. Since the
annexation of Hesse-Cassel by Prussia in 1866 the grand-duchy
has been known simply as Hesse. Louis III. died on the i3th
of June 1877, and was succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV.
(1837-1892), a son-in-law of Queen Victoria; he died on the
I3th of March 1892, and was succeeded by his son, Ernest
Louis (b. 1868). This grand-duke's marriage with Victoria
(b. 1876), daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha,
was dissolved in 1901. The union was childless, and consequently
in 1902 a law regulating the succession was passed. By this
the landgrave Alexander Frederick (b. 1863), the representative
of the family which ruled Hesse-Cassel until 1866, was declared
the heir to Hesse in case the grand-duke died without sons.
However, in 1905 Ernest Louis married Elenore, princess of
Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (b. 1871), by whom he had a son George
(b. 1906).
See L. Baur, Urkunden zur hessischen Land.es-, Orts- und Familien-
geschichte (Darmstadt, 1846-1873); Steiner, Geschichte des Gross-
herzogtums Hessen (Darmstadt, 1833-1834); Klein, Das Gruss-
herzogtum Hessen (Mainz, 1861); Ewald, Historische Ubersicht der
Territoriaherdnderungen der Landgrafschaft Hessen und des Gross-
herzogtums Hessen (Darmstadt, 1872); F. Soldan, Geschichte des
Grossherzogtums Hessen (Giessen, 1896); H. Heppe, Kirchengeschichte
beider Hessen (Marburg, 1876-1878); C. Hessler, Geschichte von
Hessen (Cassel, 1891), and Hessische Landes- und Volkskunde
(Marburg, 1904-1906) ; F. Kuchler, A. E. Braun and A. K. Weber,
Verfassungs-und Verwaltungsrecht des Grossherzogtums Hessen (Darm-
stadt, 1894-1897); H. Kunzel, Grossherzogtum Hessen (Giessen,
1893); and W. Zeller, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung
im Grossherzogtum Hessen (Darmstadt, 1885-1893). See also
Archil! fur hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde (Darmstadt,
1894 fol.) and Hessisches Urkundenbuch (Leipzig, 1879 fol.).
HESSE-HOMBURG, formerly a small landgraviate in Germany.
It consisted of two parts, the district of Homburg on the right
side of the Rhine, and the district of Meisenheim, which was
added in 1815, on the left side of the same river. Its area
was about 100 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was 27,374.
Homburg now forms part of the Prussian province of Hesse-
Nassau, and Meisenheim of the province of the Rhine. Hesse-
Homburg was formed into a separate landgraviate in 1622
by Frederick I. (d. 1638), son of George I., landgrave of Hesse-
Darmstadt, although it did not become independent of Hesse-
Darmstadt until 1 768. By two of Frederick's sons it was divided
into Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim; but
these parts were again united in 1681 under the rule of Frederick's
third son, Frederick II. (d. 1708). In 1806, during the long reign
of the landgrave Frederick V., which extended from 1751 to
1820, Hesse-Homburg was mediatized, and incorporated with
Hesse-Darmstadt; but in 1815 by the congress of Vienna the
latter state was compelled to recognize the independence of
Hesse-Homburg, which was increased by the addition of Meisen-
heim. Frederick V. joined the German confederation as a
sovereign prince in 1817, and after his death his five sons in
succession filled the throne. The last of these, Ferdinand,
who succeeded in 1848, granted a liberal constitution to his
people, but cancelled it during the reaction of 1852. When he
died on the 24th of March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited
by Louis III., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim
fell to Prussia. In the following September, however, Louis
HESSE-NASSAU HESSUS
4*3
was forced to cede his new possession to Prussia, as he had
supported Austria during the war between these two powers.
See R. Schwartz, Landgraf Friedrich V. von Hessen-Homburg und
seine Familie (1878); and von Herget, Das landgrafliche Haus
Hamburg (Homburg, 1903).
HESSE-NASSAU (Ger. Hessen-Nassau), a province of Prussia,
bounded, from N. to E., S. and W., successively by Westphalia,
Waldeck, Hanover, the province of Saxony, the Thuringian
States, Bavaria, Hesse and the Rhine Province. There are
small detached portions in Waldeck, Thuringia, &c.; on the
other hand the province enclaves the province of Oberhessen
belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the circle of Wetzlar
belonging to the Rhine Province. Hesse-Nassau was formed
in 1867-1868 out of the territories which accrued to Prussia after
the war of 1866, namely, the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel and
the duchy of Nassau, in addition to the greater part of the
territory of Frankfort-on-Main, parts of the grand-duchy of
Hesse, the territory of Homburg and the countship of Hesse-
Homburg, together with certain small districts which belonged
to Bavaria. It is now divided into the governments of Cassel
and Wiesbaden, the second of which consists mainly of the former
territory of Nassau (?..).
The province has an area of 6062 sq. m., and had a population
in 1905 of 2,070,052, being the fourth most densely populated
province in Prussia, after Berlin, the Rhine Province and
Westphalia. The east and north parts lie in the basin of the
river Fulda, which near the north-eastern boundary joins with
the Werra to form the Weser. The Main forms part of the
southern boundary, and the Rhine the south-western; the
western part of the province lies mostly in the basin of the
Lahn, a tributary of the Rhine. The province is generally hilly,
the highest hills occurring in the east and west. The Fulda
rises in the Wasserkuppe (3117 ft.), an eminence of the Rhonge-
birge, the highest in the province. In the south-west are the
Taunus, bordering the Main, and the Westerwald, west of the
Lahn, in which the highest points respectively are the Grosser
Feldberg (2887 ft.) and the Fuchskauten (2155 ft.). The
congeries of small groups of lower hills in the north are known as
the Hessische Bergland.
The province is not notably well suited to agriculture, but
in forests it is the richest in Prussia, and the timber trade is
large. The chief trees are beech, oak and conifers. Cattle-
breeding is extensively practised. The vine is cultivated
chiefly on the slopes of the Taunus, in the south-west, where
the names of several towns are well known for their wines
Schierstein, Erbach (Marcobrunner), Johannisberg, Geisenheim,
Riidesheim, Assmannshausen. Iron, coal, copper and manganese
are mined. The mineral springs are important, including those
at Wiesbaden, Homburg, Langenschwalbach, Nenndorf, Schlan-
genbad and Soden. The chief manufacturing centres are Cassel,
Diez, Eschwege, Frankfort, Fulda, Gross Almerode, Hanau and
Hersfeld. The province is divided for administration into
42 circles (Kreise), 24 in the government of Cassel and 18 in that
of Wiesbaden. It returns 14 representatives to the Reichstag.
Marburg is the seat of a university.
HESSE-ROTENBURG, a German landgraviate which was
broken up in 1834. In 1627 Ernest (1623-1693), a younger son
of Maurice, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel (d. 1632), received Rheins-
fels and lower Katzenelnbogen as his inheritance, and some years
later, on the deaths of two of his brothers, he added Eschwege,
Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to hi* possessions.
Ernest, who was a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, was
a great traveller and a voluminous writer. About 1700 his two
sons, William (d. 1725) and Charles (d. 1711), divided their
territories, and founded the families of Hesse-Rotenburg and
Hesse-Wanfried. The latter family died out in 1755, when
William's grandson, Constantine (d. 1778), reunited the lands
except Rheinfels, which had been acquired by Hesse-Cassel in
1735, and ruled them as landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg. At
the peace of Luneville in 1801 the part of the landgraviate on
the left bank of the Rhine was surrendered to France, and in
1815 other parts were ceded to Prussia, the landgrave Victor
Amadeus being compensated by the abbey of Corvey and the
Silesian duchy of Ratibor. Victor was the last male member
of his family, so, with the consent of Prussia, he bequeathed
his allodial estates to his nephews the princes Victor and Chlodwig
of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfiirst (see HOHENLOHE).
When the landgrave died on the i2th of November 1834 the
remaining parts of Hesse-Rotenburg were united with Hesse-
Cassel according to the arrangement of 1627. It may be noted
that Hesse-Rotenburg was never completely independent of
Hesse-Cassel. Perhaps the most celebrated member of this
family was Charles Constantine (1752-1821), a younger son of
the landgrave Constantine, who was called " citoyen Hesse,"
and who took part in the French Revolution.
HESSIAN, the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth,
in various degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common,
or standard, hessian is 40 in. wide, weighs io| oz. per yd.,
and in the finished state contains about 12 threads and 12^
picks per in. The name is probably of German origin, and the
fabric was originally made from flax and tow. Small quantities
of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but the jute
fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost
supplanted all others.
This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for
packing all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different
qualities, are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain,
ore, manure, sand, potatoes, onions, &c. Indeed, bags made
from one or other quality of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging
or tarpaulin, form the most convenient, and at the same time
the cheapest covering for any kind of goods which are not
damaged by being crushed.
Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other
colour, or left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for
paddings and linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags
and other articles. When dyed in art shades the cloth forms
an attractive decoration for stages and platforms, and generally
for any temporary erection, and in many cases it is stencilled
and then used for wall decoration.
The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this
fabric for the foundation of its products, while large quantities
are used for the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the
upholstery of furniture.
The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are
Dundee and Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all
kinds of hand- and machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are
made in the former city. The American name for hessian is
burlap; this particular kind is 40 in. wide, and is now largely
made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other places.
HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS (1488-1540), German Latin
poet, was born at Halgehausen in Hesse-Cassel, on the 6th of
January 1488. His family name is said to have been Koch;
Eoban was the name of a local saint ; Hcssus indicates the land of
his birth, Helius the fact that he was born on Sunday. In 1504
he entered the university of Erfurt, and soon after his graduation
was appointed rector of the school of St Severus. This post he
soon lost, and spent the years 1509-1513 at the court of the bishop
of Riesenburg. Returning to Erfurt, he was reduced to great
straits owing to his drunken and irregular habits. At length
(in 1517) he was appointed professor of Latin in the university.
He was prominently associated with the distinguished men of the
time (Johann Reuchlin, Conrad Peutinger, Ulrich von Hutten,
Conrad Mutianus), and took part in the political, religious and
literary quarrels of the period, finally declaring in favour of
Luther and the Reformation, although his subsequent corduct
showed that he was actuated by selfish motives. The university
was seriously weakened by the growing popularity of the new
university of Wittenberg, and Hessus endeavoured (but without
success) to gain a living by the practice of medicine. Through
the influence of Camerarius and Melanchthon, he obtained a post
at Nuremberg (1526), but, finding a regular life distasteful, he
again went back to Erfurt (1533). But it was not the Erfurt he
had known; his old friends were dead or had left the place; the
university was deserted. A lengthy poem gained him the favour
414
HESTIA HESYCHIUS
of the landgrave of Hesse, by whom he was summoned in 1536 as
professor of poetry and history to Marburg, where he died on the
5th of October 1 540. Hessus, who was considered the foremost
Latin poet of his age, was a facile verse-maker, but not a true
poet. He wrote what he thought was likely to pay or secure him
the favour of some important person. He wrote local, historical
and military poems, idylls, epigrams and occasional pieces,
collected under the title of Sylvae. His most popular works were
translations of the Psalms into Latin distichs (which reached
forty editions) and of the Iliad into hexameters. His most
original poem was the Heroides in imitation of Ovid, consist-
ing of letters from holy women, from the Virgin Mary down to
Kunigunde, wife of the emperor Henry II.
His Epistolae were edited by his friend Camerarius, who also wrote
his life (1553). There are later accounts of him by M. Hertz (1860),
G. Schwertzell (1874) and C. Krause (1879); see also D. F. Strauss,
Ulrich von Hulten (Eng. trans., 1874). His poems on Nuremberg
and other towns have been edited with commentaries and 16th-
century illustrations by J. Neff and V. von Loga in M. Herrmann and
S. Szamatolski's Lateinische Literaturdenkmdler des XV. u. XVI.
Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1896).
HESTIA, in Greek mythology, the " fire-goddess," daughter
of Cronus and Rhea, the goddess of hearth and home. She is
not mentioned in Homer, although the hearth is recognized as
a place of refuge for suppliants; this seems to show that her
worship was not universally acknowledged at the time of the
Homeric poems. In post-Homeric religion she is one of the
twelve Olympian deities, but, as the abiding goddess of the
household, she never leaves Olympus. When Apollo and
Poseidon became suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a
maiden for ever; whereupon Zeus bestowed upon her the
honour of presiding over all sacrifices. To her the opening
sacrifice was offered; to her at the sacrificial meal the first and
last libations were poured. The fire of Hestia was always kept
burning, and, if by any accident it became extinct, only sacred
fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses drawing fire from
the sun, might be used to rekindle it. Hestia is the goddess of
the family union, the personification of the idea of home; and as
the city union is only the family union on a large scale, she was
regarded as the goddess of the state. In this character her special
sanctuary was in the prytaneum, where the common hearth-fire
round which the magistrates meet is ever burning, and where the
sacred rites that sanctify the concord of city life are performed.
From this fire, as the representative of the life of the city, intend-
ing colonists took the fire which was to be kindled on the hearth
of the new colony. Hestia was closely connected with Zeus, the
god of the family both in its external relation of hospitality and
its internal unity round its own hearth; in the Odyssey a form
of oath is by Zeus, the table and the hearth. Again, Hestia is
often associated with Hermes, the two representing home and
domestic life on the one hand, and business and outdoor life on
the other; or, according to others, the association is local that
of the god of boundaries with the goddess of the house. In
later philosophy Hestia became the hearth of the universe the
personification of the earth as the centre of the universe, identified
with Cybele and Demeter. As Hestia had her home in the
prytaneum, special temples dedicated to her are of rare occurrence.
She is seldom represented in works of art, and plays no important
part in legend. It is not certain that any really Greek statues of
Hestia are in existence, although the Giustiniani Vesta in the
Torlonia Museum is usually accepted as such. In this she is
represented standing upright, simply robed, a hood over her
head, the left hand raised and pointing upwards. The Roman
deity corresponding to the Greek Hestia is VESTA (q.v.).
See A. Preuner, Hestia-Vesta (1864), the standard treatise on the
subject, and his article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; J. G.
Frazer, " The Prytaneum," &c., in Journal of Philology, xiv. (1885);
G. Hagemann, De Graecorum prytaneis (1881), with bibliography
and notes; Homeric Hymns, xxix., ed. T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes
(1904); Farnell, Cults, the Greek States, v. (1909).
HESYCHASTS (ijo-uxaoral or Vvxafoires, from fyri-xos,
quiet, also called 6/j.<t>a.\6\f/vxoi, Umbilicanimi, and sometimes
referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a quietistic
sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine
empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at
Mount Athos, then at the height of its fame and influence under
the reign of Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon.
Owing to various adventitious circumstances the sect came into
great prominence politically and ecclesiastically for a few years
about the middle of the i4th century. Their opinion and practice
will be best represented in the words of one of their early teachers
(quoted by Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 63) : " When thou art
alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat thyself in a corner;
raise thy mind above all things vain and transitory; recline thy
beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes and thy thought
towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel (6ji<a\6s) ;
and search the place of the heart, the seat of the soul. At first
all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere day and
night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the soul
discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic
and ethereal light." About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which
is obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental
mysticism, attracted the attention of the learned and versatile
Barlaam, a Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of
abbot in the Basilian monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople,
and who had visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of
inspection. Amid much that he disapproved", what he specially
took exception to as heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine
entertained as to the nature of this divine light, the fruition of
which was the supposed reward of hesychastic contemplation.
It was maintained to be the pure and perfect essence of God
Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to the
disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam
held to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal
substances, a visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic
side the controversy was taken up by Gregory Palamas, after-
wards archbishop of Thessalonica, who laboured to establish
a distinction between eternal owLa and eternal tvepytia.. In
1341 the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople
and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the assembly,
influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the pseudo-
Dionysius were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam,
who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming
bishop of Hierace in the Latin communion. One of his friends,
Gregory Acindynus, continued the controversy, and three other
synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the
Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351 under the
presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated
light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for
the Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an
additional ground of separation from the Roman Church. The
contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras
deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and
Barlaamite sides respectively. It may be mentioned that in the
time of Justinian the word hesychast was applied to monks in
general simply as descriptive of the quiet and contemplative
character of their pursuits.
See article " Hesychasten " in Herzog-Hauck, RealencykJopddie
(3rd ed., 1900), where further references are given.
HESYCHIUS, grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished
in the 5th century A.D. He was probably a pagan; and the
explanations of words from Gregory of Nazianzus and other
Christian writers (glossae sacrae) are interpolations of a later
time. He has left a Greek dictionary, containing a copious
list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an explanation
of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author
who used them or to the district of Greece where they were
current. Hence the book is of great value to the student
of the Greek dialects; while in the restoration of the text
of the classical authors generally, and particularly of such
writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used many unusual
words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The explanations
of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts
about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory
letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of
Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus),
HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS HEUGLIN
but that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion,
Heliodorus and others.
The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been
disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the
Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to
us from a single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the
editio princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt
(1858-1868); in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish
the additions made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus.
HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS, Greek chronicler and biographer,
surnamed Illustrius, son of an advocate, flourished at Con-
stantinople in the 5th century A.D. during the reign of Justinian.
According to Photius (cod. 69) he was the author of three
important works, (i) A Compendium of Universal History
in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of the Assyrian
empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment
has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled Hdrpta
K<i}vcrTa.VTivouxb\tM, a history of Byzantium from its earliest
beginnings till the time of Constantine the Great. (2) A
Biographical Dictionary ('OvoiJ.aTO\6yos or nica) of Learned
Men, arranged according to classes (poets, philosophers), the chief
sources of which were the MOWIKI) loropio. of Aelius Dionysius
and the works of Herennius Philo. Much of it has been in-
corporated in the lexicon of Suidas, as we learn from that
author. It is disputed, however, whether the words in Suidas
(" of which this book is an epitome ") mean that Suidas himself
epitomized the work of Hesychius, or whether they are part
of the title of an already epitomized Hesychius used by Suidas.
The second view is more generally held. The epitome referred
to, in which alphabetical order was substituted for arrangement
in classes and some articles on Christian writers added as a
concession to the times, is assigned from internal indications
to the years 829-837. Both it and the original work are lost,
with the exception of the excerpts in Photius and Suidas. A
smaller compilation, chiefly from Diogenes Laertius and Suidas,
with a similar title, is the work of an unknown author of the
nth or 1 2th century. (3) A History of the Reign of Justin
I. (518-527) and the early years of Justinian, completely lost.
Photius praises the style of Hesychius, and credits him with
being a veracious historian.
Editions: J. C. Orelli (1820) and J. Flach (1882); fragments in
C. W. Miiller, Frag. hist. Graec. iv. 143 and in T. Preger's Scriptores
originis Constantinopolitanae, i. (1901); Pseudo-Hesychius, by J.
Flach (1880); see generally C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzanti-
nischen Literatur (1897).
HETAERISM (Gr. eraipa a mistress), the term employed
by anthropologists to express the primitive condition of man
in his sexual relations. The earliest social organization of
the human race was characterized by the absence of the institu-
tion of marriage in any form. Women were the common
property of their tribe, and the children never knew their fathers.
HETEROKARYOTA, a zoological name proposed by S. J.
Hickson for the Infusoria (q.v.) on the ground of the differentia-
tion of their nuclear apparatus into meganucleus and micro-
nucleus (or" nuclei).
See Lankester's Treatise of Zoology, vol. i. fasc. I (1903).
HETERONOMY (from Gr. Crepes and vo/ws, the rule of
another), the state of being under the rule of another person.
In ethics the term is specially used as the antithesis of
" autonomy," which, especially in Kantian terminology, treats
of the true self as will, determining itself by its own law, the
moral law. " Heteronomy " is therefore applied by Kant to
all other ethical systems, inasmuch as they place the individual
in subjection to external laws of conduct.
HETMAN (a Polish word, probably derived from the Ger.
Hauplmann, head-man or captain; the Russian form is ataman),
a military title formerly in use in Poland; the Hetman Wielki,
or Great Hetman, was the chief of the armed forces of the
nation, and commanded in the field, except when the king
was present in person. The office was abolished in 1792. From
Poland the word was introduced into Russia, in the form ataman,
and was adopted by the Cossacks, as a title for their head,
who was practically an independent prince, when under the
suzerainty of Poland. After the acceptance of Russian rule
by the Cossacks in 1654, the post was shorn of its power. The
title of " ataman " or " hetman of all the Cossacks " is held
by the Cesarevitch. " Ataman " or " hetman " is also the
name of the elected elder of the stanitsa, the unit of Cossack
administration. (See COSSACKS.)
HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR (1821-1882), German
literary historian and writer on the history of art, was born at
Leisersdorf, near Goldberg, in Silesia, on the izth of March
1821. At the universities of Berlin, Halle and Heidelberg he
devoted himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, but in 1843
turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. With a
view to furthering these studies, he spent three years in Italy,
and, on his return, published a Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst
der Alien (1848) and an essay on Die neapolitanischen Maler-
schulen. He became Privatdozent for aesthetics and the history
of art at Heidelberg and, after the publication of his suggestive
volume on Die romantische Schule in ihrem Zusammenhang
mil Goethe und Schiller (1850), accepted a call as professor to
Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and literature.
In 1855 he was appointed director of the royal collections of
antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which
posts were subsequently added that of director of the historical
museum and a professorship at the royal Polytechnikum. He
died in Dresden on the 2gth of May 1882. Hettner's chief work
is his Literatur geschichte des iSlen Jahrhunderls, which appeared
in three parts, devoted respectively to English, French and
German literature, between 1856 and 1870 (sth ed. of I. and II.,
revised by A. Brandl and H. Morf, 1894; 4th of III., revised by
O. Harnack, 1894). Although to some extent influenced by the
political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which,
since Hettner's day have fallen into discredit, and at times
losing sight of the main issues of literary development over
questions of social evolution, this work belongs to the best
histories that the igth century produced. Hettner's judgment
is sound and his point of view always original and stimulating.
His other works include Griechische Reiseskizzen (1853), Das
moderne Drama (1852) a book that arose from a correspondence
with Gottfried Keller Italienische Siudien (1879), and several
works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His Kleine
Schriflen were collected and published in 1884.
See A. Stern, Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild (1885); H. Spitzer,
H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfdnge und Literaturasthetik (1903).
HETTSTEDT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, or. the
Wipper, and at the junction of the railways Berlin-Blanken-
heim and Hettstedt-Halle, 23 m. N.W. of the last town. Pop.
(1905), 9230. It has a Roman Catholic and four Evangelical
churches, and has manufactures of machinery, pianofortes and
artificial manure. In the neighbourhood are mines of argenti-
ferous copper, and the surrounding district and villages are
occupied with smelting and similar works. Silver and sulphuric
acid are the other chief products; nickel and gold are also found
in small quantities. In the Kaiser Friedrich mine close by, the
first steam-engine in Germany was erected on the 23rd of August
1785. Hettstedt is mentioned as early as 1046; in 1220 it
possessed a castle; and in 1380 it received civic privileges.
When the countship of Mansfeld was sequestrated, Hettstedt
came into the possession of Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1815.
HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON (1824-1876), German traveller
in north-east Africa, was born on the 2oth of March 1824 at
Hirschlanden near Leonberg in Wurttemberg. His father was
a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to be a mining engineer.
He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific investigator
of unknown regions, and with that object studied the natural
sciences, especially zoology. In 1850 he went to Egypt where
he learnt Arabic, afterwards visiting Arabia Petraea. In 1852
he accompanied Dr Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartum, on a
journey to Abyssinia, and in the next year was appointed
Dr Reitz's successor in the consulate. While he held this
post he travelled in Abyssinia and Kordofan, making a
valuable collection of natural history specimens. In 1857
he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the
Red Sea, and along the Somali coast. In 1860 he was chosen
416
HEULANDITE HEVELIUS
leader of an expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his com-
panions including Werner Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach,
and Dr Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the party landed at
Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartum and thence
to Wadai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin,
accompanied by Dr Steudner, turned aside and made a wide
detour through Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in con-
sequence the leadership of the expedition was taken from him.
He and Steudner reached Khartum in 1862 and there joined the
party organized by Miss Tinne. With her or on their own
account, they travelled up the White Nile to Gondokoro and
explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner
died of fever on the loth of April 1863. Heuglin returned to
Europe at the end of 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable
series of explorations in Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but
1875 found him again in north-east Africa, in the country of
the Beni Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was preparing
for an exploration of the island of Sokotra, when he died, at
Stuttgart, on the sth of November 1876. It is principally by
his zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours
that Heuglin has taken rank as an independent authority.
His chief works are Systematische Vbersicht der Vogel Nordost-
Afrikas (1855); Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852-1853 (Gotha,
1857); Syst. Obersicht der Sdugetiere Nordosl-Afrikas (Vienna,
1867); Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Ldndern, &c., 18611862
(Jena, 1868); Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil, &c. 1862-1864
(Leipzig, 1869); Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870-1871 (Bruns-
wick, 1872-1874); Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika (Cassel, 1869
1875); Reise in Nordost-Afrika (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols.). A list
of the more important of his numerous contributions to Peter/nann's
Mitteilungen will be found in that serial for 1877 at the close of the
necrological notice.
HEULANDITE, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting
of hydrous calcium and aluminium silicate, H-iCaA^SiOsJe
+ 3H ; O. Small amounts of sodium and potassium are usually
present replacing part of the calcium. Crystals are monoclinic,
and have a characteristic coffin-shaped habit. They have a
perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (M in the
figure), on which the lustre is markedly pearly; on other faces
the lustre is of the vitreous type. The mineral is
usually colourless or white, sometimes brick-red,
and varies from transparent to translucent. The
hardness is 3^-4, and the specific gravity 2-2.
Heulandite closely resembles stilbite (q.v.) in
appearance, and differs from it chemically only
in containing rather less water of crystallization.
The two minerals may, however, be readily dis-
tinguished by the fact that in heulandite the
acute positive bisectrix of the optic axes emerges
perpendicular to the cleavage. Heulandite was
first separated from stilbite by A. Breithaupt in 1818, and
named by him euzeolite (meaning beautiful zeolite); independ-
ently, in 1822, H. J. Brooke arrived at the same result, giving
the name heulandite, after the mineral collector, Henry Heuland.
Heulandite occurs with stilbite and other zeolites in the
amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasion-
ally in gneiss and metalliferous veins. The best specimens are
from the basalts of Berufjord, near Djupivogr, in Iceland and
the Faroe Islands, and the Deccan traps of the Sahyadri
mountains near Bombay. Crystals of a brick-red colour are
from Campsie Fells in Stirlingshire and the Fassathal in Tirol.
A variety known as beaumontite occurs as small yellow crystals
on syenitic schist near Baltimore in Maryland.
Isomorphous with heulandite is the strontium and
barium zeolite brewsterite, named after Sir David Brewster.
The greyish monoclinic crystals have the composition
H 4 (Sr, Ba, Ca)Al 2 (Si0 3 )6-l-3H2O, and are found in the basalt
of the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and with harmotome
in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire. (L. J. S.)
HEUSCH, WILLEM, or GUILLIAM DE, a Dutch landscape
painter in the 1 7th century at Utrecht. The dates of this artist's
birth and death are unknown. Nothing certain is' recorded
of him except that he presided over the gild of Utrecht, whilst
Cornells Poelemburg, Jan Both and Jan Weenix formed the
council of that body, in 1649. According to the majority of
historians, Heusch was born in 1638, and was taught by Jan
Both. But each of these statements seems open to doubt;
and although it is obvious that the style of Heusch is identical
with that of Both, it may be that the two masters during their
travels in Italy fell under the influence of Claude Lorraine,
whose " Arcadian " art they imitated. Heusch certainly painted
the same effects of evening in wide expanses of country varied
by rock formations and lofty thin-leaved arborescence as Both.
There is little to distinguish one master from the other, except
that of the two Both is perhaps the more delicate colourist.
The gild of Utrecht in the middle of the i7th century was com-
posed of artists who clung faithfully to each other. Poelemburg,
who painted figures for Jan Both, did the same duty for Heusch.
Sometimes Heusch sketched landscapes for the battlepieces of
Molenaer. The most important examples of Heusch are in the
galleries of the Hague and Rotterdam, in the Belvedere at
Vienna, the Stadel at Frankfort and the Louvre. His pictures
are signed with the full name, beginning with a monogram
combining a G (for Guilliam), D and H. Heusch's etchings, of
which thirteen are known, are also in the character of those of
Both.
After Guilliam there also flourished at Utrecht his nephew,
Jacob de Heusch, who signs like his uncle, substituting an
initial J for the initial G. He was born at Utrecht in 1657,
learnt drawing from his uncle, and travelled early to Rome,
where he acquired friends and patrons for whom he executed
pictures after his return. He settled for a time at Berlin, but
finally retired to Utrecht, where he died in 1701. Jacob was an
" Arcadian," like his relative, and an imitator of Both, and he
chiefly painted Italian harbour views. But his pictures are now
scarce. Two of his canvases, the " Ponte Rotto " at Rome, in the
Brunswick Gallery, and a lake harbour with shipping in the
Lichtenstein collection at Vienna, are dated 1606. A harbour
with a tower and distant mountains, in the Belvedere at Vienna,
was executed in 1699. Other examples may be found in English
private galleries, in the Hermitage of St Petersburg and the
museums of Rouen and Montpellier.
HEVELIUS [HEVEL or HOWELCKE], JOHANN (1611-1687),
German astronomer, was born at Danzig on the 28th of January
1611. He studied jurisprudence at Leiden in 1630; travelled
in England and France; and in 1634 settled in his native town
as a brewer and town councillor. From 1639 his chief interest
became centred in astronomy, though he took, throughout his
life, a leading part in municipal affairs. In 1641 he built an
observatory in his house, provided with a splendid instrumental
outfit, including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 150 ft. focal
length, constructed by himself. It was visited, on the 29th
of January 1660, by John II. and Maria Gonzaga, king and
queen of Poland. Hevelius made observations of sunspots, 1642-
1645, devoted four years to charting the lunar surface, discovered
the moon's libration in longitude, and published his results in
Selenographia (1647), a work which entitles him to be called
the founder of lunar topography. He discovered four comets
in the several years 1652, 1661, 1672 and 1677, and suggested-
the revolution of such bodies in parabolic tracks round the sun.
On the 26th of September 1679, his observatory, instruments
and books were maliciously destroyed by fire, the catastrophe
being described in the preface to his Annus dimactericus (1685).
He promptly repaired the damage, so far as to enable him to
observe the great comet of December 1680; but his health
suffered from the shock, and he died on the 28th of January 1687.
Among his works were: Prodromus cometicus (1665); Cometo-
graphia (1668); Machina coelestis (first part, 1673), containing
a description of his instruments; the sfecond part (1679) is
extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the
conflagration of 1679. The observations made by Hevelius
on the variable star named by him " Mira " are included in
Annus dimactericus. His catalogue of 1564 stars appeared
posthumously in Prodromus astronomiae (1690). Its value
was much impaired by his preference of the antique " pinnules "
to telescopic sights on quadrants. This led to an acrimonious
HEWETT, SIR P. HEXAMETER
controversy with Robert Hooke. In an Alias of 56 sheets,
corresponding to his catalogue, and entitled Firmamentum
Sobiescianum (1690), he delineated seven new constellations,
still in use. Hevelius had his book printed in his own house,
at lavish expense, and himself not only designed but engraved
many of the plates.
See J. H. Westphal, Leben, Studien, und Schriften des Astronomen
Johann Hevelius (1820); C. B. Lengnich, Anekdoten und Nachrichten
(1780); Allgemeine deutsche Biographic (C. Bruhns); J. B. J.
Delambre, Histoire de I' astronomic moderne, ii. 471; J. F. Weidler,
Historia astronomiae, p. 486; F. Baily's edition of the Catalogue
of Hevelius, Memoirs Roy. Aslr. Society, xiii. (1843); R. Wolf,
Ceschichte der Astronomie, p. 396; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog.-lit.
Handworterbuch. For an account of the epistolary remains of
Hevelius, see C. G. Hecker, Monatl. Correspondent, viii. 30; also
Astr. Nachrichten, vols. xxiii., xxiv. (A. M. C.)
HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER, Bart. (1812-1891),
British surgeon, was born on the 3rd of July 1812, being the son
of a Yorkshire country gentleman. He lived for some years
in early life in Paris, and started on a career as an artist, but
abandoned it for surgery. He entered St George's Hospital,
London (where his half-brother, Dr Cornwallis Hewett, was
physician from 1825 to 1833) becoming demonstrator of anatomy
and curator of the museum. He was the pupil and intimate
friend of Sir B. C. Brodie, and helped him in much of his work.
Eventually he rose to be anatomical lecturer, assistant-surgeon
and surgeon to the hospital. In 1876 he was president of the
College of Surgeons; in 1877 he was made serjeant-surgeon
extraordinary to Queen Victoria, in 1884 serjeant-surgeon, and
in 1883 he was created a baronet. He was a very good lecturer,
but shrank from authorship ; his lectures on Surgical Affections
of the Head were, however, embodied in his treatise on the subject
in Holmes's System of Surgery. As a surgeon he was always
extremely conservative, but hesitated at no operation, however
severe, when convinced of its expediency. He was a perfect
operator, and one of the most trustworthy of counsellors. He
died on the igth of June 1891.
HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS. (1822-1903), American manu-
facturer and political leader, was born in Haverstraw, New York,
on the 3ist of July 1822. His father, John, a Staffordshire man,
was one of a party of four mechanics who were sent by Boulton
and Watt to Philadelphia about 1790 to set up a steam engine
for the city water-works and who in 1 793-1 794 built at Belleville,
N.J., the first steam engine constructed wholly in America;
he made a fortune in the manufacture of furniture, but lost it
by the burning of his factories. The boy's mother was of Huguenot
descent. He graduated with high rank from Columbia College
in 1842, having supported himself through his course. He
taught mathematics at Columbia, and in 1845 was admitted
to the bar, but, owing to defective eyesight, never practised.
With Edward Cooper (son of Peter Cooper, whom Hewitt
greatly assisted in organizing Cooper Union, and whose daughter
he married) he went into the manufacture of iron girders and
beams under the firm name of Cooper, Hewitt & Co. His study
of the making of gun-barrel iron in England enabled him to be
of great assistance to the United States government during the
Civil War, when he refused any profit on such orders. The men
in his works never struck indeed in 1873-1878 his plant was
run at an annual loss of $100,000. In politics he was a Democrat.
In 1871 he was prominent in the re-organization of Tammany
after the fall of the " Tweed Ring "; from 1875 until the end
of 1886 (exceptin 1879-1881) he was a representative in Congress ;
in 1876 he left Tammany for the County Democracy; in the
Hayes-Tilden campaign of that year he was chairman of the Demo-
cratic National Committee, and in Congress he was one of the
House members of the joint committee which drew up the famous
Electoral Count Act providing for the Electoral Commission.
In 1886 he was elected mayor of New York City, his nomination
having been forced upon the Democratic Party by the strength
of the other nominees, Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt;
his administration (1887-1888) was thoroughly efficient and
creditable, but he broke with Tammany, was not renominated,
ran independently for re-election, and was defeated. In 1896
XIH. 14
and 1900 he voted the Republican ticket, but did not ally himself
with the organization. He died in New York City on the i8th of
January 1903. _ In Congress he was a consistent defender of
sound money and civil service reform; in municipal politics
he was in favour of business administrations and opposed to
partisan nominations. He was a leader of those who contended
for reform in municipal government, was conspicuous for his
public spirit, and exerted a great influence for good not only in
New York City but in the state and nation. His most famous
speech was that made at the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in
1883. He was a terse, able and lucid speaker, master of wit and
sarcasm, and a fearless critic. He gave liberally to Cooper
Union, of which he was trustee and secretary, and which owes
much of its success to him; was a trustee of Columbia University
from 1901 until his death, chairman of the board of trustees of
Barnard College, and was one of the original trustees, first
chairman of the board of trustees, and a member of the executive
committee of the Carnegie Institution.
HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY (1861- ), English novelist,
was born on the 22nd of January 1861, the eldest son of Henry
Gay Hewlett, of Shaw Hall, Addington, Kent. He was educated
at the London International College, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
and was called to the bar in 1891. From 1896 to 1900 he was
keeper of the land revenue records and enrolments. He pub-
lished in 1895 two books on Italy, Earthwork out of Tuscany,
and (in verse) The Masque of Dead Florentines. Songs and
Meditations followed in 1897, and in 1898 he won an immediate
reputation by his Forest Lovers, a romance of medieval England,
full of rapid movement and passion. In the same year he printed
the pastoral and pagan drama of Pan and the Young Shepherd,
shortened for purposes of representation and produced at the
Court Theatre in March 1905, when it was followed by the
Youngest of the Angels, dramatized from a chapter in his Fool
Errant. In Little Novels of Italy (1899), a collection of brilliant
short stories, he showed again his power of literary expression
together with a close knowledge of medieval Italy. The new and
vivid portraits of Richard Cceur de Lion in his Richard Yea-and-
Nay (1900), and of Mary, queen of Scots, in The Queen's Quair
(1904) showed the combination of fiction with real history
at its best. The New Canterbury Tales (1901) was another
volume of stories of English life, but he returned to Italian
subjects with The Road in Tuscany (1904); in Fond Adventures,
Tales of the Youth of the World (1905), two are Italian tales, and
The Fool Errant (1905) purports to be the memoirs of Francis
Antony Stretley, citizen of Lucca. Later works were the novel
The Stooping Lady (1907), and a volume of poems, Artemision
(1909).
HEXAMETER, the name of the earliest and most important
form of classical verse in dactylic rhythm. The word is due
to each line containing six feet or measures (jn^rpa), the last of
which must be a spondee and the penultimate a dactyl, though
occasionally, for some special effect, a spondee may be allowed
in the fifth foot, when the line is said to be spondaic. The four
other feet may be either spondees or dactyls. All the great
heroic and epic verse of the Greek and Roman poets is in this
metre, of which the finest examples are to be found in Homer
and in Virgil. Varied cadences and varied caesura are essential
to this form of verse, otherwise the monotony is wearying to the
ear. The most usual places for the caesura are at the middle
of the third, or the middle of the fourth foot: the former is
known as the penthemimeral and the latter as hepthemimeral
caesura. There are several more or less successful examples
of English poems in this metre, for example Longfellow's Evan-
geline, Kingsley's Andromeda and dough's Bolhie of Tober-na-
Vuoilich, but it does not really suit the genius of the English
language. In English the lack of true spondees is severely
felt, even though the English metre depends, not, as in Greek
and Latin, on the distinction between long and short syllables,
but on that between accented and unaccented syllables. The
accent must always (or it sounds very ugly) fall on the first
syllable, whatever may have been the case in Greek and Latin
Voss, Klopstock and Goethe have written hexameter poems
HEXAPLA HEXAPODA
[CHARACTERS
of varying merit and the metre suits the German language
distinctly better than the English. The customary form of
hexameter in English verse is exemplified by Coleridge's descrip-
tive line:
" In the hex | ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column."
Several modern poets, and in particular Robert Browning,
and Lord Bowen (1835-1894) have used with effect a truncated
hexameter consisting of the usual verse deprived of its last
syllable. Thus Browning:
" Well, it is | gone at | last, the | palace of | music I | reared."
It is not sufficiently observed that even the classic Greek
poets introduced considerable variations into their treatment
of the hexameter. These have been treated with erudition in
G. Hermann's De aetate scriptoris Argonauticorum. The differ-
ences in the hexameters of the Latin poets were not so remarkable,
but even these varied, in various epochs, their treatment of
the separate feet, and the position of the caesura. The satirists
in particular allowed themselves an extraordinary licence:
these hexameters, from Persius, are as far removed from the
rhythm of Homer, or even of Virgil, as possible, if they are to
remain hexameters:
" Mane piger stertis. ' Surge ! ' inquit Avaritia, ' heia
Surge ! ' negas; instat ' Surge ! ' inquit ' Non queo.' ' Surge ! '
' Et quid agam ? ' ' Rogitas ? en saperdam advehe Ponto. "
It is also to be noted that various prosodical liberties, due origin-
ally to the extreme antiquity of the hexameter, and long reformed
and repressed by the culture of poets, were apt to be revived
in later ages, by writers who slavishly copied the most antique
examples of the art of verse.
See Wilhelm Christ, Melrik der Griechen und Romer, 2te Aufl.
(1879).
HEXAPLA (Gr. for " sixfold "), the term for an edition of
the Bible in six versions, and especially the edition of the Old
Testament compiled by Origen, which placed side by side
(i) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek character, (3) Aquila, (4)
Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion. See BIBLE:
'Old Testament, Texts and Versions.
HEXAPODA (Gr. e, six, and TTOUJ, foot), a term used in
systematic zoology for that class of the ARTHROPODA, popularly
known as insects. Linnaeus in his Systema naturae (1735)
grouped under the class Insecta all segmented animals with
firm exoskeleton and jointed limbs that is to say, the insects,
centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions and their
allies. This assemblage is now generally regarded as a great
division (phylum or sub-phylum) of the animal kingdom and
known by K. T. E. von Siebold's (1848) name of Arthropoda.
For the class of the true insects included in this phylum, Lin-
naeus's old term Insecta, first used in a restricted sense by M. J.
Brisson (1756), is still adopted by many zoologists, while others
prefer the name Hexapoda, first used systematically in its
modern sense by P. A. Latreille in 1825 (Families naturelles
du regne animal), since it has the advantage of expressing, in
a single word, an important characteristic of the group. The
terms " Hexapoda " and " hexapod " had already been used
by F. Willughby, J. Ray and others in the late i7th century
to include the active larvae of beetles, as well as bugs, lice,
fleas and other insects with undeveloped wings.
Characters.
A true insect, or member of the class Hexapoda, may be
known by the grouping of its body-segments in three distinct
regions a head, a thorax and an abdomen each of which
consists of a definite number of segments. In the terminology
proposed by E. R. Lankester the arrangement is " nomomer-
istic " and " nomotagmic." The head of an insect carries usually
four pairs of conspicuous appendages feelers, mandibles
and two pairs of maxillae, so that the presence of four primitive
somites is immediately evident. The compound eyes of insects
resemble so closely the similar organs in Crustaceans that
there can hardly be reasonable doubt of their homology, and
the primitively appendicular nature of the eyes in the latter
class suggests that in the Hexapoda also they represent the
appendages of an anterior (protocerebral) segment. Behind
the antennal (or deutocerebral) segment an " intercalary "
or tritocerebral segment has been demonstrated by W. M.
Wheeler (1893) and others in various insect embryos, while
in the lowest insect order the Aptera a pair of minute jaws
the maxillulae in close association with the tongue are present,
as has been shown by H. J. Hansen (1893) and J. W. Folsom
(1900). Distinct vestiges of the maxillulae exist also in the
earwigs and booklice, according to G. Enderlein and C. Borner
(1904), and they are very evident in larval may-flies. The
number of limb-bearing somites in the insectan head is thus
seen to be seven. All of these are to be regarded as primitively
post-oral, but in the course of development the mouth moves
back to the mandibular segment, so that the first three somites
ocular, antennal and intercalary lie in front of it. In Lan-
kester's terminology, therefore, the head of an insect is " tripros-
thomerous." The maxillae of the hinder pair become more
or less fused together to form a " lower lip " or labium, and the
segment of these appendages is, in some insects, only imperfectly
united with the head-capsule.
The thorax is composed of three segments; each bears a pair
of jointed legs, and in the vast majority of insects the two hind-
most bear each a pair of wings. From these three pairs of
thoracic legs comes the name Hexapoda which distinguishes
the class. And the wings, though not always present, are highly
characteristic of the Hexapoda, since no other group of the
Arthropoda has acquired the power of flight. In the more
generalized insects the abdomen evidently consists of ten seg-
ments, the hindmost of which often carries a pair of tail-feelers,
(cerci or cercopods) and a terminal anal segment. In some cases,
however, it can be shown that the cerci really belong to an
eleventh abdominal segment which usually becomes fused with the
tenth. With very few exceptions the abdomen is without loco-
motor limbs. Paired processes on the eighth and ninth abdominal
segments may be specialized as external organs of reproduction,
but these are probably not appendages. The female genital
opening usually lies in front of the eighth abdominal segment, the
male duct opens on the ninth.
In all main points of their internal structure the Hexapoda
agree with other Arthropoda. Specially characteristic of the
class, however, is the presence of a complex system of air-tubes
(tracheae) for respiration, usually opening to the exterior by a
series of paired spiracles on certain of the body segments. The
possession of a variable number of excretory tubes (Malpighian
tubes), which are developed as outgrowths of the hind-gut and
pour their excretion into the intestine,is also a distinctive character
of the Hexapoda.
The wings of insects are, in all cases, developed after hatching,
the younger stages being wingless, and often unlike the parent in
other respects. In such cases the development of wings and the
attainment of the adult form depend upon a more or less profound
transformation or metamorphosis.
With this brief summary of the essential characters of the
Hexapoda, we may pass to a more detailed account of their
structure.
EXOSKELETON
The outer cellular layer (ectoderm or " hypodermis ") of insects
as of other Arthropods, secretes a chitinous cuticle which has to be
periodically shed and renewed during the growth of the animal.
The regions of this cuticle have a markedly segmental arrangement,
and the definite hardened pieces (sclerites) of the exoskeleton are
in close contact with one another along linear sutures, or are united
by regions of the cuticle which are less chitinous and more membran-
ous, so as to permit freedom of movement.
Head. The head-capsule of an insect (figs. I, 2) is composed of a
number of sclerites firmly sutured together, so that the primitive
segmentation is masked. Above is the crown (vertex or epicranium),
on which or on the " front " may be seated three simple eyes (ocelli).
Below this comes the front, and then the face or clypeus, to which a
very distinct upper lip (labrum) is usually jointed. Behind the labrum
arises a process the epipharynx^ which in some blood-sucking
insects becomes a formidable piercing-organ. On either side a
variable amount of convex area is occupied by the compound eye ;
in many insects of acute sense and accurate flight these eyes are ve y
large and sub-globular, almost meeting on the middle line of the
CHARACTERS]
HEXAPODA
419
head. Below each eye is a cheek area (gena), often divided into an
anterior and a posterior part, while a distinct chin-sclerite (gula) is
often developed behind the mouth.
Feelers. Most conspicuous among the appendages of the head are
the feelers or antennae, which correspond to the anterior feelers
jointed limb or palp (fig i,C,pa). Such maxillae are tourid in most
biting insects. In insects whose mouths are adapted for sucking and
piercing, remarkable modifications may occur. In many blood-
sucking flies, for example, the galea is absent, while the lacinia
becomes a strong knife-like piercer and the palp is well developed.
In bugs and aphids the lacinia is a
slender needle-like piercer (fig. 2, III),
while the palp is wanting. In butterflies
and moths the lacinia is absent while
the galea becomes a flexible process,
grooved on its inner face, so as to make
with its fellow a hollow sucking-trunk,
and the palp is usually very small.
The second pair of maxillae are more
or less completely fused together to
form what is known as the labium or
" lower lip." In generalized biting
insects, such as cockroaches and locusts
(Orthoptera), the parts of a typical
maxilla can be easily recognized in the
labium. The fused cardines form a
broad basal plate (sub-mentum) and the
stipites a smaller plate (mentum) see
fig. I, C, sm, m jointed on to the sub-
mentum, while the galeae, laciniae and
palps remain distinct. In specialized
biting insects, such as beetles (Coleo-
ptera), the labium tends to become a
hard transverse plate bearing the pair of
from Midland Denny, TkeCockroack,U,nH Reeve & Co. palps, a median structure known as
FIG. I. Head and Jaws of Cockroach (Blatta). Magnified 10 times. A, Front; B, side; the ligula formed of the conjoined
C, back; , vertex; /, frons; cl, clypeus; Ibr, labrum; oc, compound eye; ge, gena; mn, laciniae, and a pair of small rounded
mandible; ca, st, pa, ga, la, cardo, stipes, palp, galea, lacinia of first maxilla; sm,m, pa',pg, processes the reduced galeae often
submentum, mentum, palp, galea of 2nd maxilla.
(antennules) of Crustacea. In their simpler condition they are
long and many-jointed, the segments bearing numerous olfactory
and tactile nerve-endings. Elaboration in the form of the feelers,
often a secondary sexual character in male insects, may result from
a distal broadening of the segments, so that the appendage becomes
serrate, or from the development of processes bearing sensory
organs, so that the structure is pinnate or feather-like. On the other
hand, the number of segments may be reduced, certain of them
often becoming highly modified in form.
Jaws. The mandibles of the Hexapoda are usually strong jaws
with one or more teeth at the apex (fig. I, A, B, mn), articulating
at their bases with the head-capsule by sub-globular condyles,
and provided with abductor and adductor muscles by means of which
they can be separated or drawn together so as to bite solid food, or
seize objects which have to be carried about. They never bear seg-
mented limbs (palps)
and only exception-
ally (as in the chafers)
s is the skeleton com-
posed of more than one
sclerite. The mandibles
often furnish a good
example of "secondary
sexual characters, '
being more strongly
developed in the male
than in the female of
the same species. In
most insects that feed
by suction the mandi-
bles are modified. In
bugs (Heteroptera) and
many flies, for example,
they are changed into
needle-like piercers (fig.
2, II), while in moths
and caddis-flies they
are reduced to mere
vestiges or altogether
suppressed.
As previously men-
After Marlatt Entom. Bull. 14, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agric.).
FIG. 2 Head of Cicad, front view, la, tio ned; a pair of minute
frons; 6, clypeus (the ppinted labrum j aws _ th( ! . max illulae
,.
III, first
-. , - - ,
beneath it); II, mandible; , rst re oresent ; n t h e
maxilla; (a, base; t, sheath; ', piercer) lowest H order of ; nsectSi
111 , inner view ot sheath; IV, second
maxillae forming rostrum (b, mentum;
ligula). Magnified 6 times.
between the mandibles
c ' and the first maxillae.
They usually consist of
an inner and an outer
lobe arising from a basal piece, which bears also in some genera a
small palp (see APTERA).
In their typical state of development, the first maxillae offer a
striking contrast to the mandibles, being composed of a two-segmented
basal piece (cardo and stipes, fig. I, C, ca, st) bearing a distinct inner
and outer lobe (lacinia and galea, fig. I, C, la, ga) and externally a
called the " paraglossae," a term better
avoided since it has been applied also
to the rnaxillulae of Aptera, entirely different structures. The long
sucking " tongue " of bees is probably a modification of the ligula.
In bugs and aphids (Hemiptera), the fused second maxillae form
a jointed grooved beak or rostrum (fig. 2, IV) in which the slender
piercers (mandibles and first maxillae) work to and fro.
This second pair of maxillae (or labium) form then the hinder
or lower boundary of the mouth. In front or above the mouth
is bounded by the labrum, while the mandibles and first maxillae
lie on either side of it. A median process, known as the hypopharynx
or tongue, arises from the floor of the mouth in front of the labium,
and becomes most variously developed or specialized in different
insects. The salivary duct opens on its hinder surface. It does not
appear to represent a pair of appendages, but the rnaxillulae of
the Aptera become closely associated with it. According to the view
of R. Heymons, the hypopharynx represents the sterna of all the
jaw-bearing somites, but other students consider that it belongs
to the mandibular and first maxillary segments, or entirely to the
segment of the first maxillae.
Neck. The head is usually connected with the thorax by a distinct
membranous neck, strengthened in the more generalized orders with
small chitinous plates (cervical sclerites). These have been inter-
preted as indicating one or more primitive segments between the
head and thorax. Probably, however, as suggested by T. H.
Huxley {Anal. Invert. Animals, 1877), they really belong to the labial
segment which has not become completely fused with the head-
capsule. It has been shown by C. Janet 1 (1889), from careful studies
of the musculature, that the greater part of the head-capsule is built
up of the four anterior head-segments, the hindmost of which has
the mandibles for its appendages, and this conclusion is in the main
supported by the recent work on the head skeleton of J. H. Comstock
and C. Kochi (1902) and W. A. Riley (1904).
Thorax. The three segments which make up the thorax or fore-
trunk are known as the prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax (see
fig. 3). The dorsal area of the prothorax is occupied by a single
sclerite, the pronotum (fig. 3, d), which is large and conspicuous in
those insects, such as cockroaches, bugs (Heteroptera) and beetles,
which have the prothorax free i.e. readily movable on the segment
(mesothorax) immediately behind smaller and of less importance
where the prothorax is fixed to the mesothorax, as in bees and flies.
The dorsal area of the mesothorax., and also of the metathorax,
may be made up of a series of sclerites arranged one behind the other
prescutvm, scutum, scutellum and post-scutellum (fig. 3, e, f, g, h),
the scutellum of the mesothorax being often especially conspicuous.
Ventrally, each segment of the thorax has a sternum with which a
median pre-sternum and paired episterna and epimera are often
associated (see figs. 3, 4). The recent suggestion of K. W. Verhoeff
(1904) that the hexappdan thorax in reality contains six primitive
segments is entirely without embryological support.
Legs. Each segment of the thorax carries a pair of legs. In
most insects the Teg is built up of nine segments: (l) a broad
triangular, sub-globular, conical or cylindrical haunch (coxa) ; (2)
a small trochanter; (3) an elongate stout thigh (femur); (4) a more
slender shin (tibia) ; and (5-9) a foot consisting of five tarsal segments.
The fifth (distal) tarsal segment carries a median adhesive pad
the pulvillus on either side of which is a claw. The pulvillus is
420
HEXAPODA
[CHARACTERS
probably to be regarded as a true terminal (tenth) segment of the leg,
while the claws are highly modified bristles. Numerous bristles are
After Marlatt, Enl. Bull. 3, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
FIG. 3. Thorax of Saw-Fly (Pachynematus).
I, Dorsal view. d, Pronotum.
II, Ventral view. Mesothorax:
III, Lateral view. e, Prescutum.
IV, Lateral view with /, Scutum,
segments separated, g, Scutellum.
Prothorax: h, Post-scutellum,
a, Episternum. , Mesophragma.
b, Sternum. j, Epimeron.
c, Coxa of fore-leg. k, Episternum.
usually present on the thighs, shins and feet of insects, some of them
so delicate as to be termed " hairs " others so stout and hard that
/, Coxa of middle leg.
Metathorax :
tn, Scutum.
o, Epimeron.
p. Coxa of hind leg.
n, First Abdominal
Segment,
t, Tegula at base of
fore- wing.
After Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell Reeve & Co.
FIG. 4. Legs and Ventral Thoracic Sclerites of Female Cockroach
(Blatta).
I, Fore-leg and pro-sternum (S) ta, Tarsal segments,
in front
ventral
of which are the
cervical sclerites
(c).
ex, Coxa. tr, Trochanter.
fe, Thigh. tb. Shin.
they are named " spines " or " spurs." In the relative development
and shape of the various segments of the leg there is almost endless
II, Middle leg and mesosternum.
III, Hind leg and metasternum.
In IIlA, the episternum (a) and
epimeron (b) are slightly separ-
ated. Twice natural size.
variety, dependent on the order to which the insect belongs, and
the special function walking, running, climbing, digging or
swimming for which the limb is adapted. The walking of insects
has been carefully studied by V. Graber (1877) and J. Demoor (1890),
who find that the legs are usually moved in two sets of three, the first
and third legs of one side moving with the second leg of the other.
One tripod thus affords a firm base of support while the legs of the
other tripod are brought forward to their new positions.
Wings. Two pairs of wings are present in the vast majority of
insects, borne respectively on the mesothorax and metathorax.
At the base of the wing, i.e. its attachment to the trunk, we find a
highly complex series of small sclerites adapted for the varied
movements necessary for flight. Those of the dragon-flies (Odonata)
have been described in detail by R. von Lendenfeld (1881). The long
axis of the wings, when at rest, lies parallel to the body axis. In this
position the outer margin of the wing is the costa, the inner the
dor sum, and the hind-margin the termen. The angle between the
costa and termen is the apex. When the wing is spread, its long axis
is more or less at a right angle to the body axis. A wing is an out-
growth trom the dorsal and pleural regions of the thoracic segment
that bears it, and microscopic examination shows it to consist of a
double layer of cuticularized skin, the two layers being in contact
except where they are thickened and folded to form the firm tubular
nervures, which serve as a supporting framework for the, wing
membrane, enclose air-tubes, and convey blood. These nervures
consist of a series of trunks radiating from the wing-base and usually
branching as they approach the wing-margins, the branches being
often connected by short transverse nervures, so that the wing-area
is marked off into a number oi " cells " or areolets.
The details of the nervuration vary greatly in the different orders,
but J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham have lately (1898-1899)
shown that a common arrangement underlies all, six series of longi-
tudinal or radiating nervures being present in the typical wing (see
fig. 5). Along the costa runs a
costal nervure. This is followed
by a sub-costal which some-
times shows two main branches.
Then comes the radial usually
the most important nervure of
the wing typically with five
branches, and the median with
four. These sets arise from a
main trunk towards the front
region of the wing-base. From
another hinder trunk arise the
two-branched cubital nervure
and three separate anal
nervures. In the hind-wing of
many insects the number of
radial branches becomes re-
duced, while the anal area is
especially well developed and
undergoes a fan-like folding F , G 5 ._wing-Neuration in a
when the wings are closed. Cossid Moth 6 su b-costal; 3,
Great diversity exists in the radial median; 5, cubital;
texture and functions of fore 6 7 g z ^al nervures.
and hind-wings in different in- ' ''
sects; these differences are discussed in the descriptions of the
various orders. The wings often afford secondary sexual characters,
being not infrequently absent or reduced in the female when well
developed in the male (see fig. 6). Rarely the male is the wingless
sex.
In addition to the wings there are smaller dorsal outgrowths of the
thorax in many insects. Paired erectile plates (patagia) are borne on
the prothorax in moths, while in moths, sawnies, wasps, bees and
other insects there are small plates (tegulae) see Fig. 3, t on the
mesothorax at the base of the fore-wings.
Abdomen. In the abdominal exoskeleton the segmental structure
is very clearly marked, a series of sclerites dorsal terga and
abdominal sterna being connected by pale, feebly chitinized
cuticle, so that considerable freedom of movement between the
segments is possible. The first and second abdominal sterna are often
suppressed or reduced, on account of the strong development of the
hind-legs. In many insects ten, and in a few eleven, abdominal
segments can be clearly distinguished in addition to a small terminal
anal segment. The female genital opening usually lies between the
seventh and eighth segments, the male on the ninth. Prominent
paired limbs are often borne on the tenth segment, the elongate
tail-feelers (cerci) of bristle-tails and may-flies, or the forceps of
earwigs, for example. In the Embiidae, a family of Isoptera, it has
been shown by G. Enderlein (1901) that these cerci clearly belong
to a partially suppressed eleventh segment, and R. Heymons (1895-
1896) has proved by embryological study that in all cases they
really belong to this eleventh segment, which in the course of
development becomes fused with the tenth. Smaller appendages
(such as the stylets of male cockroaches) may be carried on the ninth
segment. Pairs of processes carried on the eighth and ninth segments
often become specialized to form the ovipositor of the female (see
fig. 14) and the genital armature of the male. A marked modifica-
tion of the hinder abdominal segments may be noticed in most insects.
INTERNAL ORGANS]
HEXAPODA
421
the sclerites of the eighth and ninth being frequently hidden by those
of the seventh. In the higher orders several of the hinder segments
may be altogether suppressed.
From Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell Reeve & Co.
FIG. 6. Outline of Maje (rj 1 ) and Female ( ? ) Cockroaches (Blatta)
from the side, showing Abdominal Stgments (numbered i-io).
Magnified 4 times.
INTERNAL ORGANS
Nervous System. The nervous system in the Hexapoda is built
up on the typical arthropodan plan of a double ventral nerve-cord
with a pair of ganglia in each segment, the cords passing on either
side of the gullet and connecting with an anterior nerve-centre or
brain (fig. 7) in the head. The brain innervates the eyes and feelers,
and must be regarded as
a " syncerebrum " repre-
senting the ganglia of the
three foremost limb-bear-
ing somites united with
the primitive cephalic
lobes. Behind the gullet
lies the sub-oesophageal
nerve-centre (fig. 7, sb),
composed of the ganglia
of the four hinder head-
somites and sending
nerves to the jaws. A
pair of ganglia in each
thoracic segment is usual
(fig. 8), and as many as
eight distinct pairs of
abdominal ganglia may
often be distinguished, the
hindmost of which repre-
sents the fused ganglia of
the last four seg-
ments. But in many
highly organized
insects a remark-
\ \ 'I VMi able concentration
\ \ of the trunk-ganglia
takes place, all the
nerve-centres of the
thorax and abdo-
men in the chafers
and in the Hemi-
ptera, for instance,
being represented
by a single mass
situated in the
thorax. The legs, wings and other organs of the trunk receive
their nerves from the thoracic and abdominal ganglia, and the
fusion of several pairs of these ganglia may be regarded as
corresponding to a centralization of individuality. A special
" sympathetic " system arises by paired nerves from I he
oesophageal connectives; these nerves unite, and send back
a median recurrent nerve associated with ganglia on the
gullet and crop, whence proceed cords to various parts of the
digestive system.
In connexion with the central nervous system there are
usually numerous organs of special sense. Most insects
possess a pair of compound eyes, and many have, in addi-
tion, three simple eyes or ocelli on the vertex. The nature
of these organs is described in the article ARTHROFODA. The
surface of a compound eye is seen to be covered with a
large number of hexagonal corneal facets, each of which over-
Head
muscles
Add. of Coia
Abd. of Coxa
either side of the first abdominal segment; on the inner surface
of this membrane are two horn-like processes in contact with a
delicate sac con-
taining fluid, con-
nected with which
are the actual
nerve-endings. In
the nearly-related
crickets and long-
horned grasshop-
pers (Locuslidae)
the ears are situ-
ated in the shins
of the fore-legs (see
fig- 9. F). Just
below the knee-
joint there is a
swelling, along
which two narrow
slits ru n lengthwise.
They lead into
chambers, formed
by inpushing of
I the cuticle, whose
j delicate inner walls
are in contact with
air-tubes; on the
outer surface of
these latter are
ridges, along which
the special nerve-
endings are ar-
ranged. An ear of
another type is
found in the swollen
second segment of
the feeler in many
male gnats and After Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell Reeve & Co.
midges, the cuticle FIG. 8. Ventral Muscles and Nerve Cord of
between this seg- Cockroach. Magnified 2\ times,
ment and the third
forming an annular drum which is connected with numerous nerve-
endings, while the fine bristles on the more distal segments vibrate
in response to the note produced by the humming of the female.
Many of the numerous hairs (fig. 9, E) that cover the body of an
insect have a tactile function. The sense of smell resides chiefly in
the feelers, on whose segments occur tiny pits, often guarded by
peg-like or tooth-like structures and containing rod-like cells (fig.
9, C) in connexion with large nerve-cells. It is said that 13,000 such
olfactory organs are present on the feeler of a wasp, and 40,000 on
Obi. sternal
Tergo-stern.
From Miall and Denny (after Newton), The Cock-
roach, Lovell Reeve & Co.
FIG. 7. Brain of Cockroach from
side, oe, Gullet; op, optic nerve; sb,
sub-oesophageal ganglion; mn, mx,
mx', nerves to jaws; /, tentorium.
Magnified 25 times.
_
**
, FIG. 9. Single Ommatidium of Cockroach's Eye (after Grenacher). B,
lies an ommatidium or series of cell elements (fig. 9, A, B). Section through compound eye (after Miall and Denny) ; C, organs of smell
re are over 25,000 ommatidia in the eye of a hawk moth. ; n cockchafer (after Kraepelin); D, a, b, sensory pits on cercopods of
rtitory organs of a simple type are present in most golden-eye fly; c, sensory pit on palp of stone-fly (after Packard); E,
insects. Ihese consist of fine rods suspended between two se nsory hair (after Miall and Denny); F, ear of long-horned grasshopper;
s of the cuticle, and connected with nerve-fibres; they a< Front shin showing outer opening and air-tube; b, section (after
: known as chordotonal organs. In many cases a more Graber) ; G, ear of locust from within (after Graber). All highly magnified.
complex ear is developed, which may be situated in strangely
Jtverse regions of the insect's body. In locusts (Acridiidae) a i the complex antennae of a male cockchafer. Organs of similar type on
large ovate, tympanic membrane (fig. 9, G) is conspicuous on I the maxillae and epipharynx appear to exercise the function of taste
422
HEXAPODA
[INTERNAL ORGANS
Muscular System. The muscles in the Hexappda are striated,
as in Arthropods generally, the large fibres being associated in
bundles which are at-
tached from point to
point of the cuticle, so
as to move adjacent scler-
ites with respect to one
another (see figs. 8, 10).
For example, the con-
traction of the tergo-
sternal muscles, connect-
ing the dorsal with the
ventral sclerites of the
abdomen, lessens the
capacity of the abdo-
___ __ * * 'i ^i -
External femoral _i
Head muscles
Lateral thoracic
Longit. tergal
Adductor of coxa
Longit. tergal
Oblique tergal
Alary tendon cf
pericardium
Tergo-stemal *
minal region, while the
contraction of the power-
ful muscles arising from
the thoracic walls, and
inserted into the proxi-
mal ends of the thighs,
flexes or extends the legs.
Circulatory System.
Insects afford an excel-
lent illustration of the
remarkable type of blood-
system characterizing the
Arthropoda. The dorsal
vessel is an elongate tube,
whose abdominal portion
is usually cham bered,
forming a contractile
heart (fig. 10). At the
constrictions between the
chambers are paired slits,
through which the blood
passes from the surround-
ing pericardia) sinus. The
dorsal vessel is prolonged
anteriorly into an aorta,
through which the blood
is propelled into the great
After Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell body-cavity or haemo-
Reeve&Co. coel. After bathing the
FIG. 10. Dorsal Muscles, Heart and various tissues and
Pericardial Tendons of Cockroach, organs, the blood returns
Magnified 2 times. dorsalwards into the peri-
cardial sinus through fine perforations of its floor, and so makes its
way into the heart again. Some
water-bugs, e.g. of the families Belo-
stomatidae, Nepidae, Corixidae and
Hydrometridae have a pulsating sac
at each knee-joint to assist the flow
of blood through the legs, while in
dragon-flies and locusts (Acridiidae)
there is a ventral pulsating dia-
phragm, which forms the roof of a
sinus enclosing the nerve-cords.
Respiratory System. As mentioned
above, respiration by means of air-
tubes (tracheae) is a most character-
istic feature of the Hexapoda. An
air-tube consists of an epithelium of
large polygonal cells with a thin
basement-membrane externally and
a chitinous layer internally, the last-
named being continuous with the
outer cuticle. The chitinous layer
is usually strengthened by thread-like
thickenings which, in the region close
to the outer opening of the tube,
form a network enclosing polygonal
areas, but which, through most of
the tracheal system, are arranged
spirally, the strengthening thread not
forming a continuous spiral, but
being interrupted after a few turns
around the tube. The tracheal
system in Hexapods is very complex,
forming a series of longitudinal trunks
with transverse anastomosing con-
nexions (fig. n), and extending by
the finest sub-division and by re-
After Miall and Denny, The Cock- pe atec j branching into all parts of
road,, Lovell Reeve & Co the body. In insects of active flight
FIG. n. Ventral Portion the tubes swe n out mto numerous
of Air-Tubes in Cockroach. a ; r . sacSi by which the breathing
Magnified 2j times. capacity is much increased.
Atmospheric air gains access to the air-tubes through paired
spiracles or stigmata, which usually occur laterally on most of the
body-segments. These spiracles have firm chitinous edges, and can
be closed by valves moved by special muscles. When the spiracles
are open and the body contracts, air is expired. The subsequent
expansion of the body causes fresh air to enter the tracheal system,
and if the spiracles be then closed and the body again contracted,
this air is driven to the finest branches of the air-tubes, where a direct
oxygenation of the tissues takes place. The physiology of respiration
has been carefully studied by F. Plateau (1884). In aquatic insects
various devices for obtaining or entangling air are found; these
modifications are described in the special articles on the various
orders of insects (COLEOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, c.). Many insects have
aquatic larvae, some of which take in atmospheric air at intervals,
while others breathe dissolved air by means of tracheal gills. These
modifications are mentioned below in the section on metamorphosis.
Digestive System. A striking feature in the food-canal of the
Hexapoda, as in other Arthropods, is the great extent of the " fore-
gut " and " hind-gut,"
lined with a chitinous
cuticle, continuous with
the exoskeleton. The
fore-gut is composed of
a tubular gullet, a large
sac-like crop (fig. 12, c)
and a proventriculus or
" gizzard," whose func-
tion is to strain the food-
substances before they
pass on into the tubular
stomach, which has no
chitinous lining. This
organ, usually regarded as
a " mid-gut, gives off a
number of secretory caecal
tubes (fig. 12, coe). At
its hinder end it is con-
tinuous with the hind-gut,
which is usually differen-
tiated into a tubular coiled
intestine (fig. 12, i) and a
swollen rectum (fig. 12, r).
From the fpre-end of the
hind-gut arise the slender
Malpighian tubes (fig. 12,
k), which have a renal
function.
On either side of the
gullet are from one to
ten pairs of salivary
glands (fig. 12, s) whose
ducts open into the
mouth. Some of these
glands may be modified
for special purposes as
silk-producing glands in
caterpillars or as poison-
glands in blood-sucking
flies and bugs. The food
passing into the crop is
there acted on by the
saliva and also by an
acid gastric juice which
passes forwards from the
stomach through the pro-
ventriculus. As the
various portions of the
food undergo digestion,
From Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell
Reeve & Co.
FIG. 12. Food Canal of Cockroach.
Twice natural size.
s, Salivary glands and reservoir.
c. Crop (the gizzard below it).
coe, Caecal tubes (below them the
stomach).
k, Kidney tubes.
i, Intestine.
r, Rectum.
they arc allowed" to pass through the proventriculus into the
stomach, where the nutrient substances are absorbed.
Excretory System. Nitrogenous waste-matter is removed from
the body by the Malpighian tubes which open into the food-canal,
usually where the hind-gut joins the stomach. These tubes vary
in number from four to over a hundred in different orders of insects.
The cells which line them and also the cavities of the tubes contain
urates, which are excreted from the blood in the surrounding body-
cavity. This cavity contains an irregular mass of whitish tissue,
the fat-body, consisting of fat-cells which undergo degradation
and become more or less filled with urates. When the worn-out
cells are broken down, the urates are carried dissolved in the blood
to the Malpighian tubes for excretion. The fat-body is therefore the
seat of important metabolic processes in the hexapod body.
Reproductive System. All the Hexapoda are of separate sexes.
The ovaries (fig. 13) in the female are paired, each ovary consisting
of a variable number of tubes (one in the bristle-tail Campodea and
fifteen hundred in a queen termite) in which the eggs are developed.
From each ovary an oviduct (fig. 13, od) leads, and in some of the
more primitive insects (bristle-tails, earwigs, may-flies) the two
oviducts open separately direct to the exterior. Usually they open
into a median vagina, formed by an ectodermal inpushing and
lined with chitin. The vagina usually opens in front of the eighth
abdominal sternite. Behind it is situated a spermatheca (fig. 14, sto)
EMBRYOLOGY]
and the ovipositor previously mentioned, with its three pairs of
processes (Fig. 14, G, g).
The paired testes of the male consist of a variable number of seminal
HEXAPODA
423
CG.
From Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell Reeve & Co.
FIG. 13. Ovaries of Cockroach, with Oviducts Od and Colleterial
Glands CG. Magnified 14 times.
tubes, those of each testis opening into a vas deferens. In some
bristle-tails and may-flies, the two vasa deferentia open separately,
but usually they lead into a sperm-reservoir, whence issues a median
From Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell Reeve & Co.
FIG. 14. Hinder Abdominal Segment and Ovipositor of Female
Cockroach. Magnified.
T 8 &c. Tergites. Od, Vagina.
5 7 , 7th Sternite. sp, Spermatheca.
5 8 , Sclerite between 7th and 8th G, Anterior, and g, pos-
5 9 , 8th Sclerite. [sterna. terior gonapophyses.
ejaculatory duct. The male opening is on the ninth abdominal
segment, to which belong the processes that form the claspers or
genital armature. Accessory glands are commonly present in con-
nexion both with the male and the female reproductive organs.
The poison-glands of the sting in wasps and bees are well-known
examples of these.
EMBRYOLOGY
The Egg. Among the Hexapoda, as in Arthropods generally,
the egg is Targe, containing an accumulation of yolk for the nourish-
ment of the growing embryo. Most insect eggs are of an elongate
oval shape; some are globular, others flattened, while others again
are flask-shaped, and the outer envelope (chorion) is often beautifully
sculptured (figs. 20, d; 21, a, b). Various devices are adopted for
the protection of the eggs from mechanical injury or from the attacks
of enemies, and for fixing them in appropriate situations. For
example, the egg may be raised above the surface on which it is laid
by an elongate stalk ; the eggs may be protected by a secretion, which
in some cases forms a hard protective capsule or " purse " ; or they
may be covered with shed hairs of the mother, while among water-
insects a gelatinous envelope, often of rope-like form, is common.
In various groups of the Hexapoda aphids and some flesh-flies
(Sarcophaga), for example the egg undergoes development within
the body of the mother, and the young insect is born in an active
state; such insects are said to be viviparous."
Parthenogenesis. A number of cases are known among the
Hexapoda of the development of young from the eggs of virgin
females. In insects so widely separated as bristle-tails and moths
this occurs occasionally. In certain gall-flies (Cynipidae) no males
are known to exist at all, and the species seems to be preserved
entirely by successive parthenogenetic generations. In other gall-
flies and in aphids we find that a sexual generation alternates with
one or with many virgin generations. The offspring of the virgin
females are in most of these instances females ; but among the bees
and wasps parthenogenesis occurs normally and always results in
the development of males, the " queen " insect laying either a
fertilized or unfertilized egg at will.
Maturation, Fertilization and Segmentation. Polar bodies were
first observed in the eggs of Hexapoda by F. Blochmann in 1887.
The two nuclei are successively divided from the egg nucleus in the
usual way, but they frequently become absorbed in the peripheral
protoplasm instead of being extruded from the egg-cell altogether.
It appears that in parthenogenetic eggs two polar nuclei are formed.
According to A. Petrunkevich (19011903), the second polar nucleus
uniting with one daughter-nucleus of the first polar body gives rise
to the germ-cells of the parthenogenetically-produced male. There
is no reunion of the second polar nucleus with the female pronucleus,
but, according to the recent work of L. Doncaster (1906-1907) on
the eggs of sawflies, the number of chromosomes is not reduced in
parthenogenetic egg-nuclei, while, in eggs capable of fertilization,
the usual reduction-divisions occur. Fertilization takes place as
the egg is laid, the spermatozoa being ejected from the spermatheca
of the female and making their way to the protoplasm of the egg
through openings (micropyles) in its firm envelope. The segmenta-
tion of the fertilized nucleus results in the formation of a number
of nuclei which arrange themselves around the periphery of the egg
and, the protoplasm surrounding them becoming constricted, a
blastoderm or layer of cells, enclosing the central yolk, is formed.
Within the yolk the nuclei of some " yolk cells " can be distinguished.
Germinal Layers and Food-Canal. The embryo begins to develop
as an elongate, thickened, ventral region of the blastoderm which is
known as the ventral
plate or germ band.
Along this band a
median furrow ap-
pears, and a mass of
cells sinks within, the
one-layered germ
band thus becoming
transformed into a
band of two cell-layers
(fig. 15). _ In some
cases the inner layer
is formed not by in-
vagination but by
proliferation or by de-
outer ""tf^e Two
^ectoderm 5 ' With
regard to The r
layer (endoblast of
some authors, fig. 15, M) much difference of opinion has pre-
vailed. It has usually been regarded as representing both endoderm
and mesoderm, and the groove which usually leads to its forma-
tion has been compared to the abnormally elongated blastopore
of a typical gastrula. No doubt can be entertained that the greater
part of the inner layer corresponds to the mesoderm of more ordinary
embryos, for the coelomic pouches, the germ-cells, the musculature
and the vascular system all arise from it. Further, there is general
agreement that the chitin-lined fore-gat and hind-gut, which form
&
FlG< ^--Diagram showing Formation of
E ' eCt derm; M ' inner
424
HEXAPODA
[EMBRYOLOGY
the greater part of the digestive tract, arise from ectodermal invagina-
tions (stomodaeum and proctodaeum respectively) at the positions
of the future mouth and anus. The origin of the mid-gut (mesenteron) ,
that has no chitinous lining in the developed insect, is the disputed
point. According to the classical researches of A. Kowalevsky
(1871 and 1887) on the embryology of the water-beetle Hydrophilus
and of the muscid flies, an anterior and a posterior endoderm-
rudiment both derived from the " endoblast " become apparent
at an early stage, in close association with the stomodaeum and
the proctodaeum respectively. These two endoderm-rudiments
ultimately grow together and give rise to the epithelium of the mid-
gut. These results were confirmed by the observations of K. Heider
and W. M. Wheeler (1889) on the embryos of two beetles Hydro-
philus and Doryphora respectively. V. Graber, however (1889),
stated that in the Muscidae, while the anterior endoderm-rudiment
arises as Kowalevsky had observed, the posterior part of the " mid-
gut " has its origin as a direct outgrowth from the proctodaeum.
The recent researches of R. Heymons (1895) on the Orthoptera, and
of A. Lecaillon (1898) on various leaf beetles, tend to show that the
whole of the " mid-gut " arises from the proliferation of cells at the
extremity of the stomadaeum and of the proctodaeum. On this view
the entire food-canal in most Hexapoda must be regarded as of
ectodermal origin, the " endoblast represents mesoderm only,
and the median furrow whence it arises can be no longer compared
with the blastopore. According to Heymons, the yolk-cells must be
regarded as the true endoderm in the hexappd embryo, for he states
(1897) that in the bristle-tail Lepisma and in dragon-flies they give
rise to the mid-gut. These views are not, however, supported
by other recent observers. J. Carriere's researches (1897) on the
embryology of the mason bee (Chalicodoma) agree entirely with the
interpretations of Kowalevsky and Heider, and so on the whole do
those of F. Schwangart, who has studied (1904) the embryonic
development of Lepidoptera. He finds that the endoderm arises
from an anterior and a posterior rudiment derived from the " endo-
blast," that many of the cells of these rudiments wander into the
yolk, and that the mesenteric epithelium becomes reinforced by
cells that migrate from the yolk. K. Escherich (1901), after a new
research on the embryology of the muscid Diptera, claims that the
fore and hind endodermal rudiments arise from the blastoderm by
invagination, and are from their origin distinct from the mesoderm.
On the whole it seems likely that the endoderm is represented in
part by the yolk, and in part by those anterior and posterior rudiments
which usually form the mesenteron, but that in some Hexapoda
the whole digestive tract may be ectodermal. It must be admitted
that some of the later work on insect embryology has justified the
growing scepticism in the universal applicability of the " germ-layer
theory." Heider has suggested, however, that the apparent origin
of the mid-gut from the stomodaeum and proctodaeum may be
explained by the presence of a " latent endoderm-group " in those
invaginations.
Embryonic Membranes. A remarkable feature in the embryonic
development of most Hexapoda is the formation of a protective
of the germ band a double fold in the undifferentiated blastoderm,
which grows over the surface of the embryo, so that its inner and
outer layers become continuous, forming respectively the amnion
and the serosa (fig. 16, A, S). The embryo of a moth, a dragon-fly
or a bug is invaginated into the yolk at the head end, the portion of
the blastoderm necessarily pushed in with it forming the amnion.
The embryo thus becomes transferred to the dorsal face of the egg,
but at a later stage it undergoes reversion to its original ventral
position. In some parasitic Hymenoptera there is only a single
embryonic membrane formed by delamination from the blastoderm,
while in a few insects, including the wingless spring-tails, the em-
bryonic membranes are vestigial or entirely wanting. In the bristle-
tails Lepisma and Machilis, an interesting transitional condition
of the embryonic membranes has lately been shown by Heymons.
The embryo is invaginated into the yolk, but the surface edges of
the blastoderm do not close over, so that a groove or pore puts
the insunken space that represents the amniotic cavity into com-
munication with the outside. Heymons believes that the " dorsal
organ " in the embryos of the lower Arthropoda corresponds with
the region invaginated to form the serosa of the hexapod embryo.
Wheeler, however, compares with the " dorsal organ " the peculiar
extra embryonic membrane or indusium which he has observed
between serosa and amnion in the embryo of the grasshopper
Xiphidium.
Metameric Segmentation. The segments are perceptible at a very
early stage of the development as a number of transverse bands
arranged in a linear sequence. The first segmentation of the ventral
plate is not, however, very definite, and the segmentation does not
make its appearance simultaneously throughout the whole length of
the plate ; the anterior parts are segmented before the posterior. In
Orthoptera and Thysanura, as well as some others of the lower
insects, twenty-one of these divisions not, however, all similar
may be readily distinguished, six of which subsequently enter into
the formation of the head, three going to the thorax and twelve to
the abdomen. In Hemiptera only eleven and in Collembola only
six abdominal segments have been detected. The first and last
of these twenty-one divisions are so different from the others that
they can scarcely be considered true segments.
Head Segments. In the adult insect the head is insignificant in
size compared with the thorax or abdomen, but in the embryo it
forms a much larger portion of the body than it does in the adult.
Its composition has been the subject of prolonged difference of
opinion. Formerly it was said that the head consisted of four
divisions, viz. three segments and the procephalic or prae-oral lobes.
It is now ascertained that the procephalic lobes consist of three
divisions, so that the head must certainly be formed from at least
six segments. The first of these, according to the nomenclature
of Heymons (see fig. 17), is the mouth or oral piece; the second,
the antennal segment; the third, the intercalary or prae-mandibular
segment; while the fourth, fifth, and sixth are respectively the
segments of the mandibles and of the first and second maxillae.
These six divisions of the head are diverse in kind, and subsequently
undergo so much change that the part each of them takes in
the formation of the head-capsule is not finally determined. The
labrum and clypeus are developed as a single prolongation of the
oral piece, not as a pair of appendages. The antennal segment
apparently entirely disappears, with the exception of a pair of
appendages it bears; these become the antennae; it is possible
that the original segment, or some part of it, may even become a
portion of the actual antennae. The intercalary segment has no
appendages, nor rudiments thereof, except, according to H. Uzel
(1897), in the thysanuran Campodea, and probably entirely dis-
appears, though J. H. Comstock and C. Kochi believe that the
labrum belongs to it. The appendages of the posterior three or
trophal segments become the parts of the mouth. The ap-
pendages of the two maxillary segments arise as treble instead
of single projections, thus differing from other appendages.
From these facts it appears that the anterior three divisions of
the head differ strongly from the posterior three, which greatly
resemble thoracic segments; hence it has been thought possible
that the anterior divisions may represent a primitive head, to
which three segments and their leg-like appendages were sub-
sequently added to form the head as it now exists. This is, how-
ever, very doubtful, and an entirely different inference is possible.
Besides the five limb-bearing somites just enumerated, two others
must now be recognized in the head. One of these is the ocular
segment, in front of the antennal, and behind the primitive pre-
oral segment. The other is the segment of the maxillulae (see
above, under Jaws), behind the mandibular somite; the presence
of this in the embryo of the collembolan Anurida has been lately
shown (1900) by J. W. Folsom (fig. 18, v. 5), who terms the
maxillulae " superfinguae " on account of their close association
with the hypopharynx or lingua. In reference to the structure
From Nussbaum in Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell Reeve & Co. o f the head-capsule in the imago, it appears that the clypeus and
FlG. 16. Cross section of Embryo of German Cockroach (Phyllo- labrum represent, as already said, an unpaired median outgrowth
dromia). S, serosa; A, amnion; E, ectoderm; N, rudiment of nerve- of the oral piece. According to W. A. Riley (1904) the epicranium
cord ; M , mesodermal pouches. Magnified 500 times. or "vertex," the compound eyes and the front divisions of the
genae are formed by the cephalic lobes of the embryo (belonging
membrane analogous to the amnion of higher Vertebrates and
known by the same term. Usually there arises around the edge
to the ocular segment), while the mandibular and maxillary segments
form the hinder parts of the genae and the hypopharynx.
EMBRYOLOGY]
HEXAPODA
425
Abx,
Great difference of opinion exists as to the hypopharynx, which
has even been thought to represent a distinct segment, or the pair
of appendages of a distinct segment. Heymons considers that it
represents the sternites of the three trophal segments, and that the
gula is merely a secondary development. Fclsom looks on the
hypopharynx as a secondary
development. Riley holds
that the hypopharynx be-
longs to the mandibular
and maxillary segments,
while the cervical sclerites
or gula represent the ster-
num of the labial segment.
The ganglia of the nervous
system offer some important
evidence as to the mor-
phology of the head, and
are alluded to below.
Thoracic Segments.
These are always three in
number. The three pairs
of legs appear very early
as rudiments. Though the
(--Thx, thoracic segments bear the
wings, no trace of these
appendages exists till the
close of the embryonic life,
nor even, in many cases, till
much later. The thoracic
segments, as seen in an early
stage of the ventral plate,
display in a well-marked
manner the essential ele-
ments of the insect seg-
ment. These elements are
a central piece or sternite,
and a lateral field on each
side bearing the leg-rudi-
ment. The external part of
the lateral field subsequently
grows up, and by coalescence
with its fellow forms the
tergite or dorsal part of the
segment.
Abdominal Segments and
A ppendages. We have al-
ready seen that in numerous
lower insects the abdomen
is formed from twelve divi-
sions placed in linear fashion.
Eleven of these may perhaps
be considered as true seg-
ments, but the twelfth or
terminal one is different, and
is called by Heymons a
telson; in it is placed the
FIG. 17 Morphology of an Insect: anal orince| and the mass
the embryo of Gryllotalpa, somewhat subsequently becomes the
diagrammatic. The longitudinal seg- upper and lower laminae
mented band along the middle line re- ana i es . i n Hemiptera this
presents the early segmentation ot the te i son j s absent, and the
nervous system and the subsequent ana ] or ifi-e is placed quite
median field of each sternite; the lateral at the terrn i nat i on of the
transverse unshaded bands are the e l ev enth segment. More-
lateral fields of each segment; the over ; n tn j s orde r the ab-
shaded areas indicate the more inter- domen shows at first a
nally placed mesoderm layer. The seg- division into only nine seg-
ments are numbered I -2 1 ; i -6 will form ments and a term i na i mass ,
the head, 7-9 the thorax, 1 0-2 1 the abdo- which last subsequently be-
men. A, anus; AbxiAbxu, appendage comes divided into two.
of 1st and of nth abdominal segments; -phe appendages of the
4ns, anal piece = telson or 1 2th abdo- a b d omen are called cerci,
mmal segment; Ant, antenna; D, sty i ets an d gonapophyses.
deuterencephalon; Md, mandible; Th differ much accord ing
MX, first maxilla; Mx t second to the kind of insect and
maxilla or labium; 0, mouth; Obcl,
rudimentary labrum and clypeus;
Pre, protencephalon; 5<i, 5/io, stig-
mata I and 10 ; Terg, tergite; Thx t , IbdominaT appendages pre-
appendage of first thoracic segment; vai , s The cercii when
Trt r, mtencephalon; VI, a thickening present appear ; n the
at hinder margin of the mouth. mature insec t; to be attached
to the tenth segment, but
according to Heymons they are really appendages of the eleventh seg-
ment, their connexion with the tenth being secondary and the result
of considerable changes that take place in the terminal segments.
It has been disputed whether any true cerci exist in the higher insects,
but they are probably represented in the Diptera and in the scorpion-
flies (Mecaptera). In those insects in which a median terminal
appendage exists between the two cerci this is considered to be a
-Abx,,.
AnS
After Heymons.
in the adu l t according to
Difference of opinion
to the nature of the
After Wheeler, Journ.
vol. viii., *:nd Folsom,
r us. Harvard, xxxvi.
Fl TT I
FIG. 1 8. Embryos of
prolongation of the eleventh tergite. The stylets, when present,
are placed on the ninth segment, and in some Thysanura exist also
on the eighth segment; their development takes place later in life
than that of the cerci. The gonapophyses are the projections near
the extremity of the body that surround the sexual orifices, and
vary extremely according to the kind of insect. They have chiefly
been studied in the female, and form the sting and ovipositor,
organs peculiar to this sex. They are developed on the ventral
surface of the body and are six in number, one pair arising from the
eighth ventral plate and two pairs from the ninth. This has been
found to be the case in insects so widely different as Orthoptera and
Aculeate Hymenoptera. The genital armature of the male is formed
to a considerable extent by modifications of the segments them-
selves. The development of the armature has been little studied,
and the question whether there may be present gonapophyses homo-
logous with those of the female is open.
In the adult state no insect possesses more than six legs, and
they are always attached to the thorax; in many Thysanura there
are, however, processes on the abdomen that, as to their position,
are similar to legs. In the embryos of many insects there are pro-
jections from the segments of the abdomen similar, to a considerable
extent, to the rudimentary thoracic legs.
The question whether these projections
can be considered an indication of former
polypody in insects has been raised.
They do not long persist in the embryo,
but disappear, and the area each one
occupied becomes part of the sternite.
In some embryos there is but a single
pair of these rudiments (or vestiges)
situate on the first abdominal segment,
and in some cases they become invagina-
tions of a glandular nature. Whether
cerci, stylets and gonapophyses are
developed from these rudiments has been
much debated. It appears that it is
possible to accept cerci and stylets as
modifications of the temporary pseudo-
pods, but it is more difficult to believe
that this is the case with the gona-
pophyses, for they apparently commence
their development considerably later
than cerci and stylets and only after the
apparently complete disappearance of the _
embryonic pseudopods. The fact that Spr\nKtai\(Anurid'amari-
there are two pairs of gonapophyses on tuna). Magnified. A,
the ninth abdominal segment would be Head-region of germ
fatal to the view that they are in any way band. B, Section through
homologous with legs, were it not that head and thorax. The
there is some evidence that the division neuromeres are shown in
into two pairs is secondary and incom- Arabic, the appendages
plete. But another and apparently in- ; n R oman numerals,
superable objection may be raised that
the appendages of the ninth segment are
the stylets, and that the gonapophyses
cannot therefore be appendicular. The
pseudopods that exist on the abdomen of
numerous caterpillars may possibly arise
from the embryonic pseudopods, but this
also is far from being established.
Nervous System. The nervous system is w^^^,*^.
ectodermal in origin, and is developed and IO| Metathoracic.
segmented to a large extent in connexion
with the outer part of the body, so that it affords important evidence
as to the segmentation thereof. The continuous layer of cells from _
which the nervous system is developed undergoes a segmentation
analogous with that we have described as occurring in the ventral
plate; there is thus formed a pair of contiguous ganglia for each
segment of the body, but there is no ganglion for the telson. The
ganglia become greatly changed in position during the later life,
and it is usually said that there are only ten pairs of abdominal
ganglia even in the embryo. In Orthoptera, Heymons has demon-
strated the existence of eleven pairs, the terminal pair becoming,
however, soon united with the tenth. The nervous system of the
embryonic head exhibits three ganglionic masses, anterior to the
thoracic ganglionic masses; these three masses subsequently amal-
gamate and form the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which supplies the
trophal segments. In front of .the three masses that will form
the sub-oesophageal ganglion the mass of cells that is to form the
nervous system is very large, and projects on each side; this anterior
or " brain " mass consists of three lobes (the prot-, deut-, and trit-
encephalon of Viallanes and others), each of which might be thought
to represent a segmental ganglion. But the protocerebrum con-
tains the ganglia of the ocular segment in addition to those of
the procephalic lobes. These three divisions subsequently form
the supra-oesophageal ganglion or brain proper. There are other
ganglia in addition to those of the ventral chain, and Janet supposes
that the ganglia of the sympathetic system indicate the existence
of three anterior head-segments; the remains of the segments
themselves are, in accordance with this view, to be sought in the
Ocular segment.
Antennal.
Trito-cerebral.
Mandibular.
Maxillular.
Maxillary.
Labial.
Prothoracic.
Mesothoracic.
426
HEXAPODA
[GROWTH AND CHANGE
stomodaeum. Folsom has detected in the embryo of Anurida a
pair of ganglia (fig. 18, 5) belonging to the maxillular (or superlingual)
segment, thus establishing seven sets of cephalic ganglia, and sup-
porting his view as to the composition of the head.
Air-tubes. The air-tubes, like the food-canal, are formed by in-
vaginations of the ectoderm, which arise close to the developing
appendages, the rudimentary spiracles appearing soon after the
budding limbs. The pits leading from these lengthen into tubes,
and undergo repeated branching as development proceeds.
Dorsal Closure, The germ band evidently marks the ventral
aspect of the developing insect, whose body must be completed
by the extension of the embryo so as to enclose the yolk dorsally.
The method of this dorsal closure varies in different insects. In the
Colorado beetle (Doryphora), whose development has been studied
by W. M. Wheeler, the amnion is ruptured and turned back from
covering the germ band, enclosing the yolk dorsally and becoming
finally absorbed, as the ectoderm of the germ band itself spreads
to form the dorsal wall. In some midges and in caddis-flies the
serosa becomes ruptured and absorbed, while the germ band, still
clothed with the amnion, grows around the yolk. In moths and
certain saw-flies there is no rupture of the membranes; the Russian
zoologists Tichomirov and Kovalevsky have described the growth
of both amnion and embryonic ectoderm around the yolk, the
embryo being thus completely enclosed until hatching time by both
amnion and serosa. V. Graber has described a similar method of
dorsal closure in the saw-fly Hylotoma.
Mesoderm, Coelom and Blood-System. From the mesoderm
most of the organs of the body muscular, circulatory, reproductive
take their origin. The
l mass of cells undergoes
segmentation corre-
sponding with the outer
segmentation of the
embryo, and a pair of
8 cavities the coelomic
pouches (fig. 1 6, M)
sp are formed in each seg-
f merit. Each coelomic
pouch as traced by
Heymons in his study
ec on the development of
the cockroach (Phyllo-
dromia) divides into
three parts, of which
the most dorsal con-
tains the primitive
After Heymons, Zat. Wiss. Zaolog. vol. 53. germ-cells, the median
FIG. 19. Cross sections through Ab- disappears, and the
domen of German Cockroach Embryo. A ventral loses its boun-
(later than fig. 16) magnified 65 times. B danes as '
(still more advanced, dorsal closure com-
plete) magnified 48 times.
ec, Ectoderm.
en, Endoderm.
sp, Splanchnic layer of mesoderm.
y, Yolk.
h, Heart.
p, Pericardial septum.
c, Coelom. -.
Germ-cells surrounded by rudiment-cells went and coalescence
of ovarian tubes. of the blood channels
m, Muscle-rudiment. and by the splitting of
n, Nerve-chain. the fat body. It is
/ Fat body therefore a haemocoel,
s, I npushing of ectoderm to form air-tubes, the coelom of the de-
ar, Secondary body-cavity. veloped insect being
represented only by
the cavities of the genital glands and their ducts.
Reproductive Organs. In the cockroach embryo, before the seg-
mentation of the germ-band has begun, the primitive germ-cells
can be recognized at the hinder end of the mesoderm, from whose
ordinary cells they can be distinguished by their larger size. At a
later stage further germ-cells arise from the epithelium of the coelomic
pouches from the second to the seventh abdominal segments, and
become surrounded by other mesoderm cells which form the ovarian
or testicular tubes and ducts (fig. 19, g). In the male of Phyllo-
dromia the rudiment of a vestigial ovary becomes separated from the
developing testis, indicating perhaps an originally hermaphrodite
condition. An exceedingly early differentiation of the primitive
germ-cells occurs in certain Diptera. E. Metchnikoff observed
(1866) in the development of the parthenogenetic eggs produced by
the .precocious larva of the gall-midge Cecidomyia that a large
" polar-cell " appeared at one extremity during the primitive cell-
segmentation. This by successive divisions forms a group of four to
eight cells, which subsequently pass through the blastoderm, and
dividing into two groups become symmetrically arranged and
surrounded by the rudiments of the ovarian tubes. E. G. E&albiani
and R. Ritter (1890) have since observed a similar early origin for
the germ-cells in the midge Chironomus and in the Aphidae.
The paired oviducts and vasa deferentia are, as we have seen,
filled up with the grow-
ing fat body (fig. 19).
This latter, as well as the
heart and the walls of
the blood spaces, arises
by the modification of
mesodermal cells, and
the body cavity is
formed by the enlarge-
g
mesodermal in origin. The median vagina, spermatheca and
ejaculatory duct are, on the other hand, formed^ by ectodermal
inpushings. The classical researches of J. A. Palmen (1884) on these
ducts have shown that in may-flies and in female earwigs the paired
mesodermal ducts open directly to the exterior, while in male earwigs
there is a single mesodermal duct, due either to the coalescence of the
two or to the suppression of one. In the absence of the external
ectodermal ducts usual in winged insects, these two groups resemble
therefore the primitive Aptera. The presence of rudiments of the
genital ducts of both sexes in the embryo of either sex is interesting
and suggestive. The ejaculatory duct which opens on the ninth
abdominal sternum in the adult male arises in the tenth abdominal
embryonic segment and subsequently moves forward.
GKOWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS
After hatching or birth an insect undergoes a process of growth
and change until the adult condition is reached. The varied
a.
After Marlatt, Ent. Bull. 4, n. s. (U.S. Dept Agr.).
FIG. 20. a, Bed-bug (Cimex lectularius, Linn.) ; newly hatched
young from beneath; 6, from above; d, egg, magnified 25 times;
c, toot with claws; e, serrate spine, more highly magnified.
details of this post-embryonic development furnish some of the
most interesting facts and problems to the students of the
Hexapoda. Wingless insects, such as spring-tails and lice, make
their appearance in the form of miniature adults. Some winged
insects cockroaches, bugs (fig. 20) and earwigs, for example-
when young closely resemble their parents, except for the absence
of wings. On the other hand, we find in the vast majority of the
Hexapoda a very marked difference between the perfect insect
(imago) and the young animal when newly hatched and for some
time after hatching. From the moth's egg comes a crawling
caterpillar (fig. 21, c), from the fly's a legless maggot (fig. 25, a).
From Mally, Ent t Bull. 24 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
FIG. 21. e,f, Owl moth (Heliothis armigera); a,b, egg, highly
magnified; c, larva or caterpillar; d, pupa in earthen cell.
Such a young insect is a larva a term used by zoologists for
young animals generally that are decidedly unlike their parents.
It is obvious that the hatching of the young as a larva necessitates
GROWTH AND CHANGE]
HEXAPODA
427
a more or less profound transformation or metamorphosis before
the perfect state is attained. Usually this transformation comes
with apparent suddenness, at the penultimate stage of the
insect's life-history, when the passive pupa (fig. 21, d) is revealed,
exhibiting the wings and other imaginal structures, which have
been developed unseen beneath the cuticle of the larva. Hexapoda
with this resting pupal stage in their life-history are said to
undergo " a complete transformation," to be metabolic, or
holometabolic, whereas those insects in which the young form
resembles the parent are said to be ametabolic. Such insects as
dragon-flies and may-flies, whose young, though unlike the parent,
develop into the adult form without a resting pupal stage are
said to undergo an " incomplete transformation " or to be
hemimetabolic. The absence of the pupal stage depends upon
the fact that in the ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda the
wing-rudiments appear as lateral outgrowths (fig. 22) of the two
hinder thoracic segments and are visible externally throughout
the life-history, becoming larger after each moult or casting of the
cuticle. Hence, as has been pointed out by D. Sharp (1898), the
marked divergence among the Hexapoda, as regards life-history,
is between insects whose wings develop outside the cuticle
(Exopterygota) and those whose wings develop inside the cuticle
(Endopterygota), becoming visible only when the casting of the
last larval cuticle reveals the pupa. Metamorphosis among the
Hexapoda depends upon the universal acquisition of wings
After Howard, Insect Life, vol. vii.
FIG. 22. Nymph of Locust (Schistocera americana), showing wing-
rudiments.
during post-embryonic development no insect being hatched
with the smallest external rudiments of those organs and on the
necessity for successive castings or " moults " (ecdyses) of the
cuticle.
Ecdysis. The embryonic ectoderm of an insect consists of a
layer of cells forming a continuous structure, the orifices in it
mouth, spiracles, anus and terminal portions of the genital
ducts being invaginations of the outer wall. This cellular layer
is called the hypodermis; it is protected externally by a cuticle,
a layer of matter it itself excretes, or in the excretion of which it
plays, at any rate, an important part. The cuticle is a dead
substance, and is composed in large part of chitin. The cuticle
contrasts strongly in its nature with the hypodermis it protects.
It is different in its details in different insects and in different stages
of the life of the same insect. The " sclerites " that make up the
skeleton of the insect (which skeleton, it should be remembered,
is entirely external) are composed of this chitinous excretion. The
growth of an insect is usually rapid, and as the cuticle does not
share therein, it is from time to time cast off by moulting or
ecdysis. Before a moult actually occurs the cuticle becomes
separated from its connexion with the underlying hypodermis.
Concomitant with this separation there is commencement of the
formation of a new cuticle within the old one, so that when the
latter is cast off the insect appears with a partly completed new
cuticle. The new instar or temporary form is often very
different from the old one, and this is the essential'fact of meta-
morphosis. Metamorphosis is, from this point of view, the sum
of the changes that take place under the cuticle of an insect
between the ecdyses, which changes only become externally
displayed when the cuticle is cast off. The hypodermis is the
immediate agent in effecting the external changes.
The study of the physiology of ecdysis in its simpler forms has un-
fortunately been somewhat neglected, investigators having directed
their attention chiefly to the cases that are most striking, such as
the transformation of a maggot into a fly, or of a caterpillar into a
butterfly. The changes have been found to be made up of two sets
of processes: histolysis, by which the whole or part of a structure
disappears: and histogenesis, or the formation of the new structure.
By histolysis certain parts of the hypodermis are destroyed, while
other portions of it develop into the new structures. The hypo-
dermis is composed of parts of two different kinds, viz. (i) the larger
part of the hypodermis that exists in
the maggot or caterpillar and is dis-
solved at the metamorphosis; (2) parts
that remain comparatively quiescent
previously, and that grow and develop
when the other parts degenerate. These
centres of renovation are called imaginal
disks or folds. The adult caterpillar
may be described as a creature the
hypodermis of which is studded with Adapted from Koerschelt and
buds that expand and form the butter- Herder - ^ ^ me -
fly, while^the parts around them de- . FIG. 23. Diagram show-
generate. In some insects (e.g. the mgpositionof imaginal buds
maggots of the blowfly, Calliphora in l arv a of fly. I., II., III.,
vomitoria) the imaginal disks are to all the three thoracic segments
appearance completely separated from * tne larva; I, 2, 3, buds
the hypodermis, with which they are, f the legs of the imago ; h,
however, really organically connected Du d of head-lobes; /, of
by strings or pedicels. This connexion feeler; e,oi eye; 6, brain,
was not at first recognized and the true nature of imaginal disks was
not at first perceived, even by Weismann, to whom their discovery in
Diptera is due. In other insects the imaginal disks are less completely
disconnected from the superficies of the larval hypodermis, and may
indeed be merely patches thereof. The number of imaginal disks
in an individual is large, upwards of sixty having been discovered
to take part in the formation of the outer body of a fly. With regard
to the internal organs, we need only say that transformation occurs
in an essentially similar manner, by means of a development from
centres distributed in the various organs. The imaginal disks for
the outer wall of the body, some of them, at any rate, include meso-
dermal rudiments (from which the muscles are developed) as well as
hypodermis. The imaginal disks make their appearance (that is,
have been first detected) at very different epochs in the life; their
absolute origin has been but little investigated. Pratt has traced
them in the sheep-tick (Melophagus) to an early stage of the embryonic
life.
Histolysis and Histogtnesis. The process of destruction of the larval
tissues was first studied in the forms where metamorphosis is greatest
and most abrupt, viz. in the Muscid Diptera. It was found that
the tissues were attacked by phagocytic cells that became enlarged
and carried away fragments of the tissue; the cells were subsequently
identified as leucocytes or blood-cells. Hence the opinion arose that
histolysis is a process of phagocytosis. It has, however, since been
found that in other kinds of insects the tissues degenerate and break
down without the intervention of phagocytes. It has, moreover,
been noticed that even in cases where phagocytosis exists a greater or
less extent of degeneration of the tissue may be observed before
phagocytosis occurs. This process can therefore only be looked
on as a secondary one that hastens and perfects the destruction
necessary to permit of the accompanying histogenesis. This view
is confirmed by the fate of the phagocytic cells. These do not take a
direct part in the formation of the new tissue, but it is believed merely
yield their surplus acquisitions, becoming ordinary blood-cells or
disappearing altogether. As to the nature of histogenesis, nothing
more can be saidj than that it appears to be a phenomenon similar
to embryonic growth, though limited to certain spots. Hence we
are inclined to look on the imaginal disks as cellular areas that possess
in a latent condition the powers of growth and development that
exist in the embryo, powers that only become evident in certain
special conditions of the organism. What the more essential of these
conditions may be is a question on which very little light has been
thrown, though it has been widely discussed.
Much consideration has been given to the nature of meta-
morphosis in insects, to its value to the creatures and to the
mode of it? origin. Insect metamorphosis may be briefly
described as phenomena of development characterized by abrupt
changes of appearance and of structure, occurring during the
period subsequent to embryonic development and antecedent to
the reproductive state. It is, in short, a peculiar mode of growth
and adolescence. The differences in appearance between the
caterpillar and the butterfly, striking as they are to the eye, do
not sufficiently represent the phenomena of metamorphosis to the
intelligence. The changes that take place involve a revolution in
the being, and may be summarized under three headings: (i)
The food-relations of the individual are profoundly changed, an
entirely different set of mouth-organs appears and the kind and
428
HEXAPODA
[GROWTH AND CHANGE
quantity of the food taken is often radically different. (2) A
wingless, sedentary creature is turned into a winged one with
superlative powers of aerial movement. (3) An individual in
which the reproductive organs and powers are functionally
absent becomes one in which these structures and powers are the
only reason for existence, for the great majority of insects die
after a brief period of reproduction. These changes are in the
higher insects so extreme that it is difficult to imagine how they
could be increased. In the case of the common drone-fly,
Eristalis tenax, the individual, from a sedentary maggot living in
filth, without any relations of sex, and with only unimportant
organs for the ingestion of its foul nutriment, changes to a
creature of extreme alertness, with magnificent powers of flight,
living on the products of the flowers it frequents, and endowed
with highly complex sexual structures.
Forms of Larva. The unlikeness of the young insect to its
parent is one of the factors that necessitates metamorphosis.
It is instructive, further, to trace among
metabolic insects an increase in the degree
of this dissimilarity. An adult Hexapod
is provided with a firm, well-chitinized
cuticle and six conspicuous jointed legs.
Many larval Hexapods might be defined
in similar general terms, unlike as they are
to their parents in most points of detail.
Examples of such are to be seen in the
grubs of may-flies, dragon-flies, lace-
wing-flies and ground-beetles (fig. 24).
This type of active, armoured larva
often bearing conspicuous feelers on the
head and long jointed cercopods on the
tenth abdominal segment was styled cam-
podeiform by F. Brauer (1869), on account
of its likeness in shape to the bristle-tail
Campodea. As an extreme contrast to this
After W t* s t \M n nrl
Modern Classification. ' campodeiform type, we take the maggot
FIG. 24. Cam- of the house-fly (fig. 25) a vermiform
podeiform Larva of larva, with soft, white, feebly-chitinized
a Ground -Beetle cuticle and without either head-capsule
legs. Between these two extremes,
numerous intermediate forms can be traced:
the grub (wireworm) of a click-beetle, with narrow elongate
well-armoured body, but with the legs very short; the grub
of a chafer, with the legs fairly developed, but with the cuticle
of all the trunk-segments soft and feebly chitinized; the well-
known caterpillar of a moth (fig. 2T, e) or saw-fly, with its
long cylindrical body, bearing the six shortened thoracic legs
and a variable number of pairs of " pro-legs " on the abdomen
(this being the eruciform type of larva); the soft, white, wood-
(Aepus marinus).
Magnified 20 times.
TERZI.
After Howard, Etit. Bull. 4. n. s. (U.S. Deft. Agr.).
FIG. 25. Vermiform Larva (maggot) of House-fly (Musca domes-
tica). Magnified 5 times, b, spiracle on prothorax; c, protruded head
region ; d, tail-end with functional spiracles ; e, f, head region with
mouth hooks protruded; g, hooks retracted; A, eggs. All magnified.
boring grub of a longhorn-beetle or of the saw-fly Sirex, with
its stumpy vestiges of thoracic legs; the large-headed but
entirely legless, fleshy grub of a weevil; and the legless larva,
with greatly reduced head, of a bee. The various larvae of
the above series, however, have all a distinct head-capsule,
which is altogether wanting in the degraded fly maggot. These
differences in larval form depend in part on the surroundings
among which the larva finds itself after hatching; the active,
armoured grub has to seek food for itself and to fight its own
battles, while the soft, defenceless maggot is provided with
abundant nourishment. But in general we find that elaboration
of imaginal structure is associated with degradation in the nature
of the larva, cruciform and vermiform larvae being characteristic
of the highest orders of the Hexapoda, so that unlikeness
between parent and offspring has increased with the evolution
of the class.
Hypermetamorphosis. Among a few of the beetles or Coleo-
ptera (q.v.), and also in the neuropterous genus Mantispa, are
found life-histories in which the earliest instar is campodeiform
and the succeeding larval stages eruciform. These later stages,
comprising the greater part of the larval history, are adapted
for an inquiline or a parasitic life, where shelter is assured
and food abundant, while the short-lived, active condition
enables the newly-hatched insect to make its way to the spot
favourable for its future development, clinging, for example,
in the case of an oil-beetle's larva, to the hairs of a bee as she
flies towards her nest. The presence of the two successive
larval forms in the life-history constitutes what is called hyper-
metamorphosis. Most significant is the precedence of the
eruciform by the campodeiform type. In conjunction with
the association mentioned above of the most highly developed
imaginal with the most degraded larval structure, it indicates
clearly that the active, armoured grub preceded the sluggish
soft-skinned caterpillar or maggot in the evolution of the Hexa-
poda.
Nymph. The term nymph is applied by many writers on the
Hexapoda to all young forms of insects that are not sufficiently
unlike their parents to be called larvae. Other writers apply
the term to a " free " pupa (see infra). It is in wellnigh universal
use for those instars of ametabolous and hemimetabolous
insects in which the external wing-rudiments have become
conspicuous (fig. 27). The mature dragon-fly nymph, for
example, makes its way out of the water in which the early
stages have been passed and, clinging to some water-plant,
undergoes the final ecdysis that the imago may emerge into
the air. Like most ametabolic and hemimetabolic Hexapoda,
such nymphs continue to move and feed throughout their
lives. But examples are not wanting of a more or less complete
resting habit during the latest nymphal instar. In some cicads
the mature nymph ceases to feed and remains quiescent within
a pillar-shaped earthen chamber. The nymph of a thrips-insect
(Thysanoptera) is sluggish, its legs and wings being sheathed
by a delicate membrane, while the nymph of the male scale-
insect rests enclosed beneath a waxy covering.
Sub-imago. Among the Hexapoda generally there is no
subsequent ecdysis nor any further growth after the assumption
of the winged state. The may-flies, however, offer a remarkable
exception to this rule. After a prolonged aquatic larval and
nymphal life-history, the winged insect appears as a sub-imago,
whence, after the casting of a delicate cuticle, the true imago
emerges.
Pupa. In the metabolic Hexapoda the resting pupal instar
shows externally the wings and other characteristic imaginal
organs which have been gradually elaborated beneath the
larval cuticle. It is usual to distinguish between the free
pupae (fig. 26, b) of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, for example
in which the wings, legs and other appendages are not fixed
to the trunk, and the obtect pupae (fig. 21, d) such as may
be noticed in the majority of the Lepidoptera whose append-
ages are closely and immovably pressed to the body by a general
hardening and fusion of the cuticle. In the degree of mobility
there is great diversity among pupae. A gnat pupa swims
through the water by powerful strokes of its abdomen, while
the caddis-fly pupa, in preparation for its final ecdysis, bites
its way out of its subaqueous protective case and rises through
the water, so that the fly may emerge into the air. Some
pupae are thus more active than some nymphs; the essential
character of a pupa is not therefore its passivity, but that it
is the instar in which the wings first become evident externally.
GROWTH AND CHANGE]
HEXAPODA
429
The division of the winged Hexapoda into Exopteryga and
Endopteryga is thus again justified.
If we admit that the larva has, in the phylogeny of insects, gradually
diverged from the imago, and if we recollect that in the ontogeny the
larva has always to become the imago (and of course still does so)
notwithstanding the increased difficulty of the transformation, we
cannot but recognize that a period of helplessness in which the
transformation may take place is to be expected. It is generally
considered that this is sufficient as an explanation of the existence
of the pupa. This, however, is not the case, because the greater
part of the transformation precedes the disclosure of the pupa,
which, as L. C. Miall remarks, is structurally little other " than the
fly enclosed in a temporary skin." Moreover, in many insects with
imperfect metamorphosis the change from larva or (as the later stage
of the larva is called in these cases) nymph to imago is about as great
as the corresponding change in the Holometabola, as the student
will recognize if he recalls the histories of Ephemeridae, Odonata and
male Coccidae. But in none of these latter cases have the wings to
be changed from a position inside the body to become external and
actively functional organs. The difference between the nymph or
false pupa and the true pupa is that in the latter a whole stage is
devoted to the perfecting of the wings and body-wall after the wings
have become external organs; the stage is one in which no food is or
can be taken, however prolonged may be its existence. Amongst
insects with imperfect metamorphosis the nearest approximations
to the true pupa of the Holometabola are to be found in the subimago
From Chittenden, Bull. 4 (n.s.) Din. Ent. U.S. Dipt. Air.
FIG. 26. a, Saw-toothed Grain- Beetle (Silvanus surinamensis) ;
b, pupa; c, larva, magnified 12 times; d, feeler of larva.
of Ephemeridae and in the quiescent or resting stages of Thysanoptera,
Aleurodidae and Coccidae. A much more thorough appreciation
than we yet possess of the phenomena in these cases is necessary in
order completely to demonstrate the special characteristics of the
holometabolous transformation. But even at present we can cor-
rectly state that the true pupa is invariably connected with the
transference of the wings from the interior to the exterior of the body.
It cannot but suggest itself that this transference was induced by
some peculiarity as to formation of cuticle, causing the growth of the
wings to be directed inwards instead of outwards. We may remark
that fleas possess no wings, but are understood to possess a true pupa.
This is a most remarkable case, but unfortunately very little informa-
tion exists as to the details of metamorphosis in this group.
Life- Relations. Only a brief reference can be made here
to the fascinating subject of the life-relations of the larva,
nymph and pupa, as compared with those of the imago. For
details, the reader may consult the special articles on the various
orders and groups of insects. A common result of metamor-
phosis is that the larva and imago differ markedly in their
habitat and mode of feeding. The larva may be aquatic, or
subterranean, or a burrower in wood, while the imago is aerial.
It may bite and devour solid food, while the imago sucks liquids.
It may eat roots or refuse, while the imago lives on leaves and
flowers. The aquatic habit of many larvae is associated with
endless beautiful adaptations for respiration. The series of
paired spiracles on most of the trunk-segments is well displayed,
as a rule, in terrestrial larvae caterpillars and the grubs of most
beetles, for example. In many aquatic larvae we find that all
the spiracles are closed up, or become functionless, except a
pair at the hinder end which are associated with some arrange-
ment such as the valvular flaps of the gnat larva or the tele-
scopic :: tail " of the drone-fly larva for piercing the surface
film and drawing periodical supplies of atmospheric air. A
similar restriction of the functional spiracles to the tail-end
(fig. 25, d) is seen in many larvae of flies (Diptera ) that live and
feed buried in carrion or excrement. Other aquatic larvae
have the tracheal system entirely closed, and are able to breathe
dissolved air by means of tubular or leaf-like gills. Such are
the grubs of stone-flies, may-flies (fig. 27) and some dragon-flies
and midges. An interesting feature is the difference often to
be observed between an aquatic larva
and pupa of the same insect in the
matter of breathing. The gnat larva, for
example, breathes at the tail-end, hanging
head-downwards from the surface-film.
But the pupa hangs from the surface by
means of paired respiratory trumpets on
the prothorax, the dorsal thoracic sur-
face, where the cuticle splits to allow the
emergence of the fly, being thus directed
towards the upper air.
A marked disproportion between the
life-term of larva and imago is common;
the former often lives for months or
years, while the latter only survives for
weeks or days or hours. Generally the
larval is the feeding, the imaginal the
breeding, stage of the life-cycle. The
extreme of this " division of labour " is
seen in those insects whose jaws are
vestigial in the winged state, when, the
need for feeding all behind them, they
have but to pair, to lay eggs and to die.
The acquisition of wings is the sign of
developed reproductive power. (.fc^'vJS) Tke D ll
Paedogenesis. Nevertheless, the func- roach, Lovell Reeve & Co.
lion of reproduction is occasionally exer- FIG. 27. Nymph of
cised by larvae. In 1865 N. Wagner May-fly (Chloeon dip-
made his classical observations on the *S>$BS33i
production of larvae from unfertilized gill-plates (b, b). Mag-
eggs developed in the precociously- nified 7 times. (The
formed ovaries of a larval gall-midge feelers and legs are cut
(Cecidomyid), and subsequent observers s
have confirmed his results by studies on insects of the same
family and of the related Chironomidae. The larvae produced
by this remarkable method (paedogenesis) of virgin-reproduction
are hatched within the parent larva, and in some cases escape
by the rupture of its body.
Polyembryony. Occasionally the power of reproduction is
thrown still farther back in the life-history, and it is found
that from a single egg a large number of embryos may be formed.
P. Marchal has (1904) described this power in two small parasitic
Hymenoptera a Chalcid (Encyrlus) which lays eggs in the
developing eggs of the small moth Hyponomeula, and a Procto-
trypid (Polygnotus) which infests a gall-midge (Cecidomyid)
larva. In the egg of these insects a small number of nuclei
are formed by the division of the nucleus, and each of these
nuclei originates by division the cell-layers of a separate embryo.
Thus a mass or chain of embryos is produced, lying in a common
cyst, and developing as their larval host develops. In this
way over a hundred embryos may result from a single egg.
Marchal points out the analogy of this phenomenon to the
artificial polyembryony that has bean induced in Echinoderm
and other eggs by separating the blastomeres, and suggests
that the abundant food-supply afforded by the host-larva is
favourable for this multiplication of embryos, which may be,
in the first instance, incited by the abnormal osmotic pressure
on the egg.
Duration of Life. The flour-moth (Epheslia kuhniella)
sometimes passes through five or six generations in a single
year. Although one of the characteristics of insects is the
brevity of their adult lives, a considerable number of exceptions
to the general rule have been discovered. These exceptions
may be briefly summarized as follows: (i) Certain larvae,
provided with food that may be adequate in quantity but
deficient in nutriment, may live and go on feeding for many
430
HEXAPODA
[CLASSIFICATION
years; (2) certain stages of the life that are naturally " resting
stages " may be in exceptional cases prolonged, and that to a
very great extent; in this case no food is taken, and the activity
of the individual is almost nil; (3) the life of certain insects
in the adult state may be much prolonged if celibacy be main-
tained; a female of Cybister roeselii (a large water-beetle)
has lived five and a half years in the adult state in captivity.
In addition to these abnormal cases, the life of certain insects
is naturally more prolonged than usual. The females of some
social insects have been known to live for many years. In
Tibicen septemdecim the life of the larva extends over from
thirteen to seventeen years. The eggs of locusts may remain
for years in the ground before hatching; and there may thus
arise the peculiar phenomenon of some species of insect appear-
ing in vast numbers in a locality where it has not been seen for
several years.
CLASSIFICATION
Number of Species. It is now considered that 2,000,000
is a moderate estimate of the species of insects actually existing.
Some authorities consider this total to be too small, and extend
the number to 10,000,000. Upwards of 300,000 species have been
collected and described, and at present the number of named
forms increases at the rate of about 8000 species per annum.
The greater part by far of the insects existing in the world is
still quite unknown to science. Many of the species are in pro-
cess of extinction, owing to the extensive changes that are
taking place in the natural conditions of the world by the
extension of human population and of cultivation, and by the
destruction of forests; hence it is probable that a considerable
proportion of the species at present existing will disappear from
the face of the earth before we have discovered or preserved
any specimens of them. Nevertheless, the constant increase of
our knowledge of insect forms renders classification increasingly
difficult, for gaps in the series become filled, and while the number
of genera and families increases, the distinctions between these
groups become dependent on characters that must seem trivial
to the naturalist who is not a specialist.
Orders of Hexapoda. In the present article it is only possible
to treat of the division of the Hexapoda into orders and sub-orders
and of the relations of these orders to each other. For further
classificatory details, reference must be made to the special
articles on the various orders. As regards the vast majority
of insects, the orders proposed by Linnaeus are acknowledged
by modern zoologists. His classification was founded mainly
on the nature of the wings, and five of his orders the Hymeno-
ptera (bees, ants, wasps, &c.), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera
(two- winged flies), Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), and
Hemiptera (bugs, cicads, &c.) are recognized to-day with nearly
the same limits as he laid down. His order of wingless insects
(Aptera) included Crustacea, spiders, centipedes and other
creatures that now form classes of the Arthropoda distinct from
the Hexapoda; it also included Hexapoda of parasitic and
evidently degraded structure, that are now regarded as allied
more or less closely to various winged insects. Consequently
the modern order Aptera comprises only a very small proportion
of Linnaeus's " Aptera " the spring-tails and bristle-tails, wing-
less Hexapoda that stand evidently at a lower grade of develop-
ment than the bulk of the class. The earwigs, cockroaches
and locusts, which Linnaeus included among the Coleoptera,
were early grouped into a distinct order, the Orthoptera.
The great advance in modern zoology as regards the classifi-
cation of the Hexapoda lies in the treatment of a hetero-
geneous assembly which formed Linnaeus's order Neuroptera.
The characters of the wings are doubtless important as indications
of relationship, but the nature of the jaws and the course of
the life-history must be considered of greater value. Linnaeus's
Neuroptera exhibit great diversity in these respects, and the
insects included in it are now therefore distributed into a number
of distinct orders. The many different arrangements that
have been proposed can hardly be referred to in this article.
Of special importance in the history of systematic entomology
was the scheme of F. Brauer (1885), who separated the spring-
tails and bristle-tails as a sub-class Apterygogenea from all
the other Hexapoda, these forming the sub-class Pterygogenea
distributed into sixteen orders. Brauer in his arrangement
of these orders laid special stress on the nature of the meta-
morphosis, and was the first to draw attention to the number
of Malpighian tubes as of importance in classification. Sub-
sequent writers have, for the most part, increased the number
of recognized orders; and during the last few years several
schemes of classification have been published, in the most
revolutionary of which that of A. Handlirsch (1903-1904)
the Hexapoda are divided into four classes and thirty-four
orders! Such excessive multiplication of the larger taxonomic
divisions shows an imperfect sense of proportion, for if the
term " class " be allowed its usual zoological value, no student
can fail to recognize that the Hexapoda form a single well-
defined class, from which few entomologists would wish to
exclude even the Apterygogenea. In several recent attempts
to group the orders into sub-classes, stress has been laid upon
a few characters in the imago. C. Borner (1904), for example,
considers the presence or absence of cerci of great importance,
while F. Klapalek (1904) lays stress on a supposed distinction
between appendicular and non-appendicular genital processes.
A natural system must take into account the nature of the
larva and of the metamorphosis in conjunction with the
general characters of the imago. Hence the grouping of the
orders of winged Hexapoda into the divisions Exopterygota
and Endopterygota, as suggested by D. Sharp, is unlikely to
be superseded by the result of any researches into minute
imaginal structure. Sharp's proposed association of the parasitic
wingless insects in a group Anapterygota cannot, however, be
defended as natural; and recent researches into the structure
of these forms enables us to associate them confidently with
related winged orders. The classification here adopted is based
on Sharp's scheme, with the addition of suggestions from some
of the most recent authors especially Borner and Enderlein.
Class: HEXAPODA.
Sub-class: APTERYGOTA.
Primitively (?) wingless Hexapods with cumacean mandibles,
distinct maxillulae, and locomotor abdominal appendages. Without
ectodermal genital ducts. Young closely resemble adults.
The sub-class contains a single
Order: Aptera,
which is divided into two sub-orders:
1. Thysanura (Bristle-tails) : with ten abdominal segments; number
of abdominal appendages variable. Cerci prominent. Developed
tracheal system.
2. Collembola (Spring-tails): with six abdominal segments; ap-
pendages of the first forming an adherent ventral tube, those of
the third a minute " catch," those of the fourth (fused basally) a
" spring." Tracheal system reduced or absent.
Sub-class: EXOPTERYGOTA.
Hexapoda mostly with wings, the wingless forms clearly degraded.
Maxillulae rarely distinct. No locomotor abdominal appendages.
The wing-rudiments develop visibly outside the cuticle. Young like
or unlike parents.
Order: Dermaptera.
Biting mandibles; minute but distinct maxillulae; second maxil-
lae incompletely fused. When wings are present, the fore-wings
are small firm elytra, beneath which the delicate hind-wings are
complexly folded. Many forms wingless. Genital ducts entirely
mesodermal. Cerci always present; usually modified into un-
jointed forceps. Numerous (30 or more) Malpighian tubes. Young
resembling parents.
Includes two families the Forficulidae or earwigs (q.v.) and the
Hemimeridae.
Order: Orthoptera.
Biting mandibles; vestigial maxillulae; second maxillae incom-
pletely fused. Wings usually well developed, net-veined; the fore-
wings of firmer texture than the hind-wings, whose anal area folds
fanwise beneath them. Jointed cerci always present; ovipositor
well developed. Malpighian tubes numerous (100-150). Young
resemble parents.
Includes stick and leaf insects, cockroaches, mantids, grasshoppers,
locusts and crickets (see ORTHOPTERA).
Order: Plecoptera.
Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-
wings similar in texture to hind-wings, whose anal area folds fanwise.
Jointed, often elongate, cerci. Numerous (50-60) Malpigl.ian tubes.
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY]
HEXAPODA
43
Young resembling parents, but aquatic in habit, breathing dissolved
air by thoracic tracheal gills
Includes the single family of the Perlidae (Stone-flies), formerly
grouped with the Neuroptera.
Order : Isoptera.
Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused. Fore-
wings similar in shape and texture to hind-wings, which do not fold.
In most species the majority of individuals are wingless. Short,
jointed cerci. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Young resembling
adults; terrestrial throughout life.
Includes two families, formerly reckoned among the Neuroptera
the Embiidae and the Termitidae or " White Ants " (see TERMITE).
Order: Corrodentia.
Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely fused; maxil-
lulae often distinct. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes.
Includes two sub-orders, formerly regarded as Neuroptera :
1. Copeognatha : Corrodentia with delicate cuticle. Wings usually
developed; the fore-wings much larger than the hind-wings. One
family, the Psocidae (Book-lice). These minute insects are found
amongst old books and furniture.
2. Mallophaga: Parasitic wingless Corrodentia (Bird-lice).
Order: Ephemeroptera.
Jaws vestigial. Fore-wings much larger than hind-wings. Elon-
gate, jointed cerci. Genital ducts paired and entirely mesodermal.
Malpighian tubes numerous (40). Aquatic larvae with distinct
maxillulae, breathing dissolved air by abdominal tracheal gills.
Penultimate instar a flying sub-imago. [Includes the single family
of the Ephemeridae or may-flies. See also NEUROPTERA, in which
this order was formerly comprised.]
Order: Odonata.
Biting mandibles. Wings of both pairs closely alike; firm and
glassy in texture. Prominent, unjointed cerci, male with genital
armature on second abdominal segment. Malpighian tubes numer-
ous (50-60). Aquatic larvae with caudal leaf -gills or with rectal
tracheal system.
Includes the three families of dragon-flies. Formerly comprised
among the Neuroptera.
Order : Thysanoptera.
Piercing mandibles, retracted within the head-capsule. First
maxillae also modified as piercers; maxillae of both pairs with
distinct palps. Both pairs of wings similar, narrow and fringed.
Four Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor usually present.
Young resembling parents, but penultimate instar passive and
enclosed in a filmy pellicle.
Includes three families of Thrips (see THYSANOPTERA).
Order: Hemiptera.
Mandibles and first maxillae modified as piercers; second maxillae
fused to form a jointed, grooved rostrum. Wings usually present.
Four Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent. Ovipositor developed.
Includes two sub-orders:
1. Heteroptera: Rostrum not in contact with haunches of fore-legs.
Fore--wings partly coriaceous. Young resembling adults.
Includes the bugs, terrestrial and aquatic.
2. Homoptera: Rostrum in contact with haunches of fore-legs.
Fore-wings uniform in texture. Young often larvae. Penultimate
instar passive in some cases.
Includes the cicads, aphides and scale-insects (see HEMIPTERA).
Order: Anoplura.
Piercing jaws modified and reduced, a tubular, protrusible sucking-
trunk being developed; mouth with hooks. Wingless, parasitic
forms. Cerci absent. Four Malpighian tubes. Young resembling
adults.
Includes the family of the Lice (Pediculidae), often reckoned as
Hemiptera (q.v.). See also LOUSE.
Sub-class: ENDOPTERYGOTA.
Hexapoda mostly with wings; the wingless forms clearly degraded
or modified. Maxillulae vestigial or absent. No locomotor abdominal
appendages (except in certain larvae). Young animals always unlika
parents, the wing-rudiments developing beneath the larval cuticle
and only appearing in a penultimate pupal instar, which takes no
food and is usually passive.
Order: Neuroptera.
Biting mandibles; second maxillae completely fused. Prothorax
large and free. Membranous, net-veined wings, those of the two
pairs closely alike. Six or eight Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent.
Larva campodeiform, usually feeding by suction (exceptionally
hypermetamorphic with subsequent cruciform instars). Pupa free.
Includes the alder-flies, ant-lions and lacewing-flies. See NEURO-
PTERA.
Order: Coleoptera.
Biting mandibles; second maxillae very intimately fused. Pro-
thorax large and free. Fore-wings modified into firm elytra,
beneath which the membranous hind-wings (when present) can be
folded. Cerci absent. Four or six Malpighian tubes. Larva cam-
podeiform or cruciform. Pupa free.
Includes the beetles and the parasitic Stylopidae, often regarded
as a distinct order (Strepsiptera). (See COLEOPTERA.)
Order: Mecaptera.
Biting mandibles; first maxillae elongate; second maxillae com-
pletely fused. Prothorax small. Two pairs of similar, membranous
wings, with predominantly longitudinal neuration. Six Malpighian
tubes. Larva eruciform. P u P a free. Cerci present.
Includes the single family of Panorpidae (scorpion-flies), often com-
prised among the Neuroptera.
Order: Trichoptera.
Mandibles present in pupa, vestigial in imago; maxillae suctorial
without specialization; first maxillae with lacinia, galea and palp.
Prothorax small. Two pairs of membranous, hair-covered wings,
with predominantly longitudinal neuration. Larvae aquatic and
eruciform. Pupa free. Six Malpighian tubes. Cerci absent.
Includes the caddis-flies. See NEUROPTERA, among which these
insects were formerly comprised.
Order : Lepidoptera.
Mandibles absent in imago, very exceptionally present in pupa;
first maxillae nearly always without laciniae and often without palps,
or only with vestigial palps, their galeae elongated and grooved
inwardly so as to form a sucking trunk. Prothorax small. Wings
with predominantly longitudinal neuration, covered with flattened
scales. Fore-wings larger than hind-wings. Cerci absent. Four
(rarely 6 or 8) Malpighian tubes. Larvae eruciform, with rarely
more than five pairs of abdominal prolegs. Pupa free in the lowest
families, in most cases incompletely or completely obtect.
Includes the moths and butterflies. See LEPIDOPTERA.
Order: Diptera.
Mandibles rarely present, adapted for piercing; first maxillae
with palps; second maxillae forming with hypopharynx a suctorial
proboscis. Prothorax small, intimately united to mesothorax.
Fore- wings well developed; hind-wings reduced to stalked knobs
(" halteres "). Cerci present but usually reduced. Four Malpi-
ghian tubes. Larvae eruciform without thoracic legs, or vermiform
without head-capsule. Pupa incompletely obtect or free, and
enclosed in the hardened cuticle of the last larval instar (puparium).
Includes the two- winged flies (see DIPTERA), which may be divided
into two sub-orders:
1. Orthorrhapha: Larva eruciform. Cuticle of pupa or puparium
splitting longitudinally down the back, to allow escape of imago.
Comprises the midges, gnats, crane-flies, gad-flies, &c.
2. Cyclorrhapha: Larva vermiform (no head-capsule). Puparium
opening by an anterior " lid."
Comprises the hover-flies, flesh-flies, bot-flies, &c.
Order: Siphonaptera.
Mandibles fused into a piercer ; first maxillae developed as piercers ;
palps of both pairs of maxillae present; hypopharynx wanting.
Prothorax large. Wings absent or vestigial. Larva eruciform,
limbless.
Includes the fleas.
Order: Hymenoptera.
Biting mandibles; second maxillae incompletely or completely
fused; often forming a suctorial proboscis. Prothorax small, and
united to mesothorax. First abdominal segment united to meta-
thorax. Wings membranous, fore-wings larger than hind-wings.
Ovipositor always well developed, and often modified into a sting.
Numerous (20-150) Malpighian tubes (in rare cases, 6-12 only).
Larva eruciform, with seven or eight pairs of abdominal prolegs,
or entirely legless. Pupa free.
Includes two sub-orders:
1. Symphyta: Abdomen not basally constricted. Larvae cater-
pillars with thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs.
Comprises the saw-flies.
2. Apocrita: Abdomen markedly constricted at second segment.
Larvae legless grubs.
Comprises gall-flies, ichneumon-flies, ants, wasps, bees. See
HYMENOPTERA.
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
The classification just given has been drawn up with reference
to existing insects, but the great majority of the extinct forms
that have been discovered can be referred with some confidence
to the same orders, and in many cases to recent families. The
Hexapoda, being aerial, terrestrial and fresh-water animals,
are but occasionally preserved in stratified rocks, and our know-
ledge of extinct members of the class is therefore fragmentary,
while the description, as insects, of various obscure fossils,
which are perhaps not even Arthropods, has not tended to the
advancement of this branch of zoology. Nevertheless, much
progress has been made. Several Silurian fossils have been
identified as insects, including a Thysanuran from North America,
but upon these considerable doubt has been cast.
432
HEXAPODA
[GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
The Devonian rocks of Canada (New Brunswick) have yielded
several fossils which are undoubtedly wings of Hexapods.
These have been described by S. H. Scudder, and include gigantic
forms related to the Ephemeroptera.
In the Carboniferous strata (Coal measures) remains of
Hexapods become numerous and quite indisputable. Many
European forms of this age have been described by C. Brongniart,
and American by S. H. Scudder. The latter has established,
for all the Palaeozoic insects, an order Palaeodictyoptera,
there being a closer similarity between the fore-wings and the
hind-wings than is to be seen in most living orders of Hexapoda,
while affinities are shown to several of these orders notably
the Orthoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Hemiptera. It
is probable that many of these Carboniferous insects might
be referred to the Isoptera, while others would fall into the
existing orders to which they are allied, with some modification
of our present diagnoses. Of special interest are cockroach-
like forms, with two pairs of similar membranous wings and
a long ovipositor, and gigantic insects allied to the Odonata,
that measured 2 ft. across the outspread wings. A remark-
able fossil from the Scottish Coal-measures (Lithomantis) had
apparently small wing-like structures on the prothorax, and
in allied genera small veined outgrowths like tracheal gills
occurred on the abdominal segments. To the Permian period
belongs a remarkable genus Eugereon, that combines hemipteroid
jaws with orthopteroid wing-neuration. With the dawn of the
Mesozoic epoch we reach Hexapods that can be unhesitatingly
referred to existing orders. From the Trias of Colorado, Scudder
has described cockroaches intermediate between their Carboni-
ferous precursors and their present-day descendants, while
the existence of endopterygotous Hexapods is shown by the
remains of Coleoptera of several families. In the Jurassic rocks
are found Ephemeroptera and Odonata, as well as Hemiptera,
referable to existing families, some representatives of which
had already appeared in the oldest of the Jurassic ages the
Lias. To the Lias also can be traced back the Neuroptera,
the Trichoptera, the orthorrhaphous Diptera and, according
to the determination of certain obscure fossils, also the Hymeno-
ptera (ants). The Lithographic stone of Kimmeridgian age,
at Solenhofen in Bavaria, is especially rich in insect remains,
cyclorrhaphous Diptera appearing here for the first time. In
Tertiary times the higher Diptera, besides Lepidoptera and
Hymenoptera, referable to existing families, become fairly
abundant. Numerous fossil insects preserved in the amber
of the Baltic Oligocene have been described by G. L. Mayr
and others, while Scudder has studied the rich Oligocene faunas
of Colorado (Florissant) and Wyoming (Green River). The
Oeningen beds of Baden, of Miocene age, have also yielded
an extensive insect fauna, described fifty years ago by O. Heer.
Further details of the geological history of the Hexapoda will
be found in the special articles on the various orders. Frag-
mentary as the records are, they show that the Exopterygota
preceded the Endopterygota in the evolution of the class,
and that among the Endopterygota those orders in which
the greatest difference exists between imago and larva the
Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera were the latest
to take their rise.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
The class Hexapoda has a world- wide range, and so have most
of its component orders. The Aptera have perhaps the most
extensive distribution of all animals, being found in Franz Josef
Land and South Victoria Land, on the snows of Alpine glaciers,
and in the depths of the most extensive caves. Most of the
families and a large proportion of the genera of insects are
exceedingly widespread, but a study of the genera and species in
any of the more important families shows that faunas can be
distinguished whose headquarters agree fairly with the regions
that have been proposed to express the distribution of the higher
vertebrates. Many insects, however, can readily extend their
range, and a careful study of their distribution leads us to dis-
criminate between faunas rather than definitely to map regions.
A large and dominant Holoarctic fauna, with numerous sub-
divisions, ranges over the great northern continents, and is
characterized by the abundance of certain families like the
Carabidae and Staphylinidae among the Coleoptera and the
Tenthredinidae among the Hymenoptera. The southern territory
held by this fauna is invaded by genera and species distinctly
tropical. Oriental types range far northwards into China and
Japan. Ethiopian forms invade the Mediterranean area.
Neotropical and distinctively Sonoran insects mingle with
members of the Holoarctic fauna across a wide " transition zone "
in North America. " Wallace's line " dividing the Indo-Malayan
and Austro-Malayan sub-regions is frequently transgressed in the
range of Malayan insects. The Australian fauna is rich in
characteristic and peculiar genera, and New Zealand, while
possessing some remarkable insects of its own, lacks entirely
several families with an almost world-wide range forexample, the
N olodontidae , Lasiocampidae, and other families of Lepidoptera.
Interesting relationships between the Ethiopian and Oriental, the
Neotropical and West African, the Patagonian and New Zealand
faunas suggest great changes in the distribution of land and
water, and throw doubt on the doctrine of the permanence of
continental areas and oceanic basins. Holoarctic types reappear
on the Andes and in South Africa, and even in New Zealand.
The study of the Hexapoda of oceanic islands is full of interest.
After the determination of a number of cosmopolitan insects
that may well have been artificially introduced, there remains a
large proportion of endemic species sometimes referable to
distinct genera which suggest a high antiquity for the truly
insular faunas.
RELATIONSHIPS AND PHYLOGENY
The Hexapoda form a very clearly defined class of the Arthro-
poda, and many recent writers have suggested that they must
have arisen independently of other Arthropods from annelid
worms, and that the Arthropoda must, therefore, be regarded
as an " unnatural, ".polyphyletic assemblage. The cogent argu-
ments against this view are set forth in the article on Arthropoda.
A near relationship between the Apterygota and the Crustacea
has been ably advocated by H. J. Hansen (1893). It is admitted
on all hands that the Hexapoda are akin to the Chilopoda.
Verhoeff has lately (1904) put forward the view that there are
really six segments in the hexapodan thorax and twenty in the
abdomen the cerci belonging to the seventeenth abdominal
segment thus showing a close agreement with the centipede
Scolopendra. On the other hand, G. H. Carpenter (1899, 1902-
1904) has lately endeavoured to show an exact numerical
correspondence in segmentation between the Hexapoda, the
Crustacea, the Arachnida, and the most primitive of the Diplopoda.
On either view it may be believed that the Hexapoda arose with
the allied classes from a primitive arthropod stock, while the
relationships of the class are with the Crustacea, the Chilopoda
and the Diplopoda, rather than with the Arachnida.
Nature of Primitive Hexapoda. Two divergent views have
been held as to the nature of the original hexapod stock. Some
of those zoologists who look to Peripatus, or a similar worm-like
form, as representing the direct ancestors of the Hexapoda have
laid stress on a larva like the caterpillar of a moth or saw-fly as
representing a primitive stage. On the other hand, the view of
F. Miiller and F. Brauer, that the Thysanura represent more
nearly than any other existing insects the ancestors of the class,
has been accepted by the great majority of students. And there
can be little doubt that this belief is justified. The caterpillar,
or the maggot, is a specialized larval form characteristic of the
most highly developed orders, while the campodeiform larva is
the starting-point for the more primitive insects. The occurrence
in the hypermetamorphic Coleoptera (see supra) of a campodei-
form preceding an cruciform stage in the life-history is most
suggestive. Taken in connexion with the likeness of the young
among the more generalized orders to the adults, it indicates
clearly a thysanuroid starting-point for the evolution of the
hexapod orders. And we must infer further that the specializa-
tion of the higher orders has been accompanied by an increase in
RELATIONSHIPS]
HEXAPODA
433
the extent of the metamorphosis a very exceptional condition
among animals generally, as has been ably pointed out by
L. C. Miall (1895).
Origin of Wings. The post-embryonic growth of Hexapods
with or without metamorphosis is accompanied in most cases by
the acquisition of wings. These organs, thus acquired during the
lifetime of the individual, must have been in some way acquired
during the evolution of the class. Many students of the group,
following Brauer, have regarded the Apterygota as representing
the original wingless progenitors of the Pterygota, and the many
primitive characters shown by the former group lend support to
this view. On the other hand, it has been argued that, the
presence of wings in a vast majority of the Hexapoda suggests
their presence in the ancestors of the whole class. It is most
unlikely that wings have been acquired independently by various
orders of Hexapoda, and if we regard the Thysanura as the
slightly modified representatives of a primitively wingless stock,
we must postulate the acquisition of wings by some early offshoot
of that stock, an offshoot whence the whole group of the Pterygota
took its rise. How wings were acquired by these primitive
Pterygota must remain for the present a subject for speculation.
Insect wings are specialized outgrowths of certain thoracic
segments, and are quite unrepresented in any other class of
Arthropods. They are not, therefore, like the wings of birds,
modified from some pre-existing structures (the fore-limbs)
common to their phylum; they are new and peculiar structures.
Comparison of the tracheated wings with the paired tracheated
outgrowths on the abdominal segments of the aquatic campodei-
form larva of may-flies (see fig. 27) led C. Gegenbaur to the
brilliant suggestion that wings might be regarded as specialized
and transformed gills. But a survey of the Hexapoda as a
whole, and especially a comparative study of the tracheal system,
can hardly leave room for doubt that this system is primitively
adapted for atmospheric breathing, and that the presence of
tracheal gills in larvae must be regarded as a special adaptation
for temporary aquatic life. The origin of insect wings remains,
therefore, a mystery, deepened by the difficulty of imagining any
probable use for thoracic outgrowths, comparable to the wing-
rudiments of the Exopterygota, in the early stages of their
evolution.
Origin of Metamorphosis. In connexion with the question
whether metamorphosis has been gradually acquired, we have to
consider two aspects, viz. the bionomic nature of metamorphosis,
and to what extent it existed in primitive insects. Bionomically,
metamorphosis may be defined as the sum of adaptations that
have gradually fitted the larva (caterpillar or maggot) for one
kind of life, the fly for another. So that we may conclude that
the factors of evolution would favour its development. With
regard to its occurrence in primitive insects, our knowledge of the
geological record is most imperfect, but so far as it goes it supports
the conclusion that holometabolism (i.e. extreme metamorphosis)
is a comparatively recent phenomenon of insect life. None of
the groups of existing Endopterygota have been traced with
certainty farther back than the Mesozoic epoch, and all the
numerous Palaeozoic insect-fossils seem to belong to forms that
possessed only imperfect metamorphosis. The only doubt arises
from the existence of insect remains, referred to the order
Coleoptera, in the Silesian Culm of Steinkunzendorf near
Reichenbach. The oldest larva known, Mormolucoides arli-
culatus, is from the New Red Sandstone of Connecticut; it
belongs to the Sialidae, one of the lowest forms of Holometabola.
It is now, in fact, generally admitted that metamorphosis has
been acquired comparatively recently, and Scudder in his
review of the earliest fossil insects states that " their meta-
morphoses were simple and incomplete, the young leaving the
egg with the form of the parent, but without wings, the assump-
tion of which required no quiescent stage before maturity."
It has been previously remarked that the phenomena of
holometabolism are connected with the development of wings
inside the body (except in the case of the fleas, where there
are no wings in the perfect insect). Of existing insects 90%
belong to the Endopterygota. At the same time we have no
evidence that any Endopterygota existed amongst Palaeozoic
insects, so that the phenomena of endopterygotism are compara-
tively recent, and we are led to infer that the Endopterygota owe
their origin to the older Exopterygota. In Endopterygota the
wings commence their development as invaginations of the
hypodermis, while in Exopterygota the wings begin and always
remain as external folds or evaginations. The two modes
of growth are directly opposed, and at first sight it appears that
this fact negatives the view that Endopterygota have been
derived from Exopterygota.
Only three hypotheses as to the origin of Endopterygota
can be suggested as possible, viz.: (i) That some of the Palaeo-
zoic insects, though we infer them to have been exopterygotous,
were really endopterygotous, and were the actual ancestors
of the existing Endopterygota; (2) that Endopterygota are
not descended from Exopterygota, but were derived directly
from ancestors that were never winged; (3) that the predominant
division i.e. Endopterygota of insects of the present epoch
are descended from the predominant if not the sole group
that existed in the Palaeozoic epoch, viz. the Exopterygota.
The first hypothesis is not negatived by direct evidence, for
we do not actually know the ontogeny of any of the Palaeozoic
insects; it is, however, rendered highly improbable by the
modern views as to the nature and origin of wings in insects,
and by the fact that the Endopterygota include none of the
lower existing forms of insects. The second hypothesis to
the effect that Endopterygota are the descendants of apterous
insects that had never possessed wings (i.e. the Apterygogenea
of Brauer and others, though we prefer the shorter term Aptery-
gota) is rendered improbable from the fact that existing
Apterygota are related to Exopterygota, not to Endopterygota,
and by the knowledge that has been gained as to the morphology
and development of wings, which suggest that if we may so
phrase it were an apterygotous insect gradually to develop
wings, it would be on the exopterygotous system. From all
points of view it appears, therefore, probable that Endopterygota
are descended from Exopterygota, and we are brought to the
question as to the way in which this has occurred.
It is almost impossible to believe that any species of insect
that has for a long period developed the wings outside the body
could change this mode of growth suddenly for an internal
mode of development of the organs in question, for, as we have
already explained, the two modes of growth are directly opposed.
The explanation has to be sought in another direction. Now
there are many forms of Exopterygota in which the creatures
are almost or quite destitute of wings. This phenomenon
occurs among species found at high elevations, among others
found in arid or desert regions, and in some cases in the female
sex only, the male being winged and the female wingless. This
last state is very frequent in Blallidae, which were amongst
the most abundant of Palaeozoic insects. The wingless forms
in question are always allied to winged forms, and there is every
reason to believe that they have been really derived from
winged forms. There are also insects (fleas, &c.) in which
metamorphosis of a " complete " character exists, though the
insects never develop wings. These cases render it highly
probable that insects may in some circumstances become wing-
less, though their ancestors were winged. Such insects have been
styled anapterygotous. In these facts we have one possible
clue to the change from -exopterygotism to endopterygotism,
namely, by an intermediate period of anapterygotism.
Although we cannot yet define the conditions under which
exopterygotous wings are suppressed or unusually developed,
yet we know that such fluctuations occur. There are, in fact,
existing forms of Exopterygota that are usually wingless, and
that nevertheless appear in certain seasons or localities with
wings. We are therefore entitled to assume that the suppressed
wings of Exopterygota tend to reappear; and, speaking of the
past, we may say that if after a period of suppression the wings
began to reappear as hypodermal buds while a more rigid pressure
was exerted by the cuticle, the growth of the buds would neces-
sarily be inwards, and we should have incipient endopterygotism.
434
HEXAPODA
[RELATIONSHIPS
The change that is required to transform Exopterygota into
Endopterygota is merely that a cell of hypodeimis should
proliferate inwards instead of outwards, or that a minute hypo-
dermal evaginated bud should be forced to the interior of the
body by the pressure of a contracted cuticle.
If it should be objected that the wings so developed would
be rudimentary, and that there would be nothing to encourage
their development into perfect functional organs, we may
remind the reader that we have already pointed out that im-
perfect wings of Exopterygota do, even at the present time under
certain conditions, become perfect organs; and we may also
add that there are, even among existing Endopterygota, species
in which the wings are usually vestiges and yet sometimes
become perfectly developed. In fact, almost every condition
that is required for the change from exopterygotism to endo-
pterygotism exists among the insects that surround us.
But it may perhaps be considered improbable that organs
like the wings, having once been lost, should have been re-
acquired on the large scale suggested by the theory just put
forward. If so, there is an alternative method by which the
endopterygotous may have arisen from the exopterygotous
condition. The sub-imago of the Ephemeroptera suggests that
a moult, after the wings had become functional, was at one time
general among the Hexapoda, and that the resting nymph of
the Thysanoptera or the pupa of the Endopterygota represents
a formerly active stage in the life-history. Further, although
the wing-rudiments appear externally in an early instar of an
exopterygotous insect, the earliest instars are wingless and
wing-rudiments have been previously developing beneath
the cuticle, growing however outwards, not inwards as in the
larva of an endopterygote. The change from an exopterygote
to an endopterygote development could, therefore, be brought
about by the gradual postponement to a later and later instar
of the appearance of the wing-rudiments outside the body,
and their correlated growth inwards as imaginal disks. For
in the post-embryonic development of the ancestors of the
Endopterygota we may imagine two or three instars with
wing-rudiments to have existed, the last represented by the
sub-imago of the may-flies. As the life-conditions and feeding-
habits of the larva and imago become constantly more divergent,
the appearance of the wing-rudiments would be postponed to
the pre-imaginal instar, and that instar would become pre-
dominantly passive.
Relationships of the Orders. Reasons have been given for
regarding the Thysanura as representing, more nearly than
any other living group, the primitive stock of the Hexapoda.
It is believed that insects of this group are represented among
Silurian fossils. We may conclude, therefore, that they were pre-
ceded, in Cambrian times or earlier, by Arthropods possessing well
developed appendages on all the trunk-segments. Of such Arthro-
pods the living Symphyla of which the delicate little Scutigerella
is a fairly well-known example give us some representation.
No indications beyond those furnished by comparative
anatomy help us to unravel the phylogeny of the Collembola.
In most respects, the shortened abdomen, for example, they
are more specialized than the Thysanura, and most of the
features in which they appear to be simple, such as the absence
of a tracheal system and of compound eyes, can be explained
as the result of degradation. In their insunken mouth and their
jaws retracted within the head-capsule, the Collembola resemble
the entotrophous division of the Thysanura (see APTERA), from
which they are probably descended.
From the thysanuroid stock of the Apterygota, the Exoptery-
gota took their rise. We have undoubted fossil evidence that
winged insects lived in the Devonian and became numerous
in the Carboniferous period. These ancient Exopterygota
were synthetic in type, and included insects that may, with
probability, be regarded as ancestral to most of the existing
orders. It is hard to arrange the Exopterygota in a linear
series, for some of the orders that are remarkably primitive
in some respects are rather highly specialized in others. As
regards wing-structure, the Isoptera with the two pairs closely
similar are the most primitive of all winged insects; while
in the paired mesodermal genital ducts, the elongate cerci and
the conspicuous maxillulae of their larvae the Ephemeroptera
retain notable ancestral characters. But the vestigial jaws,
numerous Malpighian tubes, and specialized wings of may-flies
forbid us to consider the order as on the whole primitive. So
the Dermaptera, which retain distinct maxillulae and have no
ectodermal genital ducts, have either specialized or aborted
wings and a large number of Malpighian tubes. The Corrodentia
retain vestigial maxillulae and two pairs of Malpighian tubes,
but the wings are somewhat specialized in the Copeognatha and
absent in the degraded and parasitic Mallophaga. The Pleco-
ptera and Orthoptera agree in their numerous Malpighian tubes
and in the development of a folding anal area in the hind-wing.
As shown by the number and variety of species, the Orthoptera
are the most dominant order of this group. Eminently terres-
trial in habit, the differentiation of their fore-wings and hind-
wings can be traced from Carboniferous, isopteroid ancestors
through intermediate Mesozoic forms. The Plecoptera resemble
the Ephemeroptera and Odonata in the aquatic habits of their
larvae, and by the occasional presence of tufted thoracic gills
in the imago exhibit an aquatic character unknown in any other
winged insects. The Odonata are in many imaginal and larval
characters highly specialized; yet they probably arose with the
Ephemeroptera as a divergent offshoot of the same primitive
isopteroid stock which developed more directly into the living
Isoptera, Plecoptera, Dermaptera and Orthoptera.
All these orders agree in the possession of biting mandibles,
while their second maxillae have the inner and outer lobes
usually distinct. The Hemiptera, with their piercing mandibles
and first maxillae and with their second maxillae fused to form
a jointed beak, stand far apart from them. This order can be
traced with certainty back to the early Jurassic epoch, while
the Permian fossil Eugereon, and the living order specially
modified in many respects of the Thysanoptera indicate steps
by which the aberrant suctorial and piercing mouth of the Hemi-
ptera may have been developed from the biting mouth of primitive
Isopteroids, by the elongation of some parts and the suppression
of others. The Anoplura may probably be regarded as a degraded
offshoot of the Hemiptera.
The importance of great cardinal features of the life-history
as indicative of relationship leads us to consider the Endoptery-
gota as a natural assemblage of orders. The occurrence of
weevils among the most specialized of the Coleoptera in
Triassic rocks shows us that this great order of metabolous
insects had become differentiated into its leading families at
the dawn of the Mesozoic era, and that we must go far back
into the Palaeozoic for the origin of the Endopterygota. In
this view we are confirmed by the impossibility of deriving the
Endopterygota from any living order of Exopterygota. We
conclude, therefore, that the primitive stock of the former sub-
class became early differentiated from that of the latter. So
widely have most of the higher orders of the Hexapoda now
diverged from each other, that it is exceedingly difficult in most
cases to trace their relationships with any confidence. The
Neuroptera, with their similar fore- and hind-wings and their
campodeiform larvae, seem to stand nearest to the presumed
isopteroid ancestry, but the imago and larva are often specialized.
The campodeiform larvae of many Coleoptera are indeed far
more primitive than the neuropteran larvae, and suggest to us
that the Coleoptera modified as their wing-structure has
become arose very early from the primitive metabolous
stock. The antiquity of the Coleoptera is further shown by
the great diversity of larval form and habit that has arisen in
the order, and the proof afforded by the hypermetamorphic
beetles that the campodeiform preceded the cruciform larva
has already been emphasized.
In all the remaining orders of the Endopterygota the larva
is eruciform or vermiform. The Mecaptera, with their pre-
dominantly longitudinal wing-nervuration, serve as a link
between the Neuroptera and the Trichoptera, their retention
of small cerci being an archaic character which stamps them as
RELATIONSHIPS]
HEXAPODA
435
synthetic in type, but does not necessarily remove them from
orders which agree with them in most points of structure but
which have lost the cerci. The standing of the Trichoptera in
a position almost ancestral to the Lepidoptera is one of the
assured results of recent morphological study, the mobile mandi-
bulate pupa and the imperfectly suctorial maxillae of the
Trichoptera reappearing in the lowest families of the Lepi-
doptera. This latter order, which is not certainly known to
have existed before Tertiary times, has become the most highly
specialized of all insects in the structure of the pupa. Diptera
of the sub-order Orthorrhapha occur in the Lias and Cyclor-
rhapha in the Kimmeridgian. The order must therefore be
ancient, and as no evidence is forthcoming as to the mode of
reduction of the hind-wings, nor as to the stages by which the
suctorial mouth-organs became specialized, it is difficult to trace
the exact relationship of the group, but the presence of cerci
and a degree of correspondence in the nervuration of the fore-
wings suggest the Mecaptera as possible allies. There seems
no doubt that the suctorial mouth-organs of the Diptera have
arisen quite independently from those of the Lepidoptera,
for in the former order the sucker is formed from the second
maxillae, in the latter from the first. The cruciform larva of
the Orthorrhapha leads on to the headless vermiform maggot
of the Cyclorrhapha, and in the latter sub-order we find meta-
morphosis carried to its extreme point, the muscid flies being
the most highly specialized of all the Hexapoda as regards
structure, while their maggots are the most degraded of all
insect larvae. The Siphonaptera appear by the form of the
larva and the nature of the metamorphosis to be akin to the
Orthorrhapha in which division they have indeed been included
by many students. They differ from the Diptera, however,
in the general presence of palps to both pairs of maxillae, and
in the absence of a hypopharynx, so it is possible that their
relationship to the Diptera is less close than has been supposed.
The affinities of the Hymenoptera afford another problem of
much difficulty. They differ from other Endopterygota in the
multiplication of their Malpighian tubes, and from all other
Hexapoda in the union of the first abdominal segment with
the thorax. Specialized as they are in form, development
and habit, they retain mandibles for biting, and in their lower
sub-order the Symphyta the maxillae are hardly more
modified than those of the Orthoptera. From the evidence of
fossils it seems that the higher sub-order Apocrita can be
traced back to the Lias, so that we believe the Hymenoptera
to be more ancient than the Diptera, and far more ancient
than the Lepidoptera. They afford an example paralleled
in other classes of the animal kingdom of an order which,
though specialized in some respects, retains many primitive
characters, and has won its way to dominance rather by per-
fection of behaviour, and specially by the development of family
life and helpful socialism, than by excessive elaboration of
structure. We would trace the Hymenoptera back therefore
to the primitive endopterygote stock. The specialization of
form in the constricted abdomen and in the suctorial " tongue "
that characterizes the higher families of the order is correlated
with the habit of careful egg-laying and provision of food for
the young. In some way it is assured among the highest of the
Hexapoda the Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera that
the larva finds itself amid a rich food-supply. And thus per-
fection of structure and instinct in the imago has been accom-
panied by degradation in the larva, and by an increase in the
extent of transformation and in the degree of reconstruction
before and during the pupal stage. The fascinating difficulties
presented to the student by the metamorphosis of the Hexapoda
are to some extent explained, as he ponders over the evolution
of the class.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. References to the older classical writings on the
Hexapoda are given in the article on Entomology. At present about
a thousand works and papers are published annually, and in this
place it is possible to enumerate only a few of the most important
among (mostly) recent memoirs that bear upon the Hexapoda
generally. Further references will be found appended to the special
articles on the orders (APTERA, COLEOPTERA, &c).
General Works. A. S. Packard, Text-book of Entomology (London,
1898); V. Graber, Die Insekten (Munich, 1877-1879); D. Sharp,
Cambridge Natural History, vols. v., vi. (London, 1895-1899); L. C.
Miall and A. Denny, Structure and Life-history of the Cockroach
(London, 1886); B. T. Lowne, The Anatomy, Physiology, Morpho-
logy and Development of the Blow-fly (2 vols., London, 1890-1895);
G. H. Carpenter, Insects: their Structure and Life (London, 1899) ;
L. F. Henneguy, Les Insectes (Paris, 1904) ; J. W. Folsom, Entomology
(New York and London, 1906) ; A. Berlese, Gli Insetti (Milan, 1906),
&c. (Extensive bibliographies will be found in several of the
above.)
Head and Appendages. I. C. Savigny, Memoires sur les animaux
sans vertebres (Paris, 1816); C. Janet, Essai sur la constitution
morphologique de la tete de I'insecte (Paris, 1899) ; J. H. Comstock and
C. Kochi (American Naturalist, xxxvi., 1902); V. L. Kellogg (ibid,);
W. A. Riley (American Naturalist, xxxviii., 1904); F. Meinert
(Entom. Tidsskr. i., 1880); H. J. Hansen (Zool. Anz. xvi., 1893);
J. B. Smith (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. xix., ^896) ; H. Holmgren
(Zeitsch. wiss. Zoolog. Ixxvi., 1904); K. W. Verhoeff (Abhandl. K.
Leop.-Carol. Akad. Ixxxiv., 1905).
Thorax, Legs and Wings. K. W. Verhoeff (Abliandl. K. Leop.-
Carol. Akad. Ixxxii., 1903); F. Voss (Zeits. wiss. Zool. Ixxviii.,
1905); F. Dahl (Arch. f. Naturgesch. I, 1884); J. Demoor (Arch,
de biol. x., 1890); J. Redtenbacher (Ann. Kais. naturhist. Museum,
Wien, i., 1886); R. von Lendenfeld (S. B. Akad. Wissens., Wien,
Ixxxiii., 1881); J. H. Comstock and j. G. Needham (Amer. Nat.,
xxxii., xxxiii., 1898-1899); C. W. Wood worth (Univ. California
Entom. Bull, i., 1906).
Abdomen and Appendages. E. Haase (Morph. Jahrb. xv.,
1889); R. Heymons (Morph. Jahrb. xxiv., 1896; Abhandl. K.
Leop.-Carol. Akad. Ixxiv., 1899); K. W. Verhoeff (Zool. Anz. xix.,
xx., 1896-^897) ; S. A. Peytoureau, Contribution d I'etude de la
morphologie de I'armure genitale des insectes (Bordeaux, 1895); H.
Dewitz (Zeits. wiss. Zool. xxv., xxviii., 1874, '77)i E. Zander (ibid.
Ixvi., Ixvii., 1899-1900).
Nervous System. H. Viallanes (Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. [6], xvii.,
xviii., xix., [7] ii., iv., 1884-1887); S. J. Hickson (Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sci. xxv., 1885); W. Patten (Journ. Morph. i., ii., 1887-1888);
F. Plateau (Mem. Acad. Belg. xliii., 1888); V. Graber (Arch. mikr.
Anat. xx., xxi., 1882).
Respiratory System. J. A. Palmdn, Zur Morphologie des
Tracheensystems (Leipzig, 1877); F. Plateau (Mem. Acad. Belg.
xiv., 1884) ; L. C. Miall, Natural History of Aquatic Insects (London,
1895).
Digestive System, &c. L. Dufour (Ann. Sci. Nat., 1824-1860) ;
V. Faussek (Zeits. wiss. Zool. xlv., 1887).
Malpighian Tubes. E. Schindler (Zeits. wiss. Zool. xxx., 1878) ;
W. M. Wheeler (Psyche vi., 1893); L. Cu6not (Arch, de biol. xiv.,
1895).
Reproductive Organs. H. V. Wielowiejski (Zool. Anz. ix., 1886);
J. A. Palmen, Uber_ paarige Ausfuhrungsgdnge der Geschlechtsorgane
bei Insekten (Hclsingfors, 1884); H. Henking (Zeits. wiss. Zool.
xlix., Ii., liv., 1890-1892); F. Leydig (Zool. Jahrb. Anat. iii , 1889).
Embryology. F. Blochmann (Morph. Jahrb. xii., 1887); A.
Kovalevsky (Mem. Acad. St-Petersbourg, xvi., 1871; Zeits. wiss.
Zool. xlv., 1887); V. Graber (Denksch. Akad. Wissens., Wien, Ivi.,
1889); K. Heider, Die Embryonalentwicklung von Hydrophilus
piceus (Jena, 1889); W. M. Wheeler (Journ. Morph. iii., viii., 1889-
1893) ; E. Korschelt and K. Heider, Handbook of the Comparative
Embryology of Invertebrates (trans. M. Bernard), (vol. iii., London,
1899) ; R. Heymons, Die Embryonalentwicklung von Dermapteren.
und Orthopteren (Jena, 1895) (also Zeits. wiss. Zool. liii., 1891, Ixii.,
1897; Anhang zu den Abhandl. K. Akad. d. Wissens., Berlin, 1896);
A. L6caillon (Arch, d'anat. micr. ii., 1898); J. Carridre and O.
Burger (Abhandl. K. Leop.-Carol. Akad. Ixix., 1897); K. Escherich
(ibid. Ixxvii., 1901); F. Schwangart (Zeits. wiss. Zool. Ixxvi.,
1904); R. Ritter (ib. Ii., 1890); E. Metchnikoff (ib. xvi., 1866);
H. Uzel (Zool. Anz. xx., 1897); J. W. Folsom (Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool. Harvard., xxxvi., 1900).
Parthenogenesis and Paedogenesis. T. H. Huxley (Trans. Linn.
Soc. xxii., 1858); R. Leuckart, Zur Kenntnis des Generations-
wechsels und der Parthogenesis bei den Insekten (Frankfurt, 1858);
N. Wagner (Zeits. wiss. Zool. xv., 1865); L. F. Henneguy (Bull. Soc.
Philomath. [9], i. 1899); A. Petrunkevich (Zool. Jahrb. Anat. xiv.,
xvii., 1901-1903); P. Marchal (Arch. zoo/, exp. et gen. [4], ii., 1904);
L. Doncaster (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlix., Ii., 19061907).
Growth and Metamorphosis. A. Weismann (Zeits. wiss. Zool. xiii.,
xiv., 1863-1864); F. Brauer (Verh. zool.-bot. Gesellsch., Wien, xix.,
1869); Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury); Origin and Metamorphosis
of Insects (London, 1874); L. C. Miall (Nature, liii., 1895); L. C.
Miall and A. R. Hammond, Structure and Life-history of the Harlequin-
fly (Oxford, 1900); J. Gonin (Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. xxx., 1894);
C. de Bruyne (Arch:de biol. xv.( 1898); D. Sharp (Proc. Inter. Zool.
Congress, 1898); E. B. Poulton (Trans. Linn. Soc. v., 1891); T. A.
Chapman (Trans. Ent. Soc., 1893).
Classification. F. Brauer (S. B. Akad. Wiss., Wien, xci., 1885) ; A.
S. Packard (Amer. Nat. xx. ; 1886); C. Borner, A. Handlirsch, F.
Klapalek (Zool. Anz. xxvii., 1904); G. Enderlein (Zool. Anz.
xxvi., 1903).
Palaeontology. S. H. Scudder, in Zittel's Palaeontology (French
43 6
HEXASTYLE HEYDEN
trans., vol. ii., Paris, 1887, and Eng. trans., vol. i., London, 1900);
C. Brongniart, Insectes fossiles des temps primaires (St-Etienne, 1894) ;
A. Handlirsch, Die fossilen Insekten und die Phylogenie der rezenten
Formen (Leipzig, 1906).
Phylogeny. Brauer, Lubbock, Sharp, Borner, &c. (opp. cit.) ;
P. Mayer (Jena, Zeils. Nalurw. \., 1876); B. Grassi (Atti R. Accad.
dei Lined, Roma [4], iv., 1888, and Archiv ital. biol. xi., 1889);
F. Miiller, Facts and Arguments for Darwin (trans. W. S. Dallas,
London, 1869); N. Zograf (Congr. Zool. Int., 1892); E. R. Lankester
(Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlvii., 1904) ; G. H. Carpenter (Proc. R.
Irish Acad. xxiv., 1903; Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlix., 1905).
(D.S.*;G.H.C.)
HEXASTYLE (Gr. e, six, and arDXos, column), an archi-
tectural term given to a temple in the portico of which there
are six columns in front.
HEXATEUCH, the name given to the first six books of the
Old Testament (the Pentateuch and Joshua), to mark the fact
that these form one literary whole, describing the early traditional
history of the Israelites from the creation of the world to the
conquest of Palestine and the origin of their national institu-
tions. These books are the result of an intricate literary process,
on which see BIBLE (Old Testament: Canon), and the articles
on the separate books (GENESIS, EXODUS, LEVITICUS, NUMBERS,
DEUTERONOMY and JOSHUA).
HEXHAM, a market town in the Hexham parliamentary
division of Northumberland, England, 21 m. W. from Newcastle
by the Carlisle branch of the North-Eastern railway, served also
from Scotland by a branch of the North British railway. Pop.
of urban district (1901) 7107. It is pleasantly situated beneath
the hills on the S. bank of the Tyne, and its market square and
narrow streets bear many marks of antiquity. It is famous for
its great abbey church of St Andrew. This building, as renovated
in the i2th century, was to consist of nave and transepts, choir
and aisles, and massive central tower. The Scots are believed to
have destroyed the nave in 1296, but it may be doubted if it was
ever completed. In 1536 the last prior was hanged for being
concerned in the insurrection called the Pilgrimage of Grace.
The church as it stands is a fine monument of Early English
work, with Transitional details. Within, although it suffered
much loss during a restoration c. 1858, there are several objects of
interest. Among these are a Roman slab, carved with figures of
a horseman trampling upon an enemy, several fine tombs and
stones of the I3th and I4th centuries, the frith or fridstool of
stone, believed to be the original bishop's throne, and the fine
Perpendicular roodscreen of oak, retaining its loft. The crypt,
discovered in 1726, is part of the Saxon church, and a note-
worthy example of architecture of the period. Its material is
Roman, some of the stones having Roman inscriptions. These
were brought from the Roman settlement at Corbridge, 4 m. E. of
Hexham on the N. bank of the Tyne; for Hexham itself was not
a Roman station. In 1832 a vessel containing about 8000 Saxon
coins was discovered in the churchyard. Fragments of the
monastic buildings remain, and west of the churchyard is the
monks' park, known as the Seal, and now a promenade, command-
ing beautiful views. In the town are two strong castellated
towers of the I4th century, known as the Moot Hall and the
Manor Office. Their names explain their use, but they were
doubtless also intended as defensive works. In the interesting
and beautiful neighbourhood of Hexham there should be noticed
Aydon castle near Corbridge, a fortified house of the late i3th
century; and Dilston or Dyvilston, a typical border fortress
dating from Norman times, of which only a tower and small
chapel remain. It is replete with memories of the last earl of
Derwentwater, who was beheaded in 1716 for his part in the
Stuart rising of the previous year, and was buried in the chapel.
There is an Elizabethan grammar school. Hexham and Newcastle
form a Roman Catholic bishopric, with the cathedral at New-
castle. There are manufactures of leather gloves and other goods,
and in the neighbourhood barytes and coal mines and extensive
market gardens.
The church and monastery at Hexham (Hextoldesham) were
founded about 673 by Wilfrid, archbishop of York, who is said to
have received a grant of the whole of Hexhamshire from ^thel-
hryth, queen of Northumbria, and a grant of sanctuary in his
church from the king. The church in 678 became the head of the
new see of Bernicia, which was united to that of Lindisfarne
about 821, when the bishop of Lindisfarne appears to have taken
possession of the lordship which he and his successors held until
it was restored to the archbishop of York by Henry II. The
archbishops appear to have had almost royal power throughout
the liberty, including the rights of trying all pleas of the crown
in their court, of taking inquisitions and of taxation. In 1 545 the
archbishop exchanged Hexhamshire with the king for other
property, and in 1572 all the separate privileges which had
belonged to him were taken away, and the liberty was annexed
to the county of Northumberland. Hexham was a borough by
prescription, and governed by a bailiff at least as early as 1276,
and the same form of government continued until 1853. In 1343
the men of Hexham were accused of pretending to be Scots and
imprisoning many people of Northumberland and Cumberland,
killing some and extorting ransoms for others. The Lancastrians
were defeated in 1464 near Hexham, and legend says that it was
in the woods round the town that Queen Margaret and her son
hid until their escape to Flanders. In 1522 the bishop of Carlisle
complained to Cardinal Wolsey, then archbishop of York, that
the English thieves committed more thefts than " all the Scots of
Scotland," the men of Hexham being worst of all, and appearing
100 strong at the markets held in Hexham, so that the men whom
they had robbed dared not complain or " say one word to them."
This state of affairs appears to have continued until the accession
of James I., and in 1595 the bailiff and constables of Hexham
were removed as being " infected with combination and toleration
of thieves." Hexham was at one time the market town of a large
agricultural district. In 1227 a market on Monday and a fair on
the vigil and day of St Luke the Evangelist were granted to the
archbishop, and in 1320 Archbishop Melton obtained the right of
holding two new fairs on the feasts of St James the Apostle
lasting five days and of SS. Simon and Jude lasting six days. The
market day was altered to Tuesday in 1662, and Sir William
Fenwick, then lord of the manor, received a grant of a cattle
market on the Tuesday after the feast of St Cuthbert in March
and every Tuesday fortnight until the feast of St Martin. The
market rights were purchased from Wentworth B. Beaumont,
lord of the manor, in 1886. During the i7th and i8th centuries
Hexham was noted for the leather trade, especially for the
manufacture of gloves, but in the igth century the trade began
to decline. Coal mines which had belonged to the archbishop,
were sold to Sir John Fenwick, Kt., in 1628. Hexham has never
been represented in parliament, but gives its name to one of the
four parliamentary divisions of the county.
See Edward Bateson and A. B. Hinds, A History of Northumberland
vol. iii. (1893-1896); A. B. Wright, An Essay towards the History of
Hexham (1823); James Hewitt, A Handbook to Hexham and its
Antiquities (1879).
HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER (1637-1712), Dutch painter, was
born at Gorcum in 1637, and died at Amsterdam on the i2th of
September 1712. He was an architectural landscape painter, a con-
temporary of Hobbema and Jacob Ruysdael, with the advantage,
which they lacked, of a certain professional versatility; for,
whilst they painted admirable pictures and starved, he varied the
practice of art with the study of mechanics, improved the fire
engine, and died superintendent of the lighting and director of the
firemen's company at Amsterdam. Till 167 2 he painted in partner-
ship with Adrian van der Velde. After Adrian's death, and
probably because of the loss which that event entailed upon him,
he accepted the offices to which allusion has just been made. At
no period of artistic activity had the system of division of labour
been more fully or more constantly applied to art than it was in
Holland towards the close of the I7th century. Van der Heyden,
who was perfect as an architectural draughtsman in so far as he
painted the outside of buildings and thoroughly mastered linear
perspective, seldom turned his hand to the delineation of any-
thing but brick houses and churches in streets and squares, or
rows along canals, or " moated granges," common in his native
country. He was a travelled man, had seen The Hague, Ghent
and Brussels, and had ascended the Rhine past Xanten to
HEYLYN HEYN
437
Cologne, where he copied over and over again the tower and
crane of the great cathedral. But he cared nothing for hill or
vale, or stream or wood. He could reproduce the rows of bricks
in a square of Dutch houses sparkling in the sun, or stunted trees
and lines of dwellings varied by steeples, all in light or thrown
into passing shadow by moving cloud. He had the art of
painting microscopically without loss of breadth or keeping.
But he could draw neither man nor beast, nor ships nor carts;
and this was his disadvantage. His good genius under these
circumstances was Adrian van der Velde, who enlivened his
compositions with spirited figures; and the joint labour of both
is a delicate, minute, transparent work, radiant with glow and
atmosphere.
HEYLYN (or HEYLIN), PETER (1600-1662), English historian
and controversialist, was born at Burford in Oxfordshire.
Having made great progress in his studies, he entered Hart
Hall, Oxford, in 1613, afterwards joining Magdalen College;
and in 1618 he began to lecture on cosmography, being made
fellow of Magdalen in the same year. His lectures, under the
title of MtKp6*oo>os, were published in 1621, and many editions
of this useful book, each somewhat enlarged, subsequently
appeared. Having been ordained in 1624 Heylyn attracted
the notice of William Laud, then bishop of Bath and Wells;
and in 1628 he married Laetitia, daughter of Thomas Highgate,
or Heygate, of Hayes, Middlesex; but he appears to have
kept his marriage secret and did not resign his fellowship.
After serving as chaplain to Danby in the Channel Islands,
he became chaplain to Charles I. in 1630, and was appointed by
the king to the rectory of Hemingford, Huntingdonshire.
John Williams, bishop of Lincoln, however, refused to institute
Heylyn to this living, owing to his friendship with Laud; and
in return Charles appointed him a prebendary of Westminster,
where he made himself very objectionable to Williams, who
held the deanery in commendam. In 1633 he became rector
of Alresford, soon afterwards vicar of South Warnborough, and
he became treasurer of Westminster Abbey -in 163 7; but before
this date he was widely known as one of the most prominent
and able controversialists among the high-church party. Enter-
ing with great ardour into the religious controversies of the
time he disputed with John Prideaux, regius professor of divinity
at Oxford, replied to the arguments of Williams in his pamphlets,
" A Coal from the Altar " and " Antidotum Lincolnense," and
was hostile to the Puritan element both within and without
the Church of England. He assisted William Noy to prepare
the case against Prynne for the publication of his Histriomastix,
and made himself useful to the Royalist party in other ways.
However, when the Long Parliament met he was allowed to
retire to Alresford, where he remained until he was disturbed
by Sir William Waller's army in 1642, when he joined the
king at Oxford. At Oxford Heylyn edited Mercurius Aulicus,
a vivacious but virulent news-sheet, which greatly annoyed
the Parliamentarians; and consequently his house at Alresford
was plundered and his library dispersed. Subsequently he led
for some years a wandering life of poverty, afterwards settling
at Winchester and then at Minster Lovel in Oxfordshire; and
he refers to his hardships in his pamphlet " Extraneus Vapulans,"
the cleverest of his controversial writings, which was written
in answer to Hamon 1'Estrange. In 1653 he settled at Lacy's
Court, Abingdon, where he resided undisturbed by the govern-
ment of the Commonwealth, and where he wrote several books
and pamphlets, both against those of his own communion,
like Thomas Fuller, whose opinions were less unyielding than
his own, and against the Presbyterians and others, like Richard
Baxter.
His works, all of which are marred by political or theological
rancour, number over fifty. Among the most important
are: a legendary and learned History of St. George of Cappadocia,
written in 1631; Cyprianus Anglicus, or the history of the Life
and Death of William Laud, a defence of Laud and a valuable
authority for his life; Ecdesia restaurata, or the History of the
Reformation of the Church of England (1661; ed. J. C. Robertson,
Cambridge, 1849); Ecdesia vindicata, or the Church of England
justified; Aerius redivivus, or History of the Presbyterians;
and Help to English History, an edition of which, with additions
by P. Wright, was published in 1773. In 1636 he wrote a
History of the Sabbath, by order of Charles I. to answer the
Puritans; and in consequence of a journey through France in
1625 he wrote A Survey of France, a work, frequently reprinted,
which was termed by Southey " one of the liveliest books of
travel in its lighter parts, and one of the wisest and most replete
with information that was ever written by a young man." Some
verses of merit also came from his active pen, and his poetical
memorial of William of Waynflete was published by the Caxton
Society in 1851.
Heylyn was a diligent writer and investigator, a good ecclesi-
astical lawyer, and had always learning at his command. His
principles, to which he was honestly attached, were defended
with ability; but his efforts to uphold the church passed un-
recognized at the Restoration, probably owing to his physical
infirmities. His sight had been very bad for several years;
yet he rejoiced that his " bad old eyes " had seen the king's
return, and upon this event he preached before a large audience
in Westminster Abbey on the 29th of May 1661. He died on
the 8th of May 1662 and was buried in Westminster Abbey,
where he had been sub-dean for some years.
Lives of Heylyn were written by his son-in-law Dr John Barnard
or Bernard, and by George Vernon (1682). Bernard's work was
reprinted with Robertson's edition of Heylyn's History of the
Reformation in 1849.
HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON [commonly abbreviated
to PIET] (1578-1629), Dutch admiral, was born at Delfshaven
in 1578, the son of Pieter Hein, who was engaged in the herring
fishery. The son went early to sea. In his youth he was taken
prisoner by the Spaniards, and was forced to row in the galleys
during four years. Having recovered his freedom by an ex-
change of prisoners, he worked for several years as a merchant
skipper with success. The then dangerous state of the seas
at all times, and the continuous war with Spain, gave him
ample opportunity to gain a reputation as a resolute fighting
man. Wills which he made before 1623 show that he had
been able to acquire considerable property. When the Dutch
West India Company was formed he was Director on the Rotter-
dam Board, and in 1624 he served as second in command of
the fleet which took San Salvador in Bahia de Todos os Santos
in Brazil. Till 1628 he continued to serve the Company, both
on the coast of Brazil, and in the West Indies. In the month
of September of that year he made himself famous, gained
immense advantage for the Company, and inflicted ruinous
loss on the Spaniards, by the capture of the fleet which was
bringing the bullion from the American mines home to Spain.
The Spanish ships were outnumbered chiefly because the
convoy had become scattered by bad management and bad
seamanship. The more valuable part of it, consisting of the
four galleons, and eleven trading ships in which the king's
share of the treasure was being carried, became separated
from the rest, and on being chased by the superior force of
Heyn endeavoured to take refuge at Matanzas in the island
of Cuba, hoping to be able to land the bullion in the bush
before the Dutchman could come up with them. But Juan de
Benavides, the Spanish commander, failed to act with decision,
was overtaken, and his ships captured in the harbour before
the silver could be discharged. The total loss was estimated
by the Spaniards at four millions of ducats. Piet Heyn now
returned home, and bought himself a house at Delft with the
intention of retiring from the sea. In the following year, however,
he was chosen at a crisis to take command of the naval force of
the Republic, with the rank of Lieutenant-Admiral of Holland,
in order to clear the North Sea and Channel of the Dunkirkers,
who acted for the king of Spain in his possessions in the Nether-
lands. In June of 1629 he brought the Dunkirkers to action,
and they were severely beaten, but Piet Heyn did not live
to enjoy his victory. He was struck early in the battle by a
cannon shot on the shoulder and fell dead on the spot. His
memory has been preserved by his capture of the Treasure
438
HEYNE HEYWOOD, J.
Galleons, which had never been taken so far, but he is also
the traditional representative of the Dutch " sea dogs " of the
1 7th century.
See de Jonge, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen; I.
Duro, Armada espanola, iv. ; der Aa, Biograph. Woordenboek der
Nederlanden, (D. H.)
HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB (1720-1812), German classical
scholar and archaeologist, was born on the 2Sth of September
1729, at Chemnitz in Saxony. His father was a poor weaver,
and the expenses of his early education were paid by one of his
godfathers. In 1748 he entered the university of Leipzig,
where he was frequently in want of the necessaries of life. His
distress had almost amounted to despair, when he procured
the situation of tutor in the family of a French merchant in
Leipzig, which enabled him to continue his studies. After he
had completed his university course, he was for many years
in very straitened circumstances. An elegy written by him
in Latin on the death of a friend attracted the attention of
Count von Briihl, the prime minister, who expressed a desire
to see the author. Accordingly, in April 1752, Heyne journeyed
to Dresden, believing that his fortune was made. He was well
received, promised a secretaryship and a good salary, but nothing
came of it. Another period of want followed, and it was only
by persistent solicitation that Heyne was able to obtain the
post of under-clerk in the count's library, with a salary of some-
what less than twenty pounds sterling. He increased his scanty
pittance by translation; in addition to some French novels,
he rendered into German the Chaereas and Callirrhoe of Chariton,
the Greek romance writer. He published his first edition of
Tibullus in 1755, and in 1756 his Epictetus. In the latter year
the Seven Years' War broke out, and Heyne was once more
in a state of destitution. In 1757 he was offered a tutorship
in the household of Frau von Schonberg, where he met his future
wife. In January 1759 he accompanied his pupil to the univer-
sity of Wittenberg, from which he was driven in 1760 by the
Prussian cannon. The bombardment of Dresden (to which
city he had meanwhile returned) on the i8th of July 1760,
destroyed all his possessions, including an almost finished
edition of Lucian, based on a valuable codex of the Dresden
Library. In the summer of 1761, although still without any
fixed income, he married, and for some time he found it necessary
to devote himself to the duties of land-steward to the Baron
von Loben in Lusatia. At the end of 1762, however, he was
enabled to return to Dresden, where he was commissioned
by P. D. Lippert to prepare the Latin text of the third volume
of his Dactyliotheca (an account of a collection of gems). On
the death of Johann Matthias Gesner at Gottingen in 1761,
the vacant chair was refused first by Ernesti and then by Ruhn-
ken, who persuaded Miinchhausen, the Hanoverian minister
and principal curator of the university, to bestow it on Heyne
(1763). His emoluments were gradually augmented, and his
growing celebrity brought him most advantageous offers from
other German governments, which he persistently refused.
After a long and useful career, he died on the i4th of July
1812. Unlike Gottfried Hermann, Heyne regarded the study
of grammar and language only as the means to an end, not as
the chief object of philology. But, although not a critical
scholar, he was the first to attempt a scientific treatment of
Greek mythology, and he gave an undoubted impulse to philo-
logical studies.
Of Heyne's numerous writings, the following may be mentioned.
Editions, with copious commentaries, of Tibullus (ed. E. C. Wunder-
lich, 1817), Virgil (ed. G. P. Wagner, 1830-1841), Pindar (3rd ed.
by G. H. Schafer, 1817), Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Graeca (1803),
Homer, Iliad (1802); Opuscula academica (1785-1812), containing
more than a hundred academical dissertations, of which the most
valuable are those relating to the colonies of Greece and the anti-
quities of Etruscan art and history. His Antiquarische Aufsdtze
(1778-1779) is a valuable collection of essays connected with the
history of ancient art. His contributions to the Gottingische gelehrte
Anzeigen are said to have been between 7000 and 8000 in number.
See biography by A. H. Heeren (1813) which forms the basis of the
interesting essay by Carlyle (Misc. Essays, ii.) ; H. Sauppe, Gottinger
Professoren (1872); C. Bursian in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic,
xii. ; J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. iii. 36-44.
HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG (1830- ), German
novelist, dramatist and poet, was born at Berlin on the I5th
of March 1830, the son of the distinguished philologist Karl
Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (1797-1855). After attending the
Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Berlin, he went, in 1849, to
Bonn University as a student of the Romance languages, and in
1852 took his doctor's degree. He had already given proof
of great literary ability in the production in 1850 of Der Jung-
brunnen, Marchen eines fahrenden Schulers and of the tragedy
Francesca von Rimini, when after a year's stay in Italy, he was
summoned, early in 1854, by King Maximilian II. to Munich,
where he subsequently lived. Here he turned his attention to
novel-writing. He published at Munich in 1855 four short stories
in one volume, one of which, at least, L'Arrabbiata, was a master-
piece of its kind. These were the precursors of a series of similar
volumes, necessarily unequal at times, but on the whole con-
stituting such a mass of highly complex miniature fiction as
seldom before had proceeded from the pen of a single writer.
Heyse works in the spirit of a sculptor; he seizes upon some
picturesque incident or situation, and chisels and polishes until
all the effect which it is capable of producing has been extracted
from it. The success of the story usually depends upon the
theme, for the artist's skill is generally much the same, and the
situation usually leaves a deeper impression than the characters.
Heyse is also the author of several novels on a larger scale,
all of which have gained success and provoked abundant dis-
cussion. The more important are Kinder der Welt (1873),
Im Paradiese (1875) the one dealing with the religious and
social problems of its time, the other with artist-life in Munich
Der Roman der Stiftsdame (1888), and Merlin (1892), a novel
directed against the modern realistic movement of which Heyse
had been the leading opponent in Germany. He has also been
a prolific dramatist, but his plays are deficient in theatrical
qualities and are rarely seen on the stage. Among the best
of them are Die Sabinerinnen (1859); Hans Lange (1866),
Kolberg (1868), Die Weisheit Salomos (1886), and Maria von
Magdala (1903). There are masterly translations by him of
Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian poets (Italienische Dichter
seit der Mitte des iSten J ahrhunde.rt) (4 vols., 1889-1890).
Heyse's Gesammelte Werke appeared in 29 vols. (1897-1899);
there is also a popular edition of his Romane (8 vols., 1902-1904)
and Novellen (10 vols., 1904-1906). See his autobiography,
Jugenderinnerungen und Bekenntnisse (1901); also O. Kraus, Paul
Heyses Novellen und Romane (1888); E. Petzet, Paul Heyse als
Dramatiker (1904), and the essays by T. Ziegler (in Studien und
Studienkopfe, 1877), and G. Brandes (in Moderne Geisler, 1887).
HEYSHAM, a seaport in the Lancaster parliamentary division
of Lancashire, England, on the south shore of Morecambe Bay,
served by the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3381. Under
powers obtained from parliament in 1896, the Midland Railway
Company constructed, and opened in 1904, a harbour, enclosed
by breakwaters, for the development of traffic with Belfast
and other. Irish ports, a daily passenger-service of the first
class being established to Belfast. The harbour has a depth at
low tide of 17 ft., and extensive accommodation for live-stock
and goods of all kinds is provided. Heysham is in some favour
as a watering-place. The church of St Peter is mainly Norman,
and has fragments of even earlier date. Ruins of a very ancient
oratory stand near it. This was dedicated to St Patrick, and
is traditionally said to have been erected as a place of prayer
for those at sea.
HEYWOOD, JOHN (b. 1497), English dramatist and epigram-
matist, is generally said to have been a native of North Mimms,
near St Albans, Hertfordshire, though Bale says he was born in
London. A letter from a John Heywood, who may fairly be
identified with him, is dated from Malines in 1575, when he
called himself an old man of seventy-eight, which would fix his
birth in 1497. He was a chorister of the Chapel Royal, and is
said to have been educated at Broadgates Hall (Pembroke
College), Oxford. From 1521 onwards his name appears in the
king's accounts as the recipient of an annuity of ten marks as
player of the virginals, and in 1538 he received forty shillings for
HEYWOOD, T.
439
" playing an interlude with his children " before the Princess
Mary. He is said to have owed his introduction to her to Sir
Thomas More, at whose seat at Gobions near St Albans he wrote
his Epigrams, according to Henry Peacham. More took a keen
interest in the drama, and is represented by tradition as stepping
on to the stage and taking an impromptu part in the dialogue.
William Rastell, the printer of four of Heywood's plays, was the
son of More's brother-in-law, John Rastell, who organized
dramatic representations, and possibly wrote plays himself.
Mr A. W. Pollard sees in Heywood's firm adherence to Catholicism
and his free satire of legal and social abuses a reflection of the
ideas of More and his friends, which counts for much in his
dramatic development. His skill in music and his inexhaustible
wit made him a favourite both with Henry VIII. and Mary.
Under Edward VI. he was accused of denying the king's
supremacy over the church, and had to make a public recantation
in 1554; but with the accession of Mary his prospects brightened.
He made a Latin speech to her in St Paul's Churchyard at her
coronation, and wrote a poem to celebrate her marriage. Shortly
before her death she granted him the lease of a manor and lands
in Yorkshire. When Elizabeth succeeded to the throne he fled
to Malines, and is said to have returned in 1577. In 1587 he is
spoken of as " dead and gone " in Thomas Newton's epilogue
to his works.
John Heywood is important in the history of English drama
as the first writer to turn the abstract characters of the morality
plays into real persons. His interludes link the morality plays
to the modern drama, and were very popular in their day. They
represent ludicrous incidents of a homely kind in a style of the
broadest farce, and approximate to the French dramatic render-
ings of the subjects of the fabliaux. The fun in them still
survives in spite of the long arguments between the characters
and what one of their editors calls his "humour of filth." Hey-
wood's name was actually attached to four interludes. The
Playe called the foure PP; a newe and a very mery interlude of a
palmer, a pardoner, a potycary, a pedler (not dated) is a contest
in lying, easily won by Palmer, who said he had never known
a woman out of patience. The Play of the Wether, a new and a
very mery interlude of all maner of Wethers (printed 1 533) describes
the chaotic results of Jupiter's attempts to suit the weather to
the desires of a number of different people. The Play af Love
(printed 1533) is an extreme instance of the author's love of
wire-drawn argument. It is a double dispute between " Loving
not Loved " and " Loved not Loving " as to which is the more
wretched, and between " Both Loved and Loving " and " Neither
Loving nor Loved " to decide which is the happier. The only
action in this piece is indicated by the stage direction marking
the entrance of " Neither loved nor loving," who is to run about
the audience with a huge copper tank on his head full of lighted
squibs, and is to cry " Water, water! Fire, fire! " The Dialogue
of Wit and Folly is more of an academic dispute than a play.
But two pieces universally assigned to Heywood, although they
were printed by Rastell without any author's name, combine
action with dialogue, and are much more dramatic. In The
Mery Play between the Pardoner and the Frere, the Curate and
Neybour Pratte (printed 1533, but probably written much
earlier) the Pardoner and the Friar both try to preach at the
same time, and, coming at last to blows, are separated by the
other two personages of the piece. The Mery Play betwene
Johan Johan the Husbande, Tyb the Wyfe, and Syr Jhan the
Freest < printed 1533) is the best constructed -of all his pieces.
Tyb and Syr Jhan eat the " Pye " which is the central " property "
of the piece, while Johan Johan is made to chafe wax at the fire
to stop a hole in a pail. This incident occurs in a French Farce
nouvelle tres bonne et fort joyeuse de Fernet qui iia au inn. Hey-
wood has sometimes been credited with the authorship of the
dialogue of Gentylnes and Nobylyte printed by Rastell without
date, and Mr Pollard adduces some ground for attributing to
him the anonymous New Enterlude called Thersytes (played 1538).
Heywood's other works are a collection of proverbs and epigrams,
the earliest extant edition of which is dated 1562; some ballads,
one of them being the " Willow Garland," known to Desdemona;
and a long verse allegory of over 7000 lines entitled The Spider
and the Flie (1556). A contemporary writer in Holinshed's
Chronicle said that neither its author nor any one else could
" reach unto the meaning thereof." But the flies are generally
taken to represent the Roman Catholics and the spiders the
Protestants, while Queen Mary is represented by the housemaid
who with her broom (the sword) executes the commands of
her master (Christ) and her mistress (the church). Dr A. W.
Ward speaks of its " general lucidity and relative variety
of treatment." Heywood says that he laid it aside for twenty
years before he finished it, and, whatever may be the final
interpretation put upon it, it contains a very energetic statement
of the social evils of the time, and especially of the deficiencies
of English law.
The proverbs and epigrams were reprinted by the Spenser Society
in 1867, the Dialogue on Wit and Folly by the Percy Society from
an MS. in the British Museum in 1846, with an account of Heywood
by F. W. Fairholt, and there are modern reprints of Johan Johan
(Chiswick Press, 1819), The Foure PP. (Dodsley's Old Plays, 1825,
1874), and The Pardoner and the Frere (Dodsley's Old Plays, 1874).
The Spider and the Flie was edited by A. W. Ward for the Spenser
Society in 1894. For notes and strictures on that edition see J.
Haber in Litterarhistorische Forschungen, vol. xv. (1900). See also
A. W. Pollard's introduction to the reprint of the Play of the Wether
and Johan Johan in Representative English Comedies (1903), and
The Dramatic Writings of John Heywood, edited by John S. Farmer
for the Early English Drama Society (1905).
His son, JASPER HEYWOOD (1535-1598), who translated into
English three plays of Seneca, the Troas (1559), the Thyestes
(1560) and Hercules Furens (1561), was a fellow of Merton
College, Oxford, but was compelled to resign from that society
in 1558. In the same year he was elected a fellow of All Souls
College, but, refusing to conform to the changes in religion at
the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, he gave up his fellowship
and went to Rome, where he was received into the Society of
Jesus. For seventeen years he was professor of moral theology
and controversy in the Jesuit College at Dillingen, Bavaria.
In 1581 he was sent to England as superior of the Jesuit mission,
but his leniency in that position led to his recall. He was on
his way back to the Continent when a violent storm drove him
back to the English coasf. He was arrested on the charge of
being a priest, but, although extraordinary efforts were made
to induce him to abjure his opinions, he remained firm. He
was condemned to perpetual exile on pain of death, and died
at Naples on the gth of January 1598. His translations of
Seneca were supplemented by other plays contributed by
Alexander Neville, Thomas Nuce, John Studley and Thomas
Newton. Newton collected these translations in one volume,
Seneca, his tenne tragedies translated into Englysh (1581). The
importance of this work in the development of English drama
can hardly be over-estimated.
See Dr J. W. Cunliffe, On the Influence of Seneca upon Elizabethan
Tragedy (1893).
HEYWOOD, THOMAS (d. c. 1650), English dramatist and
miscellaneous author, was a native of Lincolnshire, born about
1575, and said to have been educated at Cambridge and to have
become a fellow of Peterhouse. Heywood is mentioned by
Philip Henslowe as having written a book or play for the Lord
Admiral's company of actors in October 1596; and in 1598 he
was regularly engaged as a player in the company, in which he
presumably had a share, as no wages are mentioned. He was
also a member of other companies, of Lord Southampton's,
of the earl of Derby's and of the earl of Worcester's players,
afterwards known as the Queen's Servants. In his preface to
the English Traveller (1633) he describes himself as having had
" an entire hand or at least a mam finger in two hundred and
twenty plays." Of this number, probably considerably in-
creased before the close of his dramatic career, only twenty-three
survive. He wrote for the stage, not for the press, and protested
against the printing of his works, which he said he had no time
to revise. He was, said Tieck, the " model of a light and rapid
talent," and his plays, as might be expected from his rate of
production, bear little trace of artistic elaboration. Charles
440
HEYWOOD HEZEKIAH
Lamb called him a " prose Shakespeare "; Professor Ward, one
of Heywood's most sympathetic editors, points out that this
epigrammatic statement can only be accepted with reservations.
Heywood had a keen eye for dramatic situations and great
constructive skill, but his powers of characterization were not
on a par with his stagecraft. He delighted in what he called
" merry accidents," that is, in coarse, broad farce; his fancy
and invention were inexhaustible. It was in the domestic drama
of sentiment that he won his most distinctive success. For this
he was especially fitted by his genuine tenderness and his freedom
from affectation, by the sweetness and gentleness for which
Lamb praised him. His masterpiece, A Woman kilde with
kindnesse (acted 1603; printed 1607), is a type of the comedie
larmoyante, and The English Traveller (1633) is a domestic
tragedy scarcely inferior to it in pathos and in the elevation of
its moral tone. His first play was probably The Foure Prentises
of London: With the Conquest of Jerusalem (printed 1615, but
acted some fifteen years earlier). This may have been intended
as a burlesque of the old romances, but it is more likely that it
was meant seriously to attract the apprentice public to whom
it was dedicated, and its popularity was no doubt aimed at in
Beaumont and Fletcher's travesty of the City taste in drama
in their Knight of the Burning Pestle. The two parts of King
Edward the Fourth (printed 1600), and of // you know not me,
you know no bodie; Or, The Troubles of Queene Elizabeth (1605
and 1606) are chronicle histories. His other comedies include:
The Royall King, and the Loyall subject (acted c. 1600; printed
1637) ; the two parts of The Fair Maid of the West; Or, A Girle
worth Gold (two parts, printed 1631); The Fayre Maid of the
Exchange (printed anonymously 1607); The Late Lancashire
Witches (1634), written with Richard Brome, and prompted by
an actual trial in the preceding year; A Pleasant Comedy, called
A May den- Head well lost (1634); A Challenge for Beautie (1636) ;
The Wise-Woman of Hogsdon (printed 1638), the witchcraft
in this case being matter for comedy, not seriously treated as
in the Lancashire play; and Fortune by Land and Sea (printed
1655), with William Rowley. The five plays called respectively
The Golden, The Silver, The Brazen and The Iron Age (the last
in two parts), dated 1611, 1613, i6i3,.i632, are series of classical
stories strung together with no particular connexion except that
" old Homer " introduces the performers of each act in turn.
Loves Maistresse; Or, The Queens Masque (printed 1636) is on
the story of Cupid and Psyche as told by Apuleius; and the
tragedy of the Rape of Lucrece (1608) is varied by a " merry
lord," Valerius, who lightens the gloom of the situation by
singing comic songs. A series of pageants, most of them devised
for the City of London, or its guilds, by Heywood, were printed
in 1637. In vol. iv. of his Collection of Old English Plays (1885),
Mr A. H. Bullen printed for the first time a comedy by Heywood,
The Captives, or The Lost Recovered (licensed 1624), and in vol. ii.
of the same series, Dicke of Devonshire, which he tentatively
assigns to the same hand.
Besides his dramatic works, twelve of which were reprinted
by the " Shakespeare Society," and were published by Mr John
Pearson in a complete edition of six vols. with notes and illustra-
tions in 1874, he was the author of Troia Britannica, or Great
Britain's Troy (1609), a poem in seventeen cantos "intermixed
with many pleasant poetical tales " and " concluding with an
universal chronicle from the creation until the present time";
An Apology for Actors, containing three brief treatises (1612)
edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1841; Tvva.uei.ov or nine
books of various history concerning women (1624); England's
Elizabeth, her Life and Troubles during her minority from the
Cradle to the Crown (1631); The Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels
(1635), a didactic poem in nine books; Pleasant Dialogue,
and Dramas selected out of Lucian, &c. (1637; ed. W. Bang,
Louvain, 1903); and The Life of Merlin surnamed Ambrosius
(1641).
See A. W. Ward, History of English Dram. Lit. ii. 550 seq.
(1899); the same author's Introduction to A woman killed with
kindness ("Temple Dramatists," 1897); J. A. Symonds in the
Introduction to Thomas Heywood in the " Mermaid " series (new
issue, 1903).
HEYWOOD, a municipal borough in the Heywood parlia-
mentary division of Lancashire, England, 9 m. N. of Manchester
on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 25,458.
It is of modern growth and possesses several handsome churches,
chapels and public buildings. The Queen's Park, purchased and
laid out at a cost of 11,000 with money which devolved to
Queen Victoria in right of her duchy and county palatine of
Lancaster, was opened in 1879. Heywood Hall in the neighbour-
hood of the town was the residence of Peter Heywood, who
contributed to the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. Heywood
owes its rise to the enterprise of the Peels, its first manufactures
having been introduced by the father of the first Sir Robert
Peel. It is an important seat of the cotton manufacture, and
there are power-loom factories, iron foundries, chemical works,
boiler-works and railway wagon works. Coal is worked exten-
sively in the neighbourhood. Heywood was incorporated in
1881, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and
1 8 councillors. Area, 3660 acres.
HEZEKIAH (Heb. for " [my] strength is [of] Yah "), in the
Bible son of Ahaz, one of the greatest of the kings of Judah.
He flourished at the end of the 8th and beginning of the 7th
century B.C., when Palestine passed through one of the most
eventful periods of its history. There is much that is uncertain
in his reign, and with the exception of the great crisis of 701 B.C.
its chronology has not been unanimously fixed. Whether he
came to the throne before or after the fall of Samaria (722-
721 B.C.) is disputed, 1 nor is it clear what share Judah took in
the Assyrian conflicts down to 701. 2 Shortly before this date
the whole of western Asia was in a ferment; Sargon had died
and Sennacherib had come to the throne (in 705) ; vassal kings
plotted to recover their independence and Assyrian puppets
were removed by their opponents. Judah was in touch with a
general rising in S.W. Palestine, in which Ekron, Lachish, Ascalon
(Ashkelon) and other towns of the Philistines were supported
by the kings of Musri and Meluhha. 3 Sennacherib completely
routed them at Eltekeh (a Danite city), and thence turned against
Hezekiah, who had been in league with Ekron and had imprisoned
its king Padi, an Assyrian vassal. In this invasion of Judah the
Assyrian claims entire success; 46 towns of Judah were captured,
200,150 men and many herds of cattle were carried off among
the spoil, and Jerusalem itself was closely invested. Hezekiah
was imprisoned " like a bird in a cage "* to quote Sennacherib,
and the Urbi (Arabian?) troops in Jerusalem laid down their
arms. Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred of silver, precious
stones, couches and seats of ivory " all kinds of valuable
treasure ", the ladies of the court, male and female attendants
(perhaps " singers ") were carried away to Nineveh. Here the
Assyrian record ends somewhat abruptly, for, in the meanwhile,
Babylonia had again revolted (700 B.C.) and Sennacherib's
presence was urgently needed nearer home.
At what precise period the Babylonian Merodach (i.e. Marduk)-
Baladan sent his embassy to Hezekiah is disputed. Although
ostensibly to congratulate the king upon his recovery from a
sickness, it was really sent in the hope of enlisting his support,
and the excessive courtesy and complaisance with which it was
received suggest that it found a ready ally in Judah (2 Kings xx.
12 sqq.; Isa. xxxix.). Merodach-Baladan was overthrown
by Sargon in 710 B.C., but succeeded in making a fresh revolt
some years later (704-703 B.C.), and opinion is much divided
whether his embassy was to secure the friendship of the
'See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel* 415 sqq.; O. C. White-
house, Isaiah, pp. 20 sqq., 372; J. Skinner, Kings, p. 43 seq.; T. K.
Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 2058, n. I, and references.
2 The chief dates are: 720, defeat of a coalition (Hamath, Gaza
and Muri) at Karfcar in north Syria and Raphia (S. Palestine);
715, a rising of Musri and Arabian tribes; 713-711, revolt and capture
of Ashdod (cp. Is. xx.). That Judah was invaded on this latter
occasion is not improbable.
8 Meluhha is held by many critics to be N.W. Arabia ; the identi-
fication of Musri is uncertain, see below.
4 The phrase was a favourite one of Rib-Addi, king of Gebal
(Byblus), in the I5th century B.C.; Tell-el-Amarna Letters (ed.
Knudtzon), Nos. 74, 79, &c. Jeremiah (v. 27) uses the simile in a
different way. For a discussion of Sennacherib's record, see Wilke,
Jesaja u. Assur (Leipzig, 1905), pp. 97 sqq.
HIATUS HIBERNATION
44 1
youthful Hezekiah at his succession or is to be associated with
the later widespread attempt to remove the Assyrian yoke. 1
The brief account of the Assyrian invasion, Hezekiah's sub-
mission, and the payment of tribute in 2 Kings xviii. 14-16,
supplements the Assyrian record by the statement that Sen-
nacherib besieged Lachish, a fact which is confirmed by a bas-
relief (now in the British Museum) depicting the king in the act
of besieging that town. 2 This thoroughly historical fragment
is followed by two narratives which tell how the king sent an
official from Lachish to demand the submission of Hezekiah
and conclude with the unexpected deliverance of Jerusalem.
Both these stories appear to belong to a biography of Isaiah,
and, like the similar biographies of Elijah and Elisha, are open
to the suspicion that historical facts have been subordinated to
idealize the work of the prophet. See KINGS, BOOKS OF.
The narratives are (a) 2 Kings xviii. 13, 17 xix. 8; cf. Isa. xxxvi.
l-xxxvii. 8, and (b) xix. 96-35; cp. Isa. xxxvii. 9-36 (2 Chron. xxxii.
9 sqq. is based on both), and Jerusalem's deliverance is attributed
to a certain rumour (xix. 7), to the advance of Tirhakah, king of
Ethiopia (v. 9), and to a remarkable pestilence (. 35) which finds
an echo in a famous story related, not without some confusion of
essential facts, by Herodotus (ii. 141 ; cf. Josephus Antiq. x. i. s). 3
It is difficult to decide whether xix. 90 belongs to the first or second of
these narratives; and whether the " rumour " refers to the approach
of Tirhakah, or rather to the serious troubles which had arisen in
Babylonia. It is equally difficult to determine whether Tirhakah
actually appeared on the scene in 701, and the precise application
of the term Musji (Mizraim) is much debated. Unless the two narra-
tives are duplicates of the same event, it may be urged that
Sennacherib's attack upon Arabia (apparently about 689) involved
an invasion of Judah, by which time Egypt was in a position to be
of material assistance (cf. Isa. xxx. 1-5, xxxi. 1-3?). This theory of
a second campaign (first suggested by Sir Henry Rawlinson) has
been contested, although it is pointed out that Sennacherib at all
events did not invade Egypt, and that 2 Kings xix. 24 (Isa. xxxvii.
25) can only refer to his successor. The allusion to the murder of
Sennacherib (xix. 36 sq.) 4 points to the year 681, but it is uncertain
to which of the above narratives it belongs. On the whole, the
question must be left open, and with it both the problem of the
extension of the name Musri and Mizraim outside Egypt in the
Assyrian and Hebrew records of this period and the true historical
background of a number of the Isaianic prophecies. It is quite possible
that later events which belong to the time of the Egyptian supremacy
and the wars of Esarhaddon have been confused with the history
of Sennacherib's invasion.
It is not certain whether Hezekiah's conflict with the Philis-
tines as far as Gaza or his preparations to secure for Jerusalem
a good water supply (xviii. 8, xx. 20; 2 Chron. xxxii. 30; Ecclus.
xlviii. 17 sq.) 5 should precede or follow the events which have
been discussed. On the other hand, the reforms which the
compiler of the book has attributed to the early part of the
reign were doubtless much later (2 Kings xviii. 1-8). Not the
fall of Samaria, but the crisis of 701, is the earliest date that
could safely be chosen, and the extent of these reforms must
not be overestimated. They are related in terms that imply
an acquaintance with the great " Deuteronomic " movement
(see DEUTERONOMY), and are magnified further with character-
istic detail by the chronicler (2 Chron. xxix.-xxxi.). The most
remarkable was the destruction of a brazen serpent, the cult
of which was traditionally traced back to the time of Moses
(Num. xxi. 9). 6 This persistence of serpent-cult, and the
1 For the early date (between 720 and 710), Winckler, Alttest. Unt.
139 sqq., Burney, Kings, 350 sq. ; Driver; Kuchler, &c. ; for the
later, Whitehouse, Isaiah, 29 sq., in agreement with Schrader, Well-
hausen, W. R. Smith, Cheyne, M'Curdy, Paton, &c.
2 Isa. x. 28-32 may perhaps refer to this invasion. Allusions to
the Assyrian oppression are found in Isa. x. 5-15, xiv. 24-27, xvii.
12-14; and to internal Judaean intrigues perhaps in Isa. xxii. 15-18,
xxix. 15. For a picture of the ruins in Jerusalem, see Isa. xxii. 9-11.
But see further ISAIAH (BOOK).
3 See, on the story, Griffith, in D. Hogarth's Authority and
Archaeology, p. 167, n. i.
4 The house of Nisrock should probably be that of the god Nusku ;
see also Driver in Hogarth, op. cit. p. 109; Winckler, op. cit. p. 84.
5 It is commonly believed that Hezekiah constructed the conduit
of Siloam, famous for its Hebrew inscription (see INSCRIPTIONS,
JERUSALEM). But Isa. viii. 6, would seem to show that the pool
was already in existence, and, for palaeographical details, see Pal.
Explor. Fund, Quart. Slat. (1909), pp. 289, 305 sqq.
* The name Nehushtan (2 Kings xviii. 4, cp. n&hash, " serpent ")
is obscure ; see the commentaries.
idolatry (necromancy, tree-worship) which the contemporary
prophets denounce, do not support the view that the
apparently radical reforms of Hezekiah were extensive or
permanent, and Jer. xxvi. 17-19 (which suggests that Micah
had a greater influence than Isaiah) throws another light upon
the conditions during his reign. Hezekiah was succeeded by
his son MANASSEH (<?..).
See further W. R. Smith, Prophets, 359-364, and HEBREW RE-
LIGION. According to Prov. xxv. I, Hezekiah was a patron of
literature (see PROVERBS). The hymn which is ascribed to the king
(Isa. xxxviii. 9-20, wanting in 2 Kings) is of post-exilic origin (see
Cheyne, Introd. to Isaiah, 222 sq.), but is further proof of the manner
in which the Judaean king was idealized in subsequent ages, partly,
perhaps, in the belief that the deliverance of Jerusalem was the
reward for his piety. For special discussions, see Stade, Zeits. d.
altlest. Wissenschaft, 1886, pp. 173 sqq.; Winckler, Alttest. Unter-
such., 26 sqq. ; Schrader, Cuneiform Inscr. and Old Test, (on
2 Kings, I.e.) ; Driver, Isaiah, his Life and Times, pp. 43-83 ; A.
Jeremias, Alte Test. 304-310; Nagel, Zug d. Sanherib gegen Jerus.
(Leipzig, 1903, conservative); and especially Prasek, Sanherib's
" Feldziige gegen Juda " (Mitteil, d. vorderasiat. Gesell., 1903, pp.
113-158), K. Fullerton, Bibliotheca sacra, 1906, pp. 577-634, A.
Alt, Israel u. Agypten (Leipzig, 1909) ; also the bibliography to
ISAIAH. (S. A. C.)
HIATUS (Lat. for gaping, or gap), a break in continuity,
whether in speech, thought or events, a lacuna. In anatomy
the term is used for an opening or foramen, as the hiatus Fallopii,
a foramen of the temporal bone. In logic a hiatus occurs when
a step or link in reasoning is wanting; and in grammar it is the
pause made for the sake of euphony in pronouncing two successive
vowels, which are not separated by a consonant.
HIAWATHA (" he makes rivers "), a legendary chief (c. 1450)
of the Onondaga tribe of North American Indians. The forma-
tion of the League of Six Nations, known as the Iroquois, is
attributed to him by Indian tradition. In his miraculous
character Hiawatha is the incarnation of human progress and
civilization. He teaches agriculture, navigation, medicine and
the arts, conquering by his magic all the powers of nature which
war against man.
See J. N. B. Hewitt, in Amer. Anthrop. for April 1892.
HIBBING, a village of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
75 m. N.W. of Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2481; (1905 state census)
6566, of whom 3537 were foreign-born (1169 Finns, 516 Swedes,
498 Canadians, 323 Austrians and 314 Norwegians); (1910) 8832.
Hibbing is served by the Great Northern and the Duluth,
Missabe & Northern railways. It lies in the midst of the great
Mesabi iron-ore deposits of the state; in 1907 forty iron mines
were in operation within 10 m. of the village. Lumbering and
farming are also important industries. The village owns and
operates the water-works and electric-lighting plant. Hibbing
was settled in 1892 and was incorporated in 1893.
HIBERNACULUM (Lat. for winter quarters), in botany a
term for a winter bud; in botanic gardens, the winter quarters
for plants; in zoology, the winter bud of a polyzoan.
HIBERNATION (winter sleep), the dormant condition in
which certain animals pass the winter in cold latitudes. Aestiva-
tion (summer sleep) is the similar condition in which other
species pass periods of heat or drought in warm latitudes. The
origins of these kindred phenomena are probably to be sought
in the regularly recurrent failure of food supply or of other
factors essential to existence due to the seasonal onset of cold
in the one case and of excessively dry hot weather in the other.
They are means whereby certain non-migratory species are
enabled to live through unfavourable climatic conditions which
would end fatally in starvation or desiccation were the animals
to maintain their normal state of activity.
I. The Physiology of Hibernation. Hibernation and Aestiva-
tion. The physiology of hibernation, as exemplified in mam-
malia, has been worked out in detail by several observers in
the case of some European species, notably bats, hedgehogs,
dormice and marmots. Of the physiology of aestivation nothing
definite appears to have been ascertained. It seems probable,
however, from observations upon the dormant animals that the
physiological accompaniments of winter and summer sleep are
to all intents and purposes the same. The state of hibernation,
442
HIBERNATION
for example, in the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)
is not distinguished by external signs from the state of aestiva-
tion of the allied Mascarene genus, the tenrec (Centetes ecaudatus).
The lethargy in both cases appears to be directly due to
fall in the temperature of the organisms; and the fall in
temperature proceeds pari passu with the slowing down and
weakening of the respiration and with retardation in the cir-
culation of the blood. Similarity, moreover, between hiberna-
tion and aestivation is shown not only in their physiological
accompaniments but also in the species of animals which become
seasonally dormant. Birds neither hibernate nor aestivate.
The tenrec (Centetes) of Madagascar, which aestivates, closely
resembles the hedgehog (Erinaceus) in habits and belongs to
the same order of mammalia. In the case of reptiles and
batrachians, snakes, lizards, tortoises, frogs and toads sleep
the winter through in cold countries; and some species of
these groups habitually bury themselves in the sand or mud
in tropical latitudes where drought is of periodical occurrence.
Terrestrial molluscs lie dormant in the winter in cold and
temperate latitudes and their tropical allies aestivate in districts
where conditions enforce the habit. Some fresh-water molluscs
bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds when the
surface is covered with ice; others take refuge in the same way
when pools and tanks become exhausted during the dry season
in the tropics. In temperate and north temperate countries
insects and arachnida either die or retire to winter quarters
during the cold weather, and in the tropics they similarly dis-
appear during times of drought.
Predisposing Causes of Hibernation. The likeness between
hibernation and aestivation and the coincidence of the one
with cold and of the other with heat arrest the conclusion that
the temperature of the. surrounding medium, whether atmo-
spheric or aquatic, is the prime, much less the sole, cause of either.
The effect of extreme cold is to rouse the hibernating animal
from its slumber; and its continuance thereafter brings about
a state of torpor which proves fatal. This at least appears to
be the case with mammals, where actual freezing of the tissues
is followed by death because the gases are expelled from the
fluids as bubbles and the salts separate in the form of crystals.
Some cold-blooded animals, however, may be cooled to o C.
Fish have been resuscitated after solidification in blocks of ice,
and frogs have been known to recover when ice has been formed
in the blood and in the lymph of the peritoneal cavity (Landois).
For the reasons given, all hibernating mammals take pie-
cautions against exposure to extreme cold. They either bury
themselves in the soil or under the snow or seek the shelter of
hollow trees or of caves, not infrequently congregating in the
same spot so that the temperature is kept up by corporeal
contact. Again the hibernating instinct may be suspended
unless the conditions are favourable for safely entering upon
winter sleep. It is alleged that bears in Scandinavia do not
hibernate unless food has been sufficiently plentiful during
the summer and autumn to fatten them for their winter fast;
and hedgehogs and dormice in captivity have been known to
remain active in the cold until warm sleeping-quarters were
insured by placing hay and cotton-wool in their cages. Finally
the wood-chucks (Arctomys monax) in the Adirondacks retire
to winter quarters at about the time of the autumnal equinox,
when the weather is warm and pleasant, and emerge at the
vernal equinox before the snows of winter have vanished from
the ground. These and other facts justify Marshall Hall's
conclusion that cold is merely a predisposing cause of hibernation
in the sense that it is a predisposing cause of ordinary sleep.
It has also been shown that the state of hibernation cannot be
forced upon snails in summer by submitting them to artificial cold
even almost to freezing point; but that at the proper season
they prepare for winter quarters at temperatures varying from 37
to 77 Fahr. Again insects sometimes retire to winter quarters in
the autumn when the temperature of the atmosphere is higher than
that of preceding days during which they retain their activity.
Thus the oncoming and ceasing both of winter and summer
sleep depend to a considerable extent upon conditions of existence
other than those of temperature. Darwin saw scarcely a sign
of a living thing on his arrival at Bahia Blanca, Argentina,
on the 7th of Sept., although by digging several insects, large
spiders and lizards were found in a half-torpid state. During
the days of his visit when nature was dormant the mean tempera-
ture was 51, the thermometer seldom rising above 55 at
mid-day. But during the succeeding days when the mean
temperature was 58 and that of the middle of the day between
60 and 70 both insect and reptilian life was in a state of activity.
Nevertheless at Montevideo, lying only four degrees further
north, between the z6th of July and the igth of August when the
mean temperature was 58-4 and the mean highest temperature
of mid-day 65-5 almost every beetle, several genera of spiders,
land molluscs, toads and lizards were all lying dormant beneath
stones. Thus the animal-life at Montevideo remained dormant
at a temperature which roused that at Bahia Blanca from its
torpidity. Darwin unfortunately does not record whether the
species observed were identical in the two localities.
The temperature of animals in a profound state of hibernation
is approximately the same as that of the surrounding medium
or at most a degree or two higher. If, however, the temperature
of the chosen hibernaculum (winter quarters) falls as low as
freezing point, life is endangered at least in the case of mammals.
In most cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, the temperature
is normally only a little above that of the atmosphere, the two
rising and falling together. But, setting aside the young,
especially of those species in which the offspring are born or
hatched at a comparatively early stage of development, the
majority of warm-blooded animals are able to maintain a high
and approximately level temperature irrespective of decline
in the temperature of the surrounding medium. This faculty
of temperature adjustment, however, appears to be absent or
weakened in most if not in all hibernating mammals both in
their normal nocturnal or diurnal sleep and in their winter sleep.
In the case of European bats it has been shown that the ordinary
day sleep in summer differs only in the matter of duration from
the prolonged slumber of the same animals in winter. The
temperature falls with that of the atmosphere, respiration
practically ceases and immersion in water for as many as eleven
minutes has been known to prove innocuous. At moderate
temperatures ranging from 45 to 50 F., dormice (Muscardinus
avellanarius) and hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) alternately
wake to feed and sink into slumber. Dormice awake once in
every twenty-four hours; the sleep of the hedgehogs may last
for two or three days. The temperature of the hedgehog, when
awake and active, rises to about 87 F., that of the dormouse
to 92 or 94 F.; but during sleep the temperature of both species
falls to about that of the atmosphere. In other words, all the
phenomena characteristic of hibernation are exhibited in these
animals during the periods of sleep interrupting their periods
of iwakeful activity. Sleep of this nature, for which the term
" diurnation " has been proposed, because it has only been
observed in nocturnal animals, lies phenomenally midway
between the normal sleep of non-hibernating mammals and the
dormant condition in winter of hibernating species. The
stimulus of hunger appears to be the prime cause of its periodic
cessation. Since then the faculty of temperature adjustment
is in abeyance during the ordinary diurnal summer sleep in
hibernating mammals, which in this physiological particular
resemble reptiles, it seems probable that hibernation can only
be practised by those species in which the power to maintain,
when sleeping, a permanent average high temperature has been
lost or perhaps never acquired. That there is no broad line
of demarcation between the ordinary sleep of these hibernating
mammals in which the temperature is known to drop considerably
and that of non-hibernating species is indicated by the fact that
the temperature of human beings and possibly of all non-
hibernating species falls to a certain, though to a limited, extent
in ordinary sleep.
The relation between the internal body-temperature and the
respiratory movements has been worked out in hibernating
dormice, hedgehogs, marmots and bats. When the temperature
HIBERNATION
443
is below 12 C., the torpid animal exhibits long periods of apnoea
of several minutes' duration and interrupted by a few respirations.
With the temperature rising above 13 C., the periods of apnoea
in the still inactive animal become snorter, the respiration
suddenly commencing and ceasing (Biot's type), or gradually
waxing and waning (Cheyne-Stokes' type). When the tempera-
ture is at about 16 C., the periods of apnoea in the gradually
awaking animal are very short and infrequent. When the
temperature is about 20 and rising apace, respiration becomes
continuous and rapid and the animal is awake. These stages
have been especially recorded in the case of dormice. In the
last stage the respiration of hedgehogs and marmots is somewhat
different, there being a series of rapid respirations, often followed
by a single deep sighing respiration.
Respiration appears to be totally suspended in animals in a
complete state of hibernation, if left undisturbed. It may
however, be readily re-excited by the slightest stimulus; and
to this fact may perhaps be attributed the belief that breathing
does not actually cease. If a hibernating hedgehog be lightly
touched it draws a deep breath, and breathing is maintained for a
longer or shorter time before again ceasing; but if at the same
time the temperature of the atmosphere be raised, respiration
becomes continuous and lethargy is succeeded by activity
(Marshall Hall). The opinion that respiration is totally suspended
is supported by a number of facts. Hibernating marmots and
bats, for example, have been known to live four hours in carbon
dioxide, a gas which proves almost instantly fatal to mammals
in a state of normal activity (Spallanzani). A hedgehog which
may be drowned in about three minutes when awake and active,
has been removed from water uninjured when in deep winter
sleep after twenty-two and a half minutes' submergence. A
hibernating noctule bat, when similarly treated, survived
sixteen minutes' immersion. Further proof of the suspension
of respiration has been furnished by experiments upon a bat
which while in a deep and undisturbed state of lethargy was
kept in a pneumatometer for ten hours without appreciably
affecting the percentage of oxygen in the air. The same animal,
when active, removed over 5 cub. in. of oxygen in the space of
one hour from the instrument.
As in the case of respiration, alimentation and excretion are
suspended during hibernation.
The circulation of the blood, on the other hand, continues without
interruption, though its rapidity is greatly retarded. This fact
may be observed by microscopic examination of the wings of bats
in a state of winter sleep. Moreover, in the case of a hedgehog
lethargic from hibernation, it was experimentally shown that
when the spinal cord was severed behind the occipital foramen,
the brain removed and the entire spinal cord gently destroyed,
the heart continued to beat strongly and regularly for several
hours, the contraction of the auricles and ventricles being quite
perceptible, though feeble, even after the lapse of ten hours.
After eleven hours the organ was motionless; but resumed its
activity when stimulated by a knife-point. Even after twelve
hours both auricles responded to the same stimulus, though the
ventricles remained motionless. Shortly afterwards the auricles
gave no response. On the other hand, when the spinal cord of a
hedgehog in a normal state of activity was severed at the occiput,
the left ventricle ceased to beat almost at once, and the left
auricle in less than fifteen minutes; the right auricle was the
next to cease, whereas the right ventricle continued its contraction
for about two hours. Experiments upon marmots have yielded
very similar results. The heart of a marmot decapitated in a
state of lethargy continued to beat for over three hours. The
pulsations, at first strong and frequent and varying from 16
to 18 per minute, became gradually weaker and less frequent,
until at the end of the third hour only 3 were recorded in the
same length of time. Excised pieces of voluntary muscular
tissue contracted vigorously three hours after death under
electric stimulus. Only at the end of four hours did they cease
to respond. The heart of an active marmot killed in the same
way contracted about 28 times a minute at first, the
number of pulsations falling to about 12 at the end of fifteen
minutes, to 8 at the end of thirty minutes, and ceasing
altogether at the end of fifty minutes. Similarly the response of
the muscles to galvanic shock failed at a correspondingly rapid
rate. It is evident, therefore, that during hibernation the
irritability of the heart is augmented in a marked degree, and
that the irritability of the left side of the organ is scarcely less
pronounced than that of the right side. Similar reduction in the
rate of the circulation has been demonstrated in certain hibernat-
ing mollusca, Mr C. Ashford having proved experimentally that
the number of pulsations of the heart per minute gradually lessens
with a falling temperature. At a temperature of 52 F. the
number was 22 in the common garden snail (Helix hortensis),
and 21 in the cellar slug (Hyalinia cellaria). At a temperature
of 30 F. the pulsation fell to 4 in the former and to 3 in the
latter animal.
The nature of hibernation, and probably also of aestivation,
and the principal physiological phenomena connected with them,
may be briefly summarized as follows:
1. During hibernation death from starvation and wasting of the
tissues is prevented by the absorption of fat, which, at least in the
case of mammalia, is stored in considerable quantities, sometimes
in definite parts of the body, during the weeks of activity im-
mediately preceding the period of winter sleep.
2. Every gradation seems to exist between ordinary sleep and
hibernation; the differences between the ordinary diurnal or
nocturnal sleep in summer of hibernating animals and their pro-
longed and lethargic quiescence in winter are merely differences of
degree, differences, that is to say, of intensity and duration.
3. The physiological accompaniments of hibernation are: (a)
Cessation of all activities associated with alimentation and excre-
tion; (6) lowering of the body temperature to that of the surrounding
medium or to within a few degrees of it; (c) total or almost total
cessation of respiration, accompanied by power to survive immersion
for a considerable time in water or asphyxiating gases, which
prove rapidly fatal to the same animals when normally active;
(d) marked increase in the irritability of the muscles, especially of
those of the left side of the heart, whereby the pulsations of that
organ, although retarded, are uninterruptedly maintained; (e) a
slight exchange of gases in the lungs is kept up by the cardio-
pneumatic movement.
4. Amongst cold-blooded animals, both vertebrate and inverte-
brate, devoid of the faculty of temperature adjustment, the pheno-
menon of hibernation or aestivation is of general occurrence v/herever
the conditions of existence accompanying the onset of cold or drought
are inimical to active life. In hot-blooded vertebrates, on the con-
trary, the phenomena are non-existent so far as birds are concerned ;
aestivation is of very rare occurrence in mammalia, while hibernation
is practised by a comparatively small number of species; and in
these the faculty of temperature adjustment appears to be temporarily
at all events in abeyance.
II. The Zoology of Hibernation and Aestivation. Owing to the
extreme difficulty of keeping wild animals under observation in
their natural haunts for any lengthened time, it is almost im-
possible to get accurate knowledge of the details of this state of
existence. In a general way it is known, or assumed from their
disappearance, that certain species retire to winter quarters in
particular districts, but on such important points as whether the
winter sleep is continuous or interrupted, light or profound,
assured information is for the most part not forthcoming. This
is true even of familiar species inhabiting Europe and North
America, which have been objects of study for many years. It
is still more true of species occurring in countries uninhabited
and rarely visited, especially in winter, by naturalists interested
in such questions. The Chiroptera (bats) furnish an illustration
of this truth. It was formerly assumed that the winter sleep
of these animals in north and temperate Europe was complete
and uninterrupted. Marshall Hall, for example, remarked
that " perhaps the bat may be the only animal which sleeps
profoundly the winter through without awaking to take food." It
was known, it is true, that in countries where gnats and other
winged insects disappear with the first frosts of winter, bats
which feed upon them retire to winter quarters in hollow trees,
caves, sheds or other places likely to afford them sufficient
shelter. Here they hang suspended, solitary or in companies
according to the species. But a mild spell of weather in mid-
winter will sometimes entice a few to take wing while it lasts,
although they never appear in any numbers until crepuscular and
nocturnal insects are plentiful. But Mr T. A. Coward has
444
HIBERNATION
recently shown in the case of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats
(Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum and R. hipposiderus), that during
the early period of their occupation of the winter retreat, hiberna-
tion, in the strict sense of the word, does not take place, and that
even later in the season the sleep is constantly interrupted,
especially when the temperature of the air rises above 46 F..
and that during their wakeful intervals they crawl about and feed
apparently upon the insects which live throughout the year in the
caves. This is also true of the long-eared bat (Plecolus auritus),
and probably of other species of this group. At Mussocrie in the
Himalayas, and in other parts of northern India, insectivorous
bats, such as Rhinolophus luctus and Rh. affinis, pass the winter
in a semi-torpid state, and are rarely seen abroad during the cold
season. The fruit-eating bats, on the contrary (Pteropidae) ,
which are more southern in their distribution and are restricted
in the Himalayas to the warmer valleys and lower slopes of the
mountains, are as active in the winter as at other times of the
year (Blanford).
Although almost as exclusively insectivorous as bats, moles
and shrews do not, so far as is known, hibernate. This distinction
between two groups so nearly alike in diet, no doubt depends
upon the difference in their habitats and in those of the creatures
they live upon. By tunnelling deeper in winter than in summer,
moles are still able to find worms and various insects buried
in the earth beyond the reach of frost; and shrews hunt out
spiders, centipedes and insects which in their larval, pupal or
sexual stages have taken shelter and lie dormant in holes and
crannies of the soil, beneath the leaves of ground plants or
under stones and logs of wood. In view of the perennially
active life of the two insectivora just mentioned, it is a singular
fact that the common hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) the
only member of this order besides genera referable to the moles
( Talpidae) and shrews (Soricidae) that inhabits temperate and
north-temperate latitudes in Europe and Asia passes the
winter in a state of torpor unsurpassed in profundity by that
of any species of mammal so far as is known. Possibly the
explanation of this seeming anomaly may be found in the
bionomial differences between the three animals. The sub-
terranean feeding habits of the mole render hibernation un-
necessary on his part. Therefore the shrew and the hedgehog,
both surface feeders for the most part, need only be considered
in this connexion. As compared with shrews, amongst the
smallest of palaearctic mammals, the hedgehog is of considerable
size. Moreover, in point of vivacious energy it would be difficult
to find two mammals of the same order more utterly unlike.
Hence in winter when insects are scarce and demand active
and diligent search, it is quite intelligible that the shrews,
in virtue of their smallness and rapidity of movement, are able
to procure sufficient food for their needs; whereas the hedgehogs,
requiring a far larger quantity and handicapped by lack of
activity, would probably starve under the same conditions.
Like the common hedgehog of Europe, the long-eared hedge-
hog (Erinaceus megalotis) hibernates in Afghanistan from
November till February. The tenrec (Centetes ecaudatus), a
large insectivore from Madagascar, aestivates during the hottest
weeks of the year; and specimens exhibited in the Zoo-
logical Gardens in London preserved the habit although
kept at a uniform temperature and regularly supplied with
food.
Amongst the Rodentia, no members of the Lagomorpha
(hares, rabbits and picas) are known to hibernate, although
some of the species, like the mountain hare (Lepus timidus),
extend far to the north in the palaearctic region, and the picas
(Ochotona) live at high altitudes in the Himalayas and Central
Asia, where the cold of winter is excessive, and where the snow
lies deep for many months. It is probable that the picas live
in fissures and burrows beneath the snow, and feed on stores
of food accumulated during the summer and autumn. The
Hystrico-morpha also are non-hibernators. It is true that the
common porcupine (Hystrix cristata) of south Europe and
north Africa is alleged to hibernate; the statement cannot,
however, be accepted without confirmation, because the cold is
seldom excessive in the countries it frequents, and specimens
exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remain active
throughout the year, although kept in enclosures without
artificial heat of any kind. Even the most northerly repre-
sentative of this group, the Canadian porcupine (Ercthizon
dorsatus), which inhabits forest-covered tracts in the United
States and Canada, may be trapped and shot in the winter.
Some members of this group, like capybaras (Hydrochaerus
capybara) and coypus (Myocastors coypus) which live in tropical
America, are unaffected by the winter cold of temperate countries,
and live in the open all the year round in parks and zoological
gardens in England. Several of the genera of Myomorpha
contain species inhabiting the northern hemisphere, which
habitually hibernate. The three European genera of dormice
(M yoxidae), namely Muscardinus, Eliomys and G/is,sleep soundly
practically throughout the winter; and examples of the South
African genus Graphiurus practise the same habit when imported
to Europe. If a warm spell in the winter rouses dormice from
their slumbers, they feed upon nuts or other food accumulated
during the autumn, but do not as a rule leave the nests constructed
for shelter during the winter. According to the weather, the
sleep lasts from about five to seven months. In the family
Muridae, the true mice and rats (Murinae) and the voles
and lemmings (Anicolinae) seem to remain active through the
winter, although some species, like the lemmings, range far to
the north in Europe and Asia; but the white-footed mice
(Hespsromys) of North America, belonging to the Cricetinae,
spend the winter sleeping in underground burrows, where food
is laid up for consumption in the early spring. The Canadian
jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonianus), one of the Jaculidae,
also hibernates, although the sleep is frequently interrupted
by milder days. Some of the most northerly species of jerboas
(Jaculidae), namely Alactaga decumana of the Kirghiz Steppes
and A. indica of Afghanistan, sleep from September or October
till April; and the Egyptian species (Jaculus jaculus) and the
Cape jumping hare (Pedetes coffer), one of the Hystricomorpha,
remain in their burrows during the wet season in a state analogous
to winter sleep. The sub-order Sciuromorpha also contains
many hibernating species. None of the true squirrels, however,
appear to sleep throughout the winter. Even the red squirrel
(Sciurus hudsonianus) of North America retains its activity
in spite of the sub-arctic conditions that prevail. The same is
true of its European ally Sc. vulgaris. The North American
grey squirrel (Sc. cinereus), although more southerly in its
distribution than the red squirrel of that country, hiber-
nates partially. Specimens running wild in the Zoological
Gardens in London disappear for a day or two when the cold
is exceptionally keen, but for the most part they may be seen
abroad throughout the season. On the other hand, ground
squirrels like the chipmunks (Tamias) and the susliks or gophers
(Spcrmophilus) of North America and Central Asia, at all events
in the more northern districts of their range, sleep from the
late autumn till the spring in their subterranean burrows, where
they accumulate food for use in early spring and for spells of
warmer weather in the winter which may rouse them from their
slumbers. The North American flying squirrel (Sciuropterus
iiolucella) and its ally Pleromys inornalus are believed to hibernate
in hollow trees. All the true marmots (Ardomys) , a genus of
which the species live at tolerably high altitudes in Central
Europe, Asia and North America, appear to spend the winter
in uninterrupted slumber buried deep in their burrows. They
apparently lay up no store of food, but accumulate a quantity of
fat as the summer and autumn advance, and frequently, as in
the case of the woodchuck (A. monax) of the Adirondacks,
retire to winter quarters in the autumn long before the onset
of the winter cold. The prairie marmots or prairie dogs (Cynomys
ludovicianus) of North America, which live in the plains, do
not hibernate to the same extent as the true marmots, although
they appear to remain in their burrows during the coldest
portions of the winter. Beavers (Castor), although formerly at
all events extending in North America from the tropic of Cancer
up to the Arctic circle, do not hibernate. When the ground
HIBERNATION
445
is deep in snow and the river frozen over, they are still able
to feed on aquatic plants beneath the ice.
Amongst the terrestrial carnivora hibernation appears to be
practised, with one possible exception, only by species belonging
to the group Arctoidea. In north temperate latitudes both in
Europe and Asia, as well as in the Himalayas, brown bears
(Ursus arctos) hibernate, so also does the North American
grizzly bear (U. horribilis), at least in the more northern districts
of its range. The smaller black bear of the Himalayas (U.
tibetanus) appears to lapse into a state of semi-torpor during the
winter, only emerging from his retreat to hunt for food when
occasional breaks in the weather occur. In the case of the
American black bear (U. americanus) the female seeks winter
quarters comparatively early in the season in preparation for the
birth of her progeny soon after the turn of the year; but the
males remain active so long as plenty of food is to be found. In
the case of all bears, except the Polar bear (U. maritimus), the
site chosen as the hibernaculum is either a cave or hole or some
sheltered spot beneath a ledge of rock, or the roots of large trees,
more or less overgrown with brushwood which holds the snow
until it freezes into a solid roof over the hollow where the sleeping
animal lies. In the hibernating brown and black bears the
intestine is blocked by a plug commonly called " tappen " and
composed principally of pine leaves, which is usually not evacuated
until the spring. There is much diversity of opinion on the
subject of the hibernation of Polar bears. Their absence during
the winter from particular spots in the Arctic regions where ice-
bound ships have spent the winter, and the occasional discovery
of specimens buried beneath the snow, have led to the belief that
these animals habitually retire to winter quarters through the
cold sunless months of the year. This may possibly be the true
explanation at least for certain districts. But it has been alleged
that bears, both adult and half-grown, may be seen throughout
the winter; and it is known that pregnant females bury them-
selves in the autumn under the snow, where they remain without
feeding with their newly-born young until the spring of the
following year. Hence the absence of bears in the winter from
the neighbourhood of icebound ships may be explained on the
supposition that the adult females alone hibernate for breeding
purposes, while the full-grown males and half-grown specimens of
both sexes migrate in the winter to the edges of the ice-floes and
to coast lines, where the water is open. Before retiring to winter
quarters the pregnant females store up sufficient quantity of fat in
their tissues not only to sustain themselves but also to supply milk
for their cubs. In the Adirondack region and probably in other
districts of the same or more northern latitudes in North America,
raccoons (Procyon lotor) retire in the winter to some sheltered
place, such as a hollow tree-trunk, and pass the severest part of
the season in sleep, emerging in February or March when the
snow has begun to disappear. In the same country, the skunks
(Mephitis mephilica), a member of the weasel family, also seek
shelter during the coldest portion of the winter. Merriam
believes that the hibernation of this animal is determined by cold,
and not by failure of food-supply, for he observes that skunks
may frequently be seen in numbers on snow lying 5 ft. deep at a
time of the year when they feed almost entirely upon mice and
shrews which do not hibernate even when the thermometer
registers over twelve degrees of frost. In British North America
the badger ( Taxidea americana) is said to hibernate from October
till April ; but the duration of the period probably depends, as in
the case of its European ally (Meles meles), upon the length and
severity of the inclement season. In the last-named species the
winter repose is not as a rule sufficiently profound to prevent a
break in the weather rousing the animal from sleep to sally forth
in search of food. This interrupted hibernation takes place at
least in England and even in Scandinavia; but in countries
where frost is continuous throughout the winter it is probable
that the badger's sleep is unbroken.
The one exception to the general rule that hibernation in the
carnivora is restricted to the Arctoidea, is supplied by the
raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) of Japan and north-eastern
Asia, which is said by Radde to hibernate in burrows in Amur-
land if food has been sufficiently plentiful in late summer and
autumn to enable the animal to lay on enough fat to resist the
cold and sustain a long period of fast. If, however, food has been
scarce, this dog is compelled to remain active all through the
winter. The Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus), although considerably
more northern in range than the raccoon dog, does not hibernate.
It was long a mystery how these animals obtained food in winter,
but it has been ascertained that in some districts they migrate
southwards in large numbers in the late autumn, whereas in
other districts apparently they lay up stores of dead lemmings
or hares, for food during the winter months. In Australia the
porcupine ant-eater (Echidna aculeata) hibernates; and the
habit is retained by specimens imported to Europe if exposed to
the cold in outdoor cages.
Instances of quasi-hibernation have been recorded in the case
of man. For example, in the government of Pskov in Russia,
where food is scarce throughout the year and in danger of ex-
haustion during the winter, the peasants are said to resort to a
practice closely akin to hibernation, spending at least one-half of
the cold weather in sleep. From time immemorial it has been the
custom when the first snows fall for families to shut themselves
up in their huts, huddle round the stove and lapse into slumber,
each member taking his turn to keep the fire alight. Once a day
only do the inmates rouse themselves from sleep to eat a little
dry bread.
Reptiles in which the body-temperature falls with that of the
surrounding medium pass the winter in temperate countries in
a state of lethargy; and specimens exported from the tropics into
northern latitudes become dormant when exposed to cold in virtue
of their inability to maintain their temperature at a higher level
than that of the atmosphere. The common land tortoise ( Testudo
graeca) of South Europe buries itself in the soil during the winter
in its natural habitat, and even when imported to England is able,
in some cases at least, to withstand the more rigorous winter by
practising the same habit, as Gilbert White originally recorded.
In Pennsylvania the box-tortoise (Cistudo Carolina) passes the
winter in a burrow; and Tesludo elegans, which inhabits dry hilly
districts in north India, takes shelter beneath tufts of grass or
bushes as the cold weather approaches and remains in a semi-
lethargic state until the return of the warmth. The European
pond tortoise (Emys orbicularis) also hibernates buried in the soil;
and the North American salt-water terrapin (Malacoclemmys
concentrica) , abundant in the salt-marshes round Charleston,
S. Carolina, retires into the muddy banks to spend the cold
months of the year. In certain parts of the tropics tortoises
protect themselves from the excessive heat by burrowing into
the soil which afterwards becomes indurated. When drought
sets in with the dry season and the tanks become exhausted and
food unobtainable, crocodiles and alligators sometimes wander
across country in search of water, but more commonly bury
themselves in the mud and remain in a state of quiescence until
the return of the rains; and according to Humboldt, large
snakes, anacondas or boa constrictors are often found by the
Indians in South America buried in the sams lethargic state.
Snakes and lizards in all countries where there :s any considerable
seasonal variation in temperature become dormant or semi-
dormant during the colder months.
Batrachians, like reptiles, hibernate in Europe and other
countries situated in temperate latitudes. Frogs bury them-
selves in the mud at the bottom of tanks and ponds, often
congregating in numbers in the same spot. Toads retire to
burrows or other secluded places on the land, and newts either
bury themselves in the mud of ponds, like frogs, or lie up
beneath stones and pieces of wood on the land. According to
Mr G. A. Boulenger, however, European frogs and toads do not
pass the winter in profound torpor, but merely in a state of
sluggish quiescence. In tropical countries, where wet and dry
seasons alternate, frogs which, like the rest of the batrachians,
are for the most part intolerant of great heat, especially when
accompanied by dryness of atmosphere, bury themselves deep
in the soil during the time of drought and emerge from their
retreats in numbers with the breaking of the rains.
HIBERNATION
This habit of passing the dry season in the hardened mud
forming the bottom of exhausted pools and rivers is practised
by several species of tropical freshwater fishes, belonging princi-
pally to the family SUuridae. The members of this group are
able to exist and thrive in moist mud, and can even support
life for a comparatively long time out of water altogether. The
instinct is exhibited by species occurring both in the eastern and
western hemispheres, as is shown by its record in the case of
species of Callicthys and Loricaria in Guiana and by Glorias
lazera in Senegambia. It is also met with, according to Tennent,
in a species of climbing perch (Anabas oligolepis) found in Ceylon
and belonging to the family Anabantidae, all the species of
which are able to live for a certain length of time out of water,
and may sometimes be found crawling across land in search of
fresh pools. The habit is also common to some species of mud
fishes of the order Dipneusti, in which the air bladder plays
the part of lungs. Protopterus, from tropical Africa, for instance,
burrows into the mud and remains for nearly half the year
coiled up at the bottom in a slightly enlarged chamber. The
walls of this are lined with a layer of slime secreted from the
fish's skin, and the orifice is closed with a lid the centre of which
is perforated and forms an inturned tube by means of which
air is conducted to the fish's mouth. The aestivating burrow
of the Brazilian mudfish (Lepidosiren) is similar, except that
the lid is perforated with several apertures. The Australian
mudfish (Ceratodus) is not known to hibernate or aestivate.
In countries where winter frosts arrest the growth of vegeta-
tion terrestrial mollusca seek hibernacula beneath stones or
fallen tree trunks, in rock crannies, holes in walls, in heaps of
dead leaves, in moss or under the soil, and remain quiescent
until the coming of spring. Amongst pulmonate gastropods,
most species of snails (Helix, Clausilia) close the mouth of the
shell at this period with a membranous or calcified plate, the
epiphragm. Slugs (Limax, Arion), on the contrary, lie buried
in the earth encysted in a coating of slime. Similarly in the
tropics members of this group, such 1 as Achatina in tropical
Africa and Orthalicus in Brazil, aestivate during the dry season,
the epiphragm preserving them against desiccation; and
examples of two species of Achatina from east and west Africa
exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remained con-
cealed in their shells during the winter, although kept in an
artificially warmed house, and resumed their activity in the
summer.
Freshwater Pulmonata do not appear to hibernate, such
forms as Limnaea and Planorbis having been frequently seen
crawling about beneath the ice of frozen ponds. During periods
of drought in England, however, they commonly bury them-
selves in the mud, a habit which is also practised during the
dry season in the tropics by species of Prosobranchiate Gastropods
belonging to the genera Ampullaria, Melania and others, which
lie dormant until the first rains rouse them from their lethargy.
Freshwater Pelecypoda (Anodonta, Unio) spend the European
winter buried deep in the muddy bottom of ponds and streams.
In cold and temperate latitudes a great majority of insects
pass the winter in a dormant state, either in the larval, pupal
or imaginal (reproductive) stages. In some the state of hiberna-
tion is complete in the sense that although the insects may be
roused from their lethargy to the extent of movement by spells
of warm weather, they do not leave their hibernacula to feed;
in others it is incomplete in the sense that the insects emerge
to feed, as in the case of the caterpillar of Euprepia fuliginosa,
or to take the wing as in the case of the midge Trichocera hiemalis.
Others again, like Podura nivalis and Boreus hiemalis, never
appear to hibernate, at least in England. The insects which
hibernate as larvae belong to those species which pass more
than one season in that stage, such as the goat-moth (Cossus
ligniperdd), cockchafers (M elolontha) , stagbeetles (Lucanus)
and dragon-flies (Libellula), &c.; and to some species which,
although they only live a few months in this immature state,
are hatched in the autumn or summer and only reach the final
stage of growth in the following spring, like the butterflies of
the genus Argynnis (paphia, aglaia, &c.) in England. As an
instance of species which survive the winter in the pupal or
chrysalis stage may be cited the swallow-tailed butterfly of
Europe (Papilio machaon); while to the category of species
which hibernate as perfect insects belong many of the Coleoptera
(Rhyncophora, Coccindlid ae) , &c., as well as some Hemiptera,
Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera (Vanessa io, urlicae,
&c.). In the case of the social Hymenoptera it is only the
fertilized queen wasp out of the nest that survives the frost
of winter, all the workers dying with the onset of cold in the
autumn; the common hive bees (Apis mellifica), although they
retire to the hive, do not hibernate, the numbers and activity
of the individuals within the hive being sufficient to keep up the
temperature above soporific point. Ants also remain actively
at work underground unless the temperature falls several
degrees below zero.
Spiders, like nearly all insects, hibernate in cold temperate
latitudes. Burrowing species like trap-door spiders of the
family Ctenizidae and some species of Lycosidae seal the doors
of their burrows with silk or close up the orifice with a sheet
of that material. Other non-burrowing species, like some species
of Clubionidae and Drassidae, lie up in silken cases attached
to the underside of stones or of pieces of loose bark, or buried
under dead leaves or concealed in the cracks of walls. Other
species, on the contrary, pass the winter in an immature state
protected from the cold by the silken cocoon spun by the mother
for her eggs before she dies in the late autumn, as in the " garden
spider" (Aranea diadema). Commonly, however, when the
cocoons are later in the making, or the cold weather sets in early,
the eggs of this and of allied species do not hatch until the spring;
but in either case the young emerge hi the warm weather, become
adult during the summer and die in the autumn after pairing
and oviposition. Some members of this family, nevertheless,
like Zilla x-notala, which live in the corners of windows, or in
outhouses where the habitat affords a certain degree of pro-
tection from the cold, may survive the winter in the adult stage
and be roused from lethargy by breaks in the weather and
tempted by the warmth to spin new webs. Typical members
of the Opiliones or harvest spiders, belonging to the family
Phalangiidae, do not hibernate in temperate and more northern
latitudes in Europe and America, but perish in the autumn,
leaving their eggs buried in the soil to hatch in the succeeding
spring. During the early summer, therefore, only immature
individuals are found. Other species of this order, belonging
to the family Trogulidae, spend the winter in a dormant state
under stones or buried in the soil. False scorpions (Pseudo-
scorpiones) also hibernate in temperate latitudes, passing the
cold months, like many spiders, enclosed in silken cases attached
to the underside of stones or loosened pieces of bark. Centi-
pedes and millipedes bury themselves in the earth, or lie up in
some secluded shelter such as stones or fallen tree trunks afford
during the winter; and in -the tropics millipedes lie dormant
during seasons of drought.
What is true of the dormant condition of arthropod life in
the winter of the northern hemisphere is also true in a general
way of that of the southern hemisphere at the same season
of the year. This is proved to mention no other cases by the
observations of Darwin on the hibernation of insects and spiders
at Montevideo and Bahia Blanca in South America, and by
Distant's account of the paucity of insect life in the winter
in South Africa; by his discovery under stones of hibernating
semi-torpid Coleoptera and Hemiptera at the end of August in
the Transvaal, and of the gradual increase in the ;numbers of
individuals and species of insects in that country as the spring
advanced and the dry season came to an end.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. T. Bell, A History of British Reptiles (and
Amphibians) (1849); W. T. Blanford, Fauna of British India:
Mammalia (1889-1891); G. A. Boulenger, Monograph of the
Tailless Batrachians of Europe, edited by the Ray Society;
" Teleostei " in Cambridge Natural History, vii. 541-727 (1904);
T. W. Bridge, " Dipneustei " in Cambridge Natural History, vii.
505-520 (1904); A. H. Cooke, " Molluscs" in Cambridge Natural
History, iii. 25-27 (1895); T. A. Coward, P.Z.S. pp. 849-
855 (1906), and pp. 312-324 (1907); C. Darwin, A Naturalist's
HIBERNIA HICKORY
447
Voyage Round Hie World, pp. 97-98 (1907 ed.); W. L. Distant,
A Naturalist in the Transvaal,' ch. iii. (1892); Marshall Hall,
" Hibernation, " in Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physi-
ology, pp. 764-776 (1839) (Bibliography); Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.
(1832); John Hunter, Observations on parts of the Animal Economy
(1837) ; Index Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General's
Office of the U.S. Army, vii. (1902), Bibliography relating to physio-
logy of Hibernation; W. Kirby and W. Spence, An Introduction
to Entomology, ed. 17, pp. 517-533 (1856); L. Landois, A Text-book
of Human Physiology, translated by W. Stirling, i. 410 (1904);
V. Laporte, " Suspension of Vitality in Animals," Pop. Sci. Monthly,
x*xvi. 257-259 (New York, 1889-1890); Mangili, " Essai sur la
lethargic periodique," Annales du Museum, x. 453-456 (1807);
C. Hart Merriam, North American Pocket Mice (Washington,
1889) ; W. Miller, " Hibernation and Allied States in Animals,"
Trans. Pan-Amer. Med. Congr. (1893), pt. ii. pp. 1274-1285
(Washington, 1895); M. S. Pembrey and A. C. Pitts, The Relation
between the Internal Temperature and the Respiratory Movements
of Hibernating Animals," Journ. Physiol. (London, 1899), pp. 305-
316; Prunelle, " Recherches sur les phe'nomenes et sur les causes du
sommeil hivernal," Annales du Museum, xviii. ; J. A. Saissy,
Recherches sur les animaux hivernans (1808); L. Spallanzani,
Memoires sur la respiration (1803); J. Emerson Tennent, Sketches
of the Natural History of Ceylon, pp. 351-358 (1861); Volkov, " Le
Sommeil hivernal chez les paysans russes," Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthropol.
(Paris, 1900), i. 67; abstract in Brit. Med. Journ. (1900), i.
1554. ( R - I- P ->
HIBERNIA, in ancient geography, one of the names by which
Ireland was known to Greek and Roman writers. Other names
were lerne, luverna, Iberio. All these are adaptations of a stem
from which also Erin is descended. The island was well known
to the Romans through the reports of traders, so far at least as
its coasts. But it never became part of the Roman empire.
Agricola (about A.D. 80) planned its conquest, which he judged
an easy task, but the Roman government vetoed the enterprise.
During the Roman occupation of Britain, Irish pirates seem to
have been an intermittent nuisance, and Irish emigrants may
have settled occasionally in Wales; the best attested emigration
is that of the Scots into Caledonia. It was only in post-Roman
days that Roman civilization, brought perhaps by Christian
missionaries like Patrick, entered the island.
HICKERINGILL (or HICKHORNGILL) , EDMUND (1631-1708),
English divine, lived an eventful life in the days of the Common-
wealth and the Restoration. After graduating at Caius College,
Cambridge, where he was junior fellow in 1651-1652, he joined
Lilburne's regiment as chaplain, and afterwards served in the
ranks in Scotland and in the Swedish service, ultimately becoming
a captain in Fleetwood's regiment. He then lived for a time in
Jamaica, of which he published an account in 1661. In the same
year he was ordained by Robert Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln,
having already passed through such shades of belief as are
connoted by the terms Baptist, Quaker and Deist. From 1662
until his death in 1708 he was vicar of All Saints', Colchester.
He was a vigorous pamphleteer, and came into collision with
Henry Compton, bishop of London, to whom he had to pay heavy
damages for slander in 1682. He made a public recantation in
1684, was excluded from his living in 1685-1688, and ended his
career by being convicted for forgery in 1707.
HICKES, GEORGE (1642-1715), English divine and scholar,
was born at Newsham near Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 2oth of
June 1642. In 1659 he entered St John's College, Oxford,
whence after the Restoration he removed to Magdalen Col-
lege and then to Magdalen Hall. In 1664 he was elected
fellow of Lincoln College, and in the following year proceeded
M.A. In 1673 he graduated in divinity, and in 1675 he was
appointed rector of St Ebbe's, Oxford. In 1676, as private
chaplain, he accompanied the duke of Lauderdale, the royal
commissioner, to Scotland, and shortly afterwards received the
degree of D.D. from St Andrews. In 1680 he became vicar of
All Hallows, Barking, London; and after having been made
chaplain to the king in 1681, he was in 1683 promoted to the
deanery of Worcester. He opposed both James II. 's declaration
of indulgence and Monmouth's rising, and he tried in vain to save
from death his nonconformist brother John Hickes (1633-1685),
one of the Sedgemoor refugees harboured by Alice Lisle. At the
revolution of 1688, having declined to take the oath of allegiance,
Hickes was first suspended and afterwards deprived of his
deanery. When he heard of the appointment of a successor
he affixed to the cathedral doors a " protestation and claim of
right." After remaining some time in concealment in London,
he was sent by Sancroft and the other nonjurors to James II. in
France on matters connected with the continuance of their
episcopal succession; upon his return in 1694 he was himself
consecrated suffragan bishop of Thetford. His later years were
largely occupied in controversies and in writing, while in 1713 he
persuaded two Scottish bishops, James Gadderar and Archibald
Campbell, to assist him in consecrating Jeremy Collier, Samuel
Hawes and Nathaniel Spinckes as bishops among the nonjurors.
He died on the isth of December 1715.
The chief writings of Hickes are the Institutiones Grammaticae
Anglo-Saxonicae et Moeso-Gothicae (1689), and Linguarum veterum
Septentrionalium Thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus
(1703-1705), a work of great learning and industry.
Apart from these two works Hickes was a voluminous and laborious
author. His earliest writings, which were anonymous, were sug-
gested by contemporary events in Scotland that gave him great
satisfaction the execution of James Mitchell on a charge of having
attempted to murder Archbishop Sharp, and that of John Kid and
John King, Presbyterian ministers, " for high treason and rebellion "
(Ravillac Redivivus, 1678; The Spirit of Popery speaking out of the
Mouths of Phanatical Protestants, 1680). In his Jovian (an answer
to S. Johnson's Julian the Apostate, 1683), he endeavoured to show
that the Roman empire was not hereditary, and that the Christians
under Julian had recognized the duty of passive obedience. His
two treatises, one Of the Christian Priesthood and the other Of the
Dignity of the Episcopal Order, originally published in 1707, have
been more than once reprinted, and form three volumes of the
Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (1847). In 1705 and 1710 were
published. Collections of Controversial Letters, in 1711 a collection of
Sermons, and in 1726 a volume of Posthumous Discourses. Other
treatises, such as the Apologetical Vindication of the Church of
England, are to be met with in Edmund Gibson's Preservative against
Popery. There is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library which
sketches his life to the year 1689, and many of his letters are extant
in various collections. A posthumous publication of his The Con-
stitution of the Catholick Church and the Nature and Consequences of
Schism (1716) gave rise to the celebrated Bangorian controversy.
See the article by the Rev. W. D. Macray in the Dictionary of
National Biography, vol. xxvi. (1891); and J. H. Overton, The
Nonjurors (1902).
HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS (1798-1888), American philo-
sopher and divine, was born at Bethel, Connecticut, on the
29th of December 1798. He took his degree at Union College in
1820. Until 1836 he was occupied in active pastoral work, and
was then appointed professor of theology at the Western Reserve
College, Ohio, and later (1844-1852) at the Auburn (N.Y.) Theo-
logical Seminary. From this post he was elected vice-president of
Union College and professor of mental and moral science. In
1866 he succeeded Dr E. Nott as president, but in July 1868
retired to Amherst, Massachusetts, where he devoted himself to
writing and study. A collected edition of his principal works was
published at Boston in 1875. He died at Amherst on the 7th
of May 1888. He wrote Rational Psychology (1848), System of
Moral Science (1853), Empirical Psychology (1854), Rational
Cosmology (1858), Creator and Creation, or the Knowledge in the
Reason of God and His Work (1872), Humanity Immortal (1872),
Logic of Reason (1874).
HICKORY, a shortened form of the American Indian name
pohickery. Hickory trees are natives of North America, and
belong to the genus Carya. They are closely allied to the walnuts
(Juglans), the chief or at least one very obvious difference being
that, whilst in Carya the husk which covers the shell of the nut
separates into four valves, in Juglans it consists of but one piece,
which bursts irregularly. The timber is both strong and heavy,
and remarkable for its extreme elasticity, but it decays rapidly
when exposed to heat and moisture, and is peculiarly subject to
the attacks of worms. It is very extensively employed in
manufacturing musket stocks, axle-trees, screws, rake teeth, the
bows of yokes, the wooden rings used on the rigging of vessels,
chair-backs, axe-handles, whip-handles and other purposes
requiring great strength and elasticity. Its principal use in
America is for hoop-making; and it is the only American wood,
found perfectly fit for that purpose.
The wood of the hickory is of great value as fuel, on account of
the brilliancy with which it burns and the ardent heat which it
HICKS, E. HICKS, W.
gives out, the charcoal being heavy, compact and long-lived.
The species which furnish the best wood are Carya alba (shell-
bark hickory), C. tomentosa (mockernut), C. olivaeformis (pecan
or pacane nut), and C. porcina (pig-nut), that of the last named,
on account of its extreme tenacity, being preferred for axle-trees
FIG. i. Shell-bark Hickory (Carya alba) in flower (J nat. size) .
and axle-handles. The wood of C. alba splits very easily and is
very elastic, so that it is much used for making whip-handles and
baskets. The wood of this species is also used in the neighbour-
hood of New York and Philadelphia for making the back bows
of Windsor chairs. The timber of C. amara and C. aquatica is
considered of inferior quality.
Most of the hickories form fine-looking noble trees of from 60 to
90 ft. in height, with straight, symmetrical trunks, well-balanced
ample heads, and bold, handsome, pinnated foliage. When
confined in the forest they shoot up 50 to 60 ft. without branches,
but when standing alone they expand into a fine head, and
produce a lofty round-headed pyramid of foliage. They have all
the qualities necessary to constitute fine graceful park trees.
The most ornamental of the species are C. olivaeformis, C. alba
and C. porcina, the last two also producing delicious nuts, and
being worthy of cultivation for their fruit alone.
The husk of the hickory nut, as already stated, breaks up into
four equal valves or sepaiates into four equal portions in the
upper part, while the nut itself is tolerably even on the surface,
but has four or more blunt angles in its transverse outline. The
FIG. 2. I, Fruit of Carya alba; 2, Hickory Nut; 3, Cross Section
of Nut; 4, Vertical Section of the Seed. (All natural size.)
hickory nuts of the American markets are the produce of C. alba,
called the shell-bark hickory because of the roughness of its bark,
which becomes loosened from the trunk in long scales bending
outwards at the extremities and adhering only by the middle.
The nuts are much esteemed in all parts of the States, and are
exported in considerable quantities to Europe. The pecan-nuts,
which come from the Western States, are from i in. to if in. long,
smooth, cylindrical, pointed at the ends and thin-shelled, with
the kernels full, not like those of most of the hickories divided by
partitions, and of delicate and agreeable flavour. The thick-
shelled fruits of the pig-nut are generally left on the ground for
swine, squirrels, &c., to devour. In C. amara the kernel is so
bitter that even squirrels refuse to eat it.
HICKS, ELIAS (1748-1830), American Quaker, was born in
Hempstead township, Long Island, on the igth of March 1748.
His parents were Friends, but he took little interest in religion
until he was about twenty; soon after that time he gave up
the carpenter's trade, to which he had been apprenticed when
seventeen, and became a farmer. By 1775 he had " openings
leading to the ministry " and was " deeply engaged for the
right administration of discipline and order in the church,"
and in 1779 he first set out on his itinerant preaching tours
between Vermont and Maryland. He attacked slavery, even
when preaching in Maryland; wrote Observations on the Slavery
of the Africans and their Descendants (1811); and was influential
in procuring the passage (in 1817) of the act declaring free after
1827 all negroes born in New York and not freed by the Act of
1799. He died at Jericho, Long Island, on the 27th of February
1830. His preaching was practical rather than doctrinal and he
was heartily opposed to any set creed; hence his successful opposi-
tion at the Baltimore yearly meeting of 1817 to the proposed creed
which would make the Society in America approach the position
of the Engb'sh Friends by definite doctrinal statements. His
Doctrinal Epistle (1824) stated his position, and a break ensued
in 1827-1828, Hicks's followers, who call themselves the " Liberal
Branch," being called " Hicksites " by the " Orthodox " party,
which they for a time outnumbered. The village of Hicksville,
in Nassau County, New York, 15 m. E. of Jamaica, lies in the
centre of the Quaker district of Long Island and was named
in honour of Elias Hicks.
See A Series of Extemporaneous Discourses . . . by Elias Hicks
(Philadelphia, 1825); The Journal of the. Life and Labors of Elias
Hicks (Philadelphia, 1828), and his Letters (Philadelphia, 1834).
HICKS, HENRY (1837-1899), British physician and geologist,
was born on the 26th of May 1837 at St David's, in Pembroke-
shire, where his father, Thomas Hicks, was a surgeon. He
studied medicine at Guy's Hospital, London, qualifying as
M.R.C.S. in 1862. Returning to his native place he commenced
a practice which he continued until 1871, when he removed to
Hendon. He then devoted special attention to mental diseases,
took the degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1878, and continued
his medical work until the close of his life. In Wales he had
been attracted to geology by J. W. Salter (then palaeontologist
to the Geological Survey), and his leisure time was given to the
study of the older rocks and fossils of South Wales. In conjunc-
tion with Salter, he established in 1865 the Menevian group
(Middle Cambrian) characterized by the trilobite Paradoxides.
Subsequently Hicks contributed a series of important papers
on the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, and figured and
described many new species of fossils. Later he worked at the
Pre-Cambrian rocks of St David's, describing the Dimetian
(granitoid rock) and the Pebidian (volcanic series), and his
views, though contested, have been generally accepted. At
Hendon Dr Hicks gave much attention to the local geology
and also to the Pleistocene deposits of the Denbighshire caves.
For a few years before his death he had laboured at the
Devonian rocks. With his keen eye for fossils he detected
organic remains in the Morte slates, previously regarded as
unfossiliferous, and these he regarded as including representa-
tives of Lower Devonian and Silurian. His papers were mostly
published in the Geol. Mag. and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. He
was elected F.R.S. in 1885, and president of the Geological
Society of London 1896-1898. He died at Hendon on the i8th
of November 1899.
HICKS, WILLIAM (1830-1883), British soldier, entered the
Bombay army in 1849, and served through the Indian mutiny,
being mentioned in despatches for good conduct at the action
of Sitka Ghaut in 1859. In 1861 he became captain, and in the
HIDALGO HIDDENITE
449
Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68 was a brigade major, being
again mentioned in despatches and given a brevet majority.
He retired with the honorary rank of colonel in 1880. After
the close of the Egyptian war of 1882, he entered the khedive's
service and was made a pasha. Early in 1883 he went to Khar-
tum as chief of the staff of the army there, then commanded
by Suliman Niazi Pasha. Camp was formed at Omdurman
and a new force of some 8000 fighting men collected mostly
recruited from the fellahin of Arabi's disbanded troops, sent
in chains from Egypt. After a month's vigorous drilling Hicks
led 5000 of his men against an equal force of dervishes in Sennar,
whom he defeated, and cleared the country between the towns
of Sennar and Khartum of rebels. Relieved of the fear of an
immediate attack by the mahdists the Egyptian officials at
Khartum intrigued against Hicks, who in July tendered his
resignation. This resulted in the dismissal of Suliman Niazi
and the appointment of Hicks as commander-in-chief of an
expeditionary force to Kordofan with orders to crush the mahdi,
who in January 1883 had captured El Obeid, the capital of that
province. Hicks, aware of the worthlessness of his force for the
purpose contemplated, stated his opinion that it would be best
to " wait for Kordofan to settle itself " (telegram of the 5th of
August). The Egyptian ministry, however, did not then
believe in the power of the mahdi, and the expedition started
from Khartum on the gth of September. It was made up of
7000 infantry, 1000 cavalry and 2000 camp followers and
included thirteen Europeans. On the 2oth the force left the
Nile at Duem and struck inland across the almost waterless
wastes of Kordofan for Obeid. On the 5th of November the
army, misled by treacherous guides and thirst-stricken, was
ambuscaded in dense forest at Kashgil, 30 m. south of Obeid.
With the exception of some 300 men the whole force was killed.
According to the story of Hicks's cook, one of the survivors,
the general was the last officer to fall, pierced by the spear of
the khalifa Mahommed Sherif. After emptying his revolver
the pasha kept his assailants at bay for some time with his sword,
a body of Baggara who fled before him being known afterwards
as " Baggar Hicks " (the cows driven by Hicks), a play on the
words baggara and baggar, the former being the herdsmen and
the latter the cows. Hicks's head was cut off and taken to
the mahdi.
See Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan, book iv., by Sir
F. R. Wingate (London, 1891), and With Hicks Pasha in the
Soudan, by J. Colborne (London, 1884). Also EGYPT: Military
Operations.
HIDALGO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by San
Luis Potosi and Vera Cruz, E. by Vera Cruz and Puebla,S.by Tlax-
cala and Mexico (state), and W. by Queretaro. Pop. (1895)
551,817, (1900) 605,051. Area, 8917 sq. m. The northern
and eastern parts are elevated and mountainous, culminating
in the Cerro de Navajas (10,528 ft.). A considerable area of
this region on the eastern side of the state is arid and semi-
barren, being part of the elevated tableland of Apam where
the maguey (American aloe) has been grown for centuries. The
southern and western parts of the state consist of rolling plains,
in the midst of which is the large lake of Metztitlan. Hidalgo
produces cereals in the more elevated districts, sugar, maguey,
coffee, beans, cotton and tobacco. Maguey is cultivated for
the production of pulque, the national drink. The chief industry,
however, is mining, the mineral districts of Pachuca, El Chico,
Real del Monte, San Jose del Oro, and Zimapan being among
the richest in Mexico. The mineral products include silver,
gold, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese
and plumbago. Coal, marble and opals are also found. Rail-
way facilities are afforded by a branch of the Vera Cruz and
Mexico line, which runs from Ometusco to Pachuca, the capital
of the state, and by the Mexican Central. Among the principal
towns are Tulancingo (pop. 9037), a rich mining centre 24 m.
E. of Pachuca, Ixmiquilpan (about 9000) with silver mines
So m. N. by W. of the Federal Capital, and Actopan (2666),
the chief town of the district N.N.W. of Pachuca, inhabited
principally by Indians of the Othomies nation.
XIH. 15
HIDALGO (a Spanish word, contracted from hijo d'algo
or hijo de algo, son of something, or somewhat), originally
a Spanish title of the lower nobility; the hidalgo being the
lowest grade of nobility which was entitled to use the prefix
" don." The term is now used generally to denote one of
gentle birth. The Portuguese fidalgo has a similar history_and
meaning.
HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL (1753-1811), Mexican
patriot, was born on the 8th of May 1753, on a" farm at Corralejos,
near Guanajuato. His mother's maiden name was Gallaga,
but contrary to the usual custom of the Spaniards he used only
the surname of his father, Cristobal Hidalgo y Costilla. He
was educated at Valladolid in Mexico, and was ordained priest
in 1779. Until 1809 he was known only as a man of pious life
who exerted himself to introduce various forms of industry,
including the cultivation of silk, among his parishioners at
Dolores. But Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a
widespread commotion. The colonists were indisposed to
accept a French ruler and showed great zeal in proclaiming
Ferdinand VII. as king. The societies they formed for
their professedly loyal purpose were regarded, however,
by the Spanish authorities with suspicion as being designed
to prepare the independence of Mexico. Hidalgo and several
of his friends, among whom was Miguel Dominguez, mayor of
Queretaro, engaged in consultation and preparations which the
authorities considered treasonable. Dominguez was arrested,
but Hidalgo was warned in time. He collected some hundred
of his parishioners, and on the 1 6th of September 1810 they seized
the prison at Dolores. This action began what was in fact a
revolt against the Spanish and Creole elements of the population.
With what is known as the " grito " or cry of Dolores as their
rallying shout, a multitude gathered round Hidalgo, who took for
his banner a wonder-working picture of the Virgin belonging to a
popular shrine. At first he met with some success. A regiment
of dragoons of the militia joined him, and some small posts were
stormed. The whole tumultuous host moved on the city of
Mexico. But here the Spaniards and Creoles were concentrated.
Hidalgo lost heart and retreated. Many of his followers deserted,
and on the march to Queretaro he was attacked at Aculco
by General Felix Calleja on the 7 th of November 1 8 1 o, and routed.
He endeavoured to continue the struggle, and did succeed in
collecting a mob estimated at 100,000 about Guadalajara.
With this ill-armed and undisciplined crowd he took up a
position on the bridge of Calderon on the river Santiago. On
the 1 7th of January 1811 he was completely beaten by Calleja
and a small force of soldiers. Hidalgo was deposed by the other
leaders, and soon afterwards all of them were betrayed to the
Spaniards. They were tried at Chihuahua, and condemned.
Hidalgo was 'first degraded from the priesthood and then
shot as a rebel, on the 3ist of July or the ist of August
1811.
See H. H. Bancroft, The Pacific States, vol. vii., which contains a
copious bibliography.
HIDDENITE, a green transparent variety of spodumene, (q.v.)
used as a gem-stone. It was discovered by William E. Hidden (b-
1853) about 1879 at Stonypoint, Alexander county, North Caro-
lina, and was at first taken for diopside. In 1881 J. Lawrence
Smith proved it to be spodumene, and named it. Hiddenite
occurs in small slender monoclinic crystals of prismatic habit,
often pitted on the surface. A well-marked prismatic cleavage
renders the mineral rather difficult to cut. Its colour passes
from an emerald green to a greenish-yellow, and is often unevenly
distributed through the stone. The mineral is dichroic in a
marked degree, and shows much " fire " when properly cut.
The composition of the mineral is represented by the formula
LiAl(SiO 3 ) 2 , the green colour being probably due to the presence
of a small proportion of chromium. The presence of lithia
in this green mineral suggested the inappropriate name of
lithia emerald, by which it is sometimes known. Hiddenite
was originally found as loose crystals in the soil, but was after-
wards worked in a veinstone, where it occurred in association
with beryl, quartz, garnet, mica, rutile, &c.
450
HIDE
HIDE 1 (Lat. hida, A.-S. higld, hid or hiwisc, members of a
household), a measure of land. The word was in general use
in England in Anglo-Saxon and early English times, although
its meaning seems to have varied somewhat from time to time.
Among its Latin equivalents are terra unius familiae, terra
unius cassati and mansio; the first of these forms is used by
Bede, who, like all early writers, gives to it no definite area.
In its earliest form the hide was the typical holding of the typical
family. Gradually, this typical holding came to be regarded
as containing 120 " acres " (not 120 acres of 4840 sq. yds. each,
but 120 times the amount of land which a ploughteam of
eight oxen could plough in a single day). This definition appears
to have been very general in England before the Norman
Conquest, and in Domesday Book 30, 40, 50 and 80 acres are
repeatedly mentioned as fractions of a hide. Some historians,
however, have thought that the hide only contained 30 acres
or thereabouts.
" The question about the hide," says Professor Maitland in Domes-
day Book and Beyond, " is ' pre-judicial ' to all the great questions of
early English history." The main argument employed by J. M.
Kemble (The Saxons in England) in favour of the " small " hide is
that the number of hides stated to have existed in the various parts
of England gives an acreage far in excess of the total acreage of these
parts, making due allowance for pasture and for woodland, an
allowance necessary because the hide was only that part of the land
which came under the plough, and each hide must have carried
with it a certain amount of pasture. Two illustrations in support
of Kemble's theory must suffice. Bede says the Isle of Wight
contained 1200 hides. Now 1200 hides of 120 acres each gives a
total acreage of 144,000 acres, while the total acreage of the island
to-day is only 93,000 acres. Again a document called The Tribal
Hidage puts the number of hides in the whole of England at nearly
a quarter of a million. This gives in acres a figure about equal to
the total acreage of England at the present time, but it leaves no
room for pasture and for the great proportion of land which was
still woodland. On these grounds Kemble regarded the hide as
containing 30 or 33, certainly not more than 40 acres, and thought
that each acre contained about 4000 sq. yds., i.e. that it was roughly
equal to the modern acre. Another argument brought forward is that
30 or 40 acres was enough land for the support of the average family,
in other words that it was the terra unius familiae of Bede. Another
Domesday student, R. W. Eyton, puts down the hide at 48 acres.
But formidable arguments have been advanced against the
" small " hide. There is no doubt that at the time of Domesday
the hide was equated with 120 and not with 30 acres. Then, taking
the word familia in its proper sense, a household with many de-
pendent members, and making an allowance for primitive methods
of agriculture, it is questionable whether 30 or 40 acres were sufficient
for its support; and again if the equation I hide = 120 acres is re-
jected there is no serious evidence in favour of any other. A possible
explanation is that, although in early Anglo-Saxon times the hide
consisted of 30 acres or thereabouts, it had come before the time
of Domesday to contain 120 acres. But no trace of such change
can be found ; there is no break in the continuity of the land-
charters which refer to hides and manses. Reviewing the whole
question Professor Maitland accepts the view that the hide contained
1 20 acres. The difficulties are serious but they are not insuperable.
Bede, writing in a primitive age and speaking for the most part of
lands far away from Northumbria, uses figures in a vague and
general fashion; then the hide of 120 acres does not mean 120 times
4840 yds., it means much less; and lastly at the time of Domesday
the hide was not a unit of measurement, it was a unit for pur-
poses of taxation. On the other hand, Mr. H. M. Chadwick
(Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions) says there is no evidence that
the hide contained 120 acres before the roth century. He suggests
that possibly the size of the hide in Mercia may have been fixed at
40 acres, while in Wessex it was regarded as containing 120 acres.
Dr Stubbs (Const. Hist, i.) suggests that the confusion may
have arisen because the word was used " to express the whole share
of one man in all the fields of the village." Thus it might refer to
30 acres, his share in one field, or to 120 acres, his share in the four
fields. He adds, however, that this explanation is not adequate for
all cases. But these differences about the size of the hide are not
peculiar to modern times. Henry of Huntingdon says, Hida Anglice
vocatur terra unius aralri culturae sufficiens per annum, while the
1 The homonym " hide," meaning to conceal, is in O. Eng.
hydan ; the word appears in various forms in Old Teutonic languages.
The root is probably seen in Gr. utifitiv to hide, or may be the
same as in " hide," skin, O. Eng. hyd, which is also seen in
Ger. Haul, Dutch huid; the root appears in Lat. cutis, Gr. KVTOS.
The Indo-European root ku-, weakened form of sku-, seen in " sky,"
and meaning " to cover," may be the ultimate source of both
words. The slang use of " to hide," to flog or whip, means " to
take the skin off, to flay."
Dialogus de scaccario puts its size at 100 acres, though this may be
the long hundred, or 120. Perhaps, therefore, Selden is wisest when
he says, " hides were of an incertain quantity." Certainly he gives
a very good description of the early hide when he says (Titles of
Honour): "Now a hide of land regularly is and was (as I think) as
much land as might be well manured with one plough, together
with pasture, meadow and wood competent for the maintenance of
that plough, and the servants of the family." The view that the
size of the hide varied from district to district is borne out by
Professor Vinogradoff's more recent researches. In his English
Society in the Eleventh Century he mentions that there was a hide
of 48 acres in Wiltshire and one of 40 acres in Dorset. In addition
some authorities distinguish between English hides and Welsh
hides, and in Sussex the hide often contained 8 virgates. Some-
times again in the nth century hides were not merely fiscal units;
they were shares in the land itself.
The fact that the hide was a unit of assessment, has been
established by Mr J. H. Round in his Feudal England, and is
regarded as throwing a most valuable light upon the many
problems which present themselves to the student of Domesday.
The process which converted the hide from a unit of measure-
ment to a unit for assessment purposes is probably as follows.
Being in general use to denote a large piece of land, and such
pieces of land being roughly equal all over England, the hide
was a useful unit on which to levy taxation, a use which dates
doubtless from the time of the Danegeld. For some time the
two meanings were used side by side, but before the Norman
Conquest the hide, a unit for taxation, had quite supplanted
the hide, a measure of land, and this was the state of affairs
when in 1086 William I. ordered his great inquest to be made.
The formula used in Domesday varies from county to county,
but a single illustration may be given. Huntedun Burg defendebat
se ad geldum regis pro quarto, parte de Hyrstingestan hundred
pro L. hidis. This does not mean that the town of Huntingdon
contained a certain fixed number of square yards multiplied
by 50, but that for purposes of taxation Huntingdon was
regarded as worth 50 times a certain fiscal unit.
This view of the nature of the hide was hinted at by R. W. Eyton
in A Key to Domesday and was accepted by Maitland. Its proof
rests primarily upon the prevalence of the five-hide unit. By
collating various documents which formed part of the Domesday
inquest Mr Round has brought together for certain parts of England,
especially for Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, the holdings of the
various lords in the different vills, and vill after vill shows a total
of 5 hides or 10 hides or only a slight discrepancy therefrom. A
similar result is shown for the hundreds where multiples of 5 are
almost universal, and the total hidage for the county of Worcester
is very near the round figure of 1200. This arrangement is obviously
artificial; it must have been imposed upon the' counties or the
hundreds by the central authority and then divided among the
vills. Another proof is found in what is called " beneficial hidation."
It is shown that in certain cases the number of hides in a hundred
has been reduced since the time of Edward the Confessor, and that
this reduction had been transferred pro rata to the vills in the
hundred. Thus Mr Round concludes that the hide was fixed
" independently of area or value." Some slight criticism has been
directed against the idea of " artificial hidation," but the most that
can be said against it is that its proof rests upon isolated cases, a
reproach which further research will doubtless remove. However,
Professor Vinogradoff accepts the hide primarily as a fiscal unit
" which corresponds only in a very rough way to the agrarian
reality," and Maitland says the fiscal hide is " at its best a lame
compromise between a unit of area and a unit of value."
What is the origin of the five-hide unit? Various conjectures
have been hazarded, and the unit is undoubtedly older than
the Danegeld. Rejecting the idea that it is of Roman or of
British origin, and pointing to the serious difference in the rates
at which the various counties were assessed, Mr Round thinks
that it dates from the time when the various Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms were independent. Possibly it was the unit of assess-
ment for military service, possibly it was the recognized endow-
ment of a Saxon thegn. In Anglo-Saxon times a man's stand-
ing in society was dependent to a great extent upon the number
of hides which he possessed; this statement is fully proved
from the laws. Moreover, in the laws of the Wessex king, Ine,
the value of a man's oath is expressed in hides, the o'ath for a
king's thegn being probably worth 60 hides and that of a ceorl
5 hides.
The usual division of the hide was into virgates, a virgate
being, after the Conquest at least, the normal holding of the
HIEL HIERAPOLIS
villein with two oxen. Mr Round holds that in Domesday
at all events the hide always consisted of four virgates; Mr F.
Seebohm in The English Village Community, although thinking
that the normal hide " consisted as a rule of four virgates of
30 acres each," says that the Hundred Rolls for Huntingdon-
shire show that " the hide did not always contain the same
number of virgates." The virgate, it may be noted, consisted
of a strip of land in each acre of the hide, and there is undoubtedly
a strong case in favour of the equation i hide = 4 virgates.
Mr Seebohm, propounding his theory that English institutions
are rooted in those of Rome, argues for some resemblance between
the methods of taxation of land in Rome and in England; he
sees some connexion between the Roman centuria and the
hide, and between the Roman system of taxation called jugatio
and the English hidage. Professor Vinogradoff ( Villainage in
England) summarizes the views of those who hold a contrary
opinion thus: " The curious fact that the normal holding,
the hide, was equal all over England can be explained only by
its origin; it came full-formed from Germany and remained
unchanged in spite of all diversities of geographical and
economical conditions."
In the Danish parts of England, or rather in the district of the
" Five Boroughs," the carucate takes the place of the hide as the
unit of value, and six supplants five, six carucates being the unit of
assessment. In Leicestershire and in part of Lancashire the hide
is quite different from what it is elsewhere in England. According
to Mr Round the Leicestershire hide consisted of 18 carucates;
Mr W. H. Stevenson (English Historical Review, vol. v.) argues that
it contained only 12 and that it was a hundred and not a hide. ,
Mr Seebohm thinks there was a solanda or double hide of 240 acres
in Essex and other southern counties, but Mr Round does not
think that this word refers to a measure or unit of assessment at all.
For Kent, however, the word sullung or solin, is used in Domesday
Book and in the charters instead of hide and carucate as elsewhere,
and Vinogradoff thinks that this contained from 180 to 200 acres.
Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings a levy of two
or more shillings on each hide of land was a usual and recognized
method of raising money, royal and some other estates, however,
as is seen from Domesday, not being hidated and not paying
the tax. This geld, or tax, received several names, one of the
most general being hidage (Lat. hidagium). " Hidage," says
Vinogradoff, " is historically connected with the old English
Danegeld system," and as Danegeld and then hidage it was
levied long after its original purpose was forgotten, and was
during the nth century " the most sweeping and the heaviest
of all the taxes." Henry of Huntingdon says its usual rate was
2s. on each hide of land, and this was evidently the rate at the
time of the famous dispute between Henry II. and Becket at
Woodstock in 1163, but it was not always kept at this figure,
as in 1084 William I. had levied a tax of 6s. on each hide, an
unusual extortion. The feudal aids were levied on the hide.
Thus in 1109 Henry I. raised one at the rate of 33. per hide
for the marriage of his daughter Matilda with the emperor
Henry V., and in 1104, when money was collected for the ransom
of Richard I., some of the taxation for this purpose seems to
have been assessed according to the hidage given in Domesday
Book.
By this time the word hidage as the designation of the tax
was disappearing, its place being taken by the word carucage.
The carucate (Lat. caruca, a plough) was a measure of land
which prevailed in the north of England, the district inhabited
by people of Danish descent. Some authorities regard it as
equivalent to the hide, others deny this identity. In 1198,
however, when Richard I. imposed a tax of 55. on each carucata
ierrae sive hyda, the two words were obviously interchangeable,
and about the same time the size of the carucate was fixed at
100 acres. The word carucage remained in use for some time
longer, and then other names were given to the various taxes
on land.
One or two other questions with regard to the hide still remain
unsolved. What is the connexion, if any, between the hundred and
a hundred hides? Again, was the size of the hide fixed at 120 acres
to make the work of reckoning the amount of Danegeld, or hidage,
a simple process? 120 acres to the hide, 240 pence to the pound,
makes calculations easy. Lastly, is the English hide derived from
the German hufe or hubat (A. W. H.*)
HIEL, EMMANUEL (1834-1899), Belgian-Dutch poet and
prose writer, was born at Dendermonde, in Flanders, in May
1834. He acted in various functions, from teacher and govern-
ment official to journalist and bookseller, busily writing all
the time both for the theatre and the magazines of North and
South Netherlands. His last posts were those of librarian at
the Industrial Museum and professor of declamation at the
Conservatoire in Brussels. Among his better-known poetic
works may be cited Looverkens ("Leaflets," 1857); Nieuwe
Liedekens (" New Poesies," 1861); Gedichten (" Poems," 1863);
Psalmen, Zangen, en Oratorios (" Psalms, Songs, and Oratorios,"
1869) ; De Wind (1869), an inspiriting cantata, which had a large
measure of success and was crowned; De Liefde in 't Leven
("Love in Life," 1870); Elle and Isa (two musical dramas,
1874); Liederen voor Groote en Kleine Kinderen ("Songs for
Big and Small Folk," 1879); Jakoba van Beieren (" Jacquelein
of Bavaria," a poetic drama, 1880); Mathilda van Denemarken
(a lyrical drama, 1890). His collected poetical works were pub-
lished in three volumes at Rousselaere in 1885. Hiel took an
active and prominent part in the so-called " Flemish movement "
in Belgium, and his name is constantly associated with those
of Jan van Beers, the Willems and Peter Benoit. The last
wrote some of his compositions to Kiel's verses, notably to his
oratorios Lucifer (performed in London at the Royal Albert
Hall and elsewhere) and De Schelde (" The Scheldt "); whilst
the Dutch composer, Richard Hoi (of Utrecht), composed the
music to Kiel's " Ode to Liberty," and van Gheluwe to the
poet's " Songs for Big and Small Folk " (second edition, much
enlarged, 1879), which has greatly contributed to their popularity
in schools and among Belgian choral societies. Hiel also trans-
lated several foreign lyrics. His rendering of Tennyson's
Dora appeared at Antwerp in 1871. For the national festival
of 1880 at Brussels, to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary
of Belgian independence, Hiel composed two cantatas, Belgen-
land (" The-Land of the Belgians ") and Eer Belgenland (" Honour
to Belgium "), which, set to music, were much appreciated.
He died at Schaerbeek, near Brussels, on the 27th of August
1899. Kiel's efforts to counteract Walloon influences and bring
about a rapprochement between the Netherlander in the north
and the Teutonic racial sympathizers across the Rhine made
him very popular with both, and a volume of his best poems
was in 1874 the first in a collection of Dutch authors published
at Leipzig.
HIEMPSAL, the name of the two kings of Numidia. For
Hiempsal I. see under JUGURTHA. Hiempsal II. was the son of
Gauda, the half-brother of Jugurtha. In 88 B.C., after the
triumph of Sulla, when the younger Marius fled from Rome to
Africa, Hiempsal received him with apparent friendliness, his
real intention being to detain him as a prisoner. Marius dis-
covered this intention in time and made good his escape with
the assistance of the king's daughter. In 81 Hiempsal was
driven from his throne by the Numidians themselves, or by
Hiarbas, ruler of part of the kingdom, supported by Cn. Domitius
Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian party in Africa. Soon
afterwards Pompey was sent to Africa by Sulla to reinstate
Hiempsal, whose territory was subsequently increased by the
addition of some land on the coast in accordance with a treaty
concluded with L. Aurelius Cotta. When the tribune P. Servilius
Rullus introduced his agrarian law (63), these lands, which had
been originally assigned to the Roman people by Scipio Af ricanus,
were expressly exempted from sale, which roused the indignation
of Cicero (De lege agraria, i. 4, ii. 22). From Suetonius (Caesar,
71) it is evident that Hiempsal was alive in 62. According to
Sallust (Jugurtha, 17), he was the author of an historical work in
the Punic language.
Plutarch, Marius, 40, Pompey, 12; Appian, Bell, civ., i. 62. 80;
Dio Cassius xli. 41.
HIERAPOLIS. i. (Arabic Manbij or Mumbij) an ancient
Syrian town occupying one of the finest sites in Northern Syria,
in a fertile district about 16 m. S.W. of the confluence of the
Sajur and Euphrates. There is abundant water supply from
large springs. In 1879, after the Russo-Turkish war, a colony of
452
HIERARCHY
Circassians from Vidin (Widdin) was planted in the ruins, and the
result has been the constant discovery of antiquities, which find
their way into the bazaars of Aleppo and Aintab. The place first
appears in Greek as Bambyce, but Pliny (v. 23) tells us its Syrian
name was Mabog. It was doubtless an ancient Commagenian
sanctuary; but history knows it first under the Seleucids, who
made it the chief station on their main road between Antioch and
Seleucia-on-Tigris; and as a centre of the worship of the Syrian
Nature Goddess, Atargatis(<?.fl.), it became known to the Greeks as
the city of the sanctuary 'lepon-oXw, and finally as the Holy City
' lepaTroXts. Lucian, a native of Commagene (or some anonymous
writer) has immortalized this worship in the tract De Dea Syria,
wherein are described the orgiastic luxury of the shrine and the
tank of sacred fish, of which Aelian also relates marvels. Accord-
ing to the De Dea Syria, the worship was of a phallic character,
votaries offering little male figures of wood and bronze. There
were also huge phalli set up like obelisks before the temple,
which were climbed once a year with certain ceremonies, and
decorated. For the rest the temple was of Ionic character with
golden plated doors and roof and much gilt decoration. Inside
was a holy chamber into which priests only were allowed to enter.
Here were statues of a goddess and a god in gold, but the first
seems to have been the more richly decorated with gems and
other ornaments. Between them stood a gilt xoanon, which
seems to have been carried outside in sacred processions. Other
rich furniture is described, and a mode of divination by move-
ments of a xoanon of Apollo. A great bronze altar stood in front,
set about with statues, and in the forecourt lived numerous
sacred animals and birds (but not swine) used for sacrifice. Some
three hundred priests served the shrine and there were numerous
minor ministrants. The lake was the centre of sacred festivities
and it was customary for votaries to swim out and decorate an
altar standing in the middle of the water. Self-mutilation and
other orgies went on in the temple precinct, and there was an
elaborate ritual on entering the city and first visiting the shrine
under the conduct of local guides, which reminds one of the
Meccan Pilgrimage.
The temple was sacked by Crassus on his way to meet the
Parthians (53 B. c.); but in the 3rd century of the empire the
city was the capital of the Euphratensian province and one of
the great cities of Syria. Procopius called it the greatest in that
part of the world. It was, however, ruinous when Julian collected
his troops there ere marching to his defeat and death in Meso-
potamia, and Chosroes I. held it to ransom after Justinian had
failed to put it in a state of defence. Harun restored it at the end
of the 8th century and it became a bone of contention between
Byzantines, Arabs and Turks. The crusaders captured it from
the Seljuks in the i2th century, but Saladin retook it (1175),
and later it became the headquarters of Hulagu and his Mongols,
who completed its ruin. The remains are extensive, but almost
wholly of late date, as is to be expected in the case of a city
which survived into Moslem times. The walls are Arab, and no
ruins of the great temple survive. The most noteworthy relic of
antiquity is the sacred lake, on two sides of which can still be
seen stepped quays and water-stairs. The first modern account
of the site is in a short narrative appended by H. Maundrell to his
Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem. Hewasat Mumbij in 1699.
The coinage of the city begins in the 4th century B.C. with an
Aramaic series, showing the goddess, either as a bust with mural
crown or as riding on a lion. She continues to supply the chief
type even during imperial times, being generally shown seated
with the tympanum in her hand. Other coins substitute the
legend 0eas Supias 'lepewroXtTtSi', within a wreath. It is interesting
to note that from Bambyce (near which much silk was produced)
were derived the bombycina vestis of the Romans and, through the
crusaders, the bombazine of modern commerce.
See F. R. Chesney, Euphrates Expedition (1850) ; W. F. Ainsworth,
Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition (1888); E. Sachau,
Reise in Syrien, &c. (1883); D. G. Hogarth in Journal of Hellenic
Studies (1909).
2. A Phrygian city, altitude 1200 ft. on the right bank of the
Churuk Su (Lycus), about 8 m. above its junction with the
Menderes (Maeander), situated on a broad terrace, 200 ft. above
the valley and 6 m. N. of Laodicea. On the terrace rise calcareous
springs, that have deposited vast incrustations of snowy white-
ness. To these springs, which are warm and slightly sulphureous,
and to the " Plutonium " a hole reaching deep into the earth,
from which issued a mephitic vapour the place owed its celebrity
and sanctity. Here, at an early date, a religious establishment
(hieron) existed in connexion with the old Phrygian Kydrara, a
settlement of the tribe Hydrelitae; and the town which grew
round it became one of the greatest centres of Phrygian native
life but of non-political importance. The chief religious festival
was the Letoia, named after the goddess Leto, a local variety of
the Mother Goddess (Cybele), who was honoured with orgiastic
rites in which elements of the original Anatolian matriarchate
and Nature-cult survived: there was also a worship of Apollo
Lairbenos. Hierapolis was the seat of an early church (Col. iv.
13), with which tradition closely connects the apostle Philip.
Epictetus, the philosopher, and Papias, a disciple of St John and
author of a lost work on the Sayings of Jesus, were born there.
Hierapolis is now easily reached from Gonjeli, a station on the
Dineir railway about 7 m. distant. A village of Yuruks has
gradually grown below the site. The native name for the place is
apparently Pambuk Kale (though doubt has been thrown on the
statement), and this has always been explained by the cotton-
like appearance of the white incrustations. It should be noted,
however, that this name, if genuine, is curiously like that given by
the Syrians to the Commagenian Hierapolis (above), Bambyce,
the origin of which it has been suggested was a native name of the
goddess Pambe or Mambe (whence Mabog). Considering that
cotton is a comparatively modern phenomenon in Anatolia, it is
worth suggesting that Pambuk in this case may be a survival of a
primitive name, derived from the same goddess, Pambe. The
goddesses of the two Hierapoleis were in any case closely akin.
If an old native name has reappeared here after the decline of
Greek influence, and been given a meaning in modern Turkish,
it affords another instance of a very common feature of west
Asian nomenclature. Combined with the petrified terraces, the
ruins of Hierapolis present the most attractive of the easily
accessible spectacles in Asia Minor. They are remarkable for the
long avenue of tombs, mostly inscribed sarcophagi on plinths, by
which the city is approached from the W., and for a very perfect
theatre partly excavated in the hill at the N. side of the site.
Stage buildings as well as auditorium are well preserved. On the
S., just above the white terraces and largely blocked with petrified
deposit, stand large baths, into which the natural warm spring
was once conducted. Behind these is a fine triumphal arch,
whence runs a colonnade. Ruins of several churches survive, and
also of a large basilica. There is a sulphureous pool which may
represent the " Plutonium," but it has no such deadly power as
was ascribed to that pond. Ramsay thinks that the " Plu-
tonium " was obliterated by Christians in the 4th century. Over
300 inscriptions have been collected, mostly sepulchral, whence
Ramsay has deduced interesting facts about the very early
Christian community which existed here. The site has been often
visited and described, and was systematically examined in 1887
by parties under W. M. Ramsay and K. Humann respectively.
See K. Humann, Altertiimer-v. Hierapolis (1888); Sir W. M.
Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, vol. i. (1895).
(C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
HIERARCHY (Gr. wp6s, holy, and apxav, to rule), the office
of a steward or guardian of holy things, not a " ruler of priests "
or " priestly ruler " (see Boeckh, Corp. inscr. Gr. No. 1570),
a term commonly used in ecclesiastical language to denote
the aggregate of those persons who exercise authority within
the Christian Church, the patriarchate, episcopate or entire three-
fold order of the clergy. The word Itpapxia, which does not
occur in any classical Greek writer, owes its present extensive
currency to the celebrated writings of Dionysius Areopagiticus.
Of these the most important are the two which treat of the
celestial and of the ecclesiastical hierarchy respectively. De-
fining hierarchy as the " function which comprises all sacred
things," or, more fully, as " a sacred order and science and
HIERATIC HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA
453
activity, assimilated as far as possible to the godlike, and
elevated to the imitation of God proportionately to the Divine
illuminations conceded to it," the author proceeds to enumerate
the nine orders of the heavenly host, which are subdivided
again into hierarchies or triads, in descending order, thus:
Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers;
Principalities, Archangels, Angels. These all exist for the
common object of raising men through ascending stages of
purification and illumination to perfection. The ecclesiastical
or earthly hierarchy is the counterpart of the other. In it the
first or highest triad is formed by baptism, communion and
chrism. The second triad consists of the three orders of the
ministry, bishop or hierarch, priest and minister or deacon
(iepapxns, ifptvs, XeiroupYos) ; this is the earliest known in-
stance in which the title hierarch is applied to a bishop. The
third or lowest triad is made up of monks, " initiated " and
catechumens. To Dionysius may be traced, through Thomas
Aquinas and other Catholic writers of the intervening period,
the definition of the term usually given by Roman Catholic
writers " coetus seu ordo praesidum et sacrorum ministrorum
ad regendam ecclesiam gignendamque in hominibus sanctitatem
divinitus institutus" 1 although it immediately rests upon
the authority of the sixth canon of the twenty-third session
of the council of Trent, in which anathema is pronounced upon
all who deny the existence within the Catholic Church of a
hierarchy instituted by divine appointment, and consisting of
bishops, priests and ministers. 2 (See ORDER, HOLY).
HIERATIC, priestly or sacred (Gr. wpemKos, iepos, sacred),
a term particularly applied to a style of ancient Egyptian writing,
which is a simplified cursive form of hieroglyphic. The name
was first given by Champollion (see EGYPT, Language).
HIERAX, or HIERACAS, a learned ascetic who flourished
about the end of the 3rd century at Leontopolis in Egypt,
where he lived to the age of ninety, supporting himself by
calligraphy and devoting his leisure to scientific and literary
pursuits, especially to the study of the Bible. He was the author
of Biblical commentaries both in Greek and Coptic, and is
said to have composed many hymns. He became leader of
the so-called sect of the Hieracites, an ascetic society from
which married persons were excluded, and of which one of
the leading tenets was that only the celibate could enter the
kingdom of heaven. He asserted that the suppression of the sexual
impulse was emphatically the new revelation brought by the
Logos, and appealed to i Cor. vii., Heb. xii. 14, and Matt.
xix. 12, xxv. 21. Hierax may be called the connecting link
between Origen and the Coptic monks. A man of deep learning
and prodigious memory, he seems to have developed Origen's
Christology in the direction of Athanasius. He held that
the Son was a torch lighted at the torch of the Father, that
Father and Son are a bipartite light. He repudiated the ideas
of a bodily resurrection and a material paradise, and on the
ground of 2 Tim. ii. 5 questioned the salvation of even baptized
infants, " for without knowledge no conflict, without conflict
no reward." In his insistence on virginity as the specifically
Christian virtue he set up the great theme of the church of the
4th and $th centuries.
HIERO (strictly HIERON), the name of two rulers of
Syracuse.
HIERO I. was the brother of Gelo, and tyrant of Syracuse
from 478 to 467/6 B.C. During his reign he greatly increased the
power of Syracuse. He removed the inhabitants of Naxos
and Catana to Leontini, peopled Catana (which he renamed
Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with Acragas
(Agrigentum), and espoused the cause of the Locrians against
Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. His most important achieve-
ment was the defeat of the Etruscans at Cumae (474), by which
he saved the Greeks of Campania. A bronze helmet (now in
the British Museum), with an inscription commemorating
1 Perrone, De locis tKeologicis, pt. i., sec. i. cap. 2.
1 Si quis dixerit in ecclesia catholica non esse hierarchiam divina
ordinatione institutam, quae constat ex episcopis, presbyteris, et
ministris: anathema sit.
the event, was dedicated at Olympia. Though despotic in
his rule Hiero was a liberal patron of literature. He died at
Catana in 467.
See Diod. Sic. xi. 38-67; Xenophon, Hiero, 6. 2; E. Lubbert,
Syrakus zur Zeit des Gelon und Hieron (1875) ; for his coins see
NUMISMATICS (section Sicily).
HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 216 B.C., was the
illegitimate son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed
descent from Gelo. On the departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily (275)
the Syracusan army and citizens appointed him commander
of the troops. He materially strengthened his position by
marrying the daughter of Leptines, the leading citizen. In the
meantime, the Mamertines, a body of Campanian mercenaries
who had been employed by Agathocles, had seized the strong-
hold of Messana, whence they harassed the Syracusans. They
were finally defeated in a pitched battle near Mylae by Hiero,
who was only prevented from capturing Messana by Carthaginian
interference. His grateful countrymen then chose him king
(270). In 264 he again returned to the attack, and the Mamer-
tines called in the aid of Rome. Hiero at once joined the
Punic leader Hanno, who had recently landed in Sicily; but
being defeated by the consul Appius Claudius, he withdrew
to Syracuse. Pressed by the Roman forces, in 263 he was
compelled to. conclude a treaty with Rome, by which he was
to rule over the south-east of Sicily and the eastern coast as
far as Tauromenium (Polybius i. 8-16; Zonaras viii. 9). From
this time till his death in 216 he remained loyal to the Romans,
and frequently assisted them with men and provisions during
the Punic wars (Livy xxi. 49-51, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He kept
up a powerful fleet for defensive purposes, and employed his
famous kinsman Archimedes in the construction of those engines
that, at a later date, played so important a part during the
siege of Syracuse by the Romans.
A picture of the prosperity of Syracuse during his rule is given in
the sixteenth idyll of Theocritus, his favourite poet. See Diod. Sic.
xxii. 24-xxvi. 24; Polybius i. 8-vii. 7; Justin xxiii. 4.
HIEROCLES, proconsul of Bithynia and Alexandria, lived
during the reign of Diocletian (A.D. 284-305). He is said to
have been the instigator of the fierce persecution of the Christians
under Galerius in 303. He was the author of a work (not
extant) entitled \6yoi 0tXaXi70s Trpos TOUS XpiOTiaPovs in two
books, in which he endeavoured to persuade the Christians
that their sacred books were full of contradictions, and that
in moral influence and miraculous power Christ was inferior to
Apollonius of Tyana. Our knowledge of this treatise is derived
from Lactantius (Instil, diii. v. 2) and Eusebius, who wrote a
refutation entitled 'AvTipprjriKos irpos TO. 'IepoK\tovs.
HIEROCLES OF ALEXANDRIA, Neoplatonist writer,
flourished c. A.D. 430. He studied under the celebrated Neo-
platonist Plutarch at Athens, and taught for some years in his
native city. He seems to have been banished from Alexandria
and to have taken up his abode in Constantinople, where he
gave such offence by his religious opinions that he was thrown
into prison and cruelly flogged. The only complete work of his
which has been preserved is the commentary on the Carmina
Aurea of Pythagoras. It enjoyed a great reputation in middle
age and Renaissance times, and there are numerous translations
in various European languages. Several other writings, especi-
ally one on providence and fate, a consolatory treatise dedicated
to his patron Olympiodorus of Thebes, author of IffropiKol
\6yoi, are quoted or referred to by Photius and Stobaeus.
The collection of some 260 witticisms (doreia) called $1X676X^05
(ed. A. Eberhard, Berlin, 1869), attributed to Hierocles and
Philagrius, has no connexion with Hierocles of Alexandria, but
is probably a compilation of later date, founded on two older
collections. It is now agreed that the fragments of the Elements
of Ethics ('H(?t/o) aToixducns) preserved in Stobaeus are from
a work by a Stoic named Hierocles, contemporary of Epictetus,
who has been identified with the " Hierocles Stoicus vir sanctus
et gravis " in Aulus Gellius (ix. 5. 8). This theory is confirmed
by the discovery of a papyrus fed. H. von Arnim in Berliner
Klassikertexle, iv. 1906; see also C. Prachter, H ierokles der
Stoiker, 1901).
454
HIEROGLYPHICS HIGGINS
There is an edition of the commentary by F. W. Mullach in
Fragmenta phUosophorum Graecorum (1860), i. 408, including full
information concerning Hierocles, the poem and the commentary;
see also E. Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen (2nd ed.), iii. 2, pp.
681-687; W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur (1808)
pp. 834, 849.
Another Hierocles, who flourished during the reign of Justinian,
was the author of a list of provinces and towns in the Eastern
Empire, called ZwacSrj/uos ("fellow-traveller"; ed. A. Burckhardt,
1893); it was one of the chief authorities used by Constantine
Porphyrogenitus in his work on the " themes " of the Roman
Empire (see C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur,
1897, p. 417). In Fabricius's Bibliotheca Graeca (ed. Harles), i.
791, sixteen persons named Hierocles, chiefly literary, are men-
tioned.
HIEROGLYPHICS (Gr. iepte, sacred, and y\v<tfi, carving), the
term used by Greek and Latin writers to describe the sacred
characters of the ancient Egyptian language in its classical
phase. It is now also used for various systems of writing in
which figures of objects take the place of conventional signs.
Such characters which symbolize the idea of a thing without
expressing the name of it are generally styled " ideographs "
(Gr. Idea, idea, and ypafaiv, to write), e.g. the Chinese characters.
See EGYPT, Language; CUNEIFORM; INSCRIPTIONS and WRITING.
HIERONYMITES, a common name for three or four con-
gregations of hermits living according to the rule of St Augustine
with supplementary regulations taken from St Jerome's writings.
Their habit was white, with a black cloak, (i) The Spanish
Hieronymites, established near Toledo in 1374. The order
soon became popular in Spain and Portugal, and in 1415 it
numbered 25 houses. It possessed some of the most famous
monasteries in the Peninsula, including the royal monastery
of Belem near Lisbon, and the magnificent monastery built
by Philip II. at the Escurial. Though the manner of life was
very austere the Hieronymites devoted themselves to studies
and to the active work of the ministry, and they possessed
great influence both at the Spanish and the Portuguese courts.
They went to Spanish and Portuguese America and played a
considerable part in Christianizing and civilizing the Indians.
There were Hieronymite nuns founded in 1375, who became
very numerous. The order decayed during the i8th century
and was completely suppressed in 1835. ( 2 ) Hieronymites
of the Observance, or of Lombardy: a reform of (i) effected
by the third general in 1424; it embraced seven houses in
Spain and seventeen in Italy, mostly in Lombardy. It is now
extinct. (3) Poor Hermits of St Jerome, established near Pisa
in 1377: it came to embrace nearly fifty houses whereof only
one in Rome and one in Viterbo survive. (4) Hermits of St
Jerome of the congregation of Fiesole, established in 1406:
they had forty houses but in 1668 they were united to (3).
See Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1714), iii. cc. 57-60,
iv. cc. 1-3; Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i.
70; and art. " Hieronymiten " in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie
(ed. 3), and in Welte and Wetzer, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2). (E. C. B.)
HIERONYMUS OF CARDIA, Greek general and historian,
contemporary of Alexander the Great. After the death of the
king he followed the fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman
Eumenes. He was wounded and taken prisoner by Antigonus,
who pardoned him and appointed him superintendent of the
asphalt beds in the Dead Sea. He was treated with equal
friendliness by Antigonus's son Demetrius, who made him pole-
march of Thespiae, and by Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court
he died at the age of 104. He wrote a history of the Diadochi
and their descendants, embracing the period from the death of
Alexander to the war with Pyrrhus (323-272 B.C.), which is one
of the chief authorities used by Diodorus Siculus (xviii.-xx.)
and also by Plutarch in his life of Pyrrhus. He made use of
official papers and was careful in his investigation of facts.
The simplicity of his style rendered his work unpopular, but it
is probable that it was on a high level as compared with that
of his contemporaries. In the last part of his work he made a
praiseworthy attempt to acquaint the Greeks with the character
and early history of the Romans. He is reproached by Pausanias
(i. 9. 8) with unfairness towards all rulers with the exception
of Antigonus Gonatas.
See Lucian, Macrobii, 22; Plutarch, Demetrius, 39; Diod Sic
xvui. 42. 44. 50, xix. 100 ; Dion. Halic. Antiq. Rom. i. 6; F'
Bruckner, De vita et scriptis Hieronymi Cardii f ' in Zeitschrift fur
die Alterthumswtssenschaft (1842); F. Reuss, Hieronymos von Kardia
(Berlin, 1876); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Stadium der alien
Geschichte (1895); fragments in C. W. Muller, Frag, hist Graec
11. 450-461.
HIERRO, or FERRO, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.ii.).
Pop. (1900) 6508; area 107 sq. m. Hierro, the most westerly
and the smallest island of the group, is somewhat crescent-
shaped. Its length is about 18 m., its greatest breadth about
15 m., and its circumference 50 m. It lies 92 m. W.S.W. of
Teneriffe. Its coast is bound by high, steep rocks, which only
admit of one harbour, but the interior is tolerably level. Its
hill-tops in winter are sometimes wrapped in snow. Better
and more abundant grass grows here than on any of the other
islands. Hierro is exposed to westerly gales which frequently
inflict great damage. Fresh water is scarce, but there is a
sulphurous spring, with a temperature of 102 Fahr. The once
celebrated and almost sacred Til tree, whioh was reputed to be
always distilling water in great abundance from its leaves, no
longer exists. Only a small part of the cultivable land is under
tillage, the inhabitants being principally employed in pasturage.
Valverde (pop. about 3000) is the principal town. Geographers
were formerly in the habit of measuring all longitudes from
Ferro, the most westerly land known to them. The longitude
assigned at first has, however, turned out to be erroneous;
and the so-called " Longitude of Ferro " does not coincide
with the actual longitude of the island.
HIGDON (or HIGDEN), RANULF (c. i2 9 o-c. 1363), English
chronicler, was a Benedictine monk of the monastery of St
Werburg in Chester, in which he lived, it is said, for sixty-four
years, and died " in a good old age," probably in 1363. Higdon
was the author of a long chronicle, one of several such works
based on a plan taken from Scripture, and written for the
amusement and instruction of his society. It closes the long
series of general chronicles, which were soon superseded by the
invention of printing. It is commonly styled the Polychronicon,
from the longer title Ranulphi Castrensis, cognomine Higdon,
Polychronicon (sive Historia Polycratica) ab initio mundi usque
ad mortem regis Edwardi III. in septem libros dispositum. The
work is divided into seven books, in humble imitation of the
seven days of Genesis, and, with exception of the last book, is
a summary of general history, a compilation made with con-
siderable style and taste. It seems to have enjoyed no little
popularity in the i sth century. It was the standard work on
general history, and more than a hundred MSS. of it are known
to exist. The Christ Church MS. says that Higdon wrote it
down to the year 1342; the fine MS. at Christ's College, Cam-
bridge, states that he wrote to the year 1344, after which date,
with the omission of two years, John of Malvern, a monk of
Worcester, carried the history on to 1357, at which date it
ends. According, however, to its latest editor, Higdon's part
of the work goes no further than 1326 or 1327 at latest, after
which time it was carried on by two continuators to the end.
Thomas Gale, in his Hist. Brit. &c., scriptores, xv. (Oxon., 1691),
published that portion of it, in the original Latin, which comes
down to 1066. Three early translations of the Polychronicon
exist. The first was made by John of Trevisa, chaplain to Lord
Berkeley, in 1387, and was printed by Caxton in 1482; the second
ay an anonymous writer, was written between 1432 and 1450;
the third, based on Trevisa's version, with the addition of an
eighth book, was prepared by Caxton. These versions are
specially valuable as illustrating the change of the English
"anguage during the period they cover.
The Polychronicon, with the continuations and the English
versions, was edited for the Rolls Series (No. 41) by Churchill
Babington (vols. i. and ii.) and Joseph Rawson Lumby (1865-1886).
This edition was adversely criticized by Mandell Creighton in the '
Eng. Hist. Rev. for October 1888.
HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES (1810-1868), British writer
over the nom-de-plume " Jacob Omnium," which was the title
of his first magazine article, was born in County Meath, Ireland,
HIGGINSON HIGHLANDS
455
on' the 4th of December 1810. His letters in The Times were
instrumental in exposing many abuses. He was a frequent con-
tributor to the Cornhill, and was a friend of Thackeray, who
dedicated to him The Adventures of Philip, and one of his ballads,
" Jacob Omnium's Hoss," deals with an incident in Higgins's
career. He died on the I4th of August 1868. Some of his
articles were published in 1875 as Essays an Social Subjects.
HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH (1823- ), American
author and soldier, was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on
the 22nd of December 1823. He was a descendant of Francis
Higginson (1588-1630), who emigrated from Leicestershire to
the colony of Massachusetts Bay and was a minister of the church
of Salem, Mass., in 1629-1630; and a grandson of Stephen
Higginson (1743-1828), a Boston merchant, who was a member
of the Continental Congress in 1783, took an active part in sup-
pressing Shay's Rebellion, was the author of the " Laco " letters
(1789), and rendered valuable services to the United States
government as navy agent from the nth of May to the 22nd of
June 1798. Graduating from Harvard in 1841, he was a school-
master for two years, studied theology at the Harvard Divinity
School, and was pastor in 1847-1850 of the First Religious Society
(Unitarian) of Newburyport, Massachusetts, and of the Free
Church at Worcester in 1852-1858. He was a Free Soil candi-
date for Congress (1850), but was defeated; was indicted with
Wendell Phillips and Theodore Parker for participation in the
attempt to release the fugitive slave, Anthony Burns, in Boston
(1853); was engaged in the effort to make Kansas a free state
after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854; and during
the Civil War was captain in the sist Massachusetts Volunteers,
and from November 1862 to October 1864, when he was retired
because of a wound received in the preceding August, was
colonel of the First South Carolina Volunteers, the first regiment
recruited from former slaves for the Federal service. He de-
scribed his experiences mArmy Life in a Black Regiment (1870).
In politics Higginson was successively a Republican, an Inde-
pendent and a Democrat. His writings show a deep love of
nature, art and humanity, and are marked by vigour of thought,
sincerity of feeling, and grace and finish of style. In his Common
Sense About Women (1881) and his Women and Men (1888) he
advocated equality of opportunity and equality of rights for the
two sexes.
Among his numerous books are Outdoor Papers (1863); Malbone:
an Oldport Romance (1869); Life of Margaret Fuller Ossoli (in
" American Men of Letters " series, 1884) ; A Larger History of the
United States of America to the Close of President Jackson's Ad-
ministration (1885); The Monarch of Dreams (1886); Travellers and
Outlaws (1889); The Afternoon Landscape (1889), poems and
translations; Life of Francis Higginson (in " Makers of America,"
1891); Concerning All of Us (1892); The Procession of the Flowers
and Kindred Papers (1897); Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (in
" American Men of Letters " series, 1902) ; John Greenleaf Whittier
(in " English Men of Letters " series, 1902) ; A Reader's History of
American Literature (1903), the Lowell Institute lectures for 1903,
edited by Henry W. Boynton; and Life and Times of Stephen
Higginson (1907). His volumes of reminiscence, Cheerful Yesterdays
(1898), Old Cambridge (1899), Contemporaries (1899), and Part of a
Man's Life (1905), are characteristic and charming works. His
collected works were published in seven vols. (1900).
HICHAM FERRERS, a market town and municipal borough
in the Eastern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire,
England, 63 m. N.N.W. from London, on branches of the London
& North- Western and Midland railways. Pop. (1901), 2540. It is
pleasantly situated on high ground above the south bank of the
river Nene. The church of St Mary is among the most beautiful
of the many fine churches in Northamptonshire. To the Early
English chancel a very wide north aisle, resembling a second
nave, was added in the Decorated period, and the general appear-
ance of the chancel, with its north aisle and Lady-chapel, is
Decorated. The tower with its fine spire and west front was
partially but carefully rebuilt in the I7th century. Close to the
church, but detached from it, stands a beautiful Perpendicular
building, the school-house, founded by Archbishop Chichele in
1422. The Bede House, a somewhat similar structure by the
same founder, completes a striking group of buildings. In the
town are remains of Chichele's college. Higham Ferrers shares
in the widespread local industry of shoemaking. The town is
governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors, Area,
1945 acres.
Higham (Hecham, Heccam, Hegham Ferers) was evidently a
large village before the Domesday Survey. It was then held by
William Peverel of the king, but on the forfeiture of the lordship
by his son it was granted in 1199 to William Ferrers, earl of
Derby. On the outlawry of Robert his grandson it passed to
Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and, reverting to the crown in 1322,
was granted to Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, but escheated
to the crown in 1327, and was granted to Henry, earl of Lancaster.
The castle, which may have been built before Henry III. visited
Higham in 1229, is mentioned in 1322, but had been destroyed by
1540. It appears by the confirmation of Henry III. in 1251 that
the borough originated in the previous year when William de
Ferrers, earl of Derby, manumitted by charter ninety-two
persons, granting they should have a free borough. A mayor was
elected from the beginning of the reign of Richard II., while a
town hall is mentioned in 1395. The revenues of Chichele's
college were given to the corporation by the charter of 1566,
whereby the borough returned one representative to parliament,
a privilege enjoyed until 1832. James I. in 1604 gave the mayor
the commission of the peace with other privileges which were
confirmed by Charles II. in 1664. The old charters were sur-
rendered in 1684 and a new grant obtained; a further charter
was granted in 1887.
HIGHGATE, a northern district of London, England, partly
in the metropolitan borough of St Pancras, but extending
into Middlesex. It is a high-lying district, the greatest
elevation being 426 ft. The Great North Road passes through
Highgate, which is supposed to have received its name from the
toll-gate erected by the bishop of London when the road was
formed through his demesne in the i4th century. It is possible,
however, that " gate " is used here in its old signification, and
that the name means simply high road. The road rose so steeply
here that in 1812 an effort was made to lessen the slope for
coaches by means of an archway, and a new way was completed
in 1900. In the time of stage-coaches a custom was introduced of
making ignorant persons believe that they required to be sworn
and admitted to the freedom of the Highgate before being
allowed to pass the gate, the fine of admission being a bottle of
wine. Not a few famous names occur among the former residents
of Highgate. Bacon died here in 1626; Coleridge and Andrew
Marvell, the poets, were residents. Cromwell House, now a
convalescent home, was presented by Oliver Cromwell to his
eldest daughter Bridget on her marriage with Henry Ireton
(January 15, 1646/7). Lauderdale House, now attached to
the public grounds of Waterlow Park, belonged to the Duke of
Lauderdale, one of the " Cabal " of Charles II. Among various
institutions may be mentioned Whittington's almshouses, near
Whittington Stone, at the foot of Highgate Hill, on which the
future mayor of London is reputed to have been resting when he
heard the peal of Bow bells and " turned again." Highgate
grammar school was founded ( 1 562-1 565) by Sir Roger Cholmley,
chief-justice. St Joseph's Retreat is the mother-house of the
Passionist Fathers in England. There is an extensive and
beautiful cemetery on the slope below the church of St Michael.
HIGHLANDS, THE, that part of Scotland north-west of a line
drawn from Dumbarton to Stonehaven, including the Inner and
Outer Hebrides and the county of Bute, but excluding the
Orkneys and Shetlands, Caithness, the flat coastal land of the
shires of Nairn, Elgin and Banff, and all East Aberdeenshire (see
SCOTLAND). This area is to be distinguished from the Lowlands
by language and race, the preservation of the Gaelic speech being
characteristic. Even in a historical sense the Highlanders were
a separate people from the Lowlanders, with whom, during
many centuries, they shared nothing in common. The town of
Inverness is usually regarded as the capital of the Highlands.
The Highlands consist of an old dissected plateau, or block,
of ancient crystalline rocks with incised valleys and lochs
carved by the action of mountain streams and by ice, the
resulting topography being a wide area of irregularly distributed
45 6
HIGHNESS HIGH PLACE
mountains whose summits have nearly the same height above
sea-level, but whose bases depend upon the amount of denuda-
tion to which the plateau has been subjected in various places.
The term " highland " is used in physical geography for any
elevated mountainous plateau.
HIGHNESS, literally the quality of being lofty or high, a
term used, as are so many abstractions, as a title of dignity and
honour, to signify exalted rank or station. These abstractions
arose in great profusion in the Roman empire, both of the
East and West, and " highness " is to be directly traced to the
altitudo and celsitudo of the Latin and the v^ijXorTjj of the
Greek emperors. Like other " exorbitant and swelling attri-
butes " of the time, they were conferred on ruling princes
generally. In the early middle ages such titles, couched in
the second or third person, were " uncertain and much more
arbitrary (according to the fancies of secretaries) than in the
later times " (Selden, Titles of Honour, pt. i. ch. vii. 100). In
English usage, " Highness " alternates with " Grace " and
" Majesty," as the honorific title of the king and queen until
the time of James I. Thus in documents relating to the reign
of Henry VIII. all three titles are used indiscriminately; an
example is the king's judgment against Dr Edward Crome
(d. 1562), quoted, from the lord chamberlain's books, ser. i,
p. 791, in Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc. N.S. xix. 299, where article
15 begins with " Also the Kinges Highness " hath ordered,
16 with " Kinges Majestic," and 17 with " Kinges Grace." In
the Dedication of the Authorized Version of the Bible of 1611
James I. is still styled "Majesty" and "Highness"; thus,
in the first paragraph, " the appearance of Your Majesty, as
of the Sun in his strength, instantly dispelled those supposed
and surmised mists . . . especially when we beheld the govern-
ment established in Your Highness and Your hopeful Seed,
by an undoubted title." It was, however, in James I.'s
reign that " Majesty " became the official title. It may
be noted that Cromwell, as lord protector, and his wife
were styled " Highness." In present usage the following
members of the British Royal Family are addressed as " Royal
Highness" (H.R.H.): all sons and daughters, brothers and
sisters, uncles and aunts of the reigning sovereign, grandsons
and granddaughters if children of sons, and also great grand-
children (decree of 3ist of May 1898) if children of an eldest
son of any prince of Wales. Nephews, nieces and cousins and
grandchildren, offspring of daughters, are styled " Highness "
only. A change of sovereign does not entail the forfeiture
of the title " Royal Highness," once acquired, though the
father of the bearer has become a nephew and not a grandson
of the sovereign. The principal feudatory princes of the Indian
empire are also styled " Highness."
As a general rule the members of the blood royal of an Imperial
or Royal house are addressed as " Imperial " or " Royal High-
ness " (Altesse Impiriale, Royale, Kaiserliche, KoniglicheHoheit)
respectively. In Germany the reigning heads of the Grand
Duchies bear the title of Royal or Grand Ducal Highness
(Konigliche or Gross-Herzogliche Hohe.it), while the members
of the family are addressed as Hoheit, Highness, simply. Hoheit
is borne by the reigning dukes and the princes and princesses
of their families. The title " Serene Highness " has also an
antiquity equal to that of " highness," for ya.\T)vbn]$ and
T7juepor7js were titles borne by the Byzantine rulers, and serenitas
and serenissimus by the emperors Honorius and Arcadius.
The doge of Venice was also styled Serenissimus. Selden
(op. cit. pt. ii. ch. x. 739) calls this title " one of the greatest
that can be given to any Prince that hath not the superior
title of King." In modern times " Serene Highness " (Altesse
Serenissime) is used as the equivalent of the German Durchlaucht,
a stronger form of Erlaucht, illustrious, represented in the
Latin honorific superillustris. Thackeray's burlesque title
" Transparency " in the court at Pumpernickel very accurately
gives the meaning. The title of Durchlaucht was granted in
1375 by the emperor Charles IV. to the electoral princes (Kur-
fiirsten). In the 1 7th century it became the general title borne
by the heads of the reigning princely states of the empire
(reichstiindische Fursten), as Erlaucht by those of the country
houses (reichstiindische Grafen). In 1825 the German Diet
agreed to grant the title Durchlaucht to the heads of the media-
tized princely houses whether domiciled in Germany or Austria,
and it is now customary to use it of the members of those
houses. Further, all those who are elevated to the rank of
prince (Furst) in the secondary meaning of that title (see PRINCE)
are also styled Durchlaucht. In 1829 the title of Erlaucht,
which had formerly been borne by the reigning counts of the
empire, was similarly granted to the mediatized countly families
(see Almanack de Golha, 1909, 107).
HIGH PLACE, in the English version of the Old Testament,
the literal translation of the Heb. bamah. This rendering is
etymologically correct, as appears from the poetical use of
the plural in such expressions as to ride, or stalk, or stand on
the high places of the earth, the sea, the clouds, and from the
corresponding usage in Assyrian; but in prose bamah is always
a place of worship. It has been surmised that it was so called
because the places of worship were originally upon hill-tops,
or that the bamah was an artificial platform or mound, perhaps
imitating the natural eminence which was the oldest holy
place, but neither view is historically demonstrable. The
development of the religious significance of the word took
place probably not in Israel but among the Canaanites, from
whom the Israelites, in taking possession of the holy places
of the land, adopted the name also.
In old Israel every town and village had its own place of
sacrifice, and the common name for these places was bamah,
which is synonymous with mifydash, holy place (Amos vii.
9; Isa. xvi. 12, &c.). From the Old Testament and from
existing remains a good idea may be formed of the appearance
of such a place of worship. It was often on the hill above the
town, as at Ramah (i Sam. ix. 12-14); there was a stele
(massebah), the seat of the deity, and a wooden post or pole
(asherah), which marked the place as sacred and was itself
an object of worship; there was a stone altar, often of con-
siderable size and hewn out of the solid rock 1 or built of unhewn
stones (Ex. xx. 25; see ALTAR), on which offerings were burnt
(mizbeh, lit. "slaughter place"); a cistern for water, and
perhaps low stone tables for dressing the victims; sometimes
also a hall (lishkah) for the sacrificial feasts.
Around these places the religion of the ancient Israelite
centred; at festival seasons, or to make or fulfil a vow, he
might journey to more famous sanctuaries at a distance from
his home, but ordinarily the offerings which linked every side
of his life to religion were paid at the bamah of his own town.
The building of royal temples in Jerusalem or in Samaria made
no change in this respect; they simply took their place beside
the older sanctuaries, such as Bethel, Dan, Gilgal, Beersheba,
to which they were, indeed, inferior in repute.
The religious reformers of the 8th century assail the popular
religion as corrupt and licentious, and as fostering the mon-
strous delusion that immoral men can buy the favour of God by
worship; but they make no difference in this respect between
the high places of Israel and the temple in Jerusalem (cf. Amos
v. 21 sqq.; Hos. iv.; Isa. i. 10 sqq.); Hosea stigmatizes the whole
cultus as pure heathenism Canaanite baal-worship adopted by
apostate Israel. The fundamental law in Deut. xii. prohibits
sacrifice at every place except the temple in Jerusalem ; in accord-
ance with this law Josiah, in 621 B.C., destroyed and desecrated
the altars (bdmoth) throughout his kingdom, where Yahweh had
been worshipped from time immemorial, and forcibly removed
their priests to Jerusalem, where they occupied an inferior rank
in the temple ministry. In the prophets of the 7th and 6th
centuries the word bdmoth connotes " seat of heathenish or
idolatrous worship "; and the historians of the period apply the
term in this opprobrious sense not only to places sacred to other
gods but to the old holy places of Yahweh in the cities and
villages of Judah, which, in their view, had been illegitimate
from the building of Solomon's temple, and therefore not really
seats of the worship of Yahweh; even the most pious kings of
1 Several altars of this type have been preserved.
HIGH SEAS HIGHWAY
457
Judah are censured for tolerating their existence. The reaction
which followed the death of Josiah (608 B.C.) restored the old
altars of Yahweh; they survived the destruction of the temple
in 586, and it is probable that after its restoration (520-516 B.C.)
they only slowly disappeared, in consequence partly of the natural
predominance of Jerusalem in the little territory of Judaea,
partly of the gradual establishment of the supremacy of the
written law over custom and tradition in the Persian period.
It may not be superfluous to note that the deuteronomic dogma
that sacrifice can be offered to Yahweh only at the temple in
Jerusalem was never fully established either in fact or in legal
theory. The Jewish military colonists in Elephantine in the
5th century B.C. had their altar of Yahweh beside the high way;
the Jews in Egypt in the Ptolemaic period had, besides many
local sanctuaries, one greater temple at Leontopolis, with a
priesthood whose claim to " valid orders " was much better
than that of the High Priests in Jerusalem, and the legitimacy
of whose worship is admitted even by the Palestinian rabbis.
See Bauclissin, " Hohendienst," Protestantische Realencyklopadie 3
(viii. 177-195); Hoonacker, Le Lieu du culte dans la legislation
rituelledes Hebrew (1894); v. Gall, Altisraelilische Kultstadte (1898).
HIGH SEAS, an expression in international law meaning all
those parts of the sea not under the sovereignty of adjacent
states. Claims have at times been made to exclusive dominion
over large areas of the sea as well as over wide margins, such as a
100 m., 60 m., range of vision, &c., from land. The action and
reaction of the interests of navigation, however, have brought
states to adopt a limitation first enunciated by Bynkershoek
in the formula " terrae dominium finitur ubi finitur armorum
vis." Thenceforward cannon-shot range became the determining
factor in the fixation of the margin of sea afterwards known as
" territorial waters " (q.v.). With the exception of these terri-
torial waters, bays of certain dimensions and inland waters
surrounded by territory of the same state, and serving only as
a means of access to ports of the state by whose territory they
are surrounded, and some waters allowed by immemorial usage
to rank as territorial, all seas and oceans form part of the high
sea. The usage of the high sea is free to all the nations of the
world, subject only to such restrictions as result from respect
for the equal rights of others, and to those which nations may
contract with each other to observe. An interesting case
affecting land-locked seas was that of the Emperor of Japan
v. The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, in
which a collision had taken place in the inland sea of Japan.
The British Supreme Court at Shanghai declared this sea to
form part of the high sea. On appeal to the privy council, the
appellants were successful. Though the decision of the Shanghai
court on the point in question was not dealt with by the privy
council, Japan continues to treat her inland sea as under her
exclusive jurisdiction. (T. BA.)
HIGHWAY, a public road over which all persons have full
right of way walking, riding or driving. Such roads in England
for the most part either are of immemorial antiquity or have been
created under the authority of an act of parliament. But a
private owner may create a highway at common law by dedicat-
ing the soil to the use of the public for that purpose; and the
using of a road for a number of years, without interruption, will
support the presumption that the soil has been so dedicated.
At common law the parish is required to maintain all highways
within its bounds; but by special custom the obligation may
attach to a particular township or district, and in certain cases
the owner of land is bound by the conditions of his holding to
keep a highway in repair. Breach of the obligation is treated
as a criminal offence, and is prosecuted by indictment. Bridges,
on the other hand, and so much of the highway as is immediately
connected with them, are as a general rule a charge on the
county; and by 22 Henry VIII. c. 5 the obligation of the county is
extended to 300 yds. of the highway on either side of the bridge.
A bridge, like a highway, may be a burden on neighbouring land
ratione tenurae. Private owners so burdened may sometimes
claim a special toll from passengers, called a " toll traverse."
Extensive changes in the English law of highways have been
made by various highway acts, viz. the Highway Act 1835, and
amending acts of 1862, 1864, 1878 and 1891. The leading
principle of the Highway Act 1835 is to place the highways
under the direction of parish surveyors, and to provide for
the necessary expenses by a rate levied on the occupiers of land.
It is the duty of the surveyor to keep the highways in repair; and
if a highway is out of repair, the surveyor may be summoned
before justices and convicted in a penalty not exceeding 5,
and ordered to complete the repairs within a limited time.
The surveyor is likewise specially charged with the removal
of nuisances on the highway. A highway nuisance may be abated
by any person, and may be made the subject of indictment at
common law. The amending acts, while not interfering with
the operation of the principal act, authorize the creation of
highway districts on a larger scale. The justices of a county
may convert it or any portion of it into a highway district to
be governed by a highway board, the powers and responsibilities
of which will be the same as those of the parish surveyor under
the former act. The board consists of representatives of the
various parishes, called " way wardens " together with the
justices for the county residing within the district. Salaries
and similar expenses incurred by the board are charged on a
district fund to which the several parishes contribute; but each
parish remains separately responsible for the expenses of main-
taining its own highways. By the Local Government Act 1888
the entire maintenance of main roads was thrown upon county
councils. The Public Health Act 1875 vested the powers and
duties of surveyors of highways and vestries in urban authorities,
while the Local Government Act 1894 transferred to the
district councils of every rural district all the powers of rural
sanitary authorities and highway authorities (see ENGLAND:
Local Government).
The Highway Act of 1835 specified as offences for which the
driver of a carriage on the public highway might be punished by a
fine, in addition to any civil action that might be brought against
him riding upon the cart, or upon any horse drawing it, and not
having some other person to guide it, unless there be some person
driving it; negligence causing damage to person or goods being
conveyed on the highway; quitting his cart, or leaving control
of the horses, or leaving the cart so as to be an obstruction on the
highway; not having the owner's name painted up; refusing to
give the same; and not keeping on the left or near side of the
road, when meeting any other carriage or horse. This rule does
not apply in the case of a carriage meeting a foot-passenger, but
a driver is bound to use due care to avoid driving against any
person crossing the highway on foot. At the same time a
passenger crossing the highway is also bound to use due care in
avoiding vehicles, and the mere fact of a driver being on the
wrong side of the road would not be evidence of negligence in
such a case.
The " rule of the road " given above is peculiar to the United
Kingdom. Cooley's treatise on the American Law of Torts
states that " the custom of the country, in some states enacted
into statute law, requires that when teams approach and are
about to pass on the highway, each shall keep to the right of the
centre of the travelled portion of the road." This also appears
to be the general rule on the continent of Europe.
By the Lights on Vehicles Act 1907, all vehicles on highways
in England and Wales must display to the front a white light
during the period between one hour after sunset and one hour
before sunrise. Locomotives and motor cars, being dealt with by
special acts, are excluded from the operation of the act, as are
bicycles and tricycles (dealt with by the Local Government Act
, and vehicles drawn or propelled by hand, but every
machine or implement drawn by animals comes within the act.
There are two exceptions: (i) vehicles carrying inflammable
goods in the neighbourhood of places where inflammable goods are
stored, and (2) vehicles engaged in harvesting. The public have
a right to pass along a highway freely, safely and conveniently,
and any wrongful act or omission which prevents them doing so
is a nuisance, for the prevention and abatement of which the
highways and other acts contain provisions. Generally, nuisance
458
HIGINBOTHAM HILARIUS, ST (POITIERS)
to highway may be caused by encroachment, by interfering with
the soil of the highway, by attracting crowds, by creating
danger or inconvenience on or near the highway, by placing
obstacles on the highway, by unreasonable user, by offences
against decency and good order, &c.
The use of locomotives, motor cars and other vehicles on high-
ways is regulated by acts of 1861-1903.
Formerly under the Turnpike Acts many of the more important
highways were placed under the management of boards of
commissioners or trustees. The trustees were required and
empowered to maintain, repair and improve the roads committed
to their charge, and the expenses of the trust were met by tolls
levied on persons using the road. The various grounds of exemp-
tion from toll on turnpike roads were all of a public character,
e.g. horses and carriages attending the sovereign or royal family,
or used by soldiers or volunteers in uniform, were free from toll.
In general horses and carriages used in agricultural work were
free from toll. By the Highways and Locomotives Act of 1878
disturnpiked roads became " main roads." Ordinary highways
might be declared to be " main roads," and " main roads " be
reduced to the status of ordinary highways.
In Scotland the highway system is regulated by the Roads and
Bridges Act 1878 and amending acts. The management and
maintenance of the highways and bridges is vested in county
road trustees, viz. the commissioners of supply, certain elected
trustees representing ratepayers in parishes and others. One of
the consequences of the act was the abolition of tolls, statute-
labour, causeway mail and other exactions for the maintenance
of bridges and highways, and all turnpike roads became high-
ways, and all highways became open to the public free of tolls
and other exactions. The county is divided into districts under
district committees, and county and district officers are appointed.
The expenses of highway management in each district (or parish),
together with a proportion of the general expenses of the act, are
levied by the trustees by an assessment on the lands and heritages
within the district (or parish).
Highway, in the law of the states of the American Union,
generally means a lawful public road, over which all citizens are
allowed to pass and repass on foot, on horseback, in carriages and
waggons. Sometimes it is held to be restricted to county roads
as opposed to town-ways. In statutes dealing with offences con-
nected with the highway, such as gaming, negligence of carriers,
&c., " highway " includes navigable rivers. But in a statute
punishing with death robbery on the highway, railways were held
not to be included in the term. In one case it has been held
that any way is a highway which has been used as such for
fifty years.
See Glen, Law Relating to Highways; Pratt, Law of Highways,
Main Roads and Bridges.
HIGINBOTHAM, GEORGE (1827-1893), chief-justice of
Victoria, Australia, sixth son of T. Higinbotham of Dublin, was
born on the igth of April 1827, and educated at the Royal School,
Dungannon, and at Trinity College, Dublin. After entering as a
law student at Lincoln's Inn, and being engaged as reporter on
the Morning Chronicle in 1849, he emigrated to Victoria, where
he contributed to the Melbourne Herald and practised at the bar
(having been " called " in 1853) with much success. In 1850 he
became editor of the Melbourne Argus, but resigned in 1859 and
returned to the bar. He was elected to the legislative assembly
in 1861 for Brighton as an independent Liberal, was rejected at
the general election of the same year, but was returned nine
months later. In 1863 he became attorney-general. Under his
influence measures were passed through the legislative assembly
of a somewhat extreme character, completely ignoring the
rights of the legislative council, and the government was
carried on 'without any Appropriation Act for more than a year.
Mr Higinbotham, by his eloquence and earnestness, obtained
great influence amongst the members of the legislative assembly,
but his colleagues were not prepared to follow him as far as he
desired to go. He contended that in a constitutional colony like
Victoria the secretary of state for the colonies had no right to
fetter the discretion of the queen's representative. Mr Higin-
botham did not return to power with his chief, Sir James
M'Culloch, after the defeat of the short-lived Sladen administra-
tion; and being defeated for Brighton at the next general election
by a comparatively unknown man, he devoted himself to his
practice at the bar. Amongst his other labours as attorney-
general he had codified all the statutes which were in force
throughout the colony. In 1874 he was returned to the legis-
lative assembly for Brunswick, but after a few months he
resigned his seat. In 1880 he was appointed a puisne judge of the
supreme court, and in 1886, on the retirement of Sir William
Stawell, he was promoted to the office of chief justice. Mr
Higinbotham was appointed president of the International
Exhibition held at Melbourne in 1888-1889, but did not take any
active part in its management. One of his latest public acts was
to subscribe a sum of 10, los. a week towards the funds of the
strikers in the great Australian labour dispute of 1890, an act
which did not meet with general approval. He died in 1893.
HILARION, ST (c. 290-371), abbot, the first to introduce the
monastic system into Palestine. The chief source of information
is a life written by St Jerome; it was based upon a letter, no
longer extant, written by St Epiphanius, who had known
Hilarion. The accounts in Sozomen are mainly based on
Jerome's Vila; but Otto Zocker has shown that Sozomen also
had at his disposal authentic local traditions (see " Hilarion von
Gaza " in the Neue Jakrbucher fur deutsche Theologie, 1894), the
most important study on Hilarion, which is written against the
hypercritical school of Weingarten and shows that Hilarion must
be accepted as an historical personage and the Vita as a sub-
stantially correct account of his career. He was born of heathen
parents at Tabatha near Gaza about 290; he was sent to
Alexandria for his education and there became a convert to
Christianity; about 306 he visited St Anthony and became his
disciple, embracing the eremitical life. He returned to his
native place and for many years lived as a hermit in the desert by
the marshes on the Egyptian border. Many disciples put them-
selves under his guidance; but his influence must have been
limited to south Palestine, for there is no mention of him in
Palladius or Cassian. In 356 he left Palestine and went again to
Egypt; but the accounts given in the Vita of his travels during
the last fifteen years of his life must be taken with extreme
caution. It is there said that he went from Egypt to Sicily,
and thence to Epidaurus, and finally to Cyprus where he met
Epiphanius and died in 371.
An abridged story of his life will be found in Alban Butler's Lives
of the Saints, on the 2 1st of October, and a critical sketch with full
references in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 3). (E. C. B.)
HILARIUS (HILARY 1 ), ST (c. 300-367), bishop of Pictavium
(Poitiers), an eminent " doctor " of the Western Church, some-
times referred to as the " malleus Arianorum " and the " Athan-
asius of the West," was born at Poitiers about the end of the
3rd century A.D. His parents were pagans of distinction. He
received a good education, including what had even then become
somewhat rare in the West, some knowledge of Greek. He
studied, later on, the Old and New Testament writings, with
the result that he abandoned his neo-platonism for Christianity,
and with his wife and his daughter received the sacrament of
baptism. So great was the respect in which he was held by the
citizens of Poitiers that about 353, although still a married man,
he was unanimously elected bishop. At that time Arianism
was threatening to overrun the Western Church; to repel the
irruption was the great task which Hilary undertook. One
of his first steps was to secure the excommunication, by those
of the Gallican hierarchy who still remained orthodox, of Satur-
ninus, the Arian bishop of Aries and of Ursacius and Valens, two
of his prominent supporters. About the same time he wrote to
the emperor Constantius a remonstrance against the persecutions
by which the Arians had sought to crush their opponents
(Ad Constantium Augustum liber primus, of which the most
probable date is 355). His efforts were not at first success-
ful, for at the synod of Biterrae (Beziers), summoned in 356 by
>The name is derived from Gr. ZXap6s, gay, cheerful, whence
hilarious, hilarity.
HILARIUS HILARIUS, ST (ARLES)
Constantius with the professed purpose of settling the long-
standing disputes, Hilary was by an imperial rescript banished
with Rhodanus of Toulouse to Phrygia, in which exile he spent
nearly four years. Thence, however, he continued to govern
his diocese; while he found leisure for the preparation of two
of the most important of his contributions to dogmatic and
polemical theology, the De synodis or De fide Orientalium,
an epistle addressed in 358 to the Semi-Arian bishops in Gaul,
Germany and Britain, expounding the true views (sometimes
veiled in ambiguous words (of the Oriental bishops on the
Nicene controversy, and the De trinitate libri xii., 1 com-
posed in 359 and 360, in which, for the first time, a successful
attempt was made to express in Latin the theological subtleties
elaborated in the original Greek. The former of these works
was not entirely approved by some members of his own party,
who thought he had shown too great forbearance towards the
Arians; to their criticisms he replied in the Apologetica ad
reprehensores libri de synodis responsa. In 359 Hilary attended
the convocation of bishops at Seleucia in Isauria, where, with
the Egyptian Athanasians, he joined the Homoiousian majority
against the Arianizing party headed by Acacius of Caesarea;
thence he went to Constantinople, and, in a petition (Ad Con-
stantium Augustum liber secundus) personally presented to the
emperor in 360, repudiated the calumnies of his enemies and sought
to vindicate his trinitarian principles. His urgent and repeated
request for a public discussion with his opponents, especially
with Ursacius and Valens, proved at last so inconvenient that
he was sent back to his diocese, which he appears to have reached
about 361, within a very short time of the accession of Julian.
He was occupied for two or three years in combating Arianism
within his diocese; but in 364, extending his efforts once more
beyond Gaul, he impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan, and a
man high in the imperial favour, as heterodox. Summoned to
appear before the emperor (Valentinian) at Milan and there
maintain his charges, Hilary had the mortification of hearing
the supposed heretic give satisfactory answers to all the questions
proposed; nor did his (doubtless sincere) denunciation of the
metropolitan as a hypocrite save himself from an ignominious
expulsion from Milan. In 365 he published the Contra Arianos
vel Auxentium Mediolanensem liber, in connexion with the
controversy; and also (but perhaps at a somewhat earlier date)
the Contra Conslantium Augustum liber, in which he pronounced
that lately deceased emperor to have been Antichrist, a rebel
against God, " a tyrant whose sole object had been to make
a gift to the devil of that world for which Christ had suffered."
Hilary is sometimes regarded as the first Latin Christian hymn-
writer, but none of the compositions assigned to him is indis-
putable. The later years of his life were spent in comparative
quiet, devoted in part to the preparation of his expositions of
the Psalms (Tractatus super Psalmos), for which he was largely
indebted to Origen; of his Commentarius in Evangelium Mat-
thaei, a work on allegorical lines of no exegetical value; and of
his no longer extant translation of Origen's commentary on Job.
While he thus closely followed the two great Alexandrians,
Origen and Athanasius, in exegesis and Christology respectively,
his work shows many traces of vigorous independent thought.
He died in 367; no more exact date is trustworthy. He holds
the highest rank among the Latin writers of his century. Desig-
nated already by Augustine as " the illustrious doctor of the
churches," he by his works exerted an increasing influence in
later centuries; and by Pius IX. he was formally recognized
as " universae ecclesiae doctor " at the synod of Bordeaux
in 1851. Hilary's day in the Roman calendar is the i3th of
January. 2
1 Hilary's own title was De fide contra Arianos. It really deals
less with the doctrine of the Trinity than with that of the Incarnation.
That it is not an easy work to read is due partly to the nature of
the subject, partly to the fact that it was issued in detached portions.
" Hilary " was the name of one of the four terms of the English
legal year. These terms were abolished by the Judicature Act,
1873, s. 26, and " sittings " substituted. It is now the name of the
sitting of the Supreme Court of Judicature which commences on
the nth of January and terminates on the Wednesday before
459
EDITIONS. Erasmus (Basel, 1523, 1526, 1528); P. Constant
(Benedictine, Paris, 1693); Migne (Patrol. Lai. ix.,x.). The Tractatus
de mysteriis, ed. J. F. Gamurrini (Rome, 1887), and the Tractatus
sufer Psalmos, ed. A. Zingerle in the Vienna Corpus scrip, eccl. Lat.
xxii. Translation by E. W. Watson in Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers, ix.
LITERATURE. The life by (Venantius) Fortunatus c. 550 is almost
worthless. More trustworthy are the notices in Jerome (De vir.
illus. too), Sulpicius Severus (Chron. ii. 39-45) and in Hilary's own
writings. H. Reinkens, Hilarius von Poicliers (1864); O. Barden-
hewer, Patrologie ; A. Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, esp. vol. iv. ; F.
Loofs, in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyk. viii.
HILARIUS, or HILARUS (HILARY), bishop of Rome from
461 to 468, is known to have been a deacon and to have acted
as legate of Leo the Great at the " robber " synod of Ephesus
in 449. There he so vigorously defended the conduct of Flavian
in deposing Eutyches that he was thrown into prison, whence
he had great difficulty in making his escape to Rome. He was
chosen to succeed Leo on the igth of November 461. In 465
he held at Rome a council which put a stop to some abuses,
particularly to that of bishops appointing their own successors.
His pontificate was also marked by a successful encroachment
of the papal authority on the metropolitan rights of the French
and Spanish hierarchy, and by a resistance to the toleration
edict of Anthemius, which ultimately caused it to be recalled.
Hilarius died on the i;th of November 467, and was succeeded
by Simplicius.
HILARIUS (fl. 1125), a Latin poet who is supposed to have
been an Englishman. He was one of the pupils of Abelard at his
oratory of Paraclete, and addressed to him a copy of verses
with its refrain in the vulgar tongue, " Tort avers vos li mestre,"
Abelard having threatened to discontinue his teaching because
of certain reports made by his servant about the conduct of the
scholars. Later Hilarius made his way to Angers. His poems
are contained in MS.supp. lat. 1008 of the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris, purchased in 1837 at the sale of M. de Rosny. Quotations
from this MS. had appeared before, but in 1838 it was edited by
Champollion Figeac as Hilarii versus et ludi. His works consist
chiefly of light verses of the goliardic type. There are verses
addressed to an English nun named Eva, lines to Rosa, " Aiie
splendor puellarum, generosa domina," and another poem
describes the beauties of the priory of Chaloutre la Petite, in the
diocese of Sens, of which the writer was then an inmate. One
copy of satirical verses seems to aim at the pope himself. He
also wrote three miracle plays in rhymed Latin with an ad-
mixture of French. Two of them, Suscitatio Lazari and Historia
de Daniel repraesentanda, are of purely liturgical type. At the
end of Lazarus is a stage direction to the effect that if the per-
formance has been given at matins, Lazarus should proceed with
the Te Deum, if at vespers, with the Magnificat. The third,
Ludus super iconia Sancti Nicholai, is founded on a sufficiently
foolish legend. Petit de Julleville sees in the play a satiric
intention and a veiled incredulity that put the piece outside
the category of liturgical drama.
A rhymed Latin account of a dispute in which the nuns of Ronceray
at Angers were concerned, contained in a cartulary of Ronceray,
is also ascribed to the poet, who there calls himself Hilarius
Canonicus. The poem is printed in the Bibliotheque de I'&ole des
Charles (vol. xxxvh. 1876), and is dated by P. Marchegay from II2I.
See also a notice in Hist. lilt, de la France (xii. 251-254), sup-
plemented (in xx. 627-630), s.v. Jean Bpdel, by Paulin Paris;
also Wright, Biographm Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period
(1846); and Petit de Julleville, Les Mysteres (vol. i. 1880).
HILARIUS (HILARY), ST (c. 403-449), bishop of Aries, was
born about 403. In early youth he entered the abbey of Lerins,
then presided over by his kinsman Honoratus (St Honore), and
succeeded Honoratus in the bishopric of Aries in 429. Following
the example of St Augustine, he is said to have organized his
cathedral clergy into a " congregation," devoting a great part of
their time to social exercises of ascetic religion. He held the
rank of metropolitan of Vienne and Narbonne, and attempted
to realize the sort of primacy over the church of south Gaul
Easter. In the Inns of Court, Hilary is one of the four dining
terms; it begins on the nth of January and ends on the 1st of
February. It is also the name of one of the terms at the universities
of Oxford (more usually " Lent term ") and Dublin.
460
HILDA, ST HILDEBRAND, LAY OF
which seemed implied in the vicariate granted to his predecessor
Patroclus (417). Hilarius deposed the bishop of Besan^on
(Chelidonus), for ignoring this primacy, and for claiming a
metropolitan dignity for Besanfon. An appeal was made to
Rome, and Leo I. used it to extinguish the Gallican vicariate
(A.D. 444). Hilarius was deprived of his rights as metropolitan
to consecrate bishops, call synods, or exercise ecclesiastical over-
sight in the province, and the pope secured the edict of Valen-
tinian III., so important in the history of the Gallican church,
" ut episcopis Gallicanis omnibusque pro lege esset quidquid
apostolicae sedis auctoritas sanxisset." The papal claims were
made imperial law, and violation of them subject to legal
penalties (Novellae Valent. iii. tit. 16). Hilarius died in 449, and
his name was afterwards introduced into the Roman martyro-
logy for commemoration on the 5th of May. He enjoyed during
his lifetime a high reputation for learning and eloquence as well
as for piety; his extant works (Vita S. Honorati Arelatensis
episcopi and Melrum in Genesin) compare favourably with any
similar literary productions of that period.
A poem, De providentia, usually included among the writings of
Prosper, is sometimes attributed to Hilary of Aries.
HILDA, ST, strictly HILD (614-680), was the daughter of
Hererrc, a nephew of Edwin, king of Northumbria. She was
converted to Christianity before 633 by the preaching of Paulinus.
According to Bede she took the veil in 614, when Oswio was king
of Northumbria and Aidan bishop of Lindisfarne, and spent a
year in East Anglia, where her sister Hereswith had married
^Ethelhere, who was to succeed his brother Anna, the reigning
king. In 648 or 649 Hilda was recalled to Northumbria by
Aidan, and lived for a year in a small monastic community north
of the Wear. She then succeeded Heiu, the foundress, as abbess
of Hartlepool, where she remained several years. From Hartle-
pool Hilda moved to Whitby, where in 657 she founded the
famous double monastery which in the time of the first abbess
included among its members five future bishops, Bosa, JElta.,
Oftfor, John and Wilfrid II. as well as the poet Caedmon. Hilda
exercised great influence in Northumbria, and ecclesiastics from
all over Christian England and from Strathclyde and Dalriada
visited her monastery. In 655 after the battle of Winwa^d
Oswio entrusted his daughter ^Elfled to Hilda, with whom she
went to Whitby. At the synod of Whitby in 664 Hilda sided
with Colman and Cedd against Wilfrid. In spite of the defeat of
the Celtic party she remained hostile to Wilfrid until 679 at any
rate. Hilda died in 680 after a painful illness lasting for seven
years.
See Bede, Hist. eccl. (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1869), iii. 24, 25,
iv. 23; Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine, Historians of Church of York,
Rolls Series, vol. i., 1879), c. liv.
HILDBUR6HAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Saxe-Meiningen, situated in a wide and fruitful valley on the
river Werra, 19 m. S.E. of Meiningen, on the railway Eisenach-
Lichtenfels. Pop. (1905) 7456. The principal buildings are a
ducal palace, erected 1685-1695, now used as barracks, with a
park in which there is a monument to Queen Louisa of Prussia,
the old town hall, two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church
and a theatre. A technical college occupies the premises in
which Meyer's Bibliographisches Institut carried on business
from 1828, when it removed hither from Gotha, until 1874, when
it was transferred to Leipzig. A monument has been erected to
those citizens who died in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71.
The manufactures include linen fabrics, cloth, toys, buttons,
optical instruments, agricultural machines, knives, mineral
waters, condensed soups and condensed milk. Hildburghausen
(in records Hilpershusia and Villa Hilperti) belonged in the I3th
century to the counts of Henneberg, from whom it passed to the
landgraves of Thuringia and then to the dukes of Saxony. In
1683 it became the capital of a principality which in 1826 was
united to Saxe-Meiningen. '
See R. A. Human, Chronik der Stadt Hildburghausen (Hildburg-
hausen, 1888).
HILDE6ERT, HYDALBERT, GILDEBERT or ALDEBERT (c.
1055-1133), French writer and ecclesiastic, was born of poor
parents at Lavardin, near Vend&me, and was intended for the
church. He was probably a pupil of Berengarius of Tours, and
became master (scholasticus) of the school at Le Mans; in 1091
he was made archdeacon and in 1096 bishop of Le Mans. He
had to face the hostility of a section of his clergy and also of the
English king, William II., who captured Le Mans and carried the
bishop with him to England for about a year. Hildebert then
travelled to Rome and sought permission to resign his bishopric,
which Pope Paschal II. refused. In 1116 his diocese was thrown
into great confusion owing to the preaching of Henry of
Lausanne, who was denouncing the higher clergy, especially the
bishop. Hildebert compelled him to leave the neighbourhood of
Le Mans, but the effects of his preaching remained. In 1125
Hildebert was translated very unwillingly to the archbishopric of
Tours, and there he came into conflict with the French king
Louis VI. about the rights of ecclesiastical patronage and with
the bishop of Dol about the authority of his see in Brittany. He
presided over the synod of Nantes, and died at Tours probably on
the i8th of December 1133. Hildebert, who built part of the
cathedral at Le Mans, has received from some 'writers the title of
saint, but there appears to be no authority for this. He was not
a man of very strict life; his contemporaries, however, had a
very high opinion of him and he was called egregius vcrsificator.
The extant writings of Hildebert consist of letters, poems,
a few sermons, two lives and one or two treatises. An edition
of his works prepared by the Maurist, Antoine Beaugendre,
and entitled Venerabilis Hildeberti, primo Cenomannensis
episcopi, deinde Turonensis archiepiscopi, opera tarn edila qttam
inedita, was published in Paris in 1708 and was reprinted with
additions by J. J. Bourasse in 1854. These editions, however,
are very faulty. They credit Hildebert with numerous writings
which are the work of others, while some genuine writings ate
omitted. The revelation of this fact has affected Hildebert's
position in the history of medieval thought. His standing as
a philosopher rested upon his supposed authorship of the im-
portant Tractatus Iheologicus; but this is now regarded as the
work of Hugh of St Victor, and consequently Hildebert can
hardly be counted among the philosophers. His genuine
writings include many letters. These Epistolae enjoyed great
popularity in the i2th and i3th centuries, and were frequently
used as classics in the schools of France and Italy. Those which
concern the struggle between the emperor Henry V. and Pope
Paschal II. have been edited by E. Sackur and printed in the
Monumenta Germaniae historica. Libelli de lite ii. (1893). His
poems, which deal with various subjects, are disfigured by many
defects of style and metre, but they too were very popular.
Hildebert attained celebrity also as a preacher both in French
and Latin, but only a few of his sermons are in existence, most
of the 144 attributed to him by his editors being the work of
Peter Lombard and others. The Vitae written by Hildebert
are the lives of Hugo, abbot of Cluny, and of St Radegunda.
Undoubtedly genuine is also his Liber de querimonia et conflictn
carnis et spiritus seu animae. Hildebert was an excellent Latin
scholar, being acquainted with Cicero, Ovid and other authors,
and his spirit is rather that of a pagan than of a Christian writer.
See B. Haur6au, Les Melanges poetiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin
(Paris, 1882), and Notices et exlraits de quelques manuscrits latins de
la Bibliotheque nationale (Paris, 1890-1893); Comte P. de D6ser-
villers, Un EveqM au XII' siecle, Hildebert et son temps (Paris, 1876) ;
E. A. Freeman, The Reign of Rufus, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1882); tome xi.
of the Histoire litteraire de la France, and H. Bohmer in Band viii.
of Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie (1900). The most important
work, however, to be consulted is L. Dieudonne^s Hildebert de
Lavardin, eveque du Mans, archeveque de Tours. Sa vie, ses lettres
(Paris, 1898).
HILDEBRAND, LAY OF (Das HUdebrandslied) , a unique
example of 'Old German alliterative poetry, written about the
year 800 on the first and last pages of a theological manuscript,
by two monks of the monastery of Fulda. The fragment, or
rather fragments, only extend to sixty-eight lines, and the
conclusion of the poem is wanting. The theory propounded by
Karl Lachmann, that the poem had been written in its present
form from memory, has been discredited by later philological
investigation; it is clearly a transcript of an older original,
HILDEBRANDT, E. HILDEGARD, ST
461
which the copyists or more probably the writer to whom we
owe the older version imperfectly understood. The language
of the poem shows a curious mixture of Low and High German
forms; as the High German elements point to the dialect of
Fulda, the inference is that the copyists were reproducing an
originally Low German lay in the form in which it was sung in
Franconia.
The fragment is mainly taken up with a dialogue between
Hildebrand and his son Hadubrand. When Hildebrand followed
his master, Theodoric the Great, who was fleeing eastwards
before Odoacer, he left his young wife and an infant child behind
him. At his return to his old home, after thirty years' absence
among the Huns, he is met by a young warrior and challenged
to single combat. Before the fight begins, Hildebrand asks
for tie name of his opponent, and discovering his own son in him,
tries to avert the fight, but in vain; Hadubrand only regards
the old man's words as the excuse of cowardice. " In sharp
showers the ashen spears fall on the shields, and then the warriors
seize their swords and hew vigorously at the white shields until
these are beaten to pieces. ..." With these words the frag-
ment breaks off abruptly, giving no clue as to the issue of the
combat. There is little doubt, however, that, as in the Old
Norse Asmundar saga, where the tale is alluded to, the fight
must have been fatal to Hadubrand. But in the later traditions,
both of the Old Norse Thidreks saga (i3th century), and the
so-called Jungere Hildebrandslied a German popular lay,
preserved in several versions from the 15th to the iyth century
Hadubrand is simply represented as defeated, and obliged to
recognize his father. The Old High German Hildebrandslied
is dramatically conceived, and written in a terse, vigorous
style; it is the only remnant that has come down from early
Germanic times of an undoubtedly extensive ballad literature,
dealing with the national sagas.
The MS. of the Hildebrandslied, originally in Fulda, is now pre-
served in the Landesbibliothek at Cassel. The literature on the
poem will be found most conveniently in K. Miillenhoff and W.
Scherer, Denkmdler deutscher Poesie und Prosa cms dem VIII. bis
XI. Jahrh., 3rd ed. (1892), and in W. Braune, Althochdeutsches
Lesebuch, 5th ed. (1902), to which authorities the reader is referred
for a critical text. The poem was discovered and first printed (as
prost) by J. G. von Eckhart, Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis
(1729), i. 864 ff.; the first scholarly edition was that of the
brothers Grimm (1812). Facsimile reproductions of the MS. have
been published by W. Grimm (1830), E. Sievers (1872), G. Konnecke
in his Bilderatlas (1887; 2nd ed., 1895) and M. Enneccerus (1897).
See also K. Lachmann, Uber das Hildebrandslied (1833) in Kleine
Schriften, i. 407 ff. ; C. W. M . Grein, Das Hildebrandslied
(1858; 2-nd ed., 1880); O. Schroder, Bemerkungen zum Hilde-
brandslied (1880); H. Mbller, Zur althochdeutschen Alliterationspoesie
(1888); R. Heinzel, Uber die ostgotische Heldensage (1889); B. Busse,
" Sagengeschichtliches zum Hildebrandslied," in Paul und Braune's
Beitrdge, xxvi. (1901), pp. I ff. ; R. Koegel, Geschichte der deutschen
Literatur bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters, i. (1894), pp. 210 ff. ;
and R. Koegel and W. Bruckner, in Paul's Crundriss der germanischen
Philologie, 2nd ed., ii. (1901), pp. 71 ff. (J. G. R.)
HILDEBRANDT, EDUARD (1818-1868), German painter,
was born in 1818, and served as apprentice to his father, a
house-painter at Danzig. He was not twenty when he came
to Berlin, where he was taken in hand by Wilhelm Krause, a
painter of sea pieces. Several early pieces exhibited after his
death a breakwater, dated 1838, ships in a breeze off Swine-
miinde (1840), and other canvases of this and the following
year show Hildebrandt to have been a careful student of nature,
with inborn talents kept down by the conventionalisms of the
formal school to which Krause belonged. Accident made him
acquainted with masterpieces of French art displayed at the
Berlin Academy, and these awakened his curiosity and envy.
He went to Paris, where, about 1842, he entered the atelier of
Isabey and became the companion of Lepoittevin. In a short
time he sent home pictures which might have been taken for
copies from these artists. Gradually he mastered the mysteries
of touch and the secrets of effect in which the French at this
period excelled. He also acquired the necessary skill in painting
figures, and returned to Germany, skilled in the rendering of
many kinds of landscape forms. His pictures of French street
life, done about 1843, while impressed with the stamp of the
Paris school, reveal a spirit eager for novelty, quick at grasping,
equally quick at rendering, momentary changes of tone and
atmosphere. After 1843 Hildebrandt, under the influence of
Humboldt, extended his travels, and in 1864-1865 he went round
the world. Whilst his experience became enlarged his powers
of concentration broke down. He lost the taste for detail in
seeking for scenic breadth, and a fatal facility of hand diminished
the value of his works for all those who look for composition
and harmony of hue as necessary concomitants of tone and
touch. In oil he gradually produced less, in water colours
more, than at first, and his fame must rest on the sketches
which he made in the latter form, many of them represented by
chromo-lithography. Fantasies in red, yellow and opal, sunset,
sunrise and moonshine, distances of hundreds of miles like those
of the Andes and the Himalaya, narrow streets in the bazaars
of Cairo or Suez, panoramas as seen from mastheads, wide
cities like Bombay or Pekin, narrow strips of desert with measure-
less expanses of sky all alike display his quality of bravura.
.Hildebrandt died at Berlin on the 25th of October 1868.
HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR (1804-1874), German painter,
was born at Stettin. He was a disciple of the painter Schadow,
and, on Schadow's appointment to the presidency of a new
academy in the Rhenish provinces in 1828, followed that master
to Dusseldorf. Hildebrandt began by painting pictures illustra-
tive of Goethe and Shakespeare; but in this form he followed
the traditions of the stage rather than the laws of nature. He
produced rapidly " Faust and Mephistopheles " (1824), " Faust
and Margaret " (1825), and " Lear and Cordelia " (1828). He
visited the Netherlands with Schadow in 1829, and wandered
alone in 1830 to Italy; but travel did not alter his style, though
it led him to cultivate alternately eclecticism and realism.
At Dusseldorf, about 1830, he produced " Romeo and Juliet,"
" Tancred and Clorinda," and other works which deserved
to be classed with earlier paintings; but during the same period
he exhibited (1829) the " Robber " and (1832) the " Captain
and his Infant Son," examples of an affected but kindly realism
which captivated the public, and marked to a certain extent
an epoch in Prussian art. The picture which made Hildebrandt's
fame is the " Murder of the Children of King Edward " (1836),
of which the original, afterwards frequently copied, still belongs
to the Spiegel collection at Halberstadt. Comparatively late
in life Hildebrandt tried his powers as an historical painter in
pictures representing Wolsey and Henry VIII., but he lapsed
again into the romantic in " Othello and Desdemona." After
1847 Hildebrandt gave himself up to portrait-painting, and in
that branch succeeded in obtaining a large practice. He died
at Dusseldorf in 1874.
HILDEGARD, ST (1098-1179), German abbess and mystic,
was born of noble parents at Bockelheim, in the countship of
Sponheim, in 1098, and from her eighth year was educated at
the Benedictine cloister of Disibodenberg by Jutta, sister of
the count of Sponheim, whom she succeeded as abbess in 1136.
From earliest childhood she was accustomed to see visions,
which increased in frequency and vividness as she approached
the age of womanhood; these, however, she for many years
kept almost secret, nor was it until she had reached her forty-
third year (1141) that she felt constrained to divulge them.
Committed to writing by her intimate friend the monk Godef ridus,
they now form the first and most important of her printed
works, entitled Scivias (probably an abbreviation for " sciens
vias " or " nosce vias Domini ") 5. visionum et revelatiomim
libri Hi., and completed in 1151. In 1147 St Bernard of
Clairvaux, while at Bingen preaching the new crusade, heard
of Hildegard's revelations, and became so convinced of their
reality that he not only wrote to her a letter cordially acknow-
ledging her as a prophetess of God, but also successfully advocated
her recognition as such by his friend and former pupil Pope
Eugenius III. in the synod of Treves (1148). In the same
year Hildegard migrated along with eighteen of her nuns to
a new convent on the Rupertsberg near Bingen, over which
she presided during the remainder of her life. By means of
voluminous correspondence, as well as by extensive journeys.
462
HILDEN HILDESHEIM
in the course of which she was unwearied in the exercise of
her gift of prophecy, she wielded for many years an increasing
influence upon her contemporaries an influence doubtless
due to the fact that she was imbued with the most widely
diffused feelings and beliefs, fears and hopes, of her time.
Amongst her correspondents were Popes Anastasius IV. and
Adrian IV., the emperors Conrad III. and Frederick I., and
also the theologian Guibert of Gembloux, who submitted
numerous questions in dogmatic theology for her determination.
She died in 1179, but has never been canonized; her name,
however, was received into the Roman martyrology in the
1 5th century, September I7th being the day fixed for her
commemoration.
Her biography, which was written by two contemporaries, Gode-
fridus and Theddoricus, was first printed at Cologne in 1566.
Hildegard's writings, besides the Scivias already mentioned and
first printed in Paris in 1513, include the Liber divinorum operum,
Explanatio regulae S. Benedicti, Physica and the Letters, &c., are
contained in Migne, Pair. Lat. t. cxcvii., and in Cardinal Pitra's
Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata; Nova S. Hildegardis
opera (Paris, 1882).
For a modern study of the saint's writings, see Sainte Hildegarde
by Pal Franche, " Les Saints " series (Paris, 1903) ; and U. Chevalier,
Repertoire des sources historiques, bio.-bibl. 2153.
HILDEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine province on the
Itter, 9 m. S.E. of Diisseldorf by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,946.
It possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and a
monument to the emperor William I. Its manufactures include
silks, velvets, carpets, calico-printing, machinery and brick-
making.
HILDESHEIM, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Hanover, beautifully situated at
the north foot of the Harz Mountains, on the right bank of
the Innerste, 18 m. S.E. of Hanover by railway, and on the
main line from Berlin, via Magdeburg to Cologne. Pop. (1885)
20,386, (1905) 47,060. The town consists of an old and a new
part, and is surrounded by ramparts which have been converted
into promenades. Its streets are for the most part narrow
and irregular, and contain many old houses with overhanging
upper storeys and richly and curiously adorned wooden facades.
Its religious edifices are five Roman Catholic and four Evangelical
churches and a synagogue. The most interesting is the Roman
Catholic cathedral, which dates from the middle of the nth
century and occupies the site of a building founded by the
emperor Louis the Pious early in the gth century. It is famous
for its antiquities and works of art. These include the bronze
doors executed by Bishop Bernward, with reliefs from the
history of Adam and of Jesus Christ; a brazen font of the
1 3th century; two large candelabra of the nth century; the
sarcophagus of St Godehard; and the tomb of St Epiphanius.
In the cathedral also there is a bronze column 15 ft. high,
adorned with reliefs from the life of Christ and dating from 1022,
and another column, at one time thought to be an Irminsaule
erected in honour of the Saxon idol Irmin, but now regarded
as belonging to a Roman aqueduct. On the wall of the Roman-
esque crypt, which was restored in 1896, is a rose-bush,
alleged to be a thousand years old; this sends its branches to
a height of 24 ft. and a breadth of 30 ft., and they are trained
to interlace one of the windows. Before the cathedral is the
pretty cloister garth, with the chapel of St Anne, erected in
1321 and restored in 1888. The Romanesque church of St
Godehard was built in the I2th century and restored in the
igth. The church of St Michael, founded by Bishop Bernward
early in the nth century and restored after injury by fire in
1186, contains a unique painted ceiling of the I2th century,
the sarcophagus and monument of Bishop Bernward, and a
bronze font; it is now a Protestant parish church, but the
crypt is used by the Roman Catholics. The church of the
Magdalene possesses two candelabra, a gold cross, and various
other works in metal by Bishop Bernward; and the Lutheran
church of St Andrew has a choir dating from 1389 and a tower
385 ft. high. In the suburb of Moritzberg there is an abbey
church founded in 1040, the only pure columnar basilica in
north Germany.
The chief secular buildings are the town-hall (Rathaus),
which dates from the i5th century and was restored in 1883-
1892, adorned with frescoes illustrating the history of the city;
the Tempelherrenhaus, in Late Gothic erroneously said to have
been built by the Knights Templars; the Knochenhaueramthaus,
formerly the gild-house of the butchers, which was restored
after being damaged by fire in 1884, and is probably the finest
specimen of a wooden building in Germany; the Michaelis
monastery, used as a lunatic asylum; and the old Carthusian
monastery. The Romer museum of antiquities and natural
history is housed in the former church of St Martin; the buildings
of Trinity hospital, partly dating from the I4th century, are
now a factory; and the Wedekindhaus (1598) is now a savings-
bank. The educational establishments include a Roman
Catholic and a Lutheran gymnasium, a Roman Catholic school
and college and two technical institutions, the Georgstift for
daughters of state servants and a conservatoire of music. Hildes-
heim is the seat of considerable industry. Its chief productions
are sugar, tobacco and cigars, stoves, machines, vehicles,
agricultural implements and bricks. Other trades are brewing
and tanning. It is connected with Hanover by an electric tram
line, 19 m. in length.
Hildesheim owes its rise and prosperity to the fact that in
822 it was made the seat of the bishopric which Charlemagne
had founded at Elze a few years before. Its importance was
greatly increased by St Bernward, who was bishop from 993
to 1022 and walled the town. By his example and patronage
the art of working in metals was greatly stimulated. In the
I3th century Hildesheim became a free city of the Empire;
in 1249 it received municipal rights and about the same time
it joined the Hanseatic league. Several of its bishops belonged
to one or other of the great families of Germany ; and gradually
they became practically independent. The citizens were fre-
quently quarrelling with the bishops, who also carried on wars
with neighbouring princes, especially with the house of Bruns-
wick-Liineburg, under whose protection Hildesheim placed
itself several times. The most celebrated of these struggles
is the one known as the Hildesheimer Stiflsfehde, which broke out
early in the i6th century when John, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg,
was bishop. At first the bishop and his allies were successful,
but in 1521 the king of Denmark and the duke of Brunswick
overran his lands and in 1523 he made peace, surrendering
nearly all his possessions. Much, however, was restored when
Ferdinand, prince of Bavaria, was bishop (1612-1650), as this
warlike prelate took advantage of the disturbances caused by
the Thirty Years' War to seize the lost lands, and at the begin-
ning of the 1 9th century the extent of the prince bishopric was
682 sq. m. In 1801 the bishopric was secularized and in 1803
was granted to Prussia; in 1807 it was incorporated with the
kingdom of Westphalia and in 1813 was transferred to Hanover.
In 1866, along with Hanover, it was annexed by Prussia. In
1803 a new bishopric of Hildesheim, a spiritual organization only,
was established, and this has jurisdiction over all the Roman
Catholic churches in the centre of north Germany.
In October 1868 a unique collection of ancient Augustan
silver plate was discovered on the Galgenberg near Hildesheim
by some soldiers who were throwing up earthworks. This
Hildesheimer Silberfund excited great interest among classical
archaeologists. Some authorities think that it is the actual
plate which belonged to Drusus himself. The most noteworthy
pieces are a crater richly ornamented with arabesques and
figures of children, a platter with a representation of Minerva,
another with one of the boy Hercules and another with one of
Cybele. The collection is in the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Berlin.
See the Urkundenbuch der Stoat Hildesheim, edited by
R. Dobner (Hildesheim, 1881-1901); the Urkundenbuch des
Hochstifts Hildesheim, edited by K. Janicke and H. Hoogeweg
(Leipzig and Hanover, 1896-1903); C. Bauer, Geschichte von
Hildesheim (Hildesheim, 1892) ; A. Bertram, Geschichte des Bistums
Hildesheim (Hildesheim, 1899 fol.); C. Euling, Hildesheimer Land
undLeitte des idten Jahrhunderts (Hildesheim, 1892); O. Fischer, Die
Stadt Hildesheim wdhrend des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges (Hildesheim,
1897); A. Grebe, Auf Hildesheimschem Boden (Hildesheim, 1884);
H. Cuno, Hildesheims Kunstler im Mittelalter (Hildesheim, 1886);
HILDRETH HILL, A. P.
463
W. Wachsmuth, Geschichte von Hochstift und Stadt Hildesheim
(Hildesheim, 1863); R. Dobner, Studien zur Hildesheimischen
Geschichte (Hildesheim, 1901); Lachner, Die Holzarchilektur Hildes-
heims (Hildesheim, 1882); Seifart, Sagen, Marchen, Schwdnke und
Gebrduche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheims (Hildesheim, 1889). For
the Hildesheimer Stiftsfehde, see H. Delius, Die Hildesheimische
Stiftsfehde 1519 (Leipzig, 1803). For the Hildesheimer Silberfund,
see Wieseler, Der Hildesheimer Silberfund (Gottingen, 1869) ; Holzer,
Der Hildesheimer antike Silberfund (Hildesheim, 1871); and E.
Pernice and F. Winter, Der Hildesheimer Silberfund der koniglichen
Museen zu Berlin (Berlin, 1901)
HILDRETH, RICHARD (1807-1865), American journalist
and author, was born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th
of June 1807, the son of Hosea Hildreth (1782-1835), a teacher
of mathematics and later a Congregational minister. Richard
graduated at Harvard in 1826, and, after studying law at
Newburyport, was admitted to the bar at Boston in 1830.
He had already taken to journalism, and in 1832 he became
joint founder and editor of a daily newspaper, the Boston
Atlas. Having in 1834 gone to the South for the benefit of his
health, he was led by what he witnessed of the evils of slavery
(chiefly in Florida) to write the anti-slavery novel The Slave:
or Memoir of Archy Moore (1836; enlarged edition, 1852, The
White Slave). In 1837 he wrote for the Atlas a series of articles
vigorously opposing the annexation of Texas. In the same year
he published Banks, Banking, and Paper Currencies, a work which
helped to promote the growth of the free banking system in
America. In 1838 he resumed his editorial duties on the Atlas,
but in 1840 removed, on account of his health, to British Guiana,
where he lived for three years and was editor of two weekly news-
papers in succession at Georgetown. He published in this year
(1840) a volume in opposition to slavery, Despotism in America
(and ed., 1854). In 1849 he published the first three volumes of
his History of the United States, two more volumes of which were
published in 1851 and the sixth and last in 1852. The first
three volumes of this history, his most important work, deal
with the period 1492-1789, and the second three with the period
1780-1821. The history is notable for its painstaking accuracy
and candour, but the later volumes have a strong Federalist
bias. Hildreth's Japan as It Was and Is (1855) was at the time
a valuable digest of the information contained in other works
on that country (new ed., 1906). He also wrote a campaign
biography of William Henry Harrison (1839); Theory of Morals
(1844) ; and Theory of Politics (1853), as well as Lives of Atrocious
Judges (1856), compiled from Lord Campbell's two works. In
1 86 1 he was appointed United States consul at Trieste, but
ill-health compelled him to resign and remove to Florence,
where he died on the nth of July 1865.
HILGENFELD, ADOLF BERNHARD CHRISTOPH (1823-
1907), German Protestant divine, was born at Stappenbeck
near Salzwedel in Prussian Saxony on the 2nd of June 1823.
He studied at Berlin and Halle, and in 1890 became professor
ordinarius of theology at Jena. He belonged to the Tubingen
school. " Fond of emphasizing his independence of Baur, he
still, in all important points, followed in the footsteps of his
master; his method, which he is wont to contrast as Literarkritik
with Baur's Tendenzkritik, is nevertheless essentially the same
as Baur's " (Otto Pfleiderer). On the whole, however, he
modified the positions of the founder of the Tubingen school,
going beyond him only in his investigations into the Fourth
Gospel. In 1858 he became editor of the Zeitschrift fiir wissen-
schaflliche Theologie. He died on the I2th of January 1907.
His works include: Die elementarischen Recognitionen und
Homilien (1848); Die Evangelien und die Briefe des Johannes nach
ihrem Lehrbegriff (1849); Das Markusevangelium (1850); Die
Evangelien nach ihrer Entstehung und geschichtlichen Bedeutung
(1854); Das Unchristentum (1855); Jwl- Apokalyptik (1857);
Novum Testamentum extra canonem receptum (4 parts, 1866; 2nd
ed., 1876-1884); Histor.-kritische Einleitung in das Neue Testament
(1875); Acta Apostolorum graece et latine secundum antiquissimos
testes (1899); the first complete edition of the Shepherd of Hermas
(1887) ; Ignatii et Polycarpi epistolae (1902).
HILL, AARON (1685-1750), English author, was born in
London on the loth of February 1685. He was the son of
George Hill of Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, who contrived
to sell an estate entailed on his son. In his fourteenth year he
left Westminster School to go to Constantinople, where William,
Lord Paget de Beaudesert (1637-1713), a relative of his mother,
was ambassador. Paget sent him, under care of a tutor, to travel
in Palestine and Egypt, and he returned to England in 1703.
He was estranged from his patron by the " envious fears and
malice of a certain female," and again went abroad as companion
to Sir William Wentworth. On his return home in 1 709 he pub-
lished A Full and Just Account of the Present State of the Ottoman
Empire, a production of which he was afterwards much ashamed,
and he addressed his poem of Camillus to Charles Mordaunt,
earl of Peterborough. In the same year he is said to have been
manager of Drury Lane theatre and in 1710 of the Haymarket.
His first play, Elfrid: or The Fair Inconstant (afterwards
revised as Athelwold), was produced at Drury Lane in 1709.
His connexion with the theatre was of short duration, and the
rest of his life was spent in ingenious commercial enterprises,
none of which were successful, and in literary pursuits. He
formed a company to extract oil from beechmast, another for
the colonization of the district to be known later as Georgia,
a third to supply wood for naval construction from Scotland,
and a fourth for the manufacture of potash. In 1730 he wrote
The Progress of Wit, being a caveat for the use of an Eminent
Writer. The " eminent writer " was Pope, who had introduced
him into The Dunciad as one of the competitors for the prize
offered by the goddess of Dullness, though the satire was qualified
by an oblique compliment. A note in the edition of 1729 on
the obnoxious passage, in which, however, the original initial
was replaced by asterisks, gave Hill great offence. He wrote
to Pope complaining of his treatment, and received a reply
in which Pope denied responsibility for the notes. Hill appears
to have been a persistent correspondent, and inflicted on Pope
a series of letters, which are printed in Elwin & Courthope's
edition (x. 1-78). Hill died on the 8th of February 1750,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The best of his plays
were Zara (acted 1735) and Merope (1749), both adaptations
from Voltaire. He also published two series of periodical
essays, The Prompter (1735) and, with William Bond, The
Plaindealer (1724). He was generous to fellow-men of letters,
and his letters to Richard Savage, whom he helped considerably,
show his character in a very amiable light.
The Works of the late Aaron Hill, consisting of letters . . ., original
poems. . . . With an essay on the Art of Acting appeared in 1753,
and his Dramatic Works in 1760. His Poetical Works are included
in Anderson's and other editions of the British poets. A full account
of his life is provided by an anonymous writer in Theophilus Gibber's
Lives of the Poets, vol. v.
HILL, AMBROSE POWELL (1825-1865), American Con-
federate soldier, was born in Culpeper county, Virginia, on the
9th of November 1825, and graduated from West Point in 1847,
being appointed to the ist U.S. artillery. He served in the
Mexican and Seminole Wars, was promoted first lieutenant in
September 1851, and in 1855-1860 was employed on the United
States' coast survey. In March 1861, just before the outbreak
of the Civil War, he resigned his commission, and when his state
seceded he was made colonel of a Virginian infantry regiment,
winning promotion to the rank of brigadier-general on the field
of Bull Run. In the Peninsular campaign of 1862 he gained
further promotion, and as a major-general Hill was one of the
most prominent and successful divisional commanders of Lee's
army in the Seven Days', Second Bull Run, Antietam and
Fredericksburg campaigns. His division formed part of " Stone-
wall "Jackson's corps, and he was severely wounded in the flank
attack of Chancellorsville in May 1863. After Jackson's death
Hill was made a lieutenant-general and placed in command of the
3rd corps of Lee's army, which he led in the Gettysburg campaign
of 1863, the autumn campaign of the same year, and the Wilder-
ness and Petersburg operations of 1864-65. He was killed in
front of the Petersburg lines on the 2nd of April 1865. His
reputation as a troop leader in battle was one of the highest
amongst the generals of both sides, and both Lee and Jackson,
when on their death-beds their thoughts wandered in delirium
to the battlefield, called for " A. P. Hill " to deliver the decisive
blow.
4 6 4
HILL, D. H. HILL, J.
HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1880), American Confederate
soldier, was born in York district, South Carolina, on the I2th of
July 1821, and graduated at the United States Military Academy
in 1842, being appointed to the ist United States artillery. He
distinguished himself in the Mexican War, being breveted
captain and major for bravery at Contreras and Churubusco and
at Chapultepec respectively. In February 1849 he resigned his
commission and became a professor of mathematics at Washing-
ton College (now Washington and Lee University), Lexington,
Virginia. In 1854 he joined the faculty of Davidson College,
North Carolina, and was in 1859 made superintendent of the
North Carolina Military Institute of Charlotte. At the outbreak
of the Civil War, D. H. Hill was made colonel of a Confederate
infantry regiment, at the head of which he won the action of Big
Bethel, near Fortress Monroe, Va., on the loth of June 1861.
Shortly after this he was made a brigadier-general. He took part
in the Yorktown and Williamsburg operations in the spring of
1862, and as a major-general led a division with great distinction
in the battle of Fair Oaks and the Seven Days. He took part in
the Second Bull Run campaign in August-September 1862, and in
the Antietam campaign the stubborn resistance of D. H. Hill's
division in the passes of South Mountain enabled Lee to con-
centrate for battle. The division bore a conspicuous part in
the battles of the Antietam and Fredericksburg. On the reorgan-
ization of the army of Northern Virginia after Jackson's death,
D. H. Hill was not appointed to a corps command, but some-
what later in 1863 he was sent to the west as a lieutenant-general
and commanded one of Bragg's corps in the brilliant victory of
Chickamauga. D. H. Hill surrendered with Gen. J. E. Johnston
on the 26th of April 1865. In 1866-1869 he edited a magazine,
The Land we Love, at Charlotte, N.C., which dealt with
social and historical subjects and had a great influence in the
South. In 1877 he became president of the university of
Arkansas, a post which he held until 1884, and in 1885 presi-
dent of the Military and Agricultural College of Milledgeville,
Georgia. General Hill died at Charlotte, N.C., on the 24th of
September 1889.
HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843-1910), American politician,
was born at Havana, New York, on the 2gth of August 1843. In
1862 he removed to Elmira, New York, where in 1864 he was
admitted to the bar. He at once became active in the affairs of
the Democratic party, attracting the attention of Samuel J.
Tilden, one of whose shrewdest and ablest lieutenants he became.
In 1871 and 1872 he was a member of the New York State
Assembly, and in 1877 and again in 1881 presided over the
Democratic State Convention. In 1882 he was elected mayor of
Elmira, and in the same year was chosen lieutenant-governor of
the state, having been defeated for nomination as governor by
Grover Cleveland. In January 1885, however, Cleveland having
resigned to become president, Hill became governor, and in
November was elected for a three-year term, and subsequently
re-elected. In 1891-1897 he was a member of the United States
Senate. During these years, and in 1892, when he tried to get the
presidential nomination, he was prominent in working against
Cleveland. In 1896 he opposed the free silver plank in the
platform adopted by the Democratic National Convention
which nominated W. J. Bryan; in the National Convention of
1900, however, the free-silver issue having been subordinated to
anti-imperialism, he seconded Bryan's nomination. After 1897
he devoted himself to his law practice, and in 1905 retired from
politics. He died in Albany on the 3oth of October 1910.
HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903), English
author, son of Arthur Hill, head master of Bruce Castle school,
was born at Tottenham, Middlesex, on the 7th of June 1835.
Arthur Hill, with his brothers Rowland Hill, the postal reformer,
and Matthew Davenport Hill, afterwards recorder of Birmingham,
had worked out a system of education which was to exclude com-
pulsion of any kind. The school at Bruce Castle, of which Arthur
Hill was head master, was founded to carry into execution their
theories, known as the Hazelwood system. George Birkbeck
Hill was educated in his father's school and at Pembroke College,
Oxford. In i858_he began to teach at Bruce Castle school, and
from 1868 to 1877 was head master. In 1869 he became a
regular contributor to the Saturday Review, with which he re-
mained in connexion until 1884. On his retirement from teaching
he devoted himself to the study of English 18th-century literature,
and established his reputation as the most learned commentator
on the works of Samuel Johnson. He settled at Oxford in 1887,
but from 1891 onwards his winters were usually spent abroad.
He died at Hampstead, London, on the 27th of February 1903.
His works include: Dr Johnson, his Friends and his Critics
(1878); an edition of Boswell's Correspondence (1879); a
laborious edition of Boswell's Life of Johnson, including Boswell's
Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, and Johnson's Diary of a
Journey into North Wales (Clarendon Press, 6 vols., 1887) ; Wit and
Wisdom of Samuel Johnson (1888); Select Essays of Dr Johnson
(1889); Footsteps of Dr Johnson in Scotland (1890); Letters of
Johnson (1892); Johnsonian Miscellanies (2 vols., 1897); an
edition (1900) of Edward Gibbon's Autobiography; Johnson's
Lives of the Poets (3 vols., 1905), and other works on the i8th-
century topics. Dr Birkbeck Hill's elaborate edition of Boswell's
Life is a monumental work, invaluable to the student.
See a memoir by his nephew, Harold Spencer Scott, in the edition
of the Lives of the English Poets (1905), and the Letters edited by his
daughter, Lucy Crump, in 1903.
HILL, JAMES J. (1838- ), American railway capitalist,
was born near Guelph, Ontario, Canada, on the 1 6th of September
1838, and was educated at Rockwood (Ont.) Academy, a Quaker
institution. In 1856 he settled in St Paul, Minnesota. Abandon-
ing, because of his father's death, his plans to study medicine,
he became a clerk in the office of a firm of river steamboat
agents and shippers, and later the agent for a line of river
packets; he established about 1870 transportation lines on
the Mississippi and on the Red River (of the North). He effected
a traffic arrangement between the St Paul Pacific Railroad
and his steamboat lines; and when the railway failed in 1873
for $27,000,000, Hill interested Sir Donald A. Smith (Lord
Strathcona), George Stephen (Lord Mount Stephen), and
other Canadian capitalists, in the road and in the wheat country
of the Red River Valley; he got control of the bonds (1878),
foreclosed the mortgage, reorganized the road as the St Paul,
Minneapolis & Manitoba, and began to extend the line,
then only 380 m. long, toward the Pacific; and in 1883 he
became its president. He was president of the Great Northern
Railway (comprehending all his secondary lines) from 1893
to April 1907, when he became chairman of its board of directors.
In the extension (1883-1893) of this railway westward to Puget
Sound (whence it has direct steamship connexions with China
and Japan), the line was built by the company itself, none of
the work being handled by contractors. Subsequently his
financial interests in American railways caused constant sensa-
tions in the stock-markets. The Hill interests obtained control
not only of the Great-Northern system, but of the Northern
Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and proposed
the construction of another northern line to the Pacific coast.
Hill was the president of the Northern Securities Company.
Out of his wealth he gave liberally, especially to Roman Catholic
institutions, giving $500,000 to the St Paul Theological Seminary
(Roman Catholic) and $1,500,000 to the new Roman Catholic
cathedral in St Paul.
HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775), called from his Swedish honours,
" Sir " John Hill, English author, son of the Rev. Theo-
philus Hill, is said to have been born in Peterborough in 1716.
He was apprenticed to an apothecary and on the completion
of his apprenticeship he set up in a small shop in St Martin's
Lane, Westminster. He also travelled over the country in
search of rare herbs, with a view to publishing a horlus siccus,
but the plan failed. His first publication was a translation
of Theophrastus's History of Stones (1746). From this time
forward he was an indefatigable writer. He edited the British
Magazine (1746-1750), and for two years (1751-1753) he wrote
a daily letter, " The Inspector," for the London Advertiser and
Literary Gazette. He also produced novels, plays and scientific
works, and was a large contributor to the supplement of Ephraim
HILL, M. D, HILL, SIR R.
465
Chambers's Cyclopaedia. His personal and scurrilous writings
involved him in many quarrels. Henry Fielding attacked
him in the Covenl Garden Journal, Christopher Smart wrote
a mock-epic, TheHilliad, against him, and David Garrick replied
to his strictures against him by two epigrams, one of which
runs:
" For physics and farces, his equal there scarce is;
His farces are physic, his physic a farce is."
He had other literary passages-at-arms with John Rich, who
accused him of plagiarizing his Orpheus, also with Samuel
Foote and Henry Woodward. From 1759 to 1775 he was
engaged on a huge botanical work The Vegetable System
(26 vols. fol.) adorned by 1600 copperplate engravings. Hill's
botanical labours were underaken at the request of his patron,
Lord Bute, and he was rewarded by the order of Vasa from
the king of Sweden in 1774. He had a medical degree from
Edinburgh, and he now practised as a quack doctor, making
considerable sums by the preparation of vegetable medicines. He
died in London on the zist of November 1775.
Of the seventy-six separate works with which he is credited in the
Dictionary of National Biography, the most valuable are those that
deal with botany. He is said to have been the author of the second
part of The Oeconomy of Human Life (1751), the first part of which is
by Lord Chesterfield, and Hannah Glasse's famous manual of cookery
was generally ascribed to him (see Boswell, ed. Hill, iii. 285). Dr
Johnson said of him that he was " an ingenious man, but had no
veracity."
See a Short Account of the Life, Writings and Character of the late
Sir John Hill (1779), which is chiefly occupied with a descriptive
catalogue of his works; also Temple Bar (1872, xxxv. 261-266).
HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872), English lawyer
and penologist, was born on the 6th of August 1792, at Birming-
ham, where his father, T. W. Hill, for long conducted a private
school. He was a brother of Sir Rowland Hill. He early acted
as assistant in his father's school, but in 1819 was called to
the bar at Lincoln's Inn. He went the midland circuit. In
1832 he was elected one of the Liberal members for Kingston-
upon-Hull, but he lost his seat at the next election in 1834.
On the incorporation of Birmingham in 1839 he was chosen
recorder; and in 1851 he was appointed commissioner in
bankruptcy for the Bristol district. Having had his interest
excited in questions relating to the treatment of criminal offenders,
he ventilated in his charges to the grand juries, as well as in
special pamphlets, opinions which were the means of introducing
many important reforms in the methods of dealing with crime.
One of his principal coadjutors in these reforms was his brother
Frederick Hill (1803-1896), whose Amount, Causes and Remedies
of Crime, the result of his experience as inspector of prisons
for Scotland, marked an era in the methods of prison discipline.
Hill was one of the chief promoters of the Society for the Diffusion
of Useful Knowledge, and the originator of the Penny Magazine.
He died at Stapleton, near Bristol, on the 7th of June 1872.
His principal works are Practical Suggestions to the Founders of
Reformatory Schools (1855); Suggestions for the Repression of Crime
(1857), consisting of charges addressed to the grand juries of
Birmingham; Meltray (1855); Papers on the Penal Servitude Acts
(1864); Journal of a Third Visit to the Convict Gaols, Refuges and
Reformatories of Dublin (1865) ; Addresses delivered at the Birmingham
and Midland Institute (1867). See Memoir of Matthew Davenport
Hill, by his daughters Rosamond and Florence Davenport Hill (1878).
HILL, OCTAVIA (1838- ) and MIRANDA (1836-1910),
English philanthropic workers, were born in London, being
daughters of Mr James Hill and granddaughters of Dr South-
wood Smith, the pioneer of sanitary reform. Miss Octavia Hill's
attention was early drawn to the evils of London housing,
and the habits of indolence and lethargy induced in many
of the lower classes by their degrading surroundings. She
conceived the idea of trying to free a few poor people from
such influences, and Mr Ruskin, who sympathized with her
plans, supplied the money for starting the work. For 750
Miss Hill purchased the 56 years' lease of three houses in one
of the poorest courts of Marylebone. Another 78 was spent in
building a large room at the back of her own house where she
could meet the tenants. The houses were put in repair, and
let out in sets of two rooms. At the end of eighteen months
it was possible to pay 5% interest, to repay 48 of the
capital, as well as meet all expenses for taxes, ground rent
and insurance. What specially distinguished this scheme was
that Miss Hill herself collected the rents, thus coming into
contact with the tenants and helping to enforce regular and
self-respecting habits. The success of her first attempt encour-
aged her to continue. Six more houses were bought and treated
in a similar manner. A yearly sum was set aside for the repairs
of each house, and whatever remained over was spent on such
additional appliances as the tenants themselves desired. This
encouraged them to keep their tenements in good repair. By
the help of friends Miss Hill was now enabled to enlarge the
scope of her work. In 1869 eleven more houses were bought.
The plan was to set a visitor over a small court or block of
buildings to do whatever work in the way of rent-collecting,
visiting for the School Board, &c., was required. As years
went on Miss Octavia Hill's work was largely increased. Numbers
of her friends bought and placed under her care small groups
of houses, over which she fulfilled the duties of a conscientious
landlord. Several large owners of tenement houses, notably
the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, entrusted to her the manage-
ment of such property, and consulted her about plans of re-
building; and a number of fellow-workers were trained by
her in the management of houses for the poor. The results
in Southwark (where Red Cross Hall was established) and
elsewhere were very beneficial. Both Miss Miranda and Miss
Octavia Hill took an interest in the movement for bringing
beauty into the homes of the poor, and the former was practically
the founder of the Kyrle Society, the first suggestion of which
was contained in a paper read to a small circle of friends. Both
sisters worked for the preservation of open spaces, and helped
to promote the work of the Charity Organization Society, and
for several years Miss Miranda Hill (who died on the 3ist of May
1910) did admirable work in Marylebone as a member of the
Board of Guardians.
HILL, ROWLAND (1744-1833), English preacher, sixth son
of Sir Rowland Hill, Bart. (d. 1783), was born at Hawkstone,
Shropshire, on the 23rd of August 1744. He was educated at
Shrewsbury, Eton and St John's College, Cambridge. Stimu-
lated by George Whitefield's example, he scandalized the uni-
versity authorities and his own friends by preaching and visiting
the sick before he had taken orders. In 1773 he was appointed
to the parish of Kingston, Somersetshire, where he soon attracted
great crowds to his open-air services. Having inherited consider-
able property, he built for his own use Surrey Chapel, in the
Blackfriars Road, London (1783). Hill conducted his services
in accordance with the forms of the Church of England, in
whose communion he always remained. Both at Surrey Chapel
and in his provincial " gospel tours " he had great success.
His oratory was specially adapted for rude and uncultivated
audiences. He possessed a voice of great power, and according
to Southey " his manner " was " that of a performer as great
in his own line as Kean or Kemble." His earnest and pure
purposes more than made up for his occasional lapses from good
taste and the eccentricity of his wit. He helped to found the
Religious Tract Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society,
and the London Missionary Society, and was a stout advocate
of vaccination. His best-known work is the Village Dialogues,
which first appeared in 1810, and reached a 34th edition in
1839. He died on the nth of April 1833.
See Life by E. Sidney (1833); Memoirs, by William Jones (1834);
and Memorials, by Jas. Sherman (1857).
HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879), English administrator,
author of the penny postal system, a younger brother of Matthew
Davenport Hill, and third son of T. W. Hill, who named him after
Rowland Hill the preacher, was born on the 3rd of December
1795 at Kidderminster. As a young child he had, on account
of an affection of the spine, to maintain a recumbent position,
and his principal method of relieving the irksomeness of his
situation was to repeat figures aloud consecutively until he had
reached very high totals. A similar bent of mind was manifested
when he entered school in 1802, his aptitude for mathematics
4 66
HILL, VISCOUNT
being quite exceptional. But he was indebted for the direction of
his abilities in no small degree to the guidance of his father,
a man of advanced political and social views, which were qualified
and balanced by the strong practical tendency of his mind. At
the age of twelve Rowland began to assist in teaching mathe-
matics in his father's school at Hilltop, Birmingham, and latterly
he had the chief management of the school. On his suggestion
the establishment was removed in 1819 to Hazelwood, a more
commodious building in the Hagley Road, in order to have the
advantages of a large body of boys, for the purpose of properly
carrying out an improved system of education. That system,
which was devised principally by Rowland, was expounded in
a pamphlet entitled Plans for the Government and Education
of Boys in Large Numbers, the first edition of which appeared
in 1822, and a second with additions in 1827. The principal
feature of the system was " to leave as much as possible all
power in the hands of the boys themselves "; and it was so
successful that, in a circular issued six years after the experiment
had been in operation, it was announced that " the head master
had never once exercised his right of veto on their proceedings."
It may be said that Rowland Hill, as an educationist, is entitled
to a place side by side with Arnold of Rugby, and was equally
successful with him in making moral influence of the highest
kind the predominant power in school discipline. After his
marriage in 1827 Hill removed to a new school at Bruce Castle,
Tottenham, which he conducted until failing health compelled
him to retire in 1833. About this time he became secretary
of Gibbon Wakefield's scheme for colonizing South Australia,
the objects of which he explained in 1832 in a pamphlet on
Home Colonies, afterwards partly reprinted during the Irish
famine under the title Home Colonies for Ireland. It was in 1835
that his zeal as an administrative reformer was first directed
to the postal system. The discovery which resulted from these
investigations is when stated so easy of comprehension that
there is great danger of losing sight of its originality and thorough-
ness. A fact which enhances its merit was that he was not a
post-office official, and possessed no practical experience of the
details of the old system. After a laborious collection of statistics
he succeeded in demonstrating that the principal expense of
letter carriage was in receiving and distributing, and that the
cost of conveyance differed so little with the distance that a
uniform rate of postage was in reality the fairest to all parties
that could be adopted. Trusting also that the deficiency in
the postal rate would be made up by the immense increase of
correspondence, and by the saving which would be obtained
from prepayment, from improved methods of keeping accounts,
and from lessening the expense of distribution, he in his famous
pamphlet published in 1837 recommended that within the
United Kingdom the rate for letters not exceeding half an ounce
in weight should be only one penny. The employment of postage
stamps is mentioned only as a suggestion, and in the following
words: " Perhaps the difficulties might be obviated by using a
bit of paper just large enough to bear the stamp, and covered
at the back with a glutinous wash which by applying a little
moisture might be attached to the back of the letter." Proposals
so striking and novel in regard to a subject in which every one
had a personal interest commanded immediate and general
attention. So great became the pressure of public opinion
against the opposition offered to the measure by official pre-
possessions and prejudices that in 1838 the House of Commons
appointed a committee to examine the subject. The committee
having reported favourably, a bill to carry out Hill's recom-
mendations was brought in by the government. The act received
the royal assent in 1839, and after an intermediate rate of four-
pence had been in operation from the 5th of December of that
year, the penny rate commenced on the loth of January 1840.
Hill received an appointment in the Treasury in order to super-
intend the introduction of his reforms, but he was compelled
to retire when the Liberal government resigned office in 1841.
In consideration of the loss he thus sustained, and to mark the
public appreciation of his services, he was in 1846 presented
with the sum of 13,360. On the Liberals returning to office
in the same year he was appointed secretary to .the postmaster-
general and in 1854 he was made chief secretary. His ability
as a practical administrator enabled him to supplement his
original discovery by measures realizing its benefits in a degree
commensurate with continually improving facilities of com-
munication, and in a manner best combining cheapness with
efficiency. In 1860 his services were rewarded with the honour
of knighthood; and when failing health compelled him to resign
his office in 1864, he received from parliament a grant of 20,000
and was also allowed to retain his full salary of 2000 a year
as retiring pension. In 1864 the university of Oxford conferred
on him the degree of D.C.L., and on the 6th of June 1879 he was
presented with the freedom of the city of London. The pre-
sentation, on account of his infirm health, took place at his
residence at Hampstead, and he died on the 27th of August
following. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
He wrote, in conjunction with his brother, Arthur Hill, a History
of Penny Postage, published in 1880, with an introductory memoir by
his nephew, G. Birkbeck Hill. See also Sir Rowland Hill, the Story
of a Great Reform, told by his daughter (1907). To commemorate
his memory the Rowland Hill Memorial and Benevolent Fund was
founded shortly after his death for the purpose of relieving distressed
persons connected with the post office who were outside the scope
of the Superannuation Act. See also POST AND POSTAL SERVICE.
HILL, ROWLAND HILL, IST VISCOUNT (1772-1842), British
general, was the second son of (Sir) John Hill, of Hawkstone,
Shropshire, and nephew of the Rev. Rowland Hill (1744-1833),
was born at Frees Hall near Hawkstone on the nth of August
1772. He was gazetted to the 38th regiment in 1790, obtaining
permission at the same time to study in a military academy at
Strassburg, where he continued after removing into the 53rd
regiment with the rank of lieutenant in 1791. In the beginning
of 1793 he raised a company, and was promoted to the rank of
captain. The same year he acted as assistant secretary to the
British minister at Genoa, and served with distinction as a staff
officer in the siege of Toulon. Hill took part in many minor
expeditions in the following years. In 1800, when only twenty-
eight, he was made a brevet colonel, and in 1801 he served with
distinction in Sir Ralph Abercromby's expedition to Egypt, and
was wounded at the battle of Alexandria. He continued to
command his regiment, the goth, until 1803, when he became a
brigadier-general. During his regimental command he introduced
a regimental school and a sergeants' mess. He held various
commands as brigadier, and after 1805 as major-general, in
Ireland. In 1805 he commanded a brigade in the abortive
Hanover expedition. In 1808 he was appointed to a brigade in
the force sent to Portugal, and from Vimeira to Vittoria, in
advance or retreat, he proved himself Wellington's ablest and
most indefatigable coadjutor. He led a brigade at Vimeira,
at Corunna and at Oporto, and a division at Talavera (see
PENINSULAR WAR). His capacity for independent command
was fully demonstrated in the campaigns of 1810, 1811 and
1812. In 1811 he annihilated a French detachment under
Girard at Arroyo-dos-Molinos, and early in 1812, having now
attained a rank of lieutenant-general (January 1812) and become
a K.B. (March), he carried by assault the important works of
Almaraz on the Tagus. Hill led the right wing of Wellington's
army in the Salamanca campaign in 1812 and at the battle of
Vittoria in 1813. Later in this year he conducted the investment
of Pampeluna and fought with the greatest distinction at the
N.ivelle and the Nive. In the invasion of France in 1 8 1 4 his corps
was victoriously engaged both at Orthez and at Toulouse. Hill
was one of the general officers rewarded for their services by
peerages, his title being at first Baron Hill of Almaraz and
Hawkstone, and he received a pension, the thanks of parliament
and the freedom of the city of London. For about two years
previous to his elevation to the peerage, he had been M.P. for
Shrewsbury. In 1815 the news of Napoleon's return from Elba
was followed by the assembly of an Anglo-Allied army (see
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN) in the Netherlands, and Hill was appointed
to one of the two corps commands in this army. At Waterloo he
led the famous charge of Sir Frederick Adams's brigade against
the Imperial Guard, and for some time it was thought that he
HILL HILLEL
467
had fallen in the melee. He escaped, however, without a wound,
and continued with the army in France until its withdrawal in
1818. Hill lived in retirement for some years at his estate of
Hardwicke Grange. He carried the royal standard at the corona-
tion of George IV. and became general in 1825. When Wellington
became premier in 1828, he received the appointment of general
commanding-in-chief, and on resigning this office in 1842 he was
created a viscount. He died on the loth of December of the
same year. Lord Hill was, next to Wellington, the most popular
and able soldier of his time in the British service, and was so
much beloved by the troops, especially those under his immediate
command, that he gained from them the title of " the soldier's
friend." He was a G.C.B. and G.C.H., and held the grand
crosses of various foreign orders, amongst them the Russian St
George and the Austrian Maria Theresa.
The Life of Lord Hill, G.C.B. , by Rev. Edwin Sidney, appeared in
1845.
HILL (O. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied
to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.), a natural elevation of the
earth's surface. The term is now usually confined to elevations
lower than a mountain, but formerly was used for all such
elevations, high or low.
HILLAH, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalik of Bagdad,
60 m. S. of the city of Bagdad, in 32 28' 35" N., 44 48' 40!" E.,
formerly the capital of a sanjak and the residence of a mutasserif,
who in 1893 was transferred to Diwanieh. It is situated on both
banks of the Euphrates, the two parts of the town being con-
nected by a floating bridge, 450 ft. in length, in the midst of a
very fertile district. The estimated population, which includes a
large number of Jews, varies from 6000 to 1 2,000. The town has
suffered much from the periodical breaking of the Hindieh dam
and the consequent deflection of the waters of the Euphrates to
the westward, as a result of which at times the Euphrates at this
point has been entirely dry. This deflection of water has also
seriously interfered with the palm groves, the cultivation of
which constitutes a large part of the industry of the surrounding
country along the river. The bazaars of Hillah are relatively
large and well supplied. Many of the houses in the town are
built of brick, not a few bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar,
obtained from the ruins of Babylon, which lie less than an hour
away to the north.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. J. Rich, Babylon and Persepolis (1839); J. R.
Peters, Nippur (1857); H. Rassam, Asshur and the Land of Nimrod
(1897); H. V. Geere, By Nile and Euphrates (1904). (J. P. PE.)
HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN (1808-1879), American
lawyer and author, was born at Machias, Maine, on the 22nd of
September 1808. After graduating at Harvard College in 1828,
he taught in the Round Hill School at Northampton, Massa-
chusetts. He graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1832, and
in 1833 he was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he entered
into partnership with Charles Sumner. He was a member of the
state House of Representatives in 1836, of the state Senate in
1850, and of the state constitutional convention of 1853, and
in 1866-70 was United States district attorney for Massa-
chusetts. He devoted a large portion of his time to literature.
He became a member of the editorial staff of the Christian
Register, a Unitarian weekly, in 1833; in 1834 he became editor
of The American Jurist (1829-1843), a legal journal to which
Sumner, Simon Greenleaf and Theron Metcalf contributed; and
from 1856 to 1861 he was an associate editor of the Boston
Courier. His publications include an edition of Edmund
Spenser's works (in 5 vols., 1839); Selections from the Writings of
Walter Savage Landor (1856) ; Six Months in Italy (2 vols., 1853) ;
Life and Campaigns of George B. McClellan (1864); a part of the
Life, Letters, and Journals of George Ticknor (1876); besides a
series of school readers and many articles in periodicals and
encyclopaedias. He died in Boston on the 2ist of January
1879-
HILLEBRAND, KARL (1829-1884), German author, was
born at Giessen on the i7th of September 1829, his father
Joseph Hillebrand (1788-1871) being a literary historian and
writer on philosophic subjects. Karl Hillebrand became involved,
as a student in Heidelberg, in the Baden revolutionary move-
ment, and was imprisoned in Rastatt. He succeeded in escaping
and lived for a time in Strassburg, Paris where for several
months he was Heine's secretary and Bordeaux. He continued
his studies, and after obtaining the doctor's degree at the
Sorbonne, he was appointed teacher of German in the cole
militaire at St Cyr, and shortly afterwards, professor of foreign
literatures at Douai. On the outbreak of the Franco-German
War he resigned his professorship and acted for a time as
correspondent to The Times in Italy. He then settled in
Florence, where he died on the igth of October 1884. Hille-
brand wrote with facility and elegance in French, English and
Italian, besides his own language. His essays, collected under
the title Zeiten, Volker und Menschen (Berlin, 1874-1885), show
clear discernment, a finely balanced cosmopolitan judgment
and grace of style. He undertook to write the Geschichte Frank-
reichs von der Thronbesteigung Ludwig Philipps bis zum Fall
Napoleons III., but only two volumes were completed (to 1848)
(2nd-ed., 1881-1882). In French he published Des conditions
de la bonne comedie (1863), La Prusse contemporaine (1867),
Etudes italiennes (1868), and a translation of O. Midler's Griechi-
sche Literaturgeschichte (3rd ed., 1883). In English he published
his Royal Institution Lectures on German Thought during the
Last Two Hundred Years (1880). He also edited a collection
of essays dealing with Italy, under the title Italia (4 vols.,
Leipzig, 1874-1877).
See H. Homberger, Karl Hillebrand (Berlin, 1884).
HILLEL, Jewish rabbi, of Babylonian origin, lived at Jeru-
salem in the time of King Herod. Though hard pressed by
poverty, he applied himself to study in the schools of Shemaiah
and Abtalion (Sameas and Pollion in Josephus). On account
of his comprehensive learning and his rare qualities he was
numbered among the recognized leaders of the Pharisaic scribes.
Tradition assigns him the highest dignity of the Sanhedrin,
under the title of nasi (" prince "), about a hundred years before
the destruction of Jerusalem, i.e. about 30 B.C. The date at
least can be recognized as historic; the fact that Hillel took
a leading position in the council can also be established. The
epithet ha-zafyen (" the elder "), which usually accompanies
his name, proves him to have been a member of the Sanhedrin,
and according to a trustworthy authority Hillel filled his leading
position for forty years, dying, therefore, about A.D. 10. His
descendants remained, with few exceptions, at the head of
Judaism in Palestine until the beginning of the sth century,
two of them, his grandson Gamaliel I. and the latter's son
Simon, during the time when the Temple was still standing.
The fact that Josephus ( Vita 38) ascribes to Simon descent from
a very distinguished stock (ytvovs aijmdpa. Xo/inrpoC), shows in
what degree of estimation Hillel's descendants stood. When
the dignity of nasi became afterwards hereditary among them,
Hillel's ancestry, perhaps on the ground of old family traditions,
was traced back to David. Hillel is especially noted for the
fact that he gave a definite form to the Jewish traditional
learning, as it had been developed and made into the ruling and
conserving factor of Judaism in the latter days of the second
Temple, and particularly in the centuries following the destruction
of the Temple. He laid down seven rules for the interpretation
of the Scriptures, and these became the foundation of rabbinical
hermeneutics; and the ordering of the traditional doctrines,
into a whole, effected in the Mishna by his successor Judah I.,
two hundred years after Hillel's death, was probably likewise
due to his instigation. The tendency of his theory and practice
in matters pertaining to the Law is evidenced by the fact that
in general he advanced milder and more lenient views in op-
position to his colleague Shammai, a contrast which after the
death of the two masters, but not until after the destruction of
the Temple, was maintained in the strife kept up between the
two schools named the House of Hillel and the House of Shammai.
The well-known institution of the Prosbol (ir/xxr/JoXij), introduced
by Hillel, was intended to avert the evil consequences of the
scriptural law of release in the seventh year (Deut. xv. i). He
was led to this, as is expressly set forth (M. Giltin, iv. 3), by a
regard for the welfare of the community. Hillel lived in the
HILLER, F. HILLER, J. A.
memory of posterity chiefly as the great teacher who enjoined
and practised the virtues of charity, humility and true piety.
His proverbial sayings, in particular, a great number of which
were written down partly in Aramaic, partly in Hebrew, strongly
affected the spirit both of his contemporaries and of the succeed-
ing generations. In his Maxims (Abolh, i. 12) he recommends
the love of peace and the love of mankind beyond all else, and
his own love of peace sprang from the tenderness and deep
humility which were essential features in his character, as has
been illustrated by many anecdotes. Hillel's patience has
become proverbial. One of his sayings commends humility
in the following paradox: " My abasement is my exaltation."
His charity towards men is given its finest expression in the
answer which he made to a proselyte who asked to be taught
the commandments of the Torah in the shortest possible form:
" What is unpleasant to thyself that do not to thy neighbour;
this is the whole Law, all else is but its exposition." This allusion
to the scriptural injunction to love one's neighbour (Lev. xix.
1 8) as the fundamental law of religious morals, became in a
certain sense a commonplace of Pharisaic scholasticism. For the
Pharisee who accepts the answer of Jesus regarding that funda-
mental doctrine which ranks the love of one's neighbour as
the highest duty after the love of God (Mark xii. 33), does so
because as a disciple of Hillel the idea is familiar to him. St
Paul also (Gal. v. 14) doubtless learned this in the school of
Gamaliel. Hillel emphasized the connexion between duty
towards one's neighbour and duty towards oneself in the epi-
grammatic saying: "If I am not for myself, who is for me?
And if I am for myself alone, what then am I ? And if not now,
then when?" (Abolh, i. 14). The duty of working both with
and for men he teaches in the sentence: " Separate not thyself
from the congregation " (ib. ii. 4). The duty of considering
oneself part of comman humanity, of not differing from others
by any peculiarity of behaviour, he sums up in the words:
" Appear neither naked nor clothed, neither sitting nor standing,
neither laughing nor weeping " (Tosef. Ber. c. ii.). The command
to love one's neighbour inspired also Hillel's injunction (Abolh,
ii. 4): " Judge not thy neighbour until thou art in his place "
(cf. Matt. vii. i). The disinterested pursuit of learning, study
for study's sake, is commended in many of Hillel's sayings
as being what is best in life: " He who wishes to make a name
for himself loses his name; he who does not increase [his know-
ledge] decreases it; he who does not learn is worthy of death;
he who works for the sake of a crown is lost " (Abolh, i. 13).
" He who occupies himself much with learning makes his life "
(ib. ii. 7). " He who has acquired the words of doctrine has
acquired the life of the world to come '' (ib.). " Say not: When
I am free from other occupations I shall study; for may be thou
shall never at all be free " (ib. 4). One of his strings of proverbs
runs as follows: " The uncultivated man is not innocent; the
ignorant man is not devout; the bashful man learns not; the
wrathful man teaches not; he who is much absorbed in trade
cannot become wise; where no men are, there strive thyself
to be a man " (ib. 5). The almost mystical profundity of Hillel's
conciousness of God is shown in the words spoken by him on
the occasion of a feast in the Temple words alluding to the
throng of people gathered there which he puts into the mouth
of God Himself: " If I am here every one is here; if I
am not here no one is here " (Sukkah 530). In like manner
Hillel makes God say to Israel, referring to Exodus xx. 24:
" Whither I please, thither will I go; if thou come into my
house I come into thy house; if thou come not into my house, 1
come not into thine " (ib.).
It is noteworthy that no miraculous legends are connected
with Hillel's life. A scholastic tradition, however, tells of
a voice from heaven which made itself heard when the wise men
had assembled in Jericho, saying: "Among those here present
is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon
him, if his time had been worthy of it." And all eyes turned
towards Hillel (Tos. Sotah, xiii. 3). When he died lamentation
was made for him as follows: " Woe for the humble, woe for
the pious, woe for the disciple of Ezra! " (ib.)
HILLEL II., one of the patriarchs belonging to the family of Hillel I.,
lived in Tiberias about the middle of the 4th century, and introduced
the arrangement of the calendar through which the Jews of the
Diaspora became independent of Palestine in the uniform fixation
of the new moons and feasts.
The Rabbi HILLEL, who in the 4th century made the remarkable
declaration that Israel need not expect a Messiah, because the promise
of a Messiah had already been fulfilled in the days of King Hezekiah
(Babli, Sanhedrin, 99a), is probably Hillel, the son of Samuel ben
Nahman, a well-known expounder of the scriptures. (W. BA.)
HILLER, FERDINAND (1811-1885), German composer, was
born at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 24th of October 1811. His
first master was Aloys Schmitt, and when he was ten years of
age his compositions and talent led his father, a well-to-do man,
to send him to Hummel in Weimar. There he devoted himself
to composition, among his work being the entr'actes to Maria
Stuart, through which he made Goethe's acquaintance. Under
Hummel, Hiller made great strides as a pianist, so much so that
early in 1827 he went on a tour to Vienna, where he met Beethoven
and produced his first quartet. After a brief visit home Hiller
went to Paris in 1829, where he lived till 1836. His father's
death necessitated his return to Frankfort for a time, but on the
8th of January 1839 he produced at Milan his opera La Romilda,
and began to write his oratorio Die Zerstorung Jerusalems, one of
his best works. Then he went to Leipzig, to his friend Mendels-
sohn, where in 1843-1844 he conducted a number of the Gewand-
haus concerts and produced his oratorio. After a further visit
to Italy to study sacred music, Hiller produced two operas, Ein
Traum and Conradin, at Dresden in 1845 and 1847 respectively;
he went as conductor to Diisseldorf in 1847 and Cologne in 1850,
and conducted at the Opera Italien in Paris in 1851 and 1852.
At Cologne he became a power as conductor of the Giirzenich
concerts and head of the Conservatorium. In 1884 he retired,
and died on the I2th of May in the following year. Hiller
frequently visited England. He composed a work for the
opening of the Royal Albert Hall, his Nala and Damayanti was
performed at Birmingham, and he gave a series of pianoforte
recitals of his own compositions at the Hanover Square Rooms
in 1871. He had a perfect mastery over technique and form in
musical composition, but his works are generally dry. He was a
sound pianist and teacher, and occasionally a brilliant writer on
musical matters. His compositions, numbering about two
hundred, include six operas, two oratorios, six or seven cantatas,
much chamber music and a once-popular pianoforte concerto.
HILLER, JOHANN ADAM (1728-1804), German musical
composer, was born at Wendisch-Ossig near Gorlitz in Silesia on
the 2th of December 1728. By the death of his father in 1734
he was left dependent to a large extent on the charity of friends.
Entering in 1747 the Kreuzschule in Dresden, the school attended
many years afterwards by Richard Wagner, he subsequently
went to the university of Leipzig, where he studied jurisprudence,
supporting himself by giving music lessons, and also by per-
forming afconcerts both on the flute and as a vocalist. Gradually
he adopted music as his sole profession, and devoted himself more
especially to the permanent establishment of a concert institute
at Leipzig. It was he who in 1781 originated the celebrated
Gewandhaus concerts which still flourish at Leipzig. In 1789
he became " cantor " of the Thomas school there, a position
previously held by John Sebastian Bach. He died in Leipzig on
the i6th of June 1804. Two of his pupils placed a monument to
his memory in front of the Thomas school. Killer's compositions
comprise almost every kind of church music, from the cantata to
the simple chorale. But much more important are his operettas,
14 in number, which for a long time retained their place on the
boards, and had considerable influence on the development of
light dramatic music in Germany. The Jolly Cobbler, Love in the
Country and the Village Barber were amongst the most popular
of his works. Hiller also excelled in sentimental songs and ballads.
With great simplicity of structure his music combines a consider-
able amount of genuine melodic invention. Although an admirer
and imitator of the Italian school, Hiller fully appreciated the
greatness of Handel, and did much for the appreciation of his
music in Germany. It was under his direction that the Messiah
HILLIARD, L. HILTON
469
was for the first time given at Berlin, more than forty years after
the composition of that great work. Hiller was also a writer on
music, and for some years (1766-1770) edited a musical weekly
periodical named Wiichentliche Nachrichten und Anmerkungcn die
Musik betrefend.
HILLIARD, LAWRENCE (d. 1640), English miniature painter.
The date of his birth is not known, but he died in 1640. He was
the son of Nicholas Milliard, and evidently derived his Christian
name from that of his grandmother. He adopted his father's
profession and worked out the unexpired time of his licence after
Nicholas Hilliard died. It was from Lawrence Hilliard that
Charles I. received the portrait of Queen Elizabeth now at
Montagu House, since van der Dort's catalogue describes it as
" done by old Hilliard, and bought by the king of young Hilliard."
In 1624 he was paid 42 from the treasury for five pictures, but
the warrant does not specify whom they represented. His
portraits are of great rarity, two of the most beautiful being those
in the collections of Earl Beauchamp and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan.
They are as a rule signed L.H., but are also to be distinguished by
the beauty of the calligraphy in which the inscriptions round the
portraits are written. The writing is as a rule very florid, full of
exquisite curves and flourishes,' and more elaborate than the more
formal handwriting of Nicholas Hilliard. The colour scheme
adopted by the son is richer and more varied than that used by
the father, and Lawrence Hilliard's miniatures are not so hard as
are those of Nicholas, and are marked by more shade and a
greater effect of atmosphere. (G. C. W.)
HILLIARD, NICHOLAS (c. 1537-1619), the first true English
miniature painter, is said to have been the son of Richard Hilliard
of Exeter, high sheriff of the city and county in 1 560, by Lawrence,
daughter of John Wall, goldsmith, of London, and was born
probably about 1537. He was appointed goldsmith, carver and
portrait painter to Queen Elizabeth, and engraved the Great Seal
of England in 1 586. He was in high favour with James I. as well
as with Elizabeth, and from the king received a special patent of
appointment, dated the 5th of May 1617, and granting him a sole
licence for the royal work for twelve years. He is believed to
have been the author of an important treatise on miniature
painting, now preserved in the Bodleian Library, but it seems
more probable that the author of that treatise was John de
Critz, Serjeant Painter to James I. It is probable, however,
that the treatise was taken down from the instructions of Hilliard,
for the benefit of one of his pupils, perhaps Isaac Oliver.
The esteem of his countrymen for Hilliard is testified to by
Dr Donne, who in a poem called " The Storm " (i 597) praises the
work of this artist. He painted a portrait of himself at the age of
thirteen, and is said to have executed one of Mary queen of
Scots when he was eighteen years old. He died on the 7th of
January 1619, and was buried in St Martin's-in-the-Fields,
Westminster, leaving by his will twenty shillings to the poor of
the parish, 30 between his two sisters, some goods to his maid-
servant, and all the rest of his effects to his son, Lawrence
Hilliard, his sole executor.
It seems to be pretty certain that he visited France, and that he
is the artist alluded to in the papers of the due d'Alencon under
the name of " Nicholas Belliart, peintre anglois " who was
painter to this prince in 1577, receiving a stipend of 200 livres.
The miniature of Mademoiselle de Sourdis, in the collection of
Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, is certainly the work of Hilliard, and is
dated 1577, in which year she was a maid of honour at the
French Court; and other portraits which are his work are
believed to represent Gabrielle d'Estrees, niece of Madame de
Sourdis, la Princesse de Conde and Madame de Montgomery.
For further infprmation respecting Hilliard's sojourn in France,
see the privately printed catalogue of the collection of miniatures
belonging to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, compiled by Dr G. C.
Williamson. (G. C. W.)
HILLSDALE, a city and the county-seat of Hillsdale county,
Michigan, U.S.A., about 87 m. W. by S. of Detroit. Pop.
(1900) 4151, of whom 300 were foreign-born; (1904) 4809;
(1910) 5001. Hillsdale is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern railway. It has a public library, and is the seat of
Hillsdale College (co-educational, Free Baptist), which was
opened as Michigan Central College, at Spring Arbor, Michigan,
in 1844, was removed to Hillsdale and received its present
name in 1853 and was re-opened here in 1855. The college
in 1907-1908 had 22 instructors and 345 students. The city
is a centre for a rich farming region; among its manufactures
are gasoline and gas engines, screen doors, wagons, barrels,
shoes, fur-coats and flour. Hillsdale was first settled in 1837,
was incorporated as a village in 1847, and was chartered as
a city in 1869.
HILL TIPPERA, or TRIPURA, a native state of India, adjoining
the British district of Tippera, in Eastern Bengal and Assam.
Area, 4086 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 173,325; estimated revenue,
55,000. Six parallel ranges of hill cross it from north to south,
at an average distance of 12 m. apart. The hills are covered
for the most part with bamboo jungle, while the low ground
abounds with trees of various kinds, canebrakes and swamps.
The principal crop and food staple is rice. The other articles
of produce are cotton, chillies and vegetables. The chief exports
are cotton, timber, oilseeds, bamboo canes, thatching-grass
and firewood, on all of which tolls are levied. The chief rivers
are the Gumti, Haora, Khoyai, Dulai, Manu and Fenny (Pheni).
During the heavy rains the people in the plains use boats as
almost the sole means of conveyance.
The history of the state includes two distinct periods the
traditional period described in the Rajmala, or " Chronicles
of the Kings of Tippera," and the period since A.D. 1407.
The Rajmala is a history in Bengali verse, compiled by the
Brahmans of the court of Tripura. In the early history of the
state, the rajas were in a state of chronic feud with all the
neighbouring countries. The worship of Siva was here, as
elsewhere in India, associated with the practice of human
sacrifice, and in no part of India were more victims offered.
It was not until the beginning of the I7th century that the
Moguls obtained any footing in this country. When the East
India Company obtained the diwani or financial administration
of Bengal in 1765, so much of Tippera as had been placed on
the Mahommedan rent-roll came under British rule. Sin,:e
1808, each successive ruler has received investiture from the
British government. In October 1905 the state was attached
to the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It has a
chronological era of its own, adopted by Raja Birraj, from
whom the present raja is 93rd in descent. The year 1875
corresponded with 1285 of the Tippera era.
Besides being the ruler of Hill Tippera, the raja holds an
estate in the British district of Tippera, called chakla Roshnabad,
which is far the most valuable of his possessions. The capital
is Agartala (pop. 9513), where there is an Arts College. The
raja's palace and other public buildings were seriously damaged
by the earthquake of the i2th of June 1897. The late raja,
who died from the result of a motor-car accident in 1909,
succeeded his father in 1896, but he had taken a large share
in the administration of the state for some years previously.
The principle of succession, which had often caused serious
disputes, was defined in 1904, to the effect that the chief may
nominate any male descendant through males from himself
or from any male ancestor, but failing such nomination, then
the rule of primogeniture applies.
HILTON, JOHN (1804-1878), British surgeon, was born at
Castle Hedingham, in Essex, in 1804. He entered Guy's Hos-
pital in 1824. He was appointed demonstrator of anatomy
in 1828, assistant-surgeon in 1845, surgeon 1849. In 1867
he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons, of which
he became member in 1827 and fellow in 1843, and he
also delivered the Hunterian oration in 1867. As Arris and
Gale professor (1859-1862) he delivered a course of lectures
on " Rest and Pain," which have become classics. He was
also surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria. Hilton was
the greatest anatomist of his time, and was nick named " Ana-
tomical John." It was he who, with Joseph Towne the artist,
enriched Guy's Hospital with its unique collection of models.
In his grasp of the structure and functions of the brain and
470
HILTON HIMALAYA
spinal cord he was far in advance of his contemporaries. As
an operator he was more cautious than brilliant. This was
doubtless due partly to his living in the pre-anaesthetics period,
and partly to his own consummate anatomical knowledge,
as is indicated by the method for opening deep abscesses which
is known by his name. But he could be bold when necessary;
he was the first to reduce a case of obturator hernia by abdominal
section, and one of the first to practise lumbar colostomy. He
died at Clapham on the i4th of September 1878.
HILTON, WILLIAM (1786-1839), English painter, was born
in Lincoln on the 3rd of June 1786, son of a portrait-painter.
In 1800 he was placed with the engraver J. R. Smith, and
about the same time began studying in the Royal Academy
school. He first exhibited in this institution in 1803, sending
a " Group of Banditti "; and he soon established a reputation
for choice of subject, and qualities of design and colour superior
to the great mass of his contemporaries. He made a tour in
Italy with Thomas Phillips, the portrait-painter. In 1813,
having exhibited " Miranda and Ferdinand with the Logs of
Wood," he was elected an associate of the Academy, and in
1820 a full academician, his diploma-picture representing
" Ganymede." In 1823 he produced " Christ crowned with
Thorns," a large and important work, subsequently bought
out of the Chantrey Fund; this may be regarded as his master-
piece. In 1827 he succeeded Henry Thomson as keeper of the
Academy. He died in London on the 3oth of December 1839.
Some of his best pictures remained on his hands at his decease
such as the "Angel releasing Peter from Prison" (life-size),
painted in 1831, " Una with the Lion entering Corceca's Cave "
(1832), the " Murder of the Innocents," his last exhibited
work (1838), " Comus," and " Amphitrite." The National
Gallery now owns " Edith finding the Body of Harold " (1834),
" Cupid Disarmed," " Rebecca and Abraham's Servant "
(1829), " Nature blowing Bubbles for her Children " (1821),
and " Sir Calepine rescuing Serena " (from the Faerie Queen)
(1831). In the National Portrait Gallery is his likeness of John
Keats, with whom he was acquainted. In a great school or
period Hilton could not count as more than a respectable
subordinate; but in the British school of the earlier part of
the igth century he had sufficient elevation of aim and width
of attainment to stand conspicuous.
HILVERSUM, a town in the province of North Holland,
18 m. by rail S.E. of Amsterdam. It is connected with Amster-
dam by a steam tramway, passing by way of the small fortified
towns of Naarden and Muiden on the Zuider Zee. Pop. (1900)
20,238. It is situated in the middle of the Gooi, a stretch of
hilly country extending from the Zuider Zee to about 5 m.
south of Hilversum, and composed of pine woods and sandy
heaths. A convalescent home, the Trompenberg, was established
here in 1874, and there are a town hall, middle-class and technical
schools, and various places of worship, including a synagogue.
Hilversum manufactures large quantities of floor-cloths and
horse-blankets.
HIMALAYA, the name given to the mountains which form
the northern boundary of India. The word is Sanskrit and
literally signifies " snow-abode," from him, snow, and dlaya,
abode, and might be translated " snowy-range," although that
expression is perhaps more nearly the equivalent of Himachal,
another Sanskrit word derived from him, snow, and dchal,
mountain, which is practically synonymous with Himalaya
and is often used by natives of northern India. The name
was converted by the Greeks into Emodos and Imaos.
Modern geographers restrict the term Himalaya to that portion
of the mountain region between India and Tibet enclosed within
the arms of the Indus and the Brahmaputra. From the bend
of the Indus southwards towards the plains of the Punjab
to the bend of the Brahmaputra southwards towards the plains
of Assam, through a length of 1500 m., is Himachal or Himalaya.
Beyond the Indus, to the north-west, the region of mountain
ranges which stretches to a junction with the Hindu Kush south
of the Pamirs, is usually known as Trans-Himalaya. Thus the
Himalaya represents the southern face of the great central
upheaval the plateau of Tibet the northern face of which is
buttressed by the Kuen Lun.
Throughout this vast space of elevated plateau and mountain
face geologists now trace a system of main chains,
or axes, extending from the Hindu Kush to Assam, structure
arranged in approximately parallel lines, and
traversed at intervals by main lines of drainage
obliquely. Godwin-Austen indicates six of these geological axes
as follows:
1 . The main Central Asian axis, the Kuen Lun forming the northern
edge or ridge of the Tibetan plateau.
2. The Trans-Himalayan chain of Muztagh (or Karakoram),
which is lost in the Tibetan uplands, passing to the north of the
sources of the Indus.
3. The Ladakh chain, partly north and partly south of the Indus
for that river breaks across it about 100 m. above Leh. This chain
continues south of the Tsanpo (or Upper Brahmaputra), and becomes
part of the Himalayan system.
4. The Zaskar, or main chain of the Himalaya, i.e. the " snowy
range " par excellence which is indicated by Nanga Parbat (over-
looking the Indus), and passes in a south-east direction to the
southern side of the Deosai plains. Thence, bending slightly south,
it extends in the line of snowy peaks which are seen from Simla to the
famous peaks of Gangotri and Nanda Devi. This is the best known
range of the Himalaya.
5. The outer Himalaya or Pir Panjal-Dhaoladhar ridge.
6. The Sub-Himalaya, which is " easily denned by the fringing
line of hills, more or less broad, and in places very distinctly marked
off from the main chain by open valleys (dhuns) or narrow valleys,
parallel to the main axis of the chain." These include the Siwaliks.
Interspersed between these main geological axes are many
other minor ridges, on some of which are peaksof great elevation.
In fact, the geological axis seldom coincides with the line of
highest elevation, nor must it be confused with the main lines
of water-divide of the Himalaya.
On the north and north-west of Kashmir the great water-
divide which separates the Indus drainage area from that of
the Yarkand and other rivers of Chinese Turkestan The great
has been explored by Sir F. Younghusband, and sub- northern
sequently by H. H. P. Deasy. The general result watershed
of their investigations has been to prove that the ol Iadla -
Muztagh range, as it trends south-eastwards and finally forms a
continuous mountain barrier together with the Karakoram,
is the true water-divide west of the Tibetan plateau. Shutting
off the sources of the Indus affluents from those of the Central
Asian system of hydrography, this great water-parting is dis-
tinguished by a group of peaks of which the altitude is hardly
less than that of the Eastern Himalaya. Mount Godwin-Austen
(28,250 ft. high), only 750 ft. lower than Everest, affords an
excellent example in Asiatic geography of a dominating, peak-
crowned water-parting or divide. From Kailas on the far west
to the extreme north-eastern sources of the Brahmaputra, the
great northern water-parting of the Indo-Tibetan highlands has
only been occasionally touched. Littledale, du Rhins and
Bonvalot may have stood on it as they looked southwards towards
Lhasa, but for some 500 or 600 m. east of Kailas it appears to be
lost in the mazes of the minor ranges and ridges of the Tibetan
plateau. Nor can it be said to be as yet well defined to the east
of Lhasa.
The Tibetan plateau, or Chang, breaks up about the meridian
of 92 E., and to the east of this meridian the affluents of the
Tsanpo (the same river as the Dihong and subsequently
as the Brahmaputra) drain no longer from the elevated
plateau, but from the rugged slopes of a wild region
of mountains which assumes a systematic conformation where
its successive ridges are arranged in concentric curves around
the great bend of the Brahmaputra, wherein are hidden the
sources of all the great rivers of Burma and China. Neither
immediately beyond this great bend, nor within it in the Hima-
layan regions lying north of Assam and east of Bhutan, have
scientific investigations yet been systematically carried out;
but it is known that the largest of the Himalayan affluents of
the Brahmaputra west of the bend derive their sources from the
Tibetan plateau, and break down through the containing bands
of hills, carrying deposits of gold from their sources to the plains,
as do all the rivers of Tibet.
HIMALAYA
47
Although the northern limits of the Tsanpo basin are not
sufficiently well known to locate the Indo-Tibetan watershed
even approximately, there exists some scattered
1'nh*Z* evidence of the nature of that strip of Northern Hima-
tne central laya on the Tibeto-Nepalese border which lies between
chain ot the line of greatest elevation and the trough of the
S "aks Tsanpo. Recent investigations show that all the
chief rivers of Nepal flowing southwards to the Tarai
take their rise north of the line of highest crests, the " main
range " of the Himalaya; and that some of them drain long
lateral high-level valleys enclosed between minor ridges whose
strike is parallel to the axis of the Himalaya and, occasionally,
almost at right angles to the course of the main drainage channels
breaking down to the plains. This formation brings the
southern edge of the Tsanpo basin to the immediate neighbour-
hood of the banks of that river, which runs at its foot like a
drain flanking a wall. It also affords material evidence of that
wrinkling or folding action which accompanied the process of
upheaval, when the Central Asian highlands were raised, which
is more or less marked throughout the whole of the north-west
Indian borderland. North of Bhutan, between the Himalayan
crest and Lhasa, this formation is approximately maintained;
farther east, although the same natural forces first resulted in
the same effect of successive folds of the earth's crust, forming
extensive curves of ridge and furrow, the abundant rainfall
and the totally distinct climatic conditions which govern the
processes of denudation subsequently led to the erosion of
deeper valleys enclosed between forest-covered ranges which
rise steeply from the river banks.
Although suggestions have been made of the existence of
higher peaks north of the Himalaya than that which dominates
the Everest group, no evidence has been adduced to
Height ot SU pport such a contention. On the other hand the
^teaks***" observations of Major Ryder and other surveyors who
explored from Lhasa to the sources of the Brahmaputra
and Indus, at the conclusion of the Tibetan mission in 1904,
conclusively prove that Mount Everest, which appears from the
Tibetan plateau as a single dominating peak, has no rival amongst
Himalayan altitudes, whilst the very remarkable investigations
made by permission of the Nepal durbar from peaks near Kath-
mandu in 1903, by Captain Wood, R.E., not only place the
Everest group apart from other peaks with which they have been
confused by scientists, isolating them in the topographical system
of Nepal, but clearly show that there is no one dominating and
continuous range indicating a main Himalayan chain which
includes both Everest and Kinchinjunga. The main features of
Nepalese topography are now fairly well defined. So much
controversy has been aroused on the subject of Himalayan
altitudes that the present position of scientific analysis in relation
to them may be shortly stated. The heights of peaks determined
by exact processes of trigonometrical observation are bound to
be more or less in error for three reasons: (i) the extraordinary
geoidal deformation of the level surface at the observing stations
in submontane regions; (2) ignorance of the laws of refraction
when rays traverse rarefied air in snow-covered regions; (3)
ignorance of the variations in the actual height of peaks due to
the increase, or decrease, of snow. The value of the heights
attached to the three highest mountains in the world are, for
these reasons, adjudged by Colonel S. G. Burrard, the Supt.
Trigonometrical Surveys in India, to be in probable error to the
following extent :
Present Survey
Value of Height
Most probable
Value.
Mount Everest
Kj (Godwin Austen) .
Kinchinjunga
29,002
28,250
28,146
29,141
28,191
28,225
These determinations have the effect of placing Kinchinjunga
second and K 2 third on the list. (T. H. H.*)
Geology. The Himalaya have been formed by violent crumplin
of the earth's crust along the southern margin of the great tablelam
of Central Asia. Outside the arc of the mountain chain no sign ol
:his crumpling is to be detected except in the Salt Range, and the
Peninsula of India has been entirely free from folding of any im-
portance since early Palaeozoic times, if not since the Archean
jeripd itself. But the contrast between the Himalaya and the
Peninsula is not confined to their structure: the difference in the
rocks themselves is equally striking. In the Himalaya the geological
sequence, from the Ordovician to the Eocene, is almost entirely
marine; there are indeed occasional breaks in the series, but during
nearly the whole of this long period the Himalayan region, or at
.east its northern part, must have been beneath the sea the Central
Mediterranean Sea of Neumayr or Tethys of Suess. In the peninsula,
However, no marine fossils have yet been found of earlier date than
Jurassic and Cretaceous, and these are confined to the neighbourhood
:>f the coasts; the principal fossiliferous deposits are the plant-
searing beds of the Gondwana series, and there can be no doubt that,
at least since the Carboniferous period, nearly the whole of the
Peninsula has been land. Between the folded marine beds of the
Himalaya and the nearly horizontal strata of the peninsula lies the
Indo-Gangetic plain, covered by an enormous thickness of alluvial
and wind-blown deposits of recent date. The deep boring at Luck-
now passed through 1336 ft. of sands reaching nearly to 1000 ft.
below sea-level without any sign of approaching the base of the
alluvial series. It is clear, then, that in front of the Himalaya there
is a great depression, but as yet there is no indication that this
depression was ever beneath the sea.
In the light thrown by recent researches on the structure and
origin of mountain chains the explanation of these facts is no longer
difficult. From early Palaeozoic times the peninsula of India has
been dry land, a part, indeed, of a great continent which in Mesozoic
times extended across the Indian Ocean towards South Africa. Its
northern shores were washed by the Sea of Tethys, which, at least in
Jurassic and Cretaceous times, stretched across the Old World from
west to east, and in this sea were laid down the marine deposits of
the Himalaya. The tangential pressures which are known to be set
up in the earth's crust either by the contraction of the interior or
in some other way caused the deposits of this sea to be crushed up
against the rigid granites and other old rocks of the peninsula and
finally led to the whole mass being pushed forward over the edge of
the part which did not crumple. The Indo-Gangetic depression was
formed by the weight of the oyer-riding mass bending down the edge
over which it rode, or else it is the lower limb of the S-shaped fold
which would necessarily result if there were no fracture the
Himalaya representing the upper limb of the S-
Geologically, the Himalaya may be divided into three zones which
correspond more or less with orographical divisions. The northern
zone is the Tibetan, in which fossiliferous beds of Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic age are largely developed excepting in the north-west no
such rocks are known on the southern flanks. The second is the zone
of the snowy peaks and of the lower Himalaya, and is composed
chiefly of crystalline and metamorphic rocks together with un-
fossiliferous sedimentary beds supposed to be of Palaeozoic age.
The southern zone comprises the Sub-Himalaya and consists entirely
of Tertiary beds, and especially of the upper Tertiaries. The ojdest
beds which have hitherto yielded fossils, belong to the Ordovician
system, but it is highly probable that the underlying " Haimantas "
of the central Himalaya are of Cambrian age. From these beds up
to the top of the Carboniferous there appears to be no break; but
the Carboniferous beds were in some places eroded before the de-
position of the Product-its shales, which belong to the Permian period.
It is, however, possible that this erosion was merely local, for in
other places there seems to be a complete passage from the Carbon-
iferous to the Permian. From the Permian to the Lias the sequence
in the central Himalaya shows no sign of a break, nor has any un-
conformity been proved between the Liassic beds and the overlying
Spiti shales, which contain fossils of Middle and Upper Jurassic age.
The Spiti shales are succeeded conformably by Cretaceous beds
(Gieumal sandstone below and Chikkim limestone above), and these
are followed without a break by Nummulitic beds of Eocene age,
much disturbed and altered by intrusions of gabbro and syenite.
Thus, in the Spiti area at least, there appears to have been continuous
deposition of marine beds from the Permian Productus shales to the
Eocene Nummulitic formation. The next succeeding deposit is a
sandstone, often highly inclined, which rests unconformably upon the
Nummulitic beds and resembles the Lower Siwaliks of the Sub-
Himalaya (Pliocene) but which as yet has yielded no fossils of any
kind. The whole is overlaid unconformably by the younger Terti-
aries of Hundes, which are perfectly horizontal and have been quite
unaffected by any of the folds.
From the absence of any well-marked unconformity it is evident
that in the northern part of the Himalayan belt, at least in the Spiti
area, there can have been no post-Archaean folding of any magnitude
until after the deposition of the Nummulitic beds, and that the
folding was completed before the later Tertiaries of Hundes were
laid down. It was, therefore, during the Miocene period that the
elevation of this part of the chain began, while the disturbance of the
Siwalik-like sandstone indicates that the folding continued into the
Pliocene period. Along the southern flanks of the Himalaya the
history of the chain is still more clearly shown. The sub-Himalaya
are formed of Tertiary beds, chiefly Siwalik or upper Tertiary, while
the lower Himalaya proper consist mainly of pre-Tertiary rocks
472
HIMALAYA
without fossils. Throughout the whole length of the chain, wherever
the junction of the Siwaliks with the pre-Tertiary rocks has been seen,
it is a great reversed fault. West of the Bias river a similar reversed
fault forms the boundary between the lower Tertiaries and the
pre-Tertiary rocks of the Himalaya, while between the Sutlej and
the Jumna rivers, where the lower Tertiaries help to form the lower
Himalaya, the fault lies between them and the Siwaliks. The hade
of the fault is constantly inwards, towards the centre of the chain,
and the older rocks which form the Himalaya proper, have been
pushed forward over the later beds of the sub-Himalaya. But the
fault is more than an ordinary reversed fault : it was, nearly every-
where, the northern boundary of deposition of the Siwalik beds, and
only in a few instances do any of the Siwalik deposits extend even to
a short distance beyond it. The fault: in fact was being formed
during the deposition of the Siwalik beds, and as the beds were laid
down, the Himalaya were pushed forward over them, the Siwaliks
themselves being folded and upturned during the process. Accord-
ingly, in some places the Siwaliks now form a continuous and con-
formable series from base to summit, in other places the middle beds
are absent and the upper beds of the series rest upon the upturned and
denuded edges of the lower beds. The Siwaliks are fluviatile and
torrential deposits similar to those which are now being formed
at the foot of the mountains, in the I ndo-Gangetic plain; and
their relations to the older rocks of the Himalaya proper were
very similar to those which now exist between the deposits of
the plain and the Siwaliks themselves. But the great fault just
described is not the only one of this character. There is a series of
such faults, approximately parallel to one another, and although
they have not been traced throughout the whole chain, yet wherever
they occur they seem to have formed the northern boundary of
deposition of the deposits immediately to the south of them. It
appears, therefore, that the Himalaya grew southwards in a series
of stages. A reversed fault was formed at the foot of the chain, and
arranged between the same parallel system of folds as we see on the
western frontier, connected by short transverse gaps where the rivers
cross the folds, frequently to resume a course parallel to that origin-
ally held. An instance of this occurs where the Indus suddenly
breaks through the well-defined Ladakh range in the North-west
Himalaya to resume its north-westerly course after passing from the
northern to the southern side of the range. The reason assigned for
these extraordinary diversions of the drainage right across the
general strike of the ridges is that it is antecedent i.e. that the lines
of drainage were formed ere the folds or anticlinals were raised ; and
that the drainage has merely maintained the course originally held,
by the power of erosion during the gradual process of upheaval.
In the outer valleys of the Himalaya the sides are generally steep,
so steep as to be liable to landslip, whilst the streams are still cutting
down the river beds and have not yet reached the stage of equilibrium.
Here and there a valley has become filled with alluvial detritus owing
to some local impediment in the drainage, and when this occurs there
is usually to be found a fertile and productive field for agriculture.
The straits of the Jhelum, below Baramulla, probably account for
the lovely vale of Kashmir, which is in form (if not in principles of
construction) a repetition on grand scale of the Maidan of the Afridi
Tirah, where the drainage from the slopes of a great amphitheatre of
hills is collected and then arrested by the gorge which marks the
outlet to the Bara.
Other rivers besides the Indus and the Brahmaputra begin by
draining a considerable area north of the snowy range the Sutlej,
the Kosi, the Gandak and the Subansiri, for example. Q .
All these rivers break through the main snowy range ere .f, e .
they twist their way through the southern hills to the ?
i r e T ,. T ^t it j MI *ii formation
plains of India. Here the antecedent theory will not ls ty-fa,!
suffice, for there is no sufficient catchment area north of
the snows to support it. Their formation is explained by a process
of " cutting back," by which the heads of these streams are gradually
b b
f.= Recenti d = Upper siuialili conglomerate; c=MMIe ilu/alili sandstones; b = Lower (NahanlsiwoJiks:
C S Middteauss Scale, i inch.= a%mile
Section across the sub-Himalayan zone.
b b
ffummulitic; n = 0tder rocks of rtimaiat/as
upon this fault the mountains were pushed forward over the beds
deposited at their base, crumpling and folding them in the process,
and forming a sub-Himalayan ridge in front of the main chain.
After a time a new fault originated at the foot of the sub-Himalayan
zone thus raised, which now became part of the Himalaya themselves,
and a new sub-Himalayan chain was formed in front of the previous
one. The earthquakes of the present day show that the process is
still in operation, and in time the deposits of the present Indo-
Gangetic plain will be involved in the folds.
The regular form of the Himalaya, constituting an arc of a true
circle, appears to indicate that the whole chain has been pushed
forward as one mass upon a gigantic thrust-plane; but, if so, the
dip of the plane must be low, for a line drawn along the southern
foot of the Himalaya would coincide with the outcrop of a plane
inclined to the surface at an angle of about 14. The thrust-plane,
then, does not coincide with any of the boundary faults already
mentioned, which are usually inclined at angles of 50 or 60. The
latter are due to the fact that, although, perhaps, the whole mass
above the thrust-plane may move, yet the pressure which pushes it
forwards necessarily proceeds from behind. The back, accordingly,
moves faster than the front, and the whole is packed together; as
when an ice-floe drives against the shore, the ice breaks and the
outer fragments ride over those within. The great thrust-plane
which is thus imagined to exist at the base of the Himalaya, corre-
sponds with the " major thrusts " of the N.W. Highlands of Scotland,
and the reversed faults which appear at the surface with the " minor
thrusts." (P. LA.)
Such is the general outline of Himalayan evolution as now under-
stood, and the process of it has led to certain marked features of
scenery and topography. Within the area of the trans-
Indus mountains we have beds of hard limestone or sand-
stone alternating with soft shales, which leads to the
scooping out by erosion of long narrow valleys where the
shales occur, and the passage of the streams through deep
rifts or gorges across the hard limestone anticlinals, which
stand in irregular series of parallel ridges with the eroded valleys
between. The great mass of the Himalaya exhibits the same structure,
due to the same conditions acting for longer periods and on a much
larger scale; but the structure is varied in the eastern portions of the
mountains by the effect of different climatic conditions, and especially
by the greater rainfall. Instead of wide, barren, wind-swept valleys,
here are found fertile alluvial plains such as Manipur but for the
most part the erosive action of the river has been able to keep pace
with the rise of the river bed, and we have deep, steep-sided valleys
Topo-
graphical
results of
evolu-
tion.
eating their way northwards owing to the greater rainfall on the
southern than on the northern slopes. The result of this process is
well exhibited in the relative steepness of slope on the Indian and
Tibetan sides of the passes to the Indus plateau. On the southern or
Indian side the routes to Tibet and Ladakh follow the levels of
Himalayan valleys with no remarkably steep gradients till they near
the approach to the water-divide. The slope then steepens with the
ascending curve to the summit of the pass, from which point it falls
with a comparatively gentle gradient to the general level of the
plateau. The Zoji La, the Kashmir water-divide between the
Jhelum and the Indus, is a prominent case in point, and all the passes
from the Kumaon and Garhwal hills into Tibet exhibit this formation
in a marked degree. Taking the average elevation of the central
axial line of snowy peaks as 19,000 ft., the average height of the
passes is not more than 10,000 owing to this process of cutting down
by erosion and gradual encroachment into the northern basin.
Meteorology. Independently of the enormous variety of topo-
graphical conformation contained in the Himalayan system, the vast
altitude of the mountains alone is sufficient to cause modifications of
climate in ascending over their slopes such as are not surpassed by
those observed in moving from the equator to the poles. One half of
the total mass of the atmosphere and three-fourths of the water
suspended in it in the form of vapour lie below the average altitude
of the Himalaya; and of the residue, one-half of the air and virtually
almost all the vapour come within the influence of the highest peaks.
The regular variations in pressure of the air indicated by the baro-
meter and the annual and diurnal oscillations arc as well marked in
the Himalaya as elsewhere, but the amount of vapour held in sus-
pension diminishes so rapidly with the altitude that not more than
one-sixth (sometimes only one-tenth) of that observed at the foot of
the mountains is found at the greatest heights. This is dependent
on the temperature of the air which rapidly decreases with altitude.
On the mountains every altitude has its corresponding temperature,
an elevation of 1000 ft. producing a fall of 3!, or about I to each
300 ft. The mean winter temperature at ^ooo ft. (which is about the
average height of Himalayan " hill stations ") is 44 F. and the
summer mean about 65 F. At 9000 ft. the mean temperature of
the coldest month is 32 F. At 12,000 ft. the thermometer never falls
below freezing-point from the end of May to the middle of October,
and at 15,000 ft. it is seldom above that point even in the height of
summer. It should be noted that the thermpmetrical conditions of
Tibet vary considerably from those of the Himalaya. At 12,000 ft.
in Tibet the mean of the hottest month is about 60 F. and of the
coldest about 10 F. whilst, at 15,000 ft. the frost is only permanent
HIMALAYA
473
from the end of October to the end of April. The distribution of
vegetation and topographical conformation largely influence the
question of local temperature. For instance it may be found that
the difference of temperature between forest-clad ranges and the
Indian plains is. twice as much in April and May as in December or
January; and the difference between the temperature of a well-
wooded hill top and the open valley below may vary from 9 to 24
within twenty-four hours. The general relations of temperature to
altitude as determined by Himalayan observations are as follows:
(l) The decrease of temperature with altitude is most rapid in
summer. (2) The annual range diminishes with the elevation.
(3) The diurnal range diminishes with the elevation. Comparisons
are, however, apt to become anomalous when applied to elevated
zones with a dense covering of forest and a great quantity of clopd
and open and uncloudy regions both above and below the forest-clad
tracts.
The chief rainfall occurs in the summer months between May and
October (i.e. the period of the monsoon rains of India) the remainder
of the year being comparatively dry. The fall of rain
over the great plain of northern India gradually dimin-
ishes in quantity, and begins later, as we pass from east to west.
At the same time the rain is heavier as we approach the
Himalaya and the greatest falls are measured in its outer ranges;
but the quantity again diminishes as we pass onward across the
chain, and on arriving at the border of Tibet, behind the great
line of snowy peaks, the rain falls in such small quantities as to
be hardly susceptible of measurement. Diurnal currents of wind,
which are established from the plains to the mountains during
the day, and from the hills to the plains during the night, are im-
portant agents in distributing the rainfall. The condensation of
vapour from the ascending currents and their gradual exhaustion
as they are precipitated on successive ranges is very obvious in
the cloud effects produced during the monsoon, the southern or
windward face of each range being clothed day after day with a
white crest of cloud whilst the northern slopes are often left
entirely free. This shows how large a proportion of the vapour is
arrested and how it is that only by drifting through the deeper
gorges can any moisture find its way to the Tibetan table-land.
The yearly rainfall, which amounts to between 60 and 70 in. in
the delta of the Ganges, is reduced to about 40 in. when that river
issues from the mountains, and diminishes to 30 in. at the debouch-
ment of the Indus into the plains. At Darjeeling (7000 ft. altitude)
on the outer ranges of the eastern Himalaya it amounts to about
1 20 in. At Naini Tal north of the United Provinces it is about 90 in. ;
at Simla about 80 in., diminishing still further as one approaches the
north-western hills. All these stations are about the same altitude.
In the eastern Himalaya the ordinary winter limit of snow is
6000 ft. and it never lies for many days even at 7000 ft. In Kumaon,
... on the west, it usually reaches down to the 5000 ft. level
and occasionally to 2500 ft. Snow has been known to
fall at Peshawar. At Leh, in western Tibet, hardly 2 ft. of snow
are usually registered and the fall on the passes between 17,000 and
19,000 ft. is not generally more than 3 ft., but on the Himalayan
passes farther east the falls are much heavier. Even in September
these passes may be quite blocked and they are not usually open till
the middle of June. The snow-line, or the level to which snow
recedes in the course of the year, ranges from 15,000 to 16,000 ft. on
the southern exposures of the Himalaya that carry perpetual snow,
along all that part of the system that lies between Sikkim and the
Indus. It is not till December that the snow begins to descend for
the winter, although after September light falls occur which cover
the mountain sides down to 12,000 ft., but these soon disappear.
On the snowy range the snow-line is not lower than 18,500 ft. and on
the summit of the table-land it reaches to 20,000 ft. On all the
passes into Tibet vegetation reaches to about 17,500 ft., and in
August they may be crossed in ordinary years up to 18,400 ft.
without finding any snow upon them ; and it is as impossible to find
snow in the summer in Tibet at 15,500 ft. above the sea as on the
plains of India.
Glaciers. The level to which the Himalayan glaciers extend is
greatly dependent on local conditions, principally the extent and
elevation of the snow basins which feed them, and the slope and
position of the mountain on which they are formed. Glaciers on the
outer slopes of the Himalaya descend much lower than is commonly
the case in Tibet, or in the most elevated valleys near the snowy
range. The glaciers of Sikkim and the eastern mountains are
believed not to reach a lower level than 13,500 or 14,000 ft. In
Kumaon many of them descend to between 11,500 and 12,500 ft.
In the higher valleys and Tibet 15,000 and 16,000 ft. is the ordinary
level at which they end, but there are exceptions which descend far
lower. In Europe the glaciers descend between 3000 and 5000 ft.
below the snow-line, and in the Himalaya and Tibet about the same
holds good. The summer temperatures of the points where the
glaciers end on the Himalaya also correspond fairly with those of the
corresponding positions in European glaciers, viz. for July a little
below 60 F., August 58 and September 55.
Measurements of the movement of Himalayan glaciers give results
according closely with those obtained under analogous conditions in
the Alps, viz. rates from 95 to 14} in. in twenty-four hours. The
motion of one glacier from the middle of May to the middle of October
averaged 8 in. in the twenty-four hours. The dimensions of the
glaciers on the outer Himalaya, where, as before remarked, the valleys
descend rapidly to lower levels, are fairly comparable with those of
Alpine glaciers, though frequently much exceeding them in length
8 or 10 m. not being unusual. In the elevated valleys of northern
Tibet, where the destructive action of the summer heat is far less,
the development of the glaciers is enormous. At one locality in
north-western Ladakh there is a continuous mass of snow and ice
extending across a snowy ridge, measuring 64 m. between the
extremities of the two glaciers at its opposite ends. Another single
glacier has been surveyed 36 m. long.
The northern tributaries of the Gilgit river, which joins the Indus
near its south-westerly bend towards the Punjab, take their rise from
a glacier system which is probably unequalled in the world for its
extent and magnificent proportions. Chief amongst them are the
glaciers which have formed on the southern slopes of the Muztagh
mountains below the group of gigantic peaks dominated by Mount
Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. high). The Biafo glacier system, which
lies in a long narrow trough extending south-west from Nagar on the
Hunza to near the base of the Muztagh peaks, may be traced for
90 m. between mountain walls which tower to a height of from 20,000
to 25,000 ft. above sea-level on either side.
In connexion with almost all the Himalayan glaciers of which
precise accounts are forthcoming are ancient moraines indicating
some previous condition in which their extent was much larger than
now. In the east these moraines are very remarkable, extending
8 or 10 m. In the west they seem not to go beyond 2 or 3 m. reach.
They have been observed on the summit of the table-land as well as
on the Himalayan slope. The explanation suggested to account for
the former great extension of glaciers in Norway would seem applic-
able here. Any modification of the coast-line which should sub-
merge the area now occupied by the North Indian plain, or any
considerable part of it, would be accompanied by a much wetter and
more equable climate on the Himalaya; more snow would fall on
the highest ranges, and less summer heat would be brought to bear
on the destruction of the glaciers, which would receive larger supplies
and descend lower.
Botany. Speaking broadly, the general type of the flora of the
lower, hotter and wetter regions, which extend along the great plain
at the foot of the Himalaya, and include the valleys of the larger
rivers which penetrate far into the mountains, does not differ from
that of the contiguous peninsula and islands, though the tropical and
insular character gradually becomes less marked going from east to
west, where, with a greater elevation and distance from the sea and
higher latitude, the rainfall and humidity diminish and the winter
cold increases. The vegetation of the western part of the plain and
of the hottest zone of the western mountains thus becomes closely
allied to, or almost identical with, that of the drier parts of the
Indian peninsula, more especially of its hilly portions; and, while
a general tropical character is preserved, forms are observed which
indicate the addition of an Afghan as well as of an African element,
of which last the gay lily Glpriosa superba is an example, pointing to
some previous connexion with Africa.
The European flora, which is diffused from the Mediterranean along
the high lands of Asia, extends to the Himalaya; many European
species reach the central parts of the chain, though few reach its
eastern end, while genera common to Europe and the Himalaya are
abundant throughout and at all elevations. From the opposite
quarter an influx of Japanese and Chinese forms, such as the rhodo-
dendrons, the tea plant, Aucuba, Helwingia, Skimmia, Adamia,
Goughia and others, has taken place, these being more numerous in
the east and gradually disappearing in the west. On the higher and
therefore cooler and less rainy ranges of the Himalaya the conditions
of temperature requisite for the preservation of the various species
are readily found by ascending or descending the mountain slopes,
and therefore a greater uniformity of character in the vegetation is
maintained along the whole chain. At the greater elevations the
species identical with those of Europe become more frequent, and
in the alpine regions many plants are found identical with species of
the Arctic zone. On the Tibetan plateau, with the increased dryness,
a Siberian type is established, with many true Siberian species and
more genera ; and some of the Siberian forms are further dissemin-
ated, even to the plains of Upper India. The total absence of a few
of the more common forms of northern Europe and Asia should also
be noticed, among which may be named Tilia, Fagus, Arbutus, Erica,
Azalea and Cistacae.
In the more humid regions of the east the mountains are almost
everywhere covered with a dense forest which reaches up to 12,000
or 13,000 ft. Many tropical types here ascend to 7000 ft. or more.
To the west the upper limit of forest is somewhat lower, from 11,500
to 12,000 ft. and the tropical forms usually cease at 5000 ft.
In Sikkim the mountains are covered with dense forest of tall
umbrageous trees, commonly accompanied by a luxuriant growth
of under shrubs, and adorned with climbing and epiphytal plants in
wonderful profusion. In the tropical zone large figs abound, Termin-
alia, Shorea (sal), laurels, many Leguminosae, Bombax, Artocarpus,
bamboos and several palms, among which species of Calamus are
remarkable, climbing over the largest trees; and this is the western
limit of Cycas and Myristica (nutmeg). Plantains ascend to 7000 ft.
Pandanus and tree-ferns abound. Other ferns, Scitamineae, orchids
474
HIMALAYA
and climbing Aroideae are very numerous, the last named profusely
adorning the forests with their splendid dark-green foliage. Various
oaks descend within a few hundred feet of the sea-level, increasing in
numbers at greater altitudes, and becoming very frequent at 4000 ft.,
at which elevation also appear Aucuba, Magnolia, cherries, Pyrus,
maple, alder and birch, with many Araliaceae, Hollbollea, Skimmia,
Daphne, Myrsine, Symplocos and Rubus. Rhododendrons begin at
about 6000 ft. and become abundant at 8000 ft., from 10,000 to 14,000
ft. forming in many places the mass of the shrubby vegetation which
extends some 2000 ft. above the forest. Epiphytal orchids are
extremely numerous between 6000 and 8000 ft. Of the Coniferae,
Podocarpus and Pinus longifolia alone descend to the tropical zone;
Abies Brunoniana and Smithiana and the larch (a genus not seen in
the western mountains) are found at 8000, and the yew and Picea
Webbia.no, at 10,000 ft. Pinus excelsa, which occurs in Bhutan, is
absent in the wetter climate of Sikkim.
On the drier and higher mountains of the interior of the chain, the
forests become more open, and are spread less uniformly over the
hill-sides, a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation appears, and the number
of shrubby Leguminosae, such as Desmodium and Indigofera, in-
creases, as well as Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, Umbelliferae, Labiatae,
Gramineae, Cyperaceae and other European genera.
Passing to the westward, and viewing the flora of Kumaon, which
province holds a central position on the chain, on the 8oth meridian,
we find that the gradual decrease of moisture and increase of high
summer heat are accompanied by a marked change of the vegetation.
The tropical forest is characterized by the trees of the hotter and
drier parts of southern India, combined with a few of European type.
Ferns are more rare, and the tree-ferns have disappeared. The
species of palm are also reduced to two or three, and bamboos, though
abundant, are confined to a few species.
The outer ranges of mountains are mainly covered with forests of
Pinus longifolia, rhododendron, oak and Pieris. At Naini Tal cypress
is abundant. The shrubby vegetation comprises Rosa, Rubus,
Indigofera, Desmodium, Berberis, Boehmeria, Viburnum, Clematis,
with an A rundinaria. Of herbaceous plants species of Ranunculus,
Potentilla, Geranium, Thalictrum, Primula, Gentiana and many other
European forms are common. In the less exposed localities, on
northern slopes and sheltered valleys, the European forms become
more numerous, and we find species of alder, birch, ash, elm, maple,
holly, hornbeam, Pyrus, &c. At greater elevations in the interior,
besides the above are met Corylus, the common walnut, found wild
throughout the range, horse chestnut, yew, also Picea Webbiana,
Pinus excelsa, A bies Smithiana, Cedrus Deodara (which tree does not
grow spontaneously east of Kumaon), and several junipers. The
denser forests are commonly found on the northern faces of the higher
ranges, or in the deeper valleys, between 8000 and 10,500 ft. The
woods on the outer ranges from 3000 up to 7000 ft. are more open,
and consist mainly of evergreen trees.
The herbaceous vegetation does not differ greatly, generically,
from that of the east, and many species of Primulaceae, Ranuncul-
aceae, Cruciferae, Labiatae and Scrophulariaceae occur; balsams
abound, also beautiful forms of Campanulaceae, Gentiana, Meconopsis,
Saxifraga and many others.
Cultivation hardly extends above 7000 ft., except in the valleys
behind the great snowy peaks, where a few fields of buckwheat and
Tibetan barley are sown up to 11,000 or 12,000 ft. At the lower
elevations rice, maize and millets are common, wheat and barley at a
somewhat higher level, and buckwheat and amaranth usually on the
poorer lands, or those recently reclaimed from forest. Besides these,
most of the ordinary vegetables of the plains are reared, and potatoes
have been introduced in the neighbourhood of all the British stations.
As we pass to the west the species of rhododendron, oak and
Magnolia are much reduced in number as compared to the eastern
region, and both the Malayan and Japanese forms are much less
common. The herbaceous tropical and semi-tropical vegetation
likewise by degrees disappears, the Scitamineae, epiphytal and
terrestrial Orchtdeae, Araceae, Cyrtandraceae and Begoniae only occur
in small numbers in Kumaon, and scarcely extend west of the Sutlej.
In like manner several of the western forms suited to drier climates
find their eastern limit in Kumaon. In Kashmir the plane and
Lombardy poplar flourish, though hardly seen farther east, the cherry
is cultivated in orchards, and the vegetation presents an eminently
European cast. The alpine flora is slower in changing its character
as we pass from east to west, but in Kashmir the vegetation of the
higher mountains hardly differs from that of the mountains of
Afghanistan, Persia and Siberia, even in species.
The total number of flowering plants inhabiting the range amounts
probably to 5000 or 6000 species, among which may be reckoned
several hundred common English plants chiefly from the temperate
and alpine regions; and the characteristic of the flora as a whole is
that it contains a general and tolerably complete illustration of
almost all the chief natural families of all parts of the world, and
has comparatively few distinctive features of its own.
The timber trees of the Himalaya are very numerous, but few of
them are known to be of much value. The " Sal " is one of the most
valuable of the trees; with, the " Toon " and " Sissoo," it grows in
the outer ranges most accessible from the plains. The " Deodar"
is also much used, but the other pines produce timber that is not
durable. Bamboos grow everywhere along the outer ranges, and
rattans to the eastward, and are largely exported for use in the plains
of India.
Though one species of coffee is indigenous in the hotter Himalayan
forests, the climate does not appear suitable for the growth of the
plant which supplies the coffee of commerce. The cultivation of tea,
however, is carried on successfully on a large scale, both in the east
and west of the mountains. In the western Himalaya the cultivated
variety of the tea plant of China succeeds well; on the east the
indigenous tea of Assam, which is not specificajly different, and is
perhaps the original parent of the Chinese variety, is now almost
everywhere preferred. The produce of the Chinese variety in the hot
and wet climate of the eastern Himalaya, Assam and eastern Bengal
is neither so abundant nor so highly flavoured as that of the in-
digenous plant.
The cultivation of the cinchona, several species of which have been
introduced from South America and naturalized in the Sikkim
Himalaya, promises to yield at a comparatively small cost an ample
supply of the febrifuge extracted from its bark. At present the
manufacture is almost wholly in the hands of the Government, and
the drug prepared is all disposed of in India.
Zoology. The general distribution of animal life is determined by
much the same conditions that have controlled the vegetation.
The connexion with Europe on the north-west, with China on the
north-east, with Africa on the south-west, and with the Malayan
region on the south-east is manifest ; and the greater or less preval-
ence of the European and Eastern forms varies according to more
western or eastern position on the chain. So far as is known these
remarks will apply to the extinct as well as to the existing fauna.
The Palaeozoic forms found in the -Himalaya are very close tc those
of Europe, and in some cases identical. The Triassic fossils are still
more closely allied, more than a third of the species being identical.
Among the Jurassic Mollusca, also, are many species that are common
in Europe. The Siwalik fossils contain 84 species of mammals of
45 genera, the whole bearing a marked resemblance to the Miocene
fauna of Europe, but containing a larger number of genera still
existing, especially of ruminants, and now held to be of Pliocene age.
The fauna of the Tibetan Himalaya is essentially European or
rather that of the northern half of the old continent, which region has
by zoologists been termed Palaearctic. Among the characteristic
animals may be named the yak, from which is reared a cross breed
with the ordinary horned cattle of India, many wild sheep, and two
antelopes, as well as the musk-deer; several hares and some burrow-
ing animals, including pikas (Lagomys) and two or three species of
marmot; certain arctic forms of carnivora fox, wolf, lynx, ounce,
marten and ermine; also wild asses. Among birds are found
bustard and species of sand-grouse and partridge; water-fowl in
great variety, which breed on the lakes in summer and migrate to
the plains of India in winter; the raven, hawks, eagles and owls,
a magpie, and two kinds of chough ; and many smaller birds of the
passerine order, amongst which are several finches. Reptiles, as
might be anticipated, are far from numerous, but a few lizards are
found, belonging for the most part to types, such as Phrynocephalus,
characteristic of the Central-Asiatic area. The fishes from the head-
waters of the Indus also belong, for the most part, to Central-Asiatic
types, with a small admixture of purely Himalayan forms. Amongst
the former are several peculiar small-scaled carps, belonging to the
genus Schizothorax and its allies.
The ranges of the Himalaya, from the border of Tibet to the
plains, form a zoological region which is one of the richest of the
world, particularly in respect to birds, to which the forest-clad
mountains offer almost every range of temperature.
Only two or three forms of monkey enter the mountains, the
langur, a species of Semnopithecus, ranging up to 12,000 ft. No
lemurs occur, although a species is found in Assam, and another in
southern India. Bats are numerous, but the species are for the most
part not peculiar to the area; several European forms are found
at the higher elevations. Moles, which are unknown in the Indian
peninsula, abound in the forest regions of the eastern Himalayas at
a moderate altitude, and shrews of several species are found almost
everywhere ; amongst them are two very remarkable forms of water-
shrew, one of which, however, Nectogale, is probably Tibetan rather
than Himalayan. Bears are common, and so are a marten, several
weasels and otters, and cats of various kinds and sizes, from the little
spotted Felis bengalensis, smaller than a domestic cat, to animals like
the clouded leopard rivalling a leopard in size. Leopards are common,
and the tiger wanders to a considerable elevation, but can hardly be
considered a permanent inhabitant, except in the lower, valleys.
Civets, the mungoose (Herpestes), and toddy cats (Paradoxurus) are
only found at the lower elevations. Wild dogs (Cyan) are common,
but neither foxes nor wolves occur in the forest area. Besides these
carnivora some very peculiar forms are found, the most remarkable
of which is Aelurus, sometimes called the cat-bear, a type akin to the
American racoon. Two other genera, Helictis, an aberrant badger,
and linsang, an aberrant civet, are representatives of Malayan types.
Amongst the rodents squirrels abound, and the so-called flying
squirrels are represented by several species. Rats and mice swarm,
both kinds and individuals being numerous, but few present much
peculiarity, a bamboo rat (Rhizomys) from the base of the eastern
Himalaya being perhaps most worthy of notice. Two or three
species of vole (Arvicola) have been detected, and porcupines are
HIMERA
475
common. The elephant is found in the outer forests as far as the
Jumna, and the rhinoceros as far as the Sarda; the spread of both
of these animals as far as the Indus and into the plains of India, far
beyond their present limits, is authenticated by historical records;
they have probably retreated before the advance of cultivation and
fire-arms. Wild pigs are common in the lower ranges, and one
peculiar species of pigmy-hog (Sus salvanius) of very small size
inhabits the forests at the base of the mountains in Nepal and
Sikim. Deer of several kinds are met with, but do not ascend very
high on the hillsides, and belong exclusively to Indian forms. The
musk deer keeps to the greater elevations. The chevrotains of India
and the Malay countries are unrepresented. The gaur or wild ox is
found at the base of the hills. Three very characteristic ruminants,
having some affinities with goats, inhabit the Himalaya ; these are
the " serow " (Nemorhaedus), " goral " (Cemas) and " tahr " (Hemi-
tragus), the last-named ranging to rather high elevations. Lastly,
the pangolin (Manis) is represented by two species in the eastern
Himalaya. A dolphin (Platanista) living in the Ganges ascends that
river and its affluents to their issue from the mountains.
Almost all the orders of birds are well represented, and the
marvellous variety of forms found in the eastern Himalaya is only
rivalled in Central and South America. Eagles, vultures and other
birds of prey are seen soaring high over the highest of the forest-clad
ranges. Owls are numerous, and a small species, Glaucidium, is
conspicuous, breaking the stillness of the night by its monotonous
though musical cry of two notes. Several kinds of swifts and night-
jars are found, and gorgeously-coloured trogons, bee-eaters, rollers,
and beautiful kingfishers and barbels are common. Several large
hornbills inhabit the highest trees in the forest. The parrots are
restricted to parrakeets, of which there are several species, and
a single small lory. The number of woodpeckers is very great
and the variety of plumage remarkable, and the voice of the
cuckoo, of which there are numerous species, resounds in the
spring as in Europe. The number of passerine birds is im-
mense. Amongst them the sun-birds resemble in appearance and
almost rival in beauty the humming-birds of the New Continent.
Creepers, nuthatches, shrikes, and their allied forms, flycatchers and
swallows, thrushes, dippers and babblers (about fifty species), bul-
buls and orioles, peculiar types of redstart, various sylviads, wrens,
tits, crows, jays and magpies, weaver-birds, avadavats, sparrows,
crossbills and many finches, including the exquisitely coloured rose-
finches, may also be mentioned. The pigeons are represented by
several wood-pigeons, doves and green pigeons. The gallinaceous
birds include the peacock, which everywhere adorns the forest border-
ing on the plains, jungle fowl and several pheasants; partridges, of
which the chikor may be named as most abundant, and snow-
pheasants and partridges, found only at the greatest elevations.
Waders and waterfowl are far less abundant, and those occurring are
nearly all migratory forms which visit the peninsula of India the
only important exception being two kinds of solitary snipe and the
red-billed curlew.
Of the reptiles found in these mountains many are peculiar. Some
of the snakes of India are to be seen in the hotter regions, including
the python and some of the venomous species, the cobra being found
as high up as 8000 or 9000 ft., though not common. Lizards are
numerous, and as well as frogs are found at all elevations from the
plains to the upper Himalayan valleys, and even extend to Tibet.
The fishes found in the rivers of the Himalaya show the same
general connexion with the three neighbouring regions, the Palae-
arctic, the African and the Malayan. Of the principal families, the
Acanthopterygii, which are abundant in the hotter parts of India,
hardly enter the mountains, two genera only being found, of which
one is the peculiar amphibious genus Ophiocephalus. None of these
fishes are found in Tibet. The Siluridae, or scaleless fishes, and the
Cyprinidae, or carp and loach, form the bulk of the mountain fish,
and the genera and species appear to be organized for a mountain-
torrent life, being almost all furnished with suckers to enable them
to maintain their positions in the rapid streams which they inhabit.
A few Siluridae have been found in Tibet, but the carps constitute
the larger part of the species. Many of the Himalayan forms are
Indian fish which appear to go up to the higher streams to deposit
their ova, and the Tibetan species as a rule are confined to the rivers
on the table-land or to the streams at the greatest elevations, the
characteristics of which are Tibetan rather than Himalayan. The
Salmonid'ae are entirely absent from the waters of the Himalaya
proper, of Tibet and of Turkestan east of the Terektag.
The Himalayan butterflies are very numerous and brilliant, for the
most part belonging to groups that extend both into the Malayan
and European regions, while African forms also appear. There are
large and gorgeous species of Papilio, Nymphalidae, Morphidae and
Danaidae, andthe more favoured localities are described as being only
second to South America in the display of this form of beauty and
variety in insect life. Moths, also, of strange forms and of great size
are common. The cicada's song resounds among the woods in the
autumn; flights of locusts frequently appear after the summer, and
they are carried by the prevailing winds even among the glaciers and
eternal snows. Ants, bees and wasps of many species, and flies and
gnats abound, particularly during the summer rainy season, and at
all elevations.
Mountain Scenery. Much has been written about the impressive-
ness of Himalayan scenery. It is but lately, however, that any
adequate conception of the magnitude and majesty of the most
stupendous of the mountain groups which mass themselves about
the upper tributaries and reaches of the Indus has been presented to
us in the works of Sir F. Younghusband, Sir W. M. Conway, H. C. B.
Tanner and D. Freshfield. It is not in comparison with the pictur-
esque beauty of European Alpine scenery that the Himalaya appeals
to the imagination, for amongst the hills of the outer Himalaya the
hills which are_known to the majority of European residents and
visitors there is often a striking absence of those varied incidents
and sharp contrasts which are essential to picturesqueness in
mountain landscape. Too often the brown, barren, sun-scorched
ridges are obscured in the yellow dust haze which drifts upwards
from the plains; too often the whole perspective of hill and vale is
blotted out in the grey mists that sweep in soft, resistless columns
against these southern slopes, to be condensed and precipitated in
ceaseless, monotonous rainfall. Few Europeans really see the
Himalaya; fewer still are capable of translating their impressions
into language which is neither exaggerated nor inadequate.
Some idea of the magnitude of Himalayan mountain construction
a magnitude which the eye totally fails to appreciate may,
however, be gathered from the following table of comparison of the
absolute height of some peaks above sea-level with the actual amount
of their slopes exposed to view :
Relative Extent of Snow Slopes Visible.
Name of Mountain.
Place of Observation.
Height
above
sea.
Amount
of Slope
exposed.
Everest ....
Dewanganj .
29,002
8,000
,, ....
Sandakphu .
M
12,000
K 2 or Godwin-Austen
Between Gilgit and
Gor, 16,000 ft.
28,250
Pk.XIII.orMakalu
Purnea, 200 ft. .
27,800
8,000
, ,,
Sandakphu, 12,000 ft.
9,000
Nanga Parbat
Gor, 16,000 ft.
26,656
23,000
Tirach Mir .
Between Gilgit and
Chitral, 8000 ft. .
25,400
17-18,000
Rakapushi .
Chaprot (Gilgit),
13,000 ft. .
25,560
18,000
Kinchinjunga
Darjeeling, 7000 ft.
28,146
16,000
Mont Blanc .
Above Chamonix,
7000 ft.
15,781
11,500
It will be observed from this table that it is not often that a greater
slope of snow-covered mountain side is observable in the Himalaya
than that which is afforded by the familiar view of Mont Blanc from
Chamonix. (T. H. H.*)
AUTHORITIES. Drew, Jammu and Kashmir (London, 1875);
G. W. Leitner, Dardistan (1887); J. Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindu
Rush (Calcutta, 1880); H. H. Godwin-Austen, " Mountain Systems
of the Himalaya," vols. y. and vi. Proc. R. G. S. (1883-1884);
C. Ujfalvy, Aus dent westlichen Himalaya (Leipzig, 1884); H. C. B.
Tanner, Our Present Knowledge of the Himalaya," vol. xiii. Proc.
R. G. S. (1891); R. D. Oldham, "The Evolution of Indian Geo-
graphy," vol. iii. Jour. R. G. S.; W. Lawrence, Kashmir (Oxford,
1895) ; Sir W. M. Conway, Climbing and Exploring in the Karakoram
(London, 1898); F. Bullock Workman, In the Ice World of Himalaya
(1900) ; F. B. and W. H. Workman, Ice-bound Heights of the Mustagh
(1908); D. W. Freshfield, Round Kangchenjunga (1903).
For geology see R. Lydekker, " The Geology of Kashmir," &c.,
Mem. Geol. Sum. India, vol. xxii. (1883); C. S. Middlemiss,
" Physical Geology of the Sub-Himalaya of Gahrwal and Kumaon,"
ibid., vol. xxiv. pt. 2 (1890); C. L. Griesbach, Geology of the Central
Himalayas, vol. xxiii. (1891); R. D. Oldham, Manual of the Geology
of India, chap, xviii. (2nd ed., 1893). Descriptions of the fossils,
with some notes on stratigraphical questions, will be found in
several of the volumes of the Palaeontologia Indica, published by the
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
HIMERA, a city on the north coast of Sicily, on a hill above the
east bank of the Himeras Septentrionalis. It was founded in
648 B.C. by the Chalcidian inhabitants of Zancle, in company
with many Syracusan exiles. Early in the sth century the
tyrant Terillas, son-in-law of Anaxilas of Rhegium and Zancle,
appealed to the Carthaginians, who came to his assistance, but
were utterly defeated by Gelon of Syracuse in 480 B.C. on the
same day, it is said, as the battle of Salamis. Thrasydaeus, son
of Theron of Agrigentum, seems to have ruled the city oppres-
sively, but an appeal made to Hiero of Syracuse, Gelon's brother,
was betrayed by him to Theron; the latter massacred all his
enemies and in the following year resettled the town. In 415 it
refused to admit the Athenian fleet and remained an ally of
Syracuse. In 408 the Carthaginian invading army under
Hannibal, after capturing Selinus, invested and took Himera
476
HIMERIUS HINCKS, SIR F.
and razed the city to the ground, founding a new town close to the
hot springs (Thermae Himeraeae), 8 m. to the west. The only
relic of the ancient town now visible above ground is a small
portion (four columns, lower diameter 7 ft.) of a Doric temple, the
date of which (whether before or after 480 B.C.) is uncertain.
HIMERIUS (c. A.D. 315-386), Greek sophist and rhetorician,
was born at Prusa in Bithynia. He completed his education at
Athens, whence he was summoned to Antioch in 362 by the
emperor Julian to act as his private secretary. After the death
of Julian in the following year Himerius returned to Athens,
where he established a school of rhetoric, which he compared
with that of Isocrates and the Delphic oracle, owing to the
number of those who flocked from all parts of the world to hear
him. Amongst his pupils were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil
the Great, bishop of Caesarea. In recognition of his merits,
civic rights and the membership of the Areopagus were conferred
upon him. The death of his son Rufinus (his lament for whom,
called iwvufiia, is extant) and that of a favourite daughter
greatly affected his health; in his later years he became blind
and he died of epilepsy. Although a heathen, who had been
initiated into the mysteries of Mithra by Julian, he shows no
prejudice against the Christians. Himerius is a typical repre-
sentative of the later rhetorical schools. Photius (cod. 165, 243
Bekker) had read 71 speeches by him, of 36 of which he has given
an epitome; 24 have come down to us complete and fragments
of 10 or 12 others. They consist of epideictic or " display "
speeches after the style of Aristides, the majority of them
having been delivered on special occasions, such as the arrival of
a new governor, visits to different cities (Thessalonica, Constanti-
nople), or the death of friends or well-known personages. The
Polemarchicus, like the Menexenus of Plato and the Epitaphios
Logos of Hypereides, is a panegyric of those who had given their
lives for their country; it is so called because it was originally
the duty of the polemarch to arrange the funeral games in
honour of those who had fallen in battle. Other declamations,
only known from the excerpts in Photius, were imaginary orations
put into the mouth of famous persons Demosthenes advocating
the recall of Aeschines from banishment, Hypereides supporting
the policy of Demosthenes, Themistocles inveighing against the
king of Persia, an orator unnamed attacking Epicurus for
atheism before Julian at Constantinople. Himerius is more of a
poet than a rhetorician, and his declamations are valuable as
giving prose versions or even the actual words of lost poems by
Greek lyric writers. The prose poem on the marriage of Severus
and his greeting to Basil at the beginning of spring are quite in the
spirit of the old lyric. Himerius possesses vigour of language and
descriptive powers, though his productions are spoilt by too
frequent use of imagery, allegorical and metaphorical obscurities,
mannerism and ostentatious learning. But they are valuable
for the history and social conditions of the time, although
lacking the sincerity characteristic of Libanius.
See Eunapius, Vitae sophistaruw, Suidas, s.v. ; editions by G.
Wernsdorf (1790), with valuable introduction and commentaries,
and by F. Diibner (1849) in the Didot series; C. Teuber, Quaestiones
Himerianae (Breslau, 1882); on the style, E. Norden, Die antike
Kunstprosa (1898).
HIMLY (LOUIS), AUGUSTS (1823-1906), French historian
and geographer, was born at Strassburg on the 28th of March
1823. After studying in his native town and taking the university
course in Berlin (1842-1843) he went to Paris, and passed first
in the examination for fellowship (agregation) of the lycees
(1845), first in the examinations on leaving the Ecole des Charles,
and first in the examination for fellowship of the faculties (1849).
In 1849 he took the degree of doctor of letters with two theses,
one of which, Wala et Louis le Debonnaire (published in Paris
in 1849), placed him in the front rank of French scholars in the
province of Carolingian history. Soon, however, he turned
his attention to the study of geography. In 1858 he obtained
an appointment as teacher of geography at the Sorbonne, and
henceforth devoted himself to that subject. It was not till
1876 that he published, in two volumes, his remarkable Histoire
de la formation terriloriale des etats de I' Europe centrale, in which
he showed with a firm, but sometimes slightly heavy touch,
the reciprocal influence exerted by geography and history.
While the work gives. evidence throughout of wide and well-
directed research, he preferred to write it in the form of a
student's manual; but it was a manual so original that it gained
him admission to the Institute in 1881. In that year he was
appointed dean of the faculty of letters, and for ten years he
directed the intellectual life of that great educational centre
during its development into a great scientific body. He died
at Sevres on the 6th of October 1906.
HIMMEL, FREDERICK HENRY (1765-1814), German com-
poser, was born on the 2oth of November 1765 at Treuen-
brietzen in Brandenburg, Prussia, and originally studied theology
at Halle. During a temporary stay at Potsdam he had an
opportunity of showing his self-acquired skill as a pianist before
King Frederick William II., who thereupon made him a yearly
allowance to enable him to complete his musical studies. This
he did under Naumann, a German composer of the Italian school,
and the style of that school Himmel himself adopted in his serious
operas. The first of these, a pastoral opera, // Primo Naiiigatore,
was produced at Venice in 1794 with great success. In 1792
he went to Berlin, where his oratorio Isaaco was produced, in
consequence of which he was made court Kapellmeister to the
king of Prussia, and in that capacity wrote a great deal of official
music, including cantatas, and a coronation Te Deum. His
Italian operas, successively composed for Stockholm, St Peters-
burg and Berlin, were all received with great favour in their
day. Of much greater importance than these is an operetta
to German words by Kotzebue, called Fanchon, an admirable
specimen of the primitive form of the musical drama known
in Germany as the Singspiel. Himmel's gift of writing genuine
simple melody is also observable in his songs, amongst which
one called " To Alexis " is the best. He died in Berlin on the
8th of June 1814.
HINCKLEY, a market town in the Bosworth parliamentary
division of Leicestershire, England, 145 m. S.W. from Leicester
on the Numeaton-Leicester branch of the London & North-
Western railway, and near the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 11,304. The town is well situated on
a considerable eminence. Among the principal buildings are
the church of St Mary, a Decorated and Perpendicular structure,
with lofty tower and spire; the Roman Catholic academy
named St Peter's Priory, and a grammar school. The ditch
of a castle erected by Hugh de Grentismenil in the time of William
Rufus is still to be traced. Hinckley is the centre of a stocking-
weaving district, and its speciality is circular hose. It also
possesses a boot-making industry, brick and tile works, and
lime works. There are mineral springs in the neighbourhood.
HINCKS, EDWARD (1792-1866), British assyriologist, was
born at Cork, Ireland, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin.
He took orders in the Protestant Church of Ireland, and was
rector of Killyleagh, Down, from 1825 till his death on the 3rd
of December 1866. Hincks devoted his spare time to the study
of hieroglyphics, and to the deciphering of the cuneiform script
(see CUNEIFORM), in which he was a pioneer, working out con-
temporaneously with Sir H. Rawlinson, and independently
of him, the ancient Persian vowel .system. He published a
number of original and scholarly papers on assyriological
questions of the highest value, chiefly in the Transactions of
the Royal Irish Academy.
HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS (1807-1885), Canadian statesman,
was born at Cork, Ireland, the son of an Irish Presbyterian
minister. In 1832 he engaged in business in Toronto, became
a friend of Robert Baldwin, and in 1835 was chosen to examine
the accounts of the Welland Canal, the management of which
was being attacked by W. L. Mackenzie. This turned his atten-
tion to political life and in 1838 he founded the Examiner, a
weekly paper in the Liberal interest. In 1841 he was elected
M.P. for the county of Oxford, and in the following year was
appointed inspector-general, the title then borne by the finance
minister, but in 1843 resigned with Baldwin and the other
ministers on the question of responsible government. In 1848
he again became inspector-general in the Baldwin-Lafontaine
HINCMAR
477
ministry, and on their retirement in 1851 became premier of
Canada, his chief colleague being A. N. Morin (1803-1865).
While premier he was prominent in the negotiations which led
to the construction of the Grand Trunk railway, and in co-
operation with Lord Elgin negotiated with the United States
the reciprocity treaty of 1854. In the same year the bitter
hostility of the " Clear Grits " under George Brown compelled
his resignation, and he was prominent in the formation of the
Liberal-Conservative Party. In 1855 he was chosen governor
of Barbados and the Windward Islands, and subsequently
governor of British Guiana. In 1869 he was created K.C.M.G.
and returned to Canada, becoming till 1873 finance minister
in the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald. In February of that
year he resigned, but continued to take an active part in public
life. In 1879 the failure of the Consolidated Bank of Canada,
of which he was president, led to his being tried for issuing false
statements. Though found guilty on a technicality (see Journal
of the Canadian Bankers' Association, April 1906) judgment
was suspended, his personal credit remained unimpaired, and
he continued to take part in the discussion of public questions
till his death on the i8th of August 1885.
His writings include : The Political History of Canada between 1840
and 1855 (1877); The Political Destiny of Canada (1878), and his
Reminiscences (1884).
HINCMAR (c. 805-882), archbishop of Reims, one of the
most remarkable figures in the ecclesiastical history of France,
belonged to a noble family of the north or north-east of Gaul.
Destined, doubtless, to the monastic life, he was brought up at
St Denis under the direction of the abbot Hilduin (d. 844), who
brought him in 822 to the court of the emperor Louis the Pious.
When Hilduin was disgraced in 830 for having joined the party of
Lothair, Hincmar accompanied him into exile at Corvey in
Saxony, but returned with him to St Denis when the abbot was
reconciled with the emperor, and remained faithful to the emperor
during his struggle with his sons. After the death of Louis the
Pious (840) Hincmar supported Charles the Bald, and received
from him the abbacies of Notre-Dame at Compiegne and St
Germer de Fly. In 845 he obtained through the king's support
the archbishopric of Reims, and this choice was confirmed at
the synod of Beauvais (April 845). Archbishop Ebbo, whom he
replaced, had been deposed in 835 at the synod of Thionville
( D iedenhof en) for having broken his oath of fideli ty to the emperor
Louis, whom he had deserted to join the party of Lothair. After
the death of Louis, Ebbo succeeded in regaining possession of his
see for some years (840-844), but in 844 Pope Sergius II. con-
firmed his deposition. It was in these circumstances that
Hincmar succeeded, and in 847 Pope Leo IV. sent him the
pallium.
One of the first cares of the new prelate was the restitution to
his metropolitan see of the domains that had been alienated under
Ebbo and given as benefices to laymen. From the beginning of
his episcopate Hincmar was in constant conflict with the clerks
who had been ordained by Ebbo during his reappearance. These
clerks, whose ordination was regarded as invalid by Hincmar and
his adherents, were condemned in 853 at the council of Soissons,
and the decisions of that council were confirmed in 855 by Pope
Benedict III. This conflict, however, bred an antagonism of
which Hincmar was later to feel the effects. During the next
thirty years the archbishop of Reims played a very prominent
part in church and state. His authoritative and energetic will
inspired, and in great measure directed, the policy of the west
Prankish kingdom until his death. He took an active part in
all the great political and religious affairs of his time, and was
especially energetic in defending and extending the rights of the
church and of the metropolitans in general, and of the metro-
politan of the church of Reims in particular. In the resulting
conflicts, in which his personal interest was in question, he
displayed great activity and a wide knowledge of canon law, but
did not scruple to resort to disingenuous interpretation of texts.
His first encounter was with the heresiarch Gottschalk, whose
predestinarian doctrines claimed to be modelled on those of St
Augustine. Hincmar placed himself at the head of the party
that regarded Gottschalk's doctrines as heretical, and succeeded
in procuring the arrest and imprisonment of his adversary (849).
For a part at least of his doctrines Gottschalk found ardent
defenders, such as Lupus of Ferrieres, the deacon Florus and
Amolo of Lyons. Through the energy and activity of Hincmar
the theories of Gottschalk were condemned at Quierzy (853) and
Valence (855), and the decisions of these two synods were con-
firmed at the synods of Langres and Savonnieres, near Toul
(859). To refute the predestinarian heresy Hincmar composed
his De praedeslinalione Dei el libero arbilrio, and against
certain propositions advanced by Gottschalk on the Trinity he
wrote a treatise called De una el non trina deflate. Gottschalk
died in prison in 868. The question of the divorce of Lothair II.,
king of Lorraine, who had repudiated his wife Theutberga to
marry his concubine Waldrada, engaged Hincmar's literary
activities in another direction. At the request of a number of
great personages in Lorraine he composed in 860 his De diwrlio
Lotharii et Teutbergae, in which he vigorously attacked, both
from the moral and the legal standpoints, the condemnation
pronounced against the queen by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle
(February 860). Hincmar energetically supported the policy of
Charles the Bald in Lorraine, less perhaps from devotion to the
king's interests than from a desire to see the whole of the ecclesi-
astical province of Reims united under the authority of a single
sovereign, and in 869 it was he who consecrated Charles at Metz
as king of Lorraine.
In the middle of the 9th century there appeared in Gaul the
collection of false decretals commonly known as the Pseudo-
Isidorian Decretals. The exact date and the circumstances of the
composition of the collection are still an open question, but it is
certain that Hincmar was one of the first to know of their existence,
and apparently he was not aware that the documents were forged.
The importance assigned by these decretals to the bishops and the
provincial councils, as well as to the direct intervention of the
Holy See, tended to curtail the rights of the metropolitans, of
which Hincmar was so jealous. Rothad, bishop of Soissons, one of
the most active members of the party in favour of the pseudo-
Isidorian theories, immediately came into collision with his
archbishop. Deposed in 863 at the council of Soissons, presided
over by Hincmar, Rothad appealed to Rome. Pope Nicholas I.
supported him zealously, and in 865, in spite of the protests of the
archbishop of Reims, Arsenius, bishop of Orta and legate of the
Holy See, was instructed to restore Rothad to his episcopal see.
Hincmar experienced another check when he endeavoured to
prevent Wulfad, one of the clerks deposed by Ebbo, from obtain-
ing the archbishopric of Bourges with the support of Charles the
Bald. After a synod held at Soissons, Nicholas I. pronounced
himself in favour of the deposed clerks, and Hincmar was con-
strained to make submission (866). He was more successful in
his contest with his nephew Hincmar, bishop of Laon, who was
at first supported both by the king and by his uncle, the arch-
bishop of Reims, but soon quarrelled with both. Hincmar of
Laon refused to recognize the authority of his metropolitan, and
entered into an open struggle with his uncle, who exposed his
errors in a treatise called Opusculum LV. capilulorum, and pro-
cured his condemnation and deposition at the synod of Douzy
(871). The bishop of Laon was sent into exile, probably to
Aquitaine, where his eyes were put out by order of Count Boso.
Pope Adrian protested against his deposition, but it was con-
firmed in 876 by Pope John VIII., and it was not until 878, at the
council of Troyes, that the unfortunate prelate was reconciled
with the Church. A serious conflict arose between Hincmar on
the one side and Charles and the pope on the other in 876, when
Pope John VIII., at the king's request, entrusted Ansegisus,
archbishop of Sens, with the primacy of the Gauls and of
Germany, and created him vicar apostolic. In Hincmar's eyes
this was an encroachment on the jurisdiction of the archbishops,
and it was against this primacy that he directed his treatise
Dejure metropolitanorum. At the same time he wrote a life of St
Remigius, in which he endeavoured by audacious falsifications to
prove the supremacy of the church of Reims over the other
churches. Charles the Bald, however, upheld the rights of
HIND HINDLEY
Ansegisus at the synod of Ponthion. Although Hincmar had
been very hostile to Charles's expedition into Italy, he figured
among his testamentary executors and helped to secure the sub-
mission of the nobles to Louis the Stammerer, whom he crowned
at Compiegne (8th of December 877).
During the reign of Louis, Hincmar played an obscure part.
He supported the accession of Louis III. and Carloman, but had
a dispute with Louis, who wished to instal a candidate in the
episcopal see of Beauvais without the archbishop's assent. To
Carloman, on his accession in 882, Hincmar addressed his De
ordine palatii, partly based on a treatise (now lost) by Adalard,
abbot of Corbie (c. 814), in which he set forth his system of govern-
ment and his opinion of the duties of a sovereign, a subject he
had already touched in his De regis persona et regio ministerio,
dedicated to Charles the Bald at an unknown date, and in his
Instructio ad Ludovicum regent, addressed to Louis the Stammerer
on his accession in 877. In the autumn of 882 an irruption of
the Normans forced the old archbishop to take refuge at Epernay,
where he died on the 2ist of December 882. Hincmar was a
prolific writer. Besides the works already mentioned, he was the
author of several theological tracts; of the De villa Noviliaco,
concerning the claiming of a domain of his church; and he con-
tinued from 86 1 the Annales Bertiniani, of which the first part
was written by Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, the best source for
the history of Charles the Bald. He also wrote a great number
of letters, some of which are extant, and others embodied in the
chronicles of Flodoard.
Hincmar's works, which are the principal source for the history
of his life, were collected by Jacques Sirmond (Paris, 1645), and
reprinted by Migne, Patrol. Latina, vol. cxxy. and cxxvi. See also
C. von Noorden, Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims (Bonn, 1863), and,
especially, H. Schrors, Hinkmar, Erzbischof von Reims (Freiburg-
im-Breisgau, 1884). For Hincmar's political and ecclesiastical
theories see preface to Maurice Prou's edition of the De ordine palatii
(Paris, 1885), and the abb6 Lesne, La Hierarchie episcopate en Gaule
et en Germanie (Paris, 1905). (R. Po.)
HIND, the female of the red-deer, usually taken as being
three years old and over, the male being known as a " hart.
It is sometimes also applied to the female of other species of
deer. The word appears in several Teutonic languages, cf.
Dutch and Ger. Hinde, and has been connected with the Goth.
hin]>an (hinthan), to seize, which may be connected ultimately
with " hand " and " hunt." " Hart," from the O.E. heart, may
be in origin connected with the root of Gr. /cepas, horn.
" Hind " (O.E. hine, probably from the O.E. hinan, members
of a family or household), meaning a servant, especially a
labourer on a farm, is another word. In Scotland the " hind "
is a farm servant, with a cottage on the farm, and duties and
responsibilities that make him superior to the rest of the
labourers. Similarly " hind " is used in certain parts of
northern England as equivalent to " bailiff."
HINDERSIN, GUSTAV EDUARD VON (1804-1872), Prussian
general, was born at Wernigerode near Halberstadt on the
1 8th of July 1804. He was the son of a priest and received a
good education. His earlier life was spent in great poverty,
and the struggle for existence developed in him an iron strength
of character. Entering the Prussian artillery in 1820 he became
an officer in 1825. From 1830 to 1837 he attended the Allgemeine
Kriegsakademie at Berlin, and in 1841, while still a subaltern,
he was posted to the great General Staff, in which he afterwards
directed the topographical section. In 1849 he served with the
rank of major on the staff of General Peucker, who commanded
a federal corps in the suppression of the Baden insurrection. He
fell into the hands of the insurgents at the action of Ladenburg,
but was released just before the fall of Rastadt. In the Danish
war of 1864 Hindersin, now lieutenant-general, directed the
artillery operations against the lines of Diippel, and for his
services was ennobled by the king of Prussia. Soon afterwards
he became inspector-general of artillery. His experience at
Diippel had convinced him that the days of the smooth-bore
gun were past, and he now devoted himself with unremitting
zeal to the rearmament and reorganization of the Prussian
artillery. The available funds were small, and grudgingly
voted by the parliament. There was a strong feeling moreover
that the smooth-bore was still tactically superior to its rival
(see ARTILLERY, 19). There was no practical training for
war in either the field or the fortress artillery units. The latter
had made scarcely any progress since the days of Frederick
the Great, and before von Hindersin's appointment had practised
with the same guns in the same bastion year after year. Ali
this was altered, the whole " foot-artillery " was reorganized,
manoeuvres were instituted, and the smooth-bores were, except
for ditch defence, eliminated from the armament of the Prussian
fortresses. But far more important was his work in connexion
with the field and horse batteries. In 1864 only one battery
in four had rifled guns, but by the unrelenting energy of von
Hindersin the outbreak of war with Austria one and a half
years later found the Prussians with ten in every sixteen batteries
armed with the new weapon. But the battles of 1866 showed,
besides the superiority of the rifled gun, a very marked absence
of tactical efficiency in the Prussian artillery, which was almost
always outmatched by that of the enemy. Von Hindersin
had pleaded, in season and out of season, for the establishment
of a school of gunnery; and in spite of want of funds, such
a school had already been established. After 1866, however,
more support was obtained, and the improvement in the Prussian
field artillery between 1866 and 1870 was extraordinary, even
though there had not been time for the work of the school to
leaven the whole arm. Indeed, the German artillery played
by far the most important part in the victories of the Franco-
German war. Von Hindersin accompanied the king's headquarters
as chief of artillery, as he had done in 1866, and was present
at Gravelotte, Sedan and the siege of Paris. But his work,
which was now accomplished, had worn t>ut his physical powers,
and he died on the 23rd of January 1872 at Berlin.
See Bartholomaus, Der General der Infanterie von Hindersin
(Berlin, 1895), and Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Letters
on Artillery (translated by Major Walford, R.A.), No. xi.
HINDI, EASTERN, one of the " intermediate " Indo-Aryan
languages (see HINDOSTANI). It is spoken in Oudh, Baghelkhand
and Chhattisgarh by over 22,000,000 people. It is derived
from the Apabhrarhsa form of ArdhamagadhI Prakrit (see
PRAKRIT), and possesses a large and important literature. Its
most famous writer was Tulsl Das, the poet and reformer,
who died early in the i7th century, and since his time it has
been the North-Indian language employed for epic poetry.
HINDI, WESTERN, the Indo-Aryan language of the middle
and upper Gangetic Doab, and of the country to the north
and south. It is the vernacular of over 40,000,000 people. Its
standard dialect is Braj Bhasha, spoken near Muttra, which
has a considerable literature mainly devoted to the religion
founded on devotion to Krishna. Another dialect spoken
near Delhi and in the upper Gangetic Doab is the original from
which Hindostani, the great lingua franca of India, has developed
(see HINDOSTANI). Western Hindi, like Punjabi, its neighbour
to the west, is descended from the Apabhrarhsa form of SaurasenI
Prakrit (see PRAKRIT), and represents the language of the
Madhyadesa or Midland, as distinct from the intermediate
and outer Indo-Aryan languages.
HINDKI, the name given to the Hindus who inhabit Afghani-
stan. They are of the Khatri class, and are found all over
the country even amongst the wildest tribes. Bellew in his
Races of Afghanistan estimates their number at about 300,000.
The name Hindki is also loosely used on the upper Indus,
in Dir, Bajour, &c., to denote the speakers of Punjabi or any
of its dialects. It is sometimes applied in a historical sense
to the Buddhist inhabitants of the Peshawar Valley north of
the Kabul river, who were driven thence about the 5th or
6th century and settled in the neighbourhood of Kandahar.
HINDLEY, an urban district in the Ince parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 2 m. E.S.E. of Wigan, on the
Lancashire & Yorkshire and Great Central railways. Pop. (1901)
23,504. Cotton spinning and the manufacture of cotton goods
are the principal industries, and there are extensive coal-mines
in the neighbourhood. It is recorded that in the time of the
HINDOSTANI
479
Puritan revolution Hindley church was entered by the Cavaliers,
who played at cards in the pews, pulled down the pulpit and
tore the Bible in pieces.
HINDOSTANI (properly Hindoslani, of or belonging to
Hindostan 1 ), the name given by Europeans to an Indo-Aryan
dialect (whose home is in the upper Gangetic Doab and near
the city of Delhi), which, owing to political causes, has become
the great lingua franca of modern India. The name is not
employed by natives of India, except as an imitation of the
English nomenclature. Hindostani is by origin a dialect of
Western Hindi, and it is first of all necessary to explain what
we mean by the term " Hindi " as applied to language. Modern
Indo-Aryan languages fall into three groups, an outer band,
the language of the Midland and an intermediate band. The
Midland consists of the Gangetic Doab and of the country to
its immediate north and south, extending, roughly speaking,
from the Eastern Punjab on the west, to Cawnpore on its east.
The language of this tract is called "Western Hindi"; to its
west we have Panjabi (of the Central Punjab), and to the east,
reaching as far as Benares, Eastern Hindi, both Intermediate
languages. These three will all be dealt with in the present
article. Panjabi and Western Hindi are derived from Sauraseni,
and Eastern Hindi from Ardham gadha Prakrit, through the
corresponding Apabhrarhsas (see PRAKRIT). Eastern Hindi
differs in many respects from the two others, but it is customary
to consider it together with the language of the Midland, and
this will be followed on the present occasion. In 1901 the speakers
of these three languages numbered: Panjabi, 17,070,961; Western
Hindi, 40,714,925; Eastern Hindi, 22,136,358.
Linguistic Boundaries. Taking the tract covered by these
three forms of speech, it has to its west, in the western Punjab,
Lahnda (see SINDHI), a language of the Outer band. The
parent of Lahnda once no doubt covered the whole of the
Punjab, but, in the process of expansion of the tribes of the
Midland described in the article INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES,
it was gradually driven back, leaving traces of its former exist-
ence which grow stronger as we proceed westwards, until at
about the 74th degree of east longitude there is a mixed, transi-
tion dialect. To the west of that degree Lahnda may be said
to be established, the deserts of the west-central Punjab forming
a barrier and protecting it, just as, farther south, a continuation
of the same desert has protected Sindhi from Rajasthani. It
is the old traces of Lahnda which mainly differentiate Panjabi
from Hindostani. To the south of Panjabi and Western Hindi
lies Rajasthani. This language arose in much the same way
as Panjabi. The expanding Midland language was stopped by
the desert from reaching Sindhi, but to the south-west it found an
unobstructed way into Gujarat, where, under the form of Gujarati,
- 1 " Hindostan is a Persian word, and in modern Persian is
pronounced " Hindustan." It means the country of the Hindus. In
medieval Persian the word was " Hindostan," with an 5, but in the
modern language the distinctions between e and i and between o
and u have been lost. Indian languages have borrowed Persian
words in their medieval form. Thus in India we have sher, a tiger,
as compared with modern Persian shir; go, but modern Pers. gu;
bostan, but modern Pers. bustan. The word " Hindu " is in medieval
Persian " Hindo " representing the ancient Avesta hendava (Sanskrit,
saindhava), a dweller on the Sindhu or Indus. Owing to the influence
of scholars in modern Persian the word " Hindu " is now established
in English and, through English, in the Indian literary languages;
but " Hindo " is also often heard in India. " Hindostan " with o
is much more common both in English and in Indian languages,
although " Hindustan " is also employed. Up to the days of Persian
supremacy inaugurated in Calcutta by Gilchrist and his friends, every
traveller in India spoke of " Indostan " or some such word, thus
bearing testimony to the current pronunciation. Gilchrist intro-
duced " Hindoostan," which became " Hindustan " in modern
spelling. The word is not an Indian one, and both pronunciations,
with o and with , are current in India at the present day, but that
with 6 is unquestionably the one demanded by the history of the
word and of the form which other Persian words take on Indian
soil. On the other hand " Hindu " is too firmly established in Eng-
lish for us to suggest the spelling " Hindo." The word " Hindi "
has another derivation, being formed from the Persian Hind, India
(Avesta hindu, Sanskrit sindhu, the Indus). " Hindi " means "of
or belonging to India," while " Hindu " now means " a person of the
Hindu religion." (Cf. Sir C. J. Lyall, A Sketch of the Hindustani
Language, p. l).
it broke the continuity of the Outer band. Eastern Hindi,
as an Intermediate form of speech, is of much older lineage.
It has been an Intermediate language since, at least, the institu-
tion of Jainism (say, 500 B.C.), and is much less subject to the
influence of the Midland than is Panjabi. To its east it has
Bihari, and, stretching far to the south, it has Marathi as its
neighbour in that direction, both of these being Outer languages.
Dialects. The only important dialect of Eastern Hindi
is Awadhi, spoken in Oudh, and possessing a large literature of
great excellence. Chhattlsgarhl and Bagheli, the other dialects,
have scanty literatures of small value. Western Hindi has four
main dialects, Bundeli of Bundelkhand, Braj Bhasha (properly
" Braj Bhasa ") of the country round Mathura (Muttra), KanaujI
of the central Doab and the country to its north, and vernacular
Hindostani of Delhi and the Upper Doab. West of the Upper
Doab, across the Jumna, another dialect, Bangaru, is also found.
It possesses no literature. Kanauji is very closely allied to
Braj Bhasha, and these two share with Awadhi the honour
of being the great literary speeches of northern India. Nearly
all the classical literature of India is religious in character,
and we may say that, as a broad rule, Awadhi literature is devoted
to the Ramaite religion and the epic poetry connected with it,
while that of Braj Bhasha is concerned with the religion of
Krishna. Vernacular Hindostani has no literature of its own,
but as the lingua franca now to be described it has a large
one. Panjabi has one dialect, Dogri, spoken in the Himalayas.
Hindostani as a Lingua Franca. It has often been said that
Hindostani is a mongrel " pigeon " form of speech made up
of contributions from the various languages which met in Delhi
bazaar, but this theory has now been proved to be unfounded,
owing to the discovery of the, fact that it is an actual living
dialect of Western Hindi, existing for centuries in its present
habitat, and the direct descendant of Sauraseni Prakrit. It
is not a typical dialect of that language, for, situated where it
is, it represents Western Hindi merging into Panjabi (Braj
Bhasha being admittedly the standard of the language), but to
say that it is a mongrel tongue thrown together in the market
is to reverse the order of events. It was the natural language
of the people in the neighbourhood of Delhi, who formed the
bulk of those who resorted to the bazaar, and hence it became
the bazaar language. From here it became the lingua franca
of the Mogul camp and was carried everywhere in India by the
lieutenants of the empire. It has several recognized varieties,
amongst which we may mention Dakhini, Urdu, Rekhta and
Hindi. Dakhini or " southern," is the form current in the south
of India, and was the first to be employed for literature. It
contains many archaic expressions now extinct in the standard
dialect. Urdu, or Urdu zaban, " the language of the camp,"
is the name usually employed for Hindostani by natives, and
is now the standard form of speech used by Mussulmans. All
the early Hindostani literature was in poetry, and this literary
form of speech was named " Rekhta," or " scattered," from the
way in which words borrowed from Persian were " scattered "
through it. The name is now reserved for the dialect used in
poetry, Urdu being the dialect of prose and of conversation.
The introduction of these borrowed words, which has been
carried to even a greater extent in Urdu, was facilitated by the
facts that the latter was by origin a " camp " language, and that
Persian was the official language of the Mogul court. In this
way Persian (and, with Persian, Arabic) words came into current
use, and, though the language remained Indo-Aryan in its
grammar and essential characteristics, it soon became un-
intelligible to any one who had not at least a moderate acquaint-
ance with the vocabulary of Iran. This extreme Persianization
of Urdu was due rather to Hindu than to Persian influence.
Although Urdu literature was Mussulman in its origin, the
Persian element was first introduced in excess by the pliant
Hindu officials employed in the Mogul administration, and
acquainted with Persian, rather than by Persians and Per-
sianized Moguls, who for many centuries used only their own
languages for literary purposes. 2 Prose Urdu literature took its
J Sir C. J. Lyall, op. cit. p. 9.
4 8o
HINDOSTANI
origin in the English occupation of India and the need for text-
books for the college of Fort William. It has had a prosperous
career since the commencement of the I9th century, but some
writers, especially those of Lucknow, have so overloaded it with
Persian and Arabic that little of the original Indo-Aryan char-
acter remains, except, perhaps, an occasional pronoun or auxiliary
verb. The Hindi form of Hindostani was invented simultane-
ously with Urdu prose by the teachers at Fort William. It
was intended to be a Hindostani for the use of Hindus, and was
derived from Urdu by ejecting all words of Persian or Arabic
birth, and substituting for them words either borrowed from
Sanskrit (tatsamas) or derived from the old primary Prakrit
(tadbhavas) (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). Owing to the popu-
larity of the first book written in it, and to its supplying the
need for a lingua jranca which could be used by the most patriotic
Hindus without offending their religious prejudices, it became
widely adopted, and is now the recognized vehicle for writing
prose by those inhabitants of northern India who do not employ
Urdu. This Hindi, which is an altogether artificial product of the
English, is hardly ever used for poetry. For this the indigenous
dialects (usually Awadhi or Braj Bhasha) are nearly always
employed by Hindus. Urdu, on the other hand, having had a
natural growth, has a vigorous poetical literature. Modern
Hindi prose is often disfigured by that too free borrowing of
Sanskrit words instead of using home-born tadbhavas, which
has been the ruin of Bengali, and it is rapidly becoming a Hindu
counterpart of the Persianized Urdu, neither of which is in-
telligible except to persons of high education.
Not only has Urdu adopted a Persian vocabulary, but even
a few peculiarities of Persian construction, such as reversing
the positions of the governing and the governed word (e.g.
bap mera for mera bap), or of the adjective and the substantive
it qualifies, or such as the use of Persian phrases with the pre-
position ba instead of the native postposition of the ablative
case (e.g. ba-khushi for kkushi-se, or ba-hukm sarkar-ke instead
of sarkar-ke hukm-se) are to be met with in many writings;
and these, perhaps, combined with the too free indulgence on
the part of some authors in the use of high-flown and pedantic
Persian and Arabic words in place of common and yet chaste
Indian words, and the general use of the Persian instead of the
Nagari character, have induced some to regard Hindostani or
Urdu as a language distinct from Hindi. But such a view
betrays a radical misunderstanding of the whole question. We
must define Urdu as the Persianized Hindostani of educated
Mussulmans, while Hindi is the Sanskritized Hindostani of
educated Hindus. As for the written character, Urdu, from
the 'number of Persian words which it contains, can only be
written conveniently in the Persian character, while Hindi,
for a parallel reason, can only be written in the Nagari or one
of its related alphabets (see SANSKRIT). On the other hand,
" Hindostani " implies the great lingua franca of India, capable
of being written in either character, and, without purism,
avoiding the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words
when employed for literature. It is easy to write this Hindostani,
for it has an opulent vocabulary of tadbhava words understood
everywhere by both Mussulmans and Hindus. While " Hindo-
stani," " Urdu " and " Hindi " are thus names of dialects, it
should be remembered that the terms " Western Hindi " and
" Eastern Hindi " connote, not dialects, but languages.
The epoch of Akbar, which first saw a regular revenue system
established, with toleration and the free use of their religion to
the Hindus, was, there can be little doubt, the period of the
formation of the language. But its final consolidation did not
take place till the reign of Shah Jahan. After the date of this
monarch the changes are comparatively immaterial until we
come to the time when European sources began to mingle
with those of the East. Of the contributions from these sources
there is little to say. Like the greater part of those from Arabic
and Persian, they are chiefly nouns, and may be regarded rather
as excrescences which have sprung up casually and have attached
themselves to the original trunk than as ingredients duly in-
corporated in the body. In the case of the Persian and Arabic
element, indeed, we do find not a few instances in which nouns
have been furnished with a Hindi termination, e.g. kjiaridna,
badalnd, guzarnd, daghnd, bakhshnd, kaminapan, &c.; but the
European element cannot be said to have at all woven itself
into the grammar of the language. It consists, as has been
observed, solely of nouns, principally substantive nouns, which
on their admission into the language are spelt phonetically,
or according to the corrupt pronunciation they receive in the
mouths of the natives, and are declined like the indigenous
nouns by means of the usual postpositions or case-affixes. A
few examples will suffice. The Portuguese, the first in order of
seniority, contributes a few words, as kamara or kamra (camera),
a room; mdrtol (martello), a hammer; nildm (leildo), an auction,
&c. &c. Of French and Dutch influence scarcely a trace exists.
English has contributed a number of words, some of which have
even found a place in the literature of the language; e.g.
kamishanar (commissioner); jaj (judge); ddktar (doctor);
daktari, " the science of medicine " or " the profession of
physicians"; inspektar (inspector); istant (assistant) ; sosayati
(society); apU (appeal); apil karna, "to appeal"; dikri or
digri (decree); digri (degree); inc (inch); fut (foot); and
many more, are now words commonly used. Some borrowed
words are distorted into the shape of genuine Hindostani words
familiar to the speakers; e.g. the English railway term " signal "
has become sikandar, the native name for Alexander the Great,
and " signal-man " is sikandar -man, or " the pride of Alexander."
How far the free use of Anglicisms will be adopted as the language
progresses is a question upon which it would be hazardous to
pronounce an opinion, but of late years it has greatly increased
in the language of the educated, especially in the case of technical
terms. A native veterinary surgeon once said to the present
writer, " kutle-ka saliva bahut antiseptic hai " for " a dog's
saliva is very antiseptic," and this is not an extravagant
example. 1
The vocabulary of Panjabi and Eastern Hindi is very similar
to that of Western Hindi. Panjabi has no literature to speak
of and is free from the burden of words borrowed from Persian
or Sanskrit, only the commonest and simplest of such being found
in it. Its vocabulary is thus almost entirely ladbhava, and,
while capable of expressing all ideas, it has a charming rustic
flavour, like the Lowland Scotch of Burns, indicative of the
national character of the sturdy peasantry that employs it.
Eastern Hindi is very like Panjabi in this respect, but for a
different reason. In it were written the works of Tulsi Das,
one of the greatest writers that India has produced, and his
influence on the language has been as great as that of Shake-
speare on English. The peasantry are continually quoting
him without knowing it, and his style, simple and yet vigorous,
thoroughly Indian and yet free from purism, has set a model
which is everywhere followed except in the large towns where
Urdu or Sanskritized Hindi prevails. Eastern Hindi is written
in the Nagari alphabet, or in the current character related to
it called " Kaithi " (see BIHARI). The indigenous alphabet of
the Punjab is called Landa or " clipped." It is related to Nagari,
but is hardly legible to any one except the original writer, and
sometimes not even to him. To remedy this defect an improved
form of the alphabet was devised in the i6th century by Angad,
the fifth Sikh Guru, for the purpose of recording the Sikh scrip-
tures. It was named Gurrnukhi, " proceeding from the mouth of
the Guru," and is now generally used for writing the language.
Grammar. In the following account we use these contractions:
Skr.= Sanskrit; Pr. =Prakrit; Ap. = Apabhramsa ; W.H. =
Western Hindi; E.H. =Eastern Hindi; H.= Hindostani; Br.=
Braj Bhasha; P. = Panjabi.
(A) Phonetics. The phonetic system of all three languages is
nearly the same as that of the Apabhramsas from which they are
derived. With a few exceptions, to be noted below, the letters of the
alphabets of the three languages are the same as in Sanskrit.
Panjabi, and the western dialects of Western Hindi, have preserved
the old Vedic cerebral /. There is a tendency for concurrent vowels
to run into each other, and for the semi-vowels y and v to become
vowels. Thus, Skr. carmakaras, Ap. cammaaru, a leather-worker,
1 This and the preceding paragraph are partly taken from Mr.
Platts's article in vol. xi. of the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia.
HINDOSTANI
481
becomes H. camdr; Skr. rajani, Ap. ra(y)ani, H. rain, night; Skr.
dhavalakas, Ap. tllinnilnii, H. dhaiila, white. Sometimes the semi-
vowel is retained, as in Skr. kdtaras, Ap. kd(y)aru, H. kdyar, a
coward. Almost the only compound consonants which survived
in the Pr. stage were double letters, and in W.H. and E.H. these
are usually simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened and
sometimes nasalized, in compensation. P., on the other hand, pre-
fers to retain the double consonant. Thus, Skr. karma, Ap. kammu,
W.H. and E.H. ham, but P. kamm, a work; Skr. satyas, Ap. saccu,
W.H. and E.H. sac, but P. sacc, true (H., being the W.H. dialect
which lies nearest to P., often follows that language, and in this
instance has sacc, usually written sac) ; Skr. hastas, Ap. hatthu,
W.H. and E.H. hath, but P. hatth, a hand. The nasalization of vowels
is very frequent in all three languages, and is here represented by the
sign ~ over the vowel. Sometimes it is compensatory, as in sac,
but it often represents an original m, as in kawal from Skr. kamalas,
a lotus. Final short vowels quiesce in prose pronunciation, and are
usually not written in transliteration; thus the final a, i or u has
been lost in all the examples given above, and other tatsama examples
are Skr. mail- which becomes mat, mind, and Skr. vastu-, which be-
comes bast, a thing. In all poetry, however (except in the Urdu
poetry formed on Persian models, and under the rules of Persian
prosody), they reappear and are necessary for the scansion.
In tadbhava words an original long vowel in any syllable earlier
than the penultimate is shortened. In P. and H. when the long vowel
is e or 6 it is shortened to i or u respectively, but in other W.H.
dialects and in E.H. it is shortened to e or o; thus, befi, daughter,
long form H. bifiyd, E.H. befiyd; ghori, mare, long form H. ghur.iyd,
E.H. ghoriya. The short vowels e and o are very rare in P. and H.,
but are not uncommon (though ignored by most grammars) in E.H.
and the other W.H. dialects. A medial d is pronounced as a strongly
burred cerebral r., and is then written as shown, with a supposited
dot. All these changes and various contractions of Prakrit syllables
have caused considerable variations in the forms of words, but
generally not so as to obscure the origin.
(B) Declension. The nominative form of a tadbhava word is de-
rived from the nominative form in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but tatsama
words are usually borrowed in the form of the Skr. crude base; thus,
Skr. hastin-, nom. hasti, Ap. nom. hatthi, H. hdthi, an elephant;
Skr. base mati-, nom. matis, H. (tatsama) mati, or, with elision of the
final short vowel, mat. Some tatsamas are, however, borrowed in the
nominative form, as in Skr. dhanin-, nom. dhani, H. dhani, a rich
man. As another example of a tadbhava word, we may take the
Skr. nom. ghofas, Ap. ghodu, H. ghor, a horse. Here again the final
short vowel has been elided, but in old poetry we should find ghoru,
and corresponding forms in u are occasionally met with at the
present day.
In the article PRAKRIT attention is drawn to the frequent use of
pleonastic suffixes, especially -ka- (lem.-(i)kd).
wife of a caudhn or head man; mehtrdnj, the wife of a sweeper
(Pres. mehtar, a sweeper). With these exceptions weak forms rarely
have any terminations distinctive of gender. 1
The synthetic declension of Sanskrit and Prakrit has disappeared.
We see it in the actual stage of disappearance in Apabhrarhsa (see
PRAKRIT), in which the case terminations had become worn down
to -hu, -ho, -hi, -hi and -ha, of which -hi and -hi were employed for
several cases, both singular and plural. There was also a marked
tendency for these terminations to be confused, and in the earliest
stages of the modern vernaculars we find -hi freely employed for
any oblique case of the singular, and -hi for any oblique case of the
plural, but more especially for the genitive and the locative. In the
case of modern weak nouns these terminations have disappeared
altogether in W.H. and P. except in sporadic forms of the locative
such as gawe (for gftwahi), in the village. In E.H. they are still
heard as the termination of a form which can stand for any oblique
case, and is-called the "oblique form" or the "oblique case."
Thus, from ghar, a house (a weak noun), we have W.H. and P.
oblique form ghar, E.H. gharahi, ghare or ghar. In the plural, the
oblique form is sometimes founded on the Ap. terminations -ha and
-hu, and sometimes on the Skr. termination of the genitive plural
-anam (Pr. -ana' -anham), as in P. ghar -a, W.H. gkarau, ghar 5,
gharani, E.H. gharan. In the case of masculine weak forms, the
plural nominative has dropped the old termination, except in
E.H., where it has adopted the oblique plural form for this case
also, thus gharan. The nominative plural of feminine weak forms
follows the example of the masculine in E.H. In P. it also takes
the oblique plural form, while in W.H. it takes the old singular
oblique form in -ahi, which it weakens to al or (H.) e; thus bat
(fern.), a word, nom. plur. E.H. bat-an, P. bat-a, W.H. batal or (H.)
bate.
Strong masculine bases in Ap. ended in -a-a (nom. -a-u); thus
ghoda-a- (nom. ghoda-u), and adding -hi we get ghoda-a-hi, which
becomes contracted ghoddhi and finally to ghore. The nominative
plural is the same as the oblique singular, except in E.H. where it
follows the oblique plural. The oblique plural of all closely follows
in principle the weak forms. Feminine strong forms in Ap. ended
in -i-d, contracted to 1 in the modern languages. Except in E.H.
the -hi of the original oblique form singular disappears, so that we
have E.H. ghorihi or ghor.i, others only ghori. The nominative
plural of feminine strong forms exhibits some irregularities. In
E.H., as usual, it follows the plural oblique forms. In W.H. (except
Hindostani) it simply nasalizes the oblique form singular (i.e. adds
-hi instead of -hi), as in ghori. P. and H. adopt the oblique long
form for the plural and nasalize it, thus, P. ghor.la, H. ghor.iya.
The oblique plurals call for no further remarks. We thus get the
following summary, illustrating the way in which these nominative
and oblique forms are made.
With such a suffix we have the Skr. ghofa-kas,
Ap. ghoda-u, Western Hindi ghorau, or in P.
Panjabi.
Hindostani.
Braj Bhasha.
Eastern Hindi.
and H. (which is the W.H. dialect nearest in
W 1 M l\/f
locality to P.) ghord, a horse; Skr. ghofi-kd,
Ap. ghodi-d, W.H. and P. ghodi, a mare.
Such modern forms made with one pleon-
astic suffix are called " strong forms," while
those made without it are called " weak
forms." All strong forms end in au (or d)
in the masculine, and in i in the feminine,
whereas, in Skr., and hence in tatsamas, both a
and 1 are generally typical of feminine words,
though sometimes employed for the mascu-
weatc i\oun jviasc.
Nom. Sing.
Obi. Sing. . . .
Nom. Plur. . .
Obi. Plur. . . .
Strong Noun Masc.
Nom. Sing.
Obi. Sing. . . .
Nom. Plur. . .
Obi. Plur. . . .
VVcalc r\oun i*em.
ghar
ghar
ghar
ghara
ghora
ghor.e
ghor.e
ghor.ia
ghar
ghar
ghar
gharo
ghora
ghore
ghor.e
ghoro
ghar
ghar
ghar
gharaii, gharani
ghorau
ghore, ghor.ai
ghore
ghor.au, ghorani
ghar
ghar, gharahi
gharan
gharan
ghora
ghora, ghor.e
ghor.an
gkoran
line. It is shown in the article PRAKRIT that
these pleonastic suffixes can be doubled, or
Nom. Sing.
Obi. Sing.
bat
bat
bat
bat
bat
bdt
bdt
bdt
even trebled, and in this way we have a new
series of tadbhava forms. Let us take the
imaginary Skr. *gho(a-ka-kas with a double
suffix. From this we have the Ap. ghoda-a-u,
and modern ghorawd (with euphonic w in-
serted), a horse. Similarly for the feminine
we have Skr. *ghd(i-ka-kd, Ap. ghodi-a-d,
modern ghoriya (with euphonic y inserted), a
Nom. Plur. '. '.
Obi. Plur. . . .
Strong Noun Fern.
Nom. Sing.
Obi. Sing. . . .
Nom. Plur. . .
Obi. Plur. . . .
bata
bala
ghori
ghori
ghona
ghoria
bate
batS
ghori
ghori
ghoriya
ghor.iy6
batal
bdtaii, bdtani
ghori
ghori
ghorl
ghoriyau.
bdtan
bdtan
ghori
ghori, ghorihi
ghorin
ghorin
mare. Such forms, made with two suffixes,
gfioriycLm
are called " long forms," and are heard in
familiar conversation, the feminine also serving as diminutives.
There is a further stage, built upon three suffixes, and called the
" redundant form," which is mainly used by the vulgar. As a rule
masculine long forms end in -awd, -iya or -ud, and feminines in -iya,
although the matter is complicated by the occasional use of pleonastic
suffixes other than the -ka- which we have taken for our example,
and is the most common. Strong forms are rarely met with in E.H.,
but on the other hand long forms are more common in that language.
There are a few feminine terminations of weak nouns which may
be noted. These are -irii, -in, -an, -m (Skr. -ini, Pr. -ini) ; and
-am, -dni, -din (Skr. -am, Pr. -dm). These are found not only in
words derived from Prakrit, but are added to Persian and even
Arabic words; thus, hathini, hathni, hdthin (Skr. hastini, Pr. hatthini),
a she-elephant ; sundrin, sundran, a female goldsmith (sdndr)
sherni, a tigress (Persian sher, a tiger) ; Naflban, a proper name
(Arabic naslb); panQitani, the wife of a paydit; caudhrdin, the
XHI. 16
We have seen that the oblique form is the resultant of a general
melting down of all the oblique cases of Sanskrit and Prakrit, and
that in consequence it can be used for any oblique case. It is
obvious that if it were so employed it would often give rise to great
confusion. Hence, when it is necessary to show clearly what
particular case is intended, it is usual to add defining particles
corresponding to the English prepositions " of," " to," " from,"
" by," &c., which, as in all Indo-Aryan languages they follow the
mam word, are here called " postpositions." The following are
the postpositions commonly employed to form cases in our three
languages:
1 In some dialects of W.H. weak forms have masculines ending
in u and corresponding feminines in i, but these are nowadays rarely
met in the literary forms of speech. In old poetry they are common.
In Braj Bhasha they have survived in the present participle.
482
HINDOSTANI
Agent.
Genitive.
Dative.
Ablative.
Locative.
Panjabi
Hindostani
Braj Bhasha
Eastern Hindi
nai
rt|
ne
None
da
kd
kau
ker,k
*fl
ko
kau
ka
te
se
tc, sau
se
vice
me
mat
me, bikhe
The agent case is the case which a noun takes when it is the subject
of a transitive verb in a tense formed from the past participle.
This participle is passive in origin, and must be construed passively.
In the Prakrit stage the subject was in such cases put into the
instrumental case (see PRAKRIT), as in the phrase aham tena matio,
I by-him (was) struck, i.e. he struck me. In Eastern Hindi this is
still the case, the old instrumental being represented by the oblique
form without any suffix. The other two languages define the fact
that the subject is in the instrumental (or agent) case by the ad-
dition of the postposition ne, &c., an old form
employed elsewhere to define the dative. It
is really the oblique form (by origin a loca-
tive) of no, or no, which is employed in
Gujarat! (?.f.) for the genitive. As this suffix
is never employed to indicate a material
instrument but here only to indicate the
agent or subject of a verb, it is called the
postposition of the " agent " case.
The genitive postpositions have an interest-
ing origin. In Buddhist Sanskrit the words
krtas, done, and krtyas, to be done, were
added to a noun to form a kind of genitive.
A synonym of krtyas was karyas. These
three words were all adjectives, and agreed
with the thing possessed in gender, number,
and case; thus, mala-krte karande, in the
basket of the garland, literally, in the garland-
made basket. In the various dialects of
Apabhramsa Prakrit krtas became (strong
form) kida-u or kia-u, krjyas became kicca-u,
and karyas became kera-u or kajja-u, the
initial k of which is liable to elision after a
vowel. With the exception of Gujarat! (and
perhaps Marathi, q.v.) every Indo-Aryan lan-
guage has genitive postpositions derived from
one or other of these forms. Thus from (ki)da-u
The pronouns closely follow the Prakrit originals. This will be
evident from the preceding table of the first two personal pronouns
compared with Apabhramsa.
It will be observed that in most of the nominatives of the first
person, and in the E.H. nominative of the second person, the old
nominative has disappeared, and its place has been supplied by an
oblique form, exactly as we have^observed in the nominative plural
of nouns substantive. The P. Oil, tust, &c., are survivals from the
old Lahnda (see Linguistic Boundaries, above). The genitives of
these two pronouns are rarely used, possessive pronouns (in H. merd,
my; hamara, our; tera, thy; tumhdrd, your) being employed
instead. They can all (except P. asada, our; tusadd, your, which
are Lahnda) be referred to corresponding Ap. forms.
There is no pronoun of the third person, the demonstrative
pronouns being used instead. The following table shows the
principal remaining pronominal forms, with their derivation from
Ap.:
Apabhramsa.
Panjabi.
Hindostani.
Braj
Bhasha.
Eastern
Hindi.
THAT, HE, Nom.
?
uh
woh
wo
u
Obi.
?
uh
us
wd
THOSE, THEY, Nom.
oi
oh
we
wai
unh
Obi.
?
unha
unh
uni
unh
THIS, HE, Nom.
ehu
ih
yeh
yah
t
Obi.
eha.su, ehaho
ih
is
yd
e
THESE, THEY, Nom.
ei
eh m
ye
yai
inh
Obi.
ehdna
inha
ink
ini
ink
THAT, Nom.
so
so
so
so
se
Obi.
tasu, taho
tih
tis
to,
te
THOSE, Nom.
se
so
so
so
se
Obi.
tana
tinha
tinh
tint
tenh
WHO, Nom.
j
jo
jo
jo
je
Obi.
jasu, jaho
jih
if*
J a
je
WHO (pi.), Nom.
j*
K -
i
J
jf
Obi.
jdna
jinha
jinn
jini
jenh
WHO? Nom.
ko, kawanu
kaun
kaun
ko
ke
Obi.
kasu, kaho
kill
kis
ka
ke
WHO? (pi.), Nom.
ke
kaun_
kaun
ko
ke
Obi.
kdna
kinha
kinh
kini
kenh
WHAT?(Neut.),Nom.
kirn
kid
kyd
kaha
ka
Obi.
kaha, kasu
kdh, has
kahe
kahe
kahe
we have Panjabi da; from kia-u we have H. ka, Br. kau, E.H. and
Bihari k and Naipali ko; from (ki)cca-u we have perhaps Marathi
cd; from kera-u, E.H. and Bihari ker, kar, Bengali Oriya and
Assamese -r, and Rajasthani.-ro; while from (ka)jja-u we have the
Sindhi jo. It will be observed that while k, ker, kar, and r are weak
forms, the rest are strong. As already stated, the genitive is an
adjective. Bap means " father," and bdp-kd ghord is literally
" the paternal horse." Hence (while the weak forms as usual do
not change) these genitives agree with the thing possessed in gender,
number, and case. Thus, bdp-kd ghord, the horse of the father,
but bdp-ki ghon, the mare of the father, and bdp-ke ghore-ko, to the
horse of the father, the kd being put into the oblique case masculine
ke, to agree with ghore, which is itself in an oblique case. The details
of the agreement vary slightly in P. and W.H., and must be learnt
from the grammars. The E.H. weak forms do not change in the
modern language. Finally, in Prakrit it was customary to add
these postpositions (kera-u, &c.) to the genitive, as in mama or
mama kera-u, of me. Similarly these postpositions are, in the
modern languages, added to the oblique form.
The locative of the Sanskrit krtas, krte, was used in that language
as a dative postposition, and it can be shown that all the dative
postpositions given above are by origin old oblique forms of some
fenitive postposition. Thus H. ko, Br. kau, is a contraction of
ahu, an old oblique form of kia-u. Similarly for the others. The
origin of the ablative postpositions is obscure. To the present
writer they all seem (like the Bengal ha'ite) to be connected with the
verb substantive, but their derivation has not been definitely fixed.
The locative postpositions me and mal are derived from the Skr.
madhye, in, through majjhi, mdhi, and so on. The derivation of
vice and bikhe is obscure.
Apabhramsa.
Panjabi.
Hindostani.
Braj
Bhasha.
Eastern
Hindi.
I, Nom.
hau
mat
mat
hau
mai
Obi.
mat, mahu,
mai
mujh
mohi
mo
majjhu
WE, Nom.
amhe
ast
ham
ham
ham
Obi.
amaha,
asd
hamo
hamau.
ham
hamani
THOU, Nom.
tuhu
tu
tu
tu
tai
Obi.
tat, tuna,
tai
tujh
tohi
to
tujjhu
YOU, Nom.
lumhe
tust
turn
turn
turn
Obi.
tumhahS
tusd
tumho
tumhau
turn
The origin of the first pronoun given above (that, he; those,
they) cannot be referred to Sanskrit. It is derived from an Indo-
Aryan base which was not admitted to the classical literary language,
but of which we find sporadic traces in Apabhramsa. The existence
of this base is further vouched for by its occurrence in the Iranian
language of the Avesta under the form ava-. The base of the
second pronoun is the same as the base of the first syllable in the
Skr. e-$as, this, and other connected pronouns, and also occurs in
the Avesta. Ap. ehu is directly derived from e-sas.
There are other pronominal forms upon which, except perhaps
koi (Pr. ko-vi, Skr. ko-'pi), any one, it is unnecessary to dwell.
The phrase kot haif " Is any one (there)?" is the usual formula
for calling a servant in upper India, and is the origin of the Anglo-
Indian word " Qui-hi." The reflexive pronoun is dp (Ap. appu,
Skr. alma), self, which, something like the Latin suus (Skr. svas),
always refers to the subject of the sentence, but to all persons, not
only to the third. Thus mat apne (not mere) bdp-kd dekhtd-hu,
" I see my father."
C. Conjugation. The synthetic conjugation was already com-
mencing to disappear in Prakrit, and in the modern languages the
only original tenses which remain are the present, the imperative,
and here and there the future. The first is now generally employed
as a present subjunctive. In the accompanying table we have the con-
jugation of this tense, and also the three participles, present active,
and past and future passive, compared with Apabhramsa, the verb
selected being the intransitive root call or cal, go. In Ap. the word
may be spelt with one or with two Is, which accounts for the varia-
tions of spelling in the modern languages.
The imperative closely resembles the old present, except that it
drops all terminations in the 2nd person singular; thus, cal, go thou.
In P. and H. a future is formed by adding the
syllable gd (fern, gt) to the simple present. Thus, H.
calu-gd, I shall go. The gd is commonly said to
be derived from the Skr. galas (Pr. gao), gone, but
this suggestion is not altogether acceptable to the
present writer, although he is not now able to pro-
pose a better. Under the form of -gau the same
termination is used in Br., but in that dialect the old
future has also survived, as in calihau (Ap. calihau,
Skr. calisydmi), I shall go, which is conjugated like
the simple present. The E.H. formation of the
future is closely analogous to what we find in
Bihari (q.v.). The third person is formed as in Braj
Bhasha, but the first and second persons are formed
by adding pronominal suffixes, meaning " by me,"
" by thee," &c., to the future passive participle.
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
483
Apabhramsa.
Panjabi.
Hindostani.
Braj
Bhasha.
Eastern
Hindi.
Old Present-
Singular I . ...
callatt
calla
calit
calaii
calau
2. ...
callasi,
calls
cole
calai
colas
callahi
3. ...
callai
calle
cole
calai
calai
Plural I. ...
callahu
calliye
cale
calal
calal
2. ...
callahu
callo
cold
calau
calau
3-
callanti,
callai),
cale
calal
calal
callahi
Present Participle
callanta-u
calldd
calla
calatu
calat
Past Part. Passive
callia-u
callia
cald
calyau
cald
Future Part. Passive .
callania-u
callnd
calna
calnau
calliavva-u
caliwau
calab
Thus, calab-u, it-is-to-be-gone by-me, I shall go. We thus get the
following forms. It will be observed that, as in many other Indo-
Aryan languages, the first person plural has no suffix :
Sing. Plur.
1. calabu calab
2. calabe calabo
3. calihai calihal
In old E.H. the future participle passive, calab, takes no suffix for
any person, and is used for all persons.
The last remark leads us to a class of tenses in P. and W.H., in
which a participle, by itself, can be employed for any person of a
finite tense. A few examples of the use of the present and past
participles will show the construction. They are all taken from
Hindostani. Woh caltd, he goes; woh calti, she goes; mat cola,
I went ; woh call, she went ; we cale, they went. The present
participle in this construction, though it may be used to signify
the present, is more commonly employed to signify a past [con-
ditional " (if) he had gone." It will have been observed that in the
above examples, in all of which the verb is intransitive, the past
as well as the present participle agrees with the subject in gender
and number; but, if the verb be transitive, the passive meaning
of the past participle comes into force. The subject must be put
into the case of the agent, and the participle inflects to agree with
the object. If the object be not expressed, or, as sometimes happens,
be expressed in the dative case, the participle is construed im-
personally, and takes the masculine (for want of a neuter) form.
Thus, mal-ne kahd, by-me it-was-said, i.e. I said ; us-ne ci((hl likhl,
by-him a-letter (fern.) was- written, he wrote a letter; raja-ne
shernl-kd mdrd, the king killed the tigress, lit., by-the-king, with-
reference-to-the-tigress, it (impersonal) -was-killed. In the article
PRAKRIT it is shown that the same construction obtained in that
language.
In E.H. the construction is the same, but is obscured by the
fact that (as in the future) pronominal suffixes are added to the
participle to indicate the person of the subject or of the agent, as
in calat-eu, (if) I had gone; cal-eii, I went; mar-eu (transitive), I
struck, lit., struck-by-me ; mar-es, struck-by-him, he struck. If
the participle has to be feminine, it (although a weak form) takes
the feminine termination *', as in mari-u, I struck her; calati-u,
(if) I (fern.) had gone; cali-u, I (fern.) went.
Further tenses are formed by adding the verb substantive to
these participles, as in H. mal caltd-hu, I am going; mal calta-tha,
I was going; mal cala-hu, I have gone; mal cala-tha, I had gone.
These and other auxiliary verbs need not detain us long. They
differ in the various languages. For " I am " we have P. ha, H.
hu, Br. hail, E.H. bafyeii or aheu. For " I was " we have P. si or sa,
H. tha, Br. hau or hutau, E.H. raheu. The H. hu is thus con-
jugated :
Sing. Plur.
1. hu hat
2. hai ho
3^ hai hal
The derivation of ha, hu, hau, and aheu is uncertain. They are
usually derived from the Skr. asmi, I am; but this presents many
difficulties. An old form of the third person singular is hwai, and
this points to the Pr. havai, he is, equivalent to the Skr. bhavati,
he becomes. On the other hand this does not account for the
initial a of aheu. This last word is in the form of a past tense,
and it may be a secondary formation from asmi. The P. si is not
a feminine of sa, as usually stated, but is a survival of the Skr.
asit, Pr. asl, was. As in the Prakrit form, si is employed for both
genders, both numbers and all persons. Sa is a secondary forma-
tion from this, on the analogy of the H. tha, which is from the Skr.
sthitas, Pr. thio, stood, and is a participial form like cald; thus,
woh tha, he was; woh thl, she was. The Br. hau is a modern past
of hau, while hutau is probably by origin a present participle of the
Skr. bhu, become, Pr. huntao. The E.H. bafeu, is the Skr. varle,
Ap. vaffau. Rakeu is the past tense of the root rah, remain.
The future participle passive is everywhere freely used as an
infinitive or verbal noun; thus, H. calna, E.H. calab, the act of
going, to go. There is a whole series of derivative verbal forms,
making potential passives and transitives
from intransitives, and causals (and even
double causals) from transitives. Thus
dikhna, to be seen; potential passive,
dikhdnd, to be visible; transitive, dekhnd,
to see; causal, dikhldna, to show.
D. Literature. The literatures of Western
and Eastern Hindi form the subject of a
separate article (see HINDOSTANI LITER"A-
TURE). Panjabi has no formal literature.
Even the Granth, the sacred book of the
Sikhs, is mainly in archaic Western Hindi,
only a small portion being in Panjabi.
On the other hand, the language is
peculiarly rich in folksongs and ballads,
some of considerable length and great
poetic beauty. The most famous is the
ballad of ffir and Rdnjhd by Waris Shah,
which is considered to be a model of pure Panjabi. Colonel Sir
Richard Temple has published an important collection of these
songs under the title of The Leginds of the Punjab (3 vols., Bombay
and London, 1884-1900), in which both texts and translations of
nearly all the favourite ones are to be found.
AUTHORITIES. (a) General: The two standard authorities are
the comparative grammars of J. Beames (1872-1879) and A. F. R.
Hoernle (1880), mentioned in the article INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES.
To these may be added G. A. Grierson, " On the Radical and
Participial Tenses of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languages " in the
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. Ixiv. (1895), part i.
pp. 352 et seq.; and "On Certain Suffixes in the Modern Indo-
Aryan Vernaculars " in the Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Sprachfor-
schung auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen for 1903,
pp. 473 et seq.
(b) For the separate languages, see C. J. Lyall, A Sketch of the
Hindustani Language (Edinburgh, 1880); S. H. Kellogg, A Grammar
of the Hindi Language (for both Western and Eastern Hindi), (2nd ed.,
London, 1893); J. T. Platts, A Grammar of the Hindustani or Urdu
Language (London, 1874); an d A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical
Hindi and English (London, 1884) ; E. P. Newton, Panjabi Grammar:
with Exercises and Vocabulary (Ludhiana, 1898) ; and Bhai Maya
Singh, The Panjabi Dictionary (Lahore, 1895). The Linguistic
Survey of India, vol. vi., describes Eastern Hindi, and vol. ix.,
Hindostani and Panjabi, in each instance in great detail.
(G. A. GR.)
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE. The writings dealt with in
this article are those composed in the vernacular of that part of
India which is properly called Hindostan, that is, the valleys of
the Jumna and Ganges rivers as far east as the river Kos, and
the tract to the south including Rajputana, Central India
(Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand), the Narmada (Nerbudda)
valley as far west as Khandwa, and the northern half of the
Central Provinces. It does not include the Punjab proper
(though the town population there speak Hindostani), nor does
it extend to Lower Bengal.
In this region several different dialects prevail. The people of
the towns everywhere use chiefly the form of the language called
Urdu or Rekhta, 1 stocked with Persian words and phrases, and
ordinarily written in a modification of the Persian character.
The country folk (who form the immense majority) speak
different varieties of Hindi, of which the word-stock derives
from the Prakrits and literary Sanskrit, and which are written
in the Devanagari or KaithI character. Of these the most im-
portant from a literary point of view, proceeding from west to
east, are Mdrwdri and Jaipuri (the languages of Rajputana),
Brajbhasha (the language of the country about Mathura and
Agra), Kanaujl (the language of the lower Ganges-Jumna Doab
and western Rohilkhand), Eastern Hindi, also called Awadhiand
Baiswdri (the language of Eastern Rohilkhand, Oudh and the
Benares division of the United Provinces) and Bihari (the
language of Bihar or Mithila, comprising several distinct dialects).
What is called High Hindi is a modern development, for literary
purposes, of the dialect of Western Hindi spoken in the neighbour-
hood of Delhi and thence northwards to the Himalaya, which has
formed the vernacular basis of Urdu; the Persian words in the
latter have been eliminated and replaced by words of Sanskritic
origin, and the order of words in the sentence which is proper to
1 Urdu is a Turkish word meaning a camp or army with its
followers, and is the origin of the European word horde. Rekhta
means " scattered, strewn," referring to the way in which Persian
words are intermixed with those of Indian origin; it is used chiefly
for the literary form of Urdu.
4 8 4
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
the indigenous speech is more strictly adhered to than in Urdu,
which under the influence of Persian constructions has admitted
many inversions.
. As in many other countries, nearly all the early vernacular
literature of Hindostan is in verse, and works in prose are a
modern growth. 1 Both Hindi and Urdu are, in their application
to literary purposes, at first intruders upon the ground already
occupied by the learned languages Sanskrit and Persian, the
former representing Hindu and the latter Musalman culture.
But there is this difference between them, that, whereas Hindi
has been raised to the dignity of a literary speech chiefly by
impulses of revolt against the monopoly of the Brahmans,
Urdu has been cultivated with goodwill by authors who have
themselves highly valued and dexterously used the polished
Persian. Both Sanskrit and Persian continue to be employed
occasionally for composition by Indian writers, though much
fallen from their former estate; but for popular purposes it
may be said that their vernacular rivals are now almost in sole
possession of the field.
The subject may be conveniently divided as follows:
1. Early Hindi, of the period during which the language was being
fashioned as a literary medium out of the ancient Prakrits, represented
by the old heroic poems of Rajputana and the literature of the early
Bhagats or Vaishnava reformers, and extending from about A.D. noo
to 1550;
2. Middle Hindi, representing the best age of Hindi poetry, and
reaching from about 1550 to the end of the i8th century;
3. The rise and development of literary Urdu, beginning about the
end of the l6th century, and reaching its height during the l8th;
4. The modern period, marked by the growth of a prose literature
in both dialects, and dating from the beginning of the igth century.
i. Early Hindi. Our knowledge of the ancient metrical
chronicles of Rajputana is still very imperfect, and is chiefly
derived from the monumental work of Colonel James Tod, called
The Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan (published in 1820-
1832), which is founded on them. It is in the nature of com-
positions of this character to be subjected to perpetual revision
and recasting; they are the production of the family bards of the
dynasties whose fortunes they record, and from generation to
generation they are added to, and their language constantly
modified to make it intelligible to the people of the time. Round
an original nucleus of historical fact a rich growth of legend
accumulates; later redactors endeavour to systematize and to
assign dates, but the result is not often such as to inspire con-
fidence; and the mass has more the character of ballad literature
than of serious history. The materials used by Tod are nearly
all still unprinted; his manuscripts are now deposited in the
library of the Royal Asiatic Society in London; and one of the
tasks which, on linguistic and historical grounds, should first be
undertaken by the investigator of early Hindi literature is the
examination and sifting, and the publication in their original
form, of these important texts.
Omitting a few fragments of more ancient bards given by
compilers of accounts of Hindi literature, the earliest author of
whom any portion has as yet been published in the original text
is Chand Bardal, the court bard of PrithwI-Raj, the last Hindu
sovereign of Delhi. His poem, entitled Prithr^Raj Rasau (or
Ray so), is a vast chronicle in 69 books or cantos, comprising a
general history of the period when he wrote. Of this a small
portion has been printed, partly under the editorship of the late
Mr John Beames and partly under that of Dr Rudolf Hoernle, by
the Asiatic Society of Bengal; but the excessively difficult
nature of the task prevented both scholars from making much
progress. 2 Chand, who came of a family of bards, was a native
of Lahore, which had for nearly 170 years (since 1023) been under
Muslim rule when he flourished, an'd the language of the poem
exhibits a considerable leaven of Persian words. In its present
form the work is a redaction made by Amar Singh of Mewar,
about the beginning of the I7th century, and therefore more
1 The only known exceptions are a work in Hindi called the
Chaurasi Varta (mentioned below) and a few commentaries on poems ;
the latter can scarcely be called literature.
2 A fresh critical edition of the text by Pandit Mohan Lai Vishnu
Lai Pandia at Benares, under the auspices of the Nagari Pracharini
Sabha, had reached canto xxiv. in 1907.
than 400 years after Chand's death, with his patron PrithwI-Raj,
in 1193. There is, therefore, considerable reason to doubt
whether we have in it much of Chand's composition in its original
shape; and the nature of the incidents described enhances this
doubt. The detailed dates contained in the Chronicle have been
shown by Kabiraj Syamal Das 3 to be in every case about
ninety years astray. It tells of repeated conflicts between the
hero PrithwI-Raj and Sultan Shihabuddin, of Ghor (Muhammad
Ghori), in which the latter always, except in the last great battle,
comes off the worst, is taken prisoner and is released on pay-
ment of a ransom; these seem to be entirely unhistorical, our
contemporary Persian authorities knowing of only one encounter
(that of Tiraurl (Tirawari) near Thenesar, fought in 1191) in
which the Sultan was defeated, and even then he escaped un-
captured to Lahore. The Mongols (Book XV.) are brought on
the stage more than thirty years before they actually set foot in
India, and are related to have been vanquished by the redoubt-
able PrithwI-Raj. It is evident that such a record cannot
possibly be, in its entirety, a contemporary chronicle; but
nevertheless it appears to contain a considerable element which,
from its language, may belong to Chand's own age, and represents
the earliest surviving document in Hindi. " Though we may not
possess the actual text of Chand, we have certainly in his writings
some of the oldest known specimens of Gaudian literature,
abounding in pure Apabhranisa SaurasenI Prakrit forms "
(Grierson).
It is very difficult now to form a just estimate of the poem as
literature. The language, essentially transitional in character, con-
sists largely of words which have long since died out of the vernacular
speech. Even the most learned Hindus of the present day are
unable to interpret it with confidence; and the meaning of the verses
must be sought by investigating the processes by which Sanskrit
and Prakrit forms have been transfigured in their progress into Hindi.
Chand appears, on the whole, to exhibit the merits and defects of
ballad chroniclers in general. There is much that is lively and
spirited in his descriptions of fight or council ; and the characters of
the Rajput warriors who surround his hero are often sketched in their
utterances with skill and animation. The sound, however, frequently
predominates over the sense; the narrative is carried on with the
wearisome iteration and tedious, unfolding of familiar themes and
images which characterize all such poetry in India; and his value,
for us at least, is linguistic rather than literary.
Chand may be taken as the representative of a long line of
successors, continued even to the present day in the Rajput
states. Many of their compositions are still widely popular
as ballad literature, but are known only in oral versions sung
in Hindostan by professional singers. One of the most famous
of these is the Alha-khand, reputed to be the work of a con-
temporary of Chand called Jagnik or Jagnayak, of Mahoba
in Bundelkhand, who sang the praises of Raja-Parmal, a ruler
whose wars with PrithwI-Raj are recorded in the Mahoba-Khand
of Chand's work. Alha and Udal, the heroes of the poem, are
famous warriors in popular legend, and the stories connected
with them exist in an eastern recension, current in Bihar, as
well as in the Bundelkhandl or western form which is best
known. Two versions of the latter have been printed, having
been taken down as recited by illiterate professional rhapsodists.
Another celebrated bard was Sarangdhar of Rantambhor, who
flourished in 1363, and sang the praises of Hammlr Deo (Hamir
Deo), the Chauhan chief of Rantambhor who fell in a heroic
struggle against Sultan 'Ala'uddln Khiljl in 1300. He wrote
the Hammlr Kdvya and Hammir Rasau, of which an account
is given by Tod; 4 he was also a poet in Sanskrit, in which
language he compiled, in 1363, the anthology called Sarngadhara-
Paddhati. Another work which may be mentioned (though
much more modern) is the long chronicle entitled Chhattra-
Prakas, or the history of Raja Chhatarsal, the Bundela raja of
Panna, who was killed, fighting on behalf of Prince Dara-Shukoh,
in the battle of Dholpur won by Aurangzeb in 1658. The
author, Lai Kabi, has given in this work a history of the valiant
Bundela nation which was rendered into English by Captain
W. R. Pogson in 1828, and printed at Calcutta.
Before passing on to the more important branch of early
'See J.A.S.B. (1886), pp. 6 sqq.
4 Annals and Antiquities, ii. 452 n. and 472 n.
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
485
Hindi literature, the works of the Bhagats, mention may be made
here of a remarkable composition, a poem entitled the Padmdwat,
the materials of which are derived from the heroic legends
of Rajputana, but which is not th'e work of a bard nor even of
a Hindu. The author, Malik Muhammad of Ja'is, in Oudh,
was a venerated Muslim devotee, to whom the Hindu raja of
Amethi was greatly attached. Malik Muhammad wrote the
Padmawat in 1540, the year in which Sher Shah Sur ousted
Humayan from the throne of Delhi. The poem is composed
in the purest vernacular Awadhi, with no admixture of traditional
Hindu learning, and is generally to be found written in the
Persian character, though the metres and language are thoroughly
Indian. It professes to tell the tale of Padmawati or PadminI,
a princess celebrated for her beauty who was the wife of the
Chauhan raja of Chltor in Mewar. The historical Padmini's
husband was named Bhlm Singh, but Malik Muhammad calls
him Ratan Sen; and the story turns upon the attempts of
'Ala'uddin Khiljl, the sovereign of Delhi, to gain possession
of her person. The tale of the siege of Chltor in 1303 by 'Ala-
uddln, the heroic stand made by its defenders, who perished
to the last man in fight with the Sultan's army, and the self-
immolation of PadminI and the other women, the wives and
daughters of the warriors, by the fiery death called johar, will be
found related in Tod's Rajasthan, i. 262 sqq. Malik Muhammad
takes great liberties with the history, and explains at the end
of the poem that all is an allegory, and that the personages
represent the human soul, Divine wisdom, Satan, delusion
and other mystical characters.
Both on account of its interest as a true vernacular work, and as
the composition of a Musalman who has taken the incidents of his
morality from the legends of his country and not from an exotic
source, the poem is memorable. It has often been lithographed, and
is very popular; a translation has even been made into Sanskrit.
A critical edition has been prepared by Dr G. A. Gricrson and Pandit
Sudhakar Dwivedi.
The other class of composition which is characteristic of the
period of early Hindi, the literature of the Bhagats, or Vaishnava
saints, who propagated the doctrine of bhakti, or faith in Vishnu,
as the popular religion of Hindostan, has exercised a much
more powerful influence both upon the national speech and
upon the themes chosen for poetic treatment. It is also, as a
body of literature, of high intrinsic interest for -its form and
content. Nearly the whole of subsequent poetical composition
in Hindi is impressed with one or other type of Vaishnava
doctrine, which, like Buddhism many centuries before, was
essentially a reaction against Brahmanical influence and the
chains of caste, a claim for the rights of humanity in face of
the monopoly which the " twice-born " asserted of learning,
of worship, of righteousness. A large proportion of the writers
were non-Brahmans, and many of them of the lowest castes.
As Siva was the popular deity of theBrahmans, so was Vishnu
of the people; and while the literature of the Saivas and Saktas 1
is almost entirely in Sanskrit, and exercised little or no influence
on the popular mind in northern India, that of the Vaishnavas
is largely in Hindi, and in itself constitutes the great bulk of
what has been written in that language.
The Vaishnava doctrine is commonly carried back to Ramanuja,
a Brahman who was born about the end of the nth century,
at Perambur in the neighbourhood of the modern Madras,
and spent his life in southern India. His works, which are in
Sanskrit and consist of commentaries on the Vedanta Sutras,
are devoted to establishing " the personal existence of a Supreme
Deity, possessing every gracious attribute, full of love and pity
for the sinful beings who adore him, and granting the released
soul a home of eternal bliss near him a home where each
soul never loses its identity, and whose state is one of perfect
peace." 2 In the Deity's infinite love and pity he has on several
occasions become incarnate for the salvation of mankind, and
of these incarnations two, Ramachandra, the prince of Ayodhya,
and Krishna, the chief of the Yadava clan and son of Vasudeva,
1 Worshippers of the energic power Sakll of Siva, represented
by his consort ParvatI or Bhawani.
2 Quoted from G. A. Grierson, chapter on " Literature," in the
India Gazetteer (ed. 1907).
are . pre-eminently those in which it is most fitting that he
should be worshipped. Both of these incarnations had for
many centuries 3 attracted popular veneration, and their
histories had been celebrated by poets in epics and by weavers
of religious myths in Puranas or " old stories"; but it was
apparently Ramanuja's teaching which secured for them, and
especially for Ramachandra, their exclusive place as the objects
of bhakti ardent faith and personal devotion addressed to the
Supreme. The adherents of Ramanuja were, however, all
Brahmans, and observed very strict rules in respect of food,
bathing and dress; the new doctrine had not yet penetrated
to the people.
Whether Ramanuja himself gave the preference to Rama
against Krishna as the form of Vishnu most worthy of worship
is uncertain. He dealt mainly with philosophic conceptions
of the Divine Nature, and probably busied himself little with
mythological legend. His mantra, or formula of initiation,
if Wilsqn 4 was correctly informed, implies devotion to Rama;
but Vasudeva (Krishna) is also mentioned as a principal object
of adoration, and Ramanuja himself dwelt for several years
in Mysore, at a temple erected by the raja at Yadavagiri in
honour of Krishna in his form Ranchhor. 5 It is stated that
in his worship of Krishna he joined with that god as his Sakti,
or Energy, his wife RukminI; while the later varieties of
Krishna-worship prefer to honour his mistress Radha. The
great difference, in temper and influence upon life, between
these two forms of Vaishnava faith appears to be a development
subsequent to Ramanuja; but by the time of Jaideo (about
1250) it is clear that the theme of Krishna and Radha, and the
use of passionate language drawn from the relations of the sexes
to express the longings of the soul for God, had become fully
established; and from that time onwards the two types of
Vaishnava religious emotion diverged more and more from
one another.
The cult of Rama is founded on family life, and the relation
of the worshipper to the Deity is that of a child to a father.
The morality it inculcates springs from the sacred sources of
human piety which in all religions have wrought most in favour
of pureness of life, of fraternal helpfulness and of humble
devotion to a loving and tender Parent, who desires the good
of mankind, His children, and hates violence and wrong. That
of Krishna, on the other hand, had for its basis the legendary
career of a less estimable human hero, whose exploits are marked
by a kind of elvish and fantastic wantonness; it has more and
more spent its energy in developing that side of devotion which
is perilously near to sensual thought, and has allowed the
imagination and ingenuity of poets to dwell on things unmeet
for verse or even for speech. It is claimed for those who first
opened this way to faith that their hearts were pure and their
thoughts innocent, and that the language of erotic passion
which they use as the vehicle of their religious emotion is merely
mystical and allegorical. This is probable; but that these
beginnings were followed by corruption in the multitude, and that
the fervent impulses of adoration made way in 'later times for
those of lust and lasciviousness, seems beyond dispute.
The worship of Krishna, especially in his infant and youthful
form (which appeals chiefly to women), is widely popular in the
neighbourhood of Mathura, the capital of that land of Braj
where as a boy he lived. Its literature is mainly composed
in the dialect of this region, called Brajbhasha. That of Rama,
3 The worship of Krishna is as old as Megasthenes (about 300 B.C.),
who calls him Herakles, and was then, as now, located at Mathura on
the Jumna river. That of Rama is probably still more ancient; the
name occurs in stories of the Buddha.
4 Religious Sects of the Hindus, p. 40.
5 This name of Krishna, which means " He who quits the battle,"
is connected with the story of the transfer of the Yadava clan from
Mathura to the new capital on the coast of the peninsula of
Kathiawar, the city of Dwaraka. This migration was the result of
an invasion of Braj by Jarasandha, king of Magadha, before whom
Krishna resolved to retreat. As his path southwards took him
through Rajputana and Gujarat, it is in these regions that his form
Ranchhor is most generally venerated as a symbol of the shifting of
the centre of divine life from Gangetic to southern India.
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
though general throughout Hindostan, has since the time of
Tulsi Das adopted for poetic use the language of Oudh, called
AwadhI or Baiswari, a form of Eastern Hindi easily understood
throughout the whole of the Gangetic valley. Thus these two
dialects came to be, what they are to this day, the standard
vehicles of poetic expression.
Subsequently to Ramanuja his doctrine appears to have
been set forth, about 1250, in the vernacular of the people by
Jaideo, a Brahman born at Kinduvilva, the modern Kenduli,
in the Blrbhum district of Bengal, author of the Sanskrit Glta
Govinda, and by Namdeo or Nama, a tailor 1 of Maharashtra,
of both of whom verses in the popular speech are preserved in
the Adi Granth of the Sikhs. But it was not until the beginning
of the isth century that the Brahman Ramanand, a prominent
Gosdin of the sect of Ramanuja, having had a dispute with the
members of his order in regard to the stringent rules observed
by them, left the community, migrated to northern India
(where he is said to have made his headquarters Galtij in Raj-
putana), and addressed himself to those outside the Brahman
caste, thus initiating the teaching of Vaishnavism as the popular
faith of Hindostan. Among his twelve disciples or apostles
were a Rajput, a Jat, a leather-worker, a barber and a Musal-
man weaver; the last-mentioned was the celebrated KABIR
(see separate article). One short Hindi poem by Ramanand
is contained in the Adi Granth, and Dr Grierson has collected
hymns (bhajans) attributed to him and still current in Mithila
or Tirhut, Both Ramanand and Kablr were adherents of
the form of Vaishnavism where devotion is specially addressed to
Rama, who is regarded not only as an incarnation, but as himself
identical with the Deity. A contemporary of Ramanand,
Bidyapati Thakur, is celebrated as the author of numerous
lyrics in the Maithill dialect of Bihar, expressive of the other
side of Vaishnavism, the passionate adoration of the Deity
in the person of Krishna, the aspirations of the worshipper
being mystically conveyed in the character of Radha, the
cowherdess of Braj and the beloved of the son of Vasudeva.
These stanzas of Bidyapati (who was a Brahman and author
of several works in Sanskrit) afterwards inspired the Vaishnava
literatureofBengal,whosemostcelebratedexponentwasChaitanya
(b. 1484). Another famous adherent of the same cult was
Mira Bai, " the one great poetess of northern India " (Grierson).
This lady, daughter of Raja Ratiya Rana, Rathor, of Merta
in Rajputana, must have been born about the beginning of the
I5th century; she was married in 1413 to Raja Kumbhkaran
of Mewar, who was killed by his son Uday Rana in" 1469. She
was devoted to Krishna in the form of Ranchhor, and her songs
have a wide currency in northern India.
An important compilation of the utterances of the early Vaishnava
saints or Bhagats is contained in the sacred book, or Adi Granth, of
the Sikh Gurus. Nanak, the founder of this sect (1469-1538), though
a native of the Punjab (born at Talvandl on the Ravi near Lahore),
took his doctrine from the Bhagats (see KABIR) ; and each of the
thirty-one rags, forming the body of the Granth, is followed by a
compilation of texts from the utterances of Vaishnava saints, chiefly
of Kabir, in confirmation of the teaching of the Gurus, while the whole
book is closed by a bhog or conclusion, containing more verses by the
same authors, as well as by a celebrated Indian Sufi, Shekh Farid of
Pakpattan. The body of the Granth (q.v.), being in old Panjabi, falls
outside the scope of this article ; but the extracts included in it from
the early writers of old Hindi are a precious store of specimens of
authors some of whom have left no other record in the surviving
literature. The Adi Granth, which was put together about 1600 by
Arjun, the fifth Guru of the Sikhs, sets forth the creed of the sect in
its original pietistic form, before it assumed the militant character
which afterwards distinguished it under the five Gurus who suc-
ceeded him.
2. Middle Hindi. The second period, that of middle Hindi,
begins with the reign of the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605); and
it is not improbable that the broad and liberal views of this
great monarch, his active sympathy with his Hindu subjects,
the interest which he took in their religion and literature, and
the peace which his organization of the empire secured for Hindo-
1 In the Granth Namdeo is called a calico-printer, Chhlpi. The
Marathi tradition is that he was a tailor, ShimpH ; it is probable that
the latter word, being unknown in northern India, has been wrongly
rendered by the former.
stan, had an important effect on the great development of Hindi
poetry which now set in. 2 Akbar's court was itself a centre of
poetical composition. The court musician Tan Sen (who was
also a poet) is still renowned, and many verses composed by
him in the Emperor's name live to this day in the memory of
the people. Akbar's favourite minister and companion, Raja
Blrbal (who fell in battle on the north-western frontier in 1583),
was a musician and a poet as well as a politician, and held the
title, conferred by the Emperor, of Kabi-Rdy, or poet laureate;
his verses and witty sayings are still extremely popular in
northern India, though no complete work by him is known
to exist. Other nobles of the court were also poets, among
them the Khdn-khdndn 'Abdur-Rahlm, son of Bairam Khan,
whose Hindi dohas and kabittas are still held in high estimation,
and FaizI, brother of the celebrated Abul-Fazl, the Emperor's
annalist.
By this time the worship of Krishna as the lover of Radha
(Rddhd-ballabh) had been systematized, and a local habitation
found for it at Gokul, opposite Mathura on the Jumna, some
30 m. upstream from Agra, Akbar's capital, by Vallabhacharya,
a Tailinga Brahman from Madras. Born in 1478, in 1497 he
chose the land of Braj as his headquarters, thence making
missionary tours throughout India. He wrote chiefly, if not
entirely, in Sanskrit; but among his immediate followers, and
those of his son Bitthalnath (who succeeded his father on the
latter's death in 1530), were some of the most eminent poets
in Hindi. Four disciples of Vallabhacharya and four of BiUhal-
nath, who flourished between 1550 and 1570, are known as the
As/it Chhdp, or " Eight Seals," and are the acknowledged masters
of the literature of Braj-bhasha, in which dialect they all wrote.
Their names are Krishna-Das Pay-aharl, Sur Das (the Bhat),
Parmanand Das, Kumbhan Das, Chaturbhuj Das, Chhlt Swami,
Nand Das and Gobind Das. Of these much the most celebrated,
and the only one whose verses are still popular, is Sur Das. The
son of Baba Ram Das, who was a singer at Akbar's court, Sur
Das was descended, according to his own statement, from the
bard of PrithwI-Raj, Chand Bardal. A tradition gives the date
of his birth as 1483, and that of his death as 1573; but both
seem to be placed too early, and in Abul-Fazl 's Ain-i Akbari
he is mentioned as living when that work was completed (1596/7).
He was blind, and entirely devoted to the worship of Krishna,
to whose address he composed a great number of hymns (bhajans),
which have been collected in a compilation entitled the Sur
Sdgar, said to contain 60,000 verses; this work is very highly
esteemed as the high-water mark of Braj devotional poetry,
and has been repeatedly printed in India. Other compositions
by him were a translation in verse of the Bhdgavata Pur ana,
and a poem dealing with the famous story of Nala and Dama-
yanti; of the latter no copies are now known to exist.
The great glory of this age is Tulsi Das (q.v.). He and Sur
Das between them are held to have exhausted the possibilities of
the poetic art. It is somewhat remarkable that the time of their
appearance coincided with the Elizabethan age of English
literature.
To these great masters succeeded a period of artifice and
reflection, when many works were composed dealing with the
rules of poetry and the analysis and the appropriate language of
sentiment. Of their writers the most famous is Kesab Das, a
Brahman of Bundelkhand, who flourished during thelatterpartof
Akbar's reign and the beginning of that of Jahanglr. His works
are the Rasik-priyd, on composition (1591), the Kavi-priyd, on
the laws of poetry (1601), a highly esteemed poem dedicated to
Parbln Rai Paturl, a celebrated courtesan of Orchha in Bundel-
khand, the Rdmachandrikd, dealing with the history of Rama,
(1610), and the Vigydn-gltd (1610). The fruit of this elaboration
of the poetic art reached its highest perfection in BIHAR! LAL,
whose Sat-sai, or " seven centuries " (1662), is the most remark-
able example in Hindi of the rhetorical style in poetry (see
separate article).
2 It will be remembered that Akbar's reign was remarkable for the
translation into Persian of a large number of Sanskrit works of
religion and philosophy, most of the versions being made by, or in
the names of, members of his court.
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
487
Side by side with this cultivation of the literary use of the
themes of Rama and Krishna, there grew up a class of composi-
tions dealing, in a devotional spirit, with the lives and doings of
the holy men from whose utterances and example the develop-
ment of the popular religion proceeded. The most famous of
these is the Bhakta-mdld, or " Roll of the Bhagats," by Narayan
Das, otherwise called Nabha Das, or Nabhaji. This author, who
belonged to the despised caste of Doms and was a native of the
Deccan, had in his youth seen Tulsl Das at Mathura, and himself
flourished in the first half of the i7th century. His work con-
sists of 108 stanzas in chhappdi metre, each setting forth the
characteristics of some holy personage, and expressed in a style
which is extremely brief and obscure. Its exact date is unknown,
but it falls between 1585 and 1623. The book was furnished
with a Ika (supplement or gloss) in the kabilla metre, by Priya
Das in 1713, gathering up, in an allusive and disjointed fashion,
all the legendary stories related of each saint. This again was
expanded about a century later by a modern author named
Lachhman into a detailed work of biography, called the Bhakta-
sindhu. From these nearly all our knowledge (such as it is) of
the lives of the Vaishnava authors, both of the Rama and the
Krishna cults, is derived, and much of it is of a very legendary
and untrustworthy character. Another work, somewhat earlier
in date than the Bhakta-mdld, named the Chaurdsi Vdrta, is
devoted exclusively to stories of the followers of Vallabhacharya.
It is reputed to have been written by Gokulnath, son of Bitthal-
nath, son of Vallabhacharya, and is dated in 1551.
The matter of these tales is j ustly characterized by Professor Wilson 1
(who gives some translated specimens) as " marvellous and insipid
anecdotes"; but the book is remarkable for being in very artless
prose, and, though written more than 300 years ago, shows that the
current language of Braj was then almost precisely identical with
that now spoken in that region. A specimen of the text will be found
at p. 296 of Mr F. S. Growse's Mathura, a District Memoir (3rd ed.,
1883).
It would be tedious to enumerate the many authors who
succeeded the great period of Hind poetical composition which
extended through the reigns of Akbar, Jahanglr and Shahjahan.
None of them attained to the fame of Sur Das, Tuls Das or
Biharl Lai. Their themes exhibit no novelty, and they repeat
with a wearisome monotony the sentiments of their predecessors.
The list of Hindi authors drawn up by Dr G. A. Grierson, and
printed in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1889,
may be consulted for the names and works of these epigoni. The
courts of Chhatarsal, raja of Panna in Bundelkhand, who was
killed in battle with Aurangzeb in 1658, and of several rajas of
Bandho (now called Riwan or Rewah) in Baghelkhand, were
famous for their patronage of poets; and the Mogul court itself
kept up the office of Kabi-Rdy or poet laureate even during the
fanatical reign of Aurangzeb.
Such, in the briefest outline, is the character of Hind literature
during the period when it grew and flourished through its own
original forces. Founded by a popular and religious impulse in
many respects comparable to that which, nearly 1600 years
before, had produced the doctrine and literature, in the vernacular
tongue, of Jainism and Buddhism, and cultivated largely (though
by no means exclusively) by authors not belonging to the Brah-
manical order, it was the legitimate descendant in spirit, as
Hindi is the legitimate descendant in speech, of the Prakrit litera-
ture which preceded it. Entirely in verse, it adopted and elabor-
ated the Prakrit metrical forms, and carried them to a pitch of
perfection too often overlooked by those who concern themselves
rather with the substance than the form of the works they read.
It covers a wide range of style, and expresses, in the works of its
greatest masters, a rich variety of human feeling. Little studied
by Europeans in the past, it deserves much more attention than
it has received. The few who have explored it speak of it as an
" enchanted garden " (Grierson), abounding in beauties of thought
and phrase. Above all it is to be remembered that it is genuinely
popular, and has reached strata of society scarcely touched by
literature in Europe. The ballads of Rajput prowess, the
aphorisms of Kablr, Tulsl DSs's Rdmdyan, and the bhajans of
1 Religious Sects, p. 132.
Sur Das are to this day carried about everywhere by wandering
minstrels, and have found their way, throughout the great plains
of northern India and the uplands of the Vindhya plateau, to the
hearts of the people. There is no surer key to unlock the con-
fidence of the villager than an apt quotation from one of these
inspired singers.
3. Literary Urdu. The origines of Urdu as a literary language
are somewhat obscure. The popular account refers its rise to
the time of Timur's invasion (1398). Some authors even claim
for it a higher antiquity, asserting that a dlwdn, or collection of
poems, was composed in Rekhta by Mas'ud, son of Sa'd, in the
last half of the nth or beginning of the i2th century, and that
Sa'di of Shiraz and his friend Amir Khusrau 2 of Delhi likewise
made verses in that dialect before the end of the i3th century.
This, however, is very improbable. It has already been seen that
during the early centuries of Muslim rule in India adherents of
that faith used the language and metrical forms of the country
for their compositions. Persian words early made their way into
the popular speech; they are common in Chand, and in Kablr's
verses (which are nevertheless unquestionable Hindi) they are in
many places used as freely as in the modern dialect. Much of the
confusion which besets the subject is due to the want of a clear
understanding of what Urdu, as opposed to Hindi, really is.
Urdu, as a literary language, differs from Hindi rather in its
form than in its substance. The grammar, and to a large extent
the vocabulary, of both are the same. The really vital point of
difference, that in which Hindi and Urdu are incommensurable,
is the prosody. Hardly one of the metres taken over by Urdu
poets from Persian agrees with those used in Hindi. In the latter
language it is the rule to give the short a inherent in every con-
sonant or nexus of consonants its full value in scansion (though
in prose it is no longer heard), except occasionally at the metrical
pause; in Urdu this is never done, the words being scanned
generally as pronounced in prose, with a few exceptions which
need not be mentioned here. The great majority of Hindi
metres are scanned by the number of mdtrds or syllabic instants
the value in time of a short syllable of which the lines consist;
in Urdu, as in Persian, the metre follows a special order of long
and short syllables.
The question, then, is not When did Persian first become
intermixed with Hindi in the literary speech? for this process
began witli the first entry of Muslim conquerors into India,
and continued for centuries before a line of Urdu verse was
composed; nor When was the Persian character first employed
to write Hindi? for the written form is but a subordinate
matter; as already mentioned, the MSS. of Malik Muhammad's
purely Hindi poem, the Padmdwat, are ordinarily found to be
written in the Persian character; and copies lithographed in
Devanagari of the popular compositions of the Urdu poet
Nazir are commonly procurable in the bazars. We must ask
When was the first verse composed in Hindi, whether with
or without foreign admixture, according to the forms of Persian
prosody, and not in those of the indigenous metrical system?
Then, and not till then, did Urdu poetry come into being. This
appears to have happened, as already mentioned, about the end
of the 1 6th century. Meantime the vernacular speech had been
gradually permeated with Persian words and phrases. The
impulse which Akbar's interest in his Hindu subjects had given
to the translation of Sanskrit works into Persian had brought
the indigenous and the foreign literatures into contact. The
current language of the neighbourhood of the capital, the
Hindi spoken about Delhi and thence northwards to the Hima-
laya, was naturally the form of the vernacular which was most
subject to foreign influences; and with the extension of Mogul
s Amir Khusrau is credited with the authorship of many still
popular rhymes, riddles or punning verses (called paheRs and
mukuris) ; but these, though often containing Persian words, are in
Hindi and scanned according to the prosody of that language ; they
are, therefore, like Malik Muhammad's Padmawat, not Urdu or
Rekhta verse (see Professor Azad'sAbi-Hayat, pp. 72-76). A late
Dakkham poet who used the takkallus. of Sa'di is said by Azad (p. 79)
to have been confused by Mirza Rafi'us-Sauda in his Tazkira with
Sa'di of Shiraz.
4 88
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
territory by the conquests in the south of Akbar and his suc-
cessors, this idiom was carried abroad by their armies, and was
adopted by the Musalman kingdoms of the Deccan as their
court language some time before their overthrow by the cam-
paigns of Aurangzeb.
It is not a little remarkable that, as happened with the Vaish-
nava reformation initiated by Ramanuja and Ramanand, and
with the Vallabhacharya cult of Krishna established at Mathura,
the first impulse to literary composition in Urdu should have
been given, not at the headquarters of the empire in the north,
but at the Muhammadan courts of Golkonda and Bijapur in
the south, the former situated amid an indigenous population
speaking Telugu, and the latter among one whose speech was
Kanarese, both Dravidian languages having nothing in common
with the Aryan tongues of the north. This fact of itself defines
the nature of the literature thus inaugurated. It had nothing
to do with the idiom or ideas of the people among whom it was
born, but was from the beginning an imitation of Persian models.
It adopted the standards of form and content current among
the poets of Eran. The qajida or laudatory ode, the ghazal
or love-sonnet, usually of mystical import, the mar&iya or dirge,
the masnavi or narrative poem with coupled rhymes, the hijd
or satire, the rubd'i or epigram these were the types which
Urdu took over ready-made. And with the forms were ap-
propriated also all the conventions of poetic diction. The
Persians, having for centuries treated the same themes with
a fecundity which most Europeans find extremely wearisome,
had elaborated a system of rhetoric and a stock of poetic images
which, in the exhaustion of original matter, made the success
of the poet depend chiefly upon dexterity of artifice and clever-
ness of conceit. Pleasing hyperbole, ingenious comparison,
antithesis, alliteration, carefully arranged gradation of noun
and epithet, are the means employed to obtain variety; and
few of the most eloquent passages of later Persian verse admit
of translation into any other language without losing that which
in the original makes their whole charm. What is true of Persian
is likewise true of Urdu poetry. Until quite modern times,
there is scarcely anything in it which can be called original. 1
Differences of school, which are made much of by native critics,
are to us hardly perceptible; they consist in the use of one
or other range of metaphor or comparison, classed, according
as they repeat the well-worn poetical stock-in-trade of the
Persians, or seek a slightly fresher and more Indian field of
sentiment, as the old or the new style of composition.
Shuja'uddin Nuri, a native of Gujarat, a friend of Fai?i and con-
temporary of Akbar, is mentioned by the native biographers as the
most ancient Urdu poet after Amir Khusrau. He was tutor of the
son of the wazir of Sultan Abu-1-Hasan Kutb Shah of Golkonda, and
several gha.za.ls by him are said to survive. Kull Kutb Shah of
Golkonda, who reigned from 1581, and his successor 'Abdullah Kut.b
Shah, who came to the throne in 1611, have both left collections of
verse, including ghazals, ruba'is, masnavis and qafidas. And during
the reign of the latter Ibn Mishap wrote two works which are still
famous as models of composition in Dakhni; they are magnates
entitled the Tufi-nama, or " Tales of a Parrot," and the Phul-ban.
The first, written in 1639, is an adaptation of a Persian work by
Nakhshabi, but derives ultimately from a Sanskrit original entitled
the Suka-saptati; this collection has been frequently rehandled in
Urdu, both in verse and prose, and is the original of the To(a-
Kahani, one of the first works in Urdu prose, composed in 1801 by
Muhammad Haidar-bakhsh Haidari of the Fort William College.
The Phul-ban is a love tale named from its heroine, said to be trans-
lated from a Persian work entitled the Basafin. Another famous
work which probably belongs to the same place and time is the Story
of Kamrup and Kola by Tahslnuddln, a masnavi which has been
published (1836) by M. Garcin de Tassy; what makes this poem
remarkable is that, though the work of a Musalman, its personages
are Hindu. Kamrup, the hero, is son of the king of Oudh, and the
heroine, Kala, daughter of the king of Ceylon ; the incidents some-
what resemble those of the tale of as-Sindibad in the Thousand and
One Nights; the hero and heroine dream one of the other, and the
former sets forth to find his beloved; his wanderings take him to
1 An exception may be made to this general statement in favour
of the genre pictures of city and country life contained in the masnams
of Sauda and Nazir. These are often satires (in the vein of Horace
rather than Juvenal), and are full of interest as pictures of society.
In Sauda, however, the conventional language used in description is
often Persian rather than Indian.
many strange countries and through many wonderful adventures,
ending in a happy marriage.
The court of Bijapur was no less distinguished in literature.
Ibrahim 'Adil Shah (1579-1626) was the author of a work in verse
on music entitled the Nau-ras or " Nine Savours," which, however,
appears to have been in Hindi rather than Urdu ; the three prefaces
(dibdjas) to this poem were rendered into Persian prose by Maula
Zuhuri, and, under the name of the Sih nasr-i Zuhuri, are well-known
models of style. A successor of this prince, "Ali 'Adil Shah, had as
his court poet a Brahman known poetically as Nusrati, who in 1657
composed a masnavi of some repute entitled the Gulshan-i 'Ishq, or
" Rose-garden of Love," a romance relating the history of Prince
Manohar and Madmalati, like the Kamrup, an Indian theme.
The same poet is author of an extremely long masnavi entitled the
'Ali-ndma, celebrating the monarch under whom he lived.
These early authors, however, were but pioneers; the first
generally accepted standard of form, a standard which suffered little
change in two centuries, was established by Wall of Aurangabad
(about 1680-1720) and his contemporary and fellow-townsman
Siraj. The former of these is commonly called " the Father of
Rekhtah " Bdbd-e Rekhta; and all accounts agree that the immense
development attained by Urdu poetry in northern India during the
1 8th century was due to his example and initiative. Very little is
known of Wall's life; he is believed to have visited Delhi towards the
end of the reign of Aurangzeb, and is said to have there received
instruction from Shah Gulshan in the art of clothing in a vernacular
dress the ideas of the Persian poets. His Kultiyal or complete works
have been published by M. Garcin de Tassy, with notes and a trans-
lation of selected passages (Paris, 1834-1836), and may be com-
mended to readers desirous of consulting in the original a favourable
specimen of Urdu poetical composition.
The first of the Delhi school of poets was Zuhuruddin Hatim, who
was born in 1699 and died in 1 792. In the second year of Muhammad
Shah (1719), the diwdn of VVall reached Delhi, and excited the emula-
tion of scholars there. Hatim was the first to imitate it in the Urdu
of the north, and was followed by his friends Naji, Mazmun and Abru.
Two diwans by him survive. He became the founder of a school, and
one of his pupils was Raft us-Sauda, the most distinguished poet of
northern India. Khan Arzu (1689-1756) was another of the fathers
of Urdu poetry in the north. This author is chiefly renowned as a
Persian scholar, in which language he not only composed much
poetry, but one of the best of Persian lexicons, the Sirdju-l-lugkat;
but his compositions in Urdu are also highly esteemed. He was the
master of Mir Taqi, who ranks next to Sauda as the most eminent
Urdu poet. Arzu died at Lucknow, whither he betook himself after
the devastation of Delhi by Nadir Shah (1739). Another of the early
Delhi poets who is considered to have surpassed his fellows was
In'amullah Khan Yaqin, who died during the reign of Ahmad Shah
(1748-1754), aged only twenty-five. Another \vas Mir Dard, pupil
of the same Shah Gulshan who is said to have instructed Wali; his
diwdn is not long, but extremely popular, and especially esteemed for
the skill with which it develops the themes of spiritualism. In his
old age he became a darwesh of the Naqshbandi following, and died
in 1793-
Sauda and Mir Taqi are beyond question the most distinguished
Urdu poets. The former was born at Delhi about the beginning of
the 1 8th century, and studied under Hatim. He left Delhi after its
devastation, and settled at Lucknow, where the Nawab Ajafud-
daulah gave him a jdgir of Rs. 6000 a year, and where he died in
1780. His poems are very numerous, and cover all the styles of
Urdu poetry; but it is to his satires that his fame is chiefly due,
and in these he is considered to have surpassed all other Indian
poets. Mir Taqi was born jit Agra, but early removed to Delhi,
where he studied under Arzu; he was still living there at the time
of Sauda's death, but in 1782 repaired to Lucknow, where he likewise
received a pension; he died at a very advanced age in 1810. His
works are very voluminous, including no less than six diwans.
Vlir is counted the superior of Sauda in the ghazal and masnavi,
while the latter excelled him in the satire and qasida. Sayyid
Ahmad, an excellent authority, and himselfpne of the best of modern
authors in Urdu, says of him in his Asdru-s.-Sanddid: " Mir's
anguage is so pure, and the expressions which he employs so suit-
able and natural, that to this day all are unanimous in his praise.
Although the language of Sauda is also excellent, and he is superior
:o Mir in the point of his allusions, he is nevertheless inferior to him
'.n style."
The tremendous misfortunes which befell Delhi at the hands of
Sladir Shah (1739), Ahmad Shah Durrani (1756), and the Marathas
(1759), and the rapid decay of the Mogul empire under these repeated
shocks, transferred the centre of the cultivation of literature from
hat city to Lucknow, the capital of the newly founded and flourish-
ng state of Oudh. It has been mentioned how Arzu, Sauda and Mir
retook themselves to this refuge and ended their days there; they
were followed in their new residence by a school of poets hardly
nferior to those who had made Delhi illustrious in the first half
of the century. Here they were joined by Mir Hasan (d. 1786), Mir
Soz (d. 1800) and Qalandar-bakhsh Jur'at (d. 1810), also like them-
ielves refugees from Delhi, and illustrious poets. Mir Hasan was a
riend and collaborator of Mir Dard, artd first established himself at
"aizabad and subsequently at Lucknow; he excelled in the ghazal.
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
ruba'i, masnavi and margiya, and is counted the third, with Sauda
Bnd Mir Taqi, among the most eminent of Urdu poets. His fam(
chiefly rests upon a much admired masnavi entitled the Sihru-l
bayan, or " Magic of Eloquence," a romance relating the loves o
Prince Be-nagir and the Princess Badr-i Munir; his masnavi callec
the Gulzar-i Iram (" Rose-garden of Iram," the legendary 'Adite
paradise in southern Arabia), in praise of Faizabad, is likewise
highly esteemed. Mir Muhammad! Soz was an elegant poet, re
markable for the success with which he composed in the dialec
of the harem called Rekhd, but somewhat licentious in his verse; hi
became a darwesh and renounced the world in his later years. Jur'at
was also a prolific poet, but, like Soz, his ghazals and masnavis are
licentious and full of double meanings. ' He imitated Sauda in satire
with much success; he also cultivated Hindi poetry, and composec
dohas and kabittas. Miskin was another Lucknow poet of the same
period, whose marsiyas are especially admired; one of them, that
on the death of Muslim and his two sons, is considered a masterpiece
of this style of composition. The school of Lucknow, so founded anc
maintained during the early years of the century, continued to
flourish till the dethronement of the last king, Wajid 'All, in 1856.
Atash and Nasikh (who died respectively in 1847 and 1841) are the
best among the modern poets of the school in the ghazal; Mir Anis.a
grandson of Mir Hasan, and his contemporary Dablr, the former ol
whom died in December 1875 and the latter a few months later,
excelled in the marsiyah. Rajab All Beg Surur, who died in 1869,
was the author of a much-admired romance in rhyming prose entitled
the Fisanah-e 'Ajaib or " Tale of Marvels," besides a diwan. The
dethroned prince Wajid 'All himself, poetically styled Akhtar, was
also a poet ; he published three dlivans, among them a quantity of
poetry in the rustic dialect of Oudh which is philologically of much
interest.
Though Delhi was thus deserted by its brightest lights of literature,
it did not altogether cease to cultivate the poetic art. Among the
last Moguls several princes were themselves creditable poets. Shah
Alam II. (1761-1806) wrote under the name of Aftab, and was the
author of a romance entitled Manzum-i Aqdas, besides a diwan.
His son Sulaiman-shukoh, brother of Akbar Shah II., who had at
first, like his brother authors, repaired to Lucknow, returned to
Delhi in 1815, and died in 1838; he also has left a diwan. Lastly, his
nephew Bahadur Shah II., the last titular emperor of Delhi (d. 1862),
wrote under the name of Zafar, and was a pupil in poetry of Shaikh
Ibrahim Zauq, a distinguished writer; he has left a voluminous
diwan, which has been printed at Delhi. Mashafi (Ghulam-i Ham-
dani), who died about 1814, was one of the most distinguished of the
revived poetic school of Delhi, and was himself one of its founders.
Originally of Lucknow, he left that city for Delhi in 1777, and held
conferences of poets, at which several authors who afterwards ac-
quired repute formed their style; he has left five diwans, a Taikira
or biography of Urdu poets, and a Shah-nama or account of the
kings of Delhi down to Shah 'Alam. Qaim (Qiyamuddin 'All) was one
of his society, and died in 1792; he has left several works of merit.
Ghalib, otherwise Mirza Asadullah Khan Naushah, laureate of the
last Mogul, who died in 1869, was undoubtedly the most eminent of
the modern Delhi poets. He wrote chiefly in Persian, of which
language, especially in the form cultivated by Firdausi, free from
intermixture of Arabic words, he was a master; but his Urdu
dtwan, though short, is excellent in its way, and his reputation
spread far and wide. To this school, though he lived and died at
Agra, may be attached Mir Wall Muhammad Nazir (who died in the
year 1832); his masnavis entitled Jogi-nama, Kauri-nama, Banjare-
nama, and Bur.hape-nama, as well as his diwan, have been frequently
reprinted, and are extremely popular. His language is less artificial
than that of the generality of Urdu poets, and some of his poems
have been printed in Nagari, and are as well known and as much
esteemed by Hindus as by Mahommedans. His verse is defaced by
much obscenity.
4. Modern Period. While such, in outline, is the history
of the literary schools of the Deccan, Delhi and Lucknow, a
fourth, that of the Fort William College at Calcutta, was being
formed, and was destined to give no less an impulse to the
cultivation of Urdu prose than had a hundred years before
been given to that of poetry by Wall. At the commencement
of the igth century Dr John Gilchrist was the head of this
institution, and his efforts were directed towards getting together
a body of literature suitable as text-books for the study of the
Urdu language by the European officers of the administration.
To his exertions we owe the elaboration of the vernacular as
an official speech, and the possibility of substituting it for the
previously current Persian as the language of the courts and
the government. He gathered together at Calcutta the most
eminent vernacular scholars of the time, and their works, due
to his initiative, are still notable as specimens of elegant and
serviceable prose composition, not only in Urdu, but also in
Hindi. The chief authors of this school are Haidarl (Sayyid
Muhammad Haidar-bakhsh) , Husaim (Mir Bahadur 'All), Mir
489
Amman Luff, Haflzuddln Ahmad, Shgr 'All Afsos, Nihal Chand
of Lahore, Kazim 'All Jawan, Lallu Lai Kavi, Mazhar 'All Wila
and Ikram 'All.
Haidarl died in 1828. He composed the Tofa-Kahani (1801), a
prose redaction of the Tufi-namah which has been already mentioned
a romance named Araish-i Mahfil (" Ornament of the Assembly ")
detailing the adventures of the famous Arab chief Hatim-i Jai ; the
Gul-i Maghfirat or Dah Majlis, an account of the' holy persons of
the Muhammadan faith; the Gulzar-i Danish, a translation of the
Bahar-i Danish, a Persian work containing stories descriptive of the
craft and faithlessness of women ; and the Tarikh-i Nadiri, a trans-
lation of a Persian history of Nadir Shah. Husaim is the author of
an imitation in prose of Mir Hasan's Sihru-l-bayan, under the name
of Nasr-i Benazir (" the Incomparable Prose," or " the Prose of
Benazir," the latter being the name of the hero), and of a work
named Akhlaq-i Hindi, or " Indian Morals," both composed in 1802.
The Akhlaq-i Hindi is an adaptation of a Persian work called the
Mufarnhu-l-qulub (" the Delighter of Hearts "), itself a version of the
Hitopadesa. Mir Amman was a native of Delhi, which he left in the
time of Ahmad Shah Durrani for Patna, and in 1801 repaired to
Calcutta. To him we owe the Bagh o Bahar (1801-1802), an adapta-
tion of Amir Khusrau's famous Persian romance entitled the Chahar
Darwesh, or " Story of the Four Dervishes." Amman's work is not
itself directly modelled on the Persian, but is a rehandling of an
almost contemporary rendering by Tahsin of Etawa, called the
Nau-tarz-i Mura^a'. The style of this composition is much admired
by natives of India, and editions of it are very numerous. Amman
also composed an imitation of Husain Wa'iz Kashifi's Akhlaq-i
Muhsini under the name of the Ganj-i Khubi (" Treasure of Virtue ),
produced in 1802. Hafizuddln Ahmad was a professor at the Fort
William College; in 1803 he completed a translation of Abu-1-Fazl's
'Iyar-i Danish, under the name of the Khirad-afroz (" Enlightener
of the Understanding"). The 'Iyar-i Danish ("Touchstone of
Wisdom ") is one of the numerous imitations of the originally
Sanskrit collection of apologues known in Persian as the Fables of
Bidpai, or Kalilah and Dimna. Afsos was one of the most illustrious
of the Fort William school ; originally of Delhi, he left that city at
the age of eleven, and entered the service of Qasim 'All Khan,
Nawab of Bengal; he afterwards repaired to Hyderabad in the
Deccan, and thence to Lucknow, where he was the pupil of Mir
Hasan, Mir Soz and Mir tfaidar 'AH Hairan. He joined the Fort
William College in 1800, and died in 1809. He is the author of a
much esteemed diwan; but his chief reputation is founded on two
prose works of great excellence, the Araish-i Mahfil (1805), an account
of India adapted from the introduction of the Persian Khulas,atu-t-
tawarikh of Sujan Rae, and the Bdgh-i Urdu (1808), a translation of
Sa'di's Gulistan. Nihal Chand translated into Urdu a masnavi,
entitled the Gul-i Bakawali, under the name of Mazjmb-i "'Ishq
("Religion of Love"); this work is in prose intermingled with
verse, was composed in 1804, and has been frequently reproduced.
Jawan, like most of his collaborators, was originally of Delhi and
afterwards of Lucknow; he joined the College in 1800. He is the
author of a version in Urdu of the well-known story of Sakuntala,
under the name o(_Sakuntala Nafak; the Urdu was rendered from
a previous' Braj-bhasha version by Nawaz Kabishwar made in 1716,
and was printed in 1802. Healso composed a Barah-masa, or poetical
description of the twelve months (a very popular and often-handled
form of composition), with accounts of the various Hindu and
Muhammadan festivals, entitled the Dastur-i Hind (" Usages of
India "), printed in 1812. Ikram 'AH translated, under the name
of the Ikhwanu-$-safa, or " Brothers of Purity " (1810), a chapter
of a famous Arabian collection of treatises on science and philosophy
entitled Rasailu Ikhwani-$-safa, and composed in the loth century.
The complete collection, due to different writers who dwelt at
Basra, has recently been made known to European readers by the
:ranslation of Dr F. Dieterici (1858-1879); the chapter selected by
[kram 'All is the third, which records an allegorical strife for the
mastery between men and animals before the king of the Jinn.
The translation is written in excellent Urdu, and is one of the best
of the Fort William productions.
Sri Lallu Lai was a Brahman, whose family, originally of Gujarat,
lad long been settled in northern India. What was done by the
other Fort William authors for Urdu prose was done by Lallu Lai
almost alone for Hindi. He may indeed without exaggeration be
said to have created " High Hindi " as a literary language. His
rem Sagar and Rajniti, the former a version in pure Hindi of the
:oth chapter of the Bhagavata Purana, detailing the history of
<rishna, and founded on a previous Braj-bhasha version by Chatur-
>huj Misr, and the latter an adaptation in Braj-bhasha prose of the
'iitopadesa and part of the Pancha-tantra, are unquestionably the
most important works in Hindi prose. The Prem Sagar was begun
n 1804 and ended in 1810; it enjoys immense popularity in northern
ndia, has been frequently reproduced in a lithographed form,
and has several times been printed. The Rajniti was composed in
809; it is much admired for its sententious brevity and the purity
'f its language. Besides these two works, Lallu Lai was the author
of a collection of a hundred anecdotes in Hindi and Urdu entitled
Lafaif-i Hindi, an anthology of Hindi verse called the Sabha-bilds.
49
HINDOSTANI LITERATURE
a Sat-sai in the style of Bihari-Lal called Sapta-satika and several
other works. He and Jawan worked together at the Singhasan
Battlst (1801), a redaction in mixed Urdu and Hindi (Devanagari
character) of a famous collection of legends relating the prowess of
King Vikramaditya ; and he also aided the latter author in the
production of the Sakuntala Nafak. Mazhar 'All Wila was his colla-
borator in the Baital Pachisl, a collection of stories similar in many
respects to the Singhasan Battlsl, and also in mixed Urdu-Hindi;
and he aided Wila in the preparation in Urdu of the Story of Madhonal,
a romance originally composed in Braj-bhasha by Moti Ram.
The works of these authors, though compiled and published under
the superintendence of Dr Gilchnst, Captain Abraham Lockett,
Professor J. W. Taylor, Dr W. Hunter and other European officers of
the college of Fort William, and originally intended for the in-
struction of the Company's officers in the vernacular, are essentially
Indian in taste and style, and, until superseded by the more recent
developments of literature noticed below, enjoyed a very wide
reputation and popularity. They may, indeed, be said to have set
the standard of prose composition in Urdu and Hindi, and for the
first half of the igth century their influence in this respect continued
almost unchallenged. Side by side with them, among the Musal-
man population of northern India, another almost contemporaneous
impulse did much for the expansion of the Urdu language, and,
like the work of the Vaishnava reformers in moulding literary Hindi,
gave an impetus to composition which might otherwise have been
lacking. This was the reform in Islam led by Sayyid Ahmad 1 and
his followers. In all Eastern countries religion is the first and chief
subject of literary production; and the controversies which the
new preaching aroused in India at once afforded abundant material
for authorship in Urdu, and interested deeply the people to whom
the works were addressed.
Sayyid Ahmad was born in 1782, and received his early education
at Delhi; his instructors were two learned Muslims, Shah 'Abdu-1-
'Aziz, author of a celebrated commentary on the Qur'an (the Tafsir-i
'Azlziyyah), and his brother 'Abdu-1-Qadir, the writer of the first
translation of the holy volume into Urdu. Under their guidance
Sayyid Ahmad embraced the doctrines of the Wahhabis, a sect
whose preaching appears at this time to have first reached India.
He gathered round him a large number of fervent disciples, among
others Isma'fl Haji, nephew of 'Abdu-1'Aziz and 'Abdu-1-Qadir, the
chief author of the sect. After a course of preaching and apostleship
at Delhi, Sayyid Ahmad set out in 1820 for Calcutta, attended by
numerous adherents. Thence in 1822 he started on a pilgrimage
to Mecca, whence he went to Constantinople, and was there received
with distinction and gained many disciples. He travelled for nearly
six years in Turkey and Arabia, and then returned to Delhi. The
religious degradation and coldness which he found in his native
country strongly impressed him after his sojourn in lands where
the life of Islam is stronger, and he and his disciples established
a propaganda throughout northern India, reprobating the super-
stitions which had crept into the faith from contact with Hindus,
and preaching a jihad or holy war against the Sikhs. In 1828 he
started for Peshawar, attended by, it is said, upwards of 100,000
Indians, and accompanied by his chief followers, Haji Isma'il and
"Abdu-1-Hayy. He was furnished with means by a general sub-
scription in northern India, and by several Muhammadan princes
who had embraced his doctrines. At the beginning of 1829 he
declared war against the Sikhs, and in the course of time made
himself master of Peshawar. The Afghans, however, with whom
he had allied himself in the contest, were soon disgusted by the
rigour of his creed, and deserted him and his cause. He fled across
the Indus and took refuge in the mountains of Pakhli and Dhamtor,
where in 1831 he encountered a detachment of Sikhs under the
command of Sher Singh, and in the combat he and Hji Isma'il
were slain. His sect is, however, by no means extinct ; the Wahhabi
doctrines have continued to gain ground in India, and to give rise
to much controversial writing, down to our own day.
The translation of the Quran by 'Abdu-1-Qadir was finished in
1803, and first published by Sayyid 'Abdullah, a fervent disciple of
Sayyid Ahmad, at Hughfi in 1829. The Tambihu-l-ghafilin, or
" Awakener of the Heedless," a work in Persian by Sayyid Ahmad,
was rendered into Urdu by 'Abdullah, and published at the same
press in 1830. Haji Jsma'il was the author of a treatise in Urdu
entitled Taqwiyatu-l-Iman (" Confirmation of the Faith "), which
had great vogue among the following of the Sayyid. Other works
by the disciples of the Tariqah-e Muhammadiyyah (as the new
preaching was called) are the Targhib-i Jihad (" Incitation to Holy
War "), Hiddyatu-l-Mumimn (" Guide of the Believers "), Muzihu-
l-Kabair wa-l-Bid'ah (" Exposition of Mortal Sins and Heresy "),
Naflhatu-l-Muslimin ("Admonition to Muslims "), and the Mi'at
Masail, or " Hundred Questions."
Printing was first used for vernacular works by the College Press
at Fort William, at the end of the i8th and the beginning of the
I9th century, and all the compositions prepared for Dr Gilchrist
and his successors which have been mentioned were thus given to
the public. But the expense of this method of reproduction long
precluded its extensive use in India, and movable types, though
1 To be carefully distinguished from the reformer of the same
name who flourished half a century later.
well suited for alphabets derived from the Sanskrit, were not equally
applicable to the flowing and graceful characters of Persian.
Lithography was introduced about 1837, when the first press was
set up at Delhi, and immediately gave a powerful stimulus to the
multiplication of literature, both original and editions of older
works. In 1832 the vernaculars were substituted for Persian as
the official language of the courts and the acts of the legislature,
and this at once led to the transfer to the former of a mass of techni-
cal and forensic terms which had previously been only to a limited
extent in popular use. Thirdly, the spread of education in subjects
of Western learning, for which text-books (many of them transla-
tions from English] were required, not only greatly enlarged the
vocabulary of the common speech, but led by degrees to the use
of a simpler and more direct style, and the abandonment wholesale
of the florid and artificial ornament which was the legacy of the
Persian literature upon which Urdu prose had at first modelled
itself. Lastly, the establishment of a vernacular newspaper press,
which lithography had rendered possible, placed within the reach
of a continually widening public the means of becoming acquainted
with new ideas in every department of culture, and practised the
writers who contributed to it in the art of wielding their mother-
tongue with effect in its application to European themes.
All these revolutionary agencies were at work, though in a tenta-
tive and limited fashion, when the great change, following on the
Mutiny of 1857, of the transfer of the government of India from
the Company to the Crown inaugurated a new era. Since 1860 their
operation has become extremely rapid and far-reaching. The use
of lithography both for Urdu and Hindi annually gives birth to
hundreds of works. The extension of education through both
public and private agency has created an immense mass of school-
books, and the spread of instruction in English and the activity of
translators have filled the vernaculars with a multitude of new
words drawn from that language. The newspaper press, in Urdu
and Hindi, now counts over two hundred journals, the majority
issued in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh and in the Punjab,
but a few at Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Bombay and Calcutta.
Of this great body of literary production it is possible to speak only
in general terms. Style and vocabulary are still in a somewhat
fluid and unsettled condition, and the subjects treated are almost
as various as they are in European literatures. Much, indeed, of
the work produced has scarcely any claim to literary excellence,
and in the crowd of writers we may content ourselves with mention-
ing only a few whose influence and authority make it probable
that they will hereafter be known as leaders in the new culture.
One of the first effects of the new literary inspiration seemed to
be the extinction of poetical composition as previously practised.
With the deaths of Zauq (1854) and Ghalib (1869) of the Delhi
school, and those of Anis (1875) and Dabir (1876) of Lucknow,
the end of Urdu poetry appeared to have come. The new age was
intensely practical and eager to engage in the race for material and
political advancement, and had no time for sentiment,' or taste for
mystical conceits. Moreover, poetical composition in India, as in
other Eastern countries, has always owed much to the patronage of
courts and princes. The thrones of Delhi and Lucknow had passed
away, and the new rulers showed little interest in this form of
achievement. Only at Hyderabad in the Deccan, under the patron-
age of the Nizam, were laureates still honoured; the last of these,
Mirza Khan Dagh (1831-1905), enjoyed a wide reputation as a
graceful and eloquent master of the poetic art.
But prose and material prosperity did not succeed in monopolizing
the genius of the people. The great movement of reform and
liberalism in Islam led by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898)
found its bard in Sayyid Al^af Husain of Panipat, poetically styled
Hali an ambiguous nom-de-plume now generally taken in the
sense of " modern," or " up-to-date." Hali in his youth was a
pupil of the famous Ghalib, whose life he has written and of whose
writings he has published an able criticism. At the age of forty
he came under the influence of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and from
that time devoted his great poetic gifts to the service of his co-
religionists. He has published much verse, of which an interesting
specimen will be found in the edition of his Ruba'is or quatrains
(101 in number), with an English translation, by Mr G. E. Ward
(Oxford, 1904) ; in this is included a famous poem addressed to
his muse, setting forth his ideals in poetry simplicity, avoidance
of exaggeration and unreality, direct and emotional appeal to the
heart, and above all sincerity. There can be no doubt that he has
succeeded in becoming the leader of a new poetic school, which
shows much vigour and promise.
Perhaps the most memorable of all Hall's compositions is his long
poem in six-line stanzas (called musaddas) on " the flow and ebb of
Islam " (1879), which has had an extraordinary influence in stimu-
lating enthusiasm in the cause of progress among the Musalmans
of the north of India. In it he draws, in simple and direct but
searching and eloquent language, a rapid sketch of the glories of
Islam in the past, its principles and precepts, and the sources of
its strength; and then turns to contrast with this picture the
degradation and decay into which it had, when he wrote, fallen in
Hindostan. Never have the vices and shortcomings of a people
been lashed by one. of themselves with. more vigorous denunciation,
or with more earnestness of moral purpose. In his preface he
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
491
explains how the poem came to be written after a youth spent in
heedlessness and unsettlement, at the instigation of Sir Sayyid
Ahmad Khan, and in the cause of that great reformer. The poem
is still recited and imitated by Muslims in the Punjab and United
Provinces, though the picture which it presents of Indian Musal-
mans is no longer wholly applicable to the community. Hali
has recently completed a life of Sir Sayyid Aljmad Khan in two
volumes, entitled Hayat-i Jdmd (" eternal life "), a work of great
merit.
Another writer whose work, though chiefly in prose, deals with
poetry and poetic style, is Maulavi Muhammad Husain Azad, lately
professor of Arabic at the Government College, Lahore. He has not
himself composed much verse; but his biographies of Urdu poets,
with criticisms of their works, entitled Ab-i Hayat (" Water of Life,"
Lahore, 1883), is by far the best book dealing with the subject.
His prose style is much admired. As Hall was the pupil of Ghalib,
so was Azad that of 2auq, of whose poems he has published a re-
vised and annotated edition. His other works in prose are Qisas.-i
Hind, episodes of Indian history arranged for schools; Nairang-i
Kkayal, an allegory dealing with human life; and Darbar-i Akban,
an account of the reign of Akbar.
Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan's life and work are dealt with elsewhere.
Among his literary achievements may be mentioned the Asaruf-
anadid (" Vestiges of Princes "), an excellent account of Delhi
and its monuments, which has passed through several editions
since it was first lithographed in 1847. His essays and occasional
papers, published in the Aligarh Institute Gazette (started in 1864),
and afterwards (from 1870 onwards) in a periodical entitled Tahzlbul-
Akhlaq (or " Muhammadan Social Reformer "), handle all the pro-
blems of religious, social and educational advancement among
Indian Musalmans the cause with which his life was identified.
His great Commentary on the Qur'an, in seven volumes, the last
finished only a few days before his death in 1898, is carried to the
end of Surah xx., a little more than half the book. In him Urdu
prose found its most powerful wielder for the diffusion of modern
ideas, and the movement which he set on foot has been the spring
of the best literature in the language during recent years.
Another excellent writer of Urdu is Shamsul-'Ulama Maulavi
Nazir Aljmad of Delhi, who is the author of a series of novels de-
scribing domestic life, of a somewhat didactic character, which
have had a wide popularity, and from their admirable moral tone
have been specially serviceable in the education of Indian women.
These are entitled the Mir'atul-'Arus (or " Brides' Mirror ") ;
Taubalun-Nasuh (" the Repentance of Nasuh "), Banatun-Na'sh
(" the Seven Stars of the Great Bear "), Ibnul-Waqt (" Son of the
Age "), and Ayama (" Widows "). But Nazir Ahmad is a man of
many sides; before he took to novel- writing he was the principal
translator into Urdu of the Indian Penal Code (1861), which is
reckoned a masterpiece in the exact rendering of European legal
ideas; and more lately he gave to the world the best Urdu version
of the Quran. He has been a popular lecturer on social subjects,
displaying a rich vein of humour, and in his old age even ventured
upon verse. During the latter portion of his life he was most closely
associated with Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan.
The novel is one of the most noteworthy features of recent
literary composition in Urdu. India has from time immemorial been
rich in stories and romances of adventure; but the description of
actual life and character in action, as the modern novel is under-
stood in Europe, is quite a new development. The most admired
production of this kind in Urdu is a work entitled Fisana-e Azad,
by Pandit Ratan-niith Sarshar of Lucknow. The story, which is very
long, is remarkable for the faithful and vivid pictures of Lucknow
society which it presents, and its exact and lifelike delineation of
character; it appeared originally as a feuilleton of the Awadh
Akhbar, of which paper the author was at the time editor. Another
good writer in the same branch of literature is Maulavi 'Abdul-
Hallm Sharar, also a native of the neighbourhood of Lucknow, but
settled at Hyderabad. He was editor of a monthly periodical
called the Dil-gudaz (" melter of hearts "), which contained essays
and papers in European style, and in it his novels, which are all of
an historical character, in the style of Sir Walter Scott, originally
appeared. The best are 'Aziz and Virgina, a tale of the Crusades,
and Mansur and Mohina, a story of which the scene is laid in India
at the time of the invasions of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.
Although Urdu chiefly represents Musalman culture, its use is
by no means confined to adherents of that faith. It has just been
mentioned that the most popular Urdu novelist is a Hindu (a
Brahman from Kashmir); and the statistics of the vernacular
press show that this_form of the language is widely used by Hindus
as well as Musalmans. Thus, of eighty periodicals in Urdu pub-
lished in the United Provinces, twenty-nine are conducted by
Hindus; similarly, in the Punjab, of forty-eight Urdu journals,
twenty are edited by Hindus.
" High Hindi " has scarcely adapted itself to modern requirements
with the thoroughness dispjayed by Urdu. It is taught in the schools
where the population is mainly Hindu, and books of science have been
written in it with a terminology borrowed from Sanskrit, in place
of the Persian terms used in the other dialect. But Sanskrit is far
removed from the daily life of the people, and the majority of works
in this style are read only by Pandits, the great bulk of them dealing
with religion, philosophy and the ancient literature. There are
thirty-seven Hindi and four Hindi-Urdu journals in the United
Provinces; but many of them are exclusively religious in their
character, and several, though written in Devanagari, employ a
mixed language which admits Persian words freely. The old
dialects of literature, Awadhi and B.raj-bhasha, are now only used
for poetry; High Hindi has been a complete failure for this
purpose.
The most noticeable authors in Hindi since the middle of the igth
century have been Babu Harishchandra and Raja Siva Prasad, both
of Benares. The former, during his short life (1850-1885), was an
enthusiastic cultivator of the old poetic art, using the dialects just
mentioned. He published in the Sundari Ttiak an anthology of the
best Hindi poetry, and in the Kabi-bachan-Sudha (" ambrosia of the
words of poets ") and the magazine called Harishchandrika a quantity
of old texts, with much added matter. He also wrote a volume of
biographies of famous men, European and Indian, and many critical
studies, historical and literary. In history especially he cleared up
many problems, and traced the lines for further investigation. In
his Kashmir Kusum, or history of Kashmir, a list is given of about
a hundred works by him. He was also the real founder of the modern
Hindi drama; he wrote plays himself, and inspired others. Raja
Siva Prasad (1823-1895) served for many years in the educational
department, and published a number of works intended for use in
schools, which have greatly contributed to the formation of a sound
vernacular form of Hindi, not excessively Sanskritized, and not
rejecting current Persian forms. The society at Benares called the
Nagarl Pracharini Sabha (" Society for promoting the use of the
Nagarl character ") has, since the death of Harishchandra, been
active in procuring the publication of works in Hindi, and has
issued many useful books, besides conducting a systematic search
for old MSS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best account in English of Hindi literature
is Dr G. A. Grierson's Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindustan,
issued by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1889; the dates in this
work, which is founded on indigenous compilations, have, however,
in many cases to be received with caution. Before it appeared.
Garcin de Tassy's Histoire de la litterature Hindouie et Hindoustanie,
and his annual summaries of the progress made from 1850 to 1877,
were our chief authority, and may still be consulted with advantage.
For the religious literature of the Vaishnava sects, Professor H. H.
Wilson's Essay on the Religious Sects of the Hindus (vol. i. of his
collected works) has not yet been superseded.
For Urdu poets, Professor Azad's Ab-i Hayat (in Urdu) is the most
trustworthy record. For the new school of Urdu literature reference
may be made to a series of lectures (in English) by Shaikh 'Abdul-
Qadir of Lahore, printed in 1 898. The catalogues by Professor Blum-
hardt of Hindostani and Hindi books in the libraries of the British
Museum and the India Office will give a good idea of the volume of
the recent productions of the press in those languages. (C. J. L.)
HINDU CHRONOLOGY. The subject of Hindu chronology
divides naturally into three parts: the calendar, the eras, and
other reckonings.
I. THE CALENDAR
The Hindus have had from very ancient times the system
of lunisolar cycles, made by the combination of solar years,
regulated by the course of the sun, and lunar years, regulated
by the course of the moon, but treated in such a manner as to
keep the beginning of the lunar year near the beginning of the
solar year. The exact manner in which they arranged the details
of their earliest calendar is still a subject of research. We deal
here with their calendar as it now stands, in a form which was
developed from about A.D. 400 under the influence of the Greek
astronomy which had been introduced into India at no very
long time previously.
The Hindu calendar, then, is determined by years of two
kinds, solar and lunar. For civil purposes, solar years are used
in Bengal, including Orissa, and in the Tamil and Malayalam
districts of Madras, and lunar years throughout the rest of India.
But the lunar year regulates everywhere the general religious
rites and festivals, and the details of private and domestic life,
such as the selection of auspicious occasions for marriages and
for starting on journeys, the choice of lucky moments for shaving,
and so on. Consequently, the details of the lunar year are
shown even in the almanacs which follow the solar year. On
the other hand, certain details of the solar year, such as the
course of the sun through the signs and other divisions of the
zodiac, are shown in the almanacs which follow the lunar year.
We will treat the solar year first, because it governs the luni-
solar system, and the explanation of it will greatly simplify
the process of explaining the lunar calendar.
492
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
solar
year.
The civil solar year is determined by the astronomical solar
year. The latter professes to begin at the vernal equinox,
The astro- but the actual position is as follows. In our Western
nomical astronomy the signs of the zodiac have, in consequence
of the precession of the equinoxes, drawn away to
a large extent from the constellations from which
they derived their names; with the result that the sun now
comes to the vernal equinox, at the first point of the sign Aries,
not in the constellation Aries, but at a point in Pisces, about
28 degrees before the beginning of Aries. The Hindus, however,
have disregarded precession in connexion with their calendar
from the time (A.D. 499, 522, or 527, according to different schools)
when, by their system, the signs coincided with the constella-
tions; and their sign Aries, called Mesha by them, is still their
constellation Aries, beginning, according to them, at or near
the star Piscium. Their astronomical solar year is, in fact,
not the tropical year, in the course of which the sun really
passes from one vernal equinox to the next, but a sidereal year,
the period during which the earth makes one revolution in its
orbit round the sun with reference to the first point of Mesha;
its beginning is the moment of the Mesha-samkranti, the entrance
of the sun into the sidereal sign Mesha, instead of the tropical
sign Aries; and it begins, not with the true equinox, but with
an artificial or nominal equinox.
The length of this sidereal solar year was determined in the
following manner. The astronomer selected what the Greeks
termed an exeligmos, the Romans an annus magnus or mundanus,
a period in the course of which a given order of things is completed
by the sun, moon, and planets returning to a state of conjunction
from which they have started. The usual Hindu exeligmos
has been the Great Age of 4.320,000 sidereal solar years, the
aggregate of the Krita or golden age, the Treta or silver age,
the Dvapara or brazen age, and the Kali or iron age, in which
we now are; but it has sometimes been the Kalpa or aeon,
consisting according- to one view of 1000, according to another
view of 1008, Great Ages. He then laid down the number of
revolutions, in the period of his exeligmos, of the nakshatras,
certain stars and groups of stars which will be noticed more
definitely in our account of the lunar year; that is, the number
of rotations of the earth on its axis, or, in other words, the number
of sidereal days. A deduction of the number of the years from
the number of the sidereal days gave, as remainder, the number
of civil days in the exeligmos. And, this remainder being
divided by the number of the years, the quotient gave the
length of the sidereal solar year : refinements, suggested by
experience, inference, or extraneous information, were made
by increasing or decreasing the number of sidereal days assigned
to the exeligmos. The Hindus now recognize three standard
sidereal solar years determined in that manner, (i) A year of
365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to the Aryabhatlya,
otherwise called the First Arya-Siddhanta, which was written
by the astronomer Aryabhata (b. A.D. 476): this year is
used in the Tamil and Malayalam districts, and, we may add,
in Ceylon. (2) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30-915 sec.
according to the Rdjamrigd ka, a treatise based on the Brahma-
Siddhanta of Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598) and attributed to
king Bhoja, of which the epoch, the point of time used in it
for calculations, falls in A.D. 1042: this year is used in parts
of Gujarat (Bombay) and in Rajputana and other western parts
of Northern India. (3) A year of 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min.
36-56 sec. according to the present Surya-Siddhanta, a work
of unknown authorship which dates from probably about
A.D. looo: this year is used in almost all the other parts of
India. It may be remarked that, according to modern science,
the true mean sidereal solar year measures 365 days 6 hrs. 9 min.
9-6 sec., and the mean tropical year measures 365 days 5 hrs.
48 min. 46-054440 sec.
The result of the use of this sidereal solar year is that the
beginning of the Hindu astronomical solar year, and with it
the civil solar year and the lunar year and the nominal incidence
of the seasons, has always been, and still is, travelling slowly
forward in our calendar year by an amount which varies accord-
ing to the particular authority. 1 For instance, Aryabhata's
year exceeds the Julian year by 12 min. 30 sec. This amounts
to exactly one day in 115^ years, and five days in 576 years.
Thus, if we take the longer period and confine ourselves to a
time when the Julian calendar (old style) was in use, according
to Aryabhata the Mesha-samkranti began to occur in A.D. 603
on 20th March, and in A.D. 1179 on 25th March. The inter-
mediate advances arrange themselves into four steps of one
day each in 116 years, followed by one step of one day in 112
years: thus, the Mesha-sarhkranti began to occur on 2ist
March in A.D. 719, on 22nd March in A.D. 835, on 23rd March
in A.D. 951, and on 24th March in A.D. 1067 (whence 112 years
take us to 25th March in A.D. 1179). It is now occurring some-
times on nth April, sometimes on the I2th; having first come
to the i2th in A.D. 1871.
The civil solar year exists in more varieties than one. The
principal variety, conveniently called the Meshadi year, i.e.
" the year beginning at the Mesha-samkranti," is
the only one that we need notice at this point. The T , h f.
. . c .. . , . . ,. ., civil solar
beginning of it is determined directly by the astrono- year .
mical solar year; and for religious purposes it begins,
with that year, at the moment of the Mesha-samkranti. Its
first civil day, however, may be either the day on which the
samkranti occurs, or the next day, or even the day after that:
this is determined partly by the time of day or night at which
the samkranti occurs, which, moreover, of course varies in
accordance with the locality as well as the particular authority
that is followed; partly by differing details of practice in
different parts of the country. In these circumstances an
exact equivalent of the Meshadi civil solar year cannot be
stated; but it may be taken as now beginning on or closely
about the I2th of April.
The solar year is divided into twelve months, in accordance with
the successive samkranlis or entrances of the sun into the (sidereal)
signs of the zodiac, which, as with us, are twelve in The solar
number. The names of the signs in Sanskrit are as month.
follows: Mesha, the ram (Aries); Vrishabha, the bull
(Taurus); Mithuna, the pair, the twins (Gemini); Karka, Karkata,
Karka^aka, the crab (Cancer) ; Simha, the lion (Leo) ; Kanya, the
maiden (Virgo) ; Tula, the scales (Libra) ; Vrischika, the scorpion
(Scorpio) ; Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius) ; Makara, the sea-
monster (Capricornus) ; Kumbha, the water-pot (Aquarius) ; and
Mina, the fishes (Pisces). The solar months are known in some
parts by the names of the signs or by corrupted forms of them;
and these are the best names for them for general use, because they
lead to no confusion. But they have elsewhere another set of
names, preserving the connexion of them with the lunar months:
the Sanskrit forms of these names are Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyaish^ha,
Asha<Jha, Sravana, Bhadrapada, Asvina or Asvayuja, Karttika,
Margasira or Margasirsha (also known as Agrahayana), Pausha,
Magha, and Phalguna: in some localities these names are used
in corrupted forms, and in others vernacular names are substituted
for some of them ; and, while in some parts the name Chaitra is
attached to the month Mesha, in other parts it is attached to the
month Mina, and so on throughout the series in each case. The
astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one samkranti
of the sun to the moment of the next samkranti; and, as the signs
of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal length, 30 degrees, as with us,
while the speed of the sun (the motion of the earth in its orbit
round the sun) varies according to the time of the year, the length
of the month is variable: the shortest month is Dhanus; the
1 The disregard of precession, and the consequent travelling
forward of the year through the natural seasons, is, of course, a
serious defect in the Hindu calendar, the principles of which are
otherwise good. Accordingly, an attempt was made by a small
band of reformers to rectify this state of things by introducing a
precessional calendar, taking as the first lunar month the synodic
lunation in which the sun enters the tropical Aries, instead of the
sidereal Mesha; and the publication was started, in or about 1886,
of the Sayana-Panchang or " Precessional Almanac."
Further, the Hindu sidereal solar year is in excess of the true
mean sidereal year by (if we use Aryabhata's value) 3 min. 20-4
sec. If we take this, for convenience, at 3 min. 20 sec., the excess
amounts to exactly one day in 432 years. And so even the sidereal
Mesha-samkranti is now found to occur three or four days later
than the day on which it should occur. Accordingly, another re-
former had begun, in or about 1865, to publish the Navm athava
Patwardhani Panchang, the " New or Patwardhani Almanac," in
which he determined the details of the year according to the proper
Mesha-samkranti.
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
493
longest is Mithuna. The civil solar month begins with its first
civil day, which is determined, in different localities, in the same
manner with the first civil day of the Meshadi year, as indicated
above. The civil month is of variable length; partly for that
reason, partly because of the variation in the length of the astronomi-
cal month. No exact equivalents of the civil months, therefore,
can be stated; but, speaking approximately, we may say that,
while the month Mesha now begins on or closely about I2th April,
the beginning of a subsequent month may come as late as the l6th
day of the English month in which it falls.
The solar year is also divided into six seasons, the Sanskrit names
of which are Vasanta, spring; Grishma, the hot weather; Varsha,
_. . the rainy season ; Sarad, autumn ; Hemanta, the cold
e weather; and Sisira, the dewy season. Vasanta begins
at the Mina-samkranti ; the other seasons begin at each
successive second samkranti from that. Originally, this scheme was
laid out with reference to the true course of the sun, and the starting-
point of it was the real winter solstice, with Sisira, as the first season,
beginning then: now, owing partly to the disregard of precession,
partly to our introduction of New Style, each season comes
about three weeks too late; Vasanta begins on or about I2th
March, instead of igth or 2Oth February, and so on with the rest.
It may be added that in early times the year was also divided into
three or four, and even into five or seven, seasons; and there
appears to have been also a practice of reckoning the seasons ac-
cording to the lunar months, which, however, would only give a
very varying arrangement, in addition to neglecting the point that
the seasons are naturally determined by the course of the sun, not
of the moon. But there is now recognized only the division into
six seasons, determined as stated above.
The solar year is also divided into two parts called Uttarayana,
the period during which the sun is moving to the north, and Dak-
shinayana, the period during which it is moving to the south.
The Uttarayana begins at the nominal winter solstice,
t'til as mar k e d by the Makara-sarhkranti ; and the day on
V.. a . which this solstice occurs, usually I2th January at
of the ' present, is still a special occasion of festivity and re-
year joicing; the Dakshinayana begins at the nominal summer
solstice, as marked by the Karka-sarhkranti. It may be
added here that, while the Hindus disregard precession in the actual
computation of their years and the regulation of their calendar,
they pay attention to it in certain other respects, and notably as
regards the solstices: the precessional solstices are looked upon as
auspicious occasions, as well as the non-precessional solstices, and
are customarily shown in the almanacs; and some of the almanacs
show also the other precessional samkrantis of the sun.
The civil days of the solar month begin at sunrise. They are
numbered I, 2, 3, &c., in unbroken succession to the end of the
n. ~i ,t month. And, the length of the month being variable
I tie civil - - - - . F . . ..
day.
for the reasons stated above, the number of the civil
days may range from twenty-nine to thirty-two.
The civil days are named after the weekdays, of which the usual
appellations (there are various synonyms in each case, and some
of the names are used in corrupted forms) are in Sanskrit
c " Adityavara or Ravivara, the day of the sun, sometimes
called Adivara, the beginning-day (Sunday) ; Somavara,
the day of the moon (Monday) ; Mangalavara, the day of Mars
(Tuesday); Budhavara, the day of Mercury (Wednesday); Brihas-
pativara or Guruvara, the day of Jupiter (Thursday) ; Sukravara,
the day of Venus (Friday) ; and Sanivara, the day of Saturn
(Saturday). It may be mentioned, as a matter of archaeological
interest, that, while some of the astronomical books perhaps postulate
an earlier knowledge of the " lords of the days," and other writings
indicate a still earlier use of the period of seven days, the first
proved instance of the use of the name of a weekday is of the year
A.D. 484, and is furnished by an inscription in the Saugor district,
Central India.
The divisions of the civil day, as far as we need note them, are
60 vipalas = i pala = 2i r seconds; 60 palas igha(ika = 24 minutes;
60 ghatikas = 24 hours = I day. There is also the muhurta
= 2 ghatikas = 48 minutes: this is the nearest approach
to the " hour." The comparative value of these measures
of time may perhaps be best illustrated thus: 2\ muhurtas
= 2 hours; 2j ghatikas = i hour; 2^ palas = i minute; 2\ vipalas =
I second.
As their civil day begins at sunrise, the Hindus naturally count
all their times, in ghafikas and palas, from that moment. But
cl the moment is a varying one, though not in India to
anything like the extent to which it is so in European
latitudes; and under the British Government the Hindus
have recognized the advantage, and in fact the necessity, especially
in connexion with their lunar calendar, of having a convenient
means of referring their own times to the time which prevails offici-
ally. Consequently, some of the almanacs have adopted the
European practice of showing the time of sunrise, in hours and
minutes, from midnight; and some of them add the time of sunset
from noon.
The lunar year consists primarily of twelve lunations or
lunar months, of which the present Sanskrit names, generally
used in more or less corrupted forms, are Chaitra, Vaisakha,
&c., to Phalguna, as given above in connexion with the solar
months. It is of two principal varieties, according as
it begins with a certain day in the month Chaitra, or
with the corresponding day in Karttika: the former
variety is conveniently known as the Chaitradi year; the
latter as the Karttikadi year. For religious purposes the lunar
year begins with its first lunar day: for civil purposes it begins
with its first civil day, the relation of which to the lunar day
will be explained below. Owing to the manner in which, as
we shall explain, the beginning of the lunar year is always
shifting backwards and forwards, it is not practicable to lay
down any close equivalents for comparison: but an indication
may be given as follows. The first civil day of the Chaitradi
year is the day after the new-moon conjunction which occurs
next after the entrance of the sun into Mina, and it now falls
from about i3th March to about nth April: the first civil
day of the Karttikadi year is the first day after the new-moon
conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun
into Tula, and it now falls from about zyth October to about
iSth November. .
The present names of the lunar months, indicated above, were
derived from the nakshatras, which are certain conspicuous stars
and groups of stars lying more or less along the neigh-
bourhpod of the ecliptic. The nakshatras are regarded The lunar
sometimes as twenty-seven in number, sometimes as moat ^-
twenty-eight, and are grouped in twelve sets of two or three each,
beginning, according to the earlier arrangement of the list, with the
pair Krittika and Rohini, and including in the sixth place Chitra
and Svati, and ending with the triplet RevatI, Asvini and Bharani.
They are sometimes styled lunar mansions, and are sometimes
spoken of as the signs of the lunar zodiac ; and it is, no doubt,
chiefly in connexion with the moon that they are now taken into
consideration. But they mark divisions of the ecliptic: according
to one system, twenty-seven divisions, each of 13 degrees 20 minutes;
according to two other systems, twenty-seven or twenty-eight
unequal divisions, which we need not explain here. The almanacs
show the course of the sun through them, as well as' the course of
the moon; and the course of the sun was marked by them only,
before the time when the Hindus began to use the twelve signs of
the solar zodiac. So there is nothing exclusively lunar about them.
The present names of the lunar months were derived from the
nakshatras in the following manner: the full-moon which occurred
when the moon was in conjunction with Chitra (the star a Virginis)
was named Chaitri, and the lunar month, which contained the
Chaitri full-moon, was named Chaitra; and so on with the others.
The present names have superseded another set of names which
were at one time in use concurrently with them ; these other names
are Madhu ( = Chaitra), Madhava, Sukra, Suchi, Nabhas, Nabhasya,
Isha, _Urja ( = Karttika), Sahas, Sahasya, Tapas, and Tapasya
( = Phalguna) : they seem to have marked originally solar season-
months of the solar year, rather than lunar months of the lunar
year.
A lunar month may be regarded as ending either with the new-
moon, which is called amavasya, or with the full-moon, which is
called purnamasi, purnima: a month of the former kind is termed
amanta, " ending with the new-moon," or sukladi, " beginning with
the bright fortnight;" a month of the latter kind is termed purni-
manta, " ending with the full-moon," or krishnadi, " beginning with
the dark fortnight." For all purposes of the calendar, the amanta
month is used in Southern India, and the purnimanta month in
Northern India. But only the amanta month, the period of the
synodic revolution of the moon, is recognized in Hindu astronomy,
and for the p\irpose of naming the lunations and adjusting the
lunar to the solar year by the intercalation and suppression of
lunar months; and the rule is that the lunar Chaitra is the amanta
or synodic month at the first moment of which the sun is in the sign
Mina, and in the course of which the sun enters Mesha: the other
months follow in the same way; and the lunar Karttika is the
amanta month at the first moment of which the sun is in Tula, and
in the course of which the sun enters Vrischika. The connexion
between the lunar and the solar months is maintained by the point
that the name Chaitra is applied according to one practice to the
solar Mina, in which the lunar Chaitra begins, and according to
another practice to the solar Mesha, in which the lunar Chaitra
ends. Like the lunar year, the lunar month begins for religious
purposes with its first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its
first civil day.
One mean lunar year of twelve lunations measures very nearly
354 days 8 hrs. 48 min. 34 sec.; and one Hindu solar year measures
365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to Aryabhata, or slightly
more according to the other two authorities. Consequently, the
beginning of a lunar year pure and simple would be always travel-
ling backwards through the solar year, by about eleven days on
494
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
Intercala-
tion and
suppres-
s/on of
lunar
months.
each occasion, and would in course of time recede entirely through
the solar year, as it does in the Mahommedan calendar. The
Hindus prevent that in the following manner. The length
of the Hindu astronomical solar month, measured by the
samkrantis of the sun, its successive entrances into the
signs of the zodiac, ranges, in accordance with periodical
variations in the speed of the sun, from about 29 days
7 hrs. 38 min. up to about 31 days 15 hrs. 28 min. The
length of the amania or synodic lunar month ranges,
in accordance with periodical variations in the speed of the moon
and the sun, from about 29 days 19 hrs. 30 min. down to about
29 days 7 hrs. 20 min. Consequently, it happens from time to
time that there are two new-moon conjunctions, so that two luna-
tions begin, in one astronomical solar month, between two sam-
krantis of the sun, while the sun is in one and the same sign of the
zodiac, and there is no samkrdnti in the lunation ending with the
second new-moon: when this is the case, there are two lunations
to which the same name is applicable, and so there is an additional
or intercalated month, in the sense that a name is repeated: thus,
when two new-moons occur while the sun is in Mesha, the lunation
ending with the first of them, during which the sun has entered
Mesha, is Chaitra; the next lunation, in which there is no samkranti,
is Vaisakha, because it begins when the sun is in Mesha; and the
next lunation after that is again Vaisakha, for the same reason,
and also because the sun enters Vrishabha in the course of it: in
these circumstances, the first of the two Vaisakhas is called Adhika-
Vaisakha, " the additional or intercalated Vaisakha," and the
second is called simply Vaisakha, or sometimes Nija-Vaisakha,
" the natural Vaisakha." On the other hand, it occasionally
happens, in an autumn or winter month, that there are two sam-
krantis of the sun in one and the same amdnta or synodic lunar
month, between two new-moon conjunctions, so that no lunation
begins between the two samkr&ntis : when this is the case, there is
one lunation to which two names are applicable, and there is a
suppressed month, in the sense that a name is omitted: thus, if
the sun enters both Dhanus and Makara during one synodic lunation,
that lunation is Margasira, because the sun was in Vrischika at the
first moment of it and enters Dhanus in the course of it ; * the next
lunation is Magha, because the sun is in Makara by the time when
it begins and will enter Kumbha in the course of it; and the name
Pausha, between Margasira and Magha, is omitted. When a month
is thus suppressed, there is always one intercalated month, and
sometimes two, in the same Chaitradi lunar year, so that the lunar
year never contains less than twelve months, and from time to
time consists of thirteen months. There are normally seven inter-
calated months, rising to eight when a month is suppressed, in 19
solar years, which equal very nearly 235 lunations; 2 and there is
never less than one year without an intercalated month between
two years with intercalated months, except when there is only
one such month in a year in which a month is suppressed; then
there is always an intercalated month in the next year also. The
suppression of a month takes place at intervals of 19 years and
upwards, regarding which no definite statement can conveniently
be made here. It may be added that an intercalated Chaitra or
Karttika takes the place of the ordinary month as the first month
of the year; an intercalated month is not rejected for that purpose,
though it is tabooed from the religious and auspicious points of
view.
The manner in which this arrangement of intercalated and sup-
pressed months works out, so as to prevent the beginning of the
Chaitradi lunar year departing far from the beginning of the Meshadi
1 It might also be called Pausha, because the sun enters Makara
in the course of it; and it may be observed that, in accordance
with a second rule which formerly existed, it would have been
named Pausha because it ends while the sun is in Mjakara, and the
omitted name would have been Margasira. But the more important
condition of the present rule, that Pausha begins while the sun is
in Dhanus, is not satisfied.
2 The well-known Metonic cycle, whence we have by rearrange-
ment our system of Golden Numbers, naturally suggests itself;
and we have been told sometimes that that cycle was adopted by
the Hindus, and elsewhere that the intercalation of a month by
them generally takes place in the years 3, 5, 8, II, 14, 16, and 19 of
each cycle, differing only in respect of the I4th year, instead of the
I3th, from the arrangement which is said to have been fixed by
Melon. As regards the first point, however, there is no evidence that
a special period of 19 years was ever actually used by the Hindus
during the period with which we are dealing, beyond the extent
to which it figures as a component of the number of years, 19 X 1 50 =
2850, forming the lunisolar cycle of an early work entitled Romaka-
Siddhanta; and, as was recognized by Kalippos not long after the
time of Melon himself, the Metonic cycle has nol, for any length of
time, the closeness of resulls which has been somelimes supposed
to attach to it; it requires lo be readjusled periodically. As
regards the second point, the precise years of the intercalated
months depend upon, and vary with, the year that we may select
as the apparent first year of a set of 19 years, and it is nol easy to
arrange the Hindu years in sets answering to a direct continuation
of the Metonic cycle.
tort-
night.
solar year, may be illustrated as follows. In A.D. 1815 the Mesha-
sarhkranli occurred on nih April; and ihe firsl civil day of the
Chaitradi year was lolh April. In A.D. 1816 and 1817 the first
civil day of the Chaitradi year fell back to 291(1 March and l8lh
March. In A.D. 1817, however, there was an intercalated month,
Sravana; with the resull that in A.D. 1818 the first civil day of ihe
Chailradi year advanced lo 6lh April. And, afler various shiflings
of Ihe same kind including in A.D. 1822 an intercalation of Asvina
and a suppression of Pausha, followed in A.D. 1823, when ihe firsl
civil day of ihe Chailradi year had fallen back lo I3lh March, by
an intercalation of Chailra ilself in A.D. 1834, when Ihe Mesha-
samkranli occurred again on nlh April, Ihe first civil day of the
Chailradi year was again lolh April.
The lunar monlh is divided inlo Iwo fortnighls (paksha), called
brighl and dark, or, in Indian lerms, sukla or suddka, sudi, sudi,
and krishna or bahula, badi, vadi: ihe brighl fortnight, _.
sukla-paksha, is the period of ihe waxing moon, ending
al ihe full-moon; ihe dark fortnighl, krishna-paksha,
is Ihe period of ihe waning moon, ending ai ihe new-
moon. In Ihe amanta or sukladi monlh, ihe brighl fortnight pre-
cedes the dark; in the purnimanta or krishrtadi month, the dark
fortnight comes firsl; and ihe resull is that, whereas, for instance,
the brighl fortnight of Chailra is ihe same period of lime ihroughoul
India, ihe preceding dark fortnight is known in Northern India as
the dark fortnighl of Chailra, bul in Soulhern, India as ihe dark
fortnight of Phalguna. This, however, does nol affecl Ihe period
covered by ihe lunar year; ihe Chailradi and Kartlikadi years
begin everywhere wilh ihe brighl fortnighl of Chailra and Karltika
respectively; simply, by the amanta syslem Ihe dark fortnighls
of Chailra and Kartlika are Ihe second fortnighls, and by ihe
purnimanta syslem ihey are ihe last fortnights, of the years. Like
ihe monlh, ihe fortnight begins for religious purposes with ils firsl
lunar day, and for civil purposes wilh ils first civil day.
The lunar fortnighls are divided each inlo fifteen tithis or lunar
days. 3 The tithi is ihe lime in which ihe moon increases her dislance
from ihe sun round Ihe circle by Iwelve degrees; and the _.
almanacs show each tithi by its ending-time; lhat is, '^ elanar
by the moment, expressed in ghatikas and palas, after y '
sunrise, at which Ihe moon completes lhal distance. In accordance
wilh lhal. the tithi is usually used and cited with the weekday on
which it ends; but there are special rules regarding certain rites,
festivals, &c., which sometimes require the tithi lo be used and cited
wilh the weekday on which it begins or is current al a particular
time. The firsl tithi of each fortnight begins immediately afler ihe
momenl of new-moon and full-moon respectively ; ihe last tithi
ends at the moment of full-moon and new-moon. The tithis are
primarily denoted by ihe numbers I, 2, 3, &c., for each fortnight;
bul, while ihe full-moon tithi is always numbered 15, Ihe new- moon
tithi is generally numbered 30, even where the purnimanta month
is used. The tithis may be cited either by their figures or by the
Sanskrit ordinal words prathama, " first," dvitlya, " second," &c.,
or corruptions of them. But usually the first tithi of either fortnight
is cited by Ihe term pratipad, pratipada, and ihe new-moon and full-
moon tithis are cited by Ihe lerms amavasya and purnima; or here,
again, corruptions of the Sanskrit terms are used. And special
names are somelimes prefixed lo the numbers of the tithis, according
lo ihe riles, festivals, &c., prescribed for Ihem, or evenls or merils
assigned lo Ihem: for inslance, Vaisakha sukla 3 is Akshaya or
Akshayya-lriliya, Ihe ihird tithi which ensures permanence lo acls
performed on it; Bhadrapada sukla 4 is Ganesa-chalurthi, ihe
fourth tithi dedicated to the worship of the god Ganesa, Ganapati,
and ihe antanta Bhadrapada or purnimanta Asvina krishna 13 is
Kaliyugadi-trayodasi, as being regarded (for some reason which
is not apparent) as the anniversary of ihe beginning of ihe
Kaliyuga, Ihe present Age. The firsl tithi of the year is styled
Samvatsara-pratipada, which term answers closely lo our " New
Year's Day."
The civil days of ihe lunar monlh begin, like those of the solar
monlh, al sunrise, and bear in the same way ihe names of ihe
weekdays. Bul they are numbered in a different manner;
fortnight by fortnight and according lo ihe tithis. The
general rule is lhal Ihe civil day lakes the number of ihe
tithi which is currenl al ils sunrise. And the results are as follows.
As the motions of the sun and the moon vary periodically, a tithi
is of variable length, ranging, according to the Hindu calculations,
from 21 hrs. 34 min. 24 sec. to 26 hrs. 6 min. 24 sec.: it may. there-
fore, be either shorter or longer than a civil day, the duralion of
which is practically 24 hours (one minute, roughly, more or less,
according lo Ihe lime of Ihe year). A tithi may end al any moment
during the civil day; and ordinarily it ends on ihe civil day after
lhat on which it begins, and covers only one sunrise and gives its
number lo ihe day on which il ends. It may, however, begin on
The civil
day.
'It is customary to render the term tithi by "lunar day:" il
is, in fact, explained as such in Sanskril works; and, as ihe tithis
do mark ihe age of ihe moon by periods approximating lo 24 hours,
ihey are, in a sense, lunar days. Bul ihe tithi musl nol be confused
wilh . Ihe lunar day of weslern aslronomy, which is the interval,
with a mean duration of about 24 hrs. 54 min., belween Iwo suc-
cessive meridian passages of the moon.
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
495
one civil day and end on the next but one, and so cover two sun-
rises; and it is then treated as a repeated tithi, in the sense that
its number is repeated: for instance, if the seventh tithi so begins
and ends, the civil day on which it begins is numbered 6, from the
tithi which is current at the sunrise of that day and ends on it ; the
day covered entirely by the seventh tithi is numbered 7, because
that tithi is current at its sunrise; the next day, at the sunrise of
which the seventh tithi is still current and during which it ends,
is again numbered 7 ; and the number 8 falls to the next day after
that, when the eighth tithi is current at sunrise. 1 On the other
hand, a tithi may begin and end during one and the same civil day,
so as not to touch a sunrise at all: in this case, it exists for any
practical purposes for which it may be wanted (it is, however, to be
avoided if possible, as being an unlucky occasion), but it is sup-
pressed or expunged for the numbering of the civil day, in the
sense that its number is omitted; for instance, if the seventh tithi
begins and ends during one civil day, that day is numbered 6 from,
as before, the tithi which is current at its sunrise and ends when the
seventh tithi begins; the next day is numbered 8, because the
eighth tithi is current at its sunrise; and there is, in this case, no
civil day bearing the number seven. In consequence of this method
of numbering, it sometimes happens, as the result of the suppression
of a tithi, that the day of a full-moon is numbered 14 instead of 15;
that the day of a new-moon is numbered 14 instead of 30; and that
the first day of a fortnight, and even the first day of a lunar year,
is numbered 2 instead of I.
There are, on an average, thirteen suppressed tithis and seven
repeated tithis in twelve lunar months; and so the lunar year
averages 354 days, rising to about 384 when a month is intercalated.
It occasionally happens that there are two suppressions of tithis in
one and the same fortnight; and the almanacs show such a case in
the bright fortnight of Jyaishtha, A.D. 1878: but this occurs only
after very long intervals.
The tithi is divided into two karanas; each karana being the
time in which the moon increases her distance from the sun by six
degrees. But this is a detail of astrological rather than
chronological interest. So, also, are two other details
Karana. to w hi cn a prominent place is given in the lunar calendars ;
to yoga, or time in which the joint motion in longitude, the sum
of the motions of the sun and the moon, is increased by 13 degrees
20 minutes; and the nakshatra, the position of the moon as referred
to the ecliptic by means of the stars and groups of stars which have
been mentioned above under the lunar month.
In the Indian calendar everything depends upon exact times,
which differ, of course, on every different meridian; and (to cite
what is perhaps the most frequent and generally important occur-
rence) suppression and repetition may affect one tithi and civil day
in one locality, and another tithi and civil day in another locality
not very far distant. Consequently, neither for the lunar nor for
the solar calendar is there any almanac which is applicable to even
the whole area in which any particular length of the astronomical
solar year prevails; much less, for the whole of India. Different
almanacs are prepared and published for places of leading im-
portance; details for minor places, when wanted, have to be worked
out by the local astrologer, the modern representative of an ancient
official known as Samvatsara, the " clerk of the year."
II. ERAS
As far as the available evidence goes (and we have no reason
to expect to discover anything opposed to it), any use of eras,
in the sense of continuous reckonings which originated in historical
occurrences or astronomical epochs and were employed for
official and other public chronological purposes, did not prevail
in India before the ist century B.C. Prior to that time, there
existed, indeed, in connexion with the sacrificial calendar, a
five-years lunisolar cycle, and possibly some extended cycles of
the same nature; and there was in Buddhist circles a record of
the years elapsed since the death of Buddha, which we shall
mention again further on. But, as is gathered from books and is
well illustrated by the edicts of Asoka (reigned 264-227 B.C.) and
the inscriptions of other rulers, the years of the reign of each
successive king were found sufficient for the public dating of pro-
clamations and the record of events. There is no known case in
which any Indian king, of really ancient times, deliberately
applied himself to the foundation of an era: and we have no
reason for thinking that such a thing was ever done, or that any
Hindu reckoning at all owes its existence to a recognition of
historical requirements. The eras which came into existence
1 We illustrate the ordinary occurrences. But there are others.
Thus, a repeated tithi may occasionally be followed by a suppressed
one: in this case the numbering of the civil days would be 6, 7, 7, 9,
&c., instead of 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, &c. Or it may occasionally be preceded
by a suppressed one: in this case the numbering would be 5, 7, 7,
8, &c., instead of 5, 6, 7, 7,8, &c.
from the ist century B.C. onwards mostly had their origin in the
fortuitous extension of regnal reckonings. The usual course has
been that, under the influence of filial piety, pride in ancestry,
loyalty to a paramount sovereign, or some other such motive,
the successor of some king continued the regnal reckoning of his
predecessor, who was not necessarily the first king in the dynasty,
and perhaps did not even reign for any long time, instead of
starting a new reckoning, beginning again with the year i,
according to the years of his own reign. Having thus run for two
reigns, the reckoning was sufficiently well established to con-
tinue in the same form, and to eventually develop into a generally
accepted local era, which might or might not be taken over by
subsequent dynasties ruling afterwards over the same territory.
In these circumstances, we find the establisher of any particular
era in that king who first continued his predecessor's regnal
reckoning, instead of replacing it by his own; but we regard as
the founder of the era that king whose regnal reckoning was so
continued. We may add here that it was only in advanced
stages that any of the Hindu eras assumed specific names:
during the earlier period of each of them, the years were simply
cited by the term samvatsara or iiarsha, " the year (bearing such-
and-such a number)," or by the abbreviations sarhvat and 5am,
without any appellative designation.
The Hindus have had two religious reckonings, which it will
be convenient to notice first. Certain statements in the
Ceylonese chronicles, the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, Burf _
endorsed by an entry in a record of Asoka, show that in dhlst an j
the 3rd century B.C. there existed among the Buddhists Juto re-
a record of the time elapsed since the death of Buddha "*%*
in 483 B.C., from which it was known that Asoka was *^ g
anointed to the sovereignty 218 years after the
death. The reckoning, however, was confined to esoteric Buddhist
circles, and did not commend itself for any public use; and the
only known inscriptional use of it, .which also furnishes the
latest known date recorded in it, is found in the Last Edict of
Asoka, which presents his dying speech delivered in 226 B.C., 256
years after the death of Buddha. In Ceylon, where, also the
original reckoning was not maintained, there was devised in the
1 2th century A.D. a reckoning styled Buddhavarsha, " the years
of Buddha," which still exists, and which purports to run from
the death of Buddha, but has set up an erroneous date for that
event in 544 B.C. This later reckoning spread from Ceylon to
Burma and Siam, where, also, it is still used. It did not obtain
any general recognition in India, because, when it was devised,
Buddhism had practically died out there, except at Bodh-Gaya.
But, as there seems to have been constant intercourse between
Bodh-Gaya and Ceylon as well as other foreign Buddhist countries,
we should not be surprised to find an occasional instance of its
use at Bodh-Gaya: and it is believed that one such instance,
belonging to A.D. 1270, has been obtained.
The Jains have had, and still maintain, a reckoning from the
death of the founder of their faith, Vira, Mahavira, Vardha-
mana, which event is placed by them in 528 B.C. This reckon-
ing figures largely in the Jain books, which put forward dates in it
for very early times. But the earliest known synchronous date
in it by which we mean a date given by a writer who recorded
the year in which he himself was writing is one of the year 980,
or, according to a different view mentioned in the passage itself,
of the year 993. This reckoning, again, did not commend itself
for any official or other public use. And the only known inscrip-
tional instances of the use of it are modern ones, of the igth
century. While it is certain that the Jain reckoning, as it exists,
has its initial point in 528 B.C. it has not yet been determined
whether that is actually the year in which Vira died. All that can
be said on this point is that the date is not inconsistent with
certain statements in Buddhist books, which mention, by a
Prakrit name of which the Sanskrit form is Nirgrantha-Jnata-
putra, a contemporary of Buddha, in whom there is recognized
the original of the Jain Vira, Mahavira, or Vardhamana, and who,
the same books say, died while Buddha was still alive. But there
are some indications that Nirgrantha-Jnataputra may have died
only a short time before Buddha himself; and the event may
49 6
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
easily have been set back to 528 B.C. in circumstances, attending
a determination of the reckoning long after the occurrence,
analogous to those in which the Ceylonese Buddhavarsha set up
the erroneous date of 544 B.C. for the death of Buddha.
In the class of eras of royal origin, brought into existence in the
manner indicated above, the Hindus have had various reckonings
which have now mostly fallen into disuse. We may
Bygone mention them, without giving them the detailed treat-
eras of m ent which the more important of the still existing
reckonings demand.
origin. -p ne ifaiachuri or Chedi era, commencing in A.D. 248
or 249, is known best from inscriptional records, bearing dates
which range from the loth to the I3th century A.D., of the Kalachuri
kings of the Chedi country in Central India; and it is from them
that it derived the name under which it passes. In earlier times,
however, we find this era well established, without any appellation,
in Western India, in Gujarat and the Thana district of Bombay,
where it was used by kings and princes of the Chalukya, Gurjara,
Sendraka, Katachchuri and Traikutaka families. It is traced
back there to A.D. 457, at which time there was reigning a Traikutaka
king named Dahrasena. Beyond that point, we have at present no
certain knowledge about it. But_it seems probable that the founder
of it may be recognized in an Abhira king Tsvarasena, or else in
his father Sivadatta, who was reigning at Nasik in or closely about
A.D. 248-49.
The Gupta era, commencing in A.D. 320, was founded by Chandra-
gupta I., the first paramount king in the great Gupta dynasty of
Northern India. When the Guptas passed away, their reckoning
was taken over by the Maitraka kings of Valabhi, who succeeded
them in Kathiawar and some of the neighbouring territories ; and
so it became also known as the Valabhi era.
From Halsi in the Bejgaum district, Bombay, we have a record
of the Kadamba king Kakusthavarman, which was framed during
the time when he was the Yuvaraja or anointed successor to the
sovereignty, and may be referred to about A.D. 500. It is dated
in " the eightieth victorious year," and thus indicates the preserva-
tion of a reckoning running from the foundation of the Kadamba
dynasty by Mayuravarman, the great-grandfather of Kakusthavar-
man. But no other evidence of the existence of this era has been
obtained.
The records of the Ganga kings of Kalihganagara, which is the
modern Mukhalihgam-Nagarikatakam in the Ganjam district,
Madras, show the existence of a Ganga era which ran for at any
rate 254 years. And various details in the inscriptions enable us
to trace the origin of the Gahga kings to Western India, and to
place the initial point of their reckoning in A.D. 590, when a certain
Satyasraya-Dhruvaraja-Indravarman, an ancestor and probably
the grandfather of the first Ganga king Rajasirhha-Indravarman I.,
commenced to govern a large province in the Korikan under the
Chalukya king Kirtivarman I.
An era commencing in A.D. 605 or 606 was founded in Northern
India by the great king Harshavardhana, who reigned first at
Thanesar and then at Kanauj, and who was the third sovereign in
a dynasty which traced its origin to a prince named Naravardhana.
A peculiarity about this era is that it continued in use for apparently
four centuries after Harshavardhana, in spite of the fact that his line
ended with him.
The inscriptions assert that the Western Chalukya king Vikrama
or Vikramaditya VI. of Kalyaiji in the Nizam's dominions, who
reigned from A.D. 1076 to 1126, abolished the use of the Saka era
in his dominions in favour of an era named after himself. What
he or his ministers did was to adopt, for the first time in that dynasty,
the system of regnal years, according to which, while the Saka era
also remained in use, most of the records of his time are dated, not
in that era, but in the year so-and-so of the Chalukya-Vikrama-ka!a
or Chalukya- Vikrama-varsha, " the time or years of the Chalukya
Vikrama." There is some evidence that this reckoning survived
Vikramaditya VI. for a short time. But his successors introduced
their own regnal reckonings; and that prevented it from acquiring
permanence.
In Tirhut, there is still used a reckoning which is known as the
Lakshmanasena era from the name of the king of Bengal by whom
it was founded. There is a difference of opinion as to the exact
initial point of this reckoning; but the best conclusion appears to
be that which places it in A.D. 1119. This era prevailed at one
time throughout Bengal: we know this from a passage in the
Akbarnama, written in A.D. 1584, which specifies the Saka era as
the reckoning of Gujarat and the Dekkan, the Vikrama era as the
reckoning of Malwa, Delhi, and those parts, and the Lakshmanasena
era as the reckoning of Bengal.
The last reckoning that we have to mention here is one known
as the Rajyabhisheka-Saka, " the era of the anointment to the
sovereignty," which was in use for a time in Western India. It
dated from the day Jyaish^ha sukla 13 of the Saka year 1597 current,
= 6 June, A.D. 1674, when Sivaji, the founder of the Maratha
kingdom, had himself enthroned.
There are four reckonings which it is difficult at present to class
exactly. Two inscriptions of the I5th and I7th centuries, recently
brought to notice from Jesalmer in Raj pu tana, present a reckoning
which postulates an initial point in A.D. 624 or in the preceding
or the following year, and bears an appellation, Bhattka,
which seems to be based on the name of the Bhatri
tribe, to which the rulers of Jesalmer belong. No histori-
cal event is known, referable to that time, which can
have given rise to an era. It is possible that the apparent initial
date represents an epoch, at the end of the Saka year 546 or there-
abouts, laid down in some astronomical work composed then or
soon afterwards and used in the Jesalmer territory. But it seems
more probable that it is a purely fictitious date, set up by an attempt
to evolve an early history of the ruling family.
In the Tinnevelly district of Madras, and in the territories of the
same presidency in which the Malayalam language prevails, namely,
South Kanara below Mangalore, the Malabar district, and the
Cochin and Travancore states, there is used a reckoning which is
known sometimes as the Kollam or Kolamba reckoning, sometimes
as the era of Parasurama. The years of it are solar : in the southern
parts of the territory in which it is current, they begin with the
month Sirhha; in the northern parts, they begin with the next
month, Kanya. The initial point of the reckoning is in A.D. 825;
and the year 1076 commenced in A.D. 1900. The popular view about
this reckoning is that it consists of cycles of 1000 years; that we
are now in the fourth cycle; and that the reckoning originated in
1176 B.C. with the mythical Parasurama, who exterminated the
Kshatriya or warrior caste, and reclaimed the Konkaij countries,
Western India below the Ghauts, from the ocean. But the earliest
known date in it, of the year 149, falls in A.D. 973; and the reckon-
ing has run on in continuation of the thousand, instead of beginning
afresh in A.D. 1825. It seems probable, therefore, that the reckoning
had no existence before A.D. 825. The years are cited sometimes as
"the Kollam year (of such-and-such a number)," sometimes as
"the year (so-and-so) after Kollam appeared;" and this suggests
that the reckoning may possibly owe its origin to some event,
occurring in A.D. 825, connected with one or other of the towns and
ports named Kollam, on the Malabar coast; perhaps Northern
Kollam in the Malabar district, perhaps Southern Kollam, better
known as Quilon, in Travancore. But the introduction of Para-
surama into the matter, which would carry back (let us say) the
foundation of Kollam to legendary times, may indicate, rather, a
purely imaginative origin. Or, again, since each century of the
Kollam reckoning begins in the same year A.D. with a century of
the Saptarshi reckoning (see below under III. Other Reckonings),
it is not impossible that this reckoning may be a southern offshoot
of the Saptarshi reckoning, or at least may have had the same
astrological origin.
In Nepal there is a reckoning, known as the Newar era and com-
mencing in A.D. 879, which superseded the Gupta and Harsha eras
there. One tradition attributes the foundation of it to a king
Rilghavadeva ; another says that, in the time and with the per-
mission of a king Jayadevamalla, a merchant named Sakhwal
paid off, by means of wealth acquired from sand which turned into
gold, all the debts then existing in the country, and introduced the
new era in commemoration of the occurrence. It is possible that
the era may have been founded by some ruler of Nepal : but nothing
authentic is known about the particular names mentioned in con-
nexion with it. This era appears to have been discarded for state
and official purposes, in favour of the Saka era, in A.D. 1768, when
the Gurkhas became masters of Nepal; but manuscripts show that
in literary circles it has remained in use up to at any rate A.D. 1875.
Inscriptions disclose the use in Ka^hiawar and Gujarat, in the
I2th and I3th centuries, of a reckoning, commencing in A.D. lll^,
which is known as the Sirhha-sarhvat. No historical occurrence is
known, on which it can have been based; and the origin of it is
obscure.
The eras mentioned above have for the most part served their
purposes and died out. But there are three great Three
reckonings, dating from a very respectable antiquity, gre at
which have held their own and survived to the present Bras la
day. These are the Kaliyuga, Vikrama, and Saka eras. general
It will be convenient to treat the Kaliyuga first, though,
in spite of having the greatest apparent antiquity, it is the
latest of the three in respect of actual date of origin.
The Kaliyuga era is the principal astronomical reckoning of
the Hindus. It is frequently, if not generally, shown in the
almanacs: but it can hardly be looked upon as being TheKait-
now in practical use for civil purposes; and, as regards yu ga Era
the custom of previous times as far as we can judge it of 3102
from the inscriptional use, which furnishes a good ***
guide, the position is as follows: from Southern India we
have one such instance of A.D. 634, one of A.D. 770, three of the
roth century, and then, from the i2th century onwards, but
more particularly from the I4th, a certain number of instances,
not exactly very small in itself, but extremely so in comparison
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
497
with the number of cases of the use of the Vikrama and Saka
eras and other reckonings: from Northern India the earliest
known instance of is A.D. 1169 or 1170, and the later ones number
only four. Its years are by nature sidereal solar years, com-
mencing with the Mesha-sarhkranti, the entrance of the sun
into the Hindu constellation and sign Mesha, i.e. Aries (for
this and other technical details, see above, under the Calendar) ; *
but they were probably cited as lunar years in the inscriptional
records which present the reckoning; and the almanacs appear
to treat them either as Meshadi civil solar years with solar months,
or as Chaitradi lunar years with lunar months amanta (ending
with the new-moon) or purnimdnta (ending with the full-moon)
as the case may be, according to the locality. Its initial point lies
in 3102 B.C.; and the year 5002 began in A.D. ipoo. 2
This reckoning is not an historical era, actually running from
3102 B.C. It was devised for astronomical purposes at some time
about A.D. 400, when the Hindu astronomers, having taken over
the principles of the Greek astronomy, recognized that they required
for purposes of computation a specific reckoning with a definite
initial occasion. They found that occasion in a conjunction of the
sun, the moon, and the five planets which were then known, at the
first point of their sign Mesha. There was not really such a con-
junction; nor, apparently, is it even the case that the sun was
actually at the first point of Mesha at the moment arrived at. But
there was an approach to such a conjunction, which was turned
into an actual conjunction by taking the mean instead of the true
positions of the sun, the moon, and the planets. And, partly from
the reckoning which has come down to us, partly from the astro-
nomical books, we know that the moment assigned to the assumed
conjunction was according to one school the midnight between
Thursday the iyth, and Friday the i8th, February, 3102 B.C., and
according tc another school the sunrise on the Friday.
The reckoning thus devised was subsequently identified with
the Kaliyuga as the iron age, the last and shortest, with a duration
of 432,000 years, of the four ages in each cycle of ages in the Hindu
system of cosmical periods. Also, traditional history was fitted
to it by one school, represented notably by the Puranas, which,
referring the great war between the Panclavas and the Kurus, which
is the topic of the Mahabharata, to the close of the preceding age,
the Dvapara, placed on the last day of that age the culminating
event which ushered in the Kali age; namely, the death of Krishna
(the return to heaven of Vishnu on the termination of his incarna-
tion as Krishna), which was followed by the abdication of the
Pan<Java king Yudhishthira, who. having installed his grand-nephew
Parikshit as his successor, then set out on his own journey to heaven.
Another school, however, placed the Pan<Javas and the Kurus
653 years later, in 2449 B.C. A third school places in 3102 B.C. the
anointment of Yudhishthira to the sovereignty, and treats that
event as inaugurating the Kali age; from this point of view, the
first 3044 years of the Kaliyuga the period from its commencement
in 3102 B.C. to the commencement of the first historical era, the
so-called Vikrama era, in 58 B.C. are also known as " the era of
Yudhishthira."
The Vikrama era, which is the earliest of all the Hindu eras
in respect of order of foundation, is the dominant era and the
The vik- 8 rea t historical reckoning of Northern India that
rama Era is, of the territory on the north of the rivers Narbada
fs8 and Mahanadi to which part of the country its use
B ' has always been practically confined. Like, indeed,
the Kaliyuga and Saka eras, it is freely cited in almanacs in any
part of India; and it is sometimes used in the south by immigrants
from the north: but it is, by nature, so essentially foreign to
the south that the earliest known inscriptional instance of the
use of it in Southern India only dates from A.D. 1218, and the
very few later instances that have been obtained, prior to the
i5th century A.D., come, along with the instance of A.D. 1218,
from the close neighbourhood of the dividing-line between the
1 It is always to be borne in mind that, as already explained,
while the Hindu Mesha answers to our Aries, it does not coincide
with either the sign or the constellation Aries.
2 We select A.D. 1900 as a gauge-year, in preference to the year
in which we are writing, because its figures are more convenient
for comparative purposes. In accordance with the general tendency
of the Hindus to cite expired years, the almanacs would mostly
show 5001 (instead of 5002) as the number for the Kaliyuga year
answering to A.D. 1900-1901. And, for the same reason, this
reckoning has often been called the Kaliyuga era of 3101 B.C. There
is, perhaps, no particular objection to that, provided that we then
deal with the Vikrama and Saka eras on the same lines, and bear in
mind that in each case the initial point of the reckoning really lies
in the preceding year. But we prefer to treat these reckonings with
exact correctness.
north and the south. The Vikrama era has never been used for
astronomical purposes. Its years are lunar, with lunar months,
but seem liable to be sometimes regarded as solar, with solar
months, when they are cited in almanacs of Southern India
which present the solar calendar. Originally they were Kartti-
kadi, with purnimdnta months (ending with the full-moon).
They now exist in the following three varieties: in Kathiawar
and Gujarat, they are chiefly Karttikadi, with amanta months
(ending with the new-moon); and they are shown in this form
in almanacs for the other parts of the Bombay Presidency:
but there is also found in Kathiawar and that neighbourhood
an Ashadhadi variety, commencing with Ashadha sukla i,
similarly with amanta months; in the rest of Northern India,
they are Chaitradi, with purnimdnta months. The era has its
initial point in 58 B.C., and its first civil day, Karttika sukla i,
is i gth September in that year if we determine it with reference
to the Hindu Tula-samkranti, or i8th October if we determine
it with reference to the tropical equinox. The years of the
three varieties, Chaitradi, Ashadhadi, and Karttikadi, all
commence in the same year A.D.; and the year 1958 began in
A.D. IQOO.
Hindu legend connects the foundation of this era with a king
Vikrama or Vikramaditya of Ujjain in Malwa, Central India: one
version is that he began to reign in 58 B.C. ; another is that he
died in that year, and that the reckoning commemorates his death.
Modern research, however, based largely on the inscriptional re-
cords, has shown that there was no such king, and that the real
facts are very different. The era owes its existence to the Kushan
king Kanishka, a foreign invader, who established himself in
Northern India and commenced to reign there in B.C. 58. 3 He was
the founder of it, in the sense that the opening years of it were
the years of his reign. It was established and set going as an era
by his successor, who continued the reckoning so started, instead of
breaking it by introducing another according to his own regnal
years. And it was perpetuated as an era, and transmitted as such
to posterity by the Malavas, the people from whom the modern
territory Malwa derived its name, who were an important section
of the' subjects of Kanishka and his successors. In consonance
with that, records ranging in date from A.D. 473 to 879 style it
" the reckoning of the Malavas, the years of the Malava lords, the
Malava time or era." Prior to that, it had no specific name; the
years of it were simply cited, in ordinary Hindu fashion, by the
term samvatsara, " the year (of such-and-such a number)," or by
its abbreviations samvat and sam: and the same was frequently
done in later times also, and is habitually done in the present day;
and so, in modern times, this era has often been loosely styled
" the Samvat era." The idea of a king Vikrama in connexion with
it appears to date from only the 9th or loth century A.D.
The Saka era, though it actually had its origin in the south-
west corner of Northern India, is the dominant era and the
great historical reckoning of Southern India; that
TheSaka
is, of the territory below the rivers ' Narbada and
Mahanadi. It is also the subsidiary astronomical
reckoning, largely used, from the 6th century A.D.
onwards, in the Karanas, the works dealing with practical
details of the calendar, for laying down epochs or points of time
furnishing convenient bases for computation. As a result
of that, it came to be used in past times for general purposes
also, to a limited extent, in parts of Northern India where it
was not indigenous. And it is now used more or less freely,
and is cited in almanacs everywhere. Its years are usually
lunar, Chaitradi, and its months are purnimdnta (ending with
the full-moon) in Northern India, and amanta (ending with
the new-moon) in Southern India; but in times gone by it was
sometimes treated for purposes of calculation as having astro-
nomical solar years, and it is now treated as having Mesh di
civil solar years and solar months in those parts of India where
that form of the solar calendar prevails. It has its initial point
in A.D. 78; and its first civil day, Chaitra sukJa i, is 3rd March
3 It may be remarked that there are about twelve different views
regarding the date of Kanishka and the origin of the Vikrama era.
Some writers hold that Kanishka began to reign in A.D. 78, and
founded the so-called Saka era beginning in that year; one writer
would place his initial date about A.D. 123, others would place it
in A.D. 278. The view maintained by the present writer was held
at one time by Sir A. Cunningham: and, as some others have
already begun to recognize, evidence is now steadily accumulating
in support of the correctness of it.
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
in that year, as determined with reference either to the Hindu
M "na-sarhkranti or to the entrance of the sun into the tropica!
Pisces. The year 1823 began in A.D. 1900.
Regarding the origin of the Saka era, there was current in
the loth and nth centuries A.D. a belief which, ignoring the
difference of a hundred and thirty-five years between the two
reckonings, connected the legendary king Vikramaditya ol
Ujjain, mentioned above under the Vikrama era, with the
foundation of this era also. The story runs, from this point of
view, that the Sakas were a barbarous people who established
themselves in the western and north-western dominions of that
king, but were met in battle and destroyed by him, and that
the era was established in celebration of that event. The modern
belief, however, ascribes the foundation of this era to a king
Salivahana of Pratishthana, which is the modern Paithan, on
the Godavarl, in the Nizam's dominions. But in this case,
again, research has shown that the facts are very different.
Like the Vikrama era, the Saka era owes its existence to foreign
invaders. It was founded by the Chhaharata or Kshaharata
king Nahapana, who appears to have been a Pahlava or Palhava,
i.e. of Parthian extraction, and who reigned from A.D. 78 to
about I2S. 1 He established himself first in Kathiawar, but
subsequently brought under his sway northern Gujarat (Bom-
bay) and Ujjain, and, below the Narbada, southern Gujarat,
Nasik and probably Khandesh. His capital seems to have been
Dohad, in the Panch Mahals. And he had two viceroys: one,
named Bhumaka, of the same family with himself, in Kathiawar;
and another, Chashtana, son of Ghsamotika, at Ujjain. Soon
after A.D. 125, Nahapana was overthrown, and his family was
wiped out, by the Satavahana-Satakarni king Gautamlputra-
Srl-Satakarni, who thereby recovered the territories on the
south of the Narbada, and perhaps secured for a time Kathiawar
and some other parts on the north of that river. Very soon,
however, Chashtana, or else his son Jayadaman, established
his sway over all the territory which had belonged to Nahapana
on the north of the Narbada; founded a line of Hinduized
foreign kings, who ruled there for more than three centuries;
and, continuing Nahapana's regnal reckoning, established
the era to which the name Saka eventually became attached.
Inscriptions and coins show that, up to at least the second
decade of its fourth century, this reckoning had no specific appella-
tion; its years were simply cited, in the usual fashion, as varsha,
" the year (of such-and-such a number)." The reckoning was
then taken up by the astronomers. And we find it first called
Sakakala, " the time or era of the Sakas," in an epochal date,
the end of the year 427, falling in A.D. 505, which was used by
the astronomer Varahamihira (d. A.D. 587) in his Panchasiddhan-
tika. That this name came to be attached to it appears to be
due to the points that, along with some of the Pahlavas or Pal-
havas and the Yavanas or descendants of the Asiatic Greeks,
some of the Sakas, the Scythians, had made their way into
Kathiawar and neighbouring parts by about A.D. 100, and that
the Sakas incidentally came to acquire prominence in the memory
of the Hindus regarding these occurrences, in such a manner
that their name was selected when the occasion arose to devise
an appellation for an era the exact origin of which had been
forgotten. The name of the imaginary king Salivahana first
figures in connexion with the era in a record of A.D. 1272, and
seems plainly to have been introduced in imitation of the coupling
of the name Vikrama, Vikramaditya, with the era of B.C. 58.
That the Saka era, though it had its origin in the south-west
corner of Northern India, is essentially an era of Southern India,
is proved by its inscriptional and numismatic history. During the
period before the time when it was taken up by the astronomers,
it is found only in the inscriptions of Nahapana, and in the similar
records and on the coins of the descendants of Chashtana. After
that same time, it figures first in a record of the Chalukya king
Kirtivarman I., at Badami in the BijapOr district, Bombay, which
is dated on the full-moon day of the month Karttika, falling in
A.D. 578, " when there had elapsed five centuries of the years of the
anointment of the Saka king to the sovereignty." And from this
date onwards the records of a large part of Southern India are
mostly dated in this era, by various expressions all of which include
1 See the preceding note.
the term Saka or Saka. In Northern India the case is very different.
We have a record dated in the month Karttika, the Saka year 631
(expired), falling in A.D. 709: it comes from Multai in the Betul
district, Central Province_s, that is, from the south of the Narbada-
but it belongs to Gujarat (Bombay), and perhaps to the north!
though more probably to the south, of that province. But, setting
that aside, the earliest inscriptional instance of the use of this era
in Northern India, outside Ka^hiawar and Gujarat, is found in a
record of A.D. 862 at Deogarh near Lalitpur, the headquarters
town of the Lalitpur district, United Provinces of Agra and Oude ;
here, however, the record is primarily dated, with the full details of
the month, &c., in " Sarhvat 919," that is, in the Vikrama year 919;
it is only as a subsidiary detail that the Saka year 784 is given in a
separate passage at the end of the record, a sort of postscript.
From this date onwards the era is found in other records of Northern
India, but to any appreciable extent only from A.D. 1137, and to
only a very small extent in comparison with the Vikrama and other
northern eras; and the cases in which it was used exclusively there,
without being coupled with one or other of the northern reckonings,
are still more conspicuously few. In short, the general position is
that the Saka era has been essentially foreign to Northern India
until recent times; it was used there quite exceptionally and
sporadically, and in very few cases indeed at any appreciable distance
from the dividing-line between the north and the south. That it
found its way into Northern India, outside Kathiawar and northern
Gujarat at all, is unquestionably due to its use by the astronomers.
It also travelled, across the sea, by the 7th century A.D. to Cambodia,
and somewhat later to Java; to which parts it was doubtless taken
in almanacs, or in invoices, statements of account, &c., by the persons
engaged in the trade between Broach and the far east via Tagara
(Ter) and the east coast. It also found its way in subsequent times
to Assam and Ceylon, and more recently still to Nepal.
III. OTHER RECKONINGS
We come now to certain reckonings consisting of cycles,
and will take first the cycles of Guru or Brihaspati, Jupiter.
This planet, a very conspicuous object in eastern
skies, requires a period of 4332-6 days, = 50-4 days *",
less than twelve Julian years, to 'make a circuit of the jupue
heavens, and has provided the Hindus with two reckon-
ings, each in more than one variety; a cycle of twelve years,
and a cycle of sixty years. The years of Jupiter, in all their
varieties, are usually styled samvatsara; and it is convenient
to use this term here, in order to preserve clearly the distinction
between them and the" solar and lunar years. The samvatsaras
have no divisions of their own; the months, days, &c., cited
with them are those of the ordinary solar or lunar calendar,
as the case may be.
The older reckoning of Jupiter appears to be that of the 12-
years cycle, which is found in two varieties; in both of them the
samvatsaras bear, according to certain rules which need
not be explained here, the same names with the Tbe 12 '
lunar months, Chaitra, Vaisakha, &c. In one variety,
each samvatsara runs from one of the planet's heliacal
risings that is, from the day on which it becomes visible as a
morning star on the eastern horizon to the next such rising;
and the length of such a samvatsara, according to the Hindu data,
is from 392 to 405 days, with an average of 399 days. Inscrip-
tional instances of the use of this cycle are found in six of the
Gupta records of Northern India, ranging from A.D. 475 to 528.
In the other variety of the 1 2-years cycle, which is mentioned
in astronomical works from the time of Aryabhata onwards
(b. A.D. 476), the samvatsaras are regulated by Jupiter's course
with reference to his mean motion and mean longitude: a
samvatsara of this variety commences when Jupiter thus enters a
sign of the zodiac, and lasts for the time occupied by him in
traversing that sign from the same point of view; and the period
taken by him to do that that is, the duration of such a sam-
vatsara is slightly in excess, according to the Hindu data, of
361-02 days, which amount is very close to the actual fact,
361-05 days. Inscriptional instances of the use of this cycle are
perhaps found in two records of Southern India of the Kadamba
series, belonging to about A.D. 575.
The 1 2-years mean-sign cycle seems to be still used in some
parts. And the heliacal risings of Jupiter, as also, indeed, those
of the other planets, are shown in almanacs for astrological
purposes. In either variety, however, the 1 2-years cycle is now
chiefly of antiquarian interest.
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
499
The cycle of Jupiter now in general use is a cycle of sixty years,
the samvatsaras of which bear certain special names,
The 60- Prabhava, Vibhava, Sukla, Pramoda, &c., again
* n accordance with certain rules which we need not
explain here. This cycle exists in three varieties.
According to the original constitution of this cycle, the sam-
vatsaras are determined as in the second or mean-sign variety of
the i2-years cycle: each samvatsara commences when Jupiter
enters a sign of the zodiac with reference to his mean motion and
longitude; and it lasts for slightly more than 361-02 days.
This variety is traced back in inscriptional records to A.D. 602,
and is still used in Northern India.
Now, the samvatsaras are calculated by means of the astro-
nomical solar year commencing with the Mesha-samkranti, the
entrance of the sun into the sign Mesha (Aries). The process
gives the number of the samvatsara last expired before any
particular Mesha-samkranti, with a remainder denoting the
portion of the current samvatsara elapsed up to the same time;
and the remainder, reduced to months, &c., gives the moment of
the commencement of the current samvatsara, by reckoning back
from the Mesha-samkranti. As the result, apparently, of unwill-
ingness to take the trouble to work out the full details, at some
time about A.D. 800 a practice arose, in some quarters, according
to which that samvatsara of the 6o-years cycle which was current
at any particular Mesha-samkranti was taken as coinciding with
the astronomical solar year beginning at that samkranti, and
with the Chaitradi lunar year belonging to that same solar year.
And this practice set up a lunisolar variety of the cycle, in con-
nexion with which we have to notice the following point. While
the duration of a mean-sign samvatsara is closely about 361-02
days, the length of the Hindu astronomical solar year is closely
about 365.258 days. It consequently happens, after every 85 or
86 years, that a mean-sign samvatsara begins and ends between
two successive Mesha-samkrantis. In the mean-sign cycle, such
a samvatsara retains its existence unaffected; and the names
Prabhava, Vibhava, &c., run on without any interruption. Ac-
cording to the lunisolar system, however, the position is different;
the samvatsara beginning and ending between the two Mesha-
samkrantis is expunged or suppressed, in the sense that its
name is omitted and is replaced by the next name on the list. The
second variety of the 6o-years cycle, thus started, ran on alongside
of the mean-sign variety, and, being eventually transferred, with
that variety, to Northern India, is now known as the northern
lunisolar variety. It preserves a connexion between the sam-
vatsaras and the movements of Jupiter: but the connexion is an
imperfect one; and both in this variety, and still more markedly
in the remaining one still to be described, the samvatsaras prac-
tically became mere appellations for the solar and lunar years.
Meanwhile, just after A.D. 900, another development occurred,
and there was started a third variety, which is now known as the
southern lunisolar variety. The precise year in which this hap-
pened depends on the particular authority that we follow. If we
take the elements adopted in the Surya-Siddhanta as the proper
data for that time and for the locality Western India below the
Narbada to which the early history of the cycle .belongs, the
position was as follows. At the Mesha-samkranti in A.D. 908
there was current, by the mean-sign system, the samvatsara
No. 2, Vibhava: but No. 4, Pramoda, was current by the same
system at the Mesha-samkranti in A.D. 909; and No. 3, Sukla,
began and ended between the two Mesha-samkrantis. Accord-
ingly, No. 2, Vibhava, was the lunisolar samvatsara for the
Meshadi solar year and the Chaitradi lunar year commencing in
A.D. 908; and by the strict lunisolar system, which was adhered
to by some people and is now known as the northern lunisolar
system, it was followed in A.D. 909 by No. 4, Pramoda, the name
of the intermediate samvatsara, No. 3, Sukla, being passed over.
On the other hand, whether through oversight, or whatever the
reason may have been, by other people the name of No. 3, Sukla,
was not passed over, but that samvatsara was taken as the luni-
solar samvatsara for the Meshadi solar year and the Chaitradi
lunar year beginning in A.D. 909, and No. 4, Pramoda, followed it
in A.D. 910. On subsequent similar occasions, also, there was, in
the same quarters, no passing over of the name of any samvatsara.
And this practice established itself in Southern India, to the
exclusion there of the mean-sign and the northern lunisolar
varieties; the discrepancy between the last-mentioned variety
and the variety thus set up continuing, of course, to increase by
one samvatsara after every 85 or 86 years. In this variety, the
southern lunisolar variety, all connexion between the samvatsaras
and the movements of Jupiter has now been lost.
The present position of the 6o-years cycle in its three varieties
maybe illustrated thus. In Northern India, by the mean-sign system
the samvatsara No. 46, Paridhavin, began, according to different
authorities, in August, September or October, A.D. 1899. Conse-
quently, by the northern or expunging lunisolar system, that same
samvatsara. No. 46, Paridhavin, coincided with the Meshadi civil
solar year beginning with or just after I2th April, and with the
Chaitradi lunar year beginning with jist March, A.D. 1900. But by
the southern or non-expunging lunisolar system those same solar
and lunar years were No. 34, Sarvarin.
The treatment of the cycles of Jupiter in the Sanskrit books
shows that it was primarily from the astrological point of view
that they appealed to the Hindus; it was omly as a secondary
consideration that they acquired anything of a chronological nature.
For the practical application of any of them to historical purposes,
it is, of course, necessary that, along with the mention of a samvatsara,
there should always be given the year of some known era, or some
other specific guide to the exact period to which that samvatsara is
to be referred. But it is fortunately the case that the samvatsaras
have been but 'rarely cited in the inscriptional records without such
a guide, of some kind or another.
The Saptarshi reckoning is used in Kashmir, and in the Kangra
district and some of the Hill states on the south-east of Kashmir;
some nine centuries ago it was also in use in the Punjab, The Sgpm
and apparently in Sind. In addition to being cited by tarxhi
such expressions as Saptarshi-samvat, " the year (so- rectoa-
and-so) of the Saptarshis," and Sastra-samvatsara, lag '
" the year (so-and-so) of the scriptures," it is found mentioned
as Lokakala, " the time or era of the people," and by other terms
which mark it as a vulgar reckoning. And it appears that modern
popular names for it are Paharl-samvat and Kachcha-samvat,
which we may render by " the Hill era " and " the crude era."
The years of this reckoning are lunar, Chaitradi; and the months
are purqimanta (ending with the full-moon). As matters stand
now, the reckoning has a theoretical initial point in 3077 B.C.;
and the year 4976, more usually called simply 76, began in A.D.
1900; but there are some indications that the initial point was
originally placed one year earlier.
The idea at the bottom of this reckoning is a belief xhat the
Saptarshis, " the Seven Rishis or Saints," Marlchi and others, were
translated to heaven, and became the stars of the constellation
Ursa Major, in 3076 B.C. (or 3077); and that these stars possess an
independent movement of their own, which, referred to the ecliptic,
carries them round at the rate of loo years for each nakshatra or
twenty-seventh division of the circle. Theoretically, therefore, the
Saptarshi reckoning consists of cycles of 2700 years; and the
numbering of the years should run from I to 2700, and then com-
mence afresh. In practice, however, it has been treated quite
differently. According to the general custom, which has distinctly
prevailed in Kashmir from the earliest use of the reckoning for
chronological purposes, and is illustrated by Kalhana in his history
of Kashmir, the Rajataramginl, written in A.D. 1148-1150, the num-
eration of the years has been centennial; whenever a century has
been completed, the numbering has not run on 101, 102, 103, &c.,
but has begun again with I, 2, 3, &c. Almanacs, indeed, show
both the figures of the century and the full figures of the entire
reckoning, which is treated as running from 3076 B c., not from
376 B.C. as the commencement of a new cycle, the second ; thus,
an almanac for the year beginning in A.D. 1793 describes that year
as " the year 4869 according to the course of the Seven Rishis,
and similarly the year 69." And elsewhere sometimes the full
figures are found, sometimes the abbreviated ones; thus, while a
manuscript written in A.D. 1648 is dated in " the year 24 " (for
4724), another, written in A.D. 1224 is dated in " the year 4300."
But, as in the Rajataramginl, so also in inscriptions, which range
from A.D. 1204 onwards, only the abbreviated figures have hitherto
been found. Essentially, therefore, the Saptarshi reckoning is a
centennial reckoning, by suppressed or omitted hundreds, with its
earlier centuries commencing in 3076, 2976 B.C., and so on, and its
later centuries commencing in A.D. 25, 125, 225, &c. ; on precisely the
same lines with those according to which we may use, e.g. 98 to mean
A.D. 1798, and 57 to mean A.D. 1857, and 9 to mean A.D. 1909.
And the practical difficulties attending the use of such a system for
chronological purposes are obvious; isolated dates recorded in
such a fashion cannot be allocated without some explicit clue to
500
HINDU CHRONOLOGY
cycle.
the centuries to which they belong. Fortunately, however, as
regards Kashmir, we have the necessary guide in the facts that
Kalhana recorded his own date in the Saka era as well as in this
reckoning, and gave full historical details which enable us to deter-
mine unmistakably the equivalent of the first date in this reckoning
cited by him, and to arrange with certainty the chronology presented
by him from that time.
The belief underlying this reckoning according to the course of
the Seven Rishis is traced back in India, as an astrological detail,
to at least the 6th century A.p. But the reckoning was first adopted
for chronological purposes in Kashmir and at some time about
A.D. 800; the first recorded date in it is one of " the year 89,"
meaning 3889, = A.D. 813-814, given by Kalhana. It was intro.-
duced into India between A.D. 925 and 1025.
The Grahaparivritti is a reckoning which is used in the
southernmost parts of Madras, particularly in the Madura
district. It consists of cycles of 90 Meshadi solar
vears > and is sai d, m conformity with its name, which
means " the revolution of planets," to be made up
by the sum of the days in i revolution of the sun,
22 of Mercury, 5 of Venus, 15 of Mars, u of Jupiter, and 29 of
Saturn. The first cycle is held to have commenced in 24 B.C.,
the second in A.D. 67, and so on; and, in accordance with
that view, the year 34, which began in A.D. 1900, was the 34th
year of the 22nd cycle.
No inscriptional use of this cycle has come to notice. There
seems no substantial reason for believing that the reckoning was
really started in 24 B.C. The alleged constitution of the cycle, which
appears to be correct within about twelve days, and might possibly
be made apparently exact, suggests an astrological origin. And,
if a guess may be hazarded, we would conjecture that the reckoning
is an offshoot of the southern lunisolar variety of the 6o-years cycle
of Jupiter, and had its real origin in some year in which a Prabhava
samvatsara of that variety commenced, and to which the first year
of a Grahaparivritti cycle can be referred: that was the case in
A.D. 967 and at each subsequent iSoth year.
In part of the Gafijam district, Madras, there is a reckoning,
known as the Onko or Anka, i.e. literally " the number or
numbers," consisting of lunar years, each commencing
cycle. " ' w ith Bhadrapada sukla 12, which run theoretically
in cycles of 59 years. But the reckoning has the
peculiarity that, whether the explanation is to be found in a
superstition about certain numbers or in some other reason,
the year 6, and any year the number of which ends with 6 or o
(except the year 10), is omitted from the numbering; so that,
for instance, the year 7 follows next after the year 5. The
origin of the reckoning is not known. But the use of it seems
to be traceable in records of the Ganga kings who reigned in
that part of the country and in Orissa in the i2th and following
centuries. And the initial day, B.hadrapada sukla 12, which
figures again in the Vilayati and Amli reckoning of Orissa (see
farther on) , is perhaps to be accounted for on the view that this
day was the day of the anointment, in the 7th century, of the
first Ganga king, Rajasirhha-Indravarman I.
In the Chittagong district, Bengal, there is a solar reckoning,
known by the name Maghl, of which the year 1262 either began
or ended in A.D. 1900; so that it has an initial point
The Maghi j n AD ^ Or 638. It appears that Chittagong was
ing. conquered by the king of Arakan in the 9th century,
and remained usually in the possession of the Maghs
the Arakanese or a class of them till A.D. 1666, when it was
finally annexed to the Mogul empire. In these circumstances
it is plain that the Magh reckoning took its name from the
Maghs; its year, which is Meshadi, from Bengal; and its
numbering from the Sakkaraj, the ordinary era of Arakan and
Burma, which has its initial point in A.D. 638.
The Hijra (Hegira) era, the reckoning from the flight of
Mahomet, which dates from the i6th of July, A.D. 662, is, of
Hinduized course > use d by the Mahommedans in India, and is
offshoots customarily shown, with the details of its calendar,
of the in the Hindu almanacs. An account of it does not
^ ra fall within the scope of this article. But we have
to mention it because we come now to certain Hindu-
ized reckonings which are hybrid offshoots of it. We need
only say, however, in explanation of some of the following
figures, that the years of the Hijra era are purely lunar, consisting
of twelve lunar months and no more; with the result that the
initial day of the year is always travelling backwards through
the Julian year, and makes a complete circuit in thirty-four
years. The reckonings derived from it, which we have to describe,
have apparent initial points in A.D. 591, 593, 594, and 600!
They had their real origin, however, in the i4th, i6th, and i7th
centuries.
The emperor Akbar succeeded to the throne in February,
A.D. 1556, in the Hijra year 963, which ran from i6th November
1 555 to 3rd November 1556. Amongst the reforms aimed at
by him and his officials, one was to abolish, or at least minimize,
by introducing uniformity of numbering, the confusion due
to the existence of various reckonings, both Mahommedan and
Hindu. And one step taken in that direction was to assign to
the Hindu year the same number with the Hijra year. It is
believed that this was first done by the Persian clerks of the
revenue and financial offices at an early time in Akbar 's reign,
and that it received authoritative sanction in the Hijra year
971 (2ist August 1563 to 8th August 1564). At any rate, the
innovation was certainly first made in Upper India; and the'
numbering started there was introduced into Bengal and those
parts as Akbar extended his dominions, but without interfering
with local customs as to the commencement of the Hindu year.
The result is that we now have the following reckonings, the
years of which are used as revenue years :
In the United Provinces and the Punjab, there is an Asvinadi
lunar reckoning, known as the Fasli, according to which the year
1308 began in A.D. 1900; so that the reckoning has an
apparent initial point in A.D. 593. The name of this The Fas "
reckoning is derived from fast, " a harvest," of which c * on ' n #
there are two; the fasl-i-rabl or "spring harvest," * Upper
commencing in February ,and thefasl-i-kharif, or "autumn '""''
harvest " commencing in October. The years of this reckoning
begin with the purnimanta Asvina krishna I, which now falls in
September. A peculiar feature of it is that, though the months are
lunar, they are not divided into fortnights, and the numbering of
the days runs on, as in the Mahommedan month, from the first to
the end of the month without being affected by any exjunction and
repetition of tithis; and, for this and other reasons, it seems that
in this case a new form of Hindu year was devised, of such a kind
as to enable the agriculturists to realize their produce and pay
their assessments comfortably within the year. The Hijra era
has, of course, now drawn somewhat widely away from this and
the other reckonings derived from it; the Hijra year com-
mencing in A.D. 1900 was 1318, ten years in advance of the Fasli
year.
In Orissa and some other parts of Bengal, there is a reckoning,
or two almost identical reckonings, the facts of which are not quite
clear. According to one account, the term Amli-san,
" the official year," is only another name of the Vilayati- "
san, " the year received from the vilayat or province ya "' san
of Hindustan." But we are also told that the Vilayati- * Jd A">u-
san is a Kanyadi solar year, whereas the Amli-san, l a ? '
though it too has solar months, changes its number on
the lunar day Bhadrapada sukla 12 (mentioned above in connexion
with the Onko cycle of Orissa), which comes sometimes in Kanya,
but sometimes in the preceding month, Sirhha. Elsewhere, again,
it is the Vilayati-san which is shown as changing its number on
Bhadrapada sukla 12. In either case, the year 1308 of this reckon-
ing, also, began in A.D. 1900; and so, like the Fasli of Upper India,
this reckoning, top, has an apparent initial point in A.D. 593. The
day Bhadrapada sukla 12 now usually falls in September, but may
come during, the last three days of August. The first day of the
solar month Kanya now falls on I5th or 1 6th September.
In Bengal there is in more general use a Meshadi solar reckoning,
known as the Bengali-san or " Bengal year," according
to which the year 1307 began in A.p. 1900; so that this _*
reckoning has an apparent initial point in A.D. 594. The f aj '' sao -
initial day of the year is the first day of the solar month Mesha,
now falling on I2th or I3th April.
The system of Fasli reckonings was introduced into Southern
India under the emperor Shah Jahan, at some time in the Hijra
year 1046, which ran from 26th May, A.p. 1636, to 15th _.
May, A.D. 1637. But the numbering which was current /g
in Northern India was not taken over. A new start was . m ' a
made; and, as the year of the Hijra had gone back, Madras
during the intervening seventy-three Julian years, by
two years and a quarter (less by only five days) from the date of its
commencement in the year 971, the Fasli reckoning of Southern
India began with a nominal year 1046 (instead of 971+73 = 1044),
commencing in A.D. 1636. The Fasli reckoning of Southern India
exists in two varieties. The years of the Bombay Fasli are popularly
known as Mfigasal years, because they commence when the sun
enters the nakshatru Mrigastras, which occurs now on 6th or 7th June;
HINDUISM
The Mar-
tha Sur-
saa or
Arabi-
the reckoning seems to have taken over this initial day from the
Mara^ha Sur-san (see below). The Fasli years of Madras originally
began at the Karka-sarhkranti, the nominal summer solstice:
under the British government, the commencement of them was first
fixed to I2th July, on which day the sarhkranti was then usually
occurring; but it was afterwards changed to 1st July as a more
convenient date. The years of the Bombay and Madras Fasli
have no division of their own into months, fortnights, &c. ; the year
is always used along with one or other of the real Hindu reckonings,
and the details are cited according to that reckoning.
Another offshoot of the Hijra era, but one of earlier date and not
belonging to the class of Fasli reckonings, is found, in the Mara^ha
country, in the Sur-san or Shahur-san, " the year of
months," also known as Arabi-san, " the Arab year."
This reckoning, which is met with chiefly in old sanads or
charters, appears to have branched off in or closely about
the Hijra year 745, which ran from 15th May, A.D. 1344, to
3rd May, A.D. 1345; but the exact circumstance in which
it originated is not known. The years of this reckoning begin, like
those of the Bombay Fasli, with the entrance of the sun into the
nakshatra Mrigasiras, which now occurs on 6th or 7th June; but the
months and days are those of the Hijra year. The Sur-san year 1301
began in A.D. 1900; and so the reckoning has an apparent initial
point in A.D. 600. A peculiarity attending this reckoning is that,
whatever may be the vernacular of a clerk, he uses the Arabic
numeral words in reading out the year; and the same words are
given alongside of the figures in the Hindu almanacs.
AUTHORITIES. The Hindu astronomy had already begun to
attract attention before the close of the i8th century. The inves-
tigation, however, of the calendar and the eras, along with the
verification of dates, was started by Warren, whose Kala Sankalita
was published in 1825. The inquiry was carried on by Prinsep in
his Useful Tables (1834-1836) by Cowasjee Patell in his Chronology
(1866), and^ by Cunningham in his Book of Indian Eras (1883).
But Warren's processes, though mostly giving accurate results, were
lengthy and troublesome; and calculations made on the lines laid
down by his successors gave results which might or might not be
correct, and could only be cited as approximate results. The exact
calculation of Hindu dates by easy processes was started byShankar
Balkrishna Dikshit, in an article published in the Indian Antiquary,
vol. 16 (1887). This was succeeded by methods and tables devised
by Jacobi, which were published in the next volume of the same
journal. There then followed several contributions in the same
line by other scholars, some for exact, others for closely approximate,
results, and some valuable articles by Kielhorn on some of the
principal Hindu eras and other reckonings, which were published in
the same journal, vols. 17 (1888) to 26 (1897). And the treat-
ment of the matter culminated for the time being in the publication,
in 1896, of Sewell and Dikshit's Indian Calendar, which contains an
appendix by Schram on eclipses of the sun in India, and was supple-
mented in 1898 by Sewell's Eclipses of the Moon in India. The
present article is based on the above-mentioned and various de-
tached writings, supplemented by original research. For the exact
calculation of Hindu dates and the determination of the European
equivalents of them, use may be made either of Sewell and Dikshit's
works mentioned above, or of the improved tables by Jacobi
which were published in the Epigraphia Indica, vols. I and 2
(1892-1894). (J. F. F.)
HINDUISM, a term generally employed to comprehend the
social institutions, past and present, of the Hindus who form the
great majority of the people of India; as well as the multitudinous
crop of their religious beliefs which has grown up, in the course
of many centuries, on the foundation of the Brahmanical
scriptures. The actual proportion . of the total population of
India (294 millions) included under the name of " Hindus "
has been computed in the census report for 1901 at something
like 70% (206 millions); the remaining 30% being made up
partly of the followers of foreign creeds, such as Mahommedans,
Parsees, Christians and Jews, partly of the votaries of indigenous
forms of belief which have at various times separated from the
main stock, and developed into independent systems, such as
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism; and partly of isolated hill
and jungle tribes, such as the Santals, Bhils (Bhilla) and Kols,
whose crude animistic tendencies have hitherto kept them,
either wholly or for the most part, outside the pale of the
Brahmanical community. The name " Hindu " itself is of
foreign origin, being derived from the Persians, by whom the
river Sindhu was called Hindhu, a name subsequently applied
to the inhabitants of that frontier district, and gradually ex-
tended over the upper and middle reaches of the Gangetic valley,
whence this whole tract of country between the Himalaya and
the Vindhya mountains, west of Bengal, came to be called by
the foreign conquerors " Hindustan," or the abode of the
Hindus; whilst the native writers called it " Aryavarta," or
the abode of the Aryas.
But whilst, in its more comprehensive acceptation, the term
Hinduism would thus range over the entire historical develop-
ment of Brahmanical India, it is also not infrequently used in
a narrower sense, as denoting more especially the modern phase
of Indian social and religious institutions from the earlier
centuries of the Christian era down to our own days as distin-
guished from the period dominated by the authoritative doctrine
of pantheistic belief, formulated by the speculative theologians
during the centuries immediately succeeding the Vedic period
(see BRAHMANISM). In this its more restricted sense the term
may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering
variety of popular sectarian forms of belief, with its social
concomitant, the fully developed caste-system. But, though
one may at times find it convenient to speak of " Brahmanism
and Hinduism," it must be clearly understood that the distinc-
tion implied in the combination of these terms is an extremely
vague one, especially from the chronological point of view.
The following considerations will probably make this clear.
The characteristic tenet of orthodox Brahmanism consists
in the conception of an absolute, all-embracing spirit, the Brahma
(neutr.), being the one and only reality, itself un- coaaexloa
conditioned, and the original cause and ultimate with
goal of all individual souls (jiva, i.e. living things). Brah-
Coupled with this abstract conception are two other tnanlsm -
doctrines, viz. first, the transmigration of souls (samsara),
regarded by Indian thinkers as the necessary complement of
a belief in the essential sameness of all the various spiritual
units, however contaminated, to a greater or less degree, they
may be by their material embodiment; and in their ultimate
re-union with the Paramatman, or Supreme Self; and second,
the assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless working
of that Absolute Spirit as a creative, conservative and destruc-
tive principle, represented respectively by the divine per-
sonalities of Brahma (masc.), Vishnu and Siva, forming the
Trimurti or Triad. As regards this latter, purely exoteric,
doctrine, there can be little doubt of its owing its origin to
considerations of theological expediency, as being calculated
to supply a sufficiently wide formula of belief for general ac-
ceptance; and the very fact of this divine triad including the
two principal deities of the later sectarian worship, Vishnu and
Siva, goes far to show that these two gods at all events must have
been already in those early days favourite objects of popular
adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored
by a diplomatic priesthood bent upon the formulation of a
common creed. Thus, so far from sectarianism being a mere
modern development of Brahmanism, it actually goes back
to beyond the formulation of the Brahmanical creed. Nay,
when, on analysing the functions and attributes of those two
divine figures, each of them is found to be but a compound of
several previously recognized deities, sectarian worship may
well be traced right up to the Vedic age. That the theory of
the triple manifestation of the deity was indeed only a com-
promise between Brahmanical aspirations and popular worship,
probably largely influenced by the traditional sanctity of the
number three, is sufficiently clear from the fact that, whilst
Brahma, the creator, and at the same time the very embodi-
ment of Brahmanical class pride, has practically remained a
mere figurehead in the actual worship of the people, Siva, on
the other hand, so far from being merely the destroyer, is also
the unmistakable representative of generative and reproductive
power in nature. In fact, Brahma, having performed his legiti-
mate part in the mundane evolution by his original creation
of the universe, has retired into the background, being, as it
were, looked upon as functus officio, like a venerable figure of
a former generation, whence in epic poetry he is commonly
styled pitamaha, " the grandsire." But despite the artificial
character of the Trimurli, it has retained to this day at least its
theoretical validity in orthodox Hinduism, whilst it has also
undoubtedly exercised considerable influence in shaping sectarian
belief, in promoting feelings of toleration towards the claims
502
HINDUISM
of rival deities; and in a tendency towards identifying divine
figures newly sprung into popular favour with one or other of
the principal deities, and thus helping to bring into vogue that
notion of avatars, or periodical descents or incarnations of the
deity, which has become so prominent a feature of the later
sectarian belief.
Under more favourable political conditions, 1 the sacerdotal
class might perhaps, in course of time, have succeeded in imposing
something like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous
medley of races and tribes scattered over the peninsula, just
as they certainly did succeed in establishing the social prerogative
of their own order over the length and breadth of India. They
were, however, fated to fall far short of such a consummation;
and at -all times orthodox Brahmanism has had to wink at,
or ignore, all manner of gross superstitions and repulsive
practices, along with the popular worship of countless hosts of
godlings, demons, spirits and ghosts, and mystic objects and
symbols of every description. Indeed, according to a recent
account by a close observer of the religious practices prevalent
in southern India, fully four-fifths of the people of the Dravidian
race, whilst nominally acknowledging the spiritual guidance
of the Brahmans, are to this day practically given over to the
worship of their nondescript local village deities (grama-devata) ,
usually attended by animal sacrifices frequently involving the
slaughter, under revolting circumstances, of thousands of
victims. Curiously enough these local deities are nearly all of
the female, not the male sex. In the estimation of these people
" Siva and Vishnu may be more dignified beings, but the village
deity is regarded as a more present help in trouble, and more
intimately concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the
villagers. The origin of this form of Hinduism is lost in antiquity,
but it is probable that it represents a pre-Aryan religion, more
or less modified in various parts of south India by Brahmanical
influence. At the same time, many of the deities themselves
are of quite recent origin, and it is easy to observe a deity in
making even at the present day." 2 It is a significant fact that,
whilst in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, at which no animal
sacrifices are offered, the officiating priests are almost invariably
Brahmans, this is practically never the case at the popular
performance of those " gloomy and weird rites for the propitia-
tion of angry deities, or the driving away of evil spirits, when
the pujaris (or ministrants) are drawn from all other castes,
even from the Pariahs, the out-caste section of Indian society."
As from the point of view of religious belief, so also from
that of social organization no clear line of demarcation can be
Caste drawn between Brahmanism and Hinduism. Though
it was not till later times that the network of class
divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the degree of
intricacy which it shows in these latter days, still in its origin the
caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of Brah-
manism, and may even be said to be of the very essence of it. 3
The cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the
preservation of purity of descent, and purity of religious belief
and ceremonial usage. Now, that same principle had been
operative from the very dawn of the history of Aryanized India.
The social organism of the Aryan tribe did not probably differ
essentially from that of most communities at that primitive
stage of civilization; whilst the body of the people the ViS
(or aggregate of Vaisyas) would be mainly occupied with
agricultural and pastoral pursuits, two professional classes
those of the warrior and the priest had already made good their
claim to social distinction. As yet, however, the tribal com-
munity would still feel one in race and traditional usage. But
1 " It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can
best represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform
worked upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized
and executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the
Holy Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic." Sir Alfred C.
Lyall, Asiatic Studies, \. 2.
* Henry Whitehead, D.D., bishop of Madras, The Village Deities
of Southern India (Madras, 1907).
3 " The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious
basis." Sir A. C. Lyall, Brahmanism. '
when the fair-coloured Aryan immigrants first came in contact
with, and drove back or subdued the dark-skinned race that
occupied the northern plains doubtless the ancestors of the
modern Dravidian people the preservation of their racial
type and traditionary order of things would naturally become
to them a matter of serious concern. In the extreme north-
western districts the Punjab and Rajputana, judging from
the fairly uniform physical features of the present population
of these parts they seem to have been signally successful in
their -endeavour to preserve their racial purity, probably by
being able to clear a sufficiently extensive area of the original
occupants for themselves with their wives and children to
settle upon. The case was, however, very different in the
adjoining valley of the Jumna and Ganges, the sacred Madhya-
desa or Middle-land of classical India. Here the Aryan immi-
grants were not allowed to establish themselves without under-
going a considerable admixture of foreign blood. It must
remain uncertain whether it was that the thickly-populated
character of the land scarcely admitted of complete occupa-
tion, but only of a conquest by an army of fighting men, starting
from the Aryanized region who might, however, subsequently
draw women of their own kin after them or whether, as has
been suggested, a second Aryan invasion of India took place
at that time through the mountainous tracts of the upper Indus
and northern Kashmir, where the nature of the road would
render it impracticable for the invading bands to be accompanied
by women and children. Be this as it may, the physical appear-
ance of the population of this central region of northern India
Hindustan and Behar clearly points to an intermixture of
the tall, fair-coloured, fine-nosed Aryan with the short-sized,
dark-skinned, broad-nosed Dravidian; the latter type becoming
more pronounced towards the lower strata of the social order. 4
Now, it was precisely in this part of India that mainly arose
the body of literature which records the gradual rise of the
Brahmanical hierarchy and the early development of the caste-
system.
The problem that now lay before the successful invaders
was how to deal with the indigenous people, probably vastly
outnumbering them, without losing their own racial identity.
They dealt with them in the way the white race usually deals
with the coloured race they kept them socially apart. The
land being appropriated by the conquerors, husbandry, as the
most respectable industrial occupation, became the legitimate
calling of the Aryan settler, the Vaisya ; whilst handicrafts,
gradually multiplying with advancing civilization and menial
service, were assigned to the subject race. The generic name
applied to the latter was Siidra, originally probably the name
of one of the subjected tribes. So far the social development
proceeded on lines hardly differing from those with which one
is familiar in the history of other nations. The Indo-Aryans,
however, went a step farther. What they did was not only to
keep the native race apart from social intercourse with them-
selves, but to shut them out from all participation in their own
higher aims, and especially in their own religious convictions
and ceremonial practices. So far from attempting to raise
their standard of spiritual life, or even leaving it to ordinary
intercourse to gradually bring about a certain community of
intellectual culture and religious sentiment, they deliberately
set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own traditional
modes of worship from being contaminated with the obnoxious
practices of the servile race. The serf, the Siidra, was not to
worship the gods of the Aryan freemen. The result was the
system of four castes (varna, i.e. "colour"; or jdti, "gens").
Though the Brahman, who by this time had firmly secured his
supremacy over the kshatriya, or noble, in matters spiritual
as well as in legislative and administrative functions, would
naturally be the prime mover in this regulation of the social
4 Thus, in ;Berar, " there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the
dregs of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races
which have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become
fused with the general community, while these same races are still
distinct tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle." Sir Alfred C.
Lyall, As. St., i. 6.
HINDUISM
503
order, there seems no reason to believe that the other two upper
classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary
privileges thus perpetuated by divine sanction. Nothing,
indeed, is more remarkable in the whole development of the
caste-system than the jealous pride which every caste, from the
highest to the lowest, takes in its own peculiar occupation and
sphere of life. The distinctive badge of a member of the three
upper castes was the sacred triple cord or thread (sutra) made
of cotton, hemp or wool, according to the respective caste
with which he was invested at the upanayana ceremony, or
initiation into the use of the sacred savitri, or prayer to the sun
(also called gdyatri), constituting his second birth. Whilst the
Arya was thus a dvi-ja, or twice-born, the Sudra remained
unregenerate during his lifetime, his consolation being the hope
that, on the faithful performance of his duties in this life, he
might hereafter be born again into a higher grade of life. In
later times, the strict adherence to caste duties would naturally
receive considerable support from the belief in the transmigration
of souls, already prevalent before Buddha's time, and from the
very general acceptance of the doctrine of karma (" deed "),
or retribution, according to which a man's present station and
manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his actions and
thoughts in his former existence; as his actions here will again,
by the same automatic process of retribution, determine his
status and condition in his next existence. Though this
doctrine is especially insisted upon in Buddhism, and its
designation as a specific term (Pali, Kamma) may be due to
that creed, the notion itself was doubtless already prevalent in
pre-Buddhist times. It would even seem to be necessarily and
naturally implied in Brahmanical belief in metempsychosis;
whilst in the doctrine of Buddha, who admits no soul, the
theory of the net result or fruit of a man's actions serving here-
after to form or condition the existence of some new individual
who will have no conscious identity with himself, seems of a
peculiarly artificial and mystic character. But, be this as it
may, " the doctrine of karma is certainly one of the firmest
beliefs of all classes of Hindus, and the fear that a man shall
reap as he has sown is an appreciable element in the average
morality . . . the idea of forgiveness is absolutely wanting;
evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious deeds so
far as to ensure a better existence in the future, but it is not
effaced, and must be atoned for " (Census Report, i. 364).
In spite, however, of the artificial restrictions placed on the
intermarrying of the castes, the mingling of the two races seems
to have proceeded at a tolerably rapid rate. Indeed, the paucity
of women of the Aryan stock would probably render these
mixed unions almost a necessity from the very outset; and the
vaunted purity of blood which the caste rules were calculated
to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more than a
relative degree even in the case of the Brahman caste. Certain
it is that mixed castes are found referred to at a com-
paratively early period; and at the time of Buddha some
five or six centuries before the Christian era the social
organization would seem to have presented an appearance
not so very unlike that of modern times. It must be con-
fessed, however, that our information regarding the develop-
ment of the caste-system is far from complete, especially in
its earlier stages. Thus, we are almost entirely left to conjecture
on the important point as to the original social organization
of the subject race. Though doubtless divided into different
tribes scattered over an extensive tract of land, the subjected
aborigines were slumped together under the designation of
Sudras, whose duty it was to serve the upper classes in all the
various departments of manual labour, save those of a downright
sordid and degrading character which it was left to vralyas or
outcasts to perform. How, then, was the distribution of crafts
and habitual occupations of all kinds brought about? Was
the process one of spontaneous growth adapting an already
existing social organization to a new order of things; or was
it originated and perpetuated by regulation from above? Or
was it rather that the status and duties of existing offices and
trades came to be determined and made hereditary by some
such artificial system as that by which the Theodosian Code
succeeded for a time in organizing the Roman society in the
5th century of our era ? " It is well known " (says Professor
Dill) " that the tendency of the later Empire was to stereotype
society, by compelling men to follow the occupation of their
fathers, and preventing a free circulation among different
callings and grades of life. The man who brought the grain
from Africa to the public stores at Ostia, the baker who made
it into loaves for distribution, the butchers who brought pigs
from Samnium, Lucania or Bruttium, the purveyors of wine
and oil, the men who fed the furnaces of the public baths, were
bound to their callings from one generation to another. It was
the principle of rural serfdom applied to social functions. Every
avenue of escape was closed. A man was bound to his calli'ng
not only by his father's but also by his mother's condition.
Men were not permitted to marry out of their gild. If the
daughter of one of the baker caste married a man not belonging
to it, her husband was bound to her father's calling. Not even
a dispensation obtained by some means from the imperial
chancery, not even the power of the Church could avail to break
the chain of servitude." It can hardly be gainsaid that these
artificial arrangements bear a very striking analogy to those
of the Indian caste-system; and if these class restrictions were
comparatively short-lived on Italian ground, it was not perhaps
so much that so strange a plant found there an ethnic soil less
congenial to its permanent growth, but because it was not
allowed sufficient time to become firmly rooted; for already
great political events were impending which within a few decades
were to lay the mighty empire in ruins. In India, on the other
hand, the institution of caste even if artificially contrived
and imposed by the Indo-Aryan priest and ruler had at least
ample time allowed it to become firmly established in the social
habits, and even in the affections, of the people. At the same
time, one could more easily understand how such a system
could have found general acceptance all over the Dravidian
region of southern India, with its merest sprinkling of Aryan
blood, if it were possible to assume that class arrangements
of a similar kind must have already been prevalent amongst
the aboriginal tribes prior to the advent of the Aryan. Whether
a more intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs
of those rude tribes that have hitherto kept themselves com-
paratively free from Hindu influences may yet throw some
light on this question, remains to be seen. But, by this as it
may, the institution of caste, when once established, certainly
appears to have gone on steadily developing; and not even the
long period of Buddhist ascendancy, with its uncompromising
resistance to the Brahman's claim to being the sole arbiter
in matters of faith, seems to have had any very appreciable
retardant effect upon the progress of the movement. It was not
only by the formation of ever new endogamous castes and
sub-castes that the system gained in extent and intricacy, but
even more so by the constant subdivision of the castes into
numerous exogamous groups or septs, themselves often involving
gradations of social status important enough to seriously affect
the possibility of intermarriage, already hampered by various
other restrictions. Thus a man wishing to marry his son or
daughter had to look for a suitable match outside his sept, but
within his caste. But whilst for his son he might choose a wife
from a lower sept than his own, for his daughter, on the other
hand, the law of hypergamy compelled him, if at all possible,
to find a husband in a higher sept. This would naturally lead
to an excess of women over men in the higher septs, and would
render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably
married without paying a high price for a suitable bridegroom
and incurring other heavy marriage expenses. It can hardly
be doubted that this custom has been largely responsible for
the crime of female infanticide, formerly so prevalent in India;
as it also probably is to some extent for infant marriages, still
too common in some parts of India, especially Bengal; and
even for the all but universal repugnance to the re-marriage
of widows, even when these had been married in early childhood
and had never joined their husbands. Yet violations of these
54
HINDUISM
rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept,
and are liable in accordance with the general custom in which
communal matters are regulated in India -to be brought before
a special council (panchdyat) , originally consisting of five (pane/to),
but now no longer limited to that number, since it is chiefly
the greater or less strictness in the observance of caste rules and
the orthodox ceremonial generally that determine the status
of the sept in the social scale of the caste. Whilst community
of occupation was an important factor in the original formation
of non-tribal castes, the practical exigencies of life have led to
considerable laxity in this respect not least so in the case of
Brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would
seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions
of their caste. Thus, " the prejudice against eating cooked food
that has been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong
that, although the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food
cooked by a Kshatriya or Vaisya, yet the Brahmans, in most
parts of the country, would not eat such food. For these reasons,
every Hindu household whether Brahman, Kshatriya or Sudra
that can afford to keep a paid cook generally entertains the
services of a Brahman for the performance of its cuisine the
result being that in the larger towns the very name of Brahman
has suffered a strange degradation of late, so as to mean only a
cook " (Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects).
In this caste, however, as in all others, there are certain kinds
of occupation to which a member could not turn for a livelihood
without incurring serious defilement. In fact, adherence to
the traditional ceremonial and respectability of occupation
go very much hand-in-hand. Thus, amongst agricultural castes,
those engaged in vegetable-growing or market-gardening are
inferior to the genuine peasant or yeoman, such as the Jat and
Rajput; whilst of these the Jat who practises widow-marriage
ranks below the Rajput who prides himself on his tradition
of ceremonial orthodoxy though racially there seems little,
if any, difference between the two; and the Rajput, again, is
looked down upon by the Babhan of Behar because he does not,
like himself, scruple to handle the plough, instead of invariably
employing low-caste men for this manual labour. So also
when members of the Baidya, or physician, caste of Bengal,
ranging next to that of the Brahman, farm land on tenure,
" they will on no account hold the plough, or engage in any
form of manual labour, and thus necessarily carry on their
cultivation by means of hired servants " (H. H. Risley, Census
Report).
The scale of social precedence as recognized by native public
opinion is concisely reviewed (ib.) as revealing itself " in the facts
that particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives
of one or other of the original castes of the theoretical Hindu system ;
that Brahmans will take water from certain castes; that Brahmans
of high standing will serve particular castes; that certain castes,
though not served by the best Brahmans, have nevertheless got
Brahmans of their own whose rank varies according to circumstances ;
that certain castes are not served by Brahmans at all but have
priests of their owti; that the status of certain castes has been
raised by their taking to infant-marriage or abandoning the re-
marriage of widows; that the status of others has been modified
by their pursuing some occupations in a special or peculiar way;
that some can claim the services of the village barber, the village
palanquin-bearer, the village midwife, &c., while others cannot;
that some castes may not enter the courtyards of certain temples ;
that some castes are subject to special taboos, such as that they
must not use the village well, or may draw water only with their
own vessels, that they must live outside the village or in a separate
quarter, that they must leave the road on the approach of a high-
caste man and must call out to give warning of their approach." . .
" The first point to observe is the predominance throughout India
of the influence of the traditional system of four original castes.
In every scheme of grouping the Brahman heads the list. Then
come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern
representatives of the Kshatriyas; and these are followed by the
mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the Vaisyas. When we
leave the higher circles of the twice-born, the difficulty of finding a
uniform basis of classification becomes apparent. The ancient
designation Sudra finds no great favour in modern times, and we
can point to no group that is generally recognized as representing
it. The term is used in Bombay, Madras and Bengal to denote
a considerable number of castes of moderate respectability, the higher
of whom are considered ' clean ' Sudras, while the precise status
of the lower is a question which lends itself to endless controversy."
. . . In northern and north-western India, on the other hand,
" the grade next below the twice-born rank is occupied by a number
of castes from whose hands Brahmans and members of the higher
castes will take water and certain kinds of sweetmeats. Below
these again is rather an indeterminate group from whom water is-
taken by some of the higher castes, not by others. Further down,
where the test of water no longer applies, the status of the caste
depends on the nature of its occupation and its habits in respect of
diet. There are castes whose touch defiles the twice-born, but who-
do not commit the crowning enormity of eating beef .... In
western and southern India the idea that the social state of a
caste depends on whether Brahmans will take water and sweetmeats
from its members is unknown, for the higher castes will as a rule
take water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste.
In Madras especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity
of an unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration.
Thus the table of social precedence attached to the Cochin report
shows that while a Nayar can pollute a man of a higher caste only
by touching him, people of the Kammalan group, including masons,
blacksmiths, carpenters and workers in leather, pollute at a distance
of 24 ft., toddy-drawers at 36 ft., Pulayan or Cneruman cultivators
at 48 ft., while in the case of the Paraiyan (Pariahs) who eat beef
the range of pollution is no less than 64 ft."
In this bewildering maze of social grades and class distinctions,
the Brahman, as will have been seen, continues to hold the
dominant position, being respected and even worshipped by all
the others. " The more orthodox Sudras carry their veneration
for the priestly class to such a degree that they will not cross
the shadow of a Brahman, and it is not unusual for them to be
under a vow not to eat any food in the morning, before drinking
Bipracharanamrita, i.e. water in which the toe of a Brahman
has been dipped. On the other hand, the pride of the Brahmans
is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods
worshipped in a Sudra's house by Brahman priests " (Jog.
Nath Bh.). There are, however, not a few classes of Brahmans
who, for various reasons, have become degraded from their high
station, and formed separate castes with whom respectable
Brahmans refuse to intermarry and consort. Chief amongst
these are the Brahmans who minister for " unclean " Sudras
and lower castes, including the makers and dealers in spirituous
liquors; as well as those who officiate at the great public shrines
or places of pilgrimage where they might be liable to accept
forbidden gifts, and, as a matter of fact, often amass considerable
wealth; and those who officiate as paid priests at cremations and
funeral rites, when the wearing apparel and bedding of the de-
ceased are not unfrequently claimed by them as their perquisites.
As regards the other two " twice-born " castes, several
modern groups do indeed claim to be their direct descendants,
and in vindication of their title make it a point to perform the
upanayana ceremony and to wear the sacred thread. But
though the Brahmans, too, will often acquiesce in the reasonable-
ness of such claims, it is probably only as a matter of policy
that they do so, whilst in reality they regard the other two
higher castes as having long since disappeared and been merged
by miscegenation in the Sudra mass. Hence, in the later classical
Sanskrit literature, the term dvija, or twice-born, is used simply
as a synonym for a Brahman. As regards the numerous groups
included under the term of Sudras, the distinction between
" clean " and " unclean " Sudras is of especial importance for
the upper classes, inasmuch as only the former of whom nine
distinct castes are usually recognized are as a rule considered
fit for employment in household service.
The picture thus presented by Hindu society as made up of a
confused congeries of social groups of the most varied standing,
each held together and kept separate from others
by a traditional body of ceremonial rules and by the
notion of social gradations being due to a divinely
instituted order of things finds something like a counterpart
in the religious life of the people. As in the social sphere, so also
in the sphere of religious belief, we find the whole scale of types
represented from the lowest to the highest; and here as there,
we meet with the same failure of welding the confused mass
into a well-ordered whole. In their theory of a triple manifesta-
tion of an impersonal deity, the Brahmanical theologians, as
we have seen, had indeed elaborated a doctrine which might
have seemed to form a reasonable, authoritative creed for
HINDUISM
505
a community already strongly imbued with pantheistic notions;
yet, at best, that creed could only appeal to the sympathies of
a comparatively limited portion of the people. Indeed, the
sacerdotal class themselves had made its universal acceptance
an impossibility, seeing that their laws, by which the relations
of the classes were to be regulated, aimed at permanently ex-
cluding the entire body of aboriginal tribes from the religious
life of their Aryan masters. They were to be left for all time
coming to their own traditional idolatrous notions and practices.
However, the two races could not, in the nature of things, be
permanently kept separate from each other. Indeed, even
prior to the definite establishment of the caste-system, the
mingling of the lower race with the upper classes, especially
with the aristocratic landowners and still more so with the
yeomanry, had probably been going on to such an extent as to
have resulted in two fairly well-defined intermediate types of
colour between the priestly order and the servile race and to have
facilitated the ultimate division into four " colours " (varna).
In course of time the process of intermingling, as we have seen,
assumed such proportions that the priestly class, in their pride
of blood, felt naturally tempted to recognize, as of old, only
two " colours," the Aryan Brahman and the non-Aryan Sudra.
Under these conditions the religious practices of the lower race
could hardly have failed in the long run to tell seriously upon the
spiritual life of the lay body of the Brahmanical community.
To what extent this may have been the case, our limited know-
ledge of the early phases of the sectarian worship of the people
does not enable us to determine. But, on the other hand, the
same process of racial intermixture also tended to gradually
draw the lower race more or less under the influence of the Brah-
manical forms of worship, and thus contributed towards the
shaping of the religious system of modern Hinduism. The
grossly idolatrous practices, however, still so largely prevalent
in the Dravidian South, show how superficial, after all, that
influence has been in those parts of India where the admixture
of Aryan blood has been so slight as to have practically had no
effect on the racial characteristics of the people. These present-
day practices, and the attitude of the Brahman towards them,
help at all events to explain the aversion with which the strange
rites of the subjected tribes were looked upon by the worshippers
of the Vedic pantheon. At the same time, in judging the ap-
parently inhuman way in which the Sudras were treated in the
caste rules, one has always to bear in mind the fact that the
belief in metempsychosis was already universal at the time, and
seemed to afford the only rational explanation of the apparent
injustice involved in the unequal distribution of the good things
in this world; and that, if the Sudra was strictly excluded from
the religious rites and beliefs of the superior classes, this exclusion
in no way involved the question of his ultimate emancipation
and his union with the Infinite Spirit, which were as certain in
his case as in that of any other sentient being. What it did make
impossible for him was to attain that union immediately on the
cessation of his present life, as he would first have to pass through
higher and purer stages of mundane existence before reaching
that goal; but in this respect he only shared the lot of all but
a very few of the saintliest in the higher spheres of life, since
the ordinary twice-born would be liable to sink, after his present
life, to grades yet lower than that of the Sudra.
To what extent the changes, which the religious belief of the
Aryan classes underwent in post- Vedic times, may have been
due to aboriginal influences is a question not easily answered,
though the later creeds offer only too many features in which
one might feel inclined to suspect influences of that kind. The
literary documents, both in Sanskrit and Pali, dating from about
the time of Buddha onwards particularly the two epic poems,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana still show us in the main the
personnel of the old pantheon; but the character of the gods has
changed; they have become anthropomorphized and almost
purely mythological figures. A number of the chief gods,
sometimes four, but generally eight of them, now appear as
lokapdas or world-guardians, having definite quarters or
intermediate quarters of the compass assigned to them as their
special domains. One of them, Kubera, the god of wealth, is
a new figure; whilst another, Varuna, the most spiritual and
ethical of Vedic deities the king of the gods and the universe;
the nightly, star-spangled firmament has become the Indian
Neptune, the god of waters. Indra, their chief, is virtually a
kind of superior raja, residing in svarga, and as such is on visiting
terms with earthly kings, driving about in mid-air with his
charioteer Matali. As might happen to any earth-lord, Indra
is actually defeated in battle by the son of the demon-king
of Lanka (Ceylon), and kept there a prisoner till ransomed
by Brahma and the gods conferring immortality on his con-
queror. A quaint figure in the pantheon of the heroic age is
Hanuman, the deified chief of monkeys probably meant to
represent the aboriginal tribes of southern India whose wonder-
ful exploits as Rama's ally on the expedition to Lanka Indian
audiences will never weary of hearing recounted. The Gand-
harvas figure already in the Veda, either as a single divinity,
or as a class of genii, conceived of as the body-guard of Soma
and as connected with the moon! In the later Vedic times
they are represented as being fond of and dangerous to, women;
the Apsaras, apparently originally water-nymphs, being closely
associated with them. In the heroic age the Gandharvas have
become the heavenly minstrels plying their art at Indra's court,
with the Apsaras as their wives or mistresses. These fair
damsels play, however, yet another part, and one far from
complimentary to the dignity of the gods. In the epics consider-
able merit is attached to a life of seclusion and ascetic practices
by means of which man is considered capable of acquiring
supernatural powers equal or even superior to those of the gods
a notion perhaps not unnaturally springing from the pantheistic
conception. Now, in cases of danger being threatened to their
own ascendancy by such practices, the gods as a rule proceed
to employ the usually successful expedient of despatching
some lovely nymph to lure the saintly men back to worldly
pleasures. Seeing that the epic poems, as repeated by pro-
fessional reciters, either in their original Sanskrit text, or in their
vernacular versions, as well as dramatic compositions based
on them, form to this day the chief source of intellectual enjoy-
ment for most Hindus, the legendary matter contained in these
heroic poems, however marvellous and incredible it may appear,
still enters largely into the religious convictions of the people.
" These popular recitals from the Ramayan are done into
Gujarati in easy, flowing narrative verse ... by Premanand,
the sweetest of our bards. They are read out by an intelligent
Brahman to a mixed audience of all classes and both sexes.
It has a perceptible influence on the Hindu character. I believe
the remarkable freedom from infidelity which is to be seen in
most Hindu families, in spite of their strange gregarious habits,
can be traced to that influence; and little wonder " (B. M.
Malabari, Gujarat and the Gujaralis). Hence also the universal
reverence paid to serpents (nagd) since those early days; though
whether it simply arose from the superstitious dread inspired
by the insidious reptile so fatal to man in India, or whether the
verbal coincidence with the name of the once-powerful non-
Aryan tribe of Nagas had something to do with it must remain
doubtful. Indian myth represents them as a race of demons
sprung from Kadru, the wife of the sage Kasyapa, with a jewel
in their heads which gives them their sparkling look; and
inhabiting one of the seven beautiful worlds below the earth
(and above the hells), where they are ruled over by three chiefs
or kings, Sesha, Vasuki and Takshaka; their fair daughters
often entering into matrimonial alliances with men, like the
mermaids of western legend.
In addition to such essentially mythological conceptions, we
meet in the religious life of this period with an element of more
serious aspect in the two gods, on one or other of whom the
religious fervour of the large majority of Hindus has ever since
concentrated itself, viz. Vishnu and Siva. Both these divine
figures have grown out of Vedic conceptions the genial Vishnu
mainly out of a not very prominent solar deity of the same name;
whilst the stern Siva, i.e. the kind or gracious one doubt-
less a euphemistic name has his prototype in the old fierce
HINDUISM
storm-god Rudra, the " Roarer," with certain additional features
derived from other deities, especially Pushan, the guardian of
flocks and bestower of prosperity, worked up therewith. The
exact process of the evolution of the two deities and their advance
in popular favour are still somewhat obscure. In the epic poems
which may be assumed to have taken their final shape in the
early centuries before and after the Christian era, their popular
character, so strikingly illustrated by their inclusion in the
Brahmanical triad, appears in full force; whilst their cult
is likewise attested by the coins and inscriptions of the early
centuries of our era. The co-ordination of the two gods in the
Trimurti does not by any means exclude a certain rivalry between
them; but, on the contrary, a supreme position as the true
embodiment of the Divine Spirit is claimed for each of them
by their respective votaries, without, however, an honourable,
if subordinate, place being refused to the rival deity, wherever
the latter, as is not infrequently the case, is not actually repre-
sented as merely another form of the favoured god. Whilst
at times a truly monotheistic fervour manifests itself in the
adoration of these two gods, the polytheistic instincts of the
people did not fail to extend the pantheon by groups of new
deities in connexion with them. Two of such new gods actually
pass as the sons of Siva and his consort Parvati, viz. Skanda
also called Kumara (the youth), Karttikeya, or Subrahmanya
(in the south) the six-headed war-lord of the gods; and
Ganese, the lord (or leader) of Siva's troupes of attendants, being
at the same time the elephant-headed, paunch-bellied god of
wisdom; whilst a third, Kama (Kamadeva) or Kandarpa, the
god of love, gets his popular epithet of Ananga, " the bodiless,"
from his having once, in frolicsome play, tried the power of his
arrows upon Siva, whilst engaged in austere practices, when
a single glance from the third (forehead) eye of the angry god
reduced the mischievous urchin to ashes. For his chief attendant,
the great god (Mahadeva, Mahesvara) has already with him
the " holy " Nandi presumably, though his shape is not
specified, identical in form as in name with Siva's sacred bull
of later times, the appropriate symbol of the god's reproductive
power. But, in this repect, we also meet in the epics with the
first clear evidence of what in after time became the promi-
nent feature of the worship of Siva and his consort all over
India, viz. the feature represented by the linga, or phallic
symbol.
As regards Vishnu, the epic poems, including the supplement
to the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, supply practically the
entire framework of legendary matter on which the later Vaish-
nava creeds are based. The theory of Avataras which makes
the deity also variously called Narayana, Purushottama,
or Vasudeva periodically assume some material form in order
to rescue the world from some great calamity, is fully developed;
the ten universally recognized " descents " being enumerated
in the larger poem. Though Siva, too, assumes various forms,
the incarnation theory is peculiarly characteristic of Vaishnav-
ism; and the fact that the principal hero of the Ramayana
(Rama), and one of the prominent warriors of the Mahabharata
(Krishna) become in this way identified with the supreme god,
and remain to this day the chief objects of the adoration of
Vaishnava sectaries, naturally imparts to these creeds a human
interest and sympathetic aspect which is wholly wanting in
the worship of Siva. It is, however, unfortunately but too true
that in some of these creeds the devotional ardour has developed
features of a highly objectionable character.
Even granting the reasonableness of the triple manifestation of
the Divine Spirit, how is one to reconcile all these idolatrous
practices, this worship of countless gods and godlings, demons and
spirits indwelling in every imaginable object round about us, with
the pantheistic doctrine of the Ekam Advitiyam, " the One without
a Second "? The Indian theosophist would doubtless have little
difficulty in answering that question. For him there is only the
One Absolute Being, the one reality that is all in all ; whilst all the
phenomenal existences and occurrences that crowd upon our senses
are nothing more than an illusion of the individual soul estranged
for a time from its divine source an illusion only to be dispelled
in the end by the soul's fuller knowledge of its own true nature
and its being one with the eternal fountain of blissful being. But
to the man of ordinary understanding, unused to the rarefied atmo-
sphere of abstract thought, this conception of a transcendental,
impersonal Spirit and the unreality of the phenomenal world can
have no meaning: what he requires is a deity that stands in intimate
relation to things material and to all that affects man's life. Hence
the exoteric theory of manifestations of the Supreme Spirit; and
that not only the manifestations implied in the triad of gods repre-
senting the cardinal processes of mundane existence creation,
preservation, and destruction or regeneration but even such as
would tend to supply a rational explanation for superstitious
imaginings of every kind. For " the Indian philosophy does not
ignore or hold aloof from the religion of the masses: it underlies,
supports and interprets their polytheism. This may be accounted
the keystone of the fabric of Brahmanism, which accepts and even
encourages the rudest forms of idolatry, explaining everything by
giving it a higher meaning. It treats all the worships as outward,
visible signs of some spiritual truth, and is ready to show how each
particular image or rite is the symbol of some aspect of universal
divinity. The Hindus, like the pagans of antiquity, adore natural
objects and forces a mountain, a river or an animal. The Brahman
holds all nature to be the vesture or cloak of indwelling, divine
energy, which inspires everything that produces awe or passes
man's understanding " (Sir Alfred C. Lyall, Brahminism) .
During the early centuries of our era, whilst Buddhism, where
countenanced by the political rulers, was still holding its own by
the side of Brahmanism, sectarian belief in the Hindu
gods seems to have made steady progress. The caste-
system, always calculated to favour unity of religious
practice within its social groups, must naturally have contributed
to the advance of sectarianism. Even greater was the support
it received later on from the Puranas, a class of poetical works
of a partly legendary, partly discursive and controversial charac-
ter, mainly composed in the interest of special deities, of which
eighteen principal (maka-purana) and as many secondary ones
(upa-purana) are recognized, the oldest of which may go back
to about the 4th century of our era. It was probably also
during this period that the female element was first definitely
admitted to a prominent place amongst the divine objects of
sectarian worship, in the shape of the wives of the principal gods
viewed as their sakti, or female energy, theoretically identi-
fied with the Maya, or cosmic Illusion, of the idealistic Vedanta,
and the Prakrili, or plastic matter, of the materialistic Sankhya
philosophy, as the primary source of mundane things. The
connubial relations of the deities may thus be considered " to
typify the mystical union of the two eternal principles, spirit
and matter, for the production and reproduction of the universe."
But whilst this privilege of divine worship was claimed for
the consorts of all the gods, it is principally to Siva's consort,
in one or other of her numerous forms, that adoration on an
extensive scale came to be offered by a special sect of votaries,
the Saktas.
In the midst of these conflicting tendencies, an -attempt was
made, about the latter part of the 8th century, by the dis-
tinguished Malabar theologian and philosopher San-
kara Acharya to restore the Brahmanical crsed to
something like its pristine purity, and thus once more
to bring about a uniform system of orthodox Hindu belief.
Though himself, like most Brahmans, apparently by predilection
a follower of Siva, his aim was the revival of the doctrine of the
Brahma as the one self -existent Being and the sole cause of
the universe; coupled with the recognition of the practical
worship of the orthodox pantheon, especially the gods of the
Trimurti, as manifestations of the supreme deity. The practical
result of his labours was the foundation of a new sect, the
Smartas, i.e. adherents of the smriti or tradition, which has a
numerous following amongst southern Brahmans, and, whilst
professing Sankara's doctrines, is usually classed as one of the
Saiva sects, its members adopting the horizontal sectarial
mark peculiar to Saivas, consisting in their case of a triple line,
the trlpundra, prepared from the ashes of burnt cow-dung and
painted on the forehead. Sankara also founded four Maths,
or convents, for Brahmans; the chief one being that of Sringeri
in Mysore, the spiritual head (Guru) of which wields consider-
able power, even that of excommunication, over the Saivas of
southern India. In northern India, the professed followers of
Sankara are mainly limited to certain classes of mendicants
Sank-
HINDUISM
507
and ascetics, although the tenets of this great Vedanta teacher
may be said virtually to constitute the creed of intelligent
Brahmans generally.
Whilst Sankara's chief title to fame rests on his philosophical
works, as the upholder of the strict monistic theory of Vedanta, he
doubtless played an important part in the partial remodelling of
the Hindu system of belief at a time when Buddhism was rapidly
losing ground in India. Not that there is any evidence of Buddhists
ever having been actually persecuted by the Brahmans, or still less
of Sankara himself ever having done so; but the traditional belief
in some personal god, as the principal representative of an invisible,
all-pervading deity, would doubtless appeal more directly to the
minds and hearts of the people than the colourless ethical system
promulgated by the Sakya saint. Nor do Buddhist places of worship
appear as a rule to have been destroyed by Hindu sectaries, but
they seem rather to have been taken over by them for their own
religious uses; at any rate there are to this day not a few Hindu
shrines, especially in Bengal, dedicated to Dharmaraj, " the prince
of righteousness," as the Buddha is commonly styled. That the
tenets and practices of so characteristic a faith as Buddhism, so
long prevafent in India, cannot but have left their marks on Hindu
life and belief may readily be assumed, though it is not so easy
to lay one's finger on the precise features that might seem to betray
such an influence. If the general tenderness towards animals,
based on the principle of ahimsa, or inflicting no injury on sentient
beings, be due to Buddhist teaching, that influence must have
made itself felt at a comparatively early period, seeing that senti-
ments of a similar nature are repeatedly urged in the Code of Manu.
Thus, in v. 46-48, " He who does not willingly cause the pain of
confinement and death to living beings, but desires the good of all,
obtains endless bliss. He who injures no creature obtains without
effort what he thinks of, what he strives for, and what he fixes his
mind on. Flesh-meat cannot be procured without injury to animals,
and the slaughter of animals is not conducive to heavenly bliss:
from flesh-meat, therefore, let man abstain." Moreover, in view
of the fact that Jainism, which originated about the same time as
Buddhism, inculcates the same principle, even to an extravagant
degree, it seems by no means improbable that the spirit of kindliness
towards living beings generally was already widely diffused among
the people when these new doctrines were promulgated. To the
same tendency doubtless is due the gradual decline and ultimate
discontinuance of animal sacrifices by all sects except the extreme
branch of Sakti-worshippers. In this respect, the veneration shown
to serpents and monkeys has, however, to be viewed in a some-
what different light, as having a mythical background ; whilst quite
a special significance attaches to the sacred character assigned to
the cow by all classes of Hindus, even those who are not prepared
to admit the claim of the Brahman to the exalted position of the
earthly god usually conceded to him. In the Veda no tendency
shows itself as yet towards rendering divine honour to the cow;
and though the importance assigned her in an agricultural com-
munity is easily understood, still the exact process of her deification
and her identification with the mother earth in the time of Manu
and the epics requires further elucidation. An idealized type of
the useful quadruped likewise often identified with the earth
presents itself in the mythical Cow of Plenty, or " wish-cow "
(Kamadhcnu, or Kamadugha, i.e. wish-milker), already appearing
in the Atharvaveda, and in epic times assigned to Indra, or identified
with Surabhi, " the fragrant," the sacred cow of the sage Vasishtha.
Possibly the growth of the legend of Krishna his being reared at
Go-kula (cow-station) ; his tender relations to the gopis, or cow-
herdesses, of Vrindavana; his epithets Gopala, "the cowherd,"
and Govinda, " cow-finder," actually explained as " recoverer of
the earth " in the great epic, and the go-loka, or " cow-world,"
assigned to him as his heavenly abode may have some connexion
with the sacred character ascribed to the cow from early times.
Since the time of Sankara, or for more than a thousand years,
the gods Vishnu and Siva, or Hari and Hara as they are also
commonly called with their wives, especially that
p ' of the latter god have shared between them the
practical worship of the vast majority of Hindus. But, though
the people have thus been divided between two different religious
camps, sectarian animosity has upon the whole kept within
reasonable limits. In fact, the respectable Hindu, whilst owning
special allegiance to one of the two gods as his ishta deiiatd
(favourite deity), will not withhold his tribute of adoration from
the other gods of the pantheon. The high-caste Brahman will
probably keep at his home a salagram stone, the favourite
symbol of Vishnu, as well as the characteristic emblems of Siva
and his consort, to both of which he will do reverence in the morn-
ing; and when he visits some holy place of pilgrimage, he will
not fail to pay his homage at both the Saiva and the Vaishnava
shrines there. Indeed, " sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness
are to be found chiefly among the professional leaders of the
modern brotherhoods and their low-caste followers, who are
taught to believe that theirs are the only true gods, and that the
rest do not deserve any reverence whatever " (Jog. Nath).
The same spirit of toleration shows itself in the celebration of
the numerous religious festivals. Whilst some of these e.g.
the Sankranti (called Pongal, i.e. " boiled rice," in the south),
which marks the entrance of the sun into the sign of Capricorn
and the beginning of its northward course (uttarayana) on the
ist day of the month Magha (c. Jan. 1 2) ; the GaneSa-calurthi,
or 4th day of the light fortnight of Bhadra (August-September),
considered the birthday of Ganesa, the god of wisdom; and the
Holi, the Indian Saturnalia in the month of Phalguna (February
to March) have nothing of a sectarian tendency about them ;
others again, which are of a distinctly sectarian character-
such as the Krishna-janmashtami, the birthday of Krishna on
the 8th day of the dark half of Bhadra, or (in the south) of
Sravana (July-August), the Durgapuja and the Dipavali,
or lamp feast, celebrating Krishna's victory over the demon
Narakasura, on the last two days of Asvina (September-October)
are likewise observed and heartily joined in by the whole
community irrespective of sect. Widely different, however, as is
the character of the two leading gods are also the modes of
worship practised by their votaries.
Siva has at all times been the favourite god of the Brahmans, 1
and his worship is accordingly more widely extended than
that of his rival, especially in southern India. Indeed there is
hardly a village in India which cannot boast of a shrine dedicated
to Siva, and containing the emblem of his reproductive power;
for almost the only form in which the " Great God " is adored
is the Linga, consisting usually of an upright cylindrical block
of marble or other stone, mostly resting on a circular perforated
slab. The mystic nature of these emblems seems, however,
to be but little understood by the common people; and, as
H. H. Wilson remarks, " notwithstanding the acknowledged
purport of this worship, it is but justice to state that it is un-
attended in Upper India by any indecent or indelicate cere-
monies, and it requires a rather lively imagination to trace any
resemblance in its symbols to the objects they are supposed
to represent." In spite, however, of its wide diffusion, and
the vast number of shrines dedicated to it, the worship of Siva
has never assumed a really popular character, especially in
northern India, being attended with scarcely any solemnity
or display of emotional spirit. The temple, which usually stands
in the middle of a court, is as a rule a building of very moderate
dimensions, consisting either of a single square chamber, sur-
mounted by a pyramidal structure, or of a chamber for the
linga and a small vestibule. The worshipper, having first circum-
ambulated the shrine as often as he pleases, keeping it at his
right-hand side, steps up to the threshold of the sanctum, and
presents his offering of flowers or fruit, which the officiating
priest receives; he then prostrates himself, or merely lifts
his hands joined so as to leave a hollow space between the
palms to his forehead, muttering a short prayer, and takes
his departure. Amongst the many thousands of Lingas, twelve
are usually regarded as of especial sanctity, one of which, that
of Somnath in Gujarat, where Siva is worshipped as " the lord
of Soma," was, however, shattered by Mahmud of Ghazni;
whilst another, representing Siva as Visvesvara, or " Lord of the
Universe," is the chief object of adoration at Benares, the great
centre of Siva-worship. The Saivas of southern India, on the
other hand, single out as peculiarly sacred five of their temples
which are supposed to enshrine as many characteristic aspects
(linga) of the god in the form of the five elements, the most
holy of these being the shrine of Chidambaram (i.e. " thought-
ether ") in S. Arcot, supposed to contain the ether-linga. Accord-
ing to Pandit S. M. Natesa (Hindu Feasts, Fasts and Ceremonies),
" the several forms of the god Siva in these sacred shrines are
considered to be the bodies or casements of the soul whose
1 Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the present
age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the Brahmans,
and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when pictured,
is always of a dark-blue colour.
508
HINDUISM
Mendi-
cant
orders.
natural bases are the five elements earth, water, fire, air
and ether. The apprehension of God in the last of these five
as ether is, according to the Saiva school of philosophy, the
highest form of worship, for it is not the worship of God in a
tangible form, but the worship of what, to ordinary minds, is
vacuum, which nevertheless leads to the attainment of a know-
ledge of the all-pervading without physical accessories in the
. shape of any linga, which is, after all, an emblem. That this is
the case at Chidambaram is known to every Hindu, for if he
ever asks the priests to show him the God in the temple he is
pointed to an empty space in the holy of holies, which has been
termed the Akasa, or ether-linga." But, however congenial
this refined symbolism may be to the worshipper of a speculative
turn of mind, it is difficult to see how it could ever satisfy the
religious wants of the common man little given to abstract
conceptions of this kind.
From early times, detachment from the world and the practice
of austerities have been regarded in India as peculiarly con-
ducive to a spirit of godliness, and ultimately to a
state of ecstatic communion with the deity. On these
grounds it was actually laid down as a rule for a man
solicitous for his spiritual welfare to pass the last
two of the four stages (asrama) of his life in such conditions of
renunciation and self-restraint. Though there is hardly a sect
which has not contributed its share to the element of religious
mendicancy and asceticism so prevalent in India, it is in con-
nexion with the Siva-cult that these tendencies have been most
extensively cultivated. Indeed, the personality of the stern
God himself exhibits this feature in a very marked degree,
whence the term mahdyogl or " great ascetic " is often applied
to him.
Of Saiva mendicant and ascetic orders, the members of which are
considered more or less followers of Sankara Acharya, the following
may be mentioned: (l) Danifis, or staff-bearers, who carry a wand
with a piece of red cloth, containing the sacred cord, attached to it,
and also wear one or more pieces of cloth of the same colour. They
worship Siva in his form of Bhairava, the " terrible." A sub-section
of this order are the Dandi Dasnamis, or Dandi of ten names, so
called from their assuming one of the names of Sankara's four
disciples, and six of their pupils. (2) Yogis (or popularly, Jogis),
i.e. adherents of the Yoga philosophy and the system of ascetic
practices enjoined by it with the view of mental abstraction and the
supposed attainment of superhuman powers practices which,
when not merely pretended, but rigidly carried out, are only too
apt to produce vacuity of mind and wild fits of frenzy. In these
degenerate days their supernatural powers consist chiefly in con-
juring, sooth-saying, and feats of jugglery, by which they seldom
fail in imposing upon a credulous public. (3) Sannyasis, devotees
who " renounce " earthly concerns, an order not confined either
to the Brahmanical caste or to the Saiva persuasion. Those of the
latter are in the habit of smearing their bodies with ashes, and
wearing a tiger-skin and a necklace or rosary of rudraksha berries
(Elaeocarpus Ganitrus, lit. " Rudra's eye "), sacred to Siva, and
allowing their hair to grow till it becomes matted and filthy. (4)
Parama-hamsas, i.e. " supreme geese (or swans)," a term applied to
the world-soul with which they claim to be identical. This is the
highest order of asceticism, members of which are supposed to be
solely engaged in meditating on the Brahma, and to be " equally
indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible of heat or cold, and in-
capable of satiety or want." Some of them go about naked, but
the majority are clad like the Dandis. (5) Aghora Panthis, a vile
and disreputable class of mendicants, now rarely met with. Their
filthy habits and disgusting practices of gross promiscuous feeding,
even to the extent of eating offal and dead men's flesh, look almost
like a direct repudiation of the strict Brahmanical code of ceremonial
purity and cleanliness, and of the rules regulating the matter and
manner of eating and drinking; and they certainly make them
objects of loathing and terror wherever they are seen.
On the general effect of the manner of life led by Sadhus or " holy
men," a recent observer (J. C. Oman, Mystics, Ascetics and Saints
of India, p. 273) remark.?: " Sadhuism, whether perpetuating the
peculiar idea of the efficiency of austerities for the acquisition of
far-reaching powers over natural phenomena, or bearing its testi-
mony to the belief in the indispensableness of detachment from the
world as a preparation for the ineffable joy of ecstatic communion
with the Divine Being, has undoubtedly tended to keep before
men's eyes, as the highest ideal, a life of purity, self-restraint, and
contempt of the worU and human affairs. It has also necessarily
maintained amongst the laity a sense of the righteous claims of
the poor upon the charity of the more affluent members of the
community. Moreover, sadhuism, by the multiplicity of the inde-
pendent sects which have arisen in India, has engendered and
Avatars.
favoured a spirit of tolerance which cannot escape the notice of the
most superficial observer."
An independent Saiva sect, or, indeed, the only strictly
Saiva sect, are the Vira Saivas, more commonly called Linga-
yats (popularly Lingaits) or Lingavats, from their
practice of wearing on their person a phallic emblem L '"' at
of Siva, made of copper or silver, and usually enclosed lm "'
in a case suspended from the neck by a string. Apparently from
the movable nature of their badge, their Gurus are called Janga-
mas (" movable "). This sect counts numerous adherents in
southern India; the Census Report of 1901 recording nearly
a million and a half, including some 70 or 80 different, mostly
endogamous, castes. The reputed founder, or rather reformer,
of the sect was Basava (or Basaba), a Brahman of the Belgaum
district who seems to have lived in the nth or i2th century.
According to the Basava-purana he early in life renounced his
caste and went to reside at Kalyana, then the capital of the
Chalukya kingdom, and later en at Sangamesvara near Rat-
nagiri, where he was initiated into the Vira Saiva faith which he
subsequently made it his life's work to propagate. His doctrine,
which may be said to constitute a kind of reaction against the
severe sacerdotalism of Sankara, has spread over all classes of
the southern community, most of the priests of Saiva temples
there being adherents of it; whilst in northern India its votaries
are only occasionally met with, and then mostly as mendicants,
leading about a neatly caparisoned bull as representing Siva's
sacred bull Nandi. Though the Lingayats still show a certain
animosity towards the Brahmans, and in the Census lists are
accordingly classes as an independent group beside the Hindus,
still they can hardly be excluded from the Hindu community,
and are sure sooner or later to find iheir way back to the
Brahmanical fold.
Vishnu, whilst less popular with Brahmans than his rival,
has from early times proved to the lay mind a more attractive
object of adoration on account of the genial and,
so to speak, romantic character of his mythical per-
sonality. It is not, however, so much the original figure of the
god himself that enlists the sympathies of his adherents as
the additional elements it has received through the theory of
periodical " descents " (avatara) or incarnations applied to this
deity. Whilst the Saiva philosophers do not approve of .the
notion of incarnations, as being derogatory to the dignity of
the deity, the Brahmans have nevertheless thought fit to adopt
it as apparently a convenient expedient for bringing certain
tendencies of popular worship within the pale of their system,
and probably also for counteracting the Buddhist doctrines;
and for this purpose Vishnu would obviously offer himself as
the most attractive figure in the Brahmanical trinity. Whether
the incarnation theory started from the original solar nature
of the god suggestive of regular visits to the world of men, or
in what other way it may have originated, must remain doubtful.
Certain, however, it is that at least one of his Avatars is clearly
based on the Vedic conception of the sun-god, viz. that of the
dwarf who claims as much ground as he can cover by three steps,
and then gains the whole universe by his three mighty strides.
Of the ten or more Avatars, assumed by different authorities,
only two have entered to any considerable extent into the
religious worship of the people, viz. those of Rama (or Rama-
chandra) and Krishna, the favourite heroes of epic romance.
That these two figures would appeal far more strongly to the
hearts and feelings of the people, especially the warlike Ksha-
triyas, 1 than the austere Siva is only what might have been
expected; and, indeed, since the time of the epics their cult
seems never to have lacked numerous adherents. But, on the
other hand, the essentially human nature of these two gods
1 As in the case of Siva's traditional white complexion, it may
not be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu,
Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed
to them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown re-
spectively. The names of the two heroes meaning simply " black "
or " dark," the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu,
who is also called fUtavasas, dressed in yellow garment, i.e. the
colours of sky and sun combined.
HINDUISM
509
would naturally tend to modify the character of the relations
between worshipper and worshipped, and to impart to the
modes and forms of adoration features of a more popular and
more human kind. And accordingly it is exactly in connexion
with these two incarnations of Vishnu, especially that of Krishna,
that a new spirit was infused into the religious life of the people
by the sentiment of fervent devotion to the deity, as it found
expression in certain portions of the epic poems, especially the
Bhagavadgita, and in the Bhagavatapurana (as against the more
orthodox Vaishnava works of this class such as the Vishnu-
purana), and was formulated into a regular doctrine of faith
in the Sandilya-sutra, and ultimately translated into practice
by the Vaishnava reformers.
The first successful Vaishnava reaction against Sankara's
reconstructed creed was led by Ramanuja, a southern Brahman
of the 1 2th century. His followers, the Ramanujas,
or Sri-Vaishnavas as they are usually called, worship
Vishnu (Narayana) with his consort Sri or Lakshmi
(the goddess of beauty and fortune), or their incarnations Rama
with Sita and Krishna with Rukmini. Ramanuja's doctrine,
which is especially directed against the Linga- worship, is essenti-
ally based on the tenets of an old Vaishnava sect, the Bhagavatas
or Pancharatras, who worshipped the Supreme Being under
the name of Vasudeva (subsequently identified with Krishna,
as the son of Vasudeva, who indeed is credited by some scholars
with the foundation of that monotheistic creed). The sectarial
mark of the Ramanujas resembles a capital U (or, in the case of
another division, a Y), painted with a white clay called gopi-
chandana, between the hair and the root of the nose, with a red
or yellow vertical stroke (representing the female element)
between the two white lines. They also usually wear, like all
Vaishnavas, a necklace of tulasi, or basil wood, and a rosary of
seeds of the same shrub or of the lotus. Their most important
shrines are those of Srirangam near Trichinopoly, Mailkote
in Mysore, Dvaraka (the city of Krishna) on the Kathiawar
coast, and Jagannath in Orissa; all of them decorated with
Vishnu's emblems, the tulasi plant and salagram stone. The
Ramanuja Brahmans are most punctilious in the preparation
of their food and in regard to the privacy of their meals, before
taking which they have to bathe and put on woollen or silk
garments. Whilst Sankara's mendicant followers were pro-
hibited to touch fire and had to subsist entirely on the charity
of Brahman householders, Ramanuja, on the contrary, not only
allowed his followers to use fire, but strictly forbade their eating
any food cooked, or even seen, by a stranger. On the speculative
side, Ramanuja also met Sankara's strictly monistic theory
by another recognizing Vishnu as identical with Brahma as the
Supreme Spirit animating the material world as well as the
individual souls which have become estranged from God through
unbelief, and can only attain again conscious union with him
through devotion or love (bhakti). His tenets are expounded
in various works, especially in his commentaries on the Vedanta-
sutras and the Bhagavadgita. The followers of Ramanuja
have split into two sects, a northern one, recognizing the Vedas
as their chief authority, and a southern one, basing their tenets
on the Nalayir, a Tamil work of the Upanishad order. In point
of doctrine, they differ in their view of the relation between
God Vishnu and the human soul; whilst the former sect define
it by the ape theory, which makes the soul cling to God as the
young ape does to its mother, the latter explain it by the cat
theory, by which Vishnu himself seizes and rescues the souls
as the mother cat does her young ones.
Madhva Acharya, another distinguished Vedanta teacher
and founder of a Vaishnava sect, born in Kanara inA.D. 1199,
was less intolerant of the Linga cult than Ramanuja,
but seems rather to have aimed at a reconciliation of
the Saiva and Vaishnava forms of worship. The Madhvas
or Madhvacharis favour Krishna and his consort as their special
objects of adoration, whilst images of Siva, Parvati, and their
son Ganesa are, however, likewise admitted and worshipped in
some of their temples, the most important of which is at Udipi
in South Kanara, with eight monasteries connected with it.
Ramats.
This shrine contains an image of Krishna which is said to have
been rescued from the wreck of a ship which brought it from
Dvaraka, where it was supposed to have been set up of old by
no other than Krishna's friend Arjuna, one of the five Pandava
princes. Followers of the Madhva creed are but rarely met with
in Upper India. Their sectarial mark is like the U of the Sri-
Vaishnavas, except that their central line is black instead of
red or yellow. Madhva who after his initiation assumed
the name Anandatirtha composed numerous Sanskrit works,
including commentaries on the Brahma sutras (i.e. the Vedanta
aphorisms), the Gita, the Rigveda and many Upanishads.
His philosophical theory was a dualistic one, postulating dis-
tinctness of nature for the divine and the human soul, and
hence independent existence, instead of absorption, after the
completion of mundane existence.
The Ramanandis or Ramavats (popularly Ramats) are a
numerous northern sect of similar tenets to those of the Rama-
nujas. Indeed its founder, Ramananda, who probably
flourished in the latter part of the I4th century,
according to the traditional account, was originally a Sri-
Vaishnava monk, and, having come under the suspicion of laxity
in observing the strict rules of food during his peregrinations,
and been ordered by his superior (Mahant) to take his meals
apart from his brethren, left the monastery in a huff and set
up a schismatic math of his own at Benares. The sectarial
mark of his sect differs but slightly from that of the parent stock.
The distinctive features of their creed consist in their making
Rama and Sita, either singly or conjointly, the chief objects of
their adoration, instead of Vishnu and Lakshmi, and their attach-
ing little or no importance to the observance of privacy in the
cooking and eating of their food. Their mendicant members,
usually known as Vairagis, are, like the general body of the sect,
drawn from all castes without distinction. Thus, the founder's
twelve chief disciples include, besides Brahmans, a weaver,
a currier, a Rajput, a Jatand a barber for, they argue, seeing
that Bhagavan, the Holy One (Vishnu), became incarnate even
in animal form, a Bhakta (believer) may be born even in the
lowest of castes. Ramananda's teaching was thus of a distinctly
levelling and popular character; and, in accordance therewith,
the Bhakta-mala and other authoritative writings of the sect
are composed, not in Sanskrit, but in the popular dialects. A
follower of this creed was the distinguished poet Tulsidas, the
composer of the beautiful Hindi version of the Ramayana and
other works which " exercise more influence upon the great
body of Hindu population than the whole voluminous series
of Sanskrit composition " (H. H. Wilson).
The traditional list of Ramananda's immediate disciples
includes the name of Kabir, the weaver, a remarkable man
who would accordingly have lived in the latter part
of the 1 5th century, and who is claimed by both Hindus
and Moslems as having been born within their fold. The story
goes that, having been deeply impressed by Ramananda's
teaching, he sought to attach himself to him; and, one day
at Benares, in stepping down the ghat at daybreak to bathe
in the Ganges, and putting himself in the way 'of the teacher,
the latter, having inadvertently struck him with his foot, uttered
his customary exclamation " Ram Ram," which, being also
the initiatory formula of the sect, was claimed by Kabir as such,
making him Ramananda's disciple. Be this as it may, Kabir's
own reformatory activity lay in the direction of a compromise
between the Hindu and the Mahommedan creeds, the religious
practices of both of which he criticized with equal severity.
His followers, the Kabir Panthis (" those following Kabir's
path "), though neither worshipping the gods of the pantheon,
nor observing the rites and ceremonial of the Hindus, are never-
theless in close touch with the Vaishnava sects, especially the
Ramavats, and generally worship Rama as the supreme deity,
when they do not rather address their homage, in hymns and
otherwise, to the founder of their creed himself. Whilst very
numerous, particularly amongst the low-caste population, in
western, central and northern India, resident adherents of
Kabir's doctrine are rare in Bengal and the south; although
Kabir.
HINDUISM
" there is hardly a town in India where strolling beggars may
not be found singing songs of Kabir in the original or as trans-
lated into the local dialects." The mendicants of this creed,
however, never actually solicit alms; and, indeed, "the quaker-
like spirit of the sect, their abhorrence of all violence, their
regard for truth and the inobtrusiveness of their opinions render
them very inoffensive members of the state " (H. H. Wilson).
The doctrines of Kabir are taught, mostly in the form of dia-
logues, in numerous Hindi works, composed by his disciples
and adherents, who, however, usually profess to give the teacher's
own words.
The peculiar conciliatory tendencies of Kabir were carried
on with even greater zeal from the latter part of the isth century
by one of his followers, Nanak Shah, the promulgator of the
creed of the Nanak Shahis or Sikhs i.e. (Sanskr.) sishya, dis-
ciples, whose guru, or teacher, he called himself a peaceful
sect at first until, in consequence of Mahommedan persecution,
a martial spirit was infused into it by the tenth, and last, guru,
Govind Shah, changing it into a political organization. Whilst
originally more akin in its principles to the Moslem faith, the sect
seems latterly to have shown tendencies towards drifting back
to the Hindu pale.
Of Ramananda's disciples and successors several others, besides
Kabir, have established schismatic divisions of their own, which
do not, however, offer any very marked differences of creed. The
most important of these, the Dadu Panthi sect, founded by Dadu
about the year 1600, has a numerous following in Ajmir and Marwar,
one section of whom, the Nagas, engage largely in military service,
whilst the others are either householders or mendicants. The
followers of this creed wear no distinctive sectarial mark or badge,
except a skull-cap; nor do they worship any visible image of any
deity, the repetition (japa) of the name of Rama being the only
kind of adoration practised by them.
Although the Vaishnava sects hitherto noticed, in their
adoration of Vishnu and his incarnations, Krishna and Rama-
Erotlclsm chandra, usually associate with these gods their
and wives, as their saklis, or female energies, the sexual
Krishna element is, as a rule, only just allowed sufficient scope
shlp ' to enhance the emotional character of the rites of
worship. In some of the later Vaishnava creeds, on the other
hand, this element is far from being kept within the bounds of
moderation and decency. The favourite object of adoration
with adherents of these sects is Krishna with his mate but
not the devoted friend and counsellor of the Pandavas and
deified hero of epic song, nor the ruler of Dvaraka and wedded
lord of Rukmini, but the juvenile Krishna, Govinda or Bala
Gopala, " the cowherd lad," the foster son of the cowherd Nanda
of Gokula, taken up with his amorous sports with the Gopis,
or wives of the cowherds of Vrindavana (Brindaban,near Mathura
on the Yamuna), especially his favourite mistress Radha or
Radhika. This episode in the legendary life of Krishna has
every appearance of being a later accretion. After barely a few
allusions to it in the epics, it bursts forth full-blown in the
Harivansa, the Vishnu-purana, the Narada-Pancharatra and
the Bhagavata-purana, the tenth canto of which, dealing with
the life of Krishna, has become, through vernacular versions,
especially the Hindi Prem-sagar, or " ocean of love," a favourite
romance all over India, and has doubtless helped largely to
popularize the cult of Krishna. Strange to say, however, no
mention is as yet made by any of these works of Krishna's
favourite Radha; it is only in another Purana though scarcely
deserving that designation that she makes her appearance,
viz. in the Brahma-vaivarta, in which Krishna's amours in
Nanda's cow-station are dwelt upon in fulsome and wearisome
detail; whilst the poet Jayadeva, in the izth century, made
her love for the gay and inconstant boy the theme of his beautiful,
if highly voluptuous, lyrical drama, Gita-govinda.
The earliest of the sects which associate Radha with Krishna in
their worship is that of the Nimavats, founded by Nimbaditya or
Nimbarka (i.e. " the sun of the Nimba tree "), a teacher of un-
certain date, said to have been a Telugu Brahman who subsequently
established himself at Mathura (Muttra) on the Yamuna, where
the headquarters of his sect have remained ever since. The Mahant
of their monastery at Dhruva Kshetra near Mathura, who claims
direct descent from Nimbarka, is said to place the foundation of
that establishment as far back as the 5th century doubtless an
exaggerated claim; but if Jayadeva, as is alleged, and seems by
no means improbable, was really a follower of Nimbarka, this
teacher must have flourished, at latest, in the early part of the
I2th century. He is indeed taken by some authorities to be
identical with the mathematician Bhaskara Acharya, who is known
to have completed his chief work in A.D. 1150. It is worthy of
remark, in this respect, that in accordance with Ramanuja's and
Nimbarka's philosophical theories Jayadeva's presentation of
Krishna's fickle love for Radha is usually interpreted in a mystical
sense, as allegorically depicting the human soul's striving, through
love, for reunion with God, and its ultimate attainment, after many
backslidings, of the longed-for goal. As the chief authority of their
tenets, the Nimavats recognize the Bhagavata-purana; though
several works, ascribed to Nimbarka partly of a devotional char-
acter and partly expository of Vedanta topics are still extant.
Adherents of this sect are fairly numerous in northern India,
their frontal mark consisting of the usual two perpendicular white
lines, with, however, a circular black spot between them.
Of greater importance than the sect just noticed, because of
their far larger following, are the two sects founded early in the
i6th century by Vallabha (Ballabha) Acharya and Chaitanya.
In the forms of worship favoured by votaries of these creeds the
emotional and erotic elements are allowed yet freer scope than in
those that preceded them; and, as an effective auxiliary to these
tendencies, the use of the vernacular dialects in prayers and hymns
of praise takes an important part in the religious service. The
Vallabhacharis, or, as they are usually called, from the title of
their spiritual heads, the Gokulastha Gosains, i.e. "the cow-lords
(gosvamin) residing in Gokula," are very numerous in western and
central India. Vallabha, the son of a Telinga Brahman, after
extensive journeyings all over India, settled at Gokula near
Mathura, and set up a shrine with an image of Krishna Gopala.
About the year 1673, in consequence of the fanatical persecutions
of the Mogul emperor, this image was transferred to Nathdvara in
Udaipur (Mewar), where the shrine of Srinatha (" the lord of Sri,"
i.e. Vishnu) continues to be the chief centre of worship for adherents
of this creed; whilst seven other images, transferred from Mathura
at the same time, are located at different places in Rajputana.
Vallabha himself went subsequently to reside at Benares, where he
died. In the doctrine of this Vaishnava prophet, the adualistic
theory of Sankara is resorted to as justifying a joyful and voluptuous
cult 'of the deity. For, if the human soul is identical with God, the
practice of austerities must be discarded as directed against God,
and it is rather by a free indulgence of the natural appetites and
the pleasures of life that man's love for God will best be shown.
The followers of his creed, amongst whom there are many wealthy
merchants and bankers, direct their worship chiefly to Gopal Lai,
the boyish Krishna of Vrindavana, whose image is sedulously
attended like a revered living person eight times a day from its
early rising from its couch up to its retiring to repose at night.
The sectarial mark of the adherents consists of two red perpendicular
lines, meeting in a semicircle at the root of the nose, and having a
round red spot painted between them. Their principal doctrinal
authority is the Bhagavata-purana, as commented upon by Val-
labha himself, who was also the author of several other Sanskrit
works highly esteemed by his followers. In this sect, children are
solemnly admitted to full membership at the early age of four, and
even two, years of age, when a rosary, or necklace, of 108 beads of
basil (tulsi) wood is passed round their necks, and they are taught
the use of the octo-syllabic formula Sri-Krishnah saranam mama,
" Holy Krishna is my refuge." Another special feature of this
sect is that their spiritual heads, the Gosains, also called Maharajas,
so far from submitting themselves to self-discipline and austere
practices, adorn themselves in splendid garments, and allow them-
selves to be habitually regaled by their adherents with choice kinds
of food; and being regarded as the living representatives of the
" lord of the Gopis " himself, they claim and receive in their own
persons all acts of attachment and worship due to the deity, even,
it is alleged, to the extent of complete self-surrender. In the final
judgment of the famous libel case of the Bombay Maharajas, before
the Supreme Court of Bombay, in January 1862, these impro-
prieties were severely commented upon; and though so unsparing
a critic of Indian sects as Jogendra Nath seems not to believe in
actual immoral practices on the part of the Maharajas, still he
admits that " the corrupting influence of a religion, that can make
its female votaries address amorous songs to their spiritual guides,
must be very great."
A modern offshoot of Vallabha's creed, formed with the avowed
object of purging it of its objectionable features, was started, in the
early years of the igth century, by Sahajananda, a Brahman of the
Oudh country, who subsequently assumed the name of Svami
Narayana. Having entered on his missionary labours at Ahmada-
bad, and afterwards removed to Jetalpur, where he had a meeting
with Bishop Heber, he subsequently settled at the village of Wartal,
to the north-west of Baroda, and erected a temple to Lakshmi-
Narayana, which, with 'another at Ahmadabad, forms the two chief
centres of the sect, each being presided over by a Maharaja. Their
worship is addressed to Narayana, i.e. Vishnu, as the Supreme
Being, together with Lakshmi, as well as to Krishna and Radha.
The sect is said to be gaining ground in Gujarat. Chaitanya, the
HINDUISM
founder of the great Vaishnava sect of Bengal, was the son of a
high-caste Brahman of Nadiya, the famous Bengal seat of Sanskrit
learning, where he was born in 1485, two years after the birth of
Martin Luther, the German reformer. Having married in due
time, and a second time after the death of his first wife, he lived as
a " householder " (grikastha) till the age of 24, when he renounced
his family ties and set put as a religious mendicant (vairagin) ,
visiting during the next six years the principal places of pilgrimage
in northern India, and preaching with remarkable success his
doctrine of Bhakti, or passionate devotion to Krishna, as the Supreme
Deity. He subsequently made over to his principal disciples the
task of consolidating his community, and passed the last twelve
years of his life at Puri in Orissa, the great centre of the worship of
Vishnu as Jagannatha, or " lord of the world," which he remodelled
in accordance with his doctrine, causing the mystic songs of
Jayadeva to be recited before the images in the morning and evening
as part of the daily service ; and, in fact, as in the other Vaishnava
creeds, seeking to humanize divine adoration by bringing it into
accord with the experience of human love. To this end, music,
dancing, singing-parties (sankirtan), theatricals in short anything
calculated to produce the desired impression would prove welcome
to him. His doctrine of Bhakti distinguishes five grades of de-
votional feeling in the Bliaktas, or faithful adherents: viz. (santi)
calm contemplation of the deity ; (dasya) active servitude ; (sakhya)
friendship or personal regard ; (vatsalya) tender affection as between
parents and children; (madhurya) love or passionate attachment,
like that which the Gopis felt for Krishna. Chaitanya also seems
to have done much to promote the celebration on an imposing
scale of the great Puri festival of the Ratha-yatra, or " car-pro-
cession," in the month of Ashadha, when, amidst multitudes of
pilgrims, the image of Krishna, together with those of his brother
Balarama and his sister Subhadra, is drawn along, in a huge car,
by the devotees. Just as this festival was, and continues to be,
attended by. people from all parts of India, without distinction of
caste or sex, so also were all classes, even Mahommedans, admitted
by Chaitanya as members of his sect. Whilst numerous observances
are recommended as more or less meritorious, the ordinary form of
worship is a very simple one, consisting as it does mainly of the
constant repetition of names of Krishna, or Krishna and Radha,
which of itself is considered sufficient to ensure future bliss. The
partaking of flesh food and spirituous liquor is strictly prohibited.
By the followers of this sect, also, an extravagant degree of reverence
is habitually paid to their gurus or spiritual heads. Indeed, Chait-
anya himself, as well as his immediate disciples, have come to be
regarded as complete or partial incarnations of the deity to whom
adoration is due, as to Krishna himself; and their modern suc-
cessors, the Gosains, share to the fullest extent in the devout atten-
tions of the worshippers. Chaitanya's movement, being chiefly
directed against the vile practices of the Saktas, then very prevalent
in Bengal, was doubtless prompted by the best and purest of in-
tentions; but his own doctrine of divine, though all too human,
love was, like that of Vallabha, by no means free from corruptive
tendencies, yet, how far these tendencies have worked their way,
who would say? On this point, Dr W. W. Hunter who is of
opinion that " the death of the reformer marks the beginning of
the spiritual decline of Vishnu-worship," observes (Orissa, i. Ill),
" The most deplorable corruption of Vishnu-worship at the present
day is that which has covered the temple walls with indecent
sculptures, and filled its innermost sanctuaries with licentious
rites" . . .yet. . ."it is difficult for a person not a Hindu to
pronounce upon the real extent of the evil. None but a Hindu
can enter any of the larger temples, and none but a^Hindu priest
really knows the truth about their inner mysteries"; whilst the
well-known native scholar Babu Rajendralal Mitra points out
(Antiquities of Orissa, i. ill) that " such as they are, these
sculptures date from centuries before the birth of Chaitanya, and
cannot, therefore, be attributed to his doctrines or to his followers.
As a Hindu by birth, and a Vaishnava by family religion, I have
had the freest access to the innermost sanctuaries and to the most
secret of scriptures. I have studied the subject most extensively,
and have had opportunities of judging which no European can
have, and I have no hesitation in saying that, ' the mystic songs'
of Jayadeva and the ' ocean of love ' notwithstanding, there is
nothing in the rituals of Jagannatha which can be called licentious."
Whilst in Chaitanya's creed, Krishna, in his relations to Radha,
remains at least theoretically the chief partner, an almost inevitable
step was taken by some minor sects in attaching the greater im-
portance to the female element, and making Krishna's love for his
mistress the guiding sentiment of their faith. Of these sects, it
will suffice to mention that of the Radha-Vallabhis, started in the
latter part of the i6th century, who worship Krishna as Radha-
vallabha, " the darling of Radha." The doctrines and practices
of these sects clearly verge upon those obtaining in the third principal
division of Indian sectarians which will now be considered.
The Saktas, as we have seen, are worshippers of the satiti,
or the female principle as a primary factor in the creation and
reproduction of the universe. And as each of the principal
gods is supposed to have associated with him his own
Darticular sakti, as an indispensable complement enabling
nim to properly perform his cosmic functions, adherents of this
persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all sattas.
sects. To a certain extent this is indeed the case; but
though Vaishnavism, and especially the Krishna creed, with its
luxuriant growth of erotic legends, might have seemed peculiarly
favourable to a development in this direction, it is practically
only in connexion with the Saiva system that an independent cult
of the female principle has been developed; whilst in other
sects and, indeed, in the ordinary Saiva cult as well such
worship, even where it is at all prominent, is combined with, and
subordinated to, that of the male principle. What has made this
ult attach itself more especially to the Saiva creed is doubtless
the character of Siva as the type of reproductive power, in
addition to his function as destroyer which, as we shall see,
is likewise reflected in some of the forms of his Sakti. The theory
of the god and his Sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already
foreshadowed in the Vedic couple of Heaven and Earth, whilst
in the speculative treatises of the later Vedic period, as well
as in the post- Vedic Brahmanical writings, the assumption of
the self-existent being dividing himself into a male and a female
half usually forms the starting-point of cosmic evolution. 1 In
the later Saiva mythology this theory finds its artistic repre-
sentation in Siva's androgynous form of Ardha-narisa, or " half-
woman-lord," typifying the union of the male and female energies;
the male half in this form of the deity occupying the right-hand,
and the female the left-hand side. In accordance with this
type of productive energy, the Saktas divide themselves into
two distinct groups, according to whether they attach the greater
importance to the male or to the female principle; viz. the
Dakshinacharis, or " right-hand-observers " (also called Dak-
shina-margis, or followers " of the right-hand path "), and the
Vamacharis, or " left-hand-observers " (or Vama-margis,
followers " of the left path "). Though some of the Puranas,
the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines, enter largely into
Sakta topics, it is only in the numerous Tantras that these
are fully and systematically developed. In these works, almost
invariably composed in the form of a colloquy, Siva, as a rule,
in answer to questions asked by his consort Parvati, unfolds
the mysteries of this occult creed.
The principal seat of Sakta worship is the north-eastern part of
India Bengal, Assam and Behar. The great majority of its
adherents profess to follow the right-hand practice; and apart
from the implied purport and the emblems of the cult, their mode
of adoration does not seem to offer any very objectionable features.
And even amongst the adherents of the left-hand mode of worship,
many of these are said to follow it as a matter of family tradition
rather than of religious conviction, and to practise it in a sober and
temperate manner; whilst only an extreme section the so-called
Kaulas or Kulinas, who appeal to a spurious Upanishad, the Kaulo-
panishad, as the divine authority of their tenets persist in carrying
on the mystic and licentious rites taught in many of the Tantras.
But strict secrecy being enjoined in the performance of these rites,
it is not easy to check any statements made on this point. The
Sakta cult is, however, known to be especially prevalent though
apparently not in a very extreme form amongst members of the
very respectable Kayastha or writer caste of Bengal, and as these
are largely employed as clerks and accountants in Upper India,
there is reason to fear that their vicious practices are gradually
being disseminated through them.
The divine object of the adoration of the Saktas, then, is
Siva's wife the Devi (goddess), Mahadevi (great goddess),
or Jagan-mata (mother of the world) in one or other of her
numerous forms, benign or terrible. The forms in which she
is worshipped in Bengal are of the latter category, viz. Durga,
" the unapproachable," and Kali, " the black one," or, as some
take it, the wife of Kala, " time," or death the great dissolver,
viz. Siva. In honour of the former, the Durga-puja is celebrated
1 This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic cos-
mogonic hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that "that one
(existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its svadha (f in-
herent power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever
that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was
generated by the power of heat (or fervour) ; desire then first came
upon it, which was the first seed of the mind . . . fertilizing forces
there were, svadha below, prayati (? will) above."
HINDUISM
during ten days at the time of the autumnal equinox, in com-
memoration of her victory over the buffalo-headed demon
Mahishasura; when the image of the ten-armed goddess, holding
a weapon in each hand, is worshipped for nine days, and cast
into the water on the tenth day, called the Dasahara, whence
the festival itself is commonly called Dasara in western India.
Kali, on the other hand, the most terrible of the goddess's forms,
has a special service performed to her, at the Kali-puja, during
the darkest night of the succeeding month; when she is repre-
sented as a naked black woman, four-armed, wearing a garland
of heads of giants slain by her, and a string of skulls round her
neck, dancing on the breast of her husband (Mahakala), with
gaping mouth and protruding tongue; and when she has to be
propitiated by the slaughter of goats, sheep and buffaloes. On
other occasions also Vamacharis commonly offer animal sacri-
fices, usually one. or more kids; the head of the victim, which
has to be severed by a single stroke, being always placed in front
of the image of the goddess as a blood-offering (ball), with an
earthen lamp fed with ghee burning above it, whilst the flesh
is cooked and served to the guests attending the ceremony,
except that of buffaloes, which is given to the low-caste musicians
who perform during the service. Even some adherents of this
class have, however, discontinued animal sacrifices, and use
certain kinds of fruit, such as coco-nuts or pumpkins, instead.
The use of wine, which at one time was very common on these
occasions, seems also to have become much more restricted;
and only members of the extreme section would still seem to
adhere to the practice of the so-called five m's prescribed by
some of the Tantras, viz. mamsa (flesh), matsya (fish), madya
(v.'ine), maithuna (sexual union), and mudra (mystical finger
signs) probably the most degrading cult ever practised under
the pretext of religious worship.
In connexion with the principal object of this cult, Tantric theory
has devised an elaborate system of female figures representing either
special forms and personifications or attendants of the " Great
Goddess." They are generally arranged in groups, the most im-
portant of which are the Mahavidyas (great sciences), the 8 (or 9)
Mataras (mothers) or Mahamataras (great mothers), consisting of
the wives of the principal gods; the 8 Nayikas or mistresses; and
different classes of sorceresses and ogresses, called Yaginis, Dakinis
and Sakinis. A special feature of the Sakti cult is the use of obscure
Vedic mantras, often changed so as to be quite meaningless and on
that very account deemed the more efficacious for the acquisition
of superhuman powers; as well as of mystic letters and syllables
called bija (germ), of magic circles (chakra) and diagrams (yantra),
and of amulets of various materials inscribed with formulae of
fancied mysterious import.
This survey of the Indian sects will have shown how little
the character of their divine objects of worship is calculated to
exert that elevating and spiritualizing influence,
General so characteristic of true religious devotion. In all
sioa". but a f ew f ^e minor groups religious fervour is
only too apt to degenerate into that very state of
sexual excitation which devotional exercises should surely tend
to repress. If the worship of Siva, despite the purport of
his chief symbol, seems on the whole less liable to produce
these undesirable effects than that of the rival deity, it is doubt-
less due partly to the real nature of that emblem being little
realized by the common people, and partly to the somewhat
repellent character of the " great god," more favourable to
evoking feelings of awe and terror than a spirit of fervid devotion.
All the more are, however, the gross stimulants, connected with
the adoration of his consort, calculated to work up the carnal
instincts of the devotees to an extreme degree of sensual frenzy.
In the Vaishnava camp, on the other hand, the cult of Krishna,
and more especially that of the youthful Krishna, can scarcely
fail to exert an influence which, if of a subtler and more in-
sinuating, is not on that account of a less demoralizing kind.
Indeed, it would be hard to find anything less consonant with
godliness and divine perfection than the pranks of this juvenile
god; and if poets and thinkers try to explain them away by
dint of allegorical interpretation, the plain man will not for
all their refinements take these amusing adventures any the less
au pied de la lettre. No fault, in this respect, can assuredly be
found with the legendary Rama, a very paragon of knightly
honour and virtue, even as his consort Sita is the very model
of a noble and faithful wife; and yet this cult has perhaps
retained even more of the character of mere hero-worship than
that of Krishna. Since by the universally accepted doctrine of
karman (deed) or karmavipaka (" the maturing of deeds ")
man himself either in his present, or some, future, existence
enjoys the fruit of, or has to atone for, his former good and bad
actions, there could hardly be room in Hindu pantheism for a
belief in the remission of sin by divine grace or vicarious sub-
stitution. And accordingly the " descents " or incarnations of
the deity have for their object, not so much the spiritual regenera-
tion of man as the deliverance of the world from some material
calamity threatening to overwhelm it. The generally recognized
principal Avatars do not, however, by any means constitute
the only occasions of a direct intercession of the deity in worldly
affairs, but in the same way as to this day the eclipses of the
sun and moon are ascribed by the ordinary Hindu to these
luminaries being temporarily swallowed by the dragon Rahu
(or Graha, " the seizer ") so any uncommon occurrence would
be apt to be set down as a special manifestation of divine power;
and any man credited with exceptional merit or achievement,
or even remarkable for some strange incident connected with
his life or death, might ultimately come to be looked upon as a
veritable incarnation of the deity, capable of influencing the
destinies of man, and might become an object of local adoration
or superstitious awe and propitiatory rites to multitudes of people.
That the transmigration theory, which makes the spirit of the
departed hover about for a time in quest of a new corporeal
abode, would naturally lend itself to superstitious notions of this
kind can scarcely be doubted. Of peculiar importance in this
respect is the worship of the Pitris (" fathers ") or deceased
ancestors, as entering largely into the everyday life and family
relations of the Hindus. At stated intervals to offer reverential
homage and oblations of food to the forefathers up to the third
degree is one of the most sacred duties the devout Hindu has to
discharge. The periodical performance of the commemorative
rite of obsequies called Sraddha i.e. an oblation " made in faith "
(sraddha, Lat. credo) is the duty and privilege of the eldest son
of the deceased, or, failing him, of the nearest relative who thereby
establishes his right as next of kin in respect of inheritance;
and those other relatives who have the right to take part in the
ceremony are called sapinda, i.e. sharing in the pindas (or balls of
cooked rice, constituting along with libations of water the usual
offering to the Manes) such relationship being held a bar to
intermarriage. The first Sraddha takes place as soon as possible
after the antyeshti (" final offering ") or funeral ceremony proper,
usually spread over ten days; being afterwards repeated once a
month for a year, and subsequently at every anniversary and
otherwise voluntarily on special occasions. Moreover, a simple
libation of water should be offered to the Fathers twice daily at
the morning and evening devotion called sandhya (" twilight ").
It is doubtless a sense of filial obligation coupled with sentiments
of piety and reverence that gave rise to this practice of offering
gifts of food and drink to the deceased ancestors. Hence also
frequent allusion is made by poets to the anxious care caused to
the Fathers by the possibility of the living head of the family
being afflicted with failure of offspring; this dire prospect com-
pelling them to use but sparingly their little store of provisions,
in case the supply should shortly cease altogether. At the same
time one also meets with frank avowals of a superstitious fear
lest any irregularity in the performance of the obsequial rites
should cause the Fathers to haunt their old home and trouble the
peace of their undutiful descendant, or even prematurely draw
him after them to the Pitri-loka or world of the Fathers, supposed
to be located in the southern region. Terminating as it usually
does with the feeding and feeing of a greater or les.s number of
Brahmans and the feasting of members of the performers' own
caste, the Sraddha, especially its first performance, is often a
matter of very considerable expense; and more than ordinary
benefit to the deceased is supposed to accrue from it when it takes
place at a spot of recognized sanctity, such as one of the great
HINDU KUSH
places of pilgrimage like Prayaga (Allahabad, where the three
sacred rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati, meet), Mathura,
and especially Gaya and Kasi (Benares). But indeed the tirtha-
yalra, or pilgrimage to holy bathing-places, is in itself considered
an act of piety conferring religious merit in proportion to the
time and trouble expended upon it. The number of such places
is legion and is constantly increasing. The banks of the great
rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Yamuna (Jumna), the
Narbada, the Krishna (Kistna), are studded with them, and the
water of these rivers is supposed to be imbued with the essence
of sanctity capable of cleansing the pious bather of all sin and
moral taint. To follow the entire course of one of the sacred
rivers from the mouth to the source on one side and back again on
the other in the sun-wise (pradakshina) direction that is,
always keeping the stream on one's right-hand side is held to be
a highly meritorious undertaking which it requires years to carry
through. No wonder that water from these rivers, especially the
Ganges, is sent and taken in bottles to all parts of India to be~used
on occasion as healing medicine or for sacramental purposes. In
Vedic times, at the Rajasuya, or inauguration of a king, some
water from the holy river Sarasvati was mixed with the sprinkling
water used for consecrating the king. Hence also sick persons are
frequently conveyed long distances to a sacred river to heal them
of their maladies; and for a dying man to breathe his last at the
side of the Ganges is devoutly believed to be the surest way of
securing for him salvation and eternal bliss.
Such probably was the belief of the ordinary Hindu two thousand
years ago, and such it remains to this day. In the light of facts
such as these, who could venture to say what the future of Hinduism
is likely to be ? Is the regeneration of India to be brought about
by the modern theistic movements, such as the Brahma-samaj and
Arya-samaj, as so close and sympathetic an observer of Hindu life
and thought as Sir A. Lyall seems to think ? " The Hindu mind,"
he remarks, "is essentially speculative and transcendental; it will
never consent to be shut up in the prison of sensual experience, for
it has grasped and holds firmly the central idea that all things are
manifestations of some power outside phenomena. And the tend-
ency of contemporary religious discussion in India, so far as it can
be followed from a distance, is towards an ethical reform on the
old foundations, towards searching for some method of reconciling
their Vedic theology with the practices of religion taken as a rule
of conduct and a system of moral government. One can already
discern a movement in various quarters towards a recognition of
impersonal theism, and towards fixing the teaching of the philosophi-
cal schools upon some definitely authorized system of faith and
morals, which may satisfy a rising ethical standard,' and may thus
permanently embody that tendency to substitute spiritual devotion
for external forms and caste rules which is the characteristic of
the sects that have from time to time dissented from orthodox
Brahminism."
AUTHORITIES. Census of India (1901), vol. i. part i. ; India, by
H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait; vol. i. Ethnographical Appendices,
by H. H. Risley; The Indian Empire, vol. i. (new ed., Oxford, 1907);
I. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts (2nd ed., 5 vols., London, 1873);
Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (London,
1883); Modern India and the Indians (London, 1878, 3rd ed. 1879);
Hinduism (London, 1877); Sir Alfred C. Lyall, Asiatic Studies
(2 series, London, 1899); " Hinduism " in Religious Systems of the
World (London, 1904); " Brahminism" in Great Religions of the
World (New York and London, 1902); W. J. Wilkins, Modern
Hinduism (London, 1887); J. C. Oman, Indian Life, Religious and
Social (London, 1879); The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India
(London, 1903); The Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India
(London, 1907); S. C. Bose, The Hindus as they are (2nd ed.,
Calcutta, 1883); J. Robson, Hinduism and Christianity (Edinburgh
and London, 3rd ed., 1905); J. Murray Mitchell, Hinduism Past
and Present (2nd ed., London, 1897); Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya,
Hindu Castes and Sects (Calcutta, 1896); A. Earth, The Religions
of India (London, 1882); E. W. Hopkins, The Religions of India
(London, 1896). (J. E.)
HINDU KUSH, a range of mountains in Central Asia. Through-
out 500 m. of its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it
fades into the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range
forms the water-divide between the Kabul and the Oxus basins,
and, for the first 200 m. reckoning westwards, the southern
boundary of Afghanistan. It may be said to spring from the
head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites with the great
meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and the yet
more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base
of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of
XHI. 17
Kanjut. The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash
Pamir into the sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-
junction of the three great chains of mountains. As the Hindu
Kush strikes westwards, after first rounding the head of an Oxus
tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which Curzon considers to be the true
source of the Oxus), it closely overlooks the trough of that
glacier-fed stream under its northern spurs, its crest at the nearest
point being separated from the river by a distance which cannot
much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the northern boundary
of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the southern
boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan
kingdom at that point.
Physiography. For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush
is a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, per-
mitting the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no
considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height
from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the
well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial
offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad.
As the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns
south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks
on the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level.
Even here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the
chain, is apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be
looked for to the south, where the great square-headed giant called
Tirach Mir dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40
or 50 m. of this south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus,
where the Hindu Kush overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badak-
shan to the west, the crest is intersected by many passes, of which
the most important is the Dorah group (including the Minjan and
the Mandal), which rise to about 15,000 ft., and which are, under
favourable conditions, practicable links between the Oxus and
Chitral basins.
From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it
is seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the
Hindu Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in
altitude, the water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and Kafirlstaa
Badakshan. Here its exact position is matter of con- sectloa -
jecture. It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible region of snow-
bound crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000 ft. above
sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the passage
of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts,
and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved
on a rock in the pass.
The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul
river, leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of
Kabul, is now an excellent kafila route, the road having
been engineered under the amir Abdur Rahman's direction, Passts.
and it is said to be available for traffic throughout the year. From
the Khawak to the head of the Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush
which, rising to the north-west of Kabul, flows north-east to meet
the Panjshir near Charikar, whence they run united into the plains
of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is intersected by passes at intervals,
all of which were surveyed, and several utilized, during the return
of the Russo-Afghan boundary commission from the Oxus to Kabul
in 1886. Those utilized were the Kaoshan (the " Hindu Kush "
pass par excellence), 14,340 ft.; the Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which
is a link in one of the amir of Afghanistan's high roads to Turkestan ;
and the Shibar (9800 ft.), which is merely a diversion into the upper
Ghorband of that group of passes between Bamian and the Kabul
plains which are represented by the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &c. About
this point it is geographically correct to place the southern extremity
of the Hindu Kush, for here commences the Koh-i-Baba system
into which the Hindu Kush is merged.
The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of
the Khawak, no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock
composition as at present exists to the north, points to
its construction under the same conditions of upheaval uea * n
and subsequent denudation as are common to the western ^?"
Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland.
Its upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the
north-west of the Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had
massed itself as a formidable mountain chain, belongs to a com-
paratively recent geologic period, and the same thrust upwards of
vast masses of cretaceous limestone has disturbed the overlying
recent beds of shale and clays with very similar results to those
which have left so marked an impress on the Baluch frontier. Suc-
cessive flexures or ridges are ranged in more or less parallel lines,
and from between the bands of hard, unyielding rock of older
formation the soft beds of recent shaje have been washed out, to be
carried through the enclosing ridges by rifts which break across
their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but the face of a great
upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it northwards, just
as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great central table-
land of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting long, narrow,
lateral valleys and transverse lines of " antecedent " drainage, is
HINDUR HINGHAM
similar. There are few passes across the southern section of the
Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the politico-geographical
point of view, more important to India than the whole Himalayan
system) which have not to surmount a succession of crests or ridges
as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan. The ex-
ceptions are, of course, notable, and have played an important part
in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a
little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the
crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the
Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of
Chitral and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies
on the watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic.
Its contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on
conditions of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses
towards one end. It marks the commencement of the water-divide
which primarily separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun,
or Chitral, river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat
and Bajour from that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-
Chitral-Kunar river (it is called by all three names) is the longest
affluent of the Kabul, and it is in many respects a more important
river than the Kabul. Throughout its length it is closely flanked
on its left bank by this main water-divide, which is called Moshabar
or Shandur in its northern sections, and owns a great variety of
names where it divides Baiour from the Kunar valley. It is this
range, crowned by peaks of 22,000 ft. altitude and maintaining an
average elevation of some 10,000 ft. throughout its length of 250 m.,
that is the real barrier of the north not the Hindu Kush itself.
Across it, at its head, are the glacial passes which lead to the foot
of the Baroghil. Of these Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each
side, is typical. (See GILGIT.) Those passes (the Kilikand Mintaka)
from the Pamir regions, which lead into the rocky gorges and
denies of the upper affluents of the Hunza to the east of the Darkot,
belong rather to the Muztagh system than to the Hindu Kush.
Other passes across this important water-divide are the Shandur
(12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj ; the Lowarai (10,450 ft.),
between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys; and farther south certain
lower crossings which once formed part of the great highway between
Kabul and India.
Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway
between its source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is
Chiiral 'I 16 vi " a f? e an d fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the
right bank of the river, and extending for some 70 m.
from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush
known as Shawal, across which one or two difficult passes lead into
the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This spur carries the boundary of
Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some 50 m. below Chitral),
where it crosses the river to the long Shandur watershed. South
of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of Afghanistan (see
KUNAR). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British India may
be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about too m.
(direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar
Kisht on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu
Kush intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way
between the two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on
either side are rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the
only pass which leads into che Chitral valley from the Oxus. The
Mandal pass, a few miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link
between the Oxus and the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the
Bashgol valley leads directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai,
about 50 m. below Chitral. Nor must we overlook the connexion
between north and south of the Hindu Kush which is afforded by
the long narrow valley of the Chitral (or Yashkun) itself, leading up
to the Baroghil pass. This route was once made use of by the
Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for invasion. Access to
Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter of practicable tracks,
or passes, in two or three directions, and the measure of practic-
ability under any given conditions can best be reckoned from Chitral
itself^ By most authorities the possibility of an advance in force
from the north, even under the most favourable conditions, is con-
sidered to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and passes of the
Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are left as nature
has made them.
Historical Notices. Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander's
historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the
latter term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only
when the alpine barrier is in question. Whether the name was
given in mere vanity to the barrier which Alexander passed (as
Arrian and others repeatedly allege), or was founded also on
some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was no doubt
regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a
great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east,
whether called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself
applies Caucasus distinctly to the Himalaya also. The applica-
tion of the name Tanais to the Syr seems to indicate a real con-
fusion with Colchian Caucasus. Alexander, after building an
Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian near Charikar),
crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or Adrapsa. This
has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably
crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The
ancient Zend name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the
essential part of Paropamisus; this accounts for the great
Asiastic Parnassus of Aristotle, and the Pho-lo-sin-a of Hsiian
Tsang.
The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (c.
1332) from Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name
which, however doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer,
" because of the number of Indian slaves who perished in passing"
its snows. Baber always calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way
in which he speaks of it shows clearly that it was a range that was
meant, not a solitary pass or peak (according to modern local use,
as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes). Probably, however, the
title was confined to the section from Khawak to Koh-i-Baba.
The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified into
Hindu Kofi (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more
light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become
known to European geographers by the Oriental translations of
the two Petis de la Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and
D'Anville. Rennell and Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes
first crossed the range (1832). A British force was stationed at
Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost at Saighan.
The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has
been the limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the
boundary of a considerable power. Greeks, White Huns,
Samanidae of Bokhara, Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and
Timuridae, down to Saddozais and Barakzais, have ruled both
sides of this great alpine chain.
AUTHORITIES. Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is
now comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
of 1884 and the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for
geographical investigation, and the information collected is to be
found in the reports and gazetteers of the Indian government.
The following are the chief recent authorities: Report of the Russo-
Afghan Boundary Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart's
Mission (1886); Report of Asmar Boundary Commission (1895);
Report of Pamir Boundary Commission (1896); J. Biddulph, Tribes
of the Hindu Kush (Calcutta, 1880); W. M'Nair, " Visit to Kafiri-
stan," vol. yi. R.G.S. Proc., 1884; F. Younghusband, "Journeys
on the Pamirs, &c.," vol. xiv. R.G.S. Proc., 1892; Colonel Durand,
Making a Frontier (London, 1899); Sir G. Robertson, Chitral
(London, 1899). (T. H. H.*)
HINDUR, or NALAGARH, one of the Simla hill states, under
the government of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551;
area, 256 sq. m.; estimated revenue, 8600. The country was
overrun by the Gurkhas for some years before 1815, when they
were driven out by the British, and the raja was confirmed in
possession of the territory. The principal products are grain
and opium.
HINGANGHAT, a town of British India in Wardha district,
Central Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901)
12,662. It is a main seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here
produced in the rich Wardha valley having given its name to
one of the best indigenous staples of India. The principal
native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have large trans-
actions and export on their own account; but the greater
number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and
several ginning and pressing factories.
HINGE (in Mid. Eng. henge or heeng, from hengen, to
hang), a movable joint, particularly that by which a door or
window " hangs " from its side-post, or by which a lid or cover
is attached to that which it closes; also any device which allows
two parts to be joined together and move upon each other
(see JOINERY). Figuratively the word is used of that on which
something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis.
HINGHAM, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900)
5059 (969 being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910)
4965. Area, about 30 sq. m. The township is traversed by
the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and contains
the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham Center, and
South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school
HINRICHS HIOGO
founded and endowed with about 12,000 in 1784 by Sarah
Derby (1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public
library (1868), with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting
House, erected in 1681, is one of the oldest church buildings in
the country used continuously. Manufactures were relatively
much more important in the I7th and i8th centuries than since.
There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of them notably
Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry Hobart,
being natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name;
and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township
of Hingham.
See History of the Town of Hingham (4 vols., Hingham, 1893).
HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1794-1861),
German philosopher, studied theology at Strassburg, and philo-
sophy at Heidelberg under Hegel (q.v.), who wrote a preface to
his Religion im innern Verhiiltniss zur Wissenschaft (Heidelberg,
1722). He became a Privatdozent in 1819, and held professor-
ships at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824).
WORKS. (i) Philosophical: Grundlinien der Philosophic der
Logik (Halle, 1826); Genesis des Wissens (Heidelberg, 1835). (2)
On aesthetics: Vorlesungen ilber Goethes Faust (Halle, 1825);
Schillers Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang (Leipzig,
1837-1839). By these works he became a recognized exponent of
orthodox Hegehanism. (3) Historical: Geschichte der Rechts- und
Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart (Leipzig,
1848-1852); Die Konige (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853).
HINSCHIUS, PAUL (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son
of Franz Sales August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in
Berlin on the 2$th of December 1835. His father was not only
a scientific jurist, but also a lawyer in large practice in Berlin.
After working under his father, Hinschius in 1852 began to study
jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin, the teacher who had
most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig Richter (1808-
1864), to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of the
study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took
the degree of doctor utriusque juris, and in 1859 was admitted to
the juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor
extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to
Berlin in 1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the
university of Kiel, which he represented in the Prussian Upper
House (1870-1871). He also assisted his father in editing the
Preussische Anwaltszeitung from 1862 to 1866 and the Zeitschrift
fiir Geselzgebung und Rechtspflege in Preussen from 1867 to 1871.
In 1872 he was appointed professor ordinarius of ecclesiastical
law at Berlin. In the same year he took part in the conferences
of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which issued in the famous
" Falk laws." In connexion with the developments of the
Kulturkampf which resulted from the " Falk laws," he wrote
several treatises: e.g. on " The Attitude of the German State
Governments towards the Decrees of the Vatican Council "
(1871), on " The Prussian Church Laws of 1873 " (1873), " The
Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875 " (1875), and
" The Prussian Church Law of uth July 1880 " (1881). He
sat in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878,
and again in 1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he repre-
sented the university of Berlin in the Prussian Upper House.
He died on the i3th of December 1898.
The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame
are the Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae el capitula Angilramni
(2 parts, Leipzig, 1863) and Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken
und Prolestanten in Deutschland, vols. i.-vi. (Berlin, 1860-1877).
The first of these, for which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered
materials in Italy, Spain, France, England, Scotland, Ireland,
Holland and Belgium, was the first critical edition of the False
Decretals. His most monumental work, however, is the Kirchen-
recht, which remains incomplete. The six volumes actually
published (System des katholischen Kirchenrechts) cover only
book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an exhaustive
historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic hierarchy
and its government of the church. The work is planned with
special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces
the whole of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles
and practice. Unfortunately even this part of the work remains
incomplete; two chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii.,
which was to have dealt with " the rights and duties of the
members of the hierarchy," remain unwritten; the most notable
omission is that of the ecclesiastical law in relation to the regular
orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the Kirchenrecht remains
a work of the highest scientific authority. Epoch-making in
its application of the modern historical method to the study of
ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become the
model for the younger school of canonists.
See the articles s.v. by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo-
pddie (3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in theAllgemeine deutsche
Biographie, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905).
HINTERLAND (German for " the land behind "), the region
lying behind a coast or river line, or a country dependent for
trade or commerce on any other region. In the purely physical
sense " interior " on " back country " is more commonly used,
but the word has gained a distinct political significance. It
first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when Germany
insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the
territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had
occupied. The " doctrine of the hinterland " was that the
possessor of the littoral was entitled to as much of the back
country as geographically, economically or politically was
dependent upon the coast lands, a doctrine which, in the space
of ten years, led to the partition of Africa between various
European powers.
HINTON, JAMES (1822-1875), English surgeon and author,
son of John Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and
author of the History and Topography of the United States and
other works, was born at Reading in 1822. He was educated
at his grandfather's school near Oxford, and at the Noncon-
formist school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on his father's removal
to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in Whitechapel.
After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk in
an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study,
and this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his
interest in moral problems, so affected his health that in his
nineteenth year he resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts
by running away to sea. His intention having, however, been
discovered, he was sent, on the advice of the physician who
was consulted regarding his health, to St Bartholomew's
Hospital to study for the medical profession. After receiving his
diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at
Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone
to take medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage
thence to Jamaica, where he stayed some time. He returned
to England in 1850, and entered into partnership with a surgeon
in London, where he soon had his interest awakened specially
in aural surgery, and gave also much of his attention to physiology.
He made his first appearance as an author in 1856 by contribut-
ing papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the Christian
Spectator; and in 1859 he published Man and his Dwelling-
place. A series of papers entitled " Physiological Riddles,"
in the CornhUl Magazine, afterwards published as Life in Nature
(1862), as well as another series entitled Thoughts on Health
(1871), proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition.
After being appointed aural surgeon to Guy's Hospital in 1863,
he speedily acquired a reputation as the most skilful aural
surgeon of his day, which was fully borne out by his works,
An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana iympani (1874), and
Questions of Aural Surgery (1874). But his health broke down,
and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores of
acute inflammation of the brain on the i6th of December 1875.
In addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author
of The Mystery of Pain (1866) and The Place of the Physician
(1874). On account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of
many of the important moral and social problems of the time ;
his writings had a wide circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.
His Life and Letters, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction
by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878.
HIOGO [HYOGO], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu,
Nippon, on the western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining
the foreign settlement of Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The
5 x6
HIP HIPPED ROOF
growth of its prosperity has been very remarkable. Its popula-
tion, including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in 1891, and 285,002
in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its trade increased
nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a few
staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade,
in which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats , straw-plaits, matches,
and cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much
of its prosperity to the fact of serving largely as the shipping
port of Osaka, the chief manufacturing town. in Japan. The
foreign community, exclusive of Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons.
Kobe is considered the brightest and healthiest of all the places
assigned as foreign settlements in Japan, its pure, dry air and
granite subsoil constituting special advantages. It is in rail-
way communication with all parts of the country, and wharves
admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo
without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated
for a foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners
received permission to lease lands and houses direct from
Japanese owners beyond the treaty limits, a privilege which,
together with that 'of building villas on the hills behind the town,
ultimately involved some diplomatic complications. Kobe has
a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate neighbourhood.
Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near
it a huge bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa,
which flows into the sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple
commemorates the spot where Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror
of Japanese loyalty, met his death in battle in 1336. The temple
of Ikuta was erected on the site of the ancient fane built by Jingo
on her return from Korea in the 3rd century.
Hiogo's original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance
of the Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a
very early period, but it did not become really prominent until
the 1 2th century, when Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan,
transferred the capital from Kioto to Fukuhara, in Hiogo's
immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various public works
for improving the place. The change of capital was very brief,
but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction.
HIP. (i) (From O. Eng. hype, a word common in various forms
to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch heup, and Ger. Hiifle),
the projecting part of the body formed by the top of the thigh-
bone and the side of the pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known
as the haunch (see JOINTS). (2) (O. Eng. heope, from same root
as M.H. Ger. hiefe, a thorn-bush), the fruit of the dog-rose
(Rosa canina); "hips" are usually joined with "haws," the
fruit of the hawthorn.
HIP-KNOB, in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof,
between the barge-boards of a gable.
HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.C.), Greek astronomer, was born
at Nicaea in Bithynia early in the and century B.C. He observed
in the island of Rhodes probably fromi 6 1, certainly from 146
until about 126 B.C., and made the capital discovery of the
precession of the equinoxes in 130 (see ASTRONOMY: History).
The outburst of a new star in- 134 B.C. is stated by Pliny (Hist,
nat. ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation of his catalogue
of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy's Almagest.
Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first table
of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention
of the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude
and longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental
part of his astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea.
None of his many works has survived except a Commentary
on the Phaenomena of Aratus and Eudoxus, published by P.
Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by D. Petavius
in his Uranologium (Paris, 1630). A new edition was published
by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894).
See J. B. J. Delambre, Hisloire de I'astronomie ancienne, i. 173;
P. Tannery, Recherches sur I'hisloire de I'astr. ancienne, p. 130;
A. Berry, Hist, of Astronomy, pp. 40-61 ; M. Marie, Hist, des sciences,
i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, Astronomy of the Ancients, p. 207; R.
Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astronomy, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll, Sphaera,
p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic, p. 45;
J. F. Montucfa, Hist, des mathematiques, t. i. p. 257; J. A. Schmidt,
Variorum philosophicorumdecas,ca.p. i. (Jenae, 1691). (A. M. C.)
HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM, Pythagorean philosopher,
was one of the earliest of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is
mentioned both by Diogenes Laertius and by lamblichus, but
nothing is known of his life. Diogenes says that he left no
writings, but other authorities make him the author of a ^UOTUCOJ
XOTOS directed against the Pythagoreans. According to Aristotle
(Mctaphysica, i. 3), he was an adherent of the Heraclitean fire-
doctrine, whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the theory
that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have
regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approxi-
mates the orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire,
or Hestia. to the more detailed theories of Heraclitus.. In spite
of this divergence, Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean.
See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, History of Creek and Roman
Philosophy; also PYTHAGORAS.
HIPPEASTRUH, in botany, a genus of the natural order
Amaryllidaceae, containing about 50 species of bulbous plants,
natives of tropical and sub-tropical South America. In cultiva-
tion they are generally known as Amaryllis. The handsome
funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster of two to many, at
the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the numerous
hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great
variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest
deep crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or
blended colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming
habit. Like other bulbs they are increased by offsets, which
should be carefully removed when the plants are at rest, and
should be allowed to attain a fair size before removal. These
young bulbs should be potted singly in February or March, in
mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about
two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil,
which should be made quite solid. They should be removed to
a temperature of 60 by night and 70 by day, very carefully
watered until the roots have begun to grow freely, after which
the soil should be kept moderately moist. As they advance
the temperature should be raised to 70 at night, and to 80 or
higher with sun heat by day. They do not need shading, but
should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily in the afternoon.
When growing they require a good supply of water. After the
decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist
temperature of from 70 to 80 by day during summer to perfect
their leaves, and then be ripened off in autumn. Through the
winter they should have less water, but must not be kept entirely
dry. The minimum temperature should now be about 55, to
be increased 10 or 15 in spring. As the bulbs get large they
will occasionally need shifting into larger pots. Propagation
is also readily effected by seeds for raising new varieties. Seeds
are sown when ripe in well drained pans of sandy loam at a
temperature of about 65. The seedlings when large enough
to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several
in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom heat, in a moist
'atmosphere with a temperature from 60 to 70. H. Ackermanni,
with large, handsome, crimson flowers itself a hybrid is the
parent of many of the large-flowered forms ; H . equestre (Barbados
lily), with yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also
given rise to several handsome forms; H. aulicum (flowers
crimson and green), H. pardinum (flowers creamy-white spotted
with crimson), and H. mltatum (flowers white with red stripes,
a beautiful species and the parent of many varieties), are stove
or warm greenhouse plants. These kinds, however, are now
only regarded as botanical curiosities, and are rarely grown in
private or commercial establishments. They have been ousted
by the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been evolved
during the past 100 years. H. Johnsoni is named after a
Lancashire watchmaker who raised it in 1799 by crossing H.
Reginae with H. viltalum. Since that time other species have
been used for hybridizing, notably H . reticulatum, H. aulicum,
H. solandriflorum, and sometimes H . equestre and H . psitlacinum.
The finest forms since 1880 have been evolved from H. Leopoldi
and H. pardinum. (J. Ws.)
HIPPED ROOF, the name given in architecture to a roof
which slopes down on all four sides instead of terminating on
HIPPEL HIPPOCRATES
two sides against a vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise
is made between the two, half the roof being hipped and half
resting on the vertical wall; this gives much more room inside
the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect, which is one
of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the south
of England, and is rarely found in other countries.
HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON (1741-1796), German
satirical and humorous writer, was born on the 3ist of January
1741, at Gerdauen in East Prussia, where his father was rector
of a school. He enjoyed an excellent education at home, and in
his sixteenth year he entered Konigsberg university as a student
of theology. Interrupting his studies, he went, on the invitation
of a friend, to St Petersburg, where he was introduced at the
brilliant court of the empress Catherine II. Returning to
Konigsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but, falling
in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was
aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with
enthusiasm to legal studies. He was successful in his profession,
and in 1780 was appointed chief burgomaster in Konigsberg,
and in 1786 privy councillor of war and president of the town.
As he rose in the world, however, his inclination for matrimony
vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his ambition was
forgotten. He died at Konigsberg on the 23rd of April 1796,
leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary
talents, rich in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of
contrasts and contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion,
dry pedantry and piety, morality and sensuality; simplicity
and ostentation composed his nature; and, hence, his literary
productions never attained artistic finish. In his Lebenslaufe
nach aufsteigender Linie (1778-1781) he intended to describe the
lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually confined
himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons
well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of
heterogeneous reflections on life and philosophy. Kreuz- und
Querziige des Ritters A bis Z( 1 793-1 794) is a satire levelled against
the follies of the age ancestral pride and the thirst for orders,
decoration and the like. Among others of his better known
works are Vber die Ehe (1774) and ffber die biirgerliche Ver-
besserung der Weiber (1792). Hippel has been called the fore-
runner of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to this
author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of
scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly
influenced by Laurence Sterne.
In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel's works in 14 vols.,
was issued at Berlin. Uber die Ehe has been edited by E. Brenning
(Leipzig, 1872), and the Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie has in
a modernized edition by A. von Ottingen (1878), gone through
several editions. See J. Czerny, Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul
(Berlin, 1904).
HIPPIAS OF ELIS, Greek sophist, was born about the middle
of the 5th century B.C. and was thus a younger contemporary
of Protagoras and Socrates. He was a man of great versatility
and won the respect of his fellow-citizens to such an extent that
he was sent to various towns on important embassies. At
Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and other leading
thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists,
he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and
lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar,
history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy.
He boasted that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was
prepared at any moment to deliver an extempore address on
any subject to the assembly at Olympia. Of his ability there
is no question, but it is equally certain that he was superficial.
His aim was not to give knowledge, but to provide his pupils
with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in discussion
on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing
nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato's
two dialogues, the Hippias major and minor, contain an expose
of his methods, exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument
but written with full knowledge of the man and the class which
he represented. Ast denies their authenticity, but they must
have been written by a contemporary writer (as they are
mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and undoubtedly
represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing influence
of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question
that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting
on the meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style.
He is credited with an excellent work on Homer, collections of
Greek and foreign literature, and archaeological treatises, but
nothing remains except the barest notes. He forms the con-
necting link between the first great sophists, Protagoras and
Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who brought their name
into disrepute.
For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see
SOPHISTS; also histories of Philosophy (e.g. Windelband, Eng.
trans, by Tufts, pt. I, c. 2, 7 and 8).
HIPPO, a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed
with the Ionian or physical school. He was probably a con-
temporary of Archelaus and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle
declared that he was unworthy of the name of philosopher, and,
while comparing him with Thales in his main doctrine, adds that
his intellect was too shallow for serious consideration. He held
that the principle of all things is moisture (r6 vyp6v) ; that fire
develops from water, and from fire the material universe.
Further he denied all existence save that of material things as
known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among the
" Atheists." The gods are merely great men canonized by
popular tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph,
wherein he claims for himself a place in this company.
HIPPOCRAS, an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine
mixed with spices such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar and
strained through woollen cloths. Theearlyspellingusual in English
was ipocras, or ypocras. The word is an adaptation of the Med.
Lat. Vinum Hippocraticum, or wine of Hippocrates, so called, not
because it was supposed to be a receipt of the physician, but from
an apothecary's name for a strainer or sieve, "Hippocrates'
sleeve " (see W. W. Skeat, Chaucer, note to the Merchant's Tale).
HIPPOCRATES, Greek philosopher and writer, termed the
" Father of Medicine," was born, according to Soranus, in Cos,
in the first year of the 8oth Olympiad, i.e. in 460 B.C. He was a
member of the family of the Asclepiadae, and was believed to
be either the nineteenth or seventeenth in direct descent from
Aesculapius. It is also claimed for him that he was descended from
Hercules through his mother, Phaenarete. He studied medicine
under Heraclides, his father, and Herodicus of Selymbria; in
philosophy Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera were
his masters. His earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous
Asclepion of Cos, and probably also at Cnidos. He travelled
extensively, and taught and practised his profession at Athens,
probably also in Thrace, Thessaly, Delos and his native island.
He died at Larissa in Thessaly, his age being variously stated as
85, 90, 104 and 109. The incidents of his life are shrouded by
uncertain traditions, which naturally sprang up in the absence of
any authentic record; the earliest biography was by one of the
Sorani, probably Soranus the younger of Ephesus, in the 2nd
century; Suidas, the lexicographer, wrote of him in the nth, and
Tzetzes in the i2th century. In all these biographies there is
internal evidence of confusion; many of the incidents related
are elsewhere told of other persons, and certain of them are
quite irreconcilable with his character, so far as it can be judged
of from his writings and from the opinions expressed of him by his
contemporaries; we may safely reject, for instance, the legends
that he set fire to the library of the Temple of Health at Cnidos, in
order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism, and that he refused
to visit Persia at the request of Artaxerxes Longimanus, during
a pestilential epidemic, on the ground that he would in so doing be
assisting an enemy. He is referred to by Plato (Protag. p. 283;
Phaedr. p. 21 1) as an eminent medical authority, and his opinion
is also quoted by Aristotle. The veneration in which he was held
by the Athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have
been thrown on his character by Andreas, and the whole tone of
his writings bespeaks a man of the highest integrity and purest
morality.
Born of a family of priest-physicians, and inheriting all its
traditions and prejudices, Hippocrates was the first to cast
5 i8
HIPPOCRATES
superstition aside, and to base the practice of medicine on the prin-
ciples of inductive philosophy. It is impossible to trace directly
the influence exercised upon him by the great men of his time,
but one cannot fail to connect his emancipation of medicine from
superstition with the widespread power exercised over Greek life
and thought by the living work of Socrates, Plato, Aeschylus,
Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. It was a
period of great intellectual development, and it only needed a
powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the
same influences which were at work in other sciences. It must be
remembered that his training was not altogether bad, although
superstition entered so largely into it. He had a great master in
Democritus, the originator of the doctrine of atoms, and there is
every reason to believe that the various " asclepia " were very
carefully conducted hospitals for the sick, possessing a curious
system of case-books, in the form of votive tablets, left by the
patients, on which were recorded the symptoms, treatment and
result of each case. He had these records at his command; and
he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and
the treatment of injuries in the gymnasia. One of his great
merits is that he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-
craft, and to direct exclusive attention to the natural history of
disease. How strongly his mind revolted against the use of
charms, amulets, incantations and such devices appears from his
writings; and he has expressly recorded, as underlying all his
practice, the conviction that, however diseases maybe regarded
from the religious point of view, they must all be scientifically
treated as subject to natural laws (De acre, 29). Nor was he
anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and
medicine which had for long existed in a confused and confusing
fashion. 1 His knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology
was necessarily defective, the respect in which the dead body was
held by the Greeks precluding him from practising dissection;
thus we find him writing of the tissues without distinguishing
between the various textures of the body, confusing arteries,
veins and nerves, and speaking vaguely of the muscles as
" flesh." But when we come to study his observations on the
natural history of disease as presented in the h'ving subject, we
recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician.
Hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of
the existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle, <t>vcris,
the vis medicatrix naturae, in the management of which the art
of the physician consisted. This art could, he held, be only
obtained by the application of experience, not only to disease at
large, but to disease in the individual. He strongly deprecated
blind empiricism; the aphorism " q irelpa. a<t>a\epfi, 17 Kplais
XaXr^ " (whether it be his or not) , tersely illustrates his position.
Holding firmly to the principle, vowuv </>wtes tyrpoi, he did not
allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease; he
was not a merely " expectant " physician; as Sydenham puts it,
his practice was " the support of enfeebled and the coercion of
outrageous nature." He largely employed powerful medicines
and blood-letting both ordinary and by cupping. He advises,
however, great caution in their application. He placed great
dependence on diet and regimen, and here, quaint as many of his
directions may now sound, not only in themselves, but in the
reasons given, there is much which is still adhered to at the
present day. His treatise Ilepi de/xov, VOO.TUV, KO.I TOWUV (Airs,
Waters, and Places) contains the first enunciation of the principles
of public health. Although the treatises Htpi Kpurifiuv cannot
be accepted as authentic, we find in the Upoyvucrr IKOV evidence of
the acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occur-
rence of critical days in disease is enunciated. His method of
reporting cases is most interesting and instructive; in them we
can read how thoroughly he had separated himself from the
priest-physician. Laennec, to whom we are indebted for the
practice of auscultation, freely admits that the idea was suggested
to him by study of Hippocrates, who, treating of the presence of
morbid fluids in the thorax, gives very particular directions, by
1 " Hippocrates Cous, primus quidem ex omnibus memoria
dignus, ab studio sapientiae disciplinary hanc separavit, vir et arte
et facundia insignis " (Celsus, De medicina).
means of succussion, for arriving at an opinion regarding their
nature. Laennec says, " Hippocrate avail tente Pauscultation
immediate." Although the treatise Hepl vowuv is doubtfully
from the pen of Hippocrates, it contains strong evidence of
having been the work of his grandson, representing the views of
the Father of Medicine. Although not accurate in the conclusions
reached at the time, the value of the method of diagnosis is
shown by the retention in modern medicine of the name and the
practice of " Hippocratic succussion." The power of graphic
description of phenomena in the Hippocratic writings is illus-
trated by the retention of the term " facies Hippocratica,"
applied to the appearance of a moribund person, pictured in the
Prognostics. In surgery his writings are important and interest-
ing, but they do not bear the same character of caution as the
treatises on medicine; for instance, in the essay On Injuries oj
the Head, he advocates the operation " of trephining " more
strongly and in wider classes of cases than would be warranted
by the experience of later times.
The Hippocratic Collection consists of eighty-seven treatises, of
which a part only can be accepted as genuine. The collection has
been submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times
by a large number of commentators (for full list of the early com-
mentators, see Adams's Genuine Works of Hippocrates, Sydenham
Society, i. 27, 28). The treatises have been classified according
to (i) the direct evidence of ancient writers, (2) peculiarities of style
and method, and (3) the presence of anachronisms and of opinions
opposed to the general Hippocratic teaching greatest weight
being attached to the opinions of Erotian and Galen. The general
estimate of commentators is thus stated by Adams: " The peculiar
style and method of Hippocrates are held to be conciseness of
expression, great condensation of matter, and disposition to regard
all professional subjects in a practical point of view, to eschew
subtle hypotheses and modes of treatment based on vague ab-
stractions." The treatises have been grouped in the four following
sections: (i) genuine; (2) those consisting of notes taken by
students and collected after the death of Hippocrates; (3) essays
by disciples; (4) those utterly spurious. Littr6 accepts the following
thirteen as absolutely genuine: (i) On Ancient Medicine (Ilept
dpxeuijj iTjTpucTJj) ; (2) The Prognostics (Upc^vwtrTuiby) ; (3) The
Aphorisms (' AQopurpoi) ; (4) The Epidemics, i. and iii. ('Ewi&rmiav
o Kaly'); (5) On Regimen in Acute Diseases (Ilepi SiairTjs 6ea') ;
(6) On Airs, Waters, and Places (Tlcpl A.ipmv, vS&Tav, nal rlnrwv);
(7) On the Articulations (Htpi apBpuv) ; (8) On Fractures (npi aynav) ;
(9) The Instruments of Reduction (MoxXunis) ; (10) The Physician's
Establishment, or Surgery (Kar' JijTpeTov); (ll) On Injuries of the
Head (lltpi TWV tv ne<j>a\ji Tpwiiaruv); (12) The Oath ("Op/cos);
(13) The Law (No^os). Of these Adams accepts as certainly genuine
the 2nd, 6th, 5th, 3rd (7 books), Ath, 7th, 8th, gth an'd I2th, and as
" pretty confidently acknowledged as genuine, although the evidence
in their favour is not so strong," the 1st, loth and I3th, and, in
addition, (14) On Ulcers (npi I\KWI>); (15) On Fistulae (tttpi
crvpiy-fiav) ; (16) On Hemorrhoids (IlepJ al^oppdtSwi') ; (17) On the
Sacred Disease (Ilepi iepijs vcyaov). According to the sceptical
and somewhat subjective criticism of Ermerins, the whole collection
is to be regarded as spurious except Epidemics, books i. and iii.
(with a few interpolations), On Airs, Waters, and Places, On Injuries
of the Head (" insigne fragmentum libri Hippocratei "), the former
portion of the treatise On Regimen in Acute Diseases, and the
" obviously Hippocratic " fragments of the Coon Prognostics.
Perhaps also the Oath may be accepted as genuine ; its comparative
antiquity is not denied. The Aphorisms are certainly later and
inferior. .In the other non-Hippocratic writings Ermerins thinks he
can distinguish the hands of no fewer than nineteen different authors,
most of them anonymous, and some of them very late.
The earliest Greek edition of the Hippocratic writings is that which
was published by Aldus and Asulanus at Venice in 1526 (folio);
it was speedily followed by that of Frobenius, which is much more
accurate and complete (fol., Basel, 1538). Of the numerous sub-
sequent editions, probably the best was that of Foesius (Frankfort,
1595. 1621, Geneva, 1657), until the publication of the great works
of Littr6, (Euvres completes d'Hippocrate, traduction nouvelle avec
le texte grec en regard, collationnee sur les manuscrits et toutes les
editions, accompagnee d'une introduction, de commentaires medicaux,
de variantes, et de notes philologiques (10 vols., Paris, 1839-1861),
and of F. Z. Ermerins, Hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum
reliquiae (3 vols., Utrecht, 1859-1864). See also Adams (as cited
above), and Reinhold's Hippocrates (2 vols., Athens, 1864-1867).
Daremberg's edition of the CEuvres choisies (2nd ed., Paris, 1855)
includes the Oath, the Law, the Prorrhetics, book i., the Prognostics,
On Airs, Waters, and Places, Epidemics, books i. and iii., Regimen,
and Aphorisms. Of the separate works attributed to Hippocrates
the editions and translations are almost innumerable; of the
Prognostics, for example, seventy editions are known, while of the
Aphorisms there are said to exist as. many as three hundred. For
some notice of the Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew translations of works
HIPPOCRENE HIPPOLYTUS
professedly by Hippocrates (Ibukrat or Bukrat), the number of
which greatly exceeds that of the extant Greek originals, reference
may be made to Flugel's contribution to the article " Hippokrates "
in the Encyklopddie of Ersch and Gruber. They have been partially
catalogued by Fabricius in his Bibliotlieca Graeca. (J. B. T.)
HIPPOCRENE (the " fountain of the horse," fi ITTTTOV Kpi)vrf),
the spring on Mt Helicon, in Boeotia, which, like the other
spring there, Aganippe, was sacred to the Muses and Apollo,
and hence taken as the source of poetic inspiration. The spring,
surrounded by an ancient wall, is now known as Kryopegadi or
the cold spring. According to the legend, it was produced by
the stamping of the hoof of Bellerophon's horse Pegasus. The
same story accounts for the Hippocrene in Troezen and the
spring Peirene at Corinth.
HIPPODAMUS, of Miletus, a Greek architect of the sth
century B.C. It was he who introduced order and regularity
into the planning of cities, in place of the previous intricacy
and confusion. For Pericles he planned the arrangement of
the harbour-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the Athenians
founded Thurii in Italy he accompanied the colony as architect,
and afterwards, in 408 B.C., he superintended the building of
the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad,
straight streets, cutting one another at right angles.
HIPPODROME (Gr. wnroSpo/uos, from i/mros, horse, and
Spojuos, racecourse), the course provided by the Greeks for
horse and chariot racing; it corresponded to the Roman circus,
except that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time, whereas
ten or more contended in the Greek games, so that the width
was far greater, being about 400 ft., the cource being 600 to
700 ft. long. The Greek hippodrome was usually set out on the
slope of a hill, and the ground taken from one side served to
form the embankment on the other side. One end of the
hippodrome was semicircular, and the other end square with
an extensive portico, in front of which, at a lower level, were
the stalls for the horses and chariots. The modern hippodrome
is more for equestrian and other displays than for horse racing.
The Hippodrome in Paris somewhat resembles the Roman
amphitheatre, being open in the centre to the sky, with seats
round on rising levels.
HIPPOLYTUS, in Greek legend, son of Theseus and Hippolyte,
queen of the Amazons (or of her sister Antiope), a famous hunter
and charioteer and favourite of Artemis. His stepmother
Phaedra became enamoured of him, but, finding her advances
rejected, she hanged herself, leaving a letter in which she accused
Hippolytus of an attempt upon her virtue. Theseus thereupon
drove his son from his presence with curses and called upon his
father Poseidon to destroy him. While Hippolytus was driving
along the shore at Troezen (the scene of the Hippolytus of
Euripides), a sea-monster (a bull or phoca) sent by Poseidon
emerged from the waves; the horses were scared, Hippolytus
was thrown out of the chariot, and was dragged along, entangled
in the reins, until he died. According to a tradition of Epidaurus,
Asclepius restored him to life at the request of Artemis, who
removed him to Italy (see VIRBIUS). At Troezen, where he had
a special sanctuary and priest, and was worshipped with divine
honours, the story of his death was denied. He was said to
have been rescued by the gods at the critical moment, and to
have been placed amongst the stars as the Charioteer (Auriga) .
It was also the custom of the Troezenian maidens to cut off a
lock of their hair and to dedicate it to Hippolytus before marriage
(see Frazer on Pausanias ii. 32. i). Well-known classical
parallels to the main theme are Bellerophon and Antea (or
Stheneboea) and Peleus and Astydamia. The story was the
subject of two plays by Euripides (the later of which is extant),
of a tragedy by Seneca and of Racine's PhUre. A trace of it
has survived in the legendary death of the apocryphal martyr
Hippolytus, a Roman officer who was torn to pieces by wild
horses as a convert to Christianity (see J. J. Dollinger, Hip-
polytus and Callistus, Eng. tr. by A. Plummer, 1876, pp. 28-39,
51-60).
According to the older explanations, Hippolytus represented
the sun, which sets in the sea (cf. the scene of his death and the
story of Phaethon), and Phaedra the moon, which travels behind
the sun, but is unable to overtake it. It is more probable,
however, that he was a local hero famous for his chastity, perhaps
originally a priest of Artemis, worshipped as a god at Troezen,
where he was closely connected and sometimes confounded with
Asclepius. It is noteworthy that, in a speech put into the mouth
of Theseus by Euripides, the father, who of course believes his
wife's story and regards Hippolytus as a hypocrite, throws his
son's pretended misogyny and asceticism (Orphism) in his
teeth. This seems to point to a struggle between a new ritual
and that of Poseidon, the chief deity of Troezen, in which the
representative of the intruding religion meets his death through
the agency of the offended god, as Orpheus (q.v.) was torn to
pieces by the votaries of the jealous Dionysus. According to
S. Reinach (Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft, x., 1907, p. 47),
the Troezenian Hippolytus was a horse, the hypostasis of an
equestrian divinity periodically torn to pieces by the faithful,
who called themselves, and believed themselves to be, horses.
Death was followed by resuscitation, as in the similar myths
of Adonis (the sacred boar), Orpheus (the fox), Pentheus (the
fawn), Phaethon (the white sun-horse).
See Wilamowitz-Mpllendorff 's Introduction to his German transla-
tion of Euripides' Hippolytus (1891); A. Kalkmann, De Hippolytis
Euripideis (Bonn. 1882) ; and (for representations in art) " l)ber
Darstellu'ng der Hippolytussage " in Archaologische Zeitung (xli.
1883); J. E. Harrison, Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens
(1890), cl.
HIPPOLYTUS, a writer of the early Church. The mystery
which enveloped the person and writings of Hippolytus, 1 one of
the most prolific ecclesiastical writers of early times, had some
light thrown upon it for the first time about the middle of the
1 9th century by the discovery of the so-called Philosophumena
(see below) . Assuming this writing to be the work of Hippolytus,
the information given in it as to the author and his times can be
combined with other traditional dates to form a tolerably clear
picture. Hippolytus must have been born in the second half of
the 2nd century, probably in Rome. Photius describes him in
his Bibliotheca (cod. 121) as a disciple of Irenaeus, and from the
context of this passage it is supposed that we may conclude that
Hippolytus himself so styled himself. But this is not certain, and
even if it were, it does not necessarily imply that Hippolytus
enjoyed the personal teaching of the celebrated Gallic bishop;
it may perhaps merely refer to that relation of his theological
system to that of Irenaeus which can easily be traced in his
writings. As a presbyter of the church at Rome under Bishop
Zephyrinus (199-217), Hippolytus was distinguished for his
learning and eloquence. It was at this time that Origen, then a
young man, heard him preach (Hieron. Vir. ill. 61; cp. Euseb.
H.E. vi. 14, 10). It was probably not long before questions of
theology and church discipline brought him into direct conflict with
Zephyrinus, or at any rate with his successor Calixtus I. (q.v.).
He accused the bishop of favouring the Christological heresies
of the Monarchians, and, further, of subverting the discipline of
the Church by his lax action in receiving back into the Church
those guilty of gross offences. The result was a schism, and for
perhaps over ten years Hippolytus stood as bishop at the head of
a separate church. Then came the persecution under Maximinus
the Thracian. Hippolytus and Pontius, who was then bishop,
were transported in 235 to Sardinia, where it would seem that
both of them died. From the so-called chronograph of the year
354 (Catalogus Liberianus) we learn that on the i3th of August,
probably in 236, the bodies of the exiles were interred in Rome
and that of Hippolytus in the cemetery on the Via Tiburtina.
So we must suppose that before his death the schismatic was
received again into the bosom of the Church, and this is confirmed
by the fact that his memory was henceforth celebrated in the
Church as that of a holy martyr. Pope Damasus I. dedicated to
him one of his famous epigrams, and Prudentius( Perislephanon, 1 1)
drew a highly coloured picture of his gruesome death, the details
of which are certainly purely legendary: the myth of Hippolytus
the son of Theseus was transferred to the Christian martyr. Of
the historical Hippolytus little remained in the memory of after
1 According to the legend St Hippolytus was a Roman soldier
who was converted by St Lawrence.
520
HIPPOLYTUS, CANONS OF
ages. Neither Eusebius (H.E. vi. 20, 2) nor Jerome (Vir. ill. 61)
knew that the author so much read in the East and the Roman
saint were one and the same person. The notice in the Chronicon
Paschale preserves one slight reminiscence of the historical facts,
namely, that Hippolytus's episcopal see was situated at Portus
near Rome. In 1551 a marble statue of a seated man was found
in the cemetery of the Via Tiburtina: on the sides of the
seat were carved a paschal cycle, and on the back the titles of
numerous writings. It was the statue of Hippolytus, a work
at any rate of the 3rd century; at the time of Pius IX. it
was placed in the Lateran Museum, a record in stone of a lost
tradition.
Hippolytus's voluminous writings, which for variety of
subject can be compared with those of Origen, embrace the
spheres of exegesis, homiletics, apologetics and polemic, chrono-
graphy and ecclesiastical law. His works have' unfortunately
come down to us in such a fragmentary condition that it is
difficult to obtain from them any very exact notion of his intel-
lectual and literary importance. Of his exegetical works the best
preserved are the Commentary on the Prophet Daniel and the
Commentary on the Song of Songs. In spite of many instances of
a want of taste in his typology, they are distinguished by a certain
sobriety and sense of proportion in his exegesis. We are unable
to form an opinion of Hippolytus as a preacher, for the Homilies
on the Feast of Epiphany which go under his name are wrongly
attributed to him. He wrote polemical words directed against
the pagans, the Jews and heretics. The most important of these
polemical treatises is the Refutation of all Heresies, which has
come to be known by the inappropriate title of the Philoso-
phumena. Of its ten books, the second and third are lost;
Book i. was for a long time printed (with the title Philoso-
phumena) among the works of Origen; Books iv.-x. were found in
1842 by the Greek Minoides Mynas, without the name of the
author, in a MS. at Mount Athos. It is nowadays universally
admitted that Hippolytus was the author, and that Books i. and
iv.-x belong to the same work. The importance of the work has,
however, been much overrated; a close examination of the
sources for the exposition of the Gnostic system which is con-
tained in it has proved that the information it gives is not
always trustworthy. Of the dogmatic works, that on Christ and
Antichrist survives in a complete state. Among other things it
includes a vivid account of the events preceding the end of the
world, and it was probably written at the time of the persecu-
tion under Septimius Severus, i.e. about 202. The influence of
Hippolytus was felt chiefly through his works on chronographic
and ecclesiastical law. His chronicle of the world, a compilation
embracing the whole period from the creation of the world up to
the year 234, formed a basis for many chronographical works
both in the East and West. In the great compilations of eccle-
siastical law which arose in the East since the 4th century (see
below: also APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS) much of the material was
taken from the writings of Hippolytus; how much of this is
genuinely his, how much of it worked over, and how much of it
wrongly attributed to him, can no longer be determined beyond
dispute even by the most learned investigation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The edition of J. A. Fabricius, Hippolyti opera
graece et latine (2 vols., Hamburg, 1716-1718, reprinted in Gallandi,
Bibliotheca veterum patrum (vol. ii., 1766), and Migne, Cursus
patrol, ser. Graeca, vol. x.) is out of date. The preparation of a
complete critical edition has been undertaken by the Prussian
Academy of Sciences. The task is one of extraordinary difficulty,
for the textual problems of the various writings are complex
, and confused: the Greek original is extant in a few cases only
(the Commentary on Daniel, the Refutation, on Antichrist, parts of
the Chronicle, and some fragments) ; for the rest we are dependent
on fragments of translations, chiefly Slavonic, all of which are not
even published. Of the Academy's edition one volume was published
at Berlin in 1897, containing the Commentaries on Daniel and on
the Song of Songs, the treatise on Antichrist, and the Lesser Exege-
tical and Homiletic Works, edited by Nathanael Bonwetsch and Hans
Achelis. The Commentary on the Song of Songs has also been
published by Bonwetsch (Leipzig, 1902) in a German translation
based on a Russian translation by N. Marr of the Grusian (Georgian)
text, and he added to it (Leipzig, 1904) a translation of various small
exegetical pieces, which are preserved in a Georgian version only
(The Blessing of Jacob, The Blessing of Moses, The Narrative of
David and Goliath). A great part of the original of the Chronicle
has been published by Adolf Bauer (Leipzig, 1905) from the Codex
Matritensis Graecus, 221. For the Refutation we are still dependent
on the editions of Miller (Oxford, 1851), Duncker and Schneidewin
(Gottingen, 1859), and Cruice (Paris, 1860). An English translation
is to be found in the Ante-Nicene Christian Library (Edinburgh
1868-1869).
See Bunsen, Hippolytus and his Age (1852, 2nd ed., 1854; Ger
ed., 1853); Dollinger, Hippolytus und Kallistus (Regensb. 1853-
Eng. trend., Edinb., 1876); Gerhard Picker, Studien zur Hippolyt-
frage (Leipzig, 1893); Hans Achelis, Hippolytstudien (Leipzig, 1897);
Karl Johannes Neumann, Hippolytus von Rom in seiner Stellung zu
Stoat und Welt, part i. (Leipzig, 1902) ; Adh6mar d'Ales, La Theologie
de Saint Hippolyte (Paris, 1906). (G. K.)
HIPPOLYTUS, THE CANONS OF. This book stands at the
head of a series of Church Orders, which contain instructions in
regard to the choice and ordination of Christian ministers, regula-
tions as to widows and virgins, conditions of reception of converts
from heathenism, preparation for and administration of baptism,
rules for the celebration of the eucharist, for fasting, daily prayers,
charity suppers, memorial meals, first-fruits, &c. We shall give
(i) a description of the book as we have it at present; (2) a brief
statement of its relation to allied documents; (3) some remarks
on the evidence for its date and authorship.
i. We possess the Canons of Hippolytus only in an Arabic
version, itself made from a Coptic version of the original Greek.
Attention was called to the book by Wansleben and Ludolf
towards the end of the i7th century, but it was only in 1870 that
it was edited by Haneberg, who added a Latin translation, and
so made it generally accessible. In 1891 H. Achelis reproduced
this translation in a revised form, embodying it in a synopsis
of allied documents. He suspected much interpolation and
derangement of order, and consequently rearranged its con-
tents with a free hand. In 1900 a German translation was made
by H. Riedel, based on fresh MSS. These showed that the book,
as hitherto edited, had been thrown into disorder by the displace-
ment of two pages near the end; they also removed other
difficulties upon which the theory of interpolation had been
based. Further discoveries, to be spoken of presently, have
added to our materials for the study of the book.
The book is attributed to " Hippolytus, the chief of the bishops
of Rome," and is divided into thirty-eight canons, to which short
headings are prefixed. This division is certainly not original, but
it is convenient for purposes of reference. Canon I is prefatory ;
it contains a brief confession of faith in the Trinity, and especially
in the Word, the Son of God ; and it speaks of the expulsion of
heretics from the Church. Canons 2-5 give regulations for the
selection and ordination of bishops, presbyters and deacons. The
bishop is chosen by the whole congregation: "one of the bishops
and presbyters " is to lay hands upon him and say a prayer which
follows (3) : he is at once to proceed with " the offering," taking
up the eucharistic service at the point where the sursum corda
comes in. A presbyter (4) is to be ordained with the same prayer
as a bishop, " with the exception of the word bishop "; but he is
given no power of ordination (this appears to be inconsistent with
c. 2). The duties of a deacon are described, and the prayer of his
ordination follows (5). Canons 6-9 deal with various classes in the
Church. One who has suffered punishment for the faith (6) is to
be counted^ a presbyter without ordination: "his confession is his
ordination." Readers and sub-deacons (7) are given the Gospel,
but are not ordained by laying-on of hands. A claim to ordination
on the ground of gifts of healing (8) is to be admitted, if the facts
are clear and the healing is from God. Widows are not ordained
(9): " ordination is for men only." Canons 10-15 describe con-
ditions for the admission of converts. Certain occupations are
incompatible with Christian life: only under compulsion may a
Christian be a soldier. Canons 16-18 deal chiefly with regulations
concerning women. Canon 19 is a long one dealing with catechumens,
preparation for baptism, administration of that sacrament, and of
the eucharist for the newly baptized. The candidate is twice
anointed : first, with the oil of exorcism, after he has said, with his
face westward, " I renounce thee, O devil, and all thy following ";
and, again, immediately after the baptism. As he stands in the
water, he declares his faith in response to an interrogatory creed;
and after each of the three clauses he is immersed. After the
second anointing the bishop gives thanks " for that Thou hast made
them worthy that they should be born again, and hast poured out
Thy Holy Ghost upon them, so that they may belong, each one of
them, to the body of the Church ": he signs them with the cross
on their foreheads, and kisses them. The eucharist then proceeds:
" the bishop gives them of the body -of Christ and says, This is the
body of Christ, and they answer Amen "; and similarly for the cup.
HIPPOLYTUS, CANONS OF
Milk and honey are then given to them as being " born a second
time as little children." A warning is added against eating anything
before communicating. Canons 20-22 deal with fast-days, daily
services in church, and the fast of the passover-week. Canon 23
seems as if it closed the series, speaking, as it does, of " our brethren
the bishops " who in their cities have made regulations " according
to the commands of our fathers the apostles ': " let none of our
successors alter them; because it saith that the teaching is greater
than the sea, and hath no end." We pass on, however, to regulations
about the sick (24) who are to be visited by the bishop, '' because
it is a great thing for the sick that the high-priest should visit them
(for the shadow of Peter healed the sick). Canons 25-27 deal again
with prayers and church-services. The " seven hours " are specified,
with reasons for their observance (25) : attendance at sermons is
urged (26), " for the Lord is in the place where his lordship is pro-
claimed " (comp. Didache 4, part of the Two Ways). When there
are no prayers in church, reading at home is enjoined (27): " let
the sun each morning see the book upon thy knees " (comp. Ath.
Ad virg., 12, " Let the sun when he ariseth see the book in thy
hands ). Prayer must be preceded by the washing of the hands.
"No believer must take food before communicating, especially
on fast-days " : only believers may communicate (28). The sacred
elements must be guarded, " lest anything fall into the cup, and it
be a sin unto death for the presbyters." No crumb must be dropped,
" lest an evil spirit get possession of it." Canons 30-35 contain
various rules, and specially deal with suppers for the poor (i.e.
aeapae) and memorial feasts. Then we have a prayer for the offering
of first-fruits (36) ; a direction that ministers shall wear fair garments
at " the mysteries " (37) ; and a command to watch during the
night of the resurrection (38). The last canon hereupon passes into
a general exhortation to right living, which forms a sixth part of
the whole book. In Riedel's translation we read this for the first
time as a connected whole. It falls into two parts, and describes,
first, the true life of ordinary Christians, warning them against an
empty profession, and laying down many precepts of morality:
and then it addresses itself to the " ascete " who " wishes to belong
to the rank of the angels," and who lives a life of solitude and
poverty. He is encouraged by an exposition, on somewhat strange
lines, of the temptations of our Lord, and is specially warned against
spiritual pride and contempt of other men. The book closes with
an appeal for love and mutual service, based on the parables in St
Matthew xxv.
2. It is impossible to estimate the position of the Canons of
Hippolytus without some reference to allied documents (see
APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS), (a) The most important of
these is what is now commonly called the Egyptian Church
Order. This is preserved to us in Coptic and Aethiopic versions,
of which Achelis, in his synopsis, gives German translations. The
subject-matter- and arrangement of these canons correspond
generally to those of Hippolytus; but many of the details are
modified to bring them into accord with a later practice. A
new light was thrown on the criticism of this work by Hauler's
discovery (1900) of a Latin version (of which, unfortunately,
about half is missing) in the Verona palimpsest, from which
he has also given us large Latin fragments of the Didascalia
(which underlies books i.-vi. of the Apostolic Constitutions, and
which hitherto we have only known from the Syriac). The Latin
of the Egyptian Church Order is somewhat more primitive than
the Coptic, and approaches more nearly, at some points, to the
Canons of Hippolytus. It has a preface which refers to a treatise
Concerning Spiritual Gifts, as having immediately preceded it;
but neither this nor the Coptic-Aethiopic form has either the
introduction or concluding exhortation which is found in the
Canons of Hippolytus. (b) The Testament of the Lord is a docu-
ment in Syriac, of which the opening part had been published
by Lagarde, and of which Rahmani(i8g9) has given us the whole.
It professes to contain instructions given by our Lord to the
apostles after the resurrection. After an introduction containing
apocalyptical matter, it passes on to give elaborate directions
for the ordering of the Church, embodying, in a much-expanded
form, the Egyptian Church Order, and showing a knowledge of
the preface to that document which appears in the Latin version.
It cannot be placed with probability earlier than the latter part
of the 4th century, (c) The Apostolic Constitutions is a composite
document, which probably belongs to the end of the 4th century.
Its first six books are an expanded edition of a Didascalia which
we have already mentioned: its seventh book similarly expands
and modifies the Didache; its eighth book begins by treating
of " spiritual gifts," and then in c. 3 passes on to expand in like
wanner the Egyptian Church Order. The hand which has
wrought up all these documents has been shown to be that of
the interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek
recension, (d) The Canons of Basil is the title of an Arabic
work, of which a German translation has been given us by
Riedel, who thinks that they have come through Coptic from
an original Greek book. They embody, in a modified form,
considerable portions of the Canons of Hippolytus.
3. We now approach the difficult questions of date and author-
ship. Much of the material has been quite recently brought to
light, and criticism has not had time to investigate and pronounce
upon it. Some provisional remarks, therefore, are all that can
prudently be made. It seems plain that we have two lines of
tradition: (i) The Canons of Hippolytus, followed by the
Canons of Basil; (2) the Egyptian Church Order, itself repre-
sented (a) by the Latin version, the Testament of the Lord, and
the Apostolic Constitutions, which are linked together by the
same preface (or portions of it) ; (b) by the Coptic and Aethiopic
versions. Now, the preface of the Latin version points to a time
when the canons were embodied in a corpus of similar materials,
or, at the least, were preceded by a work on "Spiritual Gifts."
The Canons of Hippolytus have a wholly different preface, and
also a long exhortation at the close. The question which criticism
must endeavour to answer is, whether the Canons of Hippolytus
are the original from which the Egyptian Church Order is derived,
or whether an earlier body of canons lies behind them both.
At present it is probably wise to assume that the latter is the
true explanation. For the Canons of Hippolytus appear to
contain contradictory regulations (e.g. cc. 2 and 4 of the
presbyters), and also suggest that they have received a consider-
able supplement (after c. 23). There is, however, no doubt that
they present us with a more primitive stage of Church life than
we find in the Egyptian Church Order. The mention of sub-
deacons (which, after Riedel's fresh manuscript evidence, cannot
now be dismissed as due to interpolation) makes it difficult
to assign a date much earlier than the middle of the 3rd
century.
The Puritan severity of the canons well accords with
the temper of the writer to whom the Arabic title attributes
them; and it is to be noted that the exhortation at the
close contains a quotation from 2 Peter actually attributed
to the apostle, and Hippolytus is perhaps the earliest
author who can with certainty be said to have used this epistle.
But the general style of Hippolytus, which is simple, straight-
forward and strong, is in marked contrast with that of the
closing passage of the canons; moreover, his mind, as presented
to us in his extant writings, appears to be a much larger one than
that of the writer of these canons; it is as difficult to think of
Hippolytus as it would be to think of Origen in such a connexion.
How, then, are we to account for the attribution? There is
evidence to show that Hippolytus was highly reverenced through-
out the East: his writings, which were in Greek, were known,
but his history was entirely unknown. He was supposed to
be "a pupil (jvupi^ios) of apostles" (Palladius, 4th century),
and the Arabic title calls him " chief of the bishops of Rome,"
i.e. archbishop of Rome. It is hard to trust this attribution
more than the attribution of a Coptic discourse on the Dormilio
Marine to " Evodius, archbishop of the great city Rome, who
was the second after Peter the apostle " (Texts and Studies, iv.
2-44) Evodius being by tradition first bishop of Antioch.
A whole group of books on Church Order bears the name of
Clement of Rome; and the attribution of our canons to Hip-
polytus may be only an example of the same tendency. The
fact that Hippolytus wrote a treatise Concerning Spiritual Gifts,
and that some such treatise is not only referred to in the Latin
preface to the Egyptian Church Order, but is actually found
at the beginning of book viii. of the Apostolic Constitutions,
introduces an interesting complication; but we cannot here
pursue the matter further. Dom Morin's ingenious attribution
of the canons to Dionysius of Alexandria (on the ground of
Eusebius, H.E. vi. 46., 5) cannot be accepted in view of the broader
church policy which that writer represents. If the Hippolytean
authorship be given up, it is probable that Egypt will make
522
HIPPONAX HIPPOPOTAMUS
the strongest claim to be the locality in which the canons were
compiled in their present form.
The authorities of chief practical importance are H. Achelis,
Texte u. Unters. vi. 4 (1891); Rahmani, Testamentum Domini
(1899); Hauler, Didascaliae Apostolorum (1900); Riedel, Kirchen-
rechtsquellen des Patriarchats Alexandrien (1900). (J. A. R.)
HIPPONAX, of Ephesus, Greek iambic poet. Expelled from
Ephesus in 540 B.C. by the tyrant Athenagoras, he took refuge
in Clazomenae, where he spent the rest of his life in poverty.
His deformed figure and malicious disposition exposed him to
the caricature of the Chian sculptors Bupalus and Athenis, upon
whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a series of
satires. They are said to have hanged themselves like Lycambes
and his daughters when assailed by Archilochus, the model and
predecessor of Hipponax. His coarseness of thought and feeling,
his rude vocabulary, his want of grace and taste, and his numerous
allusions to matters of merely local interest prevented his becom-
ing a favourite in Attica. He was considered the inventor
of parody and of a peculiar metre, the scazon or choliambus,
which substitutes a spondee for the final iambus of an iambic
senarius, and is an appropriate form for the burlesque character
of his poems.
Fragments in Bergk, Poetae lyrici Graeci; see also B. J. Peltzer,
De parodied Graecorum poesi (1855), containing an account of
Hipponax and the fragments.
HIPPOPOTAMUS ("river-horse," Gr. linros, horse and
Trora^tos, river), the name of the largest representative of the
non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mammals, and its living
and extinct relatives. The common hippopotamus (Hippo-
potamus amphibius), which formerly inhabited all the great rivers
of Africa but whose range has now been much restricted, is most
likely the behemoth of Scripture, and may very probably in
Biblical times have been found in the Jordan valley, since at a
still earlier (Pleistocene) epoch it ranged over a large part of
Europe. It typifies not only a genus, but likewise a family,
Hippopotamidae, distinguished from its relatives the pigs and
The Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius).
peccaries, or Suidae, by the following assemblage of characters:
Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, with
four subequal toes, bearing short rounded hoofs, and all reaching
the ground in walking. Incisors not rooted but continuously
growing; those of the upper jaw curved and directed down-
wards; those of the lower straight and procumbent. Canines
very large, curved, continuously growing; upper ones directed
downwards. Premolars ^; molars f. Stomach complex. No
caecum.
In form the hippopotamus is a huge, unwieldy creature,
measuring in the largest specimens fully 14 ft. from the ex-
tremity of the upper lip to the tip of the tail, while it ordinarily
attains a length of 12 ft., with a height of 5 ft. at the shoulders,
and a girth round the thickest part of the body almost equal to
its length. The small ears are exceedingly flexible, and kept in
constant motion when the animal is seeking to catch a distant
sound; the eyes are placed high up on the head, but little below
the level of the ears; while the gape is wide, and the upper lip
thick and bulging so as to cover over even its large tusks when the
mouth is closed. The molars, which show trefoil-shaped grinding-
surfaces are well adapted for masticating vegetable substances,
while the formidable array of long spear-like incisors and curved
chisel-edged canines or tusks root up rank grass like an agri-
cultural implement. The legs are short, so that the body is but
little elevated above the ground; and the feet, which are small
in proportion to the size of the animal, terminate in four short
toes each bearing a small hoof. With the exception of a few tufts
of hair on the lips, on the sides of the head and neck, and at the
extremity of the short robust tail, the skin of the hippopotamus,
some portions of which are 2 in. in thickness, is destitute of
covering. Hippopotamuses are gregarious animals, living in herds
of from 20 to 40 individuals on the banks and in the beds of
rivers, in the neighbourhood of which they most readily find
appropriate food. This consists chiefly of grass and of aquatic
plants, of which these animals consume enormous quantities, the
stomach being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. They
feed principally by night, remaining in the water during the day,
although in districts where they are little disturbed they are less
exclusively aquatic. In such remote quarters they put their
heads boldly out of the water to blow, but when rendered sus-
picious they become exceedingly cautious in this respect, only
exposing their nostrils above the water, and even this they
prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of their
enormous size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and
divers, and can remain easily under the water from five to eight
minutes. They walk on the bottoms of rivers, beneath at least
i ft. of water. At nightfall they come on land to feed; and when,
as often happens on the banks of the Nile, they reach cultivated
ground, they do immense damage to growing crops, destroying
by their ponderous tread even more than they devour. To scare
away these unwelcome visitors the natives in such districts are
in the habit of kindling fires at night. Although hippopotamuses
do not willingly go far from the water on which their existence
depends, they occasionally travel long distances by night in
search of food, and in spite of their clumsy appearance are able
to climb steep banks and precipitous ravines with ease. Of a
wounded hippopotamus which Sir S. Baker saw leaving the
water and galloping inland, he writes: " I never could have
imagined that so unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such
speed. No man could have had a chance of escape." The
hippopotamus does not confine itself to rivers and lakes, but has
been known to prefer the waters of the ocean as its home during
the day. Of a mild and inoffensive disposition, it seeks to avoid
collision with man; when wounded, however, or in defence of
its young, it exhibits great ferocity, and native canoes are
capsized and occasionally demolished by its infuriated attacks;
the bellowing grunt then becoming loud enough to be heard a
mile away. As among elephants, so also among hippopotamuses
there are " rogues " old bulls which have become soured in
solitude, and are at all times dangerous. Assuming the offensive
on every occasion, they attack all and sundry without shadow
of provocation; and the natives avoid their haunts, which are
usually well known.
The only other living species is the pygmy hippopotamus,
H. (Choeropsis) liberiensis, of West Africa, an animal not larger
than a clumsily made pig of full dimensions, and characterized
by having generally one (in place of two) pair of incisors. It is
much less aquatic than its giant relative, having, in fact, the
habits of a pig.
A small extinct species (H. lemerlei) inhabited Madagascar at
a comparatively recent date; while other dwarf kinds were
natives of Crete (H. minutus) and Malta and Sicily (H . penllandi)
during the Pleistocene. A large form of the ordinary species
(H. amphibius major) was distributed over Europe as far north
as Yorkshire at the same epoch; while an allied species (H.
palaeindicus) inhabited Pleistocene India. Contemporary with
the latter was, however, a species (H. namadicus) with three
pairs of incisors; and " hexaprotodont " hippopotamuses are
HIPPURIC ACID HIROSHIGE
523
also characteristic of the Pliocene of India and Burma (H.
sivdensis and H. iravadicus), and of Algeria, Egypt and southern
Europe (H. hipponensis).
For the ancestral genera of the hippopotamus line, see ARTIO-
DACTYLA. (R. L.*)
HIPPURIC ACID (Gr. linos, horse, ovpov, urine), ben-
zoyl glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid, CgHgNOj or
C6H 5 CO-NH-CH 2 -CO2H, an organic acid found in the urine of
horses and other herbivorae. It is excreted when many aromatic
compounds, such as benzoic acid and toluene, are taken in-
ternally. J. v. Liebig in 1829 showed that it differed from benzoic
acid, and in 1839 determined its constitution, while in 1853
V. Dessaignes (Ann. 87, p. 325) synthesized it by acting with
benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide. It is also formed by
heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll (Th. Curtius, Ber., 1884,
17, p. 1662), and by heating benzamide with monochloracetic
acid. It crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are readily soluble
in hot water, melt at 187 C. and decompose at about 240 C. It
is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic acid and
glycocoll. Nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic acid,
CeHsCOOCH^-COsH. Its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to
form hippuryl hydrazine, CeHsCO-NH-CI^-CO-NH-NHz, which
was used by Curtius for the preparation of azoimide (q.v.).
HIPURNIAS, a tribe of South American Indians, 2000 or 3000
in number, living on the river Purus, western Brazil. Their
houses are long, low and narrow: the side walls and roof are one,
poles being fixed in the ground and then bent together so as to
meet and form a pointed arch for the cross-sections. They use
small bark canoes. Their chief weapons are poisoned arrows.
They have a native god called Guintiniri.
HIRA, the capital of an Arabian kingdom, founded in the 2nd
century A.D., on the western edge of Irak, was situated at 32
N., 44 20' E., about 4 m. S.E. of modern Nejef, by the Sa'ade
canal, on the shore of the Bahr Nejef or Assyrium Stagnum.
Its kings governed the western shore of the lower Euphrates and
of the Persian Gulf, their kingdom extending inland to the con-
fines of the Nejd. This Lakhmid kingdom was more or less
dependent, during the four centuries of its existence, on the
Sassanian empire, to which it formed a sort of buffer state
towards Arabia. After the battle of Kadesiya and the founding
of Kufa by the Arabs, Hira lost its importance and fell into
decay. The ruin mounds covering the ancient site, while ex-
tensive, are insignificant in appearance and give no indications
of the existence of important buildings.
HIRADO, an island belonging to Japan, 19! m. long and 6 m.
wide, lying off the west coast of the province of Hizen, Kiushiu,
in 33 15' N. and 129 25' E. It is celebrated as the site of the
original Dutch factory often erroneously written Firando
and as the place where one of the finest blue-and-white porcelains
of Japan (Hiradoyaki) was produced in the i7th and i8th
centuries. The kilns are still active.
HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT, in the law of contract, a
form of bailment of goods, on credit, which has extended very
considerably of late years. Originally applied to the sale of
the more expensive kinds of goods, such as pianos and articles
of furniture, the hire-purchase agreement has now been extended
to almost every description. The agreement is usually in writing,
with a stipulation that the payments to purchase shall be by
weekly, monthly orotherinstalments. The agreement is virtually
one to purchase, but in order that the vendor may be able to
recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instalment,
it is treated as an agreement to let and hire, with a provision
that when the last instalment has been paid the goods shall
become the property of the hirer. A clause provides that in
case of default of any instalment, or breach of any part of the
agreement, all previous payments shall be forfeited to the lender,
who can forcibly recover the goods. Such agreements, therefore,
do not pass the property in the goods, which remains in the
lender until all the instalments have been paid. But the terms
of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure the nature
of the transaction between the parties, where, for example, the
hire-purchase is merely to create a security for money. In such
a case a judge will look to the true nature of the transaction.
If it is net a real letting and hiring, the agreement will require
registration under the Bills of Sale Acts. If the agreement
contains words to the effect that a person has " bought or agreed
to buy " goods, the transaction comes under the Factors Act
1889, and the person in possession of the goods may dispose
of them and give a good title. The doctrine of reputed ownership,
by which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in
his apparent possession, has been somewhat modified by trade
customs, in accordance with which property is frequently let
out on the hire-purchase system (see BANKRUPTCY).
HIRING (from O. Eng. hyrian, a word common to many Teutonic
languages cf. Ger. heuern, Dutch huren, &c.), in law, a contract
by which one man grants the use of a thing to another in return
for a certain price. It corresponds to the locatio-conduclio of
Roman law. That contract was either a letting of a thing
(locatio-conductio rei) or of labour (localio operarum). The
distinguishing feature of the contract was the price. Thus the
contracts of mutuum, commodatum, depositum and mandatum,
which are all gratuitous contracts, become, if a price is fixed,
cases of locatio-conductio. In modern English law the term can
scarcely be said to .be used in a strictly technical sense. The
contracts which the Roman law grouped together under the
head of locatio-conductio such as those of landlord and tenant,
master and servant, &c. are not in English law treated as cases
of hiring but as independent varieties of contract. Neither
in law books nor in ordinary discourse could a tenant farmer
be said to hire his land. Hiring would generally be applied to
contracts in which the services of a man or the use of a thing
are engaged for a short time.
Hiring Fairs, or Statute Fairs, still held in Wales and some
parts of England, were formerly an annual fixture in every
important country town. These fairs served to bring together
masters and servants. The men and maids seeking work stood
in rows, the males together and the females together, while masters
and mistresses walked down the lines and selected those who
suited them. Originally these hiring-fairs were always held on
Martinmas Day (nth of November). Now they are held on
different dates in different towns, usually in October or November.
In Cumberland the men seeking work stood with straws in their
mouths. In Lincolnshire the bargain between employer and
employed was closed by the giving of the " fasten-penny," the
earnest money, usually a shilling, which " fastened " the contract
for a twelvemonth. Some few days after the Statute Fair it
was customary to hold a second called a Mop Fair or Runaway
Mop. " Mop " (from Lat. tnappa, napkin, or small cloth)
meant in Old English a tuft or tassel, and the fair was so called,
it is suggested, in allusion to tufts or badges worn by those
seeking employment. Thus the carter wore whipcord on his
hat, the cowherd a tuft of cow's hair, and so on. Another
possible explanation would be to take the word " mop " in its
old provincial slang sense of " a fool," mop fair being the fools'
fair, a sort of last chance offered to those who were too dull or
slovenly-looking to be hired at the statute fair. Perhaps " run-
away " suggests the idea of those absent through drunkenness,
or those who simply feared to face the ordeal of the larger hiring
and so ran away.
HIROSAKI, a town of Japan in the province of Michmoku
or Rikuchiu, north Nippon, 22m. S.W. of Aomori by rail. Pop.
about 37,000. The fine isolated cone of Iwakisan, a mountain
of pilgrimage, rises to the west. Hirosaki is a very old place,
formerly residence of a great daimio (or daimyo) and capital of
a vast principality, and still the seat of a high court with juris-
diction over the surrounding districts of Aomori and Akita.
Like most places in north Nippon, it is built with continu-
ous verandas extending from house to house, and affording a
promenade completely sheltered from the snows of winter.
Apples of fine flavour grow in the district, which also enjoys
some reputation for its peculiar green lacquer-ware.
HIROSHIGE (1797-1858), Japanese artist, was one of the
principal members of that branch 'of the Ukiyo-ye or Popular
School of Painting in Japan, a school which chiefly made
524
HIROSHIMA HIRSCH, M. DE
colour-prints. His family name was Ando Tokitaro; that under
which he is known having been, in accordance with Japanese
practice, adopted by him in recognition of the fact that he was
a pupil of Toyohiro. The earliest reference to him is in the
account given by an inhabitant of the Lu-chu islands of a
visit to Japan ; where a sketch of a procession drawn with great
skill by Hiroshige at the age of ten years only is mentioned as
one of the remarkable sights seen. At the age of fifteen he
applied unsuccessfully to be admitted to the studio of the elder
Toyokuni; but was eventually received by Toyohiro. On the
death of the latter in 1828, he began to practise on his own
account, but finding small encouragement at Yedo (Tokyo) he
removed to Kioto, where he published a set of landscapes. He
soon returned to Yedo, where his work soon became popular,
and was imitated by other artists. He died in that city on the
6th day of the Qth month of the year, Ansei sth, at the age of
sixty-two, and was buried at Asakusa. One of his pupils,
Hironobu, received from him the name of Hiroshige II. and
another, Ando Tokubei, that of Hiroshige III. All three were
closely associated with the work signed with the name of the
master. Hiroshige II. some time after the year 1863 fell into
disgrace and was compelled to leave Yedo for Nagasaki, where
he died; Hiroshige III. then called himself Hiroshige II. He
died in 1896. The earlier prints by these artists, whose work
can hardly be separated, are of extraordinary merit. They
applied the process of colour block printing to the purposes
of depicting landscape, with a breadth, skill and suitability of
convention that has been equalled only by Hokusai in Japan,
and by no European. Most of their subjects were derived from
the neighbourhood of Yedo, or were scenes on the old high road
the Tokaido that ran from that city to Kioto. The two
elder of the name were competent painters, and pictures and
drawings by them are occasionally to be met with.
See E. F. Strange, " Japanese Colour-prints " (Victoria and
Albert Museum Handbook, 1904). (E. F. S.)
HIROSHIMA, a city and seaport of Japan, capital of the
government of its name in central Nippon. Pop. (1903) 113,545.
It is very beautifully situated on a small plain surrounded by
hills, the bay being studded with islands. In its general aspect it
resembles Osaka, from which it is 190 m. W. by rail, and next to
that place and Hiogo it is the most important commercial centre
on the Inland Sea. The government has an area of about 3000
sq. m., with a population of about 1,500,000. Hiroshima is
famous all over Japan owing to its association with the neighbour-
ing islet of Itaku-Shima, " Island of Light," which is dedicated
to the goddess Bentin and regarded as one of the three wonders
of Japan. The chief temple dates from the year 587, and the
island, which is inhabited largely by priests and their attendants,
is annually visited by thousands of pilgrims. But the hallowed
soil is never tilled, so that all provisions have to be brought from
the surrounding districts.
HIRPINI (from an Oscan or Sabine stem hirpo-, "wolf "), an
inland Samnite tribe in the south of Italy, whose territory was
bounded by that of the Lucani on the S., the Campani on the
S.W., the Appuli (Apuli) and Frentani on the E. and N.E. On
the N. we find them, politically speaking, identified with the
Pentri and Caraceni, and with them constituting the Samnite
alliance in the wars of the 4th century B.C. (see SAMNITES).
The Roman policy of separation cut them off from these allies by
the foundation of Beneventum in 268 B.C., and henceforward they
are a separate unit; they joined Hannibal in 216 B.C., and re-
tained their independence until, after joining in the Social war,
which in their part of Italy can hardly be said to have ceased till
the final defeat of the Samnites by Sulla in 83 B.C., they received
the Roman franchise. Of their Oscan speech, besides the
evidence of their place-names, only a few fragments survive
(R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 170 ff.; and for hirpo-,
ib. p. 200). In the ethnology of Italy the Hirpini appear from
one point of view as the purest type of Safine stock, namely, that
in which the proportion of ethnica formed with the suffix -no-
is highest, thirty-three out of thirty-six tribal or municipal
epithets being formed thereby (e.g. Caudini, Compsani) and only
one with the suffix -/*'- (Abellinates) , where it is clearly second-
ary. On the significance of this see SABINI. (R. S. C.)
HIRSAU (formerly Hirschau), a village of Germany, in the
kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the Nagold and the Pforzheim-
Horb railway, 2 m. N. of Calw. Pop. 800. Hirsau has some
small manufactures, but it owes its origin and historical interest
to its former Benedictine monastery, Monasterium Hirsaugiense,
at one period one of the most famous in Europe. Its picturesque
ruins, of which only the chapel with the library hall are still in
good preservation, testify to the pristine grandeur of the establish-
ment. It was founded about 830 by Count Erlafried of Calw, at
the instigation of his son, Bishop Netting of Vercelli, who en-
riched it with, among other treasures, the body of St Aurelius.
Its first occupants (838) were a colony of fifteen monks from
Fulda, disciples of Hrabanus Maurus and Walafrid Strabo,
headed by the abbot Liudebert. During about a century and a
half, under the fostering care of the counts of Calw, it enjoyed
great prosperity, and became an important seat of learning; but
towards the end of the loth century the ravages of the pestilence
combined with the rapacity of its patrons, and the selfishness
and immorality of its inmates, to bring it to the lowest ebb.
After it had been desolate and in ruins for upwards of sixty years
it was rebuilt in 1059, and under Abbot William Wilhelm von
Hirsau abbot from 1069 to 1091, it more than regained its
former splendour. By his Constitutiones Hirsaugienses, a new
religious order, the Ordo Hirsaugiensis, was formed, the rule of
which was afterwards adopted by many monastic establishments
throughout Germany, such as those of Blaubeuren, Erfurt and
Schaffhausen. The friend and correspondent of Pope Gregory
VII., and of Anselm of Canterbury, Abbot William took active
part in the politico-ecclesiastical controversies of his time;
while a treatise from his pen, De musica et tonis, as well as the
Philosophicarum et astronomicarum institutionum libri Hi., bears
witness to his interest in science and philosophy. About the end
of the 1 2th century the material and moral welfare of Hirsau
was again very perceptibly on the decline; and it never after-
wards again rose into importance. In consequence of the
Reformation it was secularized in 1558; in 1692 it was laid in
ruins by the French. The Chronicon Hirsaugiense, or, as in the
later edition it is called, Annales Hirsaugienses of Abbot Trithe-
mius (Basel, 1559; St Gall, 1690), is, although containing much
that is merely legendary, an important source of information,
not only on the affairs of this monastery, but also on the early
history of Germany. The Codex Hirsaugiensis was edited by
A. F. Gfrorer and printed at Stuttgart in 1843.
See Steck, Das Kloster Hirschau (1844) ; Helmsdorfer, Forschungen
zur Geschichte des Abts Wilhelm von Hirschau (Gottingen, 1874);
Weizsacker, Fiihrer durch die Geschichte des Klosters Hirschau
(Stuttgart, 1898); Sussmann, Forschungen zur Geschichte des
Klosters Hirschau (Halle, 1903); Giseke, Die Hirschauer wiihrend
des Investiturstreits (Gotha, 1883); C. H. Klaiber, Das Kloster
Hirschau (Tubingen, 1886); and Baer, Die Hirsauers Bauschule
(Freiburg, 1897).
HIRSCH, MAURICE DE, BARON HIRSCH AUF GEREUTH, in the
baronage of Bavaria (1831-1896), capitalist and philanthropist
(German by birth, Austro-Hungarian by domicile), was born at
Munich, 9th December 1831. His grandfather, the first Jewish
landowner in Bavaria, was ennobled with the pradikat " auf
Gereuth " in 1818; his father, who was banker to the Bavarian
king, was created a baron in 1869. The family for generations has
occupied a prominent position in the German Jewish community.
At the age of thirteen young Hirsch was sent to Brussels to school,
but when seventeen years old he went into business. In 1855
he became associated with the banking house of Bischoffsheim
& Goldschmidt, of Brussels, London and Paris. He amassed a
large fortune, which he increased by purchasing and working
railway concessions in Austria, Turkey and the Balkans, and by
speculations in sugar and copper. While living in great splendour
in Paris and London and on his estates in Hungary, he devoted
much of his time to schemes for the relief of his Hebrew co-
religionists in lands where they were persecuted and oppressed.
He took a deep interest in the educational work of the Alliance
Israelite Universelle, and on two occasions presented the society
HIRSCH, S. R. HISHAM IBN AL-KALBI
525
with gifts of a million francs. For some years he regularly paid
the deficits in the accounts of the Alliance, amounting to several
thousand pounds a year. In 1889 he capitalized his donations
and presented the society with securities producing an annual
income of 16,000. On the occasion of the fortieth anniversary
of the emperor Francis Joseph's accession to the Austrian throne
he gave 500,000 for the establishment of primary and technical
schools in Galicia and the Bukowina. The greatest charitable
enterprise on which he embarked was in connexion with the
persecution of the Jews in Russia (see ANTI-SEMITISM). He
gave 10,000 to the funds raised for the repatriation of the
refugees in 1882, but, feeling that this was a very lame conclusion
to the efforts made in western Europe for the relief of the Russian
Jews, he offered the Russian Government 2,000,000 for the en-
dowment of a system of secular education to be established in the
Jewish pale of settlement. The Russian Government was willing
to accept the money, but declined to allow any foreigner to be
concerned in its control or administration. Thereupon Baron
de Hirsch resolved to devote the money to an emigration and
colonization scheme which should afford the persecuted Jews
opportunities of establishing themselves in agricultural colonies
outside Russia. He founded the Jewish Colonization Association
as an English society, with a capital of 2,000,000, and in 1892
he presented to it a further sum of 7,000,000. On the death of
his wife in 1899 the capital was increased to 11,000,000, of which
1,250,000 went to the Treasury, after some litigation, in death
duties. This enormous fund, which is probably the greatest
charitable trust in the world, is now managed by delegates of
certain Jewish societies, chiefly the Anglo-Jewish Association of
London and the Alliance Israelite Universelle of Paris, among
whom the shares in the association have been divided. The
association, which is prohibited from working for profit, possesses
large colonies in South America, Canada and Asia Minor. In
addition to its vast agricultural work it has a gigantic and complex
machinery for dealing with the whole problem of Jewish persecu-
tion, including emigration and distributing agencies, technical
schools, co-operative factories, savings and loan banks and model
dwellings in the congested Russian Jewries. It also subventions
and assists a large number of societies all over the world whose
work is connected with the relief and rehabilitation of Jewish
refugees. Besides this great organization, Baron de Hirsch
founded in 1891 a benevolent trust in the United States for the
benefit of. Jewish immigrants, which he endowed with 493,000.
His minor charities were on a princely scale, and during his
residence in London he distributed over 100,000 among the
local hospitals. It was in this manner that he disposed of the
whole gross proceeds derived from his successes on the English
turf, of which he was a lavish patron. He raced, as he said
himself, " for the London hospitals," and in 1892, when his filly,
La Fleche, won the Oaks, St Leger and One Thousand Guineas,
his donations from this source amounted to about 40,000.
Baron de Hirsch married on 28th June 1855 Clara, daughter of
Senator Bischoffsheim of Brussels (b. 1833), by whom he had a
son and daughter, both of whom predeceased him. He died at
Ogyalla, near Komorn, in Hungary, 2ist April 1896. The
baroness, who seconded her husbands charitable work with
great munificence their total benefactions have been estimated
at 18,000,000, died at Paris on the ist of April 1899.
For details of Baron de Hirsch "s chief charities see the annual
reports of the Alliance Israelite Universelle and of the " Adminis-
tration Centrale " of the Jewish Colonization Association. (L. W.)
HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL (1808-1888), Jewish theologian,
was born in Hamburg in 1808 and died at Frankfort-on-the-Main
in 1888. He opposed the reform tendency of Geiger (q.v.), and
presented Jewish orthodoxy in a new and attractive light. His
philosophical conception of tradition, associated as it was with
conservatism in ritual practice, created what is often known as
the Frankfort " Neo-Orthodoxy." Hirsch exercised a profound
influence on the Synagogue and undoubtedly stemmed the tide
of liberalism. His famous Nineteen Letters (1836), with which
the Neo-Orthodoxy began, were translated into English by
Drachmann (New York, 1899). Other works by Hirsch were
Horeb, and commentaries on the Pentateuch and Psalms. These
are marked by much originality, but their exegesis is fanciful.
Three volumes of his essays have been published (1902-1908);
these were collected as Gesammelte Schrijten from his periodical
Jeschurun.
For Hirsch 's religious philosophy see S. A. Hirsch, A Book of
Essays (London, 1905). (I. A.)
HIRSCHBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, beautifully situated at the confluence of the Bober and
Zacken, 1120 ft. above the sea-level, 48 m. S.E. of Gorlitz, on the
railway to Glatz, with branches to Grunthal and Schmiedeberg.
Pop. (1905) 19,317. It is surrounded by pleasant promenades
occupying the site of its former fortifications. It possesses an
Evangelical church, the church of the Holy Cross, one of the six
Gnaden Kirchen for the Silesian Protestants stipulated for in the
agreement at Altranstadt between Charles XII. of Sweden and the
emperor Joseph I. in 1707, four Roman Catholic churches, one of
which dates from the i4th century, a synagogue, several schools,
an orphanage and an asylum. The town is the principal emporium
of commerce in the Silesian mountains, and its industries include
the carding and spinning of wool, and the manufacture of linen and
cotton fabrics, yarn, artificial flowers, paper, cement, porcelain,
sealing-wax, blacking, chemicals and cider. There is also a
lively trade in corn, wine and agricultural produce. The town
is celebrated for its romantic surroundings, including the
Cavalierberg, from which there is a splendid view, the Hausberg,
the Helicon, crowned by a small Doric temple, the Kreuzberg,
with walks commanding beautiful views, and the Sattler
ravine, over which there is a railway viaduct. Hirschberg was
in existence in the nth century, and obtained town rights in
1 1 08 from Duke Boleslaus of Poland. It withstood a siege by the
Hussites in 1427, and an attack of the imperial troops in 1640.
The foundation of its prosperity was laid in the i6th century by
the introduction of the manufacture of linen and veils.
Hirschberg is also the name of a town of Thuringia on the
Saale with manufactures of leather and knives. Pop. 2000.
HIRSON, a town of northern France in the department of
Aisne, 35 m. by rail N.E. of Laon, on the Oise. Pop. (1906)
8335. It occupies an important strategic position close to the
point of intersection of several railway lines, and not far from
the Belgian frontier. For its defence there are a permanent fort
and two batteries, near the railway junction. The town carries
on the manufacture of glass bottles, tiles, iron and tin goods,
wool-spinning and brewing.
HIRTIUS, AULUS (c. 90-43 B.C.), Roman historian and states-
man. He was with Julius Caesar as legate in Gaul, but after the
civil war broke out in 49 he seems to have remained in Rome to
protect Caesar's interests. He was also a personal friend of
Cicero. He was nominated with C. Vibius Pansa by Caesar for
the consulship of 43; and after the dictator's assassination in
March 44, he and his colleague supported the senatorial party
against M. Antonius, with whom Hirtius had at first sided. The
consuls set out for Mutina, where Antonius was besieging Decimus
Brutus. On the i$th of April, Pansa was attacked by Antonius
at Forum Gallorum, about 8 m. from Mutina, and lost his life
in the engagement. Hirtius, however, compelled Antonius to
retire on Mutina, where another battle took place on the 25th
(or 27th) of April, in which Hirtius was slain. Of the continua-
tions of Caesar's Commentaries the eighth book of the Gallic war,
the history of the Alexandrian, African and Spanish wars the
first is generally allowed to be by Hirtius; the Alexandrian war
is perhaps by him (or Oppius) ; the last two are supposed to have
been written at his request, by persons who had taken part in the
events described, with a view to subsequent'revision and incorpora-
tion in his proposed work on military commanders. The language
of Hirtius is good, but his style is monotonous and lacks vigour.
Hirtius and the other continuators of Caesar are discussed in M.
Schanz, Geschickte der romischen Literatur, i. ; also R. Schneider,
Bellum Africanum (1905). For the history of the period see under
ANTONIUS; Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier,
Cicero and his Friends (Eng. trans., 1897).
HISHAM IBN AL-KALBI [Abu-1 Mundhir Hisham ibn
Mahommed ibn us-Sa'ib ul-Kalb] d. c. 819), Arabic historian,
HISPELLUM HISSAR
was born in Kufa, but spent much of his life in Bagdad. Like his
father, on whose authority he relied largely, he collected informa-
tion about the genealogies and history of the ancient Arabs.
According to the Fihrist (see NADIM) he wrote 140 works. As
independent works they have almost entirely ceased to exist, but
his account of the genealogies of the Arabs is continually quoted
in the Kildb ul-Aghani.
Large extracts from another of his works, the Kitab ul-Asnam,
are contained in the Khizanat ul-Adab (iii. 242-246) and in the
geography of Yaqut (q.v.). These latter have been translated with
comments by J. Wellhausen in his Reste des arabischen Heidentums
(2nd ed., Berlin, 1897). (G. W. T.)
HISPELLUM (mod. Spello, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria,
Italy, 3 m. N. of Fulginiae, on the road between it and Perusia,
1030 ft. above sea-level. It does not appear to be mentioned
before the time of Augustus, who founded a colony there (Colonia.
lulia Hispellum) and extended its territory to the springs of the
Clitumnus, which had originally belonged to the territory of
Mevania. It received the name of Flavia Constans by a rescript
of the emperor Constantine, a copy of which on a marble tablet
is still preserved at Spello. The gate by which the town is
entered is ancient and has three portrait statues above it; two
other gates and a part of the city wall, built of rectangular blocks
of local limestone, may still be seen, as also the ruins of what
is possibly a triumphal arch (attributed to Augustus) and an
amphitheatre, and perhaps of a theatre, close to the modern
high-road, outside the town. (T. As.)
HISSAR, a district in Central Asia, lying between 66 30' and 70
E. and 39 15' and 37 N. and dependent on the amir of Bokhara.
It forms that part of the basin of the Amu-darya or Oxus which
lies on the north side of the river, opposite the Afghan province
of Balkh. The western prolongation of the Tian-shan, which
divides the basin of the Zarafshan from that of the upper Amu,
after rising to a height of 12,300 ft., bifurcates in 67 45' E. The
main chain, the southern arm of this bifurcation, designated the
Hissar range, but sometimes called also Koh-i-tau, forms the N.
and N.W. boundaries of Hissar. On the W. it is wholly bounded
by the desert; the Amu limits it on the S. and S.E.; and Kara-
teghin and Darvaz complete the boundary on the E. Until
1875 it was one of the least known tracts of Central Asia. Hissar
is traversed from north to south by four tributaries of the Amu,
viz. the Surkhab or Vakhsh, Kafirnihan, Surkhan and Shirabad-
darya, which descend from the snowy mountains to the north
and form a series of fertile valleys, disposed in a fan-shape,
within which lie the principal towns. In the N.W. boundary
range between Khuzar and Derbent is situated the defile
formerly called the Iron Gate (Caspian Gates, Bab-al-Hadld, Dar
Ahamn and in Chinese T'ie-men-kuaa) but now styled Buzghol-
khana or the Goat-house. It was also called Kohluga, said to be
a Mongol word meaning barrier. This pass is described as a deep
but narrow chasm in a transverse range, whose rocks overhang
and threaten to choke the tortuous and gloomy corridor (in
places but five paces wide) which affords the only exit from the
valley. In ancient times it was a vantage point of much im-
portance and commanded one of the chief routes between
Turkestan and India. Hsiian Tsang, the Chinese traveller, who
passed through it in the 7th century, states that there were
then two folding doors or gates, cased with iron and hung
with bells, placed across the pass. Clavijo, the Spanish ambas-
sador to the court of Timur, heard of this when he passed
through the defile nearly 800 years later, but the gates had then
disappeared.
The Surkhan valley is highly cultivated, especially in its
upper portion. It supplies Bokhara with corn and sheep, but
its chief products are rice and flax. The town of Hissar (pop.
15,000) commands the entrance into the fertile valleys of the
Surkhan and Kafirnihan, just as Kabadian at the southern end
of the latter defends them from the south. Hissar was long
famous for its damascened swords and its silk goods. Kulab
produces wheat in abundance, and gold is brought thither from
the surrounding districts. Kabadian is a large, silk-producing
town, and is surrounded with rice-fields.
The population consists principally of Uzbegs and Tajiks,
the former predominating and gradually pushing the Tajiks
into the hills. On the banks of the Amu there are Turkomans
who work the ferries, drive sheep and accompany caravans.
Lyuli (gipsies), Jews, Hindus and Afghans are other elements
of the population. The climate of the valleys of Hissar and
Kulab is pleasant, as they are protected by mountains to the
north and open towards the south. They produce all the cereals
and garden plants indigenous to Central Asia. Cotton is grown
in the district of Shirabad; and cotton, wheat, flax, sheep and
rock-salt are all exported.
History. This country was anciently part of the Persian
empire of the Achaemenidae, and probably afterwards of the
Graeco-Bactrian kingdom, and then subject to the invading
Asiatic tribes who broke up that kingdom, e.g. the Yue-chi.
It was afterwards conquered by the Ephthalites or White
Huns, who were subdued by the Turks in the early part of the
7th century. It then became subject successively to the Mahom-
medan invaders from Persia, and after to the Mongol dynasty
of Jenghiz Khan, and to Timur and his successors. It subse-
quently became a cluster of Uzbeg states and was annexed
by the amir of Bokhara (q.v.) in 1869-1870, soon after the Russian
occupation of Samarkand. (J. T. BE.; C. EL.)
HISSAR, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi
division of the Punjab. The town is situated on the Rajputana
railway and the Western Jumna canal, 102 m. W.N.W. of Delhi.
Pop. (1901) 17,647. It was founded in 1356 by the emperor
Feroz Shah, who constructed the canal to supply it with water;
but this fell into decay during the i8th century, owing to the
constant inroads of marauders. Hissar was almost completely
depopulated during the famine of 1783, but was afterwards
occupied by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas,
who built a fort and collected inhabitants. It is now chiefly
known for its cattle and horse fairs, and has a cotton factory.
The DISTRICT comprises an area of 5217 sq. m. It forms
the western border district of the great Bikanir desert, and
consists for the most part of sandy plains dotted with shrub
and brushwood, and broken by undulations towards the
south, which rise into hills of rock like islands out of a
sea of sand. The Ghaggar is its only river, whose supply is
uncertain, depending much on the fall of rain in the lower
Himalayas; its overflow in times of heavy rain is caught by
jhils, which dry up in the hot season. The Western Jumna
canal crosses the district from east to west, irrigating many
villages. The soil is in places hard and clayey, and difficult
to till; but when sufficiently irrigated it is highly productive.
Old mosques and other buildings exist in parts of the district.
Hissar produces a breed of large milk-white oxen, which are
in great request for the carriages of natives. The district has
always been subject to famine. The first calamity of this kind
of which there is authentic record was in 1783; and Hissar has
suffered severely in more recent famines. Its population in
1901 was 781,717, showing practically no increase in the decade,
whereas in the previous decade there had been an increase of
15%. The climate is very dry, hot westerly winds blowing
from the middle of March till July. Cotton weaving, ginning
and pressing are carried on. The district is served by the
Rajputana-Malwa, the Southern Punjab and the Jodhpur-
Bikanir railways. The chief trading centres are Bhiwani, Hansi,
Hissar and Sirsa.
Before the Mahommedan conquest, the semi-desert tract
of which Hissar district now forms part was the retreat of
Chauhan Rajputs. Towards the end of the i8th century the
Bhattis of Bhattiana gained ascendancy after bloody struggles.
To complete the ruin brought on by these conflicts, nature lent
her aid in the great famine of 1783. Hissar passed nominally
to the British in 1803, but they could not enforce order till 1810.
Early in the mutiny of 1857 Hissar was wholly lost for a time
to British rule, and all Europeans were either murdered or
compelled to fly. The Bhattis rose under their hereditary
chiefs, and the majority of the Mahommedan population followed
their example. Before Delhi had been recovered, the rebels
were utterly routed.
HISTIAEUS HISTORY
527
HISTIAEUS (d. 494 B.C.), tyrant of Miletus under the Persian
king Darius Hystaspis. According to Herodotus he rendered
great service to Darius while he was campaigning in Scythia by
persuading his fellow-despots not to destroy the bridge over
the Danube by which the Persians must return. Choosing his
own reward for this service, he became possessor of territory near
Myrcinus (afterwards Amphipolis), rich in timber and minerals.
The success of his enterprise led to his being invited to Susa,
where in the midst of every kind of honour he was virtually
a prisoner of Darius, who had reason to dread his growing
power in Ionia. During this period the Greek cities were left
under native despots supported by Persia, Aristagoras, son-in-
law of Histiaeus, being ruler of Miletus in his stead. This prince,
having failed against Naxos in a joint expedition with the satrap
Artaphernes, began to stir up the lonians to revolt, and this
result was brought to pass, according to Herodotus, by a secret
message from Histiaeus. The revolt assumed a formidable
character and Histiaeus persuaded Darius that he alone could
quell it. He was allowed to leave Susa, but on his arrival at
the coast found himself suspected by the satrap, and was ulti-
mately driven to establish himself (Herodotus says as a pirate;
more probably in charge of the Bosporus route) at Byzantium.
After the total failure of the revolt at the battle of Lade, he made
various attempts to re-establish himself, but was captured by
the Persian Harpagus and crucified by Artaphernes at Sardis.
His head was embalmed and sent to Darius, who gave it honour-
able burial. The theory of Herodotus that the Ionian revolt
was caused by the single message of Histiaeus is incredible;
there is evidence to show that the lonians had been meditating
since about 512 a patriotic revolt against the Persian domination
and the "tyrants" on whom it rested (see Grote, Hist, of
Greece, ed. 1907, especially p. 122 note; art. IONIA, and
authorities; also S. Heinlein in Klio, 1909, pp. 341-351).
HISTOLOGY (Gr. UTT&S, web, tissue, properly the web-beam
of the loom, from iaravat., to make to stand), the science which
deals with the structure of the tissues of plants and animals
(see CYTOLOGY).
HISTORY. The word " history " is used in two senses. It
may mean either the record of events, or events themselves.
Originally (see below) limited to inquiry and statement, it was
only in comparatively modern times that the meaning of the word
was extended to include the phenomena which form or might
form their subject. It was perhaps by a somewhat careless
transference of ideas that this extension was brought about.
Now indeed it is the commoner meaning. We speak of the
" history of England " without reference to any literary narrative.
We term kings and statesmen the " makers of history," and some-
times say that the historian only records the history which
they make. History in this connexion is obviously not the
record, but the thing to be recorded. It is unfortunate that such
a double meaning of the word should have grown up, for it
is productive of not a little confusion of thought.
History in the wider sense is all that has happened, not merely
all the phenomena of human life, but those of the natural
world as well. It includes everything that undergoes change;
and as modern science has shown that there is nothing absolutely
static, therefore the whole universe, and every part of it, has
its history. The discovery of ether brought with it a recon-
struction of our ideas of the physical universe, transferring the
emphasis from the mathematical expression of static relationships
to a dynamic conception of a universe in constant transformation;
matter in equipoise became energy in gradual readjustment.
Solids are solids no longer. The universe is in motion in every
particle of every part; rock and metal merely a transition stage
between crystallization and dissolution. This idea of universal
activity has in a sense made physics itself a branch of history.
It is the same with the other sciences especially the biological
division, where the doctrine of evolution has induced an attitude
of mind which is distinctly historical.
But the tendency to look at things historically is not merely
the attitude of men of science. Our outlook upon life differs in
just this particular from that of preceding ages. We recognize the
unstable nature of our whole social fabric, and are therefore more
and more capable of transforming it. Our institutions are no
longer held to be inevitable and immutable creations. We do
not attempt to fit them to absolute formulae, but continually
adapt them to a changing environment. Even modern archi-
tecture, notably in America, reflects the consciousness of change.
The permanent character of ancient or medieval buildings was
fitted only to a society dominated by static ideals. Now the
architect builds, not for all time, but for a set of conditions which
will inevitably cease in the not distant future. Thus our whole
society not only bears the marks of its evolution, but shows its
growing consciousness of the fact in the most evident of its
arts. In literature, philosophy and political science, there is the
same historical trend. Criticism no longer judges by absolute
standards; it applies the standards of the author's own environ-
ment. We no longer condemn Shakespeare for having violated
the ancient dramatic laws, nor Voltaire for having objected to
the violations. Each age has its own expression, and in judging
each we enter the field of history. In ethics, again, the revolt
against absolute standards limits us to the relative, and morals
are investigated on the basis of history, as largely conditioned
by economic environment and the growth of intellectual freedom.
Revelation no longer appeals to scientific minds as a source of
knowledge. Experience on the other hand is history. As for
political science, we do not regard the national state as that
ultimate and final product which men once saw in the Roman
Empire. It has hardly come into being before forces are evident
which aim at its destruction. Internationalism has gained
ground in Europe in recent years; and Socialism itself, which is
based upon a distinct interpretation of history, is regarded by its
followers as merely a stage in human progress, like those which
have gone before it. It is evident that Freeman's definition of
history as " past politics " is miserably inadequate. Political
events are mere externals. History enters into every phase of
activity, and the economic forces which urge society along are
as much its subject as the political result.
In short the historical spirit of the age has invaded every field.
The world-picture presented in this encyclopaedia is that of a
dynamic universe, of phenomena in process of ceaseless change.
Owing to this insistent change all things which happen, or seem
to happen, are history in the broader sense of the word. The
encyclopaedia itself is a history of them in the stricter sense,
the description and record of this universal process. This
narrower meaning is the subject of the rest of this article.
The word " history " comes from the Gr. taropia, which was
used by the lonians in the 6th century B.C. for the search for
knowledge in the widest sense. It meant inquiry, investigation,
not narrative. It was not until two centuries later that the
historikos, the reciter of stories, superseded the historeon (urropeuv) ,
the seeker after knowledge. Thus history began as a branch of
scientific research, much the same as what the Athenians later
termed philosophy. Herodotus himself was as much a scientific
explorer as a reciter of narrative, and his life-long investigation
was historic in his Ionian speech. Yet it was Herodotus himself
who first hinted at the new use of the word, applied merely to the
details accumulated during a long search for knowledge. It
is not until Aristotle, however, that we have it definitely applied
to the literary product instead of the inquiry which precedes it.
From Aristotle to modern times, history (Lat. hisloria) has been
a form of literature. It is only in the scientific environment of
to-day that we recognize once more, with those earliest of the
forerunners of Herodotus, that history involves two distinct
operations, one of which, investigation, is in the field of science,
while the other, the literary presentation, is in the field of art.
The history of history itself is therefore two-fold. History as
art flourishes with the arts. It calls upon the imagination and
the literary gifts of expression. Its history does not run parallel
with the scientific side, but rather varies in inverse ratio with
scientific activity. Those periods which have been dominated
by the great masters of style have been less interested in the
criticism of the historian's methods of investigation than in the
beauty of his rhetoric. The scientific historian, deeply interested
528
HISTORY
in the search for truth, is generally but a poor artist, and his
uncoloured picture of the past will never rank in literature beside
the splendid distortions which glow in the pages of a Michelet or
Macaulay. History the art, in so far as it is conditioned upon
genius, has no single traceable line of development. Here the
product of the age of Pericles remains unsurpassed still; the
works of Herodotus and Thucydides standing along with those
of Pheidias as models for all time. On the other hand, history
the science has developed so that it has not only gained recogni-
tion among historians as a distinct subject, but it has raised with
it a group of auxiliary sciences which serve either as tools for
investigation or as a basis for testing the results. The advance
in this branch of history in the loth century was one of its greatest
achievements. The vast gulf which lies between the history of
Egypt by Herodotus and that by Flinders Petrie is the measure
of its achievement. By the mechanism now at his disposal the
scientific explorer can read more history from the dust -heaps of
Abydos than the greatest traveller of antiquity could gather
from the priests of Sals. In tracing the history of history we
must therefore keep in mind the double aspect.
History itself, this double subject, the science and the art
combined, begins with the dawn of memory and the invention
of speech. It is wrong to term those ages pre-historic whose
history has not come down to us, including in one category the
pre-literary age and the literary whose traces have been lost.
Even the pre-literary had its history, first in myth and then in
saga. The saga, or epos, was a great advance upon the myth, for
in it the deeds of men replace or tend to replace the deeds of the
gods. But we are still largely in the realm of imagination.
Poetry, as Thucydides complained, is a most imperfect medium
for fact. The bard will exaggerate or distort his story. True
history, as a record of what really has happened, first reached
maturity in prose. Therefore, although much of the past has
been handed down to us in epic, in ballad and in the legends of
folk-lore, we must turn from them to what became history in
the narrower sense.
The earliest prose origins of history are the inscriptions.
Their inadequacy is evident from two standpoints. Their
permanence depends not upon their importance, but upon the'
durability of the substance on which they are inscribed. A note
for a wedding ring baked into the clay of Babylon has been
preserved, while the history of the greatest events has perished.
In the second place they are sealed to all but those who know how
to read them, and so they lie forgotten for centuries while oral
tradition flourishes, being within the reach of every man. It
is only recently that archaeology, turning from the field of art,
has undertaken to interpret for us this first written history.
The process by which the modern fits together all the obtainable
remains of an antiquity, and reconstructs even that past which
left no written record, lies outside the field of this article. But
such enlargement of the field of history is a modern scientific
product, and is to be distinguished from the imperfect beginnings
of history-writing which the archaeologist is able to decipher.
Next to the inscriptions, sometimes identical with them,
are the early chronicles. These are of various kinds. Family
chronicles preserved the memory of heroic ancestors whose deeds
in the earliest age would have passed into the keeping of the
bards. Such family archives were perhaps the main source for
Roman historians. But they are not confined to Rome or Greece.
Genealogies also pass from the bald verse, which was the vehicle
for oral transmission, to such elaborate tables as those in which
Manetho has preserved the dynasties of Egyptian Pharaohs.
In this field the priest succeeds the poet. The temple itself
became the chief repository of records. There were simple
religious annals, votive tablets recording miracles accomplished
at a shrine, lists of priests and priestesses, accounts of benefactions,
of prodigies and portents. In some cases, as in Rome, the
pontiffs kept a kind of register, not merely of religious history,
but of important political events as well. Down to the time of
the Gracchi (131 B.C.) the Pontifex Maximus inscribed the year's
events upon annual tablets of wood which were preserved in the
Regia, the official residence of the pontiff in the Forum. These
pontifical " annals " thus came to be a sort of civic history.
Chronicles of the Greek cities were commonly ascribed to mythical
authors, as for instance that of Miletus, the oldest, to Cadmus the
inventor of letters. But they were continued and edited by men
in whom the critical spirit was awakening, as when the chroniclers
of Ionian towns began the criticism of Homer.
The first historians were the logographi of these Ionian cities;
men who carried their inquiry {historic) beyond both written
record and oral tradition to a study of the world around them.
Their "saying " (logos) was gathered mostly from contempo-
raries; and upon the basis of a widened experience they became
critics of their traditions. The opening lines of Hecataeus of
Miletus begin the history of the true historic spirit in words
which read like a sentence from Voltaire. " Hecataeus of
Miletus thus speaks: I write as I deem true, for the traditions of
the Greeks seem to me manifold and laughable." Those words
mark an epoch in the history of thought. They are the introduc-
tion to historical criticism and scientific investigation. Whatever
the actual achievement of Hecataeus may have been, from his
time onward the scientific movement was set going. Herodotus
of Heraclea struggled to rationalize mythology, and estab-
lished chronology on a solid basis. And finally Herodotus, a pro-
fessional story-teller, rose to the height of genuine scientific
investigation. Herodotus' inquiry was not simply that of an idle
tourist. He was a critical observer, who tested his evidence. It
is easy for the student now to show the inadequacy of his sources,
and his failure here or there to discriminate between fact and
fable. But given the imperfect medium for investigation and
the absence of an archaeological basis for criticism, the work of
Herodotus remains a scientific achievement, as remarkable for its
approximation to truth as for the vastness of its scope. Yet it
was Herodotus' chief glory to have joined to this scientific spirit
an artistic sense which enabled him to cast the material into
the truest literary form. He gathered all his knowledge of the
ancient world, not simply for itself, but to mass it around the
story of the war between the east and west, the Greeks and
the Persians. He is first and foremost a story-teller; his theme
is like that of the bards, a heroic event. His story is a vast prose
epos, in which science is to this extent subordinated to art. " This
is the showing forth of the Inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus,
to the end that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse
of time, nor the works, great and marvellous, which have been
produced, some by Hellenes, some by Barbarians, may lose their
renown, and especially that the causes may be remembered for
which these waged war with one another" (i.e. the Persian war).
In Thucydides a higher art than that of Herodotus was com-
bined with a higher science. He scorned the story-teller " who
seeks to please the ear rather than to speak the truth," and yet
his rhetoric is the culmination of Greek historical prose. He
withdrew from vulgar applause, conscious that his narrative
would be considered " disappointing to the ear," yet he recast the
materials out of which he constructed it in order to lift that
narrative into the realm of pure literature. Speeches, letters and
documents are reworded to be in tone with the rest of the story.
It was his art, in fact, which really created the Peloponnesian
war out of its separate parts. And yet this art was merely the
language of a scientist. The " laborious task " of which he speaks
is that of consulting all possible evidence, and weighing conflicting
accounts. It is this which makes his rhetoric worth while, "an
everlasting possession, not a prize competition which is heard
and forgotten."
From the sublimity of Thucydides, and Xenophon's straight-
forward story, history passed with Theopompus and Ephorus
into the field of rhetoric. A revival of the scientific instinct of
investigation is discernable in Timaeus the Sicilian, at the end of
the 4th century, but his attack upon his predecessors was the
text of a more crushing attack upon himself by Polybius, who
declares him lacking in critical insight and biased by passion.
Polybius' comments upon Timaeus reach the dignity of a treatise
upon history. He protests against its use for controversial
pamphlets which distort the truth. " Directly a man assumes
the moral attitude of an historian he ought to forget all
HISTORY
529
considerations, such as love of one's friends, hatred of one's
enemies He must sometimes praise enemies and blame friends.
For as a living creature is rendered useless if deprived of its eyes,
so if you take truth from History, what is left but an improfit-
able tale " (bk. xii. 14). These are the words of a Ranke. Un-
fortunately Polybius, like most modern scientific historians, was
no artist. His style is the very opposite of that of Isocrates and
the rhetoricians. It is often only clear in the light of inscriptions,
so closely does it keep to the sources. The style found no imitator ;
history passed from Greece to Rome in the guise of rhetoric. In
Dionysius of Halicarnassus the rhetoric was combined with an
extensive study of the sources; but the influence of the Greek
rhetoricians upon Roman prose was deplorable from the stand-
point of science. Cicero, although he said that the duty of the
historian is to conceal nothing true, to say nothing false, would
in practice have written the kind of history that Polybius
denounced. He finds fault with those who are non exornatores
rerum sed tantum narratores. History for him is the mine from
which to draw argument in oratory and example in education.
It is not the subject of a scientific curiosity.
It should be noted before we pass to Rome that with the
expansion of Hellenism the subject of historians expanded as
well. Universal history was begun by Ephorus, the rhetorician,
and formed the^heme of Polybius and Deodorus. Exiled Greeks
were the first to write histories of Rome worthy of the name.
The Alexandrian Eratosthenes placed chronology upon the
scientific basis of astronomy, and Apollodorus drew up the most
important chronica of antiquity.
History-writing in Rome, except for the Greek writers
resident there, was until the first half of the ist century B.C. in
the form of annals. Then came rhetorical ornamentation, and
the Ciceronian era. The first Roman historian who rose to the
conception of a science and art combined was Sallust, the student
of Thucydides. The Augustan age produced in Livy a great
popular historian and natural artist and a trained rhetorician
(in the speeches), but as uncritical and inaccurate as he was
brilliant. From Livy to Tacitus the gulf is greater than from
Herodotus to Thucydides. Tacitus is at least a consummate
artist. His style ranges from the brilliancy of his youth to the
sternness and sombre gravity of age, passing almost to poetic
expression in its epigrammatic terseness. Yet in spite of his
searching study of authorities, his keen judgment of men, and
his perception of underlying principles of moral law, his view was
warped by the heat of faction, which glows beneath his external
objectivity. After him Roman history-writing speedily degener-
ated. Suetonius ' Lines of the Caesars is but a superior kind of
journalism. But his gossip of the court became the model for
historians, whose works, now lost, furnish the main source for
the Historia Augusta. The importance to us of this uncritical
collection of biographies is sufficient comment on the decline of
history-writing in the latter empire. Finally, from the 4th
century the epitomes of Eutropius and Festus served to satisfy
the lessening curiosity in the past and became the handbooks
for the middle ages. The single figure of Ammianus Marcellinus
stands out of this age like a belated disciple of Tacitus. But
the world was changing from antique to Christian ideals just as
he was writing, and with him we leave this outline of ancient
history.
The 4th and 5th centuries saw a great revolution in the history
of history. The story of the pagan past slipped out of mind, and
in its place was set, by the genius of Eusebius, the story of the
world force which had superseded it, Christianity, and of that
small fraction of antiquity from which it sprang, the Jews.
Christianity from the first had forced thinking men to recon-
struct their philosophy of history, but it was only after the
Church's triumph that its point of view became dominant in
historiography. Three centuries more passed before the pagan
models were quite lost to sight. But from the 7th century to
the 1 7th from Isidore of Seville and the English Bede for a
thousand years, mankind was to look back along the line of
Jewish priests and kings to the Creation. Egypt was of interest
only as it came into Israelite history, Babylon and Nineveh were
to illustrate the judgments of Yahweh, Tyre and Sidon to reflect
the glory of Solomon. The process by which the " gentiles "
have been robbed of their legitimate history was the inevitable
result of a religion whose sacred books make them lay figures for
the history of the Jews. Rejected by the Yahweh who became
the Christian God, they have remained to the present day, in
Sunday schools and in common opinion, not nations of living
men, with the culture of arts and sciences, but outcasts who do
not enter into the divine scheme of the world's history. When a
line was drawn between pagan and Christian back to the creation
of the world, it left outside the pale of inquiry nearly all antiquity.
But it must be remembered that that antiquity was one in which
the German nations had no personal interest. Scipio and the
Gracchi were essentially unreal to them. The one living organiza-
tion with which they came into touch was the Church. So
Cicero and Pompey paled before Joshua and Paul. Diocletian,
the organizing genius, became a bloodthirsty monster, and
Constantine, the murderer, a saint.
Christian history begins with the triumph of the Church.
With Eusebius of Caesarea the apologetic pamphlets of the age
of persecutions gave way to a calm review of three centuries of
Christian progress. Eusebius' biography of Constantine shows
what distortion of fact the father of Church history permitted
himself, but the Ecclesiastical History was fortunately written
for those who wanted to know what really happened, and
remains to-day an invaluable repository of Christian antiquities.
With the continuations of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and
the Latin manual which Cassiodorus had woven from them (the
Historia tripartite), it formed the body of Church history during
all the middle ages. An even greater influence, however, was
exercised by Eusebius' Chronica. Through Jerome's translation
and additions, this scheme of this world's chronology became the
basis for all medieval world chronicles. It settled until our own
day the succession of years from the Creation to the birth of
Christ, fitting the Old Testament story into that of ancient
history. Henceforth the Jewish past, that one path back to
the beginning of the world, was marked out by the absolute laws
of mathematics and revelation. Jerome had marked it out;
Sulpicius Severus, the biographer of St Martin, in his Historia
sacra, adorned it with the attractions of romance. Sulpicius
was admirably fitted to interpret the miraculous Bible story to
the middle ages. But there were few who could write like him,
and Jerome's Chronicle itself, or rather portions of it, became,
in the age which followed, a sort of universal preface for the
monastic chronicler. For a time there were even attempts to
continue " imperial chronicles," but they were insignificant
compared with the influence of Eusebius and Jerome.
From the first, Christianity had a philosophy of history. Its
earliest apologists sought to show how the world had followed a
divine plan in its long preparation for the life of Christ. From
this central fact of all history, mankind should continue through
war and suffering until the divine plan was completed at the
judgment day. The fate of nations is in God's hands; history
is the revelation of His wisdom and power. Whether He inter-
venes directly by miracle, or merely sets His laws in operation,
He is master of men's fate. This idea, which has underlain all
Christian philosophy of history, from the first apologists who
prophesied the fall of the Empire and the coming of the millen-
nium, down to our own day, received its classic statement in St
Augustine's City of God. The terrestrial city, whose eternity had
been the theme of pagan history, had just fallen before Alaric's
Goths. Augustine's explanation of its fall passes in review not
only the calamities of Roman history combined with a pathetic
perception of its greatness, but carries the survey back to the
origin of evil at the creation. Then over against this civitas
terrena he sets the divine city which is to be realized in Christen-
dom. The Roman Empire, the last general form of the earthly
city, gives way slowly to the heavenly. This is the main
thread of Augustine's philosophy of history. The mathematical
demonstration of its truth was left by Augustine for his disciple,
Paulus Orosius.
Orosius' Seven Books of Histories against the Pagans, written
530
HISTORY
as a supplement to the City of God, is the first attempt at a
Christian " World History." This manual for the middle ages
arranged the rise and fall of empires with convincing exactness.
The history of antiquity, according to it, begins with Ninus.
His realm was overthrown by the Medes in the same year in
which the history of Rome began. From the first year of Ninus'
reign until the rebuilding of Babylon by Semiramis there were
sixty-four years; the same between the first of Procas and the
building of Rome. Eleven hundred and sixty-four years after
each city was built, it was taken, Babylon by Cyrus, Rome by
Alaric, and Cyrus' conquest took place just when Rome began the
Republic. But before Rome becomes a world empire, Macedon
and Carthage intervene, guardians of Rome's youth (tutor
curatorque). This scheme of the four world-monarchies, which
was to prevail through all the middle ages, was developed through
seven books filled with the story of war and suffering. As it was
Orosius' aim to show that the world had improved since the
coming of Christ, he used Trogus Pompeius' war history, written
to exalt Roman triumphs, to show the reverse of victory,
disaster and ruin. Livy, Caesar, Tacitus and Suetonius were
plundered for the story of horrors; until finally even the Goths
in Spain shine by contrast with the pagan heroes; and through
the confusion of the German invasions one may look forward to
Christendom, and its peace.
The commonest form of medieval historical writing was the
chronicle, which reaches all the way from monastic annals, mere
notes on Easter tables, to the dignity of national monuments.
Utterly lacking in perspective, and dominated by the idea of the
miraculous, they are for the most part a record of the trivial or
the marvellous. Individual historians sometimes recount the
story of their own times with sober judgment, but seldom know
how to test their sources when dealing with the past. Contra-
dictions are often copied down without the writer noticing them;
and since the middle ages forged and falsified so many docu-
ments, monasteries, towns and corporations gaining privileges
or titles of possession by the bold use of them, the narrative
of medieval writers cannot be relied upon unless we can verify it
by collateral evidence. Some historians, like Otto of Freising,
Guibert of Nogent or Bernard Gui, would have been scientific if
they had had our appliances for comparison. But even men like
Roger Bacon, who deplored the inaccuracy of texts, had worked
out no general method to apply in their restoration. Toward the .
close of the middle ages the vernacular literatures were adorned
with Villani's and Froissart's chronicles. But the merit of both
lies in their journalistic qualities of contemporary narrative.
Neither was a history in the truest sense.
The Renaissance marked the first great gain in the historic
sense, in the efforts of the humanists to realize the spirit of
the antique world. They did not altogether succeed; antiquity
to them meant largely Plato and Cicero. Their interests were
literary, and the un-Ciceronian centuries were generally ignored.
Those in which the foundations of modern Europe were laid,
which produced parliaments, cathedrals, cities, Dante and
Chaucer, were grouped alike on one dismal level and christened
the middle ages. The perspective of the humanists was only
one degree better than that of the middle ages. History became
the servant to literature, an adjunct to the classics. Thus it
passed into the schools, where text-books still in use devote 200
pages to the Peloponnesian war and two to the Athens of Pericles.
But if the literary side of humanism has been a barrier to
the progress of scientific history, the discovery and elucidation
of texts first made that progress possible. Historical criticism
soon awoke. Laurentius Valla's brilliant attack on the " Dona-
tion of Constantine " (1440), and Ulrich von Hutten's rehabilita-
tion of Henry IV. from monkish tales mark the rise of the
new science. One sees at a glance what an engine of contro-
versy it was to be; yet for a while it remained but a phase of
humanism. It was north of the Alps that it parted company with
the grammarians. Classical antiquity was an Italian past, the
German scholars turned back to the sources of their national
history. Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had discovered
Otto of Freising and Jordanes. Maximilian I. encouraged the
search for manuscripts, and Vienna became a great humanistic
centre. Conrad Celtes left his Germania illuslrata unfinished,
but he had found the works of Hroswitha. Conrad Peutinger
gathered all sorts of Chronicles in his room in Vienna, and
published several, among them Gregory of Tours. This
national movement of the 15th century was not paralleled in
France or England, where the classical humanities reigned.
The Reformation meanwhile gave another turn to the work of
German scholars.
The Reformation, with its heated controversies, seems a
strange starting-point for science, yet it, even more than the
Renaissance, brought out scientific methods of historical in-
vestigation. It not only sobered the humanist tendency to
sacrifice truth for aesthetic effect, it called for the documents
of the Church and subjected them to the most hostile criticism.
Luther himself challenged them. Then in the Magdeburg
Centuries (1550-1574) Protestantism tried to make good its
attack on the medieval Church by a great collection of sources
accompanied with much destructive criticism. This gigantic
work is the first monument of modern historical research. The
reply of Cardinal Baronius (Annales ecclesiastici, 1588-1697)
was a still greater collection, drawn from archives which till
then had not been used for scientific history. Baronius'
criticism and texts are faulty, though far surpassing anything
before his day, and his collection is the basis for most subsequent
ones, in spite of J. J. Scaliger's refutation, which was to con-
tain an equal number of volumes of the errors in Baronius.
The movement back to the sources in Germany until the
Thirty Years' War was a notable one. Collections were made
by Simon Schard (1535-1573), Johannes Pistorius (1576-1608),
Marquard Freher (1565-1614), Melchior Goldast (1576-1635)
and others. After the war Leibnitz began a new epoch, both
by his philosophy with its law of continuity in phenomena, and
by his systematic attempt to collect sources through an associa-
tion (1670). His plan to have documents printed as they were,
instead of " correcting " them, was a notable advance. But
from Leibnitz until the ipth century German national historio-
graphy made little progress, although church historians like
Mosheim and Neander stand out among the greatest historians
of all time.
France had not paralleled the activity of Maximilian's
Renaissance historians. The father of modern French history,
or at least of historical research, was Andre Duchesne (1584-
1640), whose splendid collections of sources are still in use.
Jean Bodin wrote the first treatise on scientific history (Methodus
ad facilem historiarum cognitionem, 1566), but he did not apply
his own principles of criticism; and it was left for the Benedictine
monks of the Congregation of St Maur to establish definitely
the new science. The place of this school in the history of history
is absolutely without a parallel. Few of those in the audiences
of Moliere, returning home under the grey walls of St Germain-
des-Pres, knew that within that monastery the men whose
midnight they disturbed were laying the basis for all scientific
history; and few of the later historians of that age have been
any wiser. But when Luc d'Achery turned from exegetics to
patristics and the lives of the saints, as a sort of Christian
humanist, he led the way to that vast work of collection and
comparison of texts which developed through Mabillon, Mont-
faucon, Ruinart, Martene, Bouquet and their associates, into
the indispensable implements of modern historians. Here, as
in the Reformation, controversy called out the richest product.
Jean Mabillon's treatise, De re diplomatica (1681), was due to
the criticisms of that group of Belgian Jesuits whose Ada
Sanctorum quotquoi toto orbe cclunlur (1643, &c., see BOLLANDISTS)
was destined to grow into the greatest repository of legend and
biography the world has seen. In reply to D. Papebroch's
criticisms of the chronicle of St Denis, Mabillon prepared this
manual for the testing of medieval documents. Its canons are
the basis, indeed, almost the whole, of the science cf diplomatic
(q.v.), the touchstone of truth for medieval research. Hence-
forth even the mediocre scholar had a body of technical rules
by which to sort out the vast mass of apocrypha in medieval
HISTORY
documentary sources. Scientific history depends upon imple-
ments. Without manuals, dictionaries, and easy access to
texts, we should go as far astray as any medieval chronicler.
The France of the Maurists supplied the most essential of these
instruments. The great " glossary " of Ducange is still in
enlarged editions the indispensable encyclopaedia of the middle
ages. Chronology and palaeography were placed on a new
footing by Dom Bernard de Montfaucon's Palaeographia graeca
(1708), the monumental Art de verifier les dates (3rd ed., 1818-
1831, in 38 vols.), and the Nouveaw Traits de diplomatique (1750-
1763) of Dom Tassin and Dom Toustain. The collections of
texts which the Maurists published are too many and too Vast
to be enumerated here (see C. Langlois, Manuel de bibliographic
historique, pp. 293 ff.). Dom Bouquet's Historiens de la Gaule
el de la France the national repertory for French historians
is but one of a dozen tasks of similar magnitude. During the
i8th century this deep under-work of scientific history continued
to advance, though for the most part unseen by the brilliant
writers whose untrustworthy generalities passed for history
in the salons of the old regime. Interrupted by the Revolution,
it revived in the igth century, and the roll of honour of the
French Ecole des Charles has almost rivalled that of St Germain-
des-Pres.
The father of critical history in Italy was L. A. Muratori
(1672-1750), the Italian counterpart of Leibnitz. His vast
collection of sources (Rerum Italicarum scriptores), prepared
amid every discouragement, remains to-day the national monu-
ment of Italian history; and it is but one of his collections.
His output is perhaps the greatest of any isolated worker in the
whole history of historiography. The same haste, but much less
care, marked the work of J. D. Mansi (d. 1769), the compiler
of the fullest collection of the Councils. Spain, stifled by the
Inquisition, produced no national collection of sources during
the i7th and i8th centuries, although Nicolas Antonio (d. 1684)
produced a national literary history of the first rank.
England in the i6th century kept pace with Continental
historiography. Henry VIII. 's chaplain, John Leland, is the
father of English antiquaries. Three of the most precious
collections of medieval manuscripts still in existence were then
begun by Thomas Bodley (the Bodleian at Oxford), Archbishop
Matthew Parker (Corpus Christi at Cambridge), and Robert
Cotton (the Cottonian collection of the British Museum). In
Elizabeth's reign a serious effort was made to arrange the national
records, but until the end of the i8th century they were scattered
in not less than fifteen repositories. In the i7th and i8th
centuries English scholarship was enriched by such monuments
of research as William Dugdale's M onasticon, Thomas Madox's
History of the Exchequer, Wilkins's Concilia, and Thomas Rymer's
Foedera. But these works, important as they were, gave but
little idea of the wealth of historical sources which the igth
century was to reveal in England.
In the igth century the science of history underwent a sort
of industrial revolution. The machinery of research, invented
by the genius of men like Mabillon, was perfected and set going in
all the archives of Europe. Isolated workers or groups of workers
grew into national or international associations, producing from
archives vast collections of material to be worked up into the
artistic form of history. The result of this movement has been
to revolutionize the whole subject. These men of the factory
devoting their lives to the cataloguing of archives and libraries,
to the publication of material, and then to the gigantic task of
indexing what they have produced have made it possible for
the student in an American or Australian college to master in a
few hours in his library sources of history which baffled the long
years of research of a Martene or Rymer. The texts themselves
have mostly become'as correct as they can ever be, and manuals
and bibliographies guide one to and through them, so that no one
need go astray who takes the trouble to make use of the mechan-
ism which is at his hand. For example, since the papal archives
were opened, so many regesta have appeared that soon it will be
possible to follow the letter-writing of the medieval popes day by
day for century after century.
The apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here.
Archives have been reformed, their contents catalogued or
calendared; government commissions have rescued numberless
documents from oblivion or destruction, and learned societies
have supplemented and criticized this work and co-ordinated the
results. Every state in Europe now has published the main
sources for its history. The " Rolls " series, the Monumenla
Germaniae historica, and the Documents inedils are but the more
notable of such national products. A series of periodicals
keeps watch over this enormous output. The files and indices
of the English Historical Review, Historische Zcitschrift, Revue
historique, or American Historical Review will alone reveal the
strength and character of historical research in the later I9th
century.
Every science which deals with human phenomena is in a
way an implement in this great factory system, in which the past
is welded together again. Psychology has been drawn upon to
interpret the movements of revolutions or religions, anthropology
and ethnology furnish a clue to problems to which the key of
documents has been lost. Genealogy, heraldry and chronology
run parallel with the wider subject. But the real auxiliary
sciences to history are those which deal with those traces of the
past that still exist, the science of language (philology), of
writing (palaeography), of documents (diplomatic), of seals
(sphragistics), of coins (numismatics), of weights and measures,
and archaeology in the widest sense of the word. These sciences
underlie the whole development of scientific history. Diction-
aries and manuals are the instruments of this industrial revolu-
tion. Without them the literary remains of the race would still
be as useless as Egyptian inscriptions to the fellaheen. Archae-
ology itself remained but a minor branch of art until the
machinery was perfected which enabled it to classify and in-
terpret the remains of the " pre-historic " age.
This is the most remarkable chapter in the whole history of
history the recovery of that past which had already been lost
when our literary history began. The perspective stretches out
as far the other side of Homer as we are this. The old " provi-
dential " scheme of history disintegrates before a new interest in
the " gentile " nations to whose high culture Hebrew sources bore
unwilling testimony. Biblical criticism is a part of the historic
process. The Jewish texts, once the infallible basis of history,
are now tested by the libraries of Babylon, from which they were
partly drawn, and Hebrew history sinks into its proper place in
the wide horizon of antiquity. The finding of the Rosetta stone
left us no longer dependent upon Greek, Latin or Hebrew sources,
and now fifty centuries of Egyptian history lie before us. The
scientific historian of antiquity works on the hills of Crete, rather
than in the quiet of a library with the classics spread out before
him. There he can reconstruct the splendour of that Minoan
age to which Homeric poems look back, as the Germanic epics
looked back to Rome or Verona. His discoveries, co-ordinated
and arranged in vast corpora inscriptionum, stand now along-
side Herodotus or Livy, furnishing a basis for their criticism.
Medieval archaeology has, since Quicherat, revealed how men
were living while the monks wrote chronicles, and now cathedrals
and castles are studied as genuine historic documents.
The immense increase in available sources, archaeological and
literary, has remade historical criticism. Ranke's application
of the principles of " higher criticism " to works written since
the invention of printing (Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber) was
an epoch-making challenge of narrative sources. Now they are
everywhere checked by contemporary evidence, and a clearer
sense of what constitutes a primary source has discredited much
of what had been currently accepted as true. This is true not
only of ancient history, where last year's book may be a thousand
years out of date, but of the whole field. Hardly an "old master "
remains an authoritative book of reference. Gibbon, Grote,
Giesebrecht, Guizot stand to-day by reason of other virtues than
their truth. Old landmarks drop out of sight e.g. the fall of
the Western Empire in 476, the coming of the Greeks to Italy in
1450, dates which once enclosed the middle ages. The per-
spective changes the Renaissance grows less and the middle
532
HISTORY
ages more; the Protestant Revolution becomes a complex of
economics and politics and religion; the French Revolution a
vast social reform in which the Terror was an incident, &c., &c.
The result has been a complete transformation of history since
the middle of the igth century.
In the 1 7th century the Augustinian scheme of world history
received its last classic statement in Bossuet's Histoire universelle.
Voltaire's reply to it in the i8th (Essai sur les moeurs) attacked
its limitations on the basis of deism, and its miraculous procedure
on that of science. But while there are foreshadowings of the
evolutionary theory in this work, neither the philosophe historians
nor Hume nor Gibbon arrived at a constructive principle in
history which could take the place of the Providence they
rejected. Religion, though false, might be a real historic force.
History became the tragic spectacle of a game of dupes the
real movers being priests, kings or warriors. The pawns slowly
acquired reason, and then would be able to regulate the moves
themselves. But all this failed to give a satisfactory explanation
of the laws which determine the direction of this evolutioa
Giovanni Battista Vico (1668-1744) was the first to ask why there
is no science of human history. But his lonely life and un-
recognized labours leave him apart from the main movement,
until his works were discovered again in the ipth century. It
was A. L. H. Heeren who, at the opening of the igth century,
first laid that emphasis upon the economic factors in history
which is to-day slowly replacing the Augustinian explanation of
its evolution. Heeren 'sown influence, however, was slight. The
first half of the century (apart from the scientific activity of
Pertz, Guizot, &c.) was largely dominated by the romanticists,
with their exaggeration of the individual. Carlyle's " great man
theory of history " is logically connected with the age of Scott.
It was a philosophy of history which lent itself to magnificent
dramatic creations; but it explained nothing. It substituted
the work of the genius for the miraculous intervention of
Providence, but, apart from certain abstract formulae such as
Truth and Right, knew nothing of why or how. It is but
dealing in words to say that the meaning of it all is God's revela-
tion of Himself. Granting that, what is the process? Why does
it so slowly reveal the Right of the middle ages (as in slavery for
instance) to be the Wrong to-day? Carlyle stands to Bossuet
as the sage to the myth. Hegel got no closer to realities. His
idealistic scheme of history, which makes religion the keynote of
progress, and describes the function of each Judaism to typify
duty, Confucianism order, Mahommedanism justice, Buddhism
patience, and Christianity love does not account for the facts
of the history enacted by the devotees. It characterizes, not the
real process of evolution, but an ideal which history has not
realized. Besides, it does not face the question how far religion
itself is a product or a cause, or both combined.
In the middle of the century two men sought to incorporate in
their philosophy the physical basis which Hegel had ignored in
his spiritism recognizing that life is conditioned by an environ-
ment and not an abstraction for metaphysics. H. T. Buckle, in
his History of Civilization in England (1857), was the first to work
out the influences of the material world upon history, developing
through a wealth of illustration the importance of food, soil and
the general aspect of nature upon the formation of society.
Buckle did not, as is generally believed, make these three factors
dominate all history. He distinctly stated that " the advance of
European civilization is characterized by a diminishing influence
of physical laws and an increasing influence of mental laws,"
and " the measure of civilization is the triumph of mind over
external agents." Yet his challenge, not only to the theologian,
but also to those " historians whose indolence of thought " or
" natural incapacity " prevented them from attempting more than
the annalistic record of events, called out a storm of protest from
almost every side. Now that the controversy has cleared away,
we see that in spite of Buckle's too confident formulation of his
laws, his pioneer work in a great field marks him out as the
Augustine of the scientific age. Among historians, however,
Buckle's theory received but little favour for another generation.
Meanwhile the economists had themselves taken up the problem,
and it was from them that the historians of to-day have learned
it. Ten years before Buckle published his history, Karl Marx had
already formulated the " economic theory of history." Accept-
ing with reservation Feuerbach's attack on the Hegelian " absolute
idea," based on materialistic grounds (Der Mensch ist, was er isst),
Marx was led to the conclusion that the causes of that process of
growth which constitutes the history of society are to be found in
the economic conditions of existence. From this he went on to
socialism, which bases its militant philosophy upon this inter-
pretation of history. But the truth or falseness of socialism does
not affect the theory of history. In 1845 Marx wrote of the
Young-Hegelians that to separate history from natural science
and industry was like separating the soul from the body, and
" finding the birthplace of history, not in the gross material
production on earth, but in the misty cloud formation of heaven "
(Die heilige Familie, p. 238). In his Misere de la philosophic
(1847) he lays down the principle that social relationships largely
depend upon modes of production, and therefore the principles,
ideas and categories which are thus evolved are no more eternal
than the relations they express, but are historical and transitory
products. In the famous Manifesto of the Communist Party
(1848) the theory was applied to show how the industrial revolu-
tion had replaced feudal with modern conditions. But it had
little vogue, except among Socialists, until the third volume of
Das Kapital was published in 1894, when its importance was
borne in upon continental scholars. Since then the controversy
has been almost as heated as in the days of the Reformation.
It is an exaggeration of the theory which makes it an explanation
of all human life, but the whole science of dynamic sociology
rests upon the postulate of Marx.
The content of history always reflects the interests of the age
in which it is written. It was so in Herodotus and in medieval
chronicles. Modern historians began with politics. But as the
complex nature of society became more evident in the age of
democracy, the economic or sociological history gained ground.
Histories of commerce and cities now rank beside those on war
and kings, although there are readers still who prefer to follow
the pennants of robber barons rather than to watch the slow
evolution of modern conditions. The drum-and-trumpet history
has its place like that of art, jurisprudence, science or philosophy.
Only now we know that no one of these is more than a single
glimpse at a vast complex of phenomena, most of which lie for
ever beyond our ken.
This expansion of interest has intensified specialization.
Historians no longer attempt to write world histories; they
form associations of specialists for the purpose. Each historian
chooses his own epoch or century and his own subject, and
spends his life mastering such traces of it as he can find. His
work there enables him to judge of the methods of his fellows,
but his own remains restricted by the very wealth of material
which has been accumulated on the single subject before him.
Thus the great enterprises of to-day are co-operative the
Cambridge Modern History, Lavisse and Rambaud's Histoire
gfnerale, or Lavisse's Histoire de France, like Hunt and Poole's
Political History of England, and Oncken's Allgemeine Geschichte
in Einzeldarstellungen. But even these vast sets cover but the
merest fraction of their subjects. The Cambridge history passes
for the most part along the political crust of society, and seldom
glances at the social forces within. This limitation of the pro-
fessed historian is made up for by the growingly historical
treatment of all the sciences and arts a tendency noted before,
to which this edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica is itself
a notable witness. Indeed, for a definition of that limitless
subject which includes all the phenomena that stand the warp
and stress of change, one might adapt a famous epitaph si
historian requiris, circumspice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Ch. V. Langlois, Manuel de bibliographie
historique (2 vols., 1904). This forms the logical bibliography of
this article. It is a general survey of the whole apparatus of histori-
cal research, and is the indispensable guide to the subject. Similar
bibliographies covering sections of history are noted with the
articles where they properly belong, e.g. in English medieval history
the manual of Chas. Gross, Sources and Literature of English History;
HIT HITCHCOCK, R. D.
533
in German history the Quellenkunde of Dahlmann-Waitz (7th ed.);
for France the Bibliographic de Vhistoire de France of G. Monod
(antiquated, 1888), or the Sources de Vhistoire de France so ably
begun by A. Molinier's volumes on the medieval period. Perhaps
the sanest survey of the present scientific movement in history is
the clear summary of Ch. V. Langlois and Ch. Seignobos, Intro-
duction to the Study of History (trans, with preface by F. York
Powell, London, 1898). Much more ambitious is E. Bernheim's
Lehrbuch der historischen Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie mil
Nachweis der wichtigsten Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Sludium der
Geschichte (3rd and 4th ed., Leipzig, 1903). (J. T. S.*)
HIT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Bagdad, on
the west bank of the Euphrates, 70 m. W.N.W. of Bagdad, in
33 38' 8" N., 42 52' 15" E. It is picturesquely situated on a line
of hills, partly natural, but in large part certainly artificial, the
accumulation of centuries of former habitation, from 30 to 100 ft.
in height, bordering the river. The houses are built of field stones
and mud. A striking feature of the town is a lofty and well-
proportioned minaret, which leans quite perceptibly. Behind
and around Hit is an extensive but utterly barren plain, through
which flow several streams of bitter water, coming from mineral
springs. Directly behind the town are two bitumen springs, one
cold and one hot, within 30 ft. of one another. The gypsum
cliffs on the edge of the plain, and the rocks which crop out here
and there in the plain, are full of seams of bitumen, and the
whole place is redolent of sulphuretted hydrogen. Across the
river there are naphtha springs. Indeed, the entire region is one
possessing great potential wealth in mineral oils and the like..
Hit, with its fringe of palms, is like an oasis in the desert
occasioned by the outcrop of these deposits. From time
immemorial it has been the chief source of supply of bitumen for
Babylonia, the prosperity of the town depending always upon its
bitumen fountains, which are still the property of the govern-
ment, but are rented out to any one who wishes to use them.
There is also a shipyard at Hit, where the characteristic Baby-
lonian boats are still made, smeared within and without with
bitumen. Hit is the head of navigation on the Euphrates. It is
also the point from which the camel-post starts across the desert
to Damascus. About 8 m. inland from Hit, on a bitter stream,
lies the small town of Kubeitha. Hit is mentioned, under the
name of 1st, in the Karnak inscription as paying tribute to
Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. In the Bible (Ezra viii. 1 5) it is called
Ahava; the original Babylonian name seems to have been I hi,
which becomes in the Talmud Ihidakira, in Ptolemy IdiK&pa, and
in Zosimus and Ammianus Aa/ctpa and Diacira.
See Geo. Rawlinson's Herodotus, i. 179, and note by H. C. Rawlin-
son; J. P. Peters, Nippur (1897); H. V. Geere, By Nile and
Euphrates (1904). (J. P. PE.)
HITA, GINES PEREZ DE (iS44?-i6os?), Spanish novelist
and poet, was born at Mula (Murcia) about the middle of the i6th
century. He served in the campaign of 1569-1571 against the
Moriscos, and in 1572 wrote a rhymed history of the city of Lorca
which remained unpublished till 1889. He owes his wide celebrity
to the Historia de los bandos de Zegries y Abencerrajes (1595-
1604), better known as the Guerras civiles de Granada, which
purports to be a chronicle based on an Arabic original ascribed
to a certain Aben-Hamin. Aben-Hamin is a fictitious personage,
and the Guerras de Granada is in reality a historical novel, perhaps
the earliest example of its kind, and certainly the first historical
novel that attained popularity. In the first part the events which
led to the downfall of Granada are related with uncommon
brilliancy, and Hita's sympathetic transcription of life at the
Emir's court has clearly suggested the conventional presentation
of the picturesque, chivalrous Moor in the pages of Mile de
Scudery, Mme de Lafayette, Chateaubriand and Washington
Irving. The second part is concerned with the author's personal
experiences, and the treatment is effective; yet, though
Calderon's play, Amar despues de la muerte, is derived from it, the
second part has never enjoyed the vogue or influence of the first.
The exact date of Hita's death is unknown. His blank verse
rendering of the Crdnica Troyana, written in 1596, exists in
manuscript.
HITCHCOCK, EDWARD (1793-1864), American geologist,
was born of poor parents at Deerfield, Massachusetts, on the
24th of May 1793. He owed his education chiefly to his own
exertions, and was preparing himself to enter Harvard College
when he was compelled to interrupt his studies from a weakness
in his eyesight. In 1815 he became principal of the academy of
his native town; but he resigned this office in 1818 in order
to study for the ministry. Having been ordained in 1821
pastor of the Congregational church of Conway, Mass., he em-
ployed his leisure in making a scientific survey of the western
counties of the state. From 1825 to 1845 he was professor of
chemistry and natural history, from 1845 to 1864 was professor of
natural theology and geology at Amherst College, and from 1845
to 1854 was president; the college owed its early success largely
to his energetic efforts, especially during the period of his presid-
ency. In 1 830 he was appointed state geologist of Massachusetts,
and in 1836 was made geologist of the first district of the state of
New York. In 1840 he received the degree of LL.D. from
Harvard, and in 1846 that of D.D. from Middlebury College,
Vermont. Besides his constant labours in geology, zoology and
botany, Hitchcock took an active interest in agriculture, and in
1850 he was sent by the Massachusetts legislature to examine
into the methods of the agricultural schools of Europe. In
geology he made a detailed examination and exposition of the
fossil footprints from the Triassic sandstones of the Connecticut
valley. His collection is preserved in the Hitchcock Ichnological
Museum of Amherst College, and a description of it was published
in 1858 in his report to the Massachusetts legislature on the
ichnology of New England. The footprints were regarded as
those of reptiles, amphibia and birds (?). In 1857 he undertook,
with the aid of his two sons, the geological survey of Vermont,
which was completed in 1861. As a writer on geological science,
Hitchcock was largely concerned in determining the connexion
between it and religion, and employing its results to explain
and support what he regarded as the truths of revelation. He
died at Amherst, on the 27th of February 1864.
His son, CHARLES HENRY HITCHCOCK (1836- ), did good
service in geology, in Vermont, New Hampshire (1868-1878), and
other parts of America, and became professor of geology at Dart-
mouth in 1868.
The following are Edward Hitchcock's principal works: Geology
of the Connecticut Valley (1823); Catalogue of Plants growing without
cultivation in the vicinity of Amherst (1829) ; Reports on the Geology
of Massachusetts (1833-1841); Elementary Geology (1840; ed. 2,
1841; and later ed. with C. H. Hitchcock, 1862); Fossil Footmarks
in the United States (1848) ; Outline of the Geology of the Globe and
of the United States in particular (1853): Illustrations of Surface
Geology (1856); Ichnology of New England (1858); The Religion of
Geology and its Connected Sciences (1851; new ed., 1869); Reminis-
cences of Amherst College (1863); and various papers in the American
Journal of Science, and other periodicals.
HITCHCOCK, GEORGE (1850- ), American artist, was
born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1850. He graduated from
Brown University in 1872 and from the law school of Harvard
University in 1874; then turned his attention to art and became
a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. He attracted notice
in the Salon of 1885 with his " Tulip Growing," a Dutch garden
which he painted in Holland. He had for years a studio at
Egmond, in the Netherlands. He became a Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour, France; a member of the Vienna Academy
of Arts, the Munich Secession Society, and other art bodies; and
is represented in the Dresden gallery; the imperial collection,
Vienna; the Chicago Art Institute, and the Detroit Museum of
Fine Arts.
HITCHCOCK, ROSWELL DWIGHT (1817-1887), American
divine, was born at East Machias, Maine, on the isth of August
1817, graduated at Amherst College in 1836, and later studied at
Andover Theological Seminary, Mass. After a visit to Germany
he was a tutor at Amherst in 1830-1842, and was minister of the
First (Congregational) Church, Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1845-
1852. He became professor of natural and revealed religion in
Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1852, and in 1855
professor of church history in the Union Theological Seminary
in New York, of which he was president in 1880-1887. He died
at Somerset, Mass., on the i6th of June 1887.
Among his works are: Life of Edward Robinson (1863); Socialism
(1879) ; Carmina Sanctorum (with Z. Eddy and L. W. Mudge, 1885) ;
and Eternal Atonement (1888).
534
HITCHIN HITTITES
HITCHIN, a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, on the small river Hiz, 32m.
N. from London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 10,072. It is the junction of the main line with
the Cambridge branch, and with a branch of the Midland railway
to Bedford. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular, with a fine
porch, a painting of the Adoration of the Magi, attributed to
Rubens, a small crypt said to have been used by Cromwell as a
prison for the Royalists, and many interesting monuments.
Hitchin Priory is a mansion on the site of a Carmelite foundation
of the early i4th century. A Gilbertine nunnery, founded later
in the same century, stood adjacent to the church, and portions
of the buildings appear in an existing block of almshouses. The
grammar school (1632) was reconstituted in 1889 for boys and
girls. Straw-plaiting, malting, brewing, and the cultivation and
distillation of lavender and peppermint are carried on.
HITTITES, an ancient people, alluded to frequently in the
earlier records of Israel, and also, under slightly variant names,
in Egyptian records of the XVIIIth, XlXth and XXth Dynasties,
and in Assyrian from about 1 100 to 700 B.C. They appear also in
the Vannic cuneiform texts, and are believed to be the authors of
a class of monuments bearing inscriptions in a peculiar picto-
graphic character, and widely distributed over Asia Minor and
N. Syria, around which much controversy has raged during the
past thirty years.
1. The Bible. In the Old Testament the name of the race is
written Heth (with initial aspirate), members of it being Hilti,
Hittim, which the Septuagint renders x T > X TTa " )S > X fTT( ' iV or
XTji, keeping, it will be noted, in the stem throughout. The
race appears in two connexions, (a) In pre-Israelite Palestine,
it is resident about Hebron (Gen. xxiii. 3), and in the central
uplands (Num. xiii. 29). To Joshua (i. 4) is promised " from the
wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the river
Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites." The term " wilderness "
here is of geographical ambiguity; but the promise is usually
taken to mean that Palestine itself was part of the Hittite land
before the coming of Israel; and an apostrophe of Ezekiel
(xvi. 3) to Jerusalem, " thy mother (was) an Hittite," is quoted
in confirmation. Under the monarchy we hear frequently of
Hittites within the borders of Israel, but either as a small subject
people, coupled with other petty tribes, or as individuals in the
Jewish service (e.g. Uriah, in the time of David). It appears,
therefore, that there survived in Palestine to late times a de-
tached Hittite population, with which Hebrews sometimes
intermarried (Judges iii. 5-6 ; Gen. xxvi. 34) and lived in relations
now amicable, now tyrannical (e.g. Hittites were made tributary
bondsmen by Solomon, i Kings ix. TO, 21; 2 Chron. viii. 7, 8).
(b) An independent and powerful Hittite people was domiciled
N. of Palestine proper, organized rather as a confederacy of tribes
than a single monarchy (i Kings x. 28; 2 Kings vii. 6). Presum-
ably it was a daughter of these Hittites that Solomon took to wife.
If the emendation of 2 Sam. xxiv. 64, " Tahtim-hodshi," based on
the Septuagint version yrjv X"TJU Kaorjs be accepted, we hear of
them at Kadesh on Orontes; and some minor Hittite cities are
mentioned, e.g. Luz; but no one capital city of the race is clearly
indicated. Carchemish, on the Euphrates, though mentioned
three times (2 Chron. xxxv. 20; Isa. x. 9; Jer. xlvi. 2), is not
connected explicitly with Hittites, a fact which is not surprising,
since that city was no longer under a Hatti dynasty at the epoch
of the Old Testament references. So far as the Old Testament
goes, therefore, we gather that the Hittites were a considerable
people, widely spread in Syria, in part subdued and to some
extent assimilated by Israel, but in part out of reach. The latter
portion was not much known to the Hebrews, but was vaguely
feared as a power in the early days of the monarchy, though not
in the later pre-Captivity period. The identification of the
northern and southern Hittites, however, presents certain
difficulties not yet fully explained; and it seems that we must
assume Heth to have been the name both of a country in the
north and of a tribal population not confined to that country.
2. Egyptian Records. The decipherment of the inscriptions
of the XVIIIth Theban Dynasty led, before the middle of the
century, to the discovery of the important part played in
the Syrian campaigns of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. by the H-t 8
(vulgarly transliterated Kheta, though the vocalization is un-
certain). The coincidence of this name, beginning with an
aspirate, led H. K. Brugsch to identify the Kheta with Heth.
That identification stands, and no earlier Egyptian mention of
the race has been found. Tethmosis III. found the Kheta
(" Great " and " Little ") in N. Syria, not apparently at Kadesh,
but at Carchemish, though they had not been in possession of the
latter place long (not in the epoch of Tethmosis I.'s Syrian
campaign). They were a power strong enough to give the
Pharaoh cause to vaunt his success (see also EGYPT: Ancient
History, " The New Empire "). Though he says he levied
tribute upon them, his successors in the dynasty nearly all
record fresh wars with the Kheta who appear as the northern-
most of Pharaoh's enemies, and Amenophis or Amenhotep III.
saw fit to take to wife Gilukhipa, a Syrian princess, who may or
may not have been a Hittite. This queen is by some supposed to
have introduced into Egypt certain exotic ideas which blossomed
in the reign of Amenophis IV. The first Pharaoh of the succeeding
dynasty, Rameses I., came to terms with a Kheta king called
Saplel or Saparura; but Seti I. again attacked the Kheta (1366
B.C.), who had apparently pushed southwards. Forced back by
Seti, the Kheta returned and were found holding Kadesh by
Rameses II., who, in his fifth year, there fought against them and
a large body of allies, drawn probably in part from beyond
Taurus, the battle which occasioned the monumental poem of
Pentaur. After long struggles, a treaty was concluded in
Rameses's twenty-first year, between Pharaoh and " Kheta-
sar " (i.e. Kheta-king), of which we possess an Egyptian copy.
The discovery of a cuneiform tablet containing a copy of this
same treaty, in the Babylonian language, was reported from
Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia by H. Winckler in 1907. It argues
the Kheta a people of considerable civilization. The Kheta king
subsequently visited Pharaoh and gave him his daughter to wife.
Rameses' successor, Mineptah, remained on terms with the
Kheta folk; but in the reign of Rameses III. (Dyn. XX.) the
latter seem to have joined in the great raid of northern tribes on
Egypt which was checked by the battle of Pelusium. From this
point (c. 1150 B.C.) the point at which (roughly) the monarchic
history of Israel in Palestine opens Egyptian records cease to
mention Kheta; and as we know from other sources that the
latter continued powerful in Carchemish for some centuries to
come, we must presume that the rise of the Israelite state inter-
posed an effective political barrier.
3. Assyrian Records. In an inscription of Tiglath Pileser I.
(about 1 100 B.C.), first deciphered in 1857, a people called Khalti
is mentioned as powerful in Girgamish on Euphrates (i.e.
Carchemish); and in other records of the same monarch, sub-
sequently read, much mention is made of this and of other N.
Syrian names. These Khatti appear again in the inscriptions of
Assur-nazir-pal (early gth century B.C.), in whose time Car-
chemish was very wealthy, and the Khatti power extended far
over N. Syria and even into Mesopotamia. Shalmaneser II.
(d. 825 B.C.) raided the Khatti and their allies year after year;
and at last Sargon III., in 717 B.C., relates that he captured
Carchemish and its king, Pisiris, and put an end to its independ-
ence. We hear no more of it thenceforward. These Khatti,
there is no reasonable doubt, are identical with Kheta. (For the
chronology see further under BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.)
4. Other Cuneiform Records. The name of the race appears in
certain of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, tablets written in Baby-
lonian script to Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV. and found in 1892
on the site of his capital. Some of his governors in Syrian
districts (e.g. one Aziru of Phoenicia) report movements of the
Hittites, who were then pursuing an aggressive policy (about
1400 B.C.). There are also other letters from rulers of princi-
palities in N. Syria (Mitanni) and E. Asia Minor (Arzawa), who
write in non-Semitic tongues and are supposed to have been
Hittites.
Certain Khateor Khati are mentioned in the Vannic inscriptions
(deciphered partially by A. H. Sayce and others) as attacked by
HITTITES
535
kings of Bianas (Van), and apparently domiciled on the middle
Euphrates N. of Taurus in the pth century B.C. This name
again may safely be identified with Khatti-Kheta.
The Khatti also appear on a " prophecy-tablet," referring
ostensibly to the time of Sargon of Agade (middle of 4th
millennium B. c.) ; but the document is probably of very
much later date. Lastly, a fragmentary chronicle of the ist
Babylonian Dynasty mentions an invasion of Akkad by them
about 1800 B.C.
From all these various sources we should gather that the
Hittites were among the more important racial elements in JSI.
Syria and S.E. Asia Minor for at least a thousand years. The
limits at each end, however, are very ill defined, the superior
falling not later than 2000 B.C. and the inferior not earlier than
600 B.C. This people was militant, aggressive and unsettled in
the earlier part of that time; commercial, wealthy and enervated
in the latter. A memorial of its trading long remained in Asia
in the shape of the weight-measure called in cuneiform records
the maneh " of Carchemish." These Hittites had close relations
with other Asia Minor peoples, and at times headed a confederacy.
During the later part of their history they were in continual
contact with Assyria, and, as a Syrian power, and perhaps also
as a Cappadocian one, they finally succumbed to Assyrian
pressure.
The " Hittite " Monuments. It remains to consider in the light
of the foregoing evidence a class of monuments to which attention
began to be called about 1870. In that year two Americans,
Consul J. A. Johnson and the Rev. S. Jessup, rediscovered, at
Hamah (Hamath) on Orontes, five basaltic blocks bearing
pictographic inscriptions in relief, one of which had been reported
by J. L. Burckhardt in 1812. In spite of their efforts and
subsequent attempts made by Tyrwhitt Drake and Richard
Burton, when consul at Damascus, proper copies could not be
obtained; and it was not till the end of 1872 that, thanks to
W. Wright of Beirut, casts were taken and the stones themselves
sent to Constantinople by Subhi Pasha of Damascus. As usually
happens when a new class of antiquities is announced, it was soon
found that the " Hamathite " inscriptions did not stand alone.
A monument in the same script had been seen in Aleppo by
Tyrwhitt Drake and George Smith in 1872. It still exists, built
into a mosque on the western wall of the city. Certain clay
sealings, eight of which bore pictographic signs, found by A. H.
Layard in the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Kuyunjik (Nineveh),
as long ago as 1851 and noticed then as in a " doubtful character,"
were compared by Hayes Ward and found to be of the Hamathite
class. A new copy of the long known rock-sculpture at Ivriz 1 in
S.W. Cappadocia was published by E. J. Davis in 1876, and
clearly showed Hamathite characters accompanying the figures.
Davis also reported, but did not see, a similar inscription at Bulgar
Maden, not far away. Sculptures seen by W. Skene and George
Smith at Jerablus, on the middle Euphrates, led to excavations
being undertaken there, in 1878, by the British Museum, and to
the discovery of certain Hamathite inscriptions accompanying
sculptures, a few of which were brought to London. The conduct
of these excavations, owing to the death of George Smith,
devolved on Consul Henderson of Aleppo, and was not satis-
factorily carried out. Meanwhile Wright, Ward and Sayce had
all suggested " Hittite " as a substitute for " Hamathite,"
because no other N. Syrian people loomed so large in ancient
records as did the Hittites, and the suggestion began to find
acceptance. Jerablus was confidently identified with Car-
chemish (but without positive proof to this day), and the occur-
rence of Hamathite monuments there was held to confirm the
Hittite theory.
In 1876 Sayce pointed out the resemblance between certain
Hittite signs and characters in the lately deciphered Cypriote
syllabary, and suggested that the comparison might lead to a
beginning of decipherment; but the hope has proved vain. To
1 First described by the Turk, Hajji Khalifa, in the i?th century;
first seen by the Swedish traveller Otter in 1736, and first published
in 1840 in Ritter's Erdkunde, iii., after a drawing by Major Fischer,
made in 1837.
this scholar, however, is owed the next great step ahead. In
1879 it first occurred to him to compare the rock-monuments
at Boghaz Keui (see PTRIA) and Euyuk in N. Cappadocia,
discovered by Texier and Hamilton in 1835 and subsequently
explored by G. Perrot and E. Guillaume. These, he now
saw, bore Hittite pictographs. Other rock-sculptures at Giaur
Kalessi, in Galatia, and in the Karabel pass near Smyrna, he
suspected of belonging to the same class 2 ; and visiting the
last-named locality in the autumn, he found Hittite pictographs
accompanying one of the two figures. 3 He announced his dis-
coveries in 1880, and proclaimed the fact that a great Hittite
empire, extending from Kadesh to Smyrna, had risen from the
dead. A month later he had the good fortune to recover copies
of a silver boss, or hilt-top, offered to various museums about
1860, but rejected by them as a meaningless forgery and for a
long time lost again to sight. Round the rim was a cuneiform
legend, and in the field a Hittite figure with six Hittite symbols
engraved twice over on either hand of it. Reading the cuneiform
as Tarqu-dimme sar mat Erme (i.e. " T. king of the country E."),
Sayce distributed phonetic values, corresponding to the syllables
of the two proper names, among four of the Hittite characters,
reserving two as " ideograms " of " king " and " country,"
and launched into the field _ of decipherment. But he subse-
quently recognized that this was a false start, and began afresh
from another basis. Since then a number of other monuments
have been found, some on new sites, others on sites already
known to be Hittite, the distribution of which can be seen
by reference to the accompanying map. It will be observed
that, so far as at present known, they cluster most closely in
Commagene, Cappadocia and S. Phrygia.
The following notes supplement the map:
A. WEST ASIA MINOR. " Niobe " (Suratlu Task) and Karabel
(two); rock-cut figures with much defaced hieroglyphs in relief.
Remains of buildings, not yet explored, lie near the " Niobe " figure.
Nothing purely Hittite has been found at Sardis or in any W. Asian
excavation; but small Hittite objects have been sold in Smyrna
and Aidin.
B. PHRYGIA. Giaur-Kalessi; rock-cut figures and remains of a
stronghold, but no inscriptions. Doghanludere and Beikeui in the
Phrygian rock-monument country; at the first is a sculptured
rock-panel with a few pictographs in relief; at the latter a fragment
of an inscription in relief was disinterred from a mound. Kolitolu
Yaila, near Ilghin ; block inscribed in relief, disinterred from mounds
apparently marking a camp or palace-enclosure. Eflatun Bunar
( = Plato's Spring), W. of Konia; megalithic building "with rude
and greatly defaced reliefs, not certainly Hittite: no inscription.
Pass-tier, W. of Konia; gigantic stela, or composite statue (figure
on animals), not certainly Hittite; no inscription. Konia; relief of
warrior, drawn by Texier in 1835 and since lost; of very doubtful
Hittite character. A gold inscribed Hittite ring, now at Oxford,
was bought there in 1903. Emirghazi (anc. Ardistama?) ; three
inscriptions in relief (two on altars) and large mounds. Evidently
an important Hittite site. Kara-Dagh; hill-sanctuary with incised
carving of seated figure and inscriptions, found by Miss G. L. Bell
and Sir W. M. Ramsay in 1907 (see their Thousand and One Churches,
1909).
C.NORTH CAPPADOCIA. BoghazKeui (seePTERiA) ; largecity with
remains of palace, citadel, walls, &c. Long rock-cut inscription of
ten lines in relief, two short relief inscriptions cut on blocks, and
also cuneiform tablets in Babylonian and also in a native language,
first found in situ in 1893, and showing the site to be the capital of
Arzawa, whence came two of the Tell el-Amarna letters. Near the
site are the rock reliefs of Yasili Kayo, in two hypaethral galleries,
showing, in the one, two processions composed of over sixty figures
meeting at the head of the gallery; in the other, isolated groups of
figures, fifteen in number (see for detailed description Murray's
Guide to Asia Minor, 1895, pp. 23 ff.). Pictographs accompany
many of the figures. The whole makes the most extensive group
of Hittite remains yet known. Boghaz Keui was never thoroughly
explored until 1907, the survey of Perrot and Guillaume having been
superficial only and the excavations of E. Chantre (1894) very slight.
In 1906 a German expedition under Professor H. Winckler under-
took the work, and great numbers of cuneiform tablets were found.
These refer to the reigns of at least four kings from Subbiluliuma
( = Saplel, see above) to Hattusil II. or Khattusil ( = Khetasar, see
above). The latter was an ally of Katashmanturgu of Babylon,
2 The "Niobe " statue near Manisa was not definitely known for
" Hittite " till 1882, when G. Dennis detected pictographs near it.
3 The " pseudo-Sesostres " of Herodotus, already demonstrated
non-Egyptian by Rosellini. The second figure was unknown, till
found by Dr Beddoe in 1856.
536
HITTITES
Scale, > 19,500,000
Englis
uubere Hittite remains nave been
discovered are shown thus - Boghaz Keui
after a name implies tJuiilti u* to real prouenanct
of the reinaitfs or their ijittite character.
? tie/ore a name lifplies ilotiU as to the exact
situation of the site.
I
C *< 36 of Greenwich T)
and powerful enough to write to the Babylonian court as a sovereign
of equal standing. His letter shows that he considered the rise of
Assyria a menace to himself. Winckler claims to read Haiti as the
name of the possessors of Boghaz Keui, and to find in this name
the proof of the Hittite character of Syro-Cappadocian power and
of the imperial predominance of the city. But it remains to be
proved whether these tablets were written there, and not rather,
being in a foreign script, abroad, like most of the Tell el-Amarna
archives. D. Puchstein has cleared and studied important archi-
tectural remains. Euyuk; large mound with remains of palace
entered between sphinxes. Sculptured wall-dados, but no Hittite
inscriptions. Cuneiform tablets; some Babylonian, others in a
native language. Also inscriptions in early Phrygian character
and language, found in 1894. The most famous of Hittite reliefs
is here a double-headed eagle " displayed " on the flank of one of
the gateway sphinxes. This is supposed to have suggested to the
Seljuks of Konia their heraldic device adopted in the I3th century,
which, brought to Europe by the Crusaders, became the emblem
of Teutonic empire in 1345. This derivation must be taken, how-
ever, cum grano, proof of its successive steps being wanting. Kara-
Euyuk; a mound near Dedik, partially excavated by E. Chantre
in 1894. Cuneiform tablets and small objects possibly, but not
certainly, Hittite. A colossal eagle was found on a deserted site
near Yamuli on the middle Halys, in 1907 by W. Attmore Robinson.
D. SOUTH CAPPADOCIA. Karaburna ;long, incised rock-inscription.
Bogja, eight hours west of Kaisariye; four-sided stela with incised
inscription. Assariik, on the side of Mt. Argaeus; incised rock-
inscription. Ekrek; a fragmentary inscription in relief and an
incised inscription on a stela of very late appearance. Fraktin
or Farakdin (probably anc. Das-tarkon) ; sculptured rock-panel
showing two groups of figures in act of cult, with hieroglyphs in
relief. Arslan Task, near Comana (Cappadocia), on the Soghan
Dagh; two colossal lions, one with incised inscription. Tashji
in the Zamanti valley; rock-relief with rudely incised inscription.
A ndaval and Bar ; inscriptions incised on sculptured stelae of kings (?),
probably from Tyana (Ekudi Hissar). All are now in Constanti-
nople. A silver seal with hieroglyphs, now at Oxford, came also
from Bor. Nigdeh; basalt drum or altar with incised inscription.
Ivrir; rock-sculpture of king adoring god, with three inscriptions
in relief. A second sculpture, similar in subject but smaller and
much defaced, was found hard by in 1906. Bulgar Maden; long
incised rock inscription, near silver-mines. Gorun (Gurun); two
rock-inscriptions in relief, much damaged. Arslan-Tepe, near
Ordasu (two hours from Malatia) ; large mound whence two sculp-
tured stelae or wall-blocks with inscriptions in relief have been
unearthed (now in Constantinople and the Louvre). Four other
reliefs, reported found near Malatia and published by J. Garstang
in Annals Arch, and Anthrop., 1908, probably came also from Arslan
Tepe. Palanga; lower anicpnic half of draped statue with incised
inscription, now in Constantinople. Also a small basalt lion. Arslan
Tosh, near Palanga ; two rude gateway lions, uninscribed. Yapalak ;
defaced inscription, reported by J. S. Sterrett but never copied.
Izgin; obelisk with long inscription in relief on all four faces, now
in Constantinople. These last four places seem to lie on a main
road leading from Cappadocia to Marash and the Syrian sites.
The expedition sent out by Cornell University in 1907 found
several Hittite inscriptions on rocks near Darende in the valley of
the Tokhma Su.
E. NORTH SYRIA. Marash; several monuments (stelae, wall-blocks
and two lions) with inscriptions, both in relief and incised (part are
now at Constantinople, part in Berlin and America) ; evidently one
of the most important of Hittite sites. Karaburshlu, Arbistan,
Gerchin, Sinjerli; mounds about the head-waters of the Kara Su.
The last-named mound, brought to O. Puchstein's notice in 1882
by the chance discovery of sculptured wall-dados, now in Con-
stantinople, was the scene of extensive German excavations in
1893-1894, directed by F. v. Luschan and K. Koldewcy, and was
found to cover a walled town with central fortified palace. Hitt'te,
cuneiform and old Aramaean monuments were found with many
small objects, most of which have been taken to Berlin; but no
Hittite inscriptions came to light. Sakchegeuzu (Sakchegozu), a
site with several mounds between Sinjerli and Amtab; series of
reliefs, once wall-dados, now in Berlin and Constantinople. This
site is in process of excavation by Professor J. Garstang of the
University of Liverpool. A sculptured portico has come to light in
the smallest of the five mounds, and much pottery, with incised
and painted decoration, has been recovered. Aintal; fragment
of relief inscription. Samsat (Samosata) ; sculptured stela with
incised inscription much defaced. Jerablus; see above. Several
Hittite objects sent from Birejik and Aintab to Europe probably
came from Jerablus, others from Tell Bashar on the Sajur. Kellekli,
near Jerablus; two stelae, one with relief inscription. Iskanderun
(Alexandretta) ; source of a long inscription cut on both sides of
a spheroidal object of unknown origin. Kirchoglu, a site on the
Afrin, whence a fragmentary draped statue with incised inscription
was sent to Berlin. Aleppo; inscription in relief (see above). Tell
Ahmar (on left bank of Euphrates); large stela with sculpture and
long relief inscription, found in 1908 with several sculptured slabs
an J two gateway lions, inscribed in cuneiform. Two hours south,
a lion and a fragment of a relief inscription were found in 1909 by
Miss G. L. Bell. Tell Halaf in Mid -Mesopotamia, near Ras el-Ain;
sculptures on portico of a temple or palace; cuneiform inscriptions
HITTITES
537
and large mounds, explored in 1902 by Oppenheim. Hamah; five
blocks inscribed in relief (see above).
F. OUTLYING SITES. Erzerum; source of an incised inscription,
perhaps not originally found there. Kedabeg ; metal boss or hilt-top
with pictographs, found in a tomb and stated by F. Hommel to be
Hittite, but doubtful. Toprak Kaleh; bronze fragments with two
pictographs; doubtful if Hittite. Nineveh; seahngs, see above.
Babylon; a bowl and a stela of storm-god, both with incised in-
scriptions; doubtless spoil of war or tribute brought from Syria.
The bowl is inscribed round the outside, the stela on the back.
(For a detailed description of the subjects of the reliefs, &c., with
the necessary illustrations, see the works indicated in the biblio-
graphy.)
Structures. The structural remains found as yet on Hittite
sites are few, scanty and far between. They consist of: (a)
Ground plans of a palatial building and three temples and
fortifications with sculptured gate at Boghaz Keui. The palace
was built round a central court, flanked by passages and entered
by a doorway of three battants hung on two columns. The
whole plan bears more than a superficial resemblance to those
of Cretan palaces in the later Minoan period. Only the rough
core of the walls is standing to a height of about 3 ft. The
fortifications of the citadel have an elaborate double gate
with flanking towers. (6) Fortifications, palace, &c., at Sinjerli.
The gates here are more elaborate than at Boghaz Keui, but
planned with the same idea that of entrapping in an enclosed
space, barred by a second door, an enemy who may have forced
the first door, while flanking towers would add to his discom-
fiture. The palace plan is again rectangular, with a central
pillared hall, and very similar in plan to that of Boghaz Keui.
The massive walls are also of similar construction. Dados of
relief-sculpture run round the inner walls; this feature seems
to have been common to Hittite buildings of a sumptuous
kind, and accounts for most of the sculptured blocks that have
been found, e.g. at Jerablus, Sakhchegeuzu, Euyuk, Arslan Tepe,
&c. Columns, probably of wood, rested on bases carved as
winged lions, (c) Gate with sculptured approach at Euyuk.
The ground plan of the gate is practically the same in idea as
that at Sinjerli. Structures were found at Jerablus, but never
properly uncovered or planned, (d) Sculptured porticoes of
temples or palaces uncovered at Sakchegeuzu and Tell Halaf
(see above). On other sites, e.g. Arslan Tepe (Ordasu), Arbistan,
Marash (above the modern town and near the springs), Beikeui,
mounds, doubtless covering structures, may be seen, and
sculptured slabs have been recovered. The mounds, probably
Hittite, in N. Syria alone are to be counted by hundreds. No
tombs certainly Hittite have been found, 1 though it is possible
that some of the reliefs (e.g. at Fraktin) are of funerary character.
Sculptures and other Objects of Art. The sculptures hitherto
found consist of reliefs on rocks and on stelae, either honorific
or funerary; reliefs on blocks forming parts of wall-dados; and
a few figures more or less in the round, though most of these
(e.g. the sphinxes of Euyuk and the lions of Arslan Tash and
Marash) are not completely ' disengaged from the block. The
most considerable sculptured rock-panels are at Boghaz Keui
(see PTERIA) ; the others (Ivriz, Fraktin, Karabel, Giaur Kalessi,
Doghanludere), it should be observed, all lie N. of Taurus a
fact of some bearing on the problem of the origin and local
domicile of the art, since rock-reliefs, at any rate, cannot be
otherwise than in situ. Sculptured stelae, honorific or funerary,
all with pyramidal or slightly rounded upper ends, and showing
a single regal or divine figure or two figures, have come to light
at Bor, Marash, Sinjerli, Jerablus, Babylon, &c. These, like
most of the rock-panels, are all marked as Hittite by accompany-
ing pictographic inscriptions. The wall-blocks are seldom in-
scribed, the exceptions (e.g. the Arslan Tepe lion-hunt and certain
blocks from Marash and Jerablus) being not more certainly
wall-dados than stelae. The only fairly complete anthropoid
statue known is the much-defaced " Niobe " at Suratlu Tash,
engaged in the rock behind. The aniconic lower part of an
inscribed statue wholly in the round was found at Palanga, and
parts of others at Kirchoglu and Marash. Despite considerable
1 Five intramural graves were explored at Sinjerli, but whether
of the Hittite or of the Assyrian occupation is doubtful.
differences in execution and details, all these sculptures show
one general type of art, a type which recalls now Babylonian,
now Assyrian, now Egyptian, now archaic Ionian, style, but is
always individual and easily distinguishable from the actual
products of those peoples. The figures, whether of men or beasts,
are of a squat, heavy order, with internal features (e.g. bones,
muscles, &c.) shown as if external, as in some Mesopotamian
sculptures. The human type is always very brachycephalic,
with brow receding sharply and long nose making almost one
line with the sloping forehead. In the sculptures of the Com-
magene and the Tyana districts, the nose has a long curving tip,
of very Jewish appearance, but not unlike the outline given to
Kheta warriors in Egyptian scenes. The h'ps are full and the
chin short and shaven. The whole physiognomy is fleshy and
markedly distinct from that of other Syrians. At Boghaz
Keui, Euyuk and Jerablus, the facial type is very markedly
non-Semitic. But not much stress can be laid on these differences
owing to (i) great variety of execution in different sculptures,
which argues artists of very unequal capacity; (2) doubt whether
individual portraits are intended in some cases and not in others.
The hair of males is sometimes, but not always, worn in pigtail.
The fashions of head-covering and clothes are very various,
but several of them e.g. the horned cap of the Ivriz god; the
conical hat at Boghaz Keui, Fraktin, &c.; the "jockey-cap"
on the Tarkudimme boss; the broad-bordered over-robe, and the
upturned shoes are not found on other Asiatic monuments,
except where Hittites are portrayed. Animals in profile are
represented more naturalistically than human beings, e.g. at
Yasili Kaya, and especially in some pictographic symbols in
relief (e.g. at Hamah). This, however, is a feature common to
Mesopotamian and Egyptian, and perhaps to all primitive art.
The subjects depicted are processions of figures, human and
divine (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Giaur Kalessi); scenes of sacrifice
or adoration, or other cult-practice (Yasili Kaya, Euyuk, Fraktin,
Ivriz, and perhaps the figures seated beside tables at Marash
Sakchegeuzu, Sinjerli, &c.); of the chase (Arslan Tepe, Sak-
chegeuzu); but not, as known at present, of battle. Both at
Euyuk and Yasili Kaya reliefs in one and the same series are
widely separated in artistic conception and execution, some
showing the utmost naivete, others expressing both outline and
motion with fair success. The fact warns us against drawing
hasty inductions as to relative dates from style and execution.
Besides sculptures, well assured, Hittite art -products include
a few small objects in metal (e.g. heavy, inscribed gold ring
bought by Sir W. M. Ramsay at Konia; base silver seal, sup-
ported on three lions' claws, bought by D. G. Hogarth at Bor;
inscribed silver boss of " Tarkudimme," mentioned above,
&c., &c.); many intaglios in various stones (chiefly in steatite),
mostly either spheroidal or gable-shaped, but a few scarabaeoid,
conical or cylindrical, bearing sometimes pictographic symbols,
sometimes divine, human or animal figures. The best collection
is at Oxford. The majority are of very rude workmanship,
bodies and limbs being represented by mere skeleton lines or
unfilled outlines; a few vessels (e.g. inscribed basalt bowl found
at Babylon) and fragments of ware painted with dark ornament
on light body-clay, or in polychrome on a cream-white slip, or
black burnished, found on N. Cappadocian sites, &c. The
bronzes hitherto claimed as Hittite have been bought on the
Syrian coast or come from not certainly Hittite sites in Cappa-
docia (see E. Chantre, Mission en Cappadocie). A great many
small objects were found in the excavations at Sinjerli, including
carved ivories, seals, toilet-instruments, implements, &c., but
these have not been published. Nor, except provisionally, has
the pottery, found at Sakchegeuzu.
Inscriptions. These, now almost sixty in number (excluding
seals), are all in a pictographic character which employed
symbols somewhat elaborately depicted in relief, but reduced to
conventional and " shorthand " representations in the incised
texts. So far, the majority of our Hittite inscriptions, like those
first found at Hamah, are in relief (cameo); but the incised
characters, first observed in the Tyana district, have since been
shown, by discoveries at Marash, Babylon, &c., to have had a
538
HITTITES
wider range. It has usually been assumed that the incised
inscriptions, being the more conventionalized, are all of later
date than those in relief; but comparison of Egyptian inscriptions,
wherein both incised and cameo characters coexisted back to
very early times, suggests that this assumption is not necessarily
correct. The Hittite symbols at present known show about
two hundred varieties; but new inscriptions continually add
to the list, and great uncertainty remains as to the distinction
of many symbols (i.e. whether mere variants or not), and as
to many others which are defaced or broken in our texts. The
objects represented by these symbols have been certainly
identified in only a few instances. A certain number are heads
(human and animal) detached from bodies, in a manner not
known in the Egyptian hieroglyphic system, with which some
of the other symbols show obvious analogies. Articles of dress,
weapons, tools, &c., also appear. The longer inscriptions are
disposed in horizontal zones or panels, divided by lines, and, it
seems, they were to be read boustrophedon, not only as regards
the lines (which begin right to left) but also the words, which are
written in columnar fashion, syllable below syllable, and read
downwards and upwards alternately. The direction of reading is
towards any faces which may be shown among the pictographs.
The words are perhaps distinguished in some texts by punctua-
tion marks.
Long and patient efforts have been made to decipher this
script, ever since it was first restored to our knowledge; and
among the would-be decipherers honourable mention must be
made, for persistence and courage, of Professor A. H. Sayce and
of Professor P. Jensen. Other interpretations have been put
forward by F. E. Peiser (based on conjectures as to the names
on the Nineveh sealings), C. R. Conder (based largely on Cypriote
comparisons and phonetic values transferred from these) and
C. J. Ball (based on Hittite names recorded on Egyptian and
Assyrian monuments, and applied to word-groups on the
Hittite monuments). These, however, as having arbitrary
and inadequate foundations, and for other reasons, have not been
accepted. F. Hommel, J. Halevy and J. Menant have done
useful work in distinguishing word-groups, and have essayed
partial interpretations. No other decipherers call for mention.
A. H. Sayce and P. Jensen alone have enlisted any large body
of adherents; and the former, who has worked upon his
system for thirty years and published in the Proceedings of the
Society for Biblical Archaeology for 1907 a summary of his
method and results, has proceeded on the more scientific plan.
His system, however, like all others, is built in the main upon
hypotheses incapable at present of quite satisfactory verification,
such, for example, as the conjectural reading " Gargamish "
for a group of symbols which recurs in inscriptions from Jerablus
and elsewhere. In this case, to add to the other obvious elements
of uncertainty, it must be borne in mind that the location of
Carchemish at Jerablus is not proved, though it is very probable.
Other conjectural identifications of groups of symbols with the
place-names Hamath, Marash, Tyana are bases of Sayce's
system. Jensen's system may be said to have been effectually
demolished by L. Messerschmidt in his Bemerkungen (1898);
but Sayce's system, which has been approved by Hommel and
others, is probably in its main lines correct. Its frequent
explanation, however, of incompatible symbols by the doctrines
of phonetic variation and interchange, or by alternative values
of the same symbol used as ideograph, determinative or phonetic
complement, and the occasional use of circular argument in
the process of "verification," do. not inspire confidence in
other than its broader results. Sayce's phonetic values and
interpretations of determinatives are his best assured achieve-
ments. But the words thus arrived at represent a language
on which other known tongues throw little or no light, and
their meaning is usually to be guessed only. In some significant
cases, however, the Boghaz Keui tablets appear to give striking
confirmation of Sayce's conjectures.
Writing in 1903 L. Messerschmidt, editor of the best collection
of Hittite texts up to date, made a tabula rasa of all systems of
decipherment, asserting that only one sign out of two hundred
the bisected oval, determinative of divinity had been inter-
preted with any certainty; and in view of this opinion, coupled
with the steady refusal of historians to apply the results of any
Hittite decipherment, and the obvious lack of satisfactory
verification, without which the piling of hypothesis on hypothesis
may only lead further from probability, there is no choice but
to suspend judgment for some time longer as to the inscriptions
and all deductions drawn from them.
Are the Monuments Hitlite? It is time to ask this question,
although a perfectly satisfactory answer can only be expected
when the inscriptions themselves have been deciphered. Almost
all " Hittitologues " assume a connexion between the monu-
ments and the Kheta-Khatti-Hittites, but in various degrees;
e.g. while Sayce has said roundly that common sense demands
the acceptance of all as the work of the Hittites, who were the
dominant caste throughout a loosely-knit empire extending at
one time from the Orontes to the Aegean, Messerschmidt has
stated with equal dogmatism that the Hittites proper were only
one people out of many ' in N. Syria and Asia Minor who shared
a common civilization, and that therefore they were authors of a
part of the monuments only presumably the N. Syrian, Com-
magenian and Cataonian groups. O. Puchstein 2 has denied to
the Hittites some of the N. Syrian monuments, holding these of
too late a date (judged by their Assyrian analogies) for the
flourishing period of the Kheta-Khatti, as known from Egyptian
and Assyrian records. He would ascribe them to the Kummukh
(Commagenians), who seem to have succeeded the Khatti as the
strongest opponents of Assyria in these parts. He was possibly
right as regards the Sinjerli and Sakchegeuzu sculptures, which
are of provincial appearance. The following considerations, how-
ever, may be stated in favour of the ascription of the monuments
to the Hittites:
(i) The monuments in question are found frequently where-
ever, from other records, we know the Hittites to have been
domiciled at some period, i.e. throughout N. Syria and in
Cataonia. (2) It was under the Khatti that Carchemish was a
flourishing commercial city; and if Jerablus be really Car-
chemish, it is significant that apparently the most numerous
and most artistic of the monuments occur there. (3) Among all
the early peoples of N. Syria and Asia Minor known to us from
Egyptian and Assyrian records, the Kheta-Khatti alone appear
frequently as leading to war peoples from far beyond Taurus.
(4) The Kheta certainly had a system of writing and a glyptic art
in the time of Rameses II., or else the Egyptian account of their
copy of the treaty would be baseless. (5) The physiognomy
given to Kheta warriors by Egyptian artists is fairly representa-
tive of the prevailing type shown in the Hittite sculptures.
Furthermore, the Boghaz Keui tablets, though only partially
deciphered as yet, go far to settle the question. They show that
whether Boghaz Keui was actually the capital of the Haiti or
not, it was a great city of the Haiti, and that the latter were
an importanl element in Cappadocia from very early times.
Before Ihe middle of Ihe i6th century B. c. the Cappadocian
Hatli were already in relalions, generally more or less hostile,
with a rival power in Syria, thai of Mitanni; and Subbiluliuma
( = Saplel or Saparura), king of these Halli, a contemporary of
Amenophis IV. and Rameses I., seems to have obtained lasting
dominion in Syria by subduing Dushratla of Milanni. Car-
chemish ihenceforward became a Haiti city and the southern
capilal of Cappadocian power. Since all the Syrian monuments
of the Hitlite class, so far known, seem comparatively late
(mosl show such strong Assyrian influence that they must fall
after noo B.C. and probably even considerably later), while the
North Cappadocian monuments (as Sayce, Ramsay, Perrot and
others saw long ago) are Ihe earlier in style, we are bound to
ascribe the origin of the civilizalion which they represent to the
Cappadocian Hatli.
1 The Assyrian records, as well as the Egyptian, distinguish many
peoples in both areas from the Kheta-Khatti ; and the most we can
infer from these records is that there was an occasional league formed
under the Hittites, not any imperial subjection or even a continuous
federation.
2 Pseudo-Hethitische Kunst (Berlin, 1890).
HITTITES
539
Whether the Mitanni had shared in that civilization while
independent, and whether they were racially kin to the Hatti,
cannot be determined at present. Winckler has adduced
evidence from names of local gods to show that there was an
Indo-European racial element in Mitanni; but none for a
similar element in the Hatti, whose chief god was Teshub. The
majority ot scholars has always regarded the Hittites proper as,
at any rate, non-Semitic, and some leading authorities have
called them proto-Armenian, and believed that they have
modern descendants in the Caucasus. This racial question can
hardly be determined till those Hatti records, whether in cunei-
form or pictographic script, which are couched in a native
tongue, not in Babylonian, are read. In the meantime we have
proper names to argue from; and these give us at least the
significant indication that the Hittite nominative ended in s and
the accusative in m. In any case the connexion of the Hatti with
the peculiar class of monuments which we have been describing,
can hardly be further questioned; and it has become more than
probable that the Hatti of Cappadocia were responsible in the
beginning for the art and script of those monuments and for the
civiEzation of which they are memorials. Other peoples of
north Syria and Asia Minor (e.g. the Kummukh or Comma-
genians and the Muski or Phrygians) came no doubt under the
influence of this civilization and imitated its monuments, while
subject to or federated with the Hatti. Through Phrygia and
Lydia (q.v.) influences of this same Cappadocian civilization
passed to wards the west; and indeed, before the Greek coloniza-
tion of Asia Minor, a loosely knit Hatti empire may have
stretched even to the Aegean. The Nymphi (Kara Bel) and
Niobe sculptures near Smyrna are probably memorials of that
extension. Certainly some inland Anatolian power seems to have
kept Aegean settlers and culture away from the Ionian coast
during the Bronze Age, and that power was in all likelihood the
Hatti kingdom of Cappadocia. Owing perhaps to Assyrian
aggression, this power seems to have begUn to suffer decay about
1000 B.C. and thereafter to have shrunk inwards, leaving the
coasts open. The powers of Phrygia and Lydia rose successively
out of its ruins, and continued to offer westward passage to
influences of Mesopotamian culture till well into historic times.
The Greeks came too late to Asia to have had any contact with
Hatti power obscured from their view by the intermediate and
secondary state of Phrygia. Their earliest writers regarded the
latter as the seat of the oldest and most godlike of mankind.
Only one Greek author, Herodotus, alludes to the prehistoric
Cappadocian power and only at the latest moment of its long
decline. At the same time, some of the Greek legends seem to
show that peoples, with whom the Greeks came into early con-
tact, had vivid memories of the Hatti. Such are the Amazon
stories, whose local range was very extensive, and the myths of
Memnon and Pelops. The real reference of these stories, how-
ever, was forgotten, and it has been reserved to our own generation
to rediscover the records of a power and a civilization which once
dominated Asia Minor and north Syria and occupied all the
continental roads of communication between the East and the
West of the ancient world. The credit of having been the first
to divine this importance of the Hittites should always be
ascribed to Sayce.
The history of the Hatti and their civilization, then, would
appear to have been, very briefly, this. They belonged to an
ethnic scattered widely over Eastern Asia Minor and Syria at
an early period (Khatti invaded Akkad about 1800 B.C. in the
reign of Samsuditana) ; but they first formed a strong state
in Cappadocia late in the i6th century B.C. Subbiluliuma
became their first great king, though he had at least one dynastic
predecessor of the name of Hattusil. The Hatti now pushed
southwards in force, overcame the kingdom of Mitanni and
proceeded partly to occupy and partly to make tributary both
north Syria and western Mesopotamia where some of their
congeners were already settled. They came early into collision
with Egypt, and at the height of their power under Hattusil II.
fought the battle of Kadesh with Rameses II., on at least equal
terms. Both now and previously the diplomatic correspondence
of the Hatti monarchs shows that they treated on terms of
practical equality with both the Babylonian and the Egyptian
courts; and that they waged constant wars in Syria, mainly
with the Amorite tribes. At this time the Hatti empire or
confederacy probably included, on the west, both Phrygia and
Lydia. The Boghaz Keui correspondence ceases to be important
with the generation following Hattusil II., and in the Assyrian
records, which begin about a couple of centuries later, we find
Carchemish the chief Hatti city and N. Syria called the Haiti-
land. It is possible therefore that a change of imperial centre
took place after the Hatti had ceased to fear Egypt in north
Syria. If so, the continuation of Hittite history will have to
be sought among the remains at Jerablus and other middle
Euphratean sites, rather than in those at Boghaz Keui. The
establishment of the Hatti at Carchemish not only made them
a commercial people and probably sapped their highland vigour,
but also brought them into closer proximity to the rising North
Semitic power of Assyria, whose advent had been regarded
with apprehension by Hattusil II. (see above). One of his
successors, Arnaunta (late i3th century?), was already feeling
the effect of Assyrian pressure, and with the accession of Tiglath
Pileser I., about a century later, a long but often interrupted
series of Assyrian efforts to break up the Hatti power began.
A succession of Ninevite armies raided north Syria and even
south-east Asia Minor, and gradually reduced the Hatti. But
the resistance of the latter was sturdy and prolonged. They
remained the strongest power in Syria and eastern Asia Minor
till well into the first millennium B.C., and their Syrian seat was
not lost finally till after the great extension of Assyrian power
which took place in the latter part of the pth century. What
had been happening to their Cappadocian province meanwhile
we do not yet know; but the presence of Phrygian inscriptions
at Euyuk and Tyana, ancient seats of their power, suggests
that the client monarchy in the Sangarius valley shook itself
free during the early part of the Hittite struggle with Assyria,
and in the day of Hatti weakness extended its dominion over
the home territory of its former suzerain. " White Syrians,"
however, were still in Cappadocia even after the Cimmerians
had destroyed the Phrygian monarchy, allowing Lydia to become
independent under the Mermnad dynasty. Croesus found them
centred at Pteria in the 6th century and dealt them a final
blow. But much of their secular or religious custom lived on
to be recorded by Greek writers, and regarded by modern
scholars as typically " Anatolian."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. General summaries: L. Messerschmidt, The
Hittites ("Ancient East" series, vi., 1903); A. H. Sayce, The
Hittites (" Bypaths of Biblical Knowledge " series, xii., and ed.
1892) ; G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea,
Syria and Asia Minor (Eng. trans., vol. ii., 1890); L. Lantsheere,
De la race el de la langue des Heteens (1891); P. Jensen, Hittiter und
Armenier (1898); M. Jastrow, final chapter in H. V. Hilprecht,
Exploration in Bible Lands (1903); W. Wright, Empire of the
Hittites (1884); F. Homrael, Hettiter und Skythen (1898); D. G.
Hogarth, Ionia and the East (1909); W. Max Miiller, Asien und
Europa, chap. xxv. (1893). See also authorities for Egyptian and
Assyrian history.
Inscriptions: L. Messerschmidt, "Corpus inscr. Hettiticarum,"
Zeitsch. d. d. morgenland. Gesellschaft (1900, 1902, 1906, &c.), and
" Bemerkungen zu d. Heth. Inschriften," Mittett. d. vorderasiat.
Gesellschaft (1898); P. Jensen, " Grundlagen fiir eine Entzifferung
der (Hat. oder) Cilicischen Inschriften," Zeitschr. d. d. morgenland.
Gesellschaft (1894); F. E. Peiser, Die Hettitischen Inschriften (1892);
A. H. Sayce, " Decipherment of the Hittite Inscriptions," Proc.
Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology (1903), and " Hittite Inscriptions, trans-
lated and annotated," ibid. (1905, 1907); J. Menant, "Etudes
Hdtfennes," Recueil de travaux rel. d la philologie, &c., and Mem. de
I'Acad. Inscr., vol. xxxiv. (1890); J. Haldvy in Revue semitique,
vol. i. Also divers articles by A. H. Sayce, F. Hommel and others
in Proc. and Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch, since 1876, and in Recueil de
travaux, &c., since its beginning.
Exploration: G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, Exploration arch, de
la Galatie, &c. (1862-1872); E. Chantre, Mission en Cappadocie
(1898); Sir W. M. Ramsay, " Syro-Cappadocian Monuments," in
Athen. Mitteilungen (1889), with D. G. Hogarth, " Pre-Hellenic
Monuments of Cappadocia," in Recueil de travaux, &c. (1892-1895) ;
and with Miss Gertrude Bell, The Thousand and One Churches (1909) ;
C. Humann and O. Puchstein, Reisen in Nord-Syrien, &c. (1890).
J. Garstang in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, i. (1908)
and following numbers. Reports on excavations at Sinjerli in Berl.
540
HITTORFF HKAMTI LONG
Phttol. Wochenschrift (1891), pp. 803, 951 ; and F. von Luschan,
and others, " Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli " in Mitteti. Orienl-
Sammlungen (Berlin Museum, 1893 ff.) ; and on excavations at
Boghaz-Keui, H. Winckler in Orient. Literaturzeitung (Berlin, 1907) ;
Mitteil. Orient-Gesellschaft (Dec. 1907). See also s.v. PTERIA.
(D. G. H.)
HITTORFF, JACQUES IGNACE (1792-1867), French architect,
was born at Cologne on the 2oth of August 1792. After serving
an apprenticeship to a mason in his native town, he went in
1810 to Paris, and studied for some years at the Academy
of Fine Arts, where he was a favourite pupil of Belanger,
the government architect, who in 1814 appointed him his
principal inspector. Succeeding Belanger as government archi-
tect in 1818, he designed many important public and private
buildings in Paris and also in the south of France. From 1819
to 1830 in collaboration with le Cointe he directed the royal
fetes and ceremonials. After making architectural tours in
Germany, England, Italy and Sicily, he published the result
of his observations in the latter country in the work Architecture
antique de la Sidle (3vols., 1826-1830; new edition, 1866-1867),
and also in Architecture moderne de la Sicile (1826-1835). One
of his important discoveries was that colour had been made
use of in ancient Greek architecture, a subject which he especially
discussed in Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs (1830) and in
Restitution du temple d'Empedocle a Selinunte (1851); and in
accordance with the doctrines enunciated in these works he
was in the habit of making colour an important feature in most
of his architectural designs. His principal building is the church
of St Vincent de Paul in the basilica style, which was constructed
between 1830 and 1844. He also designed the two fountains
in the Place de la Concorde, the Circus of the Empress, the
Rotunda of the panoramas, many cafes and restaurants of the
Champs Elysees, the houses forming the circle round the Arc
de Triomphe de 1'Etoile, besides many embellishments of the
Bois de Boulogne and other places. In 1833 he was elected a
member of the Academy of Fine Arts. He died in Paris on the
25th of March 1867.
HITZACKER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hanover at the influx of the Jeetze into the Elbe, 33 m. N.E.
of Liineburg by the railway to Wittenberge. Pop. (1905) 1106.
It has an Evangelical church and an old castle and numerous
medieval remains. There are chalybeate springs and a hydro-
pathic establishment in the town. The famous library now in
Wolfenbiittel was originally founded here by Augustus, duke
of Brunswick (d. 1666) and was removed to its present habitation
in 1643.
HITZIG, FERDINAND (1807-1875), German biblical critic,
was born at Hauingen, Baden, where his father was a pastor,
on the 23rd of June 1807. He studied theology at Heidelberg
under H. E. G. Paulus, at Halle under Wilhelm Gesenius and
at Gottingen under Ewald. Returning to Heidelberg he became
Privatdozent in theology in 1829, and in 1831 published his
Begriff der Kritik am Allen Testamente praktisch erortert, a
study of Old Testament criticism in which he explained the
critical principles of the grammatico-historical school, and his
Des Prophcten Jonas Orakel iiber Moab, an exposition of the
1 5th and i6th chapters of the book of Isaiah attributed by him
to the prophet Jonah mentioned in 2 Kings xiv. 25. In 1833
he was called to the university of Zurich as professor ordinarius
of theology. His next work was a commentary on Isaiah with
a translation (Uberselzung u. Auslegung des Propheten Jesajas),
which he dedicated to Heinrich Ewald, and which Hermann
Hupfeld (1796-1866), well known as a commentator on the
Psalms (1855-1861), pronounced to be his best exegetical work.
At Zurich he laboured for a period of twenty-eight years, during
which, besides commentaries on The Psalms (1835-1836; 2nd
ed.. 1863-1865), The Minor Prophets (1838; 3rd ed., 1863),
Jeremiah (1841; 2nd ed., 1866), Ezekiel (1847), Daniel (1850),
Ecclesiasles (1847), Canticles (1855), and Proverbs (1858), he
published a monograph, Uber Johannes Markus u. seine Schriften
(1843), in which he maintained the chronological priority of the
second gospel, and sought to prove that the Apocalypse was
written by the same author. He also published various treatises
of archaeological interest, of which the most important are
Die Erfindung des Alphabets (1840), Urgeschichte u. Mythologie
der Philistder (1845), and Die Grabschrift des Eschmunezar(iSss)-
After the death of Friedrich Umbreit (1795-1860), one of the
founders of the well-known Studien und Kritiken, he was called
in 1 86 1 to succeed him as professor of theology at Heidelberg.
Here he wrote his Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1869-1870), in
two parts, extending respectively to the end of the Persian
domination and to the fall of Masada, A.D. 72, as well as a work
on the Pauline epistles, Zur Kritik Paulinischer Briefe (1870),
on the Moabite Stone, Die Inschrift des Mescha (1870), and on
Assyrian, Sprache u. Sprachen Assyriens (1871), besides revising
the commentary on Job by Ludwig Hirzel (1801-1841), which
was first published in 1839. He was also a contributor to the
M ' onatsschrift des wissenschaftlichen Vereins in Zurich, the
Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, the
Theologische Studien u. Kritiken, Eduard Zeller's Theologische
Jahrbucher, and Adolf Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaft-
liche Theologie. Hitzig died at Heidelberg on the 22nd of
January 1875. As a Hebrew philologist he holds high rank;
and as a constructive critic he is remarkable for acuteness and
sagacity. As a historian, however, some of his speculations
have been considered fanciful. " He places the cradle of the
Israelites in the south of Arabia, and, like many other critics,
makes the historical times begin only with Moses " (F. Lichten-
berger, History of German Theology, p. 569).
His lectures on biblical theology (Vorlesungen uber biblische
Theologie u. messianische Weissagungen) were published in 1880
after his death, along with a portrait and biographical sketch by
his pupil, J. J. Kneucker (b. 1840), professor of theology at Heidel-
berg. See Heinrich Steiner, Ferdinand Hitzig (1882) ; and Adolf
Kamphausen's article in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie.
HIUNG-NU, HIONG-NU, HEUNG-NU, a people who about
the end of the 3rd century B.C. formed, according to Chinese
records, a powerful empire from the Great Wall of China to the
Caspian. Their ethnical affinities have been much discussed;
but it is most probable that they were of the Turki stock, as were
the Huns, their later western representatives. They are the
first Turkish people mentioned by the Chinese. A theory which
seems plausible is that which assumes them to have been a
heterogenous collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki and perhaps
even Finnish hordes under a Mongol military caste, though the
Mongolo-Tungus element probably predominated. Towards the
close of the ist century of the Christian era the Hiung-nu empire
broke up. Their subsequent history is obscure. Some of them
seem to have gone westward and settled on the Ural river.
These, de Guiques suggests, were the ancestors of the Huns, and
many ethnologists hold that the Hiung-nu were the ancestors of
the modern Turks.
See Journal Anthropological Institute for 1874; Sir H. H. Howorth,
History of the Mongols (1876-1880); 6th Congress of Orientalists,
Leiden, 1883 (Actes, part iv. pp. 177-195); de Guiques, Histoire
generate des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongoles, et des autres Tartares
occidentaux (1756-1758).
HIVITES, an ancient tribe of Palestine driven out by the
invading Israelites. In Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19 they are connected
with Gibeon. The meaning of the name is uncertain; Well-
hausen derives it from njo " Eve," or " serpent," in which
case the Hivites were originally the snake clan; others explain
it from the Arabic hayy, " family," as meaning " dwellers in
(Bedouin) encampments." (See PALESTINE; JEWS.)
HJORRING, an ancient town of Denmark, capital of the amt
(county) of its name, in the northern insular part of the peninsula
of Jutland. Pop. (1901) 7901. It lies 7 m. inland from the shore
of Jammer Bay, a stretch of coast notoriously dangerous to
shipping. On the coast is Lonstrup, a favoured seaside resort.
In this neighbourhood as well as to the south-east of Hjorring,
slight elevations are seen, deserving the name of hills in this
low-lying district. Hjorring is on the northern railway of
Jutland, which here turns eastward to the Cattegat part of
Frederikshavn (23 m.), a harbour of refuge.
HKAMTI L6NG (called Kantigyi by the Burmese, and Bor
Hkampti by the peoples on the Assam side), a collection of seven
HLOTHHERE HOACTZIN
Shan states subordinate to Burma, but at present beyond the
administrative border. Estimated area, 90x3 sq. m.; estimated
pop. 11,000. It lies between 27 and 28 N. and 97 and 98 E.,
and is bordered by the Mishmi country on the N., by the Patkai
range on the W., by the Hukawng valley on the S. and E., and
indeed all round by various Chingpaw or Kachin communities.
The country is little known. It was visited by T. T. Cooper, the
Chinese traveller and political agent at Bhamo, where he was
murdered; by General Woodthorpe and Colonel Macgregor in
1884, by Mr Errol Grey in the following year, and by Prince
Henry of Orleans in 1895. All of these, however, limited their
explorations to the valley of the Mali-hka, the western branch of
the Irrawaddy river. Hkamti has shrunk very much from its old
size. It was no doubt the northernmost province of the Shan
kingdom, founded at Mogaung by Sam Long-hpa, the brother of
the ruler of Kambawsa, when that empire had reached its greatest
extension. The irruption of Kachins or Chingpaw from the
north has now completely hemmed the state in. Prince Henry
of Orleans described it as " a splendid territory, fertile in soil and
abundant in water, where tropical and temperate culture flourish
side by side, and the inhabitants are protected on three fronts by
mountains." According to him the Kiutze, the people of the
hills between the Irrawaddy and the Salween, call it the kingdom
of Moam.
HLOTHHERE, king of Kent, succeeded his brother Ecgberht
in 673, and appears for a time to have reigned jointly with his
nephew Eadric, son of Ecgberht, as a code of laws still extant was
issued under both names. Neither is mentioned in the account of
the invasion of ^Ethelred in 676. In 685 Eadric, who seems to
have quarrelled with Hlothhere, went into exile and led the
South Saxons against him. Hlothhere was defeated and died of
his wounds.
See Bede, Hist. eccl. (Plummer), iv. 5, 17, 26, v. 24; Saxon
Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 685; Schmid, Gesetze, pp., 10
sqq. ; Thorpe, Ancient Laws, i. 26 sqq.
HOACTZIN, or HOATZIN, a bird of tropical South America,
thought by Buff on to be that indicated by Hernandez or Fer-
nandez under these names, the Opisthocomus hoazin or 0. cristalus
of modern ornithologists a very curious and remarkable form,
which has long exercised the ingenuity of classifiers. Placed by
Buffon among his " Hoccos " (Curassows), and then by P. L. S.
Miiller and J. F. Gmelin in the Linnaean genus Phasianus, some of
its many peculiarities were recognized by J. K. W. Illiger in 1811
as sufficient to establish it as a distinct genus, Opisthocomus; but
various positions were assigned to it by subsequent systematic
authors. L'Herminier was the first to give any account of its
anatomy (Comptes rendus, 1837, v. 433), and from his time our
knowledge of it has been successively increased by Johannes
Miiller (Ber. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin, 1841, p. 177), Deville (Rev.
et mag. de zoologie, 1852, p. 217), Gervais (Castelnau, Exped.
Amerique du Sud, zoologie, anatomie, p. 66), Huxley (Proc. Zool.
Society, 1868, p. 304), Perrin (Trans. Zool. Society, ix. p.
353), and A. H. Garrod (Proc. Zool. Society, 1879, p. 109). After
a minute description of the skeleton of Opisthocomus, with the
especial object of determining its affinities, Huxley declared that
it " resembles the ordinary gallinaceous birds and pigeons more
than it does any others, and that when it diverges from them it is
either sui generis or approaches the Musophagidae." He ac-
cordingly regarded it as the type and sole member of a group,
named by him Heleromorphae, which sprang from the great
Carinate stem later than the Tinamomorphae, Turnicomorphae,
or Charadriomorphae, but before the Peristeromorphae, Pteroclo-
morphae or Alectoromorphae. This conclusion is substantially
the same as that at which A. H. Garrod subsequently arrived
after closely examining and dissecting specimens preserved in
spirit; but the latter has gone further and endeavoured to trace
more particularly the descent of this peculiar form and some
others, remarking that the ancestor of Opisthocomus must have
left the parent stem very shortly before the true Gallinae first
appeared, and at about the same time as the independent pedi-
gree of the Cuculidae and Musophagidae commenced these two
groups being, he believed, very closely related, and Opisthocomus
serving to fill the gap between them.
The first thing that strikes the observer of its skeleton is the
extraordinary structure of the sternal apparatus, which is wholly
unlike that of any other bird known. The keel is only developed
on the posterior part of the sternum the fore part being, as it
were, cut away, while the short furcula at its symphysis meets
the manubrium, with which it is firmly consolidated by means of
a prolonged and straight hypocleidium, and anteriorly ossifies
with the coracoids. This unique arrangement seems to be
correlated with the enormously capacious crop, which rests upon
the furcula and fore part of the sternum, and is also received in
a cavity formed on the surface of each of the great pectoral
muscles. Furthermore this crop is extremely muscular, so as
more to resemble a gizzard, and consists of two portions divided
by a partial constriction, after a fashion of which no other
example is known among birds. The true gizzard is greatly
reduced.
The hoactzin appears to be about the size of a small pheasant,
but is really a much smaller bird. The beak is strong, curiously
denticulated along the margin of the maxilla near the base, and
is beset by diverging bristles. The eyes, placed in the middle
of a patch of bare skin, are furnished with bristly lashes, re-
sembling those of horn-bills and some few other birds. The
head bears a long pendant crest of loose yellowish feathers.
The body is olive-coloured, varied with white above, and beneath
Hoactzin.
is of a dull bay. The wings are short and rounded. The tail
is long and tipped with yellow. The legs are rather short, the
feet stout, the tarsi reticulated, and the toes scutellated; the
claws long and slightly curved. According to all who have
observed the habits of this bird, it lives in bands on the lower
trees and bushes bordering the streams and lagoons, feeding on
leaves and various wild fruits, especially, says H. W. Bates
(Naturalist on the River Amazons, i. 120), those of a species
of Psidium, and it is also credited with eating those of an arum
(Caladium arborescens) , which grows plentifully in its haunts.
" Its voice is a harsh, grating hiss," continues the same traveller,
and " it makes the noise when alarmed, all the individuals
sibilating as they fly heavily away from tree to tree, when dis-
turbed by passing canoes." It exhales a very strong odour
wherefore it is known in British Guiana as the " stink-bird "-
compared by Bates to " musk combined with wet hides," and
by Deville to that of a cow-house. The species is said to be
polygamous; the nest is built on trees, of sticks placed above
one another, and softer materials atop. Therein the hen lays
her eggs to the number of three or four, of a dull-yellowish white,
somewhat profusely marked with reddish blotches and spots,
so as to resemble those of some of the Rallidae (Proc. Zool.
Society, 1867, pi. xv. fig. 7. p. 164). The young are covered
only with very scanty hair, like down, and have well-developed
claws on the first and second fingers of the wing, which they use
542
HOADLY HOAR
in clambering about the twigs in a quadrupedal manner; ii
placed in the water they swim and dive well, although the adults
seem to be not at all aquatic. (A. N.)
HOADLY, BENJAMIN (1676-1761), English divine, was born
at Westerham, Kent, on the i4th of November 1676. In 1691
he entered Catharine Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A.
and was for two years tutor, after which he held from 1701 to
1711 the lectureship of St Mildred in the Poultry, and along with
it from 1704 the rectory of St Peter-le-Poer, London. His first
important appearance as a controversialist was against Edmund
Calamy " the younger "in reference to conformity (1703-1707),
and after this he came into conflict with Francis Atterbury,
first on the interpretation of certain texts and then on the whole
Anglican doctrine of non-resistance. His principal treatises
on this subject were the Measures of Submission to the Civil
Magistrate and The Origin and Institution of Civil Government
discussed; and his part in the discussion was so much appreciated
by the Commons that in 1709 they presented an address to the
queen praying her to " bestow some dignity in the church on
Mr Hoadly for his eminent services both to church and state. 4 '
The queen returned a favourable answer, but the dignity was
not conferred. In 1710 he was presented by a private patron
to the rectory of Streatham in Surrey. In 1715 he was appointed
chaplain to the king, and the same year he obtained the bishopric
of Bangor. He held the see for six years, but never visited the
diocese. In 1716, in reply to George Hickes (<?..), he published a
Preservative against the Principles and Practices of Nonjurors
in Church and State, and in the following year preached before
the king his famous sermon on the Kingdom of Christ, which
was immediately published by royal command. These works
were attacks on the divine authority of kings and of the clergy,
but as the sermon dealt more specifically and distinctly with the
power of the church, its publication caused an ecclesiastical
ferment which in certain aspects has no parallel in religious
history. It was at once resolved to proceed against him in
convocation, but this was prevented by the king proroguing
the assembly, a step which had consequences of vital bearing
on the history of the Church of England, since from that period
the great Anglican council ceased to transact business of a more
than formal nature. The restrained sentiments of the council
in regard to Hoadly found expression in a war of pamphlets
known as the Bangorian Controversy, which, partly from a
want of clearness in the statements of Hoadly, partly from the
disingenuousness of his opponents and the confusion resulting
from exasperated feelings, developed into an intricate and
bewildering maze of side discussions in which the main issues
of the dispute were concealed almost beyond the possibility
of discovery. But however vague and uncertain might be the
meaning of Hoadly in regard to several of the important bearings
of the questions around which he aroused discussion, he was
explicit in denying the power of the Church over the conscience,
and its right to determine the condition of men in relation to
the favour of God. The most able of his opponents was William
Law; others were Andrew Snape, provost of Eton, and Thomas
Sherlock, dean of Chichester. So exercised was the mind of
the religious world over the dispute that in July 1717 as many
as seventy-four pamphlets made their appearance; and at one
period the crisis became so serious that the business of London
was for some days virtually at a stand-still. Hoadly, being not
unskilled in the art of flattery, was translated in 1721 to the
see of Hereford, in 1723 to Salisbury and in 1734 to Win-
chester. He died at his palace at Chelsea on the i7th of April
1761. His controversial writings are vigorous if prolix and his
theological essays have little merit. He must have been a
much hated man, for his latitudinarianism offended the high
church party and his rationalism the other sections. He was
an intimate friend of Dr Samuel Clarke, of whom he wrote
a life.
Hoadly's brother, JOHN HOADLY (1678-1746), was archbishop
of Dublin from 1730 to 1742 and archbishop of Armagh from
the latter date until his death on the igth of July 1746. In early
life the archbishop was very intimate with Gilbert Burnet, then
bishop of Salisbury, and in later life he was a prominent figure
in Irish politics.
The works of Benjamin Hoadly were collected and published by
his son John in 3 vols. (1773). To the first volume was prefixed the
article " Hoadly" from the supplement to the Biographia Britannica.
See also L. Stephen, English Thought in the i8th Century.
HOAR, SAMUEL (1778-1856), American lawyer, was born in
Lincoln, Massachusetts, on the i8th of May 1778. He was the
son of Samuel Hoar, an officer in the American army during the
War of Independence, for many years a member of the Massa-
chusetts General Court, and a member in 1820-1821 of the state
Constitutional Convention. The son graduated at Harvard in
1802, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1805 and began
practice at Concord. His success in his profession was immediate,
and for a half-century he was one of the leading lawyers of
Massachusetts. He was in early life a Federalist and was later
an ardent Whig in politics. He was a member of the state
senate in 1825, 1832 and 1833, and of the national house of
representatives in 1835-1837, during which time he made a
notable speech in favour of the constitutional right of congress
to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. In November
1844, having retired from active legal practice some years before,
he went to Charleston, S.C., at the request of Governor George
Nixon Briggs (1796-1861), to test in the courts of South Carolina
the constitutionality of the state law which provided that " it
shall not be lawful for any free negro, or person of color, to
come into this state on board any vessel, as a cook, steward
or mariner, or in any other employment," and that such free
negroes should be seized and locked up until the vessels on which
they had come were ready for sea, when they should be returned
to such vessels. His visit aroused great excitment, he was
threatened with personal injury, the state legislature passed
resolutions calling for his expulsion, and he was compelled to
leave early in December. In 1848 he was prominent in the Free
Soil movement in Massachusetts, and subsequently assisted
in the organization of the Republican Party. In 1850 he served
in the Massachusetts house of representatives. He married
a daughter of Roger Sherman of Connecticut. He died at
Concord, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of November 1856.
See a memoir by his son G. F. Hoar in Memorial Biographies of
the New England Historic Genealogical Society, vol. iii. (Boston,
1883) ; the estimate by R. W. Emerson in Lectures and Biographical
Sketches (Boston, 1903) ; and " Samuel Hoar's Expulsion from
Charleston," Old South Leaflets, vol. vi. No. 140.
His son, EBENEZER ROCKWOOD HOAR (1816-1895), was born
at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 2ist of February 1816. He
graduated at Harvard in 1835 and at the Harvard Law School
in 1839, and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1840.
From 1849 to 1855 he was a judge of the Massachusetts court
of common pleas, from 1859 to 1869 a judge of the state supreme
court, and in 1869-1870 attorney-general of the United States
in the cabinet of President Grant, and in that position fought
unmerited " machine " appointments to offices in the civil
service until at the pressure of the " machine " Grant asked for
tiis resignation from the cabinet. The Senate had already
shown its disapproval of Hoar's policy of civil service reform
its failure in 1870 to confirm the President's nomination of
Hoar as associate-justice of the supreme court. In 1871 he was
a member of the Joint High Commission which drew up the
Treaty of Washington. In 1872 he was a presidential elector
on the Republican ticket, and in 1873-1875 was a representative
n Congress. He was a member of the Board of Overseers of
Harvard University from 1868 to 1880 and from 1881 to 1887,
and was president of the Board in 1878-1880 and in 1881-1887.
He was also prominent in the affairs of the Unitarian church.
He was a man of high character and brilliant wit. He died at
Concord on the 3ist of January 1895.
Another son, GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR (1826-1904), was born
n Concord, Massachusetts, on the 29th of August 1826. He
graduated at Harvard in 1846 and at the Harvard Law School in
1849. He settled in the practice of law in Worcester, Massa-
chusetts, where in 1852 he became a partner of Emory Washburn
(1800-1877). In 1852 he was elected as a Free-Soiler to the
HOARE HOBART PASHA
543
Massachusetts House of Representatives, and during his single
term of service became the leader of his party in that body. He
was active in the organization of the Republican party in Massa-
chusetts, and in 1857 was elected to the State senate, but declined
a re-election. During 1856-1857 he was active in behalf of the
Free-State cause in Kansas. He was a member of the National
House of Representatives from 1869 until 1877, and in this body
took high rank as a ready debater and a conscientious committee
worker. He was prominent as a defender and supporter of the
Freedman's Bureau, took a leading part in the later reconstruction
legislation and in the investigation of the Credit Mobilier scandal,
and in 1876 was one of the House managers of the impeachment
of General W. W. Belknap, Grant's secretary of war. In 1877
he was a member of the Electoral Commission which settled the
disputed Hayes-Tilden election. From 1877 until his death he
was a member of the United States senate. In the senate almost
from the start he took rank as one of the most influential leaders
of the Republican party; he was a member from 1882 until
his death of the important Judiciary Committee, of which he was
chairman in 1891-1893 and in 1895-1904. His most important
piece of legislation was the Presidential Succession Act of 1886.
He was a delegate to every Republican National Convention from
1876 to 1904, and presided over that at Chicago in 1880. He
was a conservative by birth and training, and although he did not
leave his party he disagreed with its policy in regard to the
Philippines, and spoke and voted against the ratification of the
Spanish Treaty. He was regent of the Smithsonian Institution in
1880-1881, and long served as an overseer of Harvard University
(1896-1904) and as president of its alumni association. He was
also president of the American Historical Association (1894-
1895) and of the American Antiquarian Society (1884-1887).
Like his brother, he was a leading Unitarian, and was president
of its National Conference from 1894 to 1902. He died at
Worcester, Massachusetts, on the 3oth of September 1904. A
memorial statue has been erected there.
See his Recollections of Seventy Years (New York, 1903).
HOARE, SIR RICHARD COLT, BART. (1758-1838), English
antiquary, was the eldest son of Richard Hoare, who was created
a baronet in 1786, and was born on the 9th of December 1758.
He was descended from Sir Richard Hoare (1648-1718), lord
mayor of London, the founder of the family banking business.
An ample allowance from his grandfather, Henry Hoare,
enabled him to pursue the archaeological studies for which he
had already shown an inclination. In 1783 he married Hester,
daughter of William Henry, Lord Lyttelton, and after her death
in 1785 he paid a prolonged visit to France, Italy and Switzer-
land. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1787, and in 1788 made
a second continental tour, the record of his travels appearing in
1819 under the title A Classical Tour through Italy and Sicily.
A journey through Wales was followed by a translation of the
Itinerarium Cambriae and of the Descriptio Cambriae of Giraldus
Cambrensis, Hoare adding notes and a life of Giraldus to the
translation. This was first published in 1804, and has been
revised by T. Wright (London, 1863). Sir Richard died at
Stourhead, Wiltshire, on the ipth of May 1838, being succeeded
in the baronetcy by his half-brother, Henry Hugh Hoare.
Hoare's most important work was his Ancient History of North
and South Wiltshire (1812-1819); he also did some work on the
large History of Modern Wiltshire (1822-1844).
For notices of him and a list of his works, many of which were
printed privately, see the Gentleman's Magazine for July 1838, and
the Diet. Nat. Biog. vol. xxvii. (1891). See also E. Hoare, History
of the Hoare Family (1883).
HOBART, GARRET AUGUSTUS (1844-1899), Vice-President
of the United States 1897-1899, was born at Long Branch, N.J.,
on the 3rd of June 1844. He graduated at Rutgers College in
1863, was admitted to the bar in 1869, practised law at Paterson,
N.J., and rose to prominence in the State. He was long con-
spicuous in the State Republican organization, was chairman of
the New Jersey State Republican Committee from 1880 to
1890, became a member in 1884 of the Republican National
Committee, and was the delegate-at-large from New Jersey to
five successive Republican national nominating conventions.
He served in the New Jersey Assembly in 1873-1874, and in the
New Jersey Senate in 1877-1882, and was speaker of the Assembly
in 1874 and president of the Senate in 1881 and 1882. He was
also prominent and successful in business and accumulated a
large fortune. He accepted the nomination as Vice-President
in 1896, on the ticket with President McKinley, and was elected;
but while still in office he died at Paterson, N.J., on the 2ist of
November 1899.
See the Life (New York, 1910) by David Magie.
HOBART, JOHN HENRY (1775-1830), American Protestant
Episcopal bishop, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the
1 4th of September 1775, being fifth in direct descent from
Edmund Hobart, a founder of Hingham, Massachusetts. He
was educated at the Philadelphia Latin School, the College of
Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania), and Prince-
ton, where he graduated in 1793. After studying theology under
Bishop William White at Philadelphia, he was ordained deacon in
1 798, and priest two years later. He was elected assistant bishop
of New York, with the right of succession, in 1 8 1 1 , and was acting
diocesan from that date because of the ill-health of Bishop Ben-
jamin Moore, whom he formally succeeded on the latter's death
in February 1816. He was one of the founders of the General
Theological Seminary, became its professor of pastoral theology
in 1821, and as bishop was its governor. In his zeal for the his-
toric episcopacy he published in 1807 An Apology for Apostolic
Order and its Advocates, a series of letters to Rev. John M. Mason,
who, in The Christian's Magazine, of which he was editor, had
attacked the Episcopacy in general and in particular Hobart's
Collection of Essays on the Subject of Episcopacy ( 1 806) . Hobart's
zeal for the General Seminary and the General Convention led
him to oppose the plan of Philander Chase, bishop of Ohio, for
an Episcopal seminary in that diocese; but the Ohio seminary
was made directly responsible to the House of Bishops, and
Hobart approved the plan. His strong opposition to " dissenting
churches " was nowhere so clearly shown as in a pamphlet
published in 1816 to dissuade all Episcopalians from joining the
American Bible Society, which he thought the Protestant
Episcopal Church had not the numerical or the financial strength
to control. In 1818, to counterbalance the influence of the
Bible Society and especially of Scott's Commentaries, he began
to edit with selected notes the Family Bible of the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge. He delivered episcopal charges
to the clergy of Connecticut and New York entitled The Church-
man (1819) and The High Churchman Vindicated (1826), in
which he accepted the name " high churchman," and stated and
explained his principles " in distinction from the corruptions of
the Church of Rome and from the Errors of Certain Protestant
Sects." He exerted himself greatly in building up his diocese,
attempting to make an annual visit to every parish. His failing
health led him to visit Europe in 1823-1825. Upon his return he
preached a characteristic sermon entitled The United Stales of
America compared with some European Countries, particularly
England (published 1826), in which, although there was some
praise for the English church, he so boldly criticized the establish-
ment, state patronage, cabinet appointment of bishops, lax
discipline, and the low requirements of theological education, as
to rouse much hostility in England, where he had been highly
praised for two volumes of Sermons on the Principal Events and
Truths of Redemption ( 1 824) . He died at Auburn, New York , on
the i2th of September 1830. He was able, impetuous, frank,
perfectly fearless in controversy, a speaker and preacher of much
eloquence, a supporter of missions to the Oneida Indians in his
diocese, and the compiler of the following devotional works:
A Companion for the Altar (1804), Festivals and Fasts (1804),
A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer (1805), and A
Clergyman's Companion (1805).
See Memorial of Bishop Hobart, containing a Memoir (New York,
1831); John McVickar, The Early Life and Professional Years of
Bishop Hobart (New York, 1834), and The Closing Years of Bishop
Hobart (New York, 1836).
HOBART PASHA, AUGUSTUS CHARLES HOBART-HAMPDEN
(1822-1886), English naval captain and Turkish admiral, was
544
HOBART HOBBEMA
born in Leicestershire on the ist of April 1822, being the third
son of the 6th Earl of Buckinghamshire. In 1835 he entered
the Royal Navy and served as a midshipman on the coast of
Brazil in the suppression of the slave trade, displaying much
gallantry in the operations. In 1855 he took part, as captain
of the " Driver," in the Baltic Expedition, and was actively
engaged at Bomarsund and Abo. In 1862 he retired from the
navy with the rank of post-captain; but his love of adventure
led him, during the American Civil War, to take the command
of a blockade-runner. He had the good fortune to run the
blockade eighteen times, conveying war material to Charleston
and returning with a cargo of cotton. In 1867 Hobart entered
the Turkish service, and was immediately nominated to the
command of that fleet, with the rank of " Bahrie Limassi "
(rear-admiral). In this capacity he performed splendid service
in helping to suppress the insurrection in Crete, and was rewarded
by the Sultan with the title of Pasha (1869). In 1874 Hobart,
whose name had, on representations made by Greece, been
removed from the British Navy List, was reinstated; his
restoration did not, however, last long, for on the outbreak of
the Russo-Turkish war he again entered Turkish service. In
command of the Turkish squadron he completely dominated
the Black Sea, blockading the ports of South Russia and the
mouths of the Danube, and paralysing the action of the Russian
fleet. On the conclusion of peace Hobart still remained in the
Turkish service, and in 1881 was appointed Mushir, or marshal,
being the first Christian to hold that high office. His achieve-
ments as a blockade-runner, his blockade of Crete, and his
handling of the Turkish fleet against the torpedo-lined coasts
of Russia, showed him to be a daring, resourceful, and skilful
commander, worthy to be ranked among the illustrious names of
British naval heroes. He died at Milan on the igth of June
1886.
See his Sketches of My Life (1886), which must, however, be used
with caution, since it contains many proved inaccuracies.
HOBART, the capital of Tasmania, in the county of Bucking-
ham, on the southern coast of the island. It occupies a site of
great beauty, standing on a series of low hills at the foot of
Mount Wellington, a lofty peak (4166 ft.) which is snow-clad
for many months in the year. The town fronts Sullivan's Cove,
a picturesque bay opening into the estuary of the river Derwent,
and is nearly square in form, laid out with wide streets intersecting
at right angles, the chief of which are served by electric tramways.
It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Tasmania, and of the
Roman Catholic archbishop of Hobart. The Anglican cathedral
of St David dates from 1873, though its foundations were laid
as early as 1817. St Mary's Roman Catholic cathedral is a
beautiful building; but perhaps the most notable ecclesiastical
building in Hobart is the great Baptist tabernacle in Upper
Elizabeth Street. The most prominent public buildings are the
Houses of Parliament, to which an excellent library is attached;
the town hall, a beautiful building of brown and white Tasmanian
freestone in Italian style; the museum and national art gallery,
and the general post office (1904) with its lofty clock-tower.
Government House, the residence of the governor of Tasmania,
a handsome castellated building, stands in its domain on the
banks of the Derwent, to the north of the town. The botanical
gardens adjoin. Of the parks and public gardens, the most
extensive is the Queen's Domain, covering an area of about
700 acres, while the most central is Franklin Square, adorned
with a statue of Sir John Franklin, the famous Arctic explorer,
who was governor of Tasmania from 1837 to 1843. The uni-
versity of Tasmania, established in 1890, and opened in 1893,
has its headquarters at Hobart. The town is celebrated for its
invigorating climate, and its annual regatta on the Derwent
attracts numerous visitors. The harbour is easy of access,
well sheltered and deep, with wharf accommodation for vessels
of the largest tonnage. It is a regular port of call for several
intercolonial lines from Sydney and Melbourne, and for lines
from London to New Zealand. The exports, of an average
value of 850,000 annually, consist mainly of fruit, hops, grain,
timber and wool. The industries comprise brewing, saw-milling,
iron-founding, flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of
pottery and woollen goods. Hobart is the centre of a large
fruit-growing district, the produce of which, for the most part,
is exported to London and Sydney. The city was founded in
1804 and takes its name from Lord Hobart (see BUCKINGHAM-
SHIRE, EARLS or), then secretary of state for the colonies.
It was created a municipality in 1853, and a city in 1857; and
in 1 88 1 its name was changed from Hobart Town to the present
form. The chief suburbs are Newton, Sandy Bay, Wellington,
Risdon, Glenorchy, Bellerive and Beltana. The population of the
city proper in 1901 was 24,652, or including suburbs, 34,182.
HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT (c. 1638-1709), the greatest land-
scape painter of the Dutch school after Ruysdael, lived at
Amsterdam in the second half of the i7th century. The facts
of his life are somewhat obscure. Nothing is more disappointing
than to find that in Hobbema's case chronology and signed
pictures substantially contradict each other. According to the
latter his practice lasted from 1650 to 1689; according to the
former his birth occurred in 1638, his death as late as 1709.
If the masterpiece formerly in the Bredel collection, called
" A Wooded Stream, " honestly bears the date of 1650, or " The
Cottages under Trees " of the Ford collection the date of 1652,
the painter of these canvases cannot be Hobbema, whose birth
took place in 1638, unless indeed we admit that Hobbema
painted some of his finest works at the age of twelve or fourteen.
For a considerable period it was profitable to pass Hobbemas
as Ruysdaels, and the name of the lesser master was probably
erased from several of his productions. When Hobbema's
talent was recognized, the contrary process was followed, and
in this way the name, and perhaps fictitious dates, reappeared
by fraud. An experienced eye will note the differences which
occur in Hobbema's signatures in such well-known examples as
adorn the galleries of London and Rotterdam, or the Grosvenor
and van der Hoop collections. Meanwhile, we must be content
to know that, if the question of dates could be brought into
accordance with records and chronology, the facts of Hobbema's
life would be as follows.
Meyndert Hobbema was married at the age of thirty to
Eeltije Vinck of Gorcum, in the Oudekerk or old church at
Amsterdam, on the 2nd of November 1668. Witnesses to the
marriage were the bride's brother Cornelius Vinck and Jacob
Ruysdael. We might suppose from this that Hobbema and
Ruysdael, the two great masters of landscape, were united at
this time by ties of friendship, and accept the belief that the
former was the pupil of the latter. Yet even this is denied to us,
since records tell us that there were two Jacob Ruysdaels,
cousins and contemporaries, at Amsterdam in the middle of
the 1 7th century one a framemaker, the son of Solomon, the
other a painter, the son of Isaac Ruysdael. Of Hobbema's
marriage there came between 1668 and 1673 four children. In
1704 Eeltije died, and was buried in the pauper section of the
Leiden cemetery at Amsterdam. Hobbema himself survived
till December 1709, receiving burial on the i4th of that month
in the pauper section of the Westerkerk cemetery at Amsterdam.
Husband and wife had lived during their lifetime in the Rozen-
gracht, at no great distance from Rembrandt, who also dwelt
there in his later and impoverished days. Rembrandt, Hals,
Jacob Ruysdael, and Hobbema were in one respect alike. They
all died in misery, insufficiently rewarded perhaps for their
toil, imprudent perhaps in the use of the means derived from
their labours. Posterity has recognized that Hobbema and
Ruysdael together represent the final development of landscape
art in Holland. Their style is so related that we cannot suppose
the first to have been unconnected with the second. Still their
works differ in certain ways, and their character is generally
so marked that we shall find little difficulty in distinguishing
them, nor indeed shall we hesitate in separating those of Hobbema
from the feebler productions of his imitators and predecessors
Isaac Ruysdael, Rontbouts, de Vries, Dekker, Looten, Verboom,
du Bois, van Kessel, van der Hagen, even Philip de Koningk.
In the exercise of his craft Hobbema was patient beyond all
conception. It is doubtful whether any one ever so completely
HOBBES
545
mastered as he did the still life of woods and hedges, or mills
and pools. Nor can we believe that he obtained this mastery
otherwise than by constantly dwelling in the same neighbourhood,
say in Guelders or on the Dutch Westphalian border, where day
after day he might study the branching and foliage of trees and
underwood embowering cottages and mills, under every variety
of light, in every shade of transparency, in all changes produced
by the seasons. Though his landscapes are severely and mode-
rately toned, generally in an olive key, and often attuned
to. a puritanical grey or russet, they surprise us, not only by
the variety of their leafage, but by the finish of their detail as
well as the boldness of their touch. With astonishing subtlety
light is shown penetrating cloud, and illuminating, sometimes
transiently, sometimes steadily, different portions of the ground,
shining through leaves upon other leaves, and multiplying in
an endless way the transparency of the picture. If the chance
be given him he mirrors all these things in the still pool near a
cottage, the reaches of a sluggish river, or the swirl of the stream
that feeds a busy mill. The same spot will furnish him with
several pictures. One mill gives him repeated opportunities
of charming our eye; and this wonderful artist, who is only
second to Ruysdael because he had not Ruysdael's versatility
and did not extend his study equally to downs and rocky
eminences, or torrents and estuaries this is the man who lived
penuriously, died poor, and left no trace in the artistic annals
of his country! It has been said that Hobbema did not paint
his own figures, but transferred that duty to Adrian van de
Velde, Lingelbach, Barendt Gael, and Abraham Storck. As to
this much is conjecture.
The best of Hobbema's dated pictures are those of the years 1663
to 1667. Of the former, several in the galleries of Brussels and St
Petersburg, and one in the Holford collection, are celebrated.
Of 1665 fine specimens are at Grosvenor House and the Wallace
collection. Of seven pieces in the National Gallery, including the
" Avenue at Middelharnis," which some assign to 1689, and the
" Ruins of Breberode Castle," two are dated 1667. A sample of the
last of these years is also in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge.
Amongst the masterpieces in private hands in England may be
noticed two landscapes in Buckingham Palace, two at Bridgewater
House, and one belonging to Mr Walter of Bearwood. On the
continent are a " Wooded Landscape " in the Berlin gallery, a
" Forest " belonging to the duchess of Sagan in Paris, and a " Glade "
in the Louvre. There are other fine Hobbemas in the Antwerp
Museum, the Arenberg gallery at Brussels, and the Belvedere at
Vienna. (J. A. C.)
HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1679), English philosopher, second
son of Thomas Hobbes, was born at Westport (now part of
Malmesbury, Wiltshire) on the 5th of April 1588. His father,
vicar of Charlton and Westport, an illiterate and choleric man,
quarrelled, it is said, with a brother clergyman at the church door,
and was forced to decamp, leaving his three children to the care
of an elder brother Francis, a flourishing glover at Malmesbury.
Thomas Hobbes was put to school at Westport church at the age
of four, passed to the Malmesbury school at eight, and was
taught again in Westport later at a private school kept by a
young man named Robert Latimer, fresh from Oxford and "a
good Grecian." He had begun Latin and Greek early, and under
Latimer made such progress as to be able to translate the Medea
of Euripides into Latin iambic verse before he was fourteen.
About the age of fifteen he was sent to Oxford and entered at
Magdalen Hall. During his residence, the first principal of
Magdalen Hall, John Hussee, was succeeded by John Wilkinson,
who ruled in the interest of the Calvinistic party in the university.
Thus early was he brought into contact with the aggressive
Puritan spirit. Apart from this, Hobbes owed little to his uni-
versity training, which was based on the scholastic logic then
prevalent. We have from himself a lively record of his student
life (Vil. carm. exp. p: Ixxxv.), which, though penned in extreme
old age, may be taken as trustworthy. He tells how, when he had
slowly taken in the doctrine of logical figures and moods, he put
it aside and would prove things only in his own way; how he
then heard about bodies as consisting of matter and form, as
throwing off species of themselves for perception, and as moved
by sympathies and antipathies, with much else of a like sort, all
beyond his comprehension; and how he therefore turned to his
xiii. 18
old books again, fed his mind on maps and charts of earth and
sky, traced the sun in his path, followed Drake and Cavendish
girdling the main, and gazed with delight upon pictured haunts of
men and wonders of unknown lands. Very characteristic is the
interest in men and things, and the disposition to cut through
questions in the schools after a trenchant fashion of his own.
He was little attracted by the scholastic learning, though it
would be wrong to take his words as evidence of a precocious
insight into its weakness. The truth probably is that he took no
interest in studies which there was no risk in neglecting, and
thought as little of rejecting as of accepting the traditional
doctrines. He adds that he took his degree at the proper time;
but in fact, upon any computation and from whatever cause, he
remained at Magdalen Hall five, instead of the required four,
years, not being admitted as bachelor till the sth of February
1608.
In the same year Hobbes was recommended by Wilkinson as
tutor to the son of William Cavendish, baron of Hardwick (after-
wards 2nd earl of Devonshire), and thus began a lifelong con-
nexion with a great and powerful family. Twice it was loosened
once, for a short time, after twenty years, and again, for a
longer period, during the Civil War but it never was broken.
Hobbes spoke of the first years of his tutorship as the happiest of
his life. Young Cavendish was hardly younger than Hobbes, and
had been married, a few months before, at the instance of the
king, to Christiana, the only daughter of Edward, Lord Bruce of
Kinloss, though by reason of the bride's age, which was only
twelve years, the pair had no establishment for some time.
Hobbes was his companion rather than tutor (before becoming
secretary); and, growing greatly attached to each other, they
were sent abroad together on the grand tour in 1610. During
this journey, the duration of which cannot be precisely stated,
Hobbes acquired some knowledge of French and Italian, and
also made the important discovery that the scholastic philosophy
which he had learned in Oxford was almost universally neglected
in favour of the scientific and critical methods of Galileo, Kepler
and Montaigne. Unable at first to cope with their unfamiliar
ideas, he determined to become a scholar, and until 1628 was
engaged in a careful study of Greek and Latin authors, the out-
come of which was his great translation of Thucydides. But
when he had finished his work he kept it lying by him Transla-
tor years, being no longer so sure of finding appreciative tloa ot
readers; and when he did send it forth, in 1628, he was Thucy
fain to be content with " the few and better sort." 1 ***'
That he was finally determined to publication by the political
troubles of the year 1628 may be regarded as certain, not only
from his own express declaration at a later time (Vit. carm. exp.),
but also from unmistakable hints in the account of the life and
work of his author prefixed to the translation on its appearance.
This was the year of the Petition of Right, extorted from the king
in the third parliament he had tried within three years of his
accession; and, in view of Hobbes's later activity, it is significant
that he came forward just then, at the mature age of forty, with
his version of the story of the Athenian democracy as the first
production of his pen. Nothing else is known of his doings
1 The translation, under the title Eight Books of the Peloponnesian
War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus, interpreted with faith
and diligence immediately out of the Greek by Thomas Hobbes, secre-
tary to the late Earl of Devonshire, appeared in 1628 (or 1629), after
the death of the earl, to whom touching reference is made in the
dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the date of the dedication
altered, as if then newly written. Though Hobbes claims to have
performed his work " with much more diligence than elegance,"
his version is remarkable as a piece of English writing, but is by no
means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in Molesworth's collection
(n vols., including index vol.) of Hobbes's English Works (London,
Bohn, 1839-1845). The volumes of this collection will here be
cited as E.W. Molesworth's collection of the Latin Opera philo-
sophica (5 vols., 1839-1845) will be cited as L.W. The five hundred
and odd Latin hexameters under the title De mirabilibus Peed
(L.W. v. 323-340), giving an account of a short excursion from
Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the Derbyshire Peak,
were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not published till
1636. It was a New Year's present to his patron, who gave him
5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English version
by another hand.
546
HOBBES
Philo-
sophic
before 1628, except that through his connexion with young
Cavendish he had relations with literary men of note like Ben
Jonson, and also with Bacon and Lord Herbert of Cherbury. If
he never had any sympathy with Herbert'sintuitionalist principles
in philosophy, he was no less eager, as he afterwards showed, than
Herbert to rationalize in matters of religious doctrine, so that he
may be called the second of the English deists, as Herbert has
been called the first. With Bacon he was so intimate (Aubrey's
Lives, pp. 222, 602) that some writers have described him as a
disciple. The facts that he used to walk with Bacon at Gorham-
bury, and would jot down with exceptional intelligence the eager
thinker's sudden " notions," and that he was employed to make
the Latin version of some of the Essays, prove nothing when
weighed against his own disregard of all Bacon's principles, and
the other evidence that the impulse to independent thinking
came to him not from Bacon, and not till some time after Bacon's
death in 1626.*
So far as we have any positive evidence, it was not before the
year 1629 that Hobbes entered on philosophical inquiry. Mean-
while a great change had been wrought in his circum-
stances. His friend and master, after about two years'
Inquiry. tenure of the earldom of Devonshire, died of the plague
in June 1628, and the affairs of the family were so
disordered financially that the widowed countess was left with the
task of righting them in the boyhood of the third earl. Hobbes
went on for a time living in the household; but his services were
no longer in demand, and, remaining inconsolable under his
personal bereavement, he sought distraction, in 1629, in another
engagement which took him abroad as tutor to the son of Sir
Gervase Clifton, of an old Nottinghamshire family. This, his
second, sojourn abroad appears to have been spent chiefly in
Paris, and the one important fact recorded of it is that he then
first began to look into Euclid. The engagement came to an end
in 1631, when he was recalled to train the young earl of Devon-
shire, now thirteen years old, son of his previous pupil. In the
course of the next seven years in Derbyshire and abroad, Hobbes
took his pupil over rhetoric, 2 logic, astronomy, and the principles
of law, with other subjects. His mind was now full of the thought
of motion in nature, and on the continent he sought out the
philosophical speculators or scientific workers. In Florence in
1636 he saw Galileo, for whom he ever retained the warmest
admiration, and spent eight months in daily converse with the
members of a scientific circle in Paris, held together by Marin
Mersenne (q.v.). From that time (the winter of 1636-1637) he
too, as he tells us, was numbered among philosophers.
His introduction to Euclid took place accidentally in 1629
(Aubrey's Lives, p. 604). Euclid's manner of proof became the
model for his own way of thinking upon all subjects. It is less
easy to determine when he awoke to an interest in the physical
doctrine of motion. The story told by himself (Vit. p. xx.) is that,
hearing the question asked " What is sense ? " he fell to thinking
often on the subject, till it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies
and their internal parts were at rest, or were always in the same
state of motion, there could be no distinction of anything, and
consequently no sense; the cause of all things must therefore be
sought in diversity of movements. Starting from this principle
he was driven to geometry for insight into the ground and modes
of motion. The biographies we possess do not tell us where or
when this great change of interest occurred. Nothing is said,
however, which contradicts a statement that on his third journey
in Europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more seriously,
being interested in it before; and as he claims more than once
(L.W. v. 303; E.W. vii. 468) to have explained light and sound by
1 Hobbes, in minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W.
iv. 316; E.W. vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon's
writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler,
Harvey, and others (De corpore, ep. ded.), among the lights of the
century. The word " Induction," which occurs in only three or four
passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is
never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import
assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but
scorn for experimental work in physics.
2 The free English abstract of Aristotle's Rhetoric, published in
1 68 1, after Hobbes's death, as The Whole Art of Rhetoric (E.W. vi.
423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young
pupil. Among Hobbes's papers preserved at Hardwick, where he
died, there remains the boy's dictation-book, interspersed with
headings, examples, &c. in Hobbes's hand.
a mechanical hypothesis as far back as 1630, the inspiration may
be assigned to the time of the second journey. But it was not till
the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering
passion, and the " philosopher " was on his way home before he
had advanced so far as to conceive the scheme of a system of thought
to the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted.
Hobbes was able to carry out his plan in some twenty years or
more from the time of its conception, but the execution was so
broken in upon by political events, and so complicated with other
labours, that its stages can hardly be followed without some previous
understanding of the relations of the parts of the scheme, as there
is reason to believe they were sketched out from the beginning.
His scheme was first to work out, in a separate treatise De corpore,
a systematic doctrine of Body, showing how physical phenomena
were universally explicable in terms of motion, as motion or mecha-
nical action was then (through Galileo and others) understood the
theory of motion being applied in the light of mathematical science,
after quantity, the subject-matter of mathematics, had been duly
considered in its place among the fundamental conceptions of
philosophy, and a clear indication had been given, at first starting,
of the logical ground and method of all philosophical inquiry. He
would then single out Man from the realm of nature, and, in a
treatise De homing, show what specific bodily motions were in-
volved in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation
and knowledge, as also of the affections and passions thence resulting,
whereby man came into relation with man. Finally he would con-
sider, in a crowning treatise De cive, how men, being naturally
rivals or foes, were moved to enter into the better relation of Society,
and demonstrate how this grand product of human wit must be
regulated if men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery.
Thus he proposed to unite in one coherent whole the separate
phenomena of Body, Man and the State.
Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country seething with dis-
content. The reign of " Thorough " was collapsing, and the
forces pent up since 1629 were soon to rend the fabric of the
state. By these events Hobbes was distracted from the orderly
execution of his philosophic plan. The Short Parliament, as
he tells us at a later time (E.W. iv. 414), was not dissolved
before he had ready " a little treatise in English," in which he
sought to prove that the points of the royal prerogative which
the members were determined to dispute before granting supplies
" were inseparably annexed to the sovereignty which they did
not then deny to be in the king." Now it can be proved that
at this time he had written not only his Human Nature but also
his De corpore politico, the two treatises (though published
separately ten years later) having been composed as parts of
one work; 3 and there cannot be the least question that together
they make " the little treatise " just mentioned. We are there-
fore to understand, first, that he wrote the earliest draft of his
political theory some years before the outbreak of the Civil
War, and, secondly, that this earliest draft was not written till, in
accordance with his philosophical conception, he had established
the grounds of polity in human nature. The first point is to
be noted, because it has often been supposed that Hobbes's
political doctrine took its peculiar complexion from his revulsion
against the state of anarchy before his eyes, as he wrote during
the progress of the Civil War. The second point must be main-
tained against his own implied, if not express, statement some
years later, when publishing his De cive (L.W. ii. 151), that
he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able
to set down any finished representation of the fundamental
doctrines which it presupposed. In the beginning of 1640,
therefore, he had written out his doctrine of Man at least, with
almost as much elaboration as it ever received from him.
In November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded to the
Short, and sent Laud and Strafford to the Tower, and Hobbes,
who had become, or thought he had become, a marked la Parls _
man by the circulation of his treatise (of which,
" though not printed, many gentlemen had copies "), hastened
to Paris, " the first of all that fled." He was now for the fourth
and last time abroad, and did not return for eleven years.
Apparently he remained the greater part of the time in or about
3 Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of
the work, under the title Elementes of Law Nalurall and Politique,
with the dedication to the earl of Newcastle, written in Hobbes's
own hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed
to the first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves,
under the title Human Nature in 1650.
HOBBES
547
Paris. He was welcomed back into the scientific coterie about
Mersenne, and forthwith had the task assigned him of criticizing
the Meditations of Descartes, which had been sent from Holland,
before publication, to Mersenne with the author's request for
criticism from the most different points of view. Hobbes was
soon ready with the remarks that were printed as " Third "
among the six (later seven) sets of " Objections " appended,
with " Replies " from Descartes, to the Meditations, when
published shortly afterwards in 1641 (reprinted in L.W. v.
249-274). About the same time also Mersenne sent to Descartes,
as if they came from a friend in England, another set of objections
which Hobbes had to offer on various points in the scientific
treatises, especially the Dioptrics, appended by Descartes to
his Discourse on Method in 1637; to which Descartes replied
without suspecting the common authorship of the two sets.
The result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring
them together. Hobbes was more eager to bring forward his
own philosophical and physical ideas than careful to enter into
the full meaning of another's thought; and Descartes was too
jealous, and too confident in his conclusions to bear with this
kind of criticism. He was very curt in his replies to Hobbes's
philosophical objections, and broke off all correspondence on
the physical questions, writing privately to Mersenne that he
had grave doubts of the Englishman's good faith in drawing
him into controversy (L.W. v. 277-307).
Meanwhile Hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political
theory which the events of the last years had ripened within
him to settle, even in Paris, to the orderly composition of his
works. Though connected in his own mind with his view of
human nature and of nature generally, the political theory,
as he always declared, could stand by itself. Also, while he
may have hoped at this time to be able to add much (though he
never did) to the sketch of his doctrine of Man contained
in the unpublished " little treatise," he might extend, but could
hardly otherwise modify, the sketch he had there given of his
carefully articulated theory of Body Politic. Possibly, indeed,
before that sketch was written early in 1640, he may, under
pressure of the political excitement, have advanced no small
way in the actual composition of the treatise De Give, the third
section of his projected system. In any case, it was upon this
section, before the others, that he set to work in Paris; and
before the end of 1641 the book, as we know from the date
of the dedication (November i), was finished. Though it was
forthwith printed in the course of the year 1642, he was content
to circulate a limited number of copies privately 1 ; and when
he found his work received with applause (it was praised even
by Descartes), he seems to have taken this recognition of his
philosophical achievement as an additional reason for deferring
publication till the earlier works of the system were completed.
Accordingly, for the next three or four years, he remained
steadily at work, and nothing appeared from him in public
except a short treatise on optics (Tractatus opticus, L.W. v.
217-248) included in the collection of scientific tracts pub-
lished by Mersenne under the title Cogitata physico-mathematica
in 1644, and a highly compressed statement of his psychological
application of the doctrine of motion (L.W. v. 309-318),
incorporated with Mersenne's Ballistica, published in the same
year. Thus or otherwise he had become sufficiently known by
1645 to be chosen as a referee, with Descartes, Roberval and
others, in the famous controversy between John Pell (q.v.) and
the Dane Longomontanus (q.v.) over that problem of the squaring
of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal charm
for himself. But though about this time he had got ready all
or most of the materials for his fundamental work on Body,
not even now was he able to make way with its composition,
1 The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr Williams's
library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in quarto
size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-page (not afterwards repro-
duced) of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions, " Liber-
tas," " Imperium," " Religio." The title Elementorum philosophiae
sectio tertia, De dm, expresses its relation to the unwritten
sections, which also comes out in one or two back-references in
the text.
and when he returned to it after a number of years, he returned
a different man.
The Civil War had broken out in 1642, and the royalist
cause began to decline from the time of the defeat at Marston
Moor, in the middle of 1644. Then commenced an exodus of
the king's friends. Newcastle himself, who was a cousin of
Hobbes's late patron and to whom he dedicated the " little
treatise " of 1640, found his way to Paris, and was followed
by a stream of fugitives, many of whom were known to Hobbes.
The sight of these exiles made the political interest once more
predominant in Hobbes, and before long the revived feeling
issued in the formation of a new and important design. It first
showed itself in the publication of the De cive, of which the
fame, but only the fame, had extended beyond the inner circle
of friends and critics who had copies of the original impression.
Hobbes now entrusted it, early in 1646, to his admirer, the
Frenchman Samuel de Sorbiere, by whom it was seen through
the Elzevir press at Amsterdam in 1647 having previously
inserted a number of notes in reply to objections, and also a
striking preface, in the course of which he explained its relation
to the other parts of the system not yet forthcoming, and the
(political) occasion of its having been composed and being
now published before them. 2 So hopeless, meanwhile, was he
growing of being able to return home that, later on in the year,
he was on the point of leaving Paris to take up his abode in the
south with a French friend, 3 when he was engaged " by the
month " as mathematical instructor to the young prince of Wales,
who had come over from Jersey about the month of July. This
engagement lasted nominally from 1646 to 1648 when
Charles went to Holland. Thus thrown more than
ever into the company of the exiled royalists, it was then,
if not earlier, that he conceived his new design of bringing
all his powers of thought and expression to bear upon the
production of an English book that should set forth his whole
theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis
resulting from the war. The De cive, presently to be published,
was written in Latin for the learned, and gave the political
theory without its foundation in human nature. The unpublished
treatise of 1640 contained all or nearly all that he had to tell
concerning human nature, but was written before the terrible
events of the last years had disclosed how men might still be
urged by their anti-social passions back into the abyss of anarchy.
There was need of an exposition at once comprehensive, incisive
and popular. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might be
regarded as a great artificial man or monster (Leviathan), com-
posed of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation
through human reason under pressure of human needs to its
dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions.
This, we may suppose, was the presiding conception from the
first, but the design may have been variously modified in the
three or four years of its execution. Before the end, in 1650-1651,
it is plain that he wrote in direct reference to the greatly changed
aspect of affairs in England. The king being dead, and the
royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly lost, he did not scruple,
in closing the work with a general " Review and Conclusion,"
to raise the question of the subject's right to change allegiance
when a former sovereign's power to protect was irrecoverably
gone. Also he took advantage of the rule of the Commonwealth
to indulge much more freely than he might have otherwise
dared in rationalistic criticism of religious doctrines; while,
amid the turmoil of sects, he could the more forcibly urge that
the preservation of social order, when again firmly restored,
must depend on the assumption by the civil power of the right
2 L.W. ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (l2mo), the title
was changed to Elemenia philosophica de cive, the references in the
text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the dedi-
cation to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to
1646.
3 Described as " nobilis Languedocianus " in Vit. ; doubtless the
same with the " Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus," to whom
was dedicated the Exam, et emend, math. hod. (L.W. iv.) in 1660.
Du Verdus was one of Hobbes's profoundest admirers and most
frequent correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters
among Hobbes's papers at Hardwick.
HOBBES
to wield all sanctions, supernatural as well as natural, against
the pretensions of any clergy, Catholic, Anglican or Presbyterian,
to the exercise of an imperium in imperio.
We know the Leviathan only as it finally emerged from Hobbes's
pen. During the years of its composition he remained in or near
Paris, at first in attendance on his royal pupil, with whom he
became a great favourite. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by
a serious illness which disabled him for six months. Mersenne
begged him not to die outside the Roman Catholic Church, but
Hobbes said that he had already considered the matter sufficiently
and afterwards took the sacrament according to the rites of the
Church of England. On recovering from this illness, which nearly
proved fatal, he resumed his literary task, and carried it steadily
forward to completion by the year 1650, having also within the
same time translated into English, with characteristic force of
expression, his Latin treatise. Otherwise the only thing known
(from one or two letters) of his life in those years is that from
the year 1648 he had begun to think of returning home; he was
then sixty, and might well be weary of exile. When 1650
came, as if to prepare the way for the reception of his magnum
opus, he allowed the publication of his earliest treatise, divided
into two separate small volumes (Human Nature, or the Funda-
mental Elements of Policy, E.W. iv. 1-76, and De Corpore
Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic, pp. 77-228).*
In 1651 2 he published his translation of the De Cive under the
title of Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and
Society (E.W. ii.). Meanwhile the printing of the greater
work was proceeding, and finally it appeared about the middle
of the same year, 1651, under the title of Leviathan, or the Matter,
Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil
(E.W. iii.), with a quaint frontispiece in which, from behind
hills overlooking a fair landscape of town and country, there
towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned giant, made
up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and crozier
in the two hands. It appeared, and soon its author was more
lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time; but the
first effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with
the exiled royalist party, and to throw him for protection on
the revolutionary Government. No sooner did copies of the
book reach Paris than he found himself shunned by his former
associates, and though he was himself so little conscious of
disloyalty that he was forward to present a manuscript copy
" engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand" 3 to the young
king of the Scots (who, after the defeat at Worcester, escaped
to Paris about the end of October), he was denied the royal
presence when he sought it shortly afterwards. Straightway,
then, he saw himself exposed to a double peril. The exiles had
among them desperadoes who could slay; and, besides exciting
the enmity of the Anglican clergy about the king, who bitterly
resented the secularist spirit of his book, he had compromised
himself with the French authorities by his elaborate attack on
the papal system. In the circumstances, no resource was left
him but secret flight. Travelling with what speed he could in
the depths of a severe winter and under the effects of a recent
(second) illness, he managed to reach London, where, sending
in his submission to the council of state, he was allowed to subside
into private life.
Though Hobbes came back, after his eleven years' absence,
without having as yet publicly proved his title to rank with the
natural philosophers of the age, he was sufficiently conscious of
.what he had been able to achieve in Leviathan; and it was
1 The Human Nature corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first part
of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part
stand now as Part I. of the De corpore politico. Part II. of 'the
D.C.P. corresponds with the original second part of the whole work.
2 At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a
letter on the nature and conditions of poetry, chiefly epic, in answer
to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to Sir W.
Davenant s heroic poem, Gondibert (E.W. iv. 441-458). The letter
is dated Jan. 10, 1650 (1650/1).
8 This presentation copy, so described by Clarendon (Survey of the
Leviathan, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and finely
bound MS. now to be found in the British Museum (Egerton MSS.
1910).
in no humble mood that he now, at the age of sixty-four, turned
to complete the fundamental treatise of his philosophical
system. Neither those whom his masterpiece soon
roused to enthusiasm, nor those whom it moved to *" u
indignation, were likely to be indifferent to anything tendon,
he should now write, whether it lay near to or far from
the region of practice. Taking up his abode in Fetter Lane,
London, on his return, and continuing to reside there for the sake
of intellectual society, even after renewing his old ties with the
earl of Devonshire, who lived in the country till the Restoration, 4
he worked so steadily as to be printing the De corpore in the year
1654. Circumstances (of which more presently) , however, kept
the book back till the following year, and meanwhile the readers
of Leviathan had a different excitement. In 1654 a small
treatise, "Of Liberty and Necessity" (E.W. iv. 229-278),
issued from the press, claiming to be an answer to
a discourse on the same subject by Bishop Bramhall Coatr m
of Londonderry (afterwards archbishop of Armagh, Bramhall.
d. 1663), addressed by Hobbes to the marquis of
Newcastle. 6 It had grown out of an oral discussion between
Hobbes and Bramhall in the marquis's presence at Paris in
1 646. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had afterwards written down
his views and sent them to Newcastle to be answered in this
form by Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication,
because he thought the subject a delicate one. But it happened
that Hobbes had allowed a French acquaintance to have a
private translation of his reply made by a young Englishman,
who secretly took a copy of the original for himself; and now it
was this unnamed purloiner who, in 1654, when Hobbes had
become famous and feared, gave it to the world of his own motion,
with an extravagantly laudatory epistle to the reader in its
front. Upon Hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise,
but, after his plain speaking in Leviathan, there was nothing
in the piece that he need scruple to have made known, and he
seems to have condoned the act. On the other hand, Bramhall,
supposing Hobbes privy to the publication, resented the manner
of it, especially as no mention was made of his rejoinder. Ac-
cordingly, in 1655, he printed everything that had passed between
them (under the title of A Defence of the True Liberty of Human
Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity), with loud
complaint against the treatment he had received, and the promise
added that, in default of others, he himself would stand forward
to expose the deadly principles of Leviathan. About this time
Hobbes had begun to be hard pressed by other foes, and, being
never more sure of himself than upon the question of the will,
he appears to have welcomed the opportunity thus given him
of showing his strength. By 1656 he was ready with his Questions
concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance (E.W. v.), in which
he replied with astonishing force to the bishop's rejoinder point
by point, besides explaining the occasion and circumstances
of the whole debate, and reproducing (as Bramhall had done)
all the pieces from the beginning. As perhaps the first clear
exposition and defence of the psychological doctrine of determin-
ism, Hobbes's own two pieces must ever retain a classical
importance in the history of the free-will controversy; while
Bramhall's are still worth study as specimens of scholastic
fence. The bishop, it should be added, returned to the charge
in 1658 with ponderous Castigations of Mr Hobbes's Animad-
versions, and also made good his previous threat in a bulky
4 During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive
from his patron a yearly pension of 80, and they remained in steady
correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was
declared unfit to sit in the House of Peers, and though, by submission
to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were sequestered
later on, he did not sit again till 1660. Among Hobbes's friends at
this time are specially mentioned John Selden and William Harvey,
who left him a legacy of 10. According to Aubrey, Selden left him
an equal bequest, but this seems to be a mistake. Harvey (not
Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory
epistle prefixed to the De corpore, among the founders, before
himself, of the new natural philosophy.
6 The treatise bore the date, " Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652," but it
should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself
(E.W. v. 25).
HOBBES
549
appendix entitled The Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale.
Hobbes never took any notice of the Castigations, but ten years
later replied to the charges of atheism, &c., made in the non-
political part of the appendix, of which he says he then heard
for the first time (E.W. iv. 279-384). This Answer was first
published after Hobbes's death. 1
We may now follow out the more troublesome conflict, or rather
series of conflicts, in which Hobbes became entangled from the
time of publishing his De cor pore in 1655, and which
Contra- checkered all his remaining years. In Leviathan he had
irsywHIi ve h e mently assailed the system of the universities, as
originally founded for the support of the papal against
the civil authority, and as still working social mischief
by adherence to the old learning. The attack was duly
noted at Oxford, where under the Commonwealth a new spirit of
scientific activity had begun to stir. In 1654 Seth Ward (1617-
1689), the Savilian professor of astronomy, replying in his Vindiciae
academiarum to some other assaults (especially against John
Webster's Examen of Academies) on the academic system, retorted
upon Hobbes that, so far from the universities being now what he
had known them in his youth, he would find his geometrical pieces,
when they appeared, better understood there than he should like.
This was said in reference to the boasts in which Hobbes seems to
have been freely indulging of having squared the circle and accom-
plished other such feats; and, when a year later the De corpore
(L.W. i.) finally appeared, it was seen how the thrust had gone
home. In the chapter (xx.) of that work where Hobbes dealt with
the famous problem whose solution he thought he had found, there
were left expressions against Vindex (Ward) at a time when the
solutions still seemed to him good; but the solutions themselves,
as printed, were allowed to be all in different ways halting, as he
naively confessed he had discovered only when he had been driven
by the insults of malevolent men to examine them more closely
with the help of his friends. A strange conclusion this, and reached
by a path not less strange, as was now to be disclosed by a relentless
hand. Ward's colleague, the more famous John Wallis (q.v.), Savilian
professor of geometry from 1649, had been privy to the challenge
thrown out in 1654, and it was arranged that they should critically
dispose of the De corpore between them. Ward was to occupy
himself with the philosophical and physical sections, which he did
in leisurely fashion, bringing out his criticism in the course of next
year (In Th. Hobbii philosophiam exercitatio epistolica). Wallis
was to confine himself to the mathematical chapters, and set to
work at once with characteristic energy. Obtaining an unbound
copy of the De corpore, he saw by the mutilated appearance of the
sheets that Hobbes had repeatedly altered his demonstrations before
he issued them at last in their actual form, grotesque as it was,
rather than delay the book longer. Obtaining also a copy of the
work as it had been printed before Hobbes had any doubt of the
validity of his solutions, Wallis was able to track his whole course
from the time of Ward's provocation his passage from exultation
to doubt, from doubt to confessed impotence, yet still without
abandoning the old assumption of confident strength; and all his
turnings and windings were now laid bare in one of the most trenchant
pieces of controversial writing ever penned. Wallis's Elenchus
geometriae Hobbianae, published in 1655 about three months after
the De corpore, contained also an elaborate criticism of Hobbes's
whole attempt to relay the foundations of mathematical science
in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge a
criticism which, if it failed to allow for the merit of the conception,
exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the result.
Taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already formed
but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical system,
Hobbes had, in fact, never put himself to school and sought to work
up gradually to the best knowledge of the time, but had been more
anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever
insufficient means. The consequence was that, when not spending
himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have
always waylaid the fancy of self-sufficient beginners, he took an
interest only in the elements of geometry, and never had any notion
of the full scope of mathematical science, undergoing as it then
was (and not least at the hands of Wallis) the extraordinary develop-
ment which made it before the end of the century the potent
instrument of physical discovery which it became in the hands of
Newton. He was even unable, in dealing with the elementary
conceptions of geometry, to work out with any consistency the few
original thoughts he had, and thus became the easy sport of Wallis.
At his advanced age, however, and with the sense he had of his
powers, he was not likely to be brought to a better mind by so
insulting an opponent. He did indeed, before allowing an English
1 " The Vit. auct, refers to 1676, a ' Letter to William duke of
Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with
Benjamin Laney, bishop of Ely.' In that year there did appear
a (confused) little tract written by Laney against Hobbes's concluding
statement of his own ' Opinion ' in the ' Liberty and Necessity '
of 1654 (1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by
Hobbes on the subject " (G. Croom Robertson, Hoboes, p. 202).
translation of the De corpore (E.W. i.) to appear in 1656, take
care to remove some of the worst mistakes exposed by Wallis, and,
while leaving out all the references to Vindex, now profess to make,
in altered form, a series of mere "attempts" at quadrature; but
he was far from yielding the ground to the enemy. With the
translation, 2 in the spring of 1656, he had ready Si* Lessons to the
Professors of Mathematics, one of Geometry, the other of Astronomy,
in the University of Oxford (E.W. vii. 181-356), in which, after
reasserting his view of the principles of geometry in opposition to
Euclid's, he proceeded to repel Wallis's objections with no lack of
dialectical skill, and with an unreserve equal to Wallis's own. He
did not scruple, in the ardour of conflict, even to maintain positions
that he had resigned in the translation, and he was not afraid to
assume the offensive by a counter . criticism of three of Wallis's
works then published. When he had thus disposed of the
" Paralogisms " of his more formidable antagonist in the first five
lessons, he ended with a lesson on " Manners ' to the two professors
together, and set himself gravely at the close to show that he too
could be abusive. In this particular part of his task, it must be
allowed, he succeeded very well ; his criticism of Wallis's works,
especially the great treatise Arithmetica infinitorum (1655), only
showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the
modern analysis. Wallis, on his side, was not less ready to keep
up the game in English than he had been to begin it in Latin. Swift
as before to strike, in three months' time he had deftly turned his
own word against the would-be master by administering Due
Correction for Mr Hobbes., or School Discipline for not saying his
Lessons right, in a piece that differed from the Elenchus only in
being more biting and unrestrained. Having an easy task in
defending himself against Hobbes's trivial criticism, he seized the
opportunity given him by the English translation of the De corpore
to track Hobbes again step by step over the whole course, and now
to confront him with his incredible inconsistencies multiplied by
every new utterance. But it was no longer a fight over mathematical
questions only. Wallis having been betrayed originally by his
fatal cleverness into the pettiest carping at words, Hobbes had
retorted in kind, and then it became a high duty in the other to
defend his Latin with great parade of learning and give fresh
provocation. One of Wallis's rough sallies in this kind suggested to
Hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with which, in 1657, he sought
to close the unseemly wrangle. Arguing in the Lessons that a
mathematical point must have quantity, though this were not
reckoned, he had explained the Greek word ari.yij.ii, used for a
point, to mean a visible mark made with a hot iron ; whereupon he
was charged by Wallis with gross ignorance for confounding any^
and aTiyna. Hence the title of his new piece : 'Snynai Ayeuncrpta.*,
dypoutias, A.vrnrd\iTcla.5, inaSeias, or Marks of the Absurd Geometry,
Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John
Wallis' Professor of Geometry and Doctor of Divinity (E.W. vii. 357-
400). He now attacked more in detail but not more happily than
before Wallis's great work, while hardly attempting any further
defence of his own positions; also he repelled with some force and
dignity the insults that had been heaped upon him, and fought
the verbal points, but could not leave the field without making
political insinuations against his adversary, quite irrelevant in
themselves and only noteworthy as evidence of his own resignation
to Cromwell's rule. The thrusts were easily and nimbly parried by
Wallis in a reply (Hobbiani puncti dispunctio, 1657) occupied mainly
with the verbal questions. Irritating as it was, it did not avail to
shake Hobbes's determination to remain silent; and thus at last
there was peace for a time.
Before the strife flamed up again, Hobbes had published, in 1658,
the outstanding section of his philosophical system, and thus com-
pleted, after a fashion, the scheme he had planned more than twenty
years before. So far as the treatise De homine (L.W. ii. 11-32)
was concerned, the completion was more in name than in fact.
It consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision which,
though very creditable to Hobbes's scientific insight, was out of
place, or at least out of proportion, in a philosophical consideration of
human nature generally. The remainder of the treatise, dealing
cursorily with some of the topics more fully treated in the Human
Nature and the Leviathan, has all the appearance of having been
tagged in haste to the optical chapters (composed years before) 3 as
2 This translation, Concerning Body, though not made by Hobbes,
was revised by him ; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at
critical places (e.g. c. vi. 2), quite misleading. Philosophical
citations from the De corpore should always be made in the original
Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the first edition of
1655, but from the modified edition of 1668 modified, in the
mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the
English edition of 1656. The Vindex episode, referred to in the
Six Lessons, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth
to the original Latin edition of 1655.
3 They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and
rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise
on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved
in Harleian MSS. 3360, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication
to the marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (E.W.
vii. 467-47I)-
55
HOBBES
a makeshift for the proper transition required in the system from
questions of Body Natural to questions of Body Politic. Hobbes
had in fact spent himself in his earlier constructive efforts, and at the
age of seventy, having nothing to add to his doctrine of Man as it was
already in one form or another before the world, was content with
anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical
purpose. But he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous
vitality, and, not conscious to himself of any shortcoming, looked
forward, now his hands were free, to doing battle for his doctrines.
Rather than remain quiet, on finding no notice taken of his latest
production, he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy.
Wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a
comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus (Mathesis
universalis, 1657), he might take this occasion of exposing afresh
the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and reasserting
his own earlier positions. Accordingly, by the spring of 1660, he had
managed to put his criticism and assertions into five dialogues under
the title Examinatio et emendatio malhematicae hodiernae qualis
explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii, with a sixth dialogue so called,
consisting almost entirely of seventy or more propositions on the
circle and cycloid. 1 Wallis, however, would not take the bait.
Hobbes then tried another tack. Next year, having solved, as he
thought, another ancient crux, the duplication of the cube, he had his
solution brought out anonymously at Paris in French, so as to put
Wallis and other critics off the scent and extort a judgment that
might be withheld from a work of his. The artifice was successful,
and no sooner had Wallis publicly refuted the solution than Hobbes
claimed the credit of it, and went more wonderfully than ever
astray in its defence. He presently republished it (in modified
form), with his remarks, at the end of a new Latin dialogue which
he had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philo-
sophical doctrine. This was the Dialogus physicus, sive De nalura
aeris (L.W. iv. 233-296), fulminated in 1 66 1 against Boyle and
other friends of Wallis who, as he fancied, under the influence of that
malevolent spirit, were now in London, after the Restoration, form-
ing themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in
1662) for experimental research, to the exclusion of himself person-
ally, and in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry
enjoined in the De corpore? All the laborious manipulation recorded
in Boyle's New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air (1660),
which Hobbes chose, without the least warrant, to take as the
manifesto of the new " academicians," seemed to him only to con-
firm the conclusions he had reasoned out years before from specu-
lative principles, and he warned them that if they were not content to
begin where he had left off their work would come to nought. To
as much of this diatribe as concerned himself Boyle quickly replied
with force and dignity, but it was from Hobbcs's old enemy that
retribution came, in the scathing satire Hobbius heauton-timoru-
menos (1662). Wallis, who had deftly steered his course amid all the
political changes of the previous years, managing ever to be on the
side of the ruling power, was now apparently stung to fury by a
wanton allusion in Hobbes's latest dialogue to a passage of his former
life (his deciphering for the parliament the king's papers taken at
Naseby), whereof he had once boasted but after the Restoration
could not speak or hear too little. The revenge he took was crushing.
Professing to be roused by the attack on his friend Boyle, when he
had scorned to lift a finger in defence of himself against the earlier
dialogues, he tore them all to shreds with an art of which no general
description can give an idea. He got, however, upon more dangerous
ground when, passing wholly by the political insinuation against
himself, he roundly charged Hobbes with having written Leviathan
in support of Oliver's title, and deserted his royal master in distress.
Hobbes seems to have been fairly bewildered by the rush and whirl
of sarcasm with which WaHis drove him anew from every mathe-
matical position he had ever taken up, and did not venture forth
into the field of scientific controversy again for some years, when
he had once followed up the physical dialogue of 1661 by seven
shorter ones, with the inevitable appendix, entitled Problemata
physica, una cum magnitudine circuit (L.W. iv. 297-384), in 1662. 3
1 L.W. iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in
number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when
he republished the Dialogues in 1668, in the collected edition of his
Latin works from which Mplesworth reprints. In the part omitted,
at p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first introduction
to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey quoted in an
earlier paragraph.
2 Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the
constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of the
originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued or
revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford after
the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received
appointments there.
3 The Problemata physica was at the same time put into English
(with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical appen-
dix), and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated in a
remarkable letter apologizing for Leviathan. In its English form,
as Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of Geometry
(E.W. vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682, after Hobbes's
death.
But all the more eagerly did he take advantage of Wallis's loose
calumny to strike where he felt himself safe. His answer to
the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself in the
third person addressed to Wallis in 1662, under the title of Considera-
tions upon the Reputation, Loyalty, Manners and Religion of Thomas
Hobbes (E.W. iv. 409-440). In this piece, which is of great bio-
graphical value, he told his own and Wallis's " little stories during
the time of the late rebellion " with such effect that Wallis, like a
wise man, attempted no further reply. Thus ended the second bout.
After a time Hobbes took heart again and began a third period
of controversial activity, which did not end, on his side, till his
ninetieth year. Little need be added to the simple catalogue of the
untiring old man's labours in this last stage of his life. The first
piece, published in 1666, De principiis et ratiocinatione geome-
trarum (L.W. iv. 385-484), was designed, as the sub-title declared,
to lower the pride of geometrical professors by showing that there
was no less uncertainty and error in their works than in those of
physical or ethical writers. Wallis replied shortly in the Philo-
sophical Transactions (August 1666). Three years later he brought
his three great achievements together in compendious form, Quadra-
tura circuli, Cubatio sphaerae, Duplicatio cubi, and as soon as they
were once more refuted by Wallis, reprinted them with an answer to
the objections, in compliment to the grand-duke of Tuscany, who
paid him attentions on a visit to England in 1669 (L.W. iv. 485-522).
Wallis, who had promised to leave him alone henceforward, refuted
him again before the year was out. In 1671 he worked up his
propositions over again in Rosetum 'geomeiricum (L. W. v. 1-50), as a
fragrant offering to the geometrical reader, appending a criticism
(Censura.brevis, pp. 50-88) on the first part of Wallis's treatise De
motu, published in 1669; also he sent Three Papers to the Royal
Society on selected points treated very briefly, and when Wallis,
still not weary of confuting, shortly replied, published them separ-
ately with triumphant Considerations on Dr Wallis's Answer to them
(E.W. vii. 429-448). Next year' (1672), having- now, as he believed,
established himself with the Royal Society, he proceeded to complete
the discomfiture of Wallis by a public address to the Society on all
the points at issue between them from the beginning, Lux Mathe-
matica excussa collisionibus Johannis Wallisii et Thomae Hobbesii
(L.W. v. 89-150), the light, as the author R. R. (Roseti Repertor)
added, being here " increased by many very brilliant rays." Wallis
replied in the Transactions, and then finally held his hand. Hobbes's
energy was not yet exhausted. In 1674, at the age of eighty-six, he
published his Principia et problemata aliquot geometrica, ante
desperata nunc breviter explicate, et demonstrate. (L.W. v. 150-214),
containing in the chapters dealing with questions of principle not a
few striking observations, which ought not to be overlooked in the
study of his philosophy. His last piece of all, Decameron physio-
logicum (E.W. vii. 69-180), in 1678, was a new set of dialogues on
Chysical questions, most of which he had treated in a similar fashion
efore; but now, in dealing with gravitation, he was able to fire a
parting shot at Wallis; and one more demonstration of the equality
of a straight line to the arc of a circle, thrown in at the end, appro-
priately closed the strangest warfare in which perverse thinker ever
engaged. 4
We must now turn back to trace the fortunes of Hobbes and
his other doings in the last twenty years of his life. All these
controversial writings on mathematics and physics
represent but one half of his activity after the age of years,
seventy; though, as regards the other half, it is not
possible, for a reason that will be seen, to say as definitely
in what order the works belonging to the period were produced.
From the time of the Restoration he acquired a new prominence
in the public eye. No year had passed since the appearance of
Leviathan without some indignant protest against the influence
which its trenchant doctrine was calculated to produce upon
minds longing above everything for civil repose; but after the
Restoration " Hobbism " became a fashionable creed, which
it was the duty of every lover of true morality and religion to
denounce. Two or three days after Charles's arrival in London.
Hobbes drew in the street the notice of his former pupil, and
was at once received into favour. The young king, if he
had ever himself resented the apparent disloyalty of the
" Conclusion " of Leviathan, had not retained the feeling long,
and could appreciate the principles of the great book when the
application of them happened, as now, to be turned in his own
favour. He had, besides, a relish for Hobbes's wit (as he used
to say, " Here comes the bear to be baited "), and did not like
the old man the less because his presence at court scandalized
the bishops or the prim virtue of Chancellor Hyde. He even
went the length of bestowing on Hobbes (but not always paying)
a pension of 100, and had his portrait hung up in the royal
4 Wallis's pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his
works (1693-1697), and have become extremely rare.
HOBBES
closet. These marks of favour, naturally, did not lessen Hobbes's
self-esteem, and perhaps they explain, in his later writings, a
certain slavishness toward the regal authority, which is wholly
absent from his rational demonstration of absolutism in the
earlier works. At all events Hobbes was satisfied with the rule
of a king who had appreciated the author of Leviathan, and
protected him when, after a time, protection in a very real sense
became necessary. His eagerness to defend himself against
Wallis's imputation of disloyalty, and his apologetic dedication
of the Problemata physica to the king, are evidence of the
hostility with which he was being pressed as early as 1662;
but it was not till 1666 that he felt himself seriously in danger.
In that year the Great Fire of London, following on the Great
Plague, roused the superstitious fears of the people, and the
House of Commons embodied the general feeling in a bill against
atheism and profaneness. On the i7th of October it was ordered
that the committee to which the bill was referred " should be
empowered to receive information touching such books as tend
to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness, or against the essence
and attributes of God, and in particular the book published
in the name of one White, 1 and the book of Mr Hobbes called
the Leviathan, and to report the matter with their opinion to
the House." Hobbes, then verging upon eighty, was terrified
at the prospect of being treated as a heretic, and proceeded to
burn such of his papers as he thought might compromise him.
At the same time he set himself, with a very characteristic
determination, to inquire into the actual state of the law of
heresy. The results of his investigation were first announced
in three short Dialogues added (in place of the old " Review and
Conclusion," for which the day had passed) as an Appendix to
his Latin translation of Leviathan (L.W. iii:), included with the
general collection of his works published at Amsterdam in 1668.
In this appendix, as also in the posthumous tract, published in
1680, An Historical Narration concerning Heresy and the Punish-
ment thereof (E.W. iv. 385-408), he aimed at showing that,
since the High Court of Commission had been put down, there
remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable,
and that even when it stood nothing was to be declared heresy
but what was at variance with the Nicene Creed, as he main-
tained the doctrine of Leviathan was not.
The only consequence that came of the parliamentary scare
was that Hobbes could never afterwards get permission to print
anything on subjects relating to human conduct. The collected
edition of his Latin works (in two quarto volumes) appeared at
Amsterdam in 1668, because he could not obtain the censor's
licence for its publication at London, Oxford or Cambridge.
Other writings which he had finished, or on which he must have
been engaged about this time, were not made public till after
his death the king apparently having made it the price of his
protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the
popular sentiment. The most important of the works composed
towards 1670, and thus kept back, is the extremely spirited
dialogue to which he gave the title Behemoth: the History of the
Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and
Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the
year 1660? To the same period probably belongs the unfinished
Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws
of England (E.W. vi. 1-160), a trenchant criticism of the con-
stitutional theory of English government as upheld by Coke.
Aubrey takes credit for having tried to induce Hobbes to write
upon the subject in 1664 by presenting him with a copy of Bacon's
Elements of the Laws of England, and though the attempt was
then unsuccessful, Hobbes later on took to studying the statute-
book, with Coke upon Littleton. One other posthumous pro-
duction also (besides the tract on Heresy before mentioned) may
be referred to this, if not, as Aubrey suggests, an earlier time
the two thousand and odd elagiac verses in which he gave his
1 The De media animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox
Catholic priest, who contested the natural immortality of the soul.
White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends.
s E.W. vi. 161-418. Though Behemoth was kept back at the
king's express desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes's leave, in
1679, before his death.
view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power; the
quaint verses, disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form, were
first published, nine years after his death, under the title Historia
ecclesiastica (L.W. v. 341-408), with a preface by Thomas
Rymer.
For some time Hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word
of protest, whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took
to triumph over him. In 1669 an unworthy follower Daniel
Scargil by name, a fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
had to recant publicly and confess that his evil life had been the
result of Hobbist doctrines. In 1674 John Fell, the dean of
Christ Church, who bore the charges of the Latin translation of
Anthony Wood's History and Antiquities of the University of
Oxford (1670), struck out all the complimentary epithets in the
account of his life, and substituted very different ones; but this
time the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a
dignified letter (Vit. Auct. pp. xlvii.-l.), to which Fell replied by
adding to the translation when it appeared a note full of the
grossest insults. And, amid all his troubles, Hobbes was not
without his consolations. No Englishman of that day stood in
the same repute abroad, and foreigners, noble or learned, who
came to England, never forgot to pay their respects to the old
man, whose vigour and freshness of intellect no progress of the
years seemed able to quench. Among these was the grand-duke
of Tuscany (Ferdinand II.), who took away some works and a
portrait to adorn the Medicean library.
His pastimes in the latest years were as singular as his labours.
The autobiography in Latin verse, with its playful humour,
occasional pathos and sublime self-complacency, was thrown
off at the age of eighty-four. At eighty-five, in the year 1673, he
sent forth a translation of four books of the Odyssey (ix.-xii.)
in rugged but not seldom happily turned English rhymes; and,
when he found this Voyage of Ulysses eagerly received, he had
ready by 1675 a complete translation of both Iliad and Odyssey
(E.W. x.), prefaced by a lively dissertation " Concerning the
Virtues of an Heroic Poem," showing his unabated interest in
questions of literary style. After 1675, he passed his time at his
patron's seats in Derbyshire, occupied to the last with intellectual
work in the early morning and in the afternoon hours, which it had
long been his habit to devote to thinking and to writing. Even as
late as August 1679 he was promising his publisher " somewhat
to print in English." The end came very soon afterwards. A
suppression of urine in October, in spite of which he insisted upon
being conveyed with the family from Chatsworth to Hardwick
Hall towards the end of November, was followed by a paralytic
stroke, under which he sank on the 4th of December, in his
ninety-second year. He lies buried in the neighbouring church
of Ault Hucknall.
He was tall and erect in figure, and lived on the whole a
temperate life, though he used to say that he had been drunk
about a hundred times. His favourite exercise was
tennis, which he played regularly even after the age of
seventy. Socially he was genial and courteous, though i s tics.
in argument he occasionally lost his temper . Asa friend
he was generous and loyal. Intellectually bold in the extreme, he
was curiously timid in ordinary life, and is said to have had a
horror of ghosts. He read little, and often boasted that he
would have known as little as other men if he had read as much.
He appears to have had an illegitimate daughter for whom he
made generous provision. In the National Portrait Gallery
there is a portrait of him by J. M. Wright, and two others are in
the possession of the Royal Society.
As already suggested, it cannot be allowed that Hobbes falls
into any regular succession from Bacon; neither can it be said
that he handed on the torch to Locke. He was the
one English thinker of the first rank in the long period
of two generations separating Locke from Bacon, but, thought.
save in the chronological sense, there is no true relation
of succession among the three. It would be difficult even to
prove any ground of affinity among them beyond a desposition to
take sense as a prime factor in the account of subjective ex-
perience: their common interest in physical science was shared
552
HOBBY HOBOKEN
equally by rationalist thinkers of the Cartesian school, and was
indeed begotten of the time. Backwards, Hobbes's relations are
rather with Galileo and the other inquirers who, from the
beginning of the lyth century, occupied themselves with the
physical world in the manner that has come later to be dis-
tinguished by the name of science in opposition to philosophy.
But even more than in external nature, Hobbes was interested in
the phenomena of social life, presenting themselves so impres-
sively in an age of political revolution. So it came to pass that,
while he was unable, by reason of imperfect training and too
tardy development, with all his pains, to make any contribution
to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in physical
research, he attempted a task which no other adherent of the
new " mechanical philosophy " conceived nothing less than
such a universal construction of human knowledge as would
bring Society and Man (at once the matter and maker of Society)
within the same principles of scientific explanation as were
found applicable to the world of Nature. The construction was,
of course, utterly premature, even supposing it were inherently
possible; but it is Hobbes's distinction, in his century, to have
conceived it, and he is thereby lifted from among the scientific
workers with whom he associated to the rank of those philo-
sophical thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of
human knowledge. The effects of his philosophical endeavour
may be traced on a variety of lines. Upon every subject that
came within the sweep of his system, except mathematics and
physics, his thoughts have been productive of thought. When
the first storm of opposition from smaller men had begun to die
down, thinkers of real weight, beginning- with Cumberland and
Cudworth, were moved by their aversion to his analysis of the
moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the natural
springs and the rational grounds of human action; and thus it
may be said that Hobbes gave the first impulse to the whole of
that movement of ethical speculation that, in modern times, has
been carried on with such remarkable continuity in England.
In politics the revulsion from his particuar conclusions did not
prevent the more clear-sighted of his opponents from recognizing
the force of his supreme demonstration of the practical irresponsi-
bility of the sovereign power, wherever seated, in the state; and,
when in a later age the foundations of a positive theory of legisla-
tion were laid in England, the school of Bentham James Mill,
Grote, Molesworth brought again into general notice the
writings of the great publicist of the i?th century, who, however
he might, by the force of temperament, himself prefer the rule of
one, based his whole political system upon a rational regard to
the common weal. Finally, the psychology of Hobbes, though
too undeveloped to guide the thoughts or even perhaps arrest
the attention of Locke, when essaying the scientific analysis of
knowledge, came in course of time (chiefly through James Mill)
to be connected with the theory of associationism developed
from within the school of Locke, in different ways, by Hartley
and Hume; nor is it surprising that the later associationists,
finding their principle more distinctly formulated in the earlier
thinker, should sometimes have been betrayed into affiliating
themselves to Hobbes rather than to Locke. For his ethical
theories see ETHICS.
Sufficient information is given in the Vitae Hobbianae auctarium
(L.W. i. p. Ixv. ff.) concerning the frequent early editions of Hobbes's
separate works, and also concerning the works of those who wrote
against him, to the end of the I7th century. In the i8th century,
after Clarke's Boyle Lectures of 1704-1705, the opposition was less
express. In 1750 The Moral and Political Works were collected, with
life, &c., by Dr Campbell, in a folio edition, including in order,
Human Nature, De corppre politico, Leviathan, Answer to Bramhall's
Catching of the Leviathan, Narration concerning Heresy, Of Liberty
and Necessity, Behemoth, Dialogue of the Common Laws, the Introduc-
tion to the Thucydides, Letter to Davenant and two others, the Preface
to the Homer, De mirabilibus Pecci (with English translation), Con-
siderations on the Reputation, &c., of T. H. In 1812 the Human
Nature and the Liberty and Necessity (with supplementary extracts
from the Questions of 1656) were reprinted in a small edition of 250
copies, with a meritorious memoir (based on Campbell) and dedica-
tion to Home Tooke, by Philip Mallet. Molesworth's edition (1839
1845), dedicated to Grote, has been referred to in a former note. Of
translations may be mentioned Les Siemens philosophiques du
citoyen (1649) and Le Corps politique (1652), both by S. de Sorbiere,
conjoined with Le Traiti de la nature humaine, by d'Holbach, in
1787, under the general title Les (Euvres philosophiques et politiques de
Thomas Hobbes; a translation of the first section, " Computatio sive
logica," of the De corpore, included by Destutt de Tracy with his
Siemens d'ideologie (1804); a translation of Leviathan into Dutch in
1678, and another(anonymous)into German Des Engldnders Thomas
Hobbes Leviathan oder der kirchliche und burgerliche Staat (Halle, 1794,
2 vols.) ; a translation of the De cive by J. H. y. Kirchmann T.
Hobbes: Abhandlung liber den Burger, &c. (Leipzig, 1873). Im-
portant later editions are those of Ferdinand Tonnies, Behemoth
(1889), on which see Croom Robertson 's Philosophical Remains (1894),
p. 451 ; Elements of Law (1889).
Biographical and Critical Works. There are three accounts of
Hobbes's life, first published together an 1681, two years after his
death, by R. B. (Richard Blackbourne, a friend of Hobbes's admirer,
John Aubrey), and reprinted, with complimentary verses by Cowley
and others, at the beginning of Sir W. Molesworth's collection of the
Latin Works: (i) T. H. Malmesb. vita (pp. xiii.-xxi.), wiitten by
Hobbes himself, or (as also reported) by T. Rymer, at his dictation ;
(2) Vitae Hobbianae auctarium (pp. xxii.-lxxx.), turned into Latin from
Aubrey's English ; (3) T. H. Malmesb. vita carmine expressa (pp. Ixxxi.-
xcix.), written by Hobbes at the age of eighty-four (first published
by itself in 1680). The Life of Mr T. H. of Malmesburie, printed
among the Lives of Eminent Men, in 1813, from Aubrey's papers in
the Bodleian, &c. (vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 593-637), contains some interest-
ing particulars not found in the Auctarium. All that is of any
importance for Hobbes's life is contained in G. Croom Robertson's
Hobbes (1886) in Blackwood's Philosophical Classics, and Sir Leslie
Stephen's Hobbes (1904) in the " English Men of Letters " series,
both of which deal fully with his philosophy also. See also F.
Tonnies, Hobbes Leben und Lehre (1896), Hobbes-Analekten (1904
foil.) ; G. Zart, Einfluss der englischen Philosophic seit Bacon auf
die deutsche Philosophie des iSten Jahrh. (Berlin, 1881); G. Brandt,
Thomas Hobbes: Grundlinien seiner Philosophie (1895); G. Lyon, La
Philos. de Hobbes (1893) ; J. M. Robertson, Pioneer Humanists (1907) ;
J. Rickaby, Free Will and Four English Philosophers (1906), pp. 1-72 ;
J. Watson, Hedonistic Theories (1895); W. Graham, English
Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine (1899) ; W. J. H. Campion,
Outlines of Lectures on Political Science (1895). (G. C. R.; X.)
HOBBY, a small horse, probably from early quotations, of
Irish breed, trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatigu-
ing. The common use of the word is for a favourite pursuit or
occupation, with the idea either of excessive devotion or of
absence of ulterior motive or of profit, &c., outside the occupation
itself. This use is probably not derived from the easy ambling
gait of the Irish " hobby," but from the " hobby-horse," the
mock horse of the old morris-dances, made of a painted wooden
horse's head and tail, with a framework casing for an actor's
body, his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the
" housings " of the medieval tilting-horse. A hobby or hobby-
horse is thus a toy, a diversion. The O. Fr. hobin, or 1/obi, Mod.
aubin, and Ital. ubina are probably adaptations of the English,
according to the New English Dictionary. The O. Fr. hober, to
move, which is often taken to be the origin of all these words, is
the source of a use of " hobby " for a small kind of falcon, falco
subbuteo, used in hawking.
HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE, IST BARON (1810-1904),
English judge, fourth son of Henry Hobhouse, permanent
under-secretary of state in the Home Oflice,was born at Hadspen,
Somerset, on the icth of November 1819. Educated at Eton
and Balliol, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1845,
and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and
equity draftsman; he became Q.C. in 1862, and practised in the
Rolls Court, retiring in 1866. He was an active member of the
charity com mission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests
to educational and other purposes. In 1872 he began a five
years' term of service as legal member of the council of the
governor-general of India, his services being acknowledged by
a K. C.S.I.; and in 1881 he was appointed a member of the
judicial committee of the privy council, on which he served for
twenty years. He was made a peer in 1885, and consistently
supported the Liberal party in the House of Lords. He died on
the 6th of December 1904, leaving no heir to the barony.
His papers read before the Social Science Association on the subject
of property were collected in 1880 under the title of The Dead Hand.
HOBOKEN, a small town of Belgium on the right bank of the
Scheldt about 4 m. above Antwerp. It is only important on
account of the ship-building yard which the Cockerill firm of
Seraing has established at Hoboken. Many wealthy Antwerp
HOBOKEN HOCHE, LAZARE
553
merchants have villas here, and it is the headquarters of several
of the leading rowing clubs on the Scheldt. Pop. (1904) 12,816.
HOBOKEN, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on
the Hudson river, adjoining Jersey City on the S. and W. and
opposite New York city, with which it is connected by ferries
and by two subway lines through tunnels under the river. Pop.
(1890) 43,648; (1900) 59,364, of whom 21,380 were foreign-born,
10,843 being natives of Germany ; (1910 census) 70,324.
Of the total population in 1900, 48,349 had either one or both
parents foreign-born, German being the principal racial element.
The city is served by the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western railways, being the eastern terminus of the
latter, and is connected by electric railway with the neighbouring
cities of north-eastern New Jersey. In Hoboken are the piers of
the North German Lloyd, the Hamburg American, the Nether-
lands American, the Scandinavian and the Phoenix steamship
lines. Hoboken occupies a little more than i sq. m. and lies
near the foot of the New Jersey Palisades, which rise both on the
W. and N. to a height of nearly 200 ft. Much of its surface has
had to be rilled in to raise it above high tide, but Castle Point, in
the N.E., rises from the generally low level about 100 ft. On this
Point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the
city, John Stevens (1749-1838), Hudson Park, and facing it the
Stevens Institute of Technology, an excellent school of mechanical
engineering endowed by Edwin A. Stevens (1795-1868), son of
John Stevens, opened in 1871, and having in 1909-1910 34
instructors and 390 students. The institute owes much to its
first president, Henry Morton (1836-1902), a distinguished
scientist, whose aim was " to offer a course of instruction in
/ which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly
combined," and who gave to the institute sums aggregating
$175,000 (see Morion Memorial, History of Stevens Institute, ed.
by Furman, 1905). In connexion with the institute there is a
preparatory department, the Stevens School (1870). The city
maintains a teachers' training school. Among the city's pro-
minent buildings are the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
station, the Hoboken Academy (1860), founded by German
Americans, and the public library. The city has an extensive
coal trade and numerous manufactures, among which are lead
pencils, leather goods, silk goods, wall-paper and caskets. The
value of the manufactured product increased from $7,151,391 in
1890 to $12,092,872 in 1900, or 69-1%. The factory product
in 1905 was valued at $14,077,305, an increase of 34-3% over
that for 1900. The site of Hoboken (originally " Hobocan-
hackingh," the place of the tobacco pipe) was occupied about
1640 as a Dutch farm, but in 1643 the stock and all the buildings
except a brew-house were destroyed by the Indians. In 1711
title to the place was acquired by Samuel Bayard, a New York
merchant, who built on Castle Point his summer residence.
During the War of Independence his descendant, William
Bayard, was a loyalist, and his home was burned and his estate
confiscated. In 1784 the property was purchased by John Stevens,
the inventor, who in 1804 laid it out as a town. For the next
thirty-five years its " Elysian Fields " were a famous pleasure
resort of New York City. Hoboken was incorporated as a town in
1849 and as a city in 1855. On the 3oth of June 1900 the wharves
of the North German Lloyd Steamship Company and three
of its ocean liners were almost completely destroyed by a fire,
which caused a loss of more than 200 lives and over $5,000,000.
HOBSON'S CHOICE, i.e. " this or nothing," an expression that
arose from the fact that the Cambridge-London carrier, Thomas
Hobson (1544-1630), refused, when letting his horses on hire, to
allow any animal to leave the stable out of its turn. Among
other bequests made by Hobson, and commemorated by Milton,
was a conduit for the Cambridge market-place, for which he
provided the perpetual maintenance'. See Spectator, No. 509
(i4th of October 1712).
HOBY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1566), English diplomatist and
translator, son of William Hoby of Leominster, was born in 1 530.
He entered St John's College, Cambridge, in 1545, but in 1547
he went to Strassburg, where he was the guest of Martin Bucer,
whose Gratulation . . . unto the Church of Englande for the
restitution of Christes Religion he translated into English. He
then proceeded to Italy, visiting Padua and Venice, Florence and
Siena, and in May 1550 he had settled at Rome, when he was
summoned by his half-brother, Sir Philip Hoby (1505-1558),
then ambassador at the emperor's court, to Augsburg. The
brothers returned to England at the end of the year, and Thomas
attached himself to the service of the marquis of Northampton,
whom he accompanied to France on an embassy to arrange a
marriage between Edward VI. and the princess Elizabeth.
Shortly after he returned to England he started once more for
Paris, and in 1552 he was engaged on his translation of The
Courlyer of Count Baldessar Castilio. His work was probably
completed in 1554, and the freedom of the allusions to the
Roman church probably accounts for the fact that it was withheld
from publication until 1561. The Cortegiano of Baldassare
Castiglione, which Dr Johnson called " the best book that ever
was written upon good breeding," is a book as entirely typical of
the Italian Renaissance as Machiavelli's Prince in another
direction. It exercised an immense influence on the standards
of chivalry throughout Europe, and was long the recognized
authority for the education of a nobleman. The accession of
Mary made it desirable for the Hobys to remain abroad, and they
were in Italy until the end of 1555. Thomas Hoby married in
1558 Elizabeth, the learned daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, who
wrote a Latin epitaph on her husband. He was knighted in 1 566
by Elizabeth, and was sent to France as English ambassador.
He died on the i3th of July in the same year in Paris, and was
buried in Bisham Church.
His son, SIR EDWARD HOBY (1560-1617), enjoyed Elizabeth's
favour, and he was employed on various confidential missions.
He was constable of Queenborough Castle, Kent, where he died
on the ist of March 1617. He took part in the religious contro-
versies of the time, publishing many pamphlets against Theo-
philus Higgons and John Fludd or Floyd. He translated, from
the French of Mathieu Coignet, Politique Discourses on Trueth and
Lying (1586).
The authority for Thomas Hoby's biography is a MS. " Booke of
the Trayaile and lief of me Thomas Hoby, with diverse things worth
the noting." This was edited for the Royal Historical Society by
Edgar Powell in 1902. Hoby's translation of The Courlyer was edited
(1900) by Professor Walter Raleigh for the " Tudor Translations "
series.
HOCHE, LAZARE (1768-1797), French general, was born
of poor parents near Versailles on the 24th of June 1708. At
sixteen years of age he enlisted as a private soldier in the Gardes
franqaises. He spent his entire leisure in earning extra pay by
civil work, his object being to provide himself with books, and
this love of study, which was combined with a strong sense of
duty and personal courage, soon led to his promotion. When
the Gardes franQaises were broken up in 1789 he was a corporal,
and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time
of his receiving a commission in 1792. In the defence of Thion-
ville in that year Hoche earned further promotion, and he served
with credit in the operations of 1792-1793 on the northern
frontier of France. At the battle of Neerwinden he was aide-de-
camp to General le Veneur, and when Dumouriez deserted
to the Austrians, Hoche, along with le Veneur and others, fell
under suspicion of treason; but after being kept under arrest
and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence
of Dunkirk, and in the same year (1793) he was promoted
successively chef de brigade, general of brigade, and general of
division. In October 1793 he was provisionally appointed to
command the Army of the Moselle, and within a few weeks he
was in the field at the head of his army in Lorraine. His first
battle was that of Kaiserslautern (28th-3Oth of November)
against Prussians. The French were defeated, but even in the
midst of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety continued
Hoche in his command. Pertinacity and fiery energy in their
eyes outweighed everything else, and Hoche soon showed that
he possessed these qualities. On the 2 2nd of December he stormed
the lines of Froschweiler, and the representatives of the Con-
vention with his army at once added the Army of the Rhine
to his sphere of command. On the 26th of December the French
554
HOCHHEIM HOCKEY
carried by assault the famous lines of Weissenburg, and Hoche
pursued his success, sweeping the enemy before him to the middle
Rhine in four days. He then put his troops into winter quarters.
Before the following campaign opened, he married Anne Adelaide
Dechaux at Thionville (March nth, 1794). But ten days later
he was suddenly arrested, charges of treason having been pre-
ferred by Pichegru, the displaced commander of the Army
of the Rhine, and by his friends. Hoche escaped execution,
however, though imprisoned in Paris until the fall of Robespierre.
Shortly after his release he was appointed to command against
the Vendeans (2ist of August 1794). He completed the work
of his predecessors in a few months by the peace of Jaunaye
(i5th of February 1795), but soon afterwards the war was
renewed by the Royalists. Hoche showed himself equal to the
crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the Royalist cause by
defeating and capturing de SombreuiPs expedition at Quiberon
and Penthievre (i6th-2ist of July 1795). Thereafter, by means
of mobile columns (which he kept under good discipline) he
succeeded before the summer of 1796 in pacifying the whole of
the west, which had for more than three years been the scene
of a pitiless civil war. After this he was appointed to organize
and command the troops destined for the invasion of Ireland,
and he started on this enterprise in December 1796. A tempest,
however, separated Hoche from the expedition, and after various
adventures the whole fleet returned to Brest without having
effected its purpose. Hoche was at once transferred to the
Rhine frontier, where he defeated the Austrians at Neuwied
(April), though operations were soon afterwards brought to an
end by the Preliminaries of Leoben. Later in 1797 he was
minister of war for a short period, but in this position he was
surrounded by obscure political intrigues, and, finding himself
the dupe of Barras and technically guilty of violating the
constitution, he quickly laid down his office, returning to his
command on the Rhine frontier. But his health grew rapidly
worse, and he died at Wetzlar on the igth of September 1797
Df consumption. The belief was widely spread that he had been
poisoned, but the suspicion seems to have been without founda-
tion. He was buried by the side of his friend Marceau in a fort
on the Rhine, amidst the mourning not only of his army but of
all France.
See Privat, Notions historiques sur la vie morale, politique el
mililaire du general Hoche (Strassburg, 1798); Daunou, Eloge du
general Hoche (1798), delivered on behalf of the Institut at Hoche's
funeral; Rousselin, Vie de Lazare Hoche, general des armees de la
republique franc,aise (Paris, 1798; this work was printed at the
public expense and distributed to the schools); Dubroca, Eloge
funebre du general Hoche (Paris, 1800); Vie et pensees du general
Hoche (Bern) ; Champrobert, Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche, le
pacificateur de la Vendee (Paris, 1840); Dourille, Histoire de Lazare
Hoche (Paris, 1844); Desprez, Lazare Hoche d'apres sa correspon-
dence (Paris, 1858; new ed., 1880); Bergounioux, Essai sur la vie
de Lazare Hoche (1852); E. de Bonnechose, Lazare Hoche (1867);
H. Martin, Hoche et Bonaparte (1875); Dutemple, Vie politique et
mililaire du general Hoche (1879); Escaude, Hoche en Irlande (1888) ;
Cun&> d'Ornano, Hoche (1892); A. Chuquet, Hoche et la lutte pour
V Alsace (a volume of this author's series on the campaigns of the
Revolution, 1893); E. Charavaray, Le General Hoche (1893); A.
DurUy, Hoche et Marceau (1885).
HOCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau, situated on an elevation not far from the
right bank of the Main, 3 m. above its influx into the Rhine and
3 m. E. of Mainz by the railway from Cassel to Frankfort-on-
Main. Pop. (1905) 3779. It has an Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church, and carries on an extensive trade in wine, the
English word " Hock," the generic term for Rhine wine, being
derived from its name. Hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles
as early as the 7th century. It is also memorable as the scene
of a victory gained here, on the 7th of November 1813 by the
Austrians over the French.
See Schiller, Geschichte der Stadt Hochheim am Main (Hochheim,
1888).
HOCHST, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau on the Main, 6 m. by rail W. of Frankfort-on-Main.
Pop. (1905) 14,121. It is a busy industrial town with large
dye-works and manufactures of machinery, snuff, tobacco,
waxcloth, gelatine, furniture and biscuits. Brewing is carried
on and there is a considerable river trade. The Roman Catholic
church of St Justinus is a fine basilica originally built in the
9th century; it has been restored several times, and a Gothic
choir was added in the i5th century. The town has also an
Evangelical church and a synagogue, and a statue of Bismarck
by Alois Mayer. Hochst belonged formerly to the electors of
Mainz who had a palace here; this was destroyed in 1634 with
the exception of one fine tower which still remains. In 1622
Christian, duke of Brunswick, was defeated here by Count
Tilly, and in 1795 the Austrians gained a victory here over
the French.
Hochst is also the name of a small town in Hesse. This has
some manufactures, and was formerly the seat of a Benedictine
monastery.
HOCHSTADT, a town of Bavaria, Germany, in the district of
Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 34 m. N.E. of Ulm by
rail. Pop. (1905) 2305. It has three Roman Catholic churches,
a castle flanked by walls and towers and some small industries,
including malting and brewing. Hochstadt, which came into
the possession of Bavaria in 1266, has been a place of battles.
Here Frederick of Hohenstaufen, vicegerent of the Empire for
Henry IV., was defeated by Henry's rival, Hermann of Luxem-
burg, in 1081; in 1703 the Imperialists were routed here by
Marshal Villars in command of the French; in August 1704
Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the French and
Bavarians commanded by Max Emanuel, the elector of Bavaria
and Marshal Tallard, this battle being usually known as that of
Blenheim; and in June 1800 an engagement took place here
between the Austrians and the French.
There is another small town in Bavaria named Hochstadt.
Pop. 2000. This is on the river Aisch, not far from Bamberg, to
which bishopric it belonged from 1157 to 1802, when it was ceded
to Bavaria.
HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON, BARON
(1829-1884), Austrian geologist, was born at Esslingen, Wiirtem-
berg, on the 3oth of April 1829. He was the son of Christian
Ferdinand Hochstetter (1787-1860), a clergyman and professor
at Briinn, who was also a botanist and mineralogist. Having
received his early education at the evangelical seminary at
Maulbronn, he proceeded to the university of Tubingen; there
under F. A. Quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology
became permanently fixed, and there he obtained his doctor's
degree and a travelling scholarship. In 1852 he joined the staff
of the Imperial Geological Survey of Austria and was engaged
until 1856 in parts of Bohemia, especially in the Bohmerwald, and
in the Fichtel and Karlsbad mountains. His excellent reports
established his reputation. Thus he came to be chosen as geolo-
gist to the Novara expedition (1857-1859), and made numerous
valuable observations in the voyage round the world. In 1859
he was engaged by the government of New Zealand to make a
rapid geological survey of the islands. On his return he was
appointed in 1860 professor of mineralogy and geology at the
Imperial Polytechnic Institute in Vienna, and in 1876 he was
made superintendent of the Imperial Natural History Museum.
In these later years he explored portions of Turkey and eastern
Russia, and he published papers on a variety of geological,
palaeontological and mineralogical subjects. He died at Vienna
on the 1 8th of July 1884.
PUBLICATIONS. Karlsbad, seine geognostischen Verhaltnisse und
seine Quellen (1858); Neu-Seeland (1863); Geological and Topo-
graphical Atlas of New Zealand (1864) ; Leitfaden der Mineralogie
und Geologie (with A. Bisching) (1876, ed. 8, 1890).
HOCKEY (possibly derived from the " hooked " stick with
which it is played; cf. O. Fr. hoquet, shepherd's crook), a game
played with a ball or some similar object by two opposing sides,
using hooked or bent sticks, with which each side attempts to
drive it into the other's goal. In one or more of its variations
Hockey was known to most northern peoples in both Europe and
Asia, and the Romans possessed a game of similar nature. It
was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or the ice in
winter. In Scotland it was called " shinty," and in Ireland
" hurley," and was usually played on the hard, sandy sea-shore
HOCKEY
555
j.
with numerous players on each side. The rules were simple
and the play very rough.
Modern Hockey, properly so called, is played during the cold
season on the hard turf, and owes its recent vogue to the forma-
tion of " The Men's Hockey Association " in England in 1875.
The rules drawn up by the Wimbledon Club in 1883 still obtain
in all essentials. Since 1895 " international " matches at hockey
have been played annually between England, Scotland, Ireland
and Wales; and in 1907 a match was played between England
and France, won by England by 14 goals to nil. In 1890 Divi-
sional Association matches (North, South, West, Midlands) and
inter-university matches (Oxford and Cambridge) were in-
augurated, and have since been played annually. County
matches are also now regularly played in England, twenty-six
counties competing in 1907. Of other hockey clubs playing
regular matches in 1907, there were eighty-one in the London
district, and fifty-nine in the provinces.
The game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground 100
yds. long and 50 to 60 yds. wide. The goals are in the centre of each
end-line, and consist of
two uprights 7 ft. high
surmounted by a hori-
zontal bar, enclosing a
space 12 ft. wide. In
front of each goal is
a space enclosed by a
curved line, its greatest
diameter from the goal-
line being 15 ft., called
the striking-circle. The
positions of the players
on each side may be
seen on the accompany-
ing diagram. T,wo
umpires, one on each
side of the centre-line,
officiate.
,| The ball is an ordinary
~~ cricket -ball painted
j> white. The stick has a
hard- wood curved head,
and a handle of cork
or wrapped cane. It
must not exceed 2 in.
in diameter nor 28 oz.
in weight. At the start
of the game, which
consists of two thirty
or thirty-five minute
periods, the two centre-
forwards " bully off "
the ball in the middle
of the field. In " bully-
ing off " each centre
must strike the ground
on his own side of the
ball three times with
:
Oi* O
: u
O
>LH
O
CF
O
CH
O
Rl
O
RH
"o RW
Diagram of Hockey Field.
G, Goal.
RB, Right Back.
LB, Left Back.
RH, Right Half.
RW, Right Wing.
RI, Inside Right.
CH, Centre Half. LW, Left Wing.
LH, Left Half.
CF, Centre Forward, his stick and strike his
LI, Inside Left. opponent's stick three
times alternately; after
which either may strike
the ball. Each side
then endeavours, by means of striking, passing and dribbling,
to Idrive the ball into its opponents' goal. A player is "off
side " if he is nearer the enemy's goal than one of his own side
who strikesi the ball, and he may not strike the ball himself
until it has been touched by one of the opposing side. The ball
may be caught (but not held) or stopped by any part of the body,
but may not be picked up, carried, kicked, thrown or knocked
except with the stick. An opponent's stick may be hooked, but not
an opponent's person, which may not be obstructed in any way.
No left-handed play is allowed. Penalties for infringing rules are of
two classes; " free hits " and " penalty bullies," to be taken where
the foul occurred. For flagrant fouls penalty goals may also be
awarded. A " corner " occurs when the ball goes behind the goal-
line, but not into goal. If it is hit by the attacking side, or unin-
tentionally by the defenders, it must be brought out 25 yds., in a
direction at right angles to the goal-line from the point where it
crossed the line, and there " bullied." But if the ball is driven from
within the 25-yd. line unintentionally behind the goal-line by the
defenders, a member of the attacking side is given a free hit from a
point within 3 yds. of a corner flag, the members of the defending side
remaining behind their goal-line. If the ball is hit intentionally behind
the goal-line by the attacking side, the free hit is taken from the point
where thetball went over. No goal can be scored from a free hit directly.
Ice Hockey (or Bandy, to give it its original name) is far more
popular than ordinary Hockey in countries where there is much
ice; in fact in America " Hockey " means Ice Hockey, while
the land game is called Field Hockey. Ice Hockey in its simplest
form of driving a ball across a given limit with a stick or club
has been played for centuries in northern Europe, attaining
its greatest popularity in the Low Countries, and there are many
1 6th- and 17th-century paintings extant which represent games
of Bandy, the players using an implement formed much like
a golf club.
In^England Bandy is controlled by the " National Bandy Associa-
tion." A team consists of eleven players, wearing skates, and the
proper space for play is 200 yds. by 100 yds. in extent. The ball is ol
solid india-rubber, between 2j and 2$ in. in diameter. The bandies
are 2 in. in diameter and about 4 ft. long. The goals, placed in the
centre of each goal-line, consist of two upright posts 7 ft. high and
12 ft. apart, connected by a lath. A match is begun by the referee
throwing up the ball in the centre of the field, after which it must not
be touched other than with the bandy untif a goal is scored or the
ball passes the boundaries of the course, in which case it is hit into
the field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it
went out by the player who touched it last. If the ball is hit across
the goal-line but not into a goal, it is hit out by one cf the defenders
from the point where it went over, the opponents not being allowed
to approach nearer than 25 yds. from the goal-line while the hit is
made.
In America the development of the modern game is due to the
Victoria Hockey Club and McGill University (Montreal). About
1 88 1 the secretary of the former club made the first efforts towards
drawing up a recognized code of laws, and for some time afterwards
playing rules were agreed upon from time to time whenever an
important match was played, the chief teams being, besides those
already mentioned, the Ottawa, Quebec, Crystal and Montreal
Hockey Clubs, the first general tournament taking place in 1884.
Three years later the " Amateur Hockey Association of Canada "
was formed, and a definite code of rules drawn up. Soon afterwards,
in consequence of exhibitions given by the best Canadian teams in
Hockey Stick.
some of the larger cities of the United States, the new game was
taken up by American schools, colleges and athletic clubs, and became
nearly as popular in the northern states as in the Dominion. The
rules differ widely from those of English Bandy. The rink must be
at least 112 ft. long by 58 ft. wide, and seven players form a side.
The goals are 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high and are provided with goal-
nets. Instead of the English painted cricket-ball a puck is used,
made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone, I in.
thick, and 3 in. in diameter. The sticks are made of one piece of hard
wood, and may not be more than 3 in. wide at any part. The game
is played for two half-hour or twenty-niinute periods with an inter-
mission of ten minutes. At the beginning of a match, and also when
a goal has been made, the puck is faced, i.e. it is placed in the middle
of the rink between the sticks of the two left-centres, and the referee
calls " play." Whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by
means of passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from
which a goal may be shot. The puck may be stopped by any part of
the person but not carried or knocked except with the stick. No
stick may be raised above the shoulder except when actually striking
the puck. When the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal,
or a foul has been made behind the goal, it is faced 5 yds. inside the
rink. The goal-keeper must maintain a standing position.
There are a number of Hockey organizations in America, all under
the jurisdiction of the " American Amateur Hockey League " in the
United States and the " Canadian Amateur Athletic League " in
Canada.
Ice Polo, a winter sport similar to Ice Hockey, is almost exclusively
played in the New England states. A rubber-covered ball is used and
the stick is heavier than that used in Ice Hockey. The radical differ-
ence between the two games is that, in Ice Polo, there is no strict
off-side rule, so that passes and shots at goal may come from any and
often the most unexpected direction. Five men constitute a team:
a goal-tend, a half-back, a centre and two rushers. The rushers must
be rapid skaters, adepts in dribbling and passing and good goal shots.
The centre supports the rushers, passing the ball to them or trying
for goal himself. The half-back is the first defence and the goal-tend
the last. The rink is 150 ft. long.
Ring Hockey may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or
large room by teams of six, comprising a goal-keeper, a quarter, three
HOCK-TIDEHODGE
forwards and a centre. The goals consist of two uprights 3 ft. high
and 4 ft. apart. The ring, which takes the place of the ball or puck,
is made of flexible rubber, and is 5 in. in diameter with a 3-in. opening
through the centre. It weighs between 12 and 16 oz. The stick is
a wand of light but tough wood, between 36 and 40 in. long, about
J in. in diameter, provided with a 5-in. guard 20 in. from the lower
end. The method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the
hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal. A goal shot from the
field counts one point, a goal from a foul i point. When a foul is
called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free
shot for goal from any point on the quarter line.
Roller Polo, played extensively during the winter months in the
United States, is practically Ice Polo adapted to the floors of gym-
nasiums and halls, the players, five on a side, wearing roller-skates.
The first professional league was organized in 1883.
HOCK-TIDE, an ancient general holiday in England, celebrated
on the second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Hock-
Tuesday was an important term day, rents being then payable,
for with Michaelmas it divided the rural year into its winter and
summer halves. The derivation of the word is disputed: any
analogy with Ger. hoch, " high," being generally denied. No
trace of the word is found in Old English, and " hock-day," its
earliest use in composition, appears first in the I2th century.
The characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding. On
Monday the women, on Tuesday the men, stopped all passers
of the opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought
their release with a small payment, or a rope was stretched across
the highroads, and the passers were obliged to pay toll. The
money thus collected seems to have gone towards parish expenses.
Many entries are found in parish registers under " Hocktyde
money." The hocktide celebration became obsolete in the
beginning of the i8th century. At Coventry there was a play
called " The Old Coventry Play of Hock Tuesday." This,
suppressed at the Reformation owing to the incidental disorder,
and revived as part of the festivities on Queen Elizabeth's visit
to Kenilworth in July 1575, depicted the struggle between Saxons
and Danes, and has given colour to the suggestion that hock-tide
was originally a commemoration of the massacre of the Danes
on St Brice's Day, the i3th of November A.D. 1002, or of the
rejoicings at the death of Hardicanute on the 8th of June 1042
and the expulsion of the Danes. But the dates of these anni-
versaries do not bear this out.
HOCUS, a shortened form of " hpcus pocus," used in the iyth
century in the sense of " to play a trick on any one," to "hoax,"
which is generally taken to be a derivative. " Hocus pocus "
appears to have been a mock Latin expression first used as the
name of a juggler or conjurer. Thus in Ady's Candle in the Dark
(jfiss), quoted in the New English Dictionary, " I will speak of
one man . . . that went about in King James his time . . .
who called himself, The Kings Majesties most excellent Hocus
Pocus, and so was called, because that at the playing of every
Trick, he used to say, Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade celeriter
jubeo, a dark composure of words, to blinde the eyes of the
beholders, to make his Trick pass the more currantly without
discovery." Tillotson's guess (Sermons, xxvi.) that the phrase
was a corruption of hoc est corpus and alluded to the words of
the Eucharist, " in ridiculous imitation of the priests of the
Church of Rome in their trick of Transubstantiation," has
frequently been accepted as a serious derivation, but has no
foundation. A connexion with a supposed demon of Scandin-
avian mythology, called " OchusBochus," isequally unwarranted.
" Hocus " is used as a verb, meaning to drug, stupefy with opium,
&c., for a criminal purpose. This use dates from the beginning
of the i gth century.
HODDEN (a word of unknown origin), a coarse kind of cloth
made of undyed wool, formerly much worn by the peasantry
of Scotland. It was usually made on small hand-looms by the
peasants themselves. Grey hodden was made by mixing black
and white fleeces together in the proportion of one to twelve
when weaving.
HODDESDON, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, near the river Lea, 17 m. N.
from London by the Great Eastern railway (Broxbourne and
Hoddesdon station on the Cambridge line). Pop. (1901), 4711.
This is the northernmost of a series of populous townships
extending from the suburbs of London along the Lea valley as
far as its junction with the Stort, which is close to Hoddesdon.
They are in the main residential. Hoddesdon was a famous
coaching station on the Old North Road; and the Bull posting-
house is mentioned in Matthew Prior's " Down Hall." The Lea
has been a favourite resort of anglers (mainly for coarse fish
in this part) from the time of Izaak Walton, in whose book
Hoddesdon is specifically named. The church of St Augustine,
Broxbourne, is a fine example of Perpendicular work, and
contains interesting monuments, including an altar tomb with
enamelled brasses of 1473. Hoddesdon probably covers the
site of a Romano-British village.
HODEDA (Hodeida, Hadeda), a town in Arabia situated on the
Red Sea coast 14 48' N. and 42 57' E. It lies on a beach
of muddy sand exposed to the southerly and westerly winds.
Steamers anchor more than a mile from shore, and merchandize
has to be transhipped by means of sambuks or native boats.
But Hodeda has become the chief centre of the maritime trade
of Turkish Yemen, and has superseded Mokha as the great port
of export of South Arabian coffee. The town is composed of
stone-built houses of several storeys, and is surrounded, except
on the sea face, by a fortified enceinte. The population is esti-
mated at 33,000, and contains, besides the Arab inhabitants and
the Turkish officials and garrison, a considerable foreign element,
Greeks, Indians and African traders from the opposite coast.
There are consulates of Great Britain, United States, France,
Germany, Italy and Greece. The steam tonnage entering and
clearing the port in 1904 amounted to 78,700 tons, the highest
hitherto recorded. Regular services are maintained with Aden,
and with Suez, Massowa and the other Red Sea ports. Large
dhows bring dates from the Persian Gulf, and occasional steamers
from Bombay call on their way to Jidda with cargoes of grain.
The imports for 1904 amounted in value to 467,000, the chief
items being piece goods, food grains and sugar; the exports
amounted to 451,000, including coffee valued at 229,000.
HODENING, an ancient Christmas custom still surviving in
Wales, Kent, Lancashire and elsewhere. A horse's skull or
a wooden imitation on a pole is carried round by a party of
youths, one of whom conceals himself under a white cloth to
simulate the horse's body, holding a lighted candle in the skull.
They make a house-to-house visitation, begging gratuities.
The " Penitential " of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) speaks of
" any who, on the kalands of January, clothe themselves with
the skins of cattle and carry heads of animals." This, coupled
with the fact that among the primitive Scandinavians the horse
was often the sacrifice made at the winter solstice to Odin for
success in battle, has been thought to justify the theory that
hodening is a corruption of Odining.
HODGE, CHARLES (1797-1878), American theologian, was
born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of December
1797. Hegraduated at the Collegeof New Jersey (now Princeton)
in 1815, and in 1819 at the Princeton Theological seminary,
where he became an instructor in 1820, and the first professor
of Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822. Meanwhile, in 1821,
he had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister. From 1826
to 1828 he studied under de Sacy in Paris, under Gesenius and
Tholuck in Halle, and under Hengstenberg, Neander and
Humboldt in Berlin. In 1840 he was transferred to the chair of
exegetical and didactic theology, to which subjects that of
polemic theology was added in 1854, and this office he held until
his death. In 1825 he established the quarterly Biblical Reper-
tory, the title of which was changed to Biblical Repertory and
Theological Review in 1830 and to Biblical Repertory and Princeton
Review in 1837. With it, in 1840, was merged the Literary
and Theological Review of New York, and in 1872 the American
Presbyterian Review of New York, the title becoming Presbyterian
Quarterly and Princeton Review in 1872 and Princeton Review
in 1877. He secured for it the position of theological organ of the
Old School division of the Presbyterian church, and continued
its principal editor and contributor until 1868, when the Rev.
Lyman H. Atwater became his colleague. His more important
essays were republished under the titles Essays and Reviews
HODGKIN HODMEZO-VASARHELY
557
(1857), Princeton Theological Essays, and Discussions in Church
Polity (1878). He was moderator of the General Assembly
(O.S.) in 1846, a member of the committee to revise the Book of
Discipline of the Presbyterian church in 1858, and president of
the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1868-1870. The
24th of April 1872, the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his
professorship, was observed in Princeton as his jubilee by between
400 and 500 representatives of his 2700 pupils, and $50,000 was
raised for the endowment of his chair. He died at Princeton
on the ipth of June 1878. Hodge was one of the greatest of
American theologians.
Besides his articles in the Princeton Review, he published a
Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (1835, abridged 1836,
rewritten and enlarged 1864, new ed. 1886), Constitutional History
of the Presbyterian Church in the United States (2 vols., 1839-1840);
The Way of Life (1841); Commentaries on Ephesians (1856);
i Corinthians (1857); 2 Corinthians (1859); Systematic Theology (3
vols., 2200 pp., 1871-1873), probably the best of all modern ex-
positions of Calvinistic dogmatic; and What is Darwinism ? (1874),
in which he opposed " Atheistic Evolutionism." After his death a
volume of Conference Papers (1879) was published. His life, by his
son, was published in 1880.
His son, ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER HODGE (1823-1886), also
famous as a Presbyterian theologian, was born at Princeton on
the i8th of July 1823. He graduated at the College of New Jersey
in 1841, and at the Princeton Theological seminary in 1846,
and was ordained in 1847. From 1847 to 1850 he was a mission-
ary at Allahabad, India, and was then pastor of churches
successively at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851-1855);
at Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855-1861), and at Wilkes-Barre,
Pennsylvania (1861-1864). From 1864 to 1877 he was professor
of didactic and polemical theology in the Allegheny Theological
seminary at Allegheny, Pennsylvania, where he was also from
1866 to 1877 pastor of the North Church (Presbyterian). In
1878 he succeeded his father as professor of didactic theology
at the Princeton seminary. He died on the nth of November
1886. Besides writing the biography of his father, he was the
author of Outlines of Theology (1860, new ed. 1875; enlarged,
1879); The Atonement (1867); Exposition of the Confession of
Faith (1869); and Popular Lectures on Theological Themes (1887).
See C. A. Salmond's Charles and A. A. Hodge (New York, 1888).
HODGKIN, THOMAS (1831- ), British historian, son of
John Hodgkin (1800-1875), barrister, was born in London on
the 2gth of July 1831. Having been educated as a member of
the Society of Friends and taken the degree of B.A. at London
University, he became a partner in the banking house of Hodgkin,
Barnett & Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, a firm afterwards amalga-
mated with Lloyds' Bank. While continuing in business as
a banker, Hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical
study, and soon became a leading authority on the history of
the early middle ages, his books being indispensable to all
students of this period. His chief works are, Italy and her
Invaders (8 vols., Oxford, 1880-1899); The Dynasty of Theodosius
(Oxford, 1889); Theodoric the Goth (London, 1891); and an
introduction to the Letters of Cassiodorus (London, 1886).
He also wrote a Life of Charles the Great (London, 1897) ; Life
of George Fox (Boston, 1896); and the opening volume of
Longman's Political History of England (London, 1906).
HODGKINSON, EATON (1780-1861), English engineer, the
son of a farmer, was born at Anderton near Northwich, Cheshire,
on the 26th of February 1789. After attending school at North-
wich, he began to help his widowed mother on the farm, but to
escape from that uncongenial occupation he persuaded her in
1811 to remove to Manchester and start a pawnbroking business.
There he made the acquaintance of John Dalton, and began those
inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work
of his life. He was associated with Sir William Fairbairn in an
important series of experiments on cast iron, and his help was
sought by Robert Stephenson in regard to the forms and dimen-
sions of the tubes for the Britannia bridge. A paper which he
communicated to the Royal Society on "Experimental Researches
on the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and other Materials," in
1840 gained him a Royal medal in 1841, and he was also elected
a fellow. In 1847 he was appointed professor of the mechanical
principles of engineering in University College, London, and at
the same time he was employed as a member of the Royal Com-
mission appointed to inquire into the application of iron to
railway structures. In 1848 he was chosen president of the
Manchester Philosophical Society, of which he had been a
member since 1826, and to which, both previously and sub-
sequently, he contributed many of the more important results of
his discoveries. For several years he took an active part in the .
discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was
elected an honorary member in 1851. He died at Eaglesfield
House, near Manchester, on the i8th of June 1861.
HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894), English ad-
ministrator, ethnologist and naturalist, was born at Lower
Beech, Prestbury, Cheshire, on the ist of February 1800. His
father, Brian Hodgson, came of a family of country gentlemen,
and his mother was a daughter of William Houghton of Man-
chester. In 1816 he obtained an East Indian writership. After
passing through the usual course at Haileybury, he went out to
India in 1818, and after a brief service at Kumaon as assistant-
commissioner was in 1820 appointed assistant to the Resident at
Katmandu, the capital of Nepal. In 1823 he obtained an under-
secretaryship in the foreign department at Calcutta, but his
health failed, and in 1824 he returned to Nepal, to which the
whole of his life, whether in or out of India, may be said to have
been thenceforth given. He devoted himself particularly to the
collection of Sanskrit MSS. relating to Buddhism, and hardly less
so to the natural history and antiquities of the country, and by
1839 had contributed eighty-nine papers to the Transactions
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His investigations of the
ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important. In
1833 he became Resident in Nepal, and passed many stormy
years in conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was
accredited. He succeeded, nevertheless, in concluding a satis-
factory treaty in 1839; but in 1842 his policy, which involved an
imperious attitude towards the native government, was upset by
the interference of Lord Ellenborough, but just arrived in India
and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble in Nepal during the
conflict in Afghanistan. Hodgson took upon himself to disobey
his instructions, a breach of discipline justified to his own mind
by his superior knowledge of the situation, but which the governor-
general could hardly be expected to overlook. He was, neverthe-
less, continued in office for a time, but was recalled in 1843, and
resigned the service. In 1845 he returned to India and settled at
Darjeeling, where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite
pursuits, becoming the greatest authority on the Buddhist
religion and on the flora of the Himalayas. It was he who early
suggested the recruiting of Gurkhas for the Indian army, and who
influenced Sir Jung Bahadur to lend his assistance to the British
during the mutiny in 1857. In 1858 he returned to England, and
lived successively in Cheshire and Gloucestershire, occupied with
his studies to the last. He died at his seat at Alderley Grange in
the Cotswold Hills on the 23rd of May 1894. No man has done
so much to throw light on Buddhism as it exists in Nepal, and
his collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, presented to the East
India Office, and of natural history, presented to the British
Museum, are unique as gatherings from a single country. He
wrote altogether 184 philological and ethnological and 127
scientific papers, as well as some valuable pamphlets on native
education, in which he took great interest. His principal work,
Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of Buddhists (1841),
was republished with the most important of his other writings
in 1872-1880.
His life was written by Sir W. W. Hunter in 1896.
H6DMEZO-VASARHELY, a town of Hungary, in the county
of Csongrad, 135 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
60,824, of which about two-thirds are Protestants. The town,
situated on Lake Hod, not far from the right bank of the Tisza,
has a modern aspect. The soil of the surrounding country, of
which 383 sq. m. belong to the municipality, is exceedingly
fertile, the chief products being wheat, mangcorn, barley, oats,
millet, maize and various descriptions of fruit, especially melons.
Extensive vineyards, yielding large quantities of both white and
558
HODOGRAPH HODSON
red grapes, skirt the town, and the horned cattle and horses of
Hodmezo-Vasarhely have a good reputation; sheep and pigs are
also extensively reared. The commune is protected from inunda-
tions of the Tisza by an enormous dike, but the town, neverthe-
less, sometimes suffers considerable damage during the spring
floods.
HODOGRAPH (Gr. 636s, a way, and ypafciv, to write), a curve
of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a
moving particle. It appears to have been used by James
Bradley, but for its practical development we are mainly indebted
to Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who published an account of it
in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 1846. If a point
be in motion in any orbit and with any velocity, and if, at each
instant, a line be drawn from a fixed point parallel and equal to
the velocity of the moving point at that instant, the extremities
of these lines will lie on a curve called the hodograph. Let PPiPz
be the path of the moving point, and let OT, OTi, OT 2 , be drawn
from the fixed point O parallel
and equal to the velocities at
P, PI, P2 respectively, then the
locus of T is the hodograph of the
orbits described by P (see figure).
From this definition we have
the following important funda-
mental property which belongs
to all hodographs, viz. that at
any point the tangent to the
hodograph is parallel to the
direction, and the velocity in
the hodograph equal to the
magnitude of the resultant
acceleration at the correspond-
ing point of the orbit. This
will be evident if we consider
that, since radii vectores of the
hodograph represent velocities in the orbit, the elementary
arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the hodo-
graph represents the velocity which must be compounded
with the velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any
short interval of time to get the velocity at the end of that
interval, that is to say, represents the change of velocity for
that interval. Hence the elementary arc divided by the element of
time is the rate of change of velocity of the moving-point, or in
other words, the velocity in the hodograph is the acceleration in
the orbit.
Analytically thus (Thomson and Tait, Nat. Phil.) : Let x, y, z
be the coordinates of P in the orbit, {, 17, f those of the correspond-
ing point T in the hodograph, then
. dx Ay dz
* = di' *-3?' f = 2r
therefore
Also, if s be the arc of the hodograph,
ds
A (Tan 2 o. ( dr >\ 2 4. ( d * \ 2
p \vajj ;
Equation (i) shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel
to the line of resultant acceleration, and (2) that the velocity in
the hodograph is equal to the acceleration.
Every orbit must clearly have a hodograph, and, conversely, every
hodograph a corresponding orbit; and, theoretically speaking, it is
possible to deduce the one from the other, having given the other
circumstances of the motion.
For applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical
problems see MECHANICS.
HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES (1821-1858), known
as " Hodson of Hodson's Horse," British leader of light cavalry
during the Indian Mutiny, third son of the Rev. George Hodson,
afterwards archdeacon of Stafford and canon of Lichfield,
was born on the igth of March 1821 at Maisemore Court, near
Gloucester. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and
accepted a cadetship in the Indian army at the advanced age
for those days of twenty-three. Joining the 2nd Bengal
Grenadiers he went through the first Sikh War, and was present
at the battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshah and Sobraon. In one
of his letters home at this period he calls the campaign a " tissue
of mismanagement, blunders, errors, ignorance and arrogance ";
and outspoken criticism such as this brought him many bitter
enemies throughout his career, who made the most of undeniable
faults of character. In 1847, through the influence of Sir Henry
Lawrence, he was appointed adjutant of the corps of Guides,
and in 1852 was promoted to the command of the Guides with
the civil charge of Yusafzai. But his brusque and haughty
demeanour to his equals made him many enemies. In 1855 two
separate charges were brought against him. The first was that
he had arbitrarily imprisoned a Pathan chief named Khadar
Khan, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of Colonel
Mackeson. The man was acquitted, and Lord Dalhousie removed
Hodson from his civil functions and remanded him to his regiment
on account of his lack of judgment. The second charge was
more serious, amounting to an accusation of malversation in
the funds of his regiment. He was tried by a court of inquiry,
who found that his conduct to natives had been " unjustifiable
and oppressive," that he had used abusive language to his
native officers and personal violence to his men, and that his
system of accounts was " calculated to screen peculation and
fraud." Subsequently another inquiry was carried out by
Major Reynell Taylor, which dealt simply with Hodson's accounts
and found them to be " an honest and correct record . . .
irregularly kept." At this time the Guides were split up into
numerous detachments, and there was a system of advances
which made the accounts very complicated. The verdicts of
the two inquiries may be set against each other, and this particular
charge declared " not proven." It is possible that Hodson was
careless and extravagant in money matters rather than actually
dishonest; but there were several similar charges against him.
During a tour through Kashmir with Sir Henry Lawrence he
kept the purse and Sir Henry could never obtain an account
from him; subsequently Sir George Lawrence accused him of
embezzling the funds of the Lawrence Asylum at Kasauli;
while Sir Neville Chamberlain in a published letter says of the
third brother, Lord Lawrence, " I am bound to say that Lord
Lawrence had no opinion of Hodson's integrity in money matters.
He has often discussed Hodson's character in talking to me,
and it was to him a regret that a man possessing so many fine
gifts should have been wanting in a moral quality which made
him untrustworthy." Finally, on one occasion Hodson spent
500 of the pay due to Lieutenant Gcdby, and under threat of
exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker
through one of his officers named Bisbarat Ah'.
It was just at the time when Hodson's career seemed ruined
that the Indian Mutiny broke out, and he obtained the oppor-
tunity of rehabilitating himself. At the very outset of the
campaign he made his name by riding with despatches from
General Anson at Karnal to Meerut and back again, a distance
of 1 52 m. in all, in seventy-two hours, through a country swarming
with the rebel cavalry. This feat so pleased the commander-
in-chief that he empowered him to raise a regiment of 2000
irregular horse, which became known to fame as Hodson's
Horse, and placed him at the head of the Intelligence Depart-
ment. In his double role of cavalry leader and intelligence
officer, Hodson played a large part in the reduction of Delhi
and consequently in saving India for the British empire. He
was the finest swordsman in the army, and possessed that
daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leader-
ship against Asiatics. In explanation of the fact that he
never received the Victoria Cross it was said of him that it was
because he earned it every day of his life. But he also had
the defects of his qualities, and could display on occasion a
certain cruelty and callousness of disposition. Reference has
already been made to Bisharat AH, who had lent Hodson money.
During the siege of Delhi another native, said to be an enemy
of Bisharat Ali's, informed Hodson .that he had turned rebel
HODY HOE
559
and had just reached Khurkhouda, a village near Delhi. Hodson
thereupon took out a body of his sowars, attacked the village,
and shot Bisharat Ali and several of his relatives. General
Crawford Chamberlain states that this was Hodson's way of
wiping out the debt. Again, after the fall of Delhi, Hodson
obtained from General Wilson permission to ride out with fifty
horsemen to Humayun's tomb, 6 m. out of Delhi, and bring
in Bahadur Shah, the last of the Moguls. This he did with
safety in the face of a large and threatening crowd, and thus
dealt the mutineers a heavy blow. On the following day with
100 horsemen he went out to the same tomb and obtained the
unconditional surrender of the three princes, who had been
left behind on the previous occasion. A crowd of 6000 persons
gathered, and Hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them
to disarm, which they proceeded to do. He sent the princes on
with an escort of ten men, while with the remaining ninety
he collected the arms of the crowd. On galloping after the
princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the escort
and threatening an attack; and fearing that he would be unable
to bring his prisoners into Delhi he shot them with his own
hand. This is the most bitterly criticized action in his career,
but no one but the man on the spot can judge how it is necessary
to handle a crowd; and in addition one of the princes, Abu
Bukt, heir-apparent to the throne, had made himself notorious
for cutting off the arms and legs of English children and pouring
the blood into their mothers' mouths. Considering the circum-
stances of the moment, Hodson's act at the worst was one of
irregular justice. A more unpleasant side to the question is
that he gave the king a safe conduct, which was afterwards seen
by Sir Donald Stewart, before he left the palace, and presumably
for a bribe; and he took an armlet and rings from the bodies
of the princes. He was freely accused of looting at the time,
and though this charge, like that of peculation, is matter for
controversy, it is very strongly supported. General Pelham
Burn said that he saw loot in Hodson's boxes when he accom-
panied him from Fatehgarh to take part in the siege of Lucknow,
and Sir Henry Daly said that he found " loads of loot " in
Hodson's boxes after his death, and also a file of documents
relating to the Guides case, which had been stolen from him
and of which Hodson denied all knowledge. On the other hand
the Rev. G. Hodson states in his book that he obtained the
inventory of his brother's possessions made by the Committee
of Adjustment and it contained no articles of loot, and Sir
Charles Gough, president of the committee, confirmed this
evidence. This statement is totally incompatible with Sir
Henry Daly's and is only one of many contradictions in the
case. Sir Henry Norman stated that to his personal knowledge
Hodson remitted several thousand pounds to Calcutta which
could only have been obtained by looting. On the other hand,
again, Hodson died a poor man, his effects were sold for 170,
his widow was dependent on charity for her passage home,
was given apartments by the queen at Hampton Court, and
left only 400 at her death.
Hodson was killed on the nth of March 1858 in the attack on
the Begum Kotee at Lucknow. He had just arrived on the spot
and met a man going to fetch powder to blow in a door; instead
Hodson, with his usual recklessness, rushed into the doorway
and was shot. On the whole, it can hardly be doubted that he
was somewhat unscrupulous in his private character, but he was
a splendid soldier, and rendered inestimable services to the
empire.
The controversy relating to Hodson's moral character is very
complicated and unpleasant. Upon Hodson's side see Rev. G.
Hodson, Hodson of Hodson's Horse (1883), and L. J. Trotter, A
Leader of Light Horse (1901); against him, R. Bosworth Smith, Life
of Lord Lawrence, appendix to the 6th edition of 1885; T. R. E.
Holmes, History of the Indian Mutiny, appendix N to the 5th edition
of 1898, and Four Famous Soldiers by the same author, 1889; and
General Sir Crawford Chamberlain, Remarks on Captain Trotter's
Biography of Major W. S. R. Hodson (1901).
HODY, HUMPHREY (1659-1707), English divine, was born
at Odcombe in Somersetshire in 1659. In 1676 he entered
Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became fellow in 1685.
In 1684 he published Contra historiam Arisleae de LXX. inter-
pretibus dissertalio, in which he showed that the so-called letter
of Aristeas, containing an account of the production .of the
Septuagint, was the late forgery of a Hellenist Jew originally
circulated to lend authority to that version. The dissertation
was generally regarded as conclusive, although Isaac Vossius
published an angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix
to his edition of Pomponius Mela. In 1689 Hody wrote the
Prolegomena to the Greek chronicle of John Malalas, pub-
lished at Oxford in 1691. The following year he became chaplain
to Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, and for his support
of the ruling party in a controversy with Henry Dodwell regarding
the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to Archbishop
Tillotson, an office which he continued to hold under Tenison.
In 1698 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford,
and in 1704 was made archdeacon of Oxford. In 1701 he
published A History of English Councils and Convocations, and
in 1703 in four volumes De Bibliorum textis originalibus, in
which he included a revision of his work on the Septuagint, and
published a reply to Vossius. He died on the 2oth of January
1707.
A work, De Graecis Illustribus, which he left in manuscript, was
published in 1742 by Samuel Jebb, who prefixed to it a Latin life of
the author.
HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886), American inventor,
was born in New York City on the i2th of September 1812. He
was the son of Robert Hoe (i 784-1833), an English-born American
mechanic, who with his brothers-in-law, Peter and Matthew
Smith, established in New York City a manufactory of printing
presses, and used steam to run his machinery. Richard entered
his father's manufactory at the age of fifteen and became head of
the firm (Robert Hoe & Company) on his father's death. He had
considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater
speed for printing presses. He discarded the old flat-bed model
and placed the type on a revolving cylinder, a model later
developed into the well-known Hoe rotary or " lightning "
press, patented in 1846, and further improved under the name
of the Hoe web perfecting press (see PRINTING). He died in
Florence, Italy, on the 7th of June 1886.
See A Short History of the Printing Press (New York, 1902) by his
nephew Robert Hoe (1839-1909), who was responsible for further
improvements in printing, and was an indefatigable worker in sup-
port of the New York Metropolitan Museum.
HOE (through Fr. hotte from O.H.G. houwd, mod. Ger 'Have;
the root is seen in " hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be
distinguished from " hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in
place names, e.g. Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c. ;
this is the same as Northern English " heugh " and is connected
with " hang "), an agricultural and gardening implement used
for extirpating weeds, for stirring the surface-soil in order to
break the capillary channels and so prevent the evaporation of
moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops and
similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary
FIG. i. Three Forms of Manual Hoe.
garden-hoe (numbered 1 in fig. i), which consists of a flat blade
set transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-
hoe (2), which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion
of a spade; and the swan-neck hoe (3), the best manual hoe
for agricultural purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach
the blade to the handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is
thus avoided and a longer stroke obtained. Several types of
horse-drawn hoe capable of working one or more rows at a time
are used among root and grain crops. The illustrations show
two forms of the implement, the blades of which differ in shape
from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use for hoeing
between two lines of beans or turnips or other " roots." Fig. 3
560
HOEFNAGEL HOFER
is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also con-
vertible into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used
in grain crops, the blades may be raised and lowered by means
FIG. 2. Martin's One-Row Horse Hoe.
of a lever. The horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles
in the rear, but its successful working depends on accurate
drilling of the seed, because unless the rows are parallel the roots
of the plants are liable to be cut and the foliage injured. Thus
Jethro Tull (i7th century), with whose name the beginning of
FIG. 3. Martin's General Purpose Steerage Horse Hoe.
the practice of horse-hoeing is principally connected, used the
drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in the so-called
" Horse-hoeing Husbandry " (see AGRICULTURE).
HOEFNAGEL, JORIS (1345-1601), Dutch painter and engraver,
the son of a diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He
travelled abroad, making drawings from archaeological subjects,
and was a pupil of Jan Bol at Mechlin. He was afterwards
patronized by the elector of Bavaria at Munich, where he stayed
eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at Prague. He died
at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work, especi-
ally on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted
animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history;
and his engravings (especially for Braun's Civitates orbis
terrarum, 1572, and Ortelius's Theatrum orbis terrarum, 1570)
give him an interesting place among early topographical
draughtsmen.
HOF, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper
Franconia, beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-
eastern spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig
on the main line of railway to Regensburg and Munich. Pop.
(1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one Roman Catholic
and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of St
Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a
gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school
and a hospital founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourish-
ing industries, notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute
weaving, and the manufacture of cotton and half-woollen
fabrics. It has also dye-works, flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries,
iron-works, and manufactures of machinery, iron and tin wares,
chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood there are large
marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof, originally
called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some
time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the bur-
graves of Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into
it in the isth century, and the manufacture of veils begun
in the i6th century, greatly promoted its prosperity, but it
suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite wars as well
as in the Thirty Years' War. In 1792 it came into the possession
of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was incor-
porated with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town
was destroyed by fire.
See Ernst, Geschichle and Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadl
Hof (1866); Tillmann, Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung (Hof
1899), and C. Meyer, Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof (1894-1896).
HOFER, ANDREAS (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born
on the 22nd of November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier
valley. There his father kept an inn known as " am Sand,"
which Hofer inherited, and on that account he was popularly
known as the " Sandwirth." In addition to this he carried on
a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy, acquiring
a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars
against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a
sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the
treaty of Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria
to Bavaria, and Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to
the Austrian house, became conspicuous as a leader of the
agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808 he formed one of a
deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of the arch-
duke John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the
Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the
contingent from his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming
defeat on the Bavarians at Sterzing (April n). This victory,
which resulted in the temporary reoccupation of Innsbruck
by the Austrians, made Hofer the most conspicuous of the
insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon, indeed,
and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke
Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians,
who reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of
the troops, however, gave the Tirolese their chance again;
after two battles fought on the Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the
Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the country, and Hofer
entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of the
emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be
concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the
Austrian monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished,
returned to his home. Then came the news of the armistice
of Znaim (July 12), by which Tirol and Vorarlberg were sur-
rendered by Austria unconditionally and given up to the ven-
geance of the French. The country was now again invaded by
40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but
the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French
" atheists and freemasons," and, after a temporary hesitation,
Hofer on whose head a price had been placed threw himself
into the movement. On the i3th of August, in another battle
on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal Lefebvre were routed
by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more entered Innsbruck,
which he had some difficulty in saving from sack. Hofer was
now elected Oberkommandant of Tirol, took up his quarters in
the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country
in the emperor's name. He preserved the habits of a simple
peasant, and his administration was characterized in part by
the peasant's shrewd common sense, but yet more by a pious
solicitude for the minutest details of faith and morals. On the
29th of September Hofer received from the emperor a chain and
medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief that Austria
did not intend again to desert him; the news of the conclusion
of the treaty of Schonbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was
again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming
surprise. The French in overpowering force at once pushed
into the country, and, an amnesty having been stipulated in
the treaty, Hofer and his companions, after some hesitation,
gave in their submission. On the i2th of November, however,
HOFFDING HOFFMANN, E. T. W.
561
urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant leaders and
deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again
issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The
summons met with little response; the enemy advanced in
irresistible force, and Hofer, a price once more set on his head,
had to take refuge in the mountains. His hiding-place was
betrayed by one of his neighbours, named Josef Raffl, and on
the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian troops
and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by court-
martial, and on the zoth of February was shot, twenty-four
hours after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed
to be due to Napoleon's direct orders, caused an immense
sensation throughout Germany and did much to inflame popular
sentiment against the French. At the court of Austria, too,
which was accused of having cynically sacrificed the hero, it
produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he visited
Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie
Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the
emperor. Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the
execution had been carried out against his wishes, having been
hurried on by the zeal of his generals. In 1823 Hofer's remains
were removed from Mantua to Innsbruck, where they were
interred in the Franciscan church, and in 1834 a marble statue
was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue of him
was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds
of heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually
in the open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon
him by the Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his
family.
See Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs
Andr. Hofer (Berlin, 1810); Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insur-
rection im Jahre 1809 (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, Geschichte Andr.
Hofer's Sandwirths auf Passeyr (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, Das Thai
Passeyr und seine Bewohner mil besonderer Rucksicht auf Andreas
Hofer und das Jahr 1800 (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, Tirol im Jahr
1809 (Innsbruck, 1852); Weidinger, Andreas Hofer und seine
Kampfgenossen (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, Andreas Hofer
(Munich, 1874) ; Stampfer, Sandwirt Andreas Hofer (Freiburg, 1874) ;
Schmolze, Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen (Innsbruck, 1900).
His history has supplied the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach
and Immermann, and for numerous ballads, of which some remain
very popular in Germany (see Franke, Andreas Hofer im Liede,
Innsbruck, 1884).
HOFFDING, HARALD (1843- ), Danish philosopher,
was born and educated in Copenhagen. He became a school-
master, and ultimately in 1883 professor in the university of
Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Soren Kierkegaard
in the early development of his thought, but later became a
positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit
and method of practical psychology and the critical school.
His best-known work is perhaps his Den nyere Filosofis Historic
(1894), translated into English from the German edition (1895)
by B. E. Meyer as History of Modern Philosophy (2 vols., 1900),
a work intended by him to supplement and correct that of
Hans Brochner, to whom it is dedicated. His Psychology, the
Problems of Philosophy (1905) and Philosophy of Religion (1906)
also have appeared in English.
Among Hoffding's other writings, practically all of which have
been translated into German, are: Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid
(1874); Etik (1876; ed. 1879); Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag
of Erfaring (ed. 1892); Psykologiske Undersogelser (1889); Charles
Darwin (1889); Kontinuiteten i Kants fUosofiske Udviklingsgang
(1893); Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme (1899);
Rousseau und seine Philosophic (1901); Mindre Arbejder (1899).
HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1798-1874), known as
HOFFMANN VON FALLERSLEBEN, German poet, philologist and
historian of literature, was born at Fallersleben in the duchy
of^Luneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of April 1798, the son of the
mayor of the town. He was educated at the classical schools
of .Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the universities
of Gottingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study
theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature.
In 1823 he was appointed custodian of the university library
at Breslau, a post which he held till 1838. He was al*o made
extraordinary professor of the German language and literature
at that university in 1830, and ordinary professor in 1835;
but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in consequence of his
Unpolitische Lieder (1840-1841), which gave much offence to
the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany,
Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in
Mecklenburg, of which he became a naturalized citizen. After
the revolution of 1848 he was enabled to return to Prussia, where
he was restored to his rights, and received the Warlegeld the
salary attached to a promised office not yet vacant. He married
in 1849, and during the next ten years lived first in Bingerbriick,
afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar, where together
with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the Weimarische
Jahrbuch (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to
the Duke of Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near
Hoxter on the Weser, where he died on the igth of January
1874. Fallersleben was one of the best popular poets of modern
Germany. In politics he ardently sympathized with the pro-
gressive tendencies of his time, and he was among the earliest
and most effective of the political poets who prepared the way
for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he acquired
distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with which
he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life.
Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he
composed melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable
number of them are sung by all classes in every part of Germany.
Among the best known is the patriotic Deutschland, Deutschland
iiber Alles, composed in 1841 on the island of Heligoland, where
a monument was erected in 1891 to his memory (subsequently
destroyed).
The best of his poetical writings is his Gedichte (1827; 9th ed.,
Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his Alemannische
Lieder (1826; 5th ed., 1843), Soldatenlieder (1851), Soldatenleben
(1852), Rheinleben (1865), and in his Funfzig Kinderlieder, Fiinfzig
neue Kinderlieder, and Alte und neue Kinderlieder. His Unpolitische
Lieder, Deutsche Lieder aus der Schweiz and Streiflichler are not
without poetical value, but they are mainly interesting in relation to
the movements of the age in which they were written. As a student
of ancient Teutonic literature Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks
among the most pfersevering and cultivated of German scholars,
some of the chief results of his labours being embodied in his Horae
Belgicae, Fundgruben fur Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur,
Altdeutsche Blatter, Spenden zur deutschen Literatur geschichte and
Findlinge. Among his editions of particular works may be named
Reineke Vos, Monumenla Elnonensra and Theophilus. Die deutsche
Philologie im Grundriss (1836) was at the time of its publication a
valuable contribution to philological research, and historians of
German literature still attach importance to his Geschichte des
deutschen Kirchenliedes bis auf Luther (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), Unsere
volkstiimlichen Lieder (3rd ed., 1869) and Die deutschen Gesell-
schaftslieder des 16. und 17. Jahrh. (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870
Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an autobiography, Mein Leben:
Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen (an abbreviated ed. in 2 vols.,
1894). His Gesammelte Werke were edited by H. Gerstenberg in
8 vols. (1891-1894); his Ausgewdhlte Werke by H. Benzmann
(1905, 4 vols.). See also Briefe von Hoffmann von Fallersleben und
Montz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf (1874); J. M. Wagner, Hoffmann
von Fallersleben, 1818-1868 (1869-1870), and R. von Gottschall,
Portrdts und Studien (vol. v., 1876).
HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM (1776-1822),
German romance-writer, was born at Konigsberg on the 24th
of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he himself substituted
Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived unhappily
together, and when the child was only three they separated.
His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understand-
ing nor sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament.
Hoffmann showed more talent for music and drawing than for
books. In 1792, when little over sixteen years old, he entered
the university of Konigsberg, with a view to preparing himself
for a legal career. The chief features of interest in his student
years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb von
Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an
unhappy passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons;
the latter found its outlet, not merely in music, but also in two
novels, neither of which he was able to have published. In the
summer of 1795 he began his practical career as a jurist in
Konigsberg, but his mother's death and the complications in
which his love-affair threatened to involve him made him decide
to leave his native town and continue his legal apprenticeship
562
HOFFMANN, F. B. HOFFMANN, F.
in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to Berlin,
where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in
the air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart,
and the Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests.
In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he
gave himself up entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortun-
ately, however, his brilliant ppwers of caricature brought him
into ill odour, and instead of receiving the hoped-for preferment
in Posen itself, he found himself virtually banished to the little
town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before leaving Posen he married,
and his domestic happiness alleviated to some extent the
monotony of the two years' exile. His leisure was spent in
literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was
transferred to Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849),
he was introduced to Zacharias Werner, and began to take
an interest in the later Romantic literature; now, for the first
time, he discovered how writers like Novalis, Tieck, and especially
Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own heart. But in spite
of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was mainly
occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano's Lustige
Musikanten and Werner's Kreuz an der Ostsee, and also an opera
Liebe und Eifersucht, based on Calderon's drama La Banda
y la Flor.
The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent
political changes put an end to Hoffmann's congenial life there,
and a time of tribulation followed. A position which he obtained
in 1808 as musical director of a new theatre in Bamberg availed
him little, as within a very short time the theatre was bankrupt
and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But these mis-
fortunes induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out
the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving
music lessons. The editor of the Allgemeine musikalische
Zeitung expressed his willingness to accept contributions from
Hoffmann, and here appeared for the first time some of the
musical sketches which ultimately passed over into the Phantasie-
stiicke in Callots Manier. This work appeared, in four volumes in
1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer. Meanwhile,
Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the capacity
of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose headquarters
were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity
that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin,
and two years later he was appointed councillor of the Court
of Appeal (Kammergerichf) . Hoffmann had the reputation of
being an excellent jurist and a conscientious official; he had
leisure for literary pursuits and was on the best of terms with
the circle of Romantic poets and novelists who gathered round
Fouque, Chamisso and his old friend Hitzig. Unfortunately,
however, the habits of intemperance which, in earlier years,
had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his
health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the
wine-house, in company unworthy of him. He was struck down
by locomotor ataxy, and died on the 24th of July 1822.
The Phantasiestuckc, which had been published with a
commendatory preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816
by the gruesome novel to some extent inspired by Lewis's
Monk Die Elixiere des Teufels, and the even more gruesome
and grotesque stories which make up the Nachtstucke (1817,
2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann's powers is first clearly
displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols., 1819-1821) Die
Serapionsbriider, this being the name of a small club of Hoffmann's
more intimate literary friends. Die Serapionsbriider includes not
merely stories in which Hoffmann's love for the mysterious
and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws
on his own early reminiscences (Rat Krespel, Fermate), finely
outlined pictures of old German life (Der Artushof, Meisier
Martin der Kilfner und seine Gesellen), and vivid and picturesque
incidents from Italian and French history (Doge und Dogaressa,
the story of Marino Faliero, and Das Friiulein von Scuderi).
The last-mentioned story is usually regarded as Hoffmann's
masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to Hoffmann's
later years and display to advantage his powers as a humorist;
these are Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober (1819), and Lebens-
ansichten des Kalers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des
Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler (1821-1822).
Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic
movement in Germany. He combined with a humour that
reminds us of Jean Paul the warm sympathy for the artist's
standpoint towards life, which was enunciated by early Romantic
leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was superior to
all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His
works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes in this respect
they mark a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school;
but the gruesome was onjy one outlet for Hoffmann's genius,
and even here the secret of his power lay not in his choice of
subjects, but in the wonderfully vivid and realistic presentation
of them. Every line he wrote leaves the impression behind it
that it expresses something felt or experienced; every scene,
vision or character he described seems to have been real and
living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word,
that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extra-
ordinary a power over his contemporaries.
The first collected edition of Hoffmann's works appeared in ten
volumes (Ausgewahlte Schriften, 18271828) ; to these his widow
added five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E.
Hitzig's Aus Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass, 1823). Other editions
of his works appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and,
most complete of all, Samtliche Werke, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15
vols. (1900). There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap
reprints of the more popular stories. All Hoffmann's important
works except Klein Zaches and Kater Murr have been translated
into English: The Devil's Elixir (1824), The Golden Pot by Carlyle
(in German Romance, 1827), The Serapion Brethren by A. Ewmg
(1886-1892), &c. In France Hoffmann was even more popular than
in England. Cp. G. Thurau, Hoffmanns Erzdhlungen in Frankreich
(1896). An edition of his CEuvres completes appeared in 12 vols. in
Paris in 1830. The best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger,
E. T. A. Hoffmann (1894) ; see also O. Klinke, Hoffmanns Leben und
Werke vom Slandpunkte eines Irrenarztes (1903) ; and the exhaustive
bibliography in Goedeke's Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen
Dichtung, 2nd ed., vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905). (J. G. R.)
HOFFMANN, FRANCOIS BENOIT (1760-1828), French
dramatist and critic, was born at Nancy on the nth of July
1760. He studied law at the university of Strassburg, but a
slight hesitation in his speech precluded success at the bar, and
he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served, however,
for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some
poems which brought him into notice at the little court of
Luneville over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided.
In 1784 he went to Paris, and two years later produced the opera
Phedre. His opera Adrien (i792)-was objected to by the govern-
ment on political grounds, and Hoffmann, who refused to
make the changes proposed to him, ran considerable risk under
the revolutionary government. His later operas, which were
numerous, were produced at the Opera Comique. In 1807 he
was invited by Etienne to contribute to the Journal de I' 'Empire
(afterwards the Journal des debats). Hoffmann's wide reading
qualified him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned,
apparently with no difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine
to violent attacks on the Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateau-
briand's Martyrs led the author to make some changes in a later
edition. He had the reputation of being an absolutely con-
scientious and incorruptible critic and thus exercised wide
influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April 1828.
Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent
one-act comedy, Le Roman d'une heure (1803), and an amusing
one-act opera Les Rendez-vous bourgeois.
See Sainte-Beuve, " M. de Feletz et la critique litteVaire sous
1'Empire " in Causeries du lundi, vol. i.
HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH (1660-1742), German physician,
a member of a family that had been connected with medicine
for 200 years before him, was born at Halle on the igth of
February 1660. At the gymnasium of his native town he
acquired that taste for and skill in mathematics to which he
attributed much of his after success. At the age of eighteen
he went to study medicine at Jena, whence in 1680 he passed
to Erfurt, in order to attend Kasper Cramer's lectures on
chemistry. Next year, returning to Jena, he received his
doctor's diploma, and, after publishing a thesis, was permitted to
HOFFMANN, J. J. HOFMANN, A. W. VON
5 6 3
teach. Constant study then began to tell on his health, and in
1682, leaving his already numerous pupils, he proceeded to
Minden in Westphalia to recruit himself, at the request of a
relative who held a high position in that town. After practising
at Minden for two years, Hoffmann made a journey to Holland
and England, where he formed the acquaintance of many
illustrious chemists and physicians. Towards the end of 1684
he returned to Minden, and during the next three years he
received many flattering appointments. In 1688 he removed
to the more promising sphere of Halberstadt, with the title
of physician to the principality of Halberstadt; and on the
founding of Halle university in 1693, his reputation, which, had
been steadily increasing, procured for him the primarius chair
of medicine, while at the same time he was charged with the
responsible duty of framing the statutes for the new medical
faculty. He filled also the chair of natural philosophy. With
the exception of four years (1708-1712), which he passed at
Berlin in the capacity of royal physician, Hoffmann spent the
rest of his life at Halle in instruction, practice and study, inter-
rupted now and again by visits to different courts of Germany,
where his services procured him honours and rewards. His
fame became European. He was enrolled a member of many
learned societies in different foreign countries, while in his own
he became privy councillor. He died at Halle on the i2th of
November 1742.
Of his numerous writings a catalogue is to be found in Haller's
Bibliotheca medicinae practicae. The chief is Medicina ratio-
nalis systematica, undertaken at the age of sixty, and published in
1730. It was translated into French in 1739, under the title of
Medecine raisonnee d'Hoffmann. A complete edition of Hoffmann's
works, with a life of the author, was published at Geneva in 1740,
to which supplements were added in 1753 and 1760. Editions ap-
peared also at Venice in 1745 and at Naples in 1753 and 1793. (See
also MEDICINE.)
HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH (1805-1878), German
scholar, was born at Wiirzburg on the i6th of February 1805.
After studying at Wiirzburg he went on the stage in 1825; but
owing to an accidental meeting with the German traveller,
Dr Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866), in July 1830, his
interest was diverted to Oriental philology. From Siebold
he acquired the rudiments of Japanese, and in order to take
advantage of the instructions of Ko-ching-chang, a Chinese
teacher whom Siebold had brought home with him, he made
himself acquainted with Malay, the only language except
Chinese which the Chinaman could understand. In a few years
he was able to supply the translations for Siebold's Nippon;
and the high character of his work soon attracted the attention
of older scholars. Stanislas Julien invited him to Paris; and
he would probably have accepted the invitation, as a disagree-
ment had broken out between him and Siebold, had not M.
Baud, the Dutch colonial minister, appointed him Japanese
translator with a salary of 1800 florins (150). The Dutch
authorities were slow in giving him further recognition; and
he was too modest a man successfully to urge his claims. It
was not till after he had -received the offer of the professorship
of Chinese in King's College, London, that the authorities made
him professor at Leiden and the king allowed him a yearly
pension. In 1875 he was decorated with the order of the
Netherlands Lion, and in 1877 he was elected corresponding
member of the Berlin Academy. He died at the Hague on the
23rd of January 1878.
Hoffmann's chief work was his unfinished Japanese Dictionary,
begun in 1839 and afterwards continued by L. Serrurier. Unable at
first to procure the necessary type, he set himself to the cutting of
punches, and even when the proper founts were obtained he had to
act as his own compositor as far as Chinese and Japanese were con-
cerned. His Japanese grammar (Japanische SpreMehrc) was
published in Dutch and English in 1867, and in English and German
in 1876. Of his miscellaneous productions it is enough to mention
" Japans Bezuge mit der koraischen Halbinsel und mit Schina " in
Nippon, vii.; Yo-San-fi-Rok, L'Art d'elever les vers a soie au Japan,
par Ouckaki Mourikouni (Paris, 1848) ; " Die Heilkunde in Japan"
in Mittheil. d. deutsch. Gescllsch. fur Natur- und Volkerk. Ost-Asiens
(1873-1874); and Japanische Sludien (1878).
HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1818-1892), German
chemist, was born at Giessen on the 8th of April 1818. Not
intending originally to devote himself to physical science, he
first took up the study of law and philology at Gottingen, and
the general culture he thus gained stood him in good stead
when he turned to chemistry, the study of which he began under
Liebig. When, in 1845, a school of practical chemistry was
started in London, under the style of the Royal College of
Chemistry, Hofmann, largely through the influence of the Prince
Consort, was appointed its first director. It was with some
natural hesitation that he, then a Privatdozeni at Bonn, accepted
the position, which may well have seemed rather a precarious
one; but the difficulty was removed by his appointment as
extraordinary professor at Bonn, with leave of absence for two
years, so that he could resume his career in Germany if his
English one proved unsatisfactory. Fortunately the college
was more or less successful, owing largely to his enthusiasm
and energy, and many of the men who were trained there sub-
sequently made their mark in chemical history. But in 1864
he returned to Bonn, and in the succeeding year he was selected
to succeed E. Mitscherh'ch as professor of chemistry and director
of the laboratory in Berlin University. In leaving England,
of which he used to speak as his adopted country, Hofmann
was probably influenced by a combination of causes. The public
support extended to the college of chemistry had been dwindling
for some years, and before he left it had ceased to have an
independent existence and had been absorbed into the School
of Mines. This event he must have looked upon as a curtailment
of its possibilities of usefulness. But, in addition, there is only
too much reason to suppose that he was disappointed at the
general apathy with which his science was regarded in England.
No man ever realized more fully than he how entirely dependent
on the advance of scientific knowledge is the continuation Of a
country's material ' prosperity, and no single chemist ever
exercised a greater or more direct influence upon industrial
development. In England, however, people cared for none
of these things, and were blind to the commercial potentialities
of scientific research. The college to which Hofmann devoted
nearly twenty of the best years of his life was starved; the coal-
tar industry, which was really brought into existence by his
work and that of his pupils under his direction at that college,
and which with a little intelligent forethought might have been
retained in England, was allowed to slip into the hands of
Germany, where it is now worth millions of pounds annually;
and Hofmann himself was compelled to return to his native
land to find due appreciation as one of the foremost chemists
of his time. The rest of his life was spent in Berlin, and there
he died on the 5th of May 1892. That city possesses a permanent
memorial to his name in Hofmann House, the home of the
German Chemical Society (of which he was the founder), which
was formally opened in 1900, appropriately enough with an
account of that great triumph of German chemical enterprise,
the industrial manufacture of synthetical indigo.
Hofmann's work covered a wide range of organic chemistry,
though with inorganic bodies he did but little. His first research,
carried out in Liebig's laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar,
and his investigation of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha
established the nature of aniline. This substance he used to
refer to as his first love, and it was a love to which he remained
faithful throughout his life. His perception of the analogy between
it and ammonia led to his famous work on the amines and
ammonium bases and the allied organic phosphorus compounds,
while his researches on rosaniline, which he first prepared in 1858,
formed the first of a series of investigations on colouring matters
which only ended with quinoline red in 1887. But in addition
to these and numberless other investigations for which he was
responsible the influence he exercised through his pupils must
also be taken into account. As a teacher, besides the power of
accurately gauging the character and capabilities of those who
studied under him, he had the faculty of infecting them with
his own enthusiasm, and thus of stimulating them to put forward
their best efforts. In the lecture-room he laid great stress on
the importance of experimental demonstrations, paying particular
attention to their selection and arrangement, though, since he
5 6 4
HOFMANN, J. C. K. VON HOFMEISTER
himself was a somewhat clumsy manipulator, their actual
exhibition was generally entrusted to his assistants. He was
the possessor of a clear and graceful, if somewhat florid, style,
which showed to special advantage in his numerous obituary
notices or encomiums (collected and published in three volumes
Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde, 1888). He also
excelled as a speaker, particularly at gatherings of an international
character, for in addition to his native German he could speak
English, French and Italian with fluency.
See Memorial Lectures delivered before the Chemical Society, 1893-
1900 (London, 1901).
HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON (1810-
1877), Lutheran theologian and historian, was born on the aist
of December 1810 at Nuremberg, and studied theology and
history at the university of Erlangen. In 1829 he went to
Berlin, where Schleiermacher, Hengstenberg, Neander, Ranke
and Raumer were among his teachers. In 1833 he received an
appointment to teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of
Erlangen. In 1835 he became Repetent, in 1838 Privatdozent
and in 1841 professor extraordinarius in the theological faculty
at Erlangen. In 1842 he became professor ordinarius at Rostock,
but in 1845 returned once more to Erlangen as the successor of
Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless (1806-1879), founder of
the Zeitschrift fur Protestantismus und Kirche, of which Hofmann
became one of the editors in 1846, J. F. Hofling (1802-1853) and
Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) being his collaborators. He
was a conservative in theology, but an enthusiastic adherent of
the progressive party in politics, and sat as member for Erlangen
and Fiirth in the Bavarian second chamber from 1863 to 1868.
He died on the 2oth of December 1877.
He wrote Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen
des Daniel (i&$6);Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen
(1837); Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte fur Gymnasien (1839), which
became a text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria;
Weissagung u. Erfullungim alien u. neuen Testamente (1841-1844;
and ed., 1857-1860); DerSchriftbeweis (1852-1856; 2nd ed., 1857-
1860); Die hettige Schrifl des neuen Testaments zusammenhangend
untersucht (1862-1875); Schutzschriften (1856-1859), in which he
defends himself against the charge of denying the Atonement;
and Theologische Ethik (1878). His most important works are
the five last named. In theology, as in ecclesiastical polity,
Hofmann was a Lutheran of an extreme type, although the
strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid him
open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the head
of what has been called the Erlangen School, and " in his day
he was unquestionably the chief glory of the University of
Erlangen " (Lichtenberger).
See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie and the
Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; and cf. F. Lichtenberger, History
of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889) pp. 446-458.
HOFMANN, MELCHIOR (c. 1498-1543-4), anabaptist, was
born at Hall, in Swabia, before 1500 (Zur Linden suggests 1498).
His biographers usually give his surname as above; in his printed
works it is Hoffman, in his manuscripts Hoffmann. He was
without scholarly training, and first appears as a furrier at
Livland. Attracted by Luther's doctrine, he came forward
as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious
mission. Accompanied by Melchior Rinck, also a skinner or
furrier, and a religious enthusiast, he made his way to Sweden.
Joined by Bernard KnipperdolKng, the party reached Stockholm
in the autumn of 1524. Their fervid attacks on image worship
led to their expulsion. By way of Livonia, Hofmann arrived
at Dorpat in November 1524, but was driven thence in the
following January. Making his way to Riga, and thence to
Wittenberg, he found favour with Luther; his letter of the
22nd of June 1525 appears in a tract by Luther of that year.
He was again at Dorpat in May 1526; later at Magdeburg.
Returning to Wittenberg, he was coldly received; he wrote
there his exposition of Daniel xii. (1527). Repairing to Holstein,
he got into the good graces of Frederick I. of Denmark, and
was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel.
He was extravagant in denunciation, and developed a Zwinglian
view of the Eucharist. Luther was alarmed. At a colloquy of
preachers in Flensburg (8th April 1529) Hofmann, John
Campanus and others were put on their defence. Hofmann
maintained (against the " magic " of the Lutherans) that the
function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is an appeal
for spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was
banished. At Strassburg to which he now turned, he was well
received (1529) till his anabaptist development became apparent.
He was in relations with Schwenkfeld and with Carlstadt, but
assumed a prophetic role of his own. Journeying to East
Friesland, (1530) he founded A community at Emden (1532),
securing a large following of artisans. Despite the warning of
John Trypmaker, who prophesied for him " six months " in
prison, he returned in the spring of 1533 to Strassburg, where
we hear of his wife and child. He gathered from the Apocalypse
a vision of " resurrections " of apostolic Christianity, first
under John Hus, and now under himself. The year 1533 was
to inaugurate the new era; Strassburg was to be the seat of
the New Jerusalem. In May 1533 he and others were arrested.
Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause
with the anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet, a mere witness
of the Most High, but refused the articles of faith proposed to
him by the provincial synod. Hofmann and Claus Frey, an
anabaptist, were detained in prison, a measure due to the terror
excited by the Miinster episode of 1533-1534. The synod, in
1539, made further effort to reclaim him. The last notice of his
imprisonment is on the igth of November 1543; he probably
died soon after.
Two of his publications, with similar titles, in 1530, are note-
worthy as having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris
(Weissagung vsz heiliger gotlicher geschrifft, and Prophecey oder
Weissagung vsz utarer heiliger gotlicher schri/t). Bock treats
him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds which Wallace rightly
deems inconclusive. With better reason Trechsel includes him
among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus. His
Christology was Valentinian. While all are elected to salvation,
only the regenerate may receive baptism, and those who sin
after regeneration sin against the Holy Ghost, and cannot
be saved. His followers were known as Hofmannites or
Melchiorites.
See G. Herrmann, Essai sur la vie et les ecrits de M. Hofmann
(1852); F. O. zur Linden, M. Hofmann, ein Prophet der Wiedertdufer
(1885); H. Holtzmann, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1880);
Hegler in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1900); Bock, Hist. Antitrin.
(1776), ii. ; Wallace, Antitrin. Biography (1850) iii., app. iii. ;
Trechsel, Prot. Antitrin. vor F. Socin (1839) i. ; Barclay, Inner
Life of Rel. Societies (1876). An alleged portrait, from an engrav-
ing of 1608, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross, Pansebeia
(1655). (A. Go.*)
HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT (1824-
1877), German botanist, was boxn at Leipzig on the i8th of
May 1824. He came of a family engaged in trade, and after
being educated at the Realschule of Leipzig he entered business
as a music-dealer. Much of his botanical work was done while
he was so employed, till in 1863 he. was nominated, without
intermediate academic steps, to the chair in Heidelberg; thence
he was transferred in 1872 to Tubingen, in succession to H. von
Mohl. His first work was on the distribution of the Coniferae
in the Himalaya, but his attention was very soon devoted to
studying the sexuality and origin of the embryo of Phanerogams.
His contributions on this subject extended from 1847 till 1860,
and they finally settled the question of the origin of the embryo
from an ovum, as against the prevalent pollen-tube theory of
M. J. Schleiden, for he showed that the pollen-tube does not
itself produce the embryo, but only stimulates the ovum already
present in the ovule. He soon turned his attention to the
embryology of Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, and gave con-
tinuous accounts of the germination of the spores and fertilization
in Pilularia, Salvinia, Selaginella. Some of the main facts of the
life of ferns and mosses were already known; these, together with
his own wider observations, were worked into that great general
pronouncement published in 1851 under the title, Vergleichende
Untersuchungen der Keimung, Entfaltung und Fruchtbildung
hoherer Kryptogamen und der Samenbildung der Coniferen.
HOFMEYR
565
This work will always stand in the first rank of botanical books.
It antedated the Origin of Species by eight years, but contained
facts and comparisons which could only become intelligible on
some theory of descent. The plan of life-story common to them
all, involving two alternating generations, was demonstrated
for Liverworts, Mosses, Ferns, Equiseta, Rhizocarps, Lycopodi-
aceae, and even Gymnosperms, with a completeness and certainty
which must still surprise those who know the botanical literature
of the author's time. The conclusions of Hofmeister remain in
their broad outlines unshaken, but rather strengthened by later-
acquired details. In the light of the theory of descent the
common plan of life-history in plants apparently so diverse as
those named acquires a special significance; but it is one of the
remarkable features of this great work that the writer himself
does not theorize with an unerring insight he points out his
comparisons and states his homologies, but does not indulge in
explanatory surmises. It is the typical work of an heroic age
of plant-morphology. From 1857 till 1862 Hofmeister wrote
occasionally on physiological subjects, such as the ascent of sap,
and curvatures of growing parts, but it was in morphology that
he found his natural sphere. In 1861, in conjunction with
other botanists, a plan was drawn up of a handbook of physio-
logical botany, of which Hofmeister was to be editor. Though
the original scheme was never completed, the editor himself
contributed two notable parts, Die Lehre von der Pflanzenzelle
(1867) and Allgemeine Morphologic der Gewachse (1868). The
former gives an excellent summary of the structure and relations
of the vegetable cell as then known, but it did not greatly modify
current views. The latter was notable for its refutation of the
spiral theory of leaf arrangement in plants, founded by C. F.
Schimper and A. Braun. Hofmeister transferred the discussion
from the mere study of mature form to the observation of the
development of the parts, and substituted for the " spiral
tendency " a mechanical theory based upon the observed fact
that new branchings appear over the widest gaps which exist
between next older branchings of like nature. With this im-
portant work Hofmeister's period of active production closed;
he fell into ill-health, and retired from his academic duties some
time before his death at Lindenau, near Leipzig, on the i2th of
January 1877. (F. O. B.)
HOFMEYR, JAN HENDRIK (1845-1909), South African
politician, was born at Cape Town on the 4th of July 1845.
He was educated at the South African College, and at an early
age turned his attention to politics, first as a journalist. He
was editor of the Zuid Afrikaan till its incorporation with Ons
Land, and of the Zuid Afrikaansche Tidjschrift. By birth,
education and sympathies a typical Dutch Afrikander, he set
himself to organize the political power of his fellow-countrymen.
This he did very effectively, and when in 1879 he entered the
Cape parliament as member for Stellenbosch, he became the
real leader of the Dutch party. Yet he only held office for six
months as minister without portfolio in the Scanlen ministry
from May to November 1881. He held no subsequent official
post in the colony, though he shared with Sir Thomas Upington
and Sir Charles Mills the honour of representing the Cape at
the intercolonial conference of 1887. Here he supported the
proposal for entrusting the defence of Simon's Town to Cape
Colony, leaving only the armament to be provided by the
imperial government, opposed trans-oceanic penny postage,
and moved a resolution in favour of an imperial customs union.
At the colonial conference of 1894 at Ottawa he was again one
of the Cape representatives. In 1888 and in 1889 he was a
member of the South African customs conference.
His chief importance as a public man was, however, derived
from his power over the Dutch in Cape Colony, and his control
of the Afrikander Bond. In 1878 he had himself founded the
" Farmers' Association," and as the Cape farmers were almost
entirely Dutch the Association became a centre of Dutch in-
fluence. When the Bond was formed in 1882, with purely
political aims, Hofmeyr made haste to obtain control of it,
and in 1883 amalgamated the Farmers' Association with it.
Under his direction the constitution of the Bond was modified
by the elimination of the provisions inconsistent with loyalty
to the British crown. But it remained an organization for
obtaining the political supremacy of the Cape Dutch. (See
CAPE COLONY: History.) His control over the Bond enabled
him for many years, while free from the responsibilities of office,
to make and unmake ministers at his will, and earned for him
the name of " Cabinet-maker of South Africa." Although
officially the term " Afrikander " was explained by Hofmeyr
to include white men of whatever race, yet in practice the
influence of the Bond was always exerted in favour of the Dutch,
and its power was drawn from the Dutch districts of Cape Colony.
The sympathies of the Bond were thus always strongly with
the Transvaal, as the chief centre of Dutch influence in South
Africa; and Hofmeyr's position might in many respects be
compared with that of Parnell at the head of the Irish Nationalist
party in Great Britain. In the Bechuanaland difficulty of 1884
Hofmeyr threw all the influence of the Bond into the scale in
favour of the Transvaal. But in the course of the next few years
he began to drift away from President Kruger. He resented
the reckless disregard of Cape interests involved in Kruger's
fiscal policy; he feared that the Transvaal, after its sudden
leap into prosperity upon the gold discoveries of 1886, might
overshadow all other Dutch influences in South Africa; above
all he was convinced, as he showed by his action at the London
conference, that the protection of the British navy was indis-
pensable to South Africa, and he set his face against Kruger's
intrigues with Germany, and his avowed intention of acquiring
an outlet to the sea in order to get into touch with foreign
powers.
In 1890 Hofmeyr joined forces with Cecil Rhodes, who became
premier of Cape Colony with the support of the Bond. Hofmeyr's
influence was a powerful factor in the conclusion of the Swaziland
convention of 1890, as well as in stopping the " trek " to Banyai-
land (Rhodesia) in 1891 a notable reversal of the policy he
had pursued seven years before. But the reactionary elements
in the Bond grew alarmed at Rhodes's imperialism, and in 1895
Hofmeyr resigned his seat in parliament and the presidency
of the Bond. Then came the Jameson Raid, and in its wake
there rolled over South Africa a wave of Dutch and anti-British
feeling such as had not been known since the days of Majuba.
(The proclamation issued by Sir Hercules Robinson disavowing
Jameson was suggested by Hofmeyr, who helped to draw up
its terms.) Once more Hofmeyr became president of the Bond.
By an alteration of the provincial constitution, all power in the
Cape branch of the Bond was vested in the hands of a vigilance
committee of three, of whom Hofmeyr and his brother were
two. As the recognized leader of the Cape Dutch, he protested
against such abuses as the dynamite monopoly in the Transvaal,
and urged Kruger even at the eleventh hour to grant reasonable
concessions rather than plunge into a war that might involve
Cape Afrikanderdom and the Transvaal in a common ruin. In
July 1899 he journeyed to Pretoria, and vainly supported the
proposal of a satisfactory franchise law, combined with a limited
representation of the Uitlanders in the Volksraad, and in
September urged the Transvaal to accede to the proposed
joint inquiry. During the negotiations of 1899, and after the
outbreak of war, the official organ of the Bond, Ons Land, was
conspicuous for its anti-British attitude, and its violence forced
Lord Roberts to suppress it in the Cape Colony district under
martial law. Hofmeyr never associated himself publicly with
the opinions expressed by Ons Land, but neither did he repudiate
them. The tide of race sympathy among his Dutch supporters
made his position one of great difficulty, and shortly after the
outbreak of war he withdrew to Europe, and refused to act as
a member of the " Conciliation Committee " which came to
England in 1901 in the interests of the Boer republics.
Towards the close of the war Hofmeyr returned to South Africa
and organized the Bond forces for the general election held in
Cape Colony at the beginning of 1904, which resulted in the
defeat of the Bond party. Hofmeyr retained his ascendancy
over the Cape Dutch, but now began to find himself somewhat
out of sympathy with the larger outlook on South African
566
HOFSTEDE DE GROOT- -HOGARTH, WILLIAM
affairs taken by the younger leaders of the Boers in the Transvaal.
During 1906 he gave offence to the extreme section of the Bond
by some criticisms of the taal and his use of English in public
speeches. At the general election in 1908 the Bond, still
largely under his direction, gained a victory at the polls, but
Hofmeyr himself was not a candidate. In the renewed move-
ment for the closer union of the South African colonies he
advocated federation as opposed to unification. When, however,
the unification proposals were ratified by the Cape parliament,
Hofmeyr procured his nomination as one of the Cape delegates
to England in the summer of 1909 to submit the draft act of
union to the imperial government. He attended the conferences
with the officials of the Colonial Office for the preparation of
the draft act, and after the bill had become law went to Germany
for a " cure." He returned to London in October 1909, where
he died on the i6th of that month. His body was taken to
Cape Town for burial.
HOFSTEDE DE GROOT, PETRUS (1802-1886), Dutch
theologian, was born at Leer in East Friesland, Prussia, on the
8th of October 1802, and was educated at the Gymnasium and
university of Groningen. For three years (1826-1829) he was
pastor of the Reformed Church at Ulrum, and then entered upon
his lifelong duties as professor of theology at Groningen. With
his colleagues L.G. Pareau, J. F. van Vordt, and W. Muurling
he edited from 1837 to 1872 the Waarheid in Liefde. In this
review and in his numerous books he vigorously upheld the
orthodox faith against the Dutch " modern theology " move-
ment. Many of his works were written in Latin, including
Disputatio, qua ep. ad Hebraeos cum Paulin. epistolis comparatur
(1826), Institutions historiae ecclesiae (1835), Institutio theologiae
naturalis (1842), Encyclopaedia theologi christiani (1844). Others,
in Dutch, were: The Divine Education of Humanity up to the
Coming of Jesus Christ (3 vols., 1846), The Nature of the Gospel
Ministry (1858), The " Modern Theology " of the Netherlands
(1869), The Old Catholic Movement (1877). He became professor
emeritus in 1872, and died at Groningen on the 5th of December
1886.
HOGARTH, WILLIAM (1697-1764), the great English
painter and pictorial satirist, was born at Bartholomew Close
in London on the loth of November 1697, and baptized on the
28th in the church of St Bartholomew the Great. He had two
younger sisters, Mary, born in 1699, and Ann, born in 1701.
His father, Richard Hogarth, who died in 1718, was a school-
master and literary hack, who had come to the metropolis to
seek that fortune which had been denied to him in his native
Westmorland. The son seems to have been early distinguished
by a talent for drawing and an active perceptive faculty rather
than by any close attention to the learning which he was soon
shrewd enough to see had not made his parent prosper. " Shows
of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when an infant," he
says, " and mimicry, common to all children, was remarkable in
me. . . . My exercises when at school were more remarkable for
the ornaments which adorned them than for the exercise itself."
This being the case, it is no wonder that, by his own desire,
he was apprenticed to a silver-plate engraver, Mr Ellis Gamble,
at the sign of the " Golden Angel " in Cranbourne Street or
Alley, Leicester Fields. For this master he engraved a shop-
card which is still extant. When his apprenticeship began is
not recorded; but it must have been concluded before the
beginning of 1720, for in April of that year he appears to have
set up as engraver on his own account. His desires, however,
were not limited to silver-plate engraving. " Engraving on
copper was, at twenty years of age, my utmost ambition."
For this he lacked the needful skill as a draughtsman; and his
account of the means which he took to supply this want, without
too much interfering with his pleasure, is thoroughly character-
istic, though it can scarcely be recommended as an example.
" Laying it down," he says," first as an axiom, that he who
could by any means acquire and retain in his memory, perfect
ideas of the subjects he meant to draw, would have as clear a
knowledge of the figure as a man who can write freely hath
of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet and their infinite
combinations (each of these being composed of lines), and would
consequently be an accurate designer, ... I therefore en-
deavoured to habituate myself to the exercise of a sort of technical
memory, and by repeating in my own mind, the parts of which
objects were composed, I could by degrees combine and put
them down with my pencil." This account, it is possible, has
something of the complacency of the old age in which it was
written; but there is little doubt that his marvellous power
of seizing expression owed less to patient academical study
than to his unexampled eye-memory and tenacity of minor
detail. But he was not entirely without technical training,
since, by his own showing, he occasionally " took the life " to
correct his memories, and is known to have studied at Sir James
Thornhill's then recently opened art school.
" His first employment " (i.e. after he set up for himself)
" seems," says John Nichols, in his Anecdotes, " to have been
the engraving of arms and shop bills." After this he was
employed in designing "plates for booksellers." Of these early
and mostly insignificant works we may pass over " The Lottery,
an Emblematic Print on the South Sea Scheme," and some book
illustrations, to pause at "Masquerades and Operas" (1724),
the first plate he published on his own account. This is a
clever little satire on contemporary follies, such as the masque-
rades of the Swiss adventurer Heidegger, the popular Italian
opera-singers, Rich's pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and
last, but by no means least, the exaggerated popularity of Lord
Burlington's protege, the architect painter William Kent, who
is here represented on the summit of Burlington Gate, with
Raphael and Michelangelo for supporters. This worthy,
Hogarth had doubtless not learned to despise less in the school
of his rival Sir James Thornhill. Indeed almost the next of
Hogarth's important prints was aimed at Kent alone, being
that memorable burlesque of the unfortunate altarpiece designed
by the latter for St Clement Danes, which, in deference to the
ridicule of the parishioners, Bishop Gibson took down in 1725.
Hogarth's squib, which appeared subsequently, exhibits it as
a very masterpiece of confusion and bad drawing. In 1726 he
prepared twelve large engravings for Butler's Hudibras. These
he himself valued highly, and they are the best of his book
illustrations. But he was far too individual to be the patient
interpreter of other men's thoughts, and it is not in this direction
that his successes are to be sought.
To 1727-1728 belongs one of those rare occurrences which
have survived as contributions to his biography. He was
engaged by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a
design for the " Element of Earth." Morris, however, having
heard that he was " an engraver, and no painter," declined
the work when completed, and Hogarth accordingly sued him
for the money in the Westminster Court, where, on the 28th of
May 1728, the case was decided in his (Hogarth's) favour. It
may have been the aspersion thus early cast on his skill as a
painter (coupled perhaps with the unsatisfactory state of print-
selling, owing to the uncontrolled circulation of piratical copies)
that induced him about this time to turn his attention to the
production of "small conversation pieces" (i.e. groups in oil
of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in. high), many of which
are still preserved in different collections. " This," he says,
" having novelty, succeeded for a few years." Among his
other efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were " The Wanstead
Conversation," " The House of Commons examining Bambridge,"
an infamous warden of the Fleet, and several pictures of the
chief actors in Gay's popular Beggar's Opera.
On the 23rd of March 1729 he was married at old Paddington
church to Jane Thornhill, the only daughter of Kent's rival
above mentioned. The match was a clandestine one, although
Lady Thornhill appears to have favoured it. We next hear of
him in " lodgings at South Lambeth," where he rendered some
assistance to the then well-known Jonathan Tyers, who opened
Vauxhall in 1732 with an entertainment styled a ridotto al
fresco. For these gardens Hogarth painted a poor picture of
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, and he also permitted Hayman
to make copies of the later series of the " Four Times of the Day."
HOGARTH, WILLIAM
5 6 7
In return, the grateful Tyers presented him with a gold pass
ticket " In perpeluam Beneficii Memoriam." It was long thought
that Hogarth designed this himself. Mr Warwick Wroth (Numis-
matic Chronicle, vol. xviii.) doubts this, although he thinks it
probable that Hogarth designed some of the silver Vauxhall
passes which are figured in Wilkinson's Londina illustrata. The
only engravings between 1726 and 1732 which need be referred
to are the " Large Masquerade Ticket " (1727), another satire
on masquerades, and the print of "Burlington Gate" (1731),
evoked by Pope's Epistle to Lord Burlington, and defending
Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great
offence, and was, it is said, suppressed.
By 1731 Hogarth must have completed the earliest of the
series of moral works which first gave him his position as a great
and original genius. This was " A Harlot's Progress," the
paintings for which, if we may trust the date in the last of the
pictures, were finished in that year. Almost immediately after-
wards he must have begun to engrave them a task he had at
first intended to leave to others. From an advertisement in
the Country Journal; or, the Craftsman, 2gth of January 1732,
the pictures were then being engraved, and from later announce-
ments it seems clear that they were delivered to the subscribers
early in the following April, on the 2ist of which month an
unauthorized prose description of them was published. We have
no record of the particular train of thought which prompted
these story-pictures; but it may perhaps be fairly assumed
that the necessity for creating some link of interest between
the personages of the little " conversation pieces" above referred
to, led to the further idea of connecting several groups or scenes
so as to form a sequent narrative. " I wished," says Hogarth,
" to compose pictures on canvas, similar to representations on
the stage. " " I have endeavoured," he says again, "to treat
my subject as a dramatic writer; my picture is my stage, and
men and women my players, who by means of certain actions
and gestures are to exhibit a dumb show." There was never a
more eloquent dumb show than this of the " Harlot's Progress."
In six scenes the miserable career of a woman of the town is
traced out remorselessly from its first facile beginning to its
shameful and degraded end. Nothing of the detail is softened
or abated; the whole is acted out cor am populo, with the hard,
uncompassionate morality of the age the painter lived in, while
the introduction here and there of one or two well-known
characters such as Colonel Charteris and Justice Gonson give a
vivid reality to the satire. It had an immediate success. To
say nothing of the fact that the talent of the paintings completely
reconciled Sir James Thornhill to the son-in-law he had hitherto
refused to acknowledge, more than twelve hundred names of
subscribers to the engravings were entered in the artist's book.
On the appearance of plate iii. the lords of the treasury trooped
to the print shop for Sir John Gonson's portrait which it contained.
The story was made into a pantomime by Theophilus Gibber,
and by some one else into a ballad opera; and it gave rise to
numerous pamphlets and poems. It was painted on fan-mounts
and transferred to cups and saucers. Lastly, it was freely
pirated. There could be no surer testimony to its popularity.
From the MSS. of George Vertue in the British Museum
(Add. MSS. 23069-98) it seems that during the progress of the
plates, Hogarth was domiciled with his father-in-law, Sir James
Thornhill, in the Middle Piazza, Covent Garden (the " second
house eastward from James Street "), and it must have been
thence that set out the historical expedition from London to
Sheerness of which the original record still exists at the British
Museum. This is an oblong MS. volume entitled An Account
of what seem'd most Remarkable in the Five Days' Peregrination
of the Five Following Persons, vizt., Messieurs Tothall, Scott,
Hogarth, Thornhill and Forrest. Begun on Saturday May i-jih
1732 and Finish' d On the jist of the Same Month. Abi tu et
fac simUiter. Inscription on Dul-wichCollege Porch. The journal,
which is written by Ebenezer, the father of Garrick's friend
Theodosius Forrest, gives a good idea of what a " frisk " as
Johnson called it was in those days, while the illustrations
were by Hogarth and Samuel Scott the landscape painter.
John Thornhill, Sir James's son, made the map. This version
(in prose) was subsequently run into rhyme by one of Hogarth's
friends, the Rev. Wm. Gostling of Canterbury, and after the
artist's death both versions were published. In the absence
of other biographical detail, they are of considerable interest
to the student of Hogarth. In 1733 Hogarth moved into the
" Golden Head " in Leicester Fields, which, with occasional
absences at Chiswick, he continued to occupy until his death.
By December of this year he was already engaged upon the
engravings of a second Progress, that of a Rake. It was not as
successful as its predecessor. It was in eight plates in lieu of
six. The story is unequal; but there is nothing finer than the
figure of the desperate hero in the Covent Garden gaming-house,
or the admirable scenes in the Fleet prison and Bedlam, where
at last his headlong career comes to its tragic termination. The
plates abound with allusive suggestion and covert humour;
but it is impossible to attempt any detailed description of them
here.
"A Rake's Progress" was dated June 25, 1735, and the
engravings bear the words " according to Act of Parliament."
This was an act (8 Geo. II. cap. 13) which Hogarth had been
instrumental in obtaining from the legislature, being stirred
thereto by the shameless piracies of rival printsellers. Although
loosely drawn, it served its purpose; and the painter comme-
morated his success by a long inscription on the plate entitled
" Crowns, Mitres, &c.," afterwards used as a subscription ticket to
the Election series. These subscription tickets to his engravings,
let us add, are among the brightest and most vivacious of the
artist's productions. That to the " Harlot's Progress " was
entitled "Boys peeping at Nature," while the Rake's Progress
was heralded by the delightful etching known as " A Pleased
Audience at a Play, or The Laughing Audience."
We must pass more briefly over the prints which followed the
two Progresses, noting first " A Modern Midnight Conversation,"
an admirable drinking scene which comes between them in 1733,
and the bright little plate of " Southwark Fair," which, although
dated 1733, was published with " A Rake's Progress " in 1735.
Between these and " Marriage a la mode," upon the pictures of
which the painter must have been not long after at work, come the
small prints of the " Consultation of Physicians " and " Sleeping
Congregation" (1736), the "Scholars at a Lecture" (1737); the
" Four Times of the Day " (1738), a series of pictures of i8th
century life, the earlier designs for which have been already referred
to; the" Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn" (1738), which
Walpole held to be, " for wit and imagination, without any
other end, the best of all the painter's works "; and finally the
admirable plates of the Distrest Poet painfully composing a
poem on " Riches " in a garret, and the Enraged Musician
fulminating from his parlour window upon a discordant orchestra
of knife-grinders, milk-girls, ballad-singers and the rest upon the
pavement outside. These are dated respectively 1736 and 1741.
To this period also (i.e. the period preceding the production
of the plates of " Marriage a la mode ") belong two of those
history pictures to which, in emulation of the Haymans and
Thornhills, the artist was continually attracted. " The Pool of
Bethesda" and the " Good Samaritan," " with figures seven feet
high," were painted circa 1736, and presented by the artist to
St Bartholomew's Hospital, where they remain. They were not
masterpieces; and it is pleasanter to think of his connexion
with Captain Coram's recently established Foundling Hospital
(1739), which he aided with his money, his graver and his brush,
and for which he painted that admirable portrait of the good
old philanthropist which is still, and deservedly, one of its chief
ornaments.
In " A Harlot's Progress " Hogarth had not strayed much
beyond the lower walks of society, and although, in "A Rake's
Progress," his hero was taken from the middle classes, he can
scarcely be said to have quitted those fields of observation which
are common to every spectator. It is therefore more remarkable,
looking to his education and antecedents, that his masterpiece,
" Marriage a la mode," should successfully depict, as the advertise-
ment has it, " a variety of modern occurrences in high life."
568
HOGARTH, WILLIAM
Yet, as an accurate delineation of upper class i8th century
society, his " Marriage a la mode" has never, we believe, been
seriously assailed. The countess's bedroom, the earl's apartment
with its lavish coronets and old masters, the grand saloon with
its marble pillars and grotesque ornaments, are fully as true to
nature as the frowsy chamber in the " Turk's Head Bagnio,"
the quack-doctor's museum in St Martin's Lane, or the mean
opulence of the merchant's house in the city. And what story
could be more vividly, more perspicuously, more powerfully told
than this godless alliance of sacs et parchemins this miserable
tragedy of an ill-assorted marriage? There is no defect of in-
vention, no superfluity of detail, no purposeless stroke. It has
the merit of a work by a great master of fiction, with the addi-
tional advantages which result from the pictorial fashion of the
narrative; and it is matter for congratulation that it is still to
be seen by all the world in the National Gallery in London,
where it can tell its own tale better than pages of commentary.
The engravings of " Marriage a la mode " were dated April 1745.
Although by this time the painter found a ready market for his
engravings, he does not appear to have been equally successful
in selling his pictures. The people bought his prints; but the
richer and not numerous connoisseurs who purchased pictures
were wholly in the hands of the importers and manufacturers
of "old masters." In February 1745 the original oil paintings
of the two Progresses, the " Four Times of the Day " and the
" Strolling Actresses " were still unsold. On the last day of
that month Hogarth disposed of them by an ill-devised kind of
auction, the details of which may be read in Nichols's Anecdotes,
for the paltry sum of 427,75. No better fate attended "Marriage
A la mode," which six years later became the property of Mr Lane
of Hillingdon for 120 guineas, being then in Carlo Maratti frames
which had cost the artist four guineas a piece. Something of this
was no doubt due to Hogarth's impracticable arrangements,
but the fact shows conclusively how completely blind his con-
temporaries were to his merits as a painter, and how hopelessly
in bondage to the all-powerful picture-dealers. Of these latter
the painter himself gave a graphic picture in a letter addressed
by him under the pseudonym of " Britophil " to the St James's
Evening Post, in June 1737.
But if Hogarth was not successful with his dramas on canvas,
he occasionally shared with his contemporaries in the popularity
of portrait painting. For a picture, executed in 1746, of Garrick
as Richard III. he was paid 200, " which was more," says he,
" than any English artist ever received for a single portrait."
In the same year a sketch of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, after-
wards beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success.
We must content ourselves with a brief enumeration of the
most important of his remaining works. These are " The Stage
Coach or Country Inn Yard" (1747); the series of twelve plates
entitled "Industry and Idleness" (1747), depicting the career
of two London apprentices; the " Gate of Calais " (1749),
which had its origin in a rather unfortunate visit paid to France
by the painter after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the " March
to Finchley " (1750); " Beer Street," " Gin Lane" and the "Four
Stages of Cruelty" (1751); the admirable representations of
election humours in the days of Sir Robert Walpole, entitled
" Four Prints of an Election" (1755-1758); and the plate of
"Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism, a Medley" (1762),
adapted from an earlier unpublished design called " Enthusiasm
Delineated." Besides these must be chronicled three more
essays in the " great style of history painting," viz. " Paul
before Felix," "Moses brought to Pharaoh's Daughter " and the
Altarpiece for St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol. The first two were
engraved in 1751-1752, the last in 1794. A subscription ticket to
the earlier pictures, entitled " Paul before Felix Burlesqued," had
a popularity far greater than that of the prints themselves.
In 1745 Hogarth painted that admirable portrait of himself
with his dog Trump, which is now in the National Gallery. In
a corner of this he had drawn on a palette a serpentine curve
with the words " The Line of Beauty." Much inquiry ensued
as to the meaning of this hieroglyphic; and in an unpropitious
hour the painter resolved to explain himself in writing. The
result was the well-known Analysis of Beauty (1753), a treatise
to fix " the fluctuating ideas of Taste," otherwise a desultory
essay having for pretext the precept attributed to Michelangelo
that a figure should be always "Pyramidall, Serpent like and
multiplied by one two and three." The fate of the book was
what might have been expected. By the painter's adherents
it was praised as a final deliverance upon aesthetics; by his
enemies and professional rivals, its obscurities, and the minor
errors which, notwithstanding the benevolent efforts of literary
friends, the work had not escaped, were made the subject of
endless ridicule and caricature. It added little to its author's
fame, and it is perhaps to be regretted that he ever undertook
it. Moreover, there were further humiliations in store for him.
In 1759 the success of a little picture called "The Lady's Last
Stake," painted for Lord Charlemont, procured him a commission
from Sir Richard Grosvenor to paint another picture " upon
the same terms." Unhappily on this occasion he deserted his
own field of genre and social satire, to select the story from
Boccaccio (or rather Dryden) of Sigismunda weeping over the
heart of her murdered lover Guiscardo, being the subject of a
picture in Sir Luke Schaub's collection by Furini which had
recently been sold for 400. The picture, over which he spent
much time and patience, was not regarded as a success; and
Sir Richard rather meanly shuffled out of his bargain upon the
plea that " the constantly having it before one's eyes, would be
too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one's mind."
Sigismunda, therefore, much to the artist's mortification, and
the delight of the malicious, remained upon his hands. As, by
her husband's desire, his widow valued it at 500, it found no
purchaser until after her death, when the Boydells bought it
for 56 guineas. It was exhibited, with others of Hogarth's
pictures, at the Spring Gardens exhibition of 1761, for the
catalogue of which Hogarth engraved a Head-piece and a Tail-
piece which are still the delight of collectors; and finally, by
the bequest of Mr J. H. Anderdon, it passed in 1879 to the
National Gallery, where, in spite of theatrical treatment and
a repulsive theme, it still commands admiration for its colour,
drawing and expression.
In 1761 Hogarth was sixty-five years of age, and he had but
three years more to live. These three years were embittered
by an unhappy quarrel with his quondam friends, John Wilkes
and Churchill the poet, over which most of his biographers are
contented to pass rapidly. Having succeeded John Thornhill
in 1757 as Serjeant painter (to which post he was reappointed
at the accession of George III.), an evil genius prompted him
in 1762 to do some " timed" thing in the ministerial interest, and
he accordingly published the indifferent satire of " The Times,
plate i." This at once brought him into collision with Wilkes
and Churchill, and the immediate result was a violent attack
upon him, both as a man and an artist, in the opposition North
Briton, No. 17. The alleged decay of his powers, the miscarriage
of Sigismunda, the cobbled composition of the Analysis, were,
all discussed with scurrilous malignity by those who had known
his domestic life and learned his weaknesses. The old artist
was deeply wounded, and his health was failing. Early in the
next year, however, he replied by that portrait of Wilkes which
will for ever carry his squinting features to posterity. Churchill
retaliated in July by usavage Epistle toWilliamHogarth, to which
the artist rejoined by a print of Churchill as a bear, in torn bands
and ruffles, not the most successful of his works. " The pleasure,
and pecuniary advantage," writes Hogarth manfully, " which
I derived from these two engravings " (of Wilkes and Churchill),
" together with occasionally riding on horseback, restored me
to as much health as can be expected at my time of life." He
produced but one more print, that of " Finis, or The Bathos,"
March 1764, a strange jumble of " fag ends," intended as a
tail-piece to his collected prints; and on the 26th October of
the same year he died of an aneurism at his house in Leicester
Square. His wife, to whom he left his plates as a chief source
of income, survived him until 1789. He was buried in Chiswick
churchyard, where a tomb was erected to him by his friends
in 1771, with an epitaph by Garrick. Not far off, on the road
HOGG, JAMES
569
to Chiswick Gardens, still stands the little red-brick Georgian
villa in which from September 1749 until his death he spent
the summer seasons. After many vicissitudes and changes of
ownership it was purchased in 1902 by Lieut.-Colonel Shipway
of Chiswick, who turned it into a Hogarth museum and preserved
it to the nation.
From such records of him as survive, Hogarth appears to have
been much what from his portrait one might suppose him to
have been a blue-eyed, honest, combative little man, thoroughly
insular in his prejudices and antipathies, fond of flattery, sensitive
like most satirists, a good friend, an intractable enemy, ambitious,
as he somewhere says, in all things to be singular, and not always
accurately estimating the extent of his powers. With the art
connoisseurship of his day he was wholly at war, because, as he
believed, it favoured foreign mediocrity at the expense of native
talent; and in the heat of argument he would probably, as he
admits, often come " to utter blasphemous expressions against
the divinity even of Raphael Urbino, Correggio and Michel-
angelo." But it was rather against the third-rate copies of
third-rate artists the " ship-loads of dead Christs, Holy
Families and Madonnas " that his indignation was directed;
and in speaking of his attitude with regard to the great masters
of art, it is well to remember his words to Mrs Piozzi: "The
connoisseurs and I are at war, you know; and because I hate
them, they think I hate Titian and let them! "
But no doubt it was in a measure owing to this hostile attitude
of his towards the all-powerful picture-brokers that his con-
temporaries failed to recognize adequately his merits as a painter,
and persisted in regarding him as an ingenious humorist alone.
Time has reversed that unjust sentence. He is now held to have
been a splendid painter, pure and harmonious in his colouring,
wonderfully dexterous and direct in his handling, and in his
composition leaving little or nothing to be desired. As an en-
graver his work is more conspicuous for its vigour, spirit and
intelligibility than for finish and beauty of line. He desired that
it should tell its own tale plainly, and bear the distinct impress of
his individuality, and in this he thoroughly succeeded. As a
draughtsman his skill has sometimes been debated, and his work
at times undoubtedly bears marks of haste, and even carelessness.
If, however, he is judged by his best instead of his worst, he
will not be found wanting in this respect. But it is not after
all as a draughtsman, an engraver or a painter that he claims
his unique position among English artists it is as a humorist
and a satirist upon canvas. Regarded in this light he has never
been equalled, whether for his vigour of realism and dramatic
power, his fancy and invention in the decoration of his story,
or his merciless anatomy and exposure of folly and wickedness.
If we regard him as he loved to regard himself as " author "
rather than " artist," his place is with the great masters of
literature, with the Thackerays and Fieldings, the Cervantes
and Molieres.
AUTHORITIES. The main body of Hogarth literature is to be found
in the autobiographical Memoranda published by John Ireland in
1798, and in the successive Anecdotes of the antiquary John Nichols.
Much minute information has also been collected in F. G. Stephens's
Catalogue of the Satirical Prints and Drawings in the British Museum.
But a copious bibliography of books, pamphlets, &c., relating to
Hogarth, together with detailed catalogues of his paintings and
prints, will be found in the Memoir of Hogarth by Austin Dobson.
First issued in 1879, this was reprinted and expanded in 1891, 1897,
1902 and finally in 1907. Pictures by Hogarth from private collec-
tions are constantly to be found at the annual exhibitions of the Old
Masters at Burlington House; but most of the best-known works
have permanent homes in public galleries. " Marriage a la mode, "
" Sigismunda," " Lavinia Fenton," the " Shrimp Girl," the " Gate
of Calais," the portraits of himself, his sister and his servants, are
all in the National Gallery; the " Rake's Progress" and the Election
Series, in the Soane Museum; and the " March to Finchley " and
"Captain Coram" in the Foundling. There are also notable pictures in
the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge and the National Portrait
Gallery. At the Print Room in the British Museum there is also a
very- interesting set of sixteen designs for the series called " Industry
and Idleness," the majority of which formerly belonged to Horace
Walpole. (A. D.)
HOGG, JAMES (1770-1835), Scottish poet, known as the
" Ettrick Shepherd," was baptized at Ettrick in Selkirkshire
on the gth of December 1770. His ancestors had been shepherds
for centuries. He received hardly any school training, and
seems to have had difficulty in getting books to read. After
spending his early years herding sheep for different masters, he
was engaged as shepherd by Mr Laidlaw, tenant of Blackhouse,
in the parish of Yarrow, from 1790 till 1799. He was treated
with great kindness, and had access to a large collection of
books. When this was exhausted he subscribed to a circulating
library in Peebles. While attending to his flock, he spent a
great deal of time in reading. He profited by the company of
his master's sons, of whom William Laidlaw is known as the
friend of Scott and the author of Lucy's Flittin'. Hogg's first
printed piece was " The Mistakes of a Night " in the Scots
Magazine for October 1794, and in 1801 he published his Scottish
Pastorals. In 1802 Hogg became acquainted with Sir Walter
Scott, who was then collecting materials for his Border Minstrelsy.
On Scott's recommendation Constable published Hogg's mis-
cellaneous poems (The Mountain Bard) in 1807. By this work,
and by The Shepherd's Guide, being a Practical Treatise on the
Diseases of Sheep, Hogg realized about 300. With this money
he unfortunately embarked in farming in Dumfriesshire, and
in three years was utterly ruined, having to abandon all his
effects to his creditors. He returned to Ettrick, only to find
that he could not even obtain employment as a shepherd; so
he set off in February 1810 to push his fortune in Edinburgh
as a literary adventurer. In the same year he published a collec-
tion of songs, The Forest Minstrel, to which he was the largest
contributor. This book, being dedicated to the countess of
Dalkeith (afterwards duchess of Buccleuch), and recommended
to her notice by Scott, was rewarded with a present of 100
guineas. He then began a weekly periodical, The Spy, which
he continued from September 1810 till August 1811. The
appearance of The Queen's Wake in 1813 established Hogg's
reputation as a poet; Byron recommended it to John Murray,
who brought out an English edition. The scene of the poem
is laid in 1561; the queen is Mary Stuart; and the " wake "
provides a simple framework for seventeen poems sung by rival
bards. It was followed by the Pilgrims of the Sun (1815), and
Mador of the Moor (1816). The duchess of Buccleuch, on her
death-bed (1814), had asked her husband to do something for
the Ettrick bard; and the duke gave him a lease for life of the
farm of Altrive in Yarrow, consisting of about 70 acres of moor-
land, on which the poet built a house and spent the last years
of his life. In order to obtain money to stock his farm Hogg
asked various poets to contribute to a volume of verse which
should be a kind of poetic " benefit " for himself. Failing in
his applications he wrote a volume of parodies, published in
1816, as The Poetic Mirror, or the Living Bards of Great Britain.
He took possession of his farm in 1817; but his literary exertions
were never relaxed. Before 1820 he had written the prose tales
of The Brownie of Bodsbeck (1818) and two volumes of Winter
Evening Tales (1820), besides collecting, editing and writing
part of two volumes of The Jacobite Relics of Scotland (1810-
1821), and contributing largely to Blackwood's Magazine. " The
Chaldee MS.," which appeared in Blackwood's Magazine (October
1817), and gave such offence that it was immediately withdrawn,
was largely Hogg's work.
In 1820 he married Margaret Phillips, a lady of a good Annan-
dale family, and found himself possessed of about 1000, a
good house and a well-stocked farm. Hogg's connexion with
Blackwood's Magazine kept him continually before the public;
his contributions, which include the best of his prose works,
were collected in the Shepherd's Calendar (1829). The wit and
mischief of some of his literary friends made free with his name
as the " Shepherd " of the Nodes Ambrosianae, and represented
him in ludicrous and grotesque aspects; but the effect of the
whole was favourable to his popularity. " Whatever may be
the merits of the picture of the Shepherd [in the Nodes Am-
brosianae] and no one will deny its power and genius," writes
Professor Veitch " it is true, all the same, that this .Shepherd
was not the Shepherd of Ettrick or the man James Hogg. He
was neither a Socrates nor a Falstaff, neither to be credited
570
HOGG, T. T. HOHENFRIEDBERG
.'
with the wisdom and lofty idealizings of the one, nor with the
characteristic humour and coarseness of the other." The Three
Perils of Woman (1820), and The Three Perils of Man (1822),
were followed in 1825 by an epic poem, Queen Hynde, which
was unfavourably received. He visited London in 1832, and was
much lionized. On his return a public dinner was given to him
in Peebles, Professor Wilson in the chair, and he acknow-
ledged that he had at last " found fame." His health, however,
was seriously impaired. With his pen in his hand to the last,
Hogg in 1834 published a volume of Lay Sermons, and The
Domestic Manners and Private Life of Sir Walter Scott, a book
which Lockhart regarded as an infringement on his rights.
In 1835 appeared three volumes of Tales of the Wars of Montrose.
Hogg died on the 2ist of November 1835, and was buried in
the churchyard of his native parish Ettrick. His fame had
seemed to fill the whole district, and was brightest at its close;
his presence was associated with all the border sports and
festivities; and as a man James Hogg was ever frank, joyous
and charitable. It is mainly as a great peasant poet that he
lives in literature. Some of his lyrics and minor poems his
"Skylark," "When the Kye comes Hame," his verses on the
" Comet " and " Evening Star," and his " Address to Lady
Ann Scott " are exquisite. The Queen's Wake unites his
characteristic excellences his command of the old romantic
ballad style, his graceful fairy mythology and his aerial flights
of imagination. In the fairy story of Kilmeny in this work
Hogg seems completely transformed; he is absorbed in the
ideal and supernatural, and writes under direct and immediate
inspiration.
See Hogg's "Memoir of the Author's Life, written by himself,"
prefixed to the 3rd edition (1821) of The Mountain Bard, also
Memorials of James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, edited by his daughter,
Mrs M. G. Garden (enlarged edition with preface by Professor Veitch,
1903), and Sir G. B. S. Douglas, James Hogg (1899) in the " Famous
Scots" series; also The Poems of James Hogg, selected by William
Wallace (1903). John Wilson (" Christopher North ") had a real
affection for Hogg, but for some reason or other made no use of the
materials placed in his hands for a biography of the poet. The
memoir mentioned on the title-page of the Works (1838-1840) never
appeared, and the memoir prefixed to the edition of Hogg's works
published by Blackie & Co. (1865) was written by the Rev. Thomas
Thompson. See also Wilson's Noctes Ambrosianae; Mrs Oliphant's
Annals of a Publishing House, vol. i. chap, vii.; Gilfillan's First
Gallery of Literary Portraits; Cunningham's Biog. and Crit. Hist, of
Lit. ; and the general index to Blackwood's Magazine. A collected
edition of Hogg's Tales appeared in 1837 in 6 vols., and a second in
1851; his Poetical Works were published in 1822, 1838-1840 and
1865-1866. For an admirable account of the social entertainments
Hogg used to give in Edinburgh, see Memoir of Robert Chambers
(1874), by Dr William Chambers, pp. 263-270.
HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1702-1862), English man of
letters, was born at Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792.
He was educated at Durham grammar school and at University
College, Oxford. Here he became the intimate friend of the
poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled from the
university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the author-
ship of the pamphlet The Necessity for Atheism. He was then
sent to study law at York, where he remained for six months.
Hogg's behaviour to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations
with her husband for some time, but in 1813 the friendship
was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was called to the bar,
and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he inherited
2000 under Shelley's will, and in 1855, in accordance with
the wishes of the poet's family, began to write Shelley's
biography. The first two volumes of it were published in 1858,
but they proved to be far more an autobiography than a
biography, and Shelley's representatives refused Hogg further
access to the materials necessary for its completion. Hogg died
on the 27th of August 1862.
HOGMANAY, the name in Scotland and some parts of the
north of England for New Year's Eve, as also for the cake then
given to the children. On the morning of the 3ist of December
the children in small bands go from door to door singing:
" Hogmanay
Trollolay
Gie's o 1 your white bread and nane o' your grey " ;
and begging for small gifts or alms. These usually take the
form of an oaten cake. The derivation of the term has been
much disputed. Cotgrave (1611) says: "It is the voice of
the country folks begging small presents or New Year's gifts
. . . an ancient term of rejoicing derived from the Druids,
who were wont the first of each January to go into the woods,
where, having sacrificed and banquetted together, they gathered
mistletoe, esteeming it excellent to make beasts fruitful and
most soverayne against all poyson." And he connects the word,
through such Norman French forms as hoguinane, with the old
French aguilanneuf, which he explains as an gui-l' an-neuf , " to
the mistletoe! the New Year!" this being (on his interpreta-
tion) the Druidical salutation to the coming year as the revellers
issued from the woods armed with boughs of mistletoe. But
though this explanation may be accepted as containing the
truth in referring the word to a French original, Cotgrave's
detailed etymology is now repudiated by scientific philologists,
and the identical French aguilanneuf remains, like it, in
obscurity.
HOGSHEAD, a cask for holding liquor or other commodities,
such as tobacco, sugar, molasses, &c.; also a liquid measure
of capacity, varying with the contents. As a measure for beer,
cider, &c., it equals 54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483)
fixed the hogshead of wine at 63 wine-gallons, i.e. 525 imperial
gallons. The etymology of the word has been much discussed.
According to Skeat, the origin is to be found in the name for a
cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in several
Teutonic languages, in Dutch oxhooft (modern okshoofd), Dan.
oxehoved, 0. Swed. oxhufwd, &c. The word should therefore
be " oxhead," and " hogshead " is a mere corruption. It has
been suggested that the name arose from the branding of such
a measure with the head of an ox (see Notes and Queries, series
iv. 2, 46, note by H. Tiedeman). The New English Dictionary
does not attempt any explanation of the term, and takes
" hogshead " as the original form, from which the forms in other
languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms
hukeshovet and hoekshoot are nearer to the English form, and,
further, the Dutch for " ox " is os.
HOHENASPERG, an ancient fortress of Germany, in the
kingdom of Wiirttemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated
on a conical hill, noo ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg.
It was formerly strongly fortified and was long the state prison
of the kingdom of Wiirttemberg. Among the many who have
been interned here may be mentioned the notorious Jew financier,
Joseph Suss-Oppenheimer (1692-1738) and the poet C. F. D.
Schubart (1739-1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg
originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to
the counts palatine of Tubingen and from them was acquired
in 1308 by Wiirttemberg. In 1535 the fortifications were
extended and strengthened, and in 1635 the town was taken
by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649.
See Schon, Die Slaatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg (Stuttgart, 1899) ;
and Biffart, Geschichte der Wiirttembergischen Feste Hohenasperg
(Stuttgart, 1858).
HOHENFRIEDBERG, or HOHENFRIEDEBERG, a village of
Silesia, about 6 m. from the small town of Striegau. It gives
its name to a battle (also called the battle of Striegau) in the
War of the Austrian Succession, fought on the 3rd of June 1745
between the Prussians under Frederick the Great and the
Austrians and Saxons commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine.
In May the king, whose army had occupied extended winter
quarters in Silesia, had drawn it together into a position about
Neisse whence he could manoeuvre against the Austrians,
whether they invaded Silesia by Troppau or Glatz, or joined
their allies (who, under the duke of Weissenfels, were on the
upper Elbe), and made their advance on Schweidnitz, Breslau
or Liegnitz. On the Austrians concentrating towards the Elbe,
Frederick gradually drew his army north-westward along the
edge of the mountain country until on the ist of June it was
near Schweidnitz. At that date the Austro-Saxons were ad-
vancing (very slowly owing to the poorness of the roads and
the dilatoriness of the Saxon artillery train) from Waldenburg
HOHENFRIEDBERG
and Landshut through the mountains, heading for Striegau.
After a few minor skirmishes at the end of May, Frederick had
made up his mind to offer no opposition to the passage of the
Allies, but to fall upon them as they emerged, and the Prussian
army was therefore kept concentrated out of sight, while only
selected officers and patrols watched the debouches of the
mountains. On the other hand the Allies had no intention of
delivering battle, but meant only, on emerging from the
mountains, to take up a suitable camping position and thence
to interpose between Breslau and the king, believing that " the
king was at his wits' end, and, once the army really began its
retreat on Breslau, there would be frightful consternation in
its ranks." But in fact, as even the coolest observers noticed,
the Prussian army was in excellent spirits and eager for the
" decisive affair " promised by the king. On the 3rd of June,
watched by the invisible patrols, the Austrians and Saxons
emerged from the hills at Hohenfriedberg with bands playing
and colours flying. Their advanced guard of infantry and
cavalry spread out into the plain, making for a line of hills
spreading north-west from Striegau, where the army was to
encamp. But the main body moved slowly, and at last Prince
Charles and Weissenfels decided to put off the occupation of
the line of hills till the morrow. The army bivouacked therefore
in two separate wings, the Saxons (with a few Austrian regiments)
between Giinthersdorf and Pilgramshain, the Austrians near
Hausdorf. They were about 70,000 strong, Frederick 65,000.
The king had made his arrangements in good time, aided by
the enemy's slowness, and in the evening he issued simple orders
to move. About 9 P.M. the Prussians marched off from Alt-
Jauernigk towards Striegau, the guns on the road, the infantry
and cavalry, in long open columns of companies and squadrons,
over the fields on either side a night march well remembered
by contrast with others as having been executed in perfect
order. Meanwhile General Dumoulin, who commanded an
advanced detachment between Striegau and Stanowitz, broke
camp silently and moved into position below the hill north-west
of Striegau, which was found to be occupied by Saxon light
infantry outposts. The king's orders were for Dumoulin and
the right wing of the main army to deploy and advance towards
Haslicht against the Saxons, and for the left wing infantry to
prolong the line from the marsh to Giinthersdorf, covered by
the left-wing cavalry on the plain near Thomaswaldau. On
the side of the Austrians, the outlying hussars are said to have
noticed and reported the king's movement, for the night was
clear and starlit, but their report, if made, was ignored.
At 4 A.M. Dumoulin advanced on Pilgramshain, neglecting
the fire of the Saxon outpost on the Spitzberg, whereupon
this promptly retired in order to avoid being surrounded.
Dumoulin then posted artillery on the slope of the hill and
deployed his six grenadier battalions facing the village. The
leading cavalry of the main army came up and deployed on
Dumoulin's left front in open rolling ground. Meantime the
duke of Weissenfels had improvised a line of defence, posting
his infantry in the marshy ground and about Pilgramshain,
and his cavalry, partly in front of Pilgramshain and partly on
the intervening space, opposite that of the Prussians. But
before the marshy ground was effectively occupied by the duke's
infantry, his cavalry had been first shaken by the fire of
Dumoulin's guns on the Spitzberg and a heavy battery that
was brought up on to the Grabener Fuchsberg, and then charged
by the Prussian right-wing cavalry, and in the melee the Allies
were gradually driven in confusion off the battlefield. The
cavalry battle was ended by 6.30 A.M., by which time Dumoulin's
grenadiers, stiffened by the line regiment Anhalt (the " Old
Dessauer's " own), were vigorously attacking the garden hedges
and walls of Pilgramshain, and the Saxon and Austrian infantry
in the marsh was being attacked by Prince Dietrich of Dessau
with the right wing of the king's infantry. The line infantry
of those days, however, did not work easily in bad ground,
and the Saxons were steady and well drilled. After an
hour's fight, well supported by the guns and continually
reinforced as the rest of the army closed up, the prince
expelled the enemy from the marsh, while Dumoulin
drove the light troops out of Pilgramshain. By 7 A.M. the
Saxons, forming the left wing of the allied army, were in
full retreat.
While his allies were being defeated, Prince Charles of
Lorraine had done nothing, believing that the cannonade
was merely an outpost affair for the possession of the
Spitzberg. His generals indeed had drawn out their
respective commands in order of battle, the infantry south
of Giinthersdorf, the cavalry near Thomaswaldau, but
they had no authority to advance without orders, and
stood inactive, while, i m. away, the Prussian columns
were defiling over the Striegau Water. This phase of
the king's advance was the most delicate of all, and the
moment that he heard from Prince Dietrich that the
marsh was captured he stopped the northward flow of his
battalions and swung them westward, the left wing cavalry
having to cover their deployment. But when one-third
of this cavalry only had crossed at Teichau the bridge
broke. For a time the advanced squadrons were in great
danger. But they charged boldly, and a disjointed cavalry
battle began, during which (Ziethen's hussars having dis-
covered a ford) the rest of the left-wing cavalry was able to
cross. At last 25 intact squadrons under Lieut.-General von
Nassau charged and drove the Austrians in disorder towards
Hohenfriedberg. This action was the more creditable to the
victors in that 45 squadrons in 3 separate fractions defeated a
mass of 60 squadrons that stood already deployed to meet them.
Meanwhile the Prussian infantry columns of the centre and
left had crossed Striegau Water and deployed to their left, and
by 8.30 they were advancing on Giinthersdorf and the Austrian
infantry south of that place. Frederick's purpose was to roll
up the enemy from their inner flank, and while Prince Dietrich,
with most of the troops that had forced the Saxons out of the
marsh, pursued Weissenfels, two regiments of his and one of
Dumoulin's were brought over to the left wing and sent against
the north side of Giinthersdorf. In the course of the general
forward movement, which was made in what was for those
days a very irregular line, a wide gap opened up between the
centre and left, behind which 10 squadrons of the Bayreuth
dragoon regiment, with Lieut.-General von Gessler, took up
their position. Thus the line advanced. The grenadiers on the
extreme left cleared Thomaswaldau, and their fire galled the
Austrian squadrons engaged in the cavalry battle to the south.
Then Giinthersdorf, attacked on three sides, was also evacuated
by the enemy. But although Frederick rode back from the
front saying " the battle is won," the Prussian infantry, in spite
572
HOHENHEIM HOHENLOHE
of its superior fire discipline, failed for some time to master the
defence, and suffered heavily from the eight close-range volleys
they received, one or two regiments losing 40 and 50 % of their
strength. The Austrians, however, suffered still more; feeling
themselves isolated in the midst of the victorious enemy, they
began to waver, and at the psychological moment Gessler and
the Bayreuth dragoons charged into their ranks and " broke
the equilibrium." These 1500 sabres scattered twenty battalions
of the enemy and brought in 2500 prisoners and 66 Austrian
colours, and in this astounding charge they themselves lost no
more than 94 men. By nine o'clock the battle was over, and
the wrecks of the Austro-Saxon army were retreating to the
mountains. The Prussians, who had been marching all night,
were too far spent to pursue.
The loss of the allies was in all 15,224, 7985 killed and wounded,
and 7239 prisoners, as well as 72 guns and 83 standards and colours.
The Prussians lost 4666 killed and wounded, 71 missing.
HOHENHEIM, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg, 7 m. S. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. 300. It came
in 1768 from the counts of Hohenheim to the dukes of Wurttem-
berg, and in 1785 Duke Karl Eugen built a country house here.
This house with grounds is now the seat of the most important
agricultural college in Germany; it was founded in 1817, was
raised to the position of a high school in 1865, and now ranks
as a technical high school with university status.
See Frohlich, Das SMoss und die Akademie Hohenheim (Stuttgart,
1870).
HOHENLIMBURG, a town of Germany, on the Lenne, in
the Prussian prov. of Westphalia, 30 m. by rail S.E. of Dortmund.
Pop. (1905) 12,790. It has two Evangelical churches, a Roman
Catholic church and a synagogue. The town is the seat of various
iron and metal industries, while dyeing, cloth-making and linen-
weaving are also carried on here. It is the chief town of the
county of .Limburg, and formerly belonged to the counts of
Limburg, a family which became extinct in 1508. Later it
passed to the counts of Bentheim-Tecklenburg. The castle of
Hohenlimburg, which overlooks the town, is now the residence
of Prince Adolf of Bentheim-Tecklenburg.
HOHENLOHE, a German princely family which took its name
from the district of Hohenlohe in Franconia. At first a count-
ship, its two branches were raised to the rank of principalities
of the Empire in 1744 and 1764 respectively; in 1806 they
lost their independence and their lands now form part of the
kingdoms of Bavaria and of Wurttemberg. At the time of
the mediatization the area of Hohenlohe was 680 sq. m. and its
estimated population was 108,000. The family is first mentioned
in the i2th century as possessing the castle of Hohenloch, or
Hohenlohe, near Uffenheim, and its influence was soon perceptible
in several of the Franconian valleys, including those of the
Kocher, the Jagst and the Tauber. Henry I. (d. 1183) was the
first to take the title of count of Hohenlohe, and in 1230 his
grandsons, Gottfried and Conrad, supporters of the emperor
Frederick II., founded the lines of Hohenlohe Hohenlohe and
Hohenlohe-Brauneck, names taken from their respective castles.
The latter became extinct in 1390, its lands passing later to
Brandenburg, while the former was divided into several branches,
only two of which, however, Hohenlohe- Weikersheim and
Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld, need be mentioned here.
Hohenlohe-Weikersheim, descended from Count Kraft I.
(d. 1313), also underwent several divisions, that which took
place after the deaths of Counts Albert and George in 1551
being specially important. At this time the lines of Hohenlohe-
Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Waldenburg were founded by the
sons of Count George. Meanwhile, in 1412, the family of
Hohenlohe-Uffenheim-Speckfeld had become extinct, and its
lands had passed through the marriages of its heiresses into
other families.
The existing branches of the Hohenlohe family are descended
from the lines of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein and Hohenlohe-Walden-
burg, established in 1551. The former of these became Pro-
testant, while the latter remained Catholic. Of the family
of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, which underwent several partitions
and inherited Gleichen in 1631, the senior line became extinct
in 1805, while in 1701 the junior line divided itself into three
branches, those of Langenburg, Ingelfingen and Kirchberg.
Kirchberg died out in 1861, but members of the families of
Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen are still
alive, the latter being represented by the branches of Hohenlohe-
Ingelfingen and Hohenlohe-Ohringen. The Roman Catholic
family of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg was soon divided into three
branches, but two of these had died out by 1729. The surviving
branch, that of Schillingsfiirst, was divided into the lines of
Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; other
divisions followed, and the four existing lines of this branch of
the family are those of Waldenburg, Schillingsfiirst, Jagstberg
and Bartenstein. The family of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst pos-
sesses the duchies of Ratibor and of Corbie inherited in 1824.
The principal members of the family are dealt with below.
I. FRIEDRICH LUDWIG, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
(1746-1818), Prussian general, was the eldest son of Prince
Johann Friedrich (d. 1796) of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, and began
his military career as a boy, serving against the Prussians in the
last years of the Seven Years' War. Entering the Prussian army
after the peace (1768), he was on account of his rank at once
made major, and in 1775 he became lieutenant-colonel; in 1778
he toek part in the War of the Bavarian Succession and about
the same time was made a colonel. Shortly before the death
of Frederick the Great he was promoted to the rank of major-
general and appointed chief of a regiment. For some years the
prince did garrison duty at Breslau, until in 1791 he was made
governor of Berlin. In 1794 he commanded a corps in the
Prussian army on the Rhine and distinguished himself greatly
in many engagements, particularly in the battle of Kaisers-
lautern on the 2oth of September. He was at this time the
most popular soldier in the Prussian army. Bliicher wrote of
him that " he was a leader of whom the Prussian army might
well be proud." He succeeded his father in the principality,
and acquired additional lands by his marriage with a daughter
of Count von Hoym. In 1806 Hohenlohe, now a general of
infantry, was appointed to command the left-wing army of the
Prussian forces opposing Napoleon, having under him Prince
Louis Ferdinand of Prussia; but, feeling that his career had
been that of a prince and not that of a scientific soldier, he
allowed his quartermaster-general Massenbach to influence
him unduly. Disputes soon broke out between Hohenlohe and
the commander-in-chief, the duke of Brunswick, the armies
marched hither and thither without effective results, and finally
Hohenlohe's army was almost destroyed by Napoleon at Jena
(see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The prince displayed his usual
personal bravery in the battle, and managed to rally a portion
of his corps near Erfurt, whence he retired into Prussia. But
the pursuers followed him up closely, and, still acting under
Massenbach's advice, he surrendered the remnant of his army
at Prenzlau on the 28th of October, a fortnight after Jena and
three weeks after the beginning of hostilities. Hohenlohe's
former popularity and influence in the army had now the worst
possible effect, for the commandants of garrisons everywhere
lost heart and followed his example. After two years spent as
a prisoner of war in France Hohenlohe retired to his estates,
living in self-imposed obscurity until his death on the isth of
February 1818. He had, in August 1806, just before the out-
break of the French War, resigned the principality to his eldest
son, not being willing to become a " mediatized " ruler under
Wurttemberg suzerainty.
II. LUDWIG ALOYSIUS, prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-
Bartenstein (1765-1829), marshal and peer of France, was born
on the i8th of August 1765. In 1784 he entered the service of
the Palatinate, which he quitted in 1792 in order to take the
command of a regiment raised by his father for the service
of the emigrant princes of France. He greatly distinguished
himself under Conde in the campaigns of 1792-1793, especially
at the storming of the lines of Weissenburg. Subsequently he
entered the service of Holland, and, when almost surrounded
by the army of General Pichegru, conducted a masterly retreat
from the island of Bommel. From 1794 to 1799 he served as
HOHENLOHE
573
colonel in the Austrian campaigns; in 1799 he was named
major-general by the archduke Charles; and after obtaining the
rank of lieutenant-general he was appointed by the emperor
governor of the two Galicias. Napoleon offered to restore to
him his principality on condition that he adhered to the con-
federation of the Rhine, but as he refused, it was united to
Wiirttemberg. After Napoleon's fall in 1814 he entered the
French service, and in 1815 he held the command of a regiment
raised by himself, with which he took part in the Spanish
campaign of 1823. In 1827 he was created marshal and peer
of France. He died at LuneVille on the 3oth of May 1829.
III. ALEXANDER LEOPOLD FRANZ EMMERICH, prince of
Hohenlohe - Waldenburg - Schillingsf tirst (1794-1849), priest
and reputed miracle-worker, was born at Kupferzell, near
Waldenburg, on the i7th of August 1794. By his mother, the
daughter of an Hungarian nobleman, he was from infancy
destined for the church; and she entrusted his early education
to the ex-Jesuit Riel. In 1804 he entered the " Theresianum "
at Vienna, in 1808 the academy at Bern, in 1810 the archi-
episcopal seminary at Vienna, and afterwards he studied at
Tyrnau and Ellwangen. He was ordained priest in 1815, and
in the following year he went to Rome, where he entered the
society of the " Fathers of the Sacred Heart." Subsequently,
at Munich and Bamberg, he was blamed for Jesuit and ob-
scurantist tendencies, but obtained considerable reputation
as a preacher. His first co-called miraculous cure was effected,
in conjunction with a peasant, Martin Michel, on a princess of
Schwarzenberg who had been for some years paralytic. Im-
mediately he acquired such fame as a performer of miraculous
cures that multitudes from various countries flocked to partake
of the beneficial influence of his supposed supernatural gifts.
Ultimately, on account of the interference of the authorities
with his operations, he went in 1821 to Vienna and then to
Hungary, where he became canon at Grosswardein and in 1844
titular bishop of Sardica. He died at Voslau near Vienna on
the 1 7th of November 1849. He was the author of a number
of ascetic and controversial writings, which were collected and
published in one edition by S. Brunner in 1851.
IV. KRAFT, prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (1827-1892),
soldier and military writer, son of Prince Adolf of Hohenlohe-
Ingelfingen (1797-1873), was born at Koschentin in Upper
Silesia. He was a nephew of the Prince Hohenlohe noticed
above, who commanded the Prussians at Jena. Educated with
great rigour, owing to the impoverishment of the family estates
during the Napoleonic wars, he was sent into the Prussian
army, and commissioned to the artillery at the least expensive
arm of the service. He joined the Prussian Guard artillery in
1845, and it was soon discovered that he had unusual aptitudes
as an artillery officer. For a time his brother officers resented
the presence of a prince, until it was found that he made no
attempt to use his social position to secure advancement. After
serving as a military attache in Vienna and on the Transylvanian
frontier during the Crimean War, he was made a captain on the
general staff, and in 1856 personal aide-de-camp to the king,
remaining, however, in close touch with the artillery. In 1864,
having become in the meanwhile successively major and lieut.-
colonel, he resigned the staff appointments to become commander
of the new Guard Field Artillery regiment and in the following
year he became colonel. In 1866 he saw his first real active
service. In the bold advance of the Guard corps on the Austrian
right wing at Koniggratz (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR), he led the
Guard reserve artillery with the greatest dash and success, and
after the short war ended he turned his energies, now fortified
by experience, to the better tactical training of the Prussian
artillery. In 1868 he was made a major-general and assigned
to command the Guard artillery brigade. In this capacity he
gained great distinction during the Franco-German war and
especially at Gravelotte and Sedan; he was in control of the
artillery attack on the fortifications of Paris. In 1873 he was
placed in command of an infantry division, and three years
later was promoted lieutenant-general. He retired in 1879,
was made general of infantry in 1883 and general of artillery
in 1889. His military writings were numerous, and amongst
them several have become classics. These are Briefe iiber
Artillerie (Eng. trans. Letters on Artillery, 1887); Briefe iiber
Strategic (1877; Eng. trans. Letters on Strategy, 1898); and
Gesprache tiber Reiterei (1887; Eng. trans. Conversations on
Cavalry). The Briefe iiber Infanterie and Briefe iiber Kavallerie
(translated into English, Letters on Infantry, Letters on Cavalry,
1889) are of less importance, though interesting as a reflection
of prevailing German ideas. His memoirs (Aus meinem Leben)
were prepared in retirement near Dresden, and the first volume
(1897) created such a sensation that eight years were allowed
to elapse before the publication was continued. Prince Kraft
died near Dresden on the i6th of January 1892. (C. F. A.)
V. CHLODWIG KARL VICTOR, prince of Hohenlohe-Schillings-
fiirst (1810-1901), statesman, was born on the 3ist of March
1819 at Schillingsfiirst in Bavaria. His father, Prince Franz
Joseph (1787-1841), was a Catholic, his mother, Princess
Konstanze of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, a Protestant. In accord-
ance with the compromise customary at the time, Prince Chlodwig
and his brothers were brought up in the religion of their father,
while his sisters followed that of their mother. In spite of the
difference of creed the family was very united, and it was to
the spirit that rendered this possible that the prince owed his
liberal and tolerant point of view, which was to exercise an
important influence on his politcal activity. As the younger
son of a cadet line of his house it was necessary for Prince
Chlodwig to follow a profession. For a while he thought of
obtaining a commission in the British army through the in-
fluence of his aunt, Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg
(nee princess of Leiningen), Queen Victoria's half-sister. He
decided, however, to enter the Prussian diplomatic service.
His application to be excused the preliminary steps, which
involved several years' work in subordinate positions in the
Prussian civil service, was refused by Frederick William IV.,
and the prince, with great good sense, decided to sacrifice his
pride of rank and to accept the king's conditions. As auscultator
in the courts at Coblenz he acquired a taste for jurisprudence,
became a Referendar in September 1843, and after some months
of travel in France, Switzerland and Italy went to Potsdam
as a civil servant (May 13, 1844). These early years were
invaluable, not only as giving him experience of practical affairs
but as affording him an insight into the strength and weakness
of the Prussian system. The immediate result was to confirm
his Liberalism. The Prussian principle of " propagating en-
lightenment with a stick " did not appeal to him; he " recognized
the confusion and want of clear ideas in the highest circles,"
the tendency to make agreement with the views of the govern-
ment the test of loyalty to the state; and he noted in his
journal (June 25, 1844) four years before the revolution of '48,
" a slight cause and we shall have a rising." " The free press,"
he notes on another occasion, " is a necessity, progress the
condition of the existence of a state." If he was an ardent
advocate of German unity, and saw in Prussia the instrument
for its attainment, he was throughout opposed to the " Prussifica-
tion " of Germany, and ultimately it was he who made the
unification of Germany possible by insisting at once on the
principle of union with the North German states and at the
same time on the preservation of the individuality of the states
of the South.
On the 1 2th of November 1834 the landgrave Viktor Amadeus
of Hesse-Rotenburg died, leaving to his nephews, the princes
Viktor and Chlodwig Hohenlohe, his allodial estates: the duchy
of Ratibor in Silesia, the principality of Corvey in Westphalia,
and the lordship of Treffurt in the Prussian governmental
district of Erfurt. On the death of Prince Franz Joseph on the
I4th of January 1841 it was decided that the principality of
Schillingsfiirst should pass to the third brother, Philipp Ernst,
as the two elder sons, Viktor and Chlodwig, were provided for
already under their uncle's will, the one with the duchy of
Ratibor, the other with Corvey and Treffurt. The youngest
son, Gustav (b. February 28, 1823), the future cardinal, was
destined for the Church. On the death of Prince Philipp Ernst
574
HOHENLOHE
(May 3, 1845) a new arrangement was made: Prince Chlodwig
became prince of Schillingsfiirst, while Corvey was assigned to
the duke of Ratibor; Treffurt was subsequently sold by Prince
Chlodwig, who purchased with the price large estates in Posen.
This involved a complete change in Prince Chlodwig's career.
His new position as a " reigning " prince and hereditary member
of the Bavarian Upper House was incompatible with that of a
Prussian official. On the i8th of April 1846 he took his seat
as a member of the Bavarian Reichsrath, and on the 26th of
June received his formal discharge from the Prussian service.
Save for the interlude of 1848 the political life of Prince
Hohenlohe was for the next eighteen years not eventful. During
the revolutionary years his sympathies were with the Liberal
idea of a united Germany, and he compromised his chances of
favour from the king of Bavaria by accepting the task (November
i, 1848) of announcing to the courts of Rome, Florence and
Athens the accession to office of the Archduke John of Austria
as regent of Germany. But he was too shrewd an observer to
hope much from a national parliament which " wasted time in
idle babble," or from a democratic victory which had stunned
but not destroyed the German military powers. On the i6th of
February 1847 he had married the Princess Marie of Sayn-
Wittgenstein-Berleburg, the heiress to vast estates in Russia. 1
This led to a prolonged visit to Werki in Lithuania (1851-1853)
in connexion with the management of the property, a visit
repeated in 1860. In general this period of Hohenlohe's life
was occupied in the management of his estates, in the sessions
of the Bavarian Reichsrath and in travels. In 1856 he visited
Rome, during which he noted the baneful influence of the
Jesuits. In 1859 he was studying the political situation at
Berlin, and in the same year he paid a visit to England. The
marriage of his brother Konstantin in 1859 to another princess
of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg led also to frequent visits to
Vienna. Thus Prince Hohenlohe was brought into close touch
with all the most notable people in Europe. At the same time,
during this period (18501866) he was endeavouring to get
into relations with the Bavarian government, with a view to
taking a more active part in affairs. Towards the German
question his attitude at this time was tentative. He had little
hope of a practical realization of a united Germany, and
inclined towards the tripartite divisions under Austria, Prussia
and Bavaria the so-called " Trias." He attended the Fiirsten-
tag at Frankfort in 1863, and in the Schleswig-Holstein question
was a supporter of the prince of Augustenburg. It was at this
time that, at the request of Queen Victoria, he began to send her
regular reports on the political condition of Germany.
Prince Hohenlohe's importance in history, however, begins
with the year 1866. In his opinion the war was a blessing. It
had demonstrated the insignificance of the small and middle
states, " a misfortune for the dynasties " with whose feelings
a mediatized prince could scarcely be expected to be over-
sympathetic but the best possible good fortune for the German
nation. In the Bavarian Reichsrath Hohenlohe now began to
make his voice heard in favour of a closer union with Prussia;
clearly, if such a union were desirable, he was the man in every
way best fitted to prepare the way for it. One of the main
obstacles in the way was the temperament of Louis II. of Bavaria,
whose ideas of kingship were very remote from those of the
Hohenzollerns, whose pride revolted from any concession to
Prussian superiority, and who even during the crisis of 1866
was more absorbed in operas than in affairs of state. Fortunately
Richard Wagner was a politician as well as a composer, and
equally fortunately Hohenlohe was a man of culture capable of
appreciating " the master's "genius. It was Wagner, apparently,
who persuaded the king to place Hohenlohe at the head of his
government (Denkwilrdigkeiten, i. 178, 211), and on the
3ist of December 1866 the prince was duly appointed minister
1 Through her mother, nee Princess Stephanie Radziwill (d. 1832).
Before Prince Wittgenstein's death (1887) anew law had forbidden
foreigners to hold land in Russia. Prince Hohenlohe appears,
however, to have sold one of his wife's estates and to have secured
certain privileges from the Russian court for the rest.
of the royal house and of foreign affairs and president of the
council of ministers.
As head of the Bavarian government Hohenlohe's principal
task was to discover some basis for an effective union of the
South German states with the North German Confederation,
and during the three critical years of his tenure of office he was,
next to Bismarck, the most important statesman in Germany.
He carried out the reorganization of the Bavarian army on
the Prussian model, brought about the military union of the
southern states, and took a leading share in the creation of
the customs parliament (Zollparlament) , of which on the 28th
of April 1868 he was elected a vice-president. During the
agitation that arose in connexion with the summoning of the
Vatican council Hohenlohe took up an attitude of strong opposi-
tion to the ultramontane position. In common with his brothers,
the duke of Ratibor and the cardinal, he believed that the
policy of Pius IX. inspired by the Jesuits (that " devil's
society," as he once called it) of setting the Church in opposition
to the modern State would prove ruinous to both, and that the
definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, by raising the
pronouncements of the Syllabus of 1864 into articles of faith,
would commit the Church to this policy irrevocably. This
view he embodied into a circular note to the Catholic powers
(April 9, 1869), drawn up by Db'llinger, inviting them to exercise
the right of sending ambassadors to the council and to combine
to prevent the definition of the dogma. The greater powers,
however, were for one reason or another unwilling to intervene,
and the only practical outcome of Hohenlohe's action was that
in Bavaria the powerful ultramontane party combined against
him with the Bavarian " patriots " who accused him of bartering
away Bavarian independence to Prussia. The combination
was too strong for him; a bill which he brought in for curbing
the influence of the Church over education was defeated, the
elections of 1869 went against him, and in spite of the continued
support of the king he was forced to resign (March 7, 1870).
Though out of office, his personal influence continued very
great both at Munich and Berlin and had not a little to do with
favourable terms of the treaty of the North German Confedera-
tion with Bavaria, which embodied his views, and with its
acceptance by the Bavarian parliament. 2 Elected a member
of the German Reichstag, he was on the 23rd of March 1871
chosen one of its vice-presidents, and was instrumental in found-
ing the new groups which took the name of the Liberal Imperial
party (Liberate Reichspartei), the objects of which were to support
the new empire, to secure its internal development on Liberal
lines, and to oppose clerical aggression as represented by the
Catholic Centre. Like the duke of Ratibor, Hohenlohe was
from the first a strenuous supporter of Bismarck's anti-papal
policy, the main lines of which (prohibition of the Society of
Jesus, &c.) he himself suggested. Though sympathizing with
the motives of the Old Catholics, however, he realized that they
were doomed to sink into a powerless sect, and did not join
them, believing that the only hope for a reform of the Church
lay in those who desired it remaining in her communion. 3 In
1872 Bismarck proposed to appoint Cardinal Hohenlohe
Prussian envoy at the Vatican, but his views were too much
in harmony with those of his family, and the pope refused to
receive him in this capacity. 4
In 1873 Bismarck chose Prince Hohenlohe to succeed Count
Harry Arnim as ambassador in Paris, where he remained for
seven years. In 1878 he attended the congress of Berlin as
third German representative, and in 1880, on the death of
Bernhardt Ernst von Billow (October 20), secretary of state for
foreign affairs, he was called to Berlin as temporary head of
the Foreign Office and representative of Bismarck during his
'Speech of December 30, 1870, in the Reichsrath. Denkwurdig-
keiten, ii. 36.
3 " If I wished to leave the Church because of all the scandalous
occurrences in the Catholic Church, I should have had to secede
while studying Church history," op. cit. ii. 92.
4 Dr Johann Friedrich (q.v.), afterwards one of the Old Catholic
leaders, was his secretary at the time of the Vatican council, and
supplied historical and theological material to the opposition bishops.
HOHENSTAUFEN HOHENZOLLERN
575
absence through illness. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed
Manteuffel as governor of Alsace-Lorraine. In this capacity
he had to carry out the coercive measures introduced by the
chancellor in 1887-1888, though he largely disapproved of them; '
his conciliatory disposition, however, did much to reconcile
the Alsace-Lorrainers to German rule. He remained at Strass-
burg till October 1894, when, at the urgent request of the emperor,
he consented, in spite of his advanced years, to accept the
chancellorship in succession to Caprivi. The events of his
chancellorship belong to the general history of Germany (q.v.);
as regards the inner history of this time the editor of his memoirs
has very properly suppressed the greater part of the detailed
comments which the prince left behind him. In general, during
his term of office, the personality of the chancellor was less
conspicuous in public affairs than in the case of either of his
predecessors. His appearances in the Prussian and German
parliaments were rare, and great independence was left to the
secretaries of state. What influence the tact and experience
of Hohenlohe exercised behind the scenes on the masterful
will and impulsive character of the emperor cannot as yet be
generally known.
Prince Hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship on the i7th of
October 1900, and died at Ragaz on the 6th of July 1901.
On the i6th of February 1897 he had celebrated his golden
wedding; on the 2ist of December of the same year the princess
died. There were six children of the marriage: Elizabeth
(b. 1847); Stephanie (b. 1851); Philipp Ernst, reigning prince
of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst (b. 1853), who married Princess
Charielee Ypsilanti; Albert (1857-1866); Moritz and Alexander,
twins (b. 1862).
All other authorities for the life of Prince Hohenlohe have been
superseded by the Denkwiirdigkeiten (2 vols., Stuttgart and Leipzig,
1906). With the exception noted above these are singularly full
and outspoken, the latter quality causing no little scandal in Germany
and bringing down on Prince Alexander, who was responsible for
their publication, the disfavour of the emperor. They form not only
the record of a singularly full and varied life, but are invaluable to
the historian for the wealth of material they contain and for apprecia-
tions of men and events by an observer who had the best opportunities
for forming a judgment. The prince himself they reveal not only as
a capable man of affairs, though falling short of greatness, but as a
personality of singular charm, tenacious of his principles, tolerant,
broad-minded, and possessed of a large measure of the saving grace
of humour.
See generally A. F. Fischer, Geschichte des Plauses Hohenlohe (1866-
1871); K. Weller, Hohenlohisches Urkundenbuch, 1153-1350 (Stutt-
gart, 1899-1901), and Geschichte des Hauses Hohenlohe (Stuttgart,
1904). (W. A. P.;C. F. A.)
HOHENSTAUFEN, the name of a village and ruined castle
near Lorsch in Swabia, now in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg,
which gave its name to a celebrated Swabian family, members
of which were emperors or German kings from 1138 to 1208,
and again from 1214 to 1254. The earliest known ancestor
was Frederick, count of Biiren (d. 1094), whose son Frederick
built a castle at Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, and called himself
by this name. He was a firm supporter of the emperor Henry
IV., who rewarded his fidelity by granting him the dukedom
of Swabia in 1079, and giving him his daughter Agnes in
marriage. In 1081 he remained in Germany as Henry's repre-
sentative, but only secured possession of Swabia after a struggle
lasting twenty years. In 1105 Frederick was succeeded by his
son Frederick II., called the One-eyed, who, together with his
brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III.,
held south-west Germany for their uncle the emperor Henry V.
Frederick inherited the estates of Henry V. in 1125, but failed
to secure the throne, and took up an attitude of hostility towards
the new emperor, Lothair the Saxon, who claimed some of the
estates of the late emperor as crown property. A war broke
out and ended in the complete submission of Frederick at
Bamberg. He retained, however, his dukedom and estates.
In 1138 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was elected German king,
1 He protested against the passport system as likely to lead to a
war with France, for which he preferred not to be responsible (Letter
to Wilmowski, Denkw. ii. 433), but on the chancellor taking full
responsibility consented to retain office.
and was succeeded in 1152, not by his son but by his nephew
Frederick Barbarossa, son of his brother Frederick (d. 1147).
Conrad's son Frederick inherited the duchy of Franconia which
his father had received in 1115, and this was retained by the
Hohenstaufen until the death of Duke Conrad II. in 1 196. In
1152 Frederick received the duchy of Swabia from his cousin
the German king Frederick I., and on his death in 1167 it passed
successively to Frederick's three sons Frederick, Conrad and
Philip. The second Hohenstaufen emperor was Frederick
Barbarossa's son, Henry VI., after whose death a struggle for
the throne took place between Henry's brother Philip, duke
of Swabia, and Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor
Otto IV. Regained for the Hohenstaufen by Henry's son,
Frederick II., in 1214, the German kingdom passed to his son,
Conrad IV., and when Conrad's son Conradin was beheaded in
Italy in 1268, the male line of the Hohenstaufen became extinct.
Daughters of Philip of Swabia married Ferdinand III., king of
Castile and Leon, and Henry II., duke of Brabant, and a daughter
of Conrad, brother of the emperor Frederick I., married into the
family of Guelph. The castle of Hohenstaufen was destroyed
in the i6th century during the Peasants' War, and only a few
fragments now remain.
See F. von Raumer, Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeil
(Leipzig, 1878); B. F. W. Zimmermann, Geschichte der Hohenstaufen
(Stuttgart, 1st ed., 1838; 2nd ed., 1865); F. W. Schirrmacher, Die
letzten Hohenstaufen (Gottingen, 1871).
HOHENSTEIN (Hohenstein-Ernstthal), a town of Germany,
in the kingdom of Saxony, on the slopes of the Erzgebirge, and
on the railway Reichenbach-Chemnitz, 12 m. N.E. of Zwickau.
Pop. (1905) 13,903. Hohenstein possesses two fine Evangelical
churches, a town hall, restored in 1876, and several monu-
ments to famous men. The principal industries are the
spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of machines,
stockings, gloves and woollen and silk fabrics, cotton
printing and dyeing. Many of the inhabitants are also
employed in the neighbouring copper and arsenic mines.
Not far from Hohenstein there is a mineral spring, con-
nected with which there are various kinds of baths. Hohen-
stein is the birthplace of the physicist G. H. von Schubert
and of C. G. Schroter (1699-1782), one of the inventors of the
pianoforte. Hohenstein consists of two towns, Hohenstein
and Ernstthal, which were united in 1898.
Another place of the same name is a town in East Prussia.
Pop. (1900) 2467. This Hohenstein, which was founded by the
Teutonic Order in 1359 , has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical
church, a synagogue and several educational establishments.
HOHENZOLLERN, the name of a castle which stood on the
hill of Zollern about i m. south of Hechingen, and gave its
name to the family to which the present German emperor
belongs. A vague tradition connects the house with the Colonna
family of Rome, or the Colalto family of Lombardy; but one
more definite unites the Hohenzollerns with the Burkhardingers,
who were counts in Raetia during the early part of the loth
century, and two of whom became dukes of Swabia. Tassilo,
a member of this family, is said to have built a castle at Zollern
early in the 9th century; but the first historical mention of
the name is in the Chronicon of a certain Berthold (d. 1088),
who refers to Burkhard and Wezil, or Werner, of Zollern, or
Zolorin. These men appear to have been counts of Zollern, and
to have met their death in 1061. The family of Wezil died out
in 1194, and the existing branches of the Hohenzollerns are
descended from Burkhard and his son Frederick, whose eldest
son, Frederick II., was in great favour with the German kings,
Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III. Frederick II. died about
1145, and his son and successor, Frederick III., was a constant
supporter of the Hohenstaufen. This count married Sophia,
daughter and heiress of Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, and
about 1192 he succeeded his father-in-law as burgrave, obtaining
also some lands in Austria and Franconia. He died about 1 200,
and his sons, Conrad and Frederick, ruled their lands in common
until 1227, when an important division took place. Conrad
became burgrave of Nuremberg, and, receiving the lands which
HOHENZOLLERN
had come into the family through his mother, founded the
Franconian branch of the family, which became the more im-
portant of the two; while Frederick, receiving the county of
Zollern and the older possessions of the family, was the ancestor
of the Swabian branch.
Early in the 1 2th century Burkhard, a younger son of Frederick
I., secured the county of Hohenberg, and this district remained
in the possession of the Hohenzollerns until the death of Count
Sigismund in 1486. Its rulers, however, with the exception of
Count Albert II. (d. 1 298) , played an unimportant part in German
history. Albert, who was a Minnesinger, was loyal to the
declining fortunes of the Hohenstaufen, and afterwards supported
his brother-in-law, Rudolph of Habsburg, in his efforts to obtain
the German throne. He shared in the campaigns of Rudolph
and fell in battle in 1298, during the struggle between Adolph
of Nassau and Albert of Habsburg (afterwards King Albert I.).
When this family became extinct in 1486 Hohenberg passed to
the Habsburgs.
The Franconian branch of the Hohenzollerns was represented
in 1227 by Conrad, burgrave of Nuremberg, whom the emperor
Frederick II. appointed guardian of his son Henry, and admi-
nistrator of Austria. After a short apostasy, during which
he supported Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, Conrad
returned to the side of the Hohenstaufen and aided Conrad IV.
He died in 1261, when his son and successor, the burgrave
Frederick III., had already obtained Bayreuth through his
marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Otto of Meran (d. 1234).
Frederick took a leading part in German affairs, and it is interest-
ing to note that he had a considerable share in securing the
election of his uncle, Rudolph of Habsburg, as German king
in 1 273. He died in 1 297 and was succeeded by his son, Frederick
IV. This burgrave fought for King Albert I. in Thuringia,
and supported Henry VII. in his efforts to secure Bohemia for
his son John; but in 1314, forsaking his father's policy, he
favoured Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV., in his
struggle with Frederick, duke of Austria, and by his conduct
at the battle of Muhldorf in 1322 and elsewhere earned the
designation of " saviour of the empire." Frederick, however,
did not neglect his hereditary lands. He did something for the
maintenance of peace and the security of traders, gave corporate
privileges to villages, and took the Jews under his protection.
His services to Louis were rewarded in various ways, and, using
part of his wealth to increase the area of his possessions, he bought
the town and district of Ansbach in 1331. Dying in 1332,
Frederick was succeeded by his son, John II., who, after one of
his brothers had died and two others had entered the church,
ruled his lands in common with his brother Albert. About
1 33 8 John bought Culmbach and Plassenburg, and on the strength
of a privilege granted to him in 1347 he seized many robber-
fortresses and held the surrounding lands as imperial fiefs. In
general he continued his father's policy, and when he died in
J 3S7 was succeeded by his son, Frederick V., who, after the death
of his uncle Albert in 1361, became sole ruler of Nuremberg,
Ansbach and Bayreuth. Frederick lived in close friendship
with the emperor Charles IV., who formally invested him with
Ansbach and Bayreuth and made him a prince of the empire
in 1363. In spite of the troubled times in which he lived,
Frederick was a successful ruler, and introduced a regular system
of public finance into his lands. In 1397 he divided his territories
between his sons John and Frederick, and died in the following
year. His elder son, John III., who had married Margaret, a
daughter of the emperor Charles IV., was frequently in the
company of his brothers-in-law, the German kings Wenceslaus
and Sigismund. He died without sons in 1420.
Since 1397 the office of burgrave of Nuremberg had been held
by John's brother, Frederick, who in 1415 received Brandenburg
from King Sigismund, and became margrave of Brandenburg
as Frederick I. (?..). On his brother's death in 1420 he reunited
the lands of his branch of the family, but in 1427 he sold his
rights as burgrave to the town of Nuremberg. The subsequent
history of this branch of the Hohenzollerns is identified with
that of Brandenburg from 1415 to 1701, and with that of Prussia
since the latter date, as in this year the elector Frederick III.
became king of Prussia. In 1871 William, the seventh king,
took the title of German emperor. While the electorate of
Brandenburg passed according to the rule of primogeniture,
the Franconian possessions of the Hohenzollerns, Ansbach and
Bayreuth, were given as appanages to younger sons, an arrange-
ment which was confirmed by the dispositio Achillea of 1473.
These principalities were ruled by the sons and descendants of
the elector Albert Achilles from 1486 to 1603; and, after
reverting to the elector of Brandenburg, by the descendants
of the elector John George from 1603 to 1791. In 1791 Prince
Charles Alexander (d. 1806), who had inherited both districts,
sold his lands to Prussia.
The influence of the Swabian branch of the Hohenzollerns
was weakened by several partitions of its lands; but early in
the i6th century it rose to some eminence through Count Eitel
Frederick II. (d. 1512), a friend and adviser of the emperor
Maximilian I. Eitel received from this emperor the district of
Haigerloch, and in 1534 his grandson Charles (d. 1576) was
granted the counties of Sigmaringen and Vohringen by the
emperor Charles V. In 1576 the sons of Charles divided their
lands, and founded three branches of the family, one of which
is still flourishing. Eitel Frederick IV. took Hohenzollern with
the title of Hohenzollern-Hechingen; Charles II. Sigmaringen
and Vohringen and the title of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen;
and Christopher took Haigerloch. Christopher's family died
out in 1634, but the remaining lines are of some importance.
Count John George of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was made a
prince in 1623, and John of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen soon
received the same honour. In 1695 these two branches of the
family entered conjointly into an agreement with Brandenburg,
which provided that, in case of the extinction of either of the
Swabian branches, the remaining branch should inherit its
lands; and if both branches became extinct the principalities
should revert to Brandenburg. During the i7th and i8th
centuries and during the period of the Napoleonic wars the
history of these lands was very similar to that of the other
small estates of Germany. In consequence of the political
troubles of 1848 Princes Frederick William of Hohenzollern-
Hechingen and Charles Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen
resigned their principalities, and accordingly these fell to the
king of Prussia, who took possession on the I2th of March 1850.
By a royal decree of the 2oth of May following the title of " high-
ness," with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal house,
was conferred on the two princes. The proposal to raise Prince
Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1835-1905) to the Spanish
throne in 1870 was the immediate cause of the war between
France and Germany. In 1908 the head of this branch of the
Hohenzollerns, the only one existing besides the imperial house,
was Leopold's son William (b. 1864) , who, owing to the extinction
of the family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869, was called
simply prince of Hohenzollern. In 1866 Prince Charles of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania,
becoming king in 1881.
The modern Prussian province of Hohenzollern is a long,
narrow strip of territory bounded on the S.W. by Baden and
in other directions by Wiirttemberg. It was divided into two
principalities, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-
Hechingen, until 1850, when these were united. They now
form the government of Sigmaringen (q.v.).
The castle of Hohenzollern was destroyed in 1423, but it has
been restored several times. Some remains of the old building
may still be seen adjoining the present castle, which was built
by King Frederick William IV.
See Monumenta Zollerana, edited by R. von Stillfried and T.
Marker (Berlin, 1852-1890); Quellen und Unters:4thungen zur
Geschichte des Houses Hohenzollern, edited by E. Berner (Berlin,
1901 fol.); R. von Stillfried, Altertumer und Kunstdenkmale des
erlauchten Hauses von Hohenzollern (Berlin, 1852-1867) and
Stammtafeln des Gesamthauses Hohenzollern (Berlin, 1869); L.
Schmid, Die dlteste Geschichte des erlauchten Gesamthauses der
koniglichen und furstlichen Hohenzollern (Tubingen, 1884-1888);
E. Schwartz, Stammtafel des preussischen Konigshauses (Breslau
HOKKAIDO HOLBEIN
577
1898); Hohenzollernsche Forschungen, Jahrbuch fur die Geschichte der
Hohenzollern, edited by C. Meyer (Berlin, 1891-1902); Hohenzottern
Jahrbuch, Forschungen und Abbildungen zur Geschichte der Hohen-
zollern in Brandenburg-Preussen, edited by Seidel (Leipzig, 1897-
1903), and T. Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great (London, 1872-
1873). (A. W. H.*)
HOKKAIDO, the Japanese name for the northern division
of the empire (Hoku = north, kai = sea, and do = road), including
Yezo, the Kuriles and their adjacent islets.
HOKUSAI (1760-1849), the greatest of all the Japanese painters
of the Popular School (Ukiyo-ye), was born at Yedo (Tokyo)
in the pth month of the loth year of the period Horeki, i.e.
October-November 1760. He came of an artisan family, his
father having been a mirror-maker, Nakajima Issai. After
some practice as a wood-engraver he, at the age of eighteen,
entered the studio of Katsugawa Shunsho, a painter and
designer of colour-prints of considerable importance. His dis-
regard for the artistic principles of his master caused his expul-
sion in 1785; and thereafter although from time to time
Hokusai studied various styles, including especially that of
Shiba Gokan, from whom he gained some fragmentary knowledge
of European methods he kept his personal independence.
For a time he lived in extreme poverty, and, although he must
have gained sums for his work which might have secured him
comfort, he remained poor, and to the end of his life proudly
described himself as a peasant. He illustrated large numbers
of books, of which the world-famous Mangwa, a pictorial ency-
clopaedia of Japanese life, appeared in fifteen volumes from
1812 to 1875. Of his colour-prints the " Thirty-six Views of
Mount Fuji " (the whole set consisting of forty-six prints) were
made between 1823 and 1829; " Views of Famous Bridges "
(n), " Waterfalls " (8), and " Views of the Lu-chu Islands "
(8), are the best known of those issued in series; but Hokusai
also designed some superb broadsheets published separately,
and his surimono (small prints made for special occasions and
ceremonies) are unequalled for delicacy and beauty. The
" Hundred Views of Mount Fuji " (1834-1835), 3 vols., in
monochrome, are of extraordinary originality and variety.
As a painter and draughtsman Hokusai is not held by Japanese
critics to be of the first rank, but this verdict has never been
accepted by Europeans, who place him among the greatest
artists of the world. He possessed great powers of observation
and characterization, a singular technical skill, an unfailing
gift of good humour, and untiring industry. He was an eager
student to the end of his long life, and on his death-bed said,
" If Heaven had lent me but five years more, I should have
become a great painter." He died on the loth of May 1849.
See E. de Goncourt, Hokousai (1896); M. Revon, Etude sur
Hokusai (1896); E. F. Fenollosa, Catalogue of the Exhibition of
Paintings by Hokusai at Tokyo (1901) ; E. F. Strange, Hokusai (1906).
(E. F. S.)
HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH, BARON D' (1723-
1789), French philosopher and man of letters, of German origin,
was born at Heidelsheim in the palatinate in 1723. Of his family
little is known; according to J. J. Rousseau his father was a
rich parvenu, who brought his son at an early age to Paris,
where the latter spent most of his life. Much of Holbach's fame
is due to his intimate connexion with the brilliant coterie of
bold thinkers and polished wits whose creed, the new philosophy,
is concentrated in the famous Encyclopedic. Possessed of easy
means and being of hospitable disposition, he kept open house
for Helvetius, D'Alembert, Diderot, Condillac, Turgot, Buffon,
Grimm, Hume, Garrick, Wilkes, Sterne, and for a time J. J.
Rousseau, guests who, while enjoying the intellectual pleasure
of their host's conversation, were not insensible to his excellent
cuisine and costly wines. For the Encyclopedic he compiled
and translated a large number of articles on chemistry and
mineralogy, chiefly from German sources. He attracted more
attention, however, in the department of philosophy. In 1767
Chrhtianisme devoile appeared, in which he attacked Christianity
and religion as the source of all human evils. This was followed
up by other works, and in 1770 by a still more open attack in
his most famous book, Le Systeme de la nature, in which it
xni. 19
is probable he was assisted by Diderot. Denying the existence
of a deity, and refusing to admit as evidence all a priori arguments,
Holbach saw in the universe nothing save matter in spontaneous
movement. What men call their souls become extinct when
the body dies. Happiness is the end of mankind. " It would
be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man's being virtuous
if he cannot be so without being unhappy. So long as vice
renders him happy, he should love vice." The restraints of
religion were to be replaced by an education developing an
enlightened self-interest. The study of science was to bring
human desires into line with their natural surroundings. Not
less direct and trenchant are his attacks on political government,
which, interpreted by the light of after events, sound like the
first distant mutterings of revolution. Holbach exposed the
logical consequences of the theories of the Encyclopaedists.
Voltaire hastily seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the
Systeme in the article " Dieu " in his Dictionnaire philosophique,
while Frederick the Great also drew up an answer to it. Though
vigorous in thought and in some passages clear and eloquent,
the style of the Systeme is diffuse and declamatory, and asserts
rather than proves its statements. Its principles are summed
up in a more popular form in Bon Sens, ou idees naturelles
opposees aux idees surnalurelles (Amsterdam, 1772). In the
Systeme social (1773), the Politique naturelle (1773-1774) and
the Morale universelle (1776) Holbach attempts to rear a system
of morality in place of the one he had so fiercely attacked, but
these later writings had not a tithe of the popularity and influence
of his earlier work. He published his books either anonymously
or under borrowed names, and was forced to have them printed
out of France. The uprightness and sincerity of his character
won the friendship of many to whom his philosophy was repug-
nant. J. J. Rousseau is supposed to have drawn his portrait
in the virtuous atheist Wolmar of the Nouvelle Helo'ise. He
died on the 2ist of January 1789.
Holbach is also the author of the following and other works:
Esprit du clerge (1767); De I' imposture sacerdotale ( 1 767) ; Pretres
demasques (1768); Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de St
Paul (1770); Histoire critique de Jesus-Christ (1770), and Etho-
cratie (1776). For further particulars as to his life and doctrines
see Grimm's Correspondance litteraire, &c. (1813); Rousseau's Con-
fessions; Morellet's Memoires (1821); Madame de Genlis, Les Diners
du Baron Holbach; Madame d'Epinay's Memoires; Avezac-Lavigne,
Diderot et la societe du Baron d' Holbach (1875), and Morley's Diderot
(1878).
HOLBEACH, a market town in the Holland or Spalding
parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, on the
Midland and Great Northern joint railway, 235 m. N.E. of
Peterborough. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4755. All Saints'
Church, with a lofty spire, is a fine specimen of late Decorated
work. The grammar school, founded in 1669, occupies a building
erected in 1877. Other public buildings are the assembly
rooms and a market house. Roman and Saxon remains have
been found, and the market dates from the i3th century.
HOLBEIN, HANS, the elder (c. 1460-1524), belonged to a
celebrated family of painters in practice at Augsburg and Basel
from the close of the isth to the middle of the i6th century.
Though closely connected with Venice by her commercial
relations, and geographically nearer to Italy than to Flanders,
Augsburg at the time of Maximilian cultivated art after the
fashion of the Flemings, and felt the influence of the schools
of Bruges and Brussels, which had branches at Cologne and in
many cities about the headwaters of the Rhine. It was not
till after the opening of the i6th century, and between that
and the era of the Reformation, that Italian example mitigated
to some extent the asperity of South German painting. Flemish
and German art was first tempered with Italian elements at
Augsburg by Hans Holbein the elder. Hans first appears at
Augsburg as partner to his brother Sigismund, who survived
him and died in 1540 at Berne. Sigismund is described as a
painter, but his works have not come down to us. Hans had
the lead of the partnership at Augsburg, and signed all the
pictures which it produced. In common with Herlen, Schongauer,
and other masters of South Germany, he first cultivated a style
HOLBEIN
akin to that of Memlinc and other followers of the schools of
Brussels and Bruges, but he probably modified the systems
of those schools by studying the works of the masters of Cologne.
As these early impressions waned, they were replaced by others
less favourable to the expansion of the master's fame; and as
his custom increased between 1499 and 1506, we find him relying
less upon the teaching of the schools than upon a mere observa-
tion and reproduction of the quaintnesses of local passion plays.
Most of his early works indeed are taken from the Passion, and
in these he obviously marshalled his figures with the shallow
stage effect of the plays, copying their artificial system of group-
ing, careless to some extent of proportion in the human shape,
heedless of any but the coarser forms of expression, and technically
satisfied with the simplest methods of execution. If in any
branch of his art he can be said to have had a conscience at this
period, we should say that he showed it in his portrait drawings.
It is seldom that we find a painted likeness worthy of the name.
The drawings of which numbers are still preserved in the galleries
of Basel, Berlin and Copenhagen show extraordinary quickness
and delicacy of hand, and a wonderful facility for seizing
character; and this happily is one of the features which Holbein
bequeathed to his more famous son, Hans the younger. It is
between 1512 and 1522 that Holbein tempered the German
quality of his style with some North Italian elements. A purer
taste and more pleasing realism mark his work, which in drapery,
dress and tone is as much more agreeable to the eye as in
respect of modelling and finish it is smoother and more carefully
rounded. Costume, architecture, ornament and colour are
applied with some knowledge of the higher canons of art. Here,
too, advantage accrued to Hans the younger, whose independent
career about this time began.
The date of the elder Holbein's birth is unknown. But his
name appears in the books of the tax-gatherers of Augsburg
in 1494, superseding that of Michael Holbein, who is supposed
to have been his father. Previous to that date, and as early as
1493, he was a painter of name, and he executed in that year,
it is said, for the abbey at Weingarten, the wings of an altar-
piece representing Joachim's Offering, the Nativity of the Virgin,
Mary's Presentation in the Temple, and the Presentation of
Christ, which now hang in separate panels in the cathedral of
Augsburg. In these pieces and others of the same period,
for instance in two Madonnas in the Moritz chapel and castle
of Nuremberg, we mark the clear impress of the schools of Van
der Weyden and Memlinc; whilst in later works, such as the
Basilica of St Paul (1504) in the gallery of Augsburg, the wane of
Flemish influence is apparent. But this altarpiece, with its
quaint illustrations of St Paul's life and martyrdom, is not alone
of interest because its execution is characteristic of old Holbein.
It is equally so because it contains portraits of the master himself,
accompanied by his two sons, the painters Ambrose (c. 1494-
c. 1519) and Hans the younger. Later pictures, such as the
Passion series in the Fiirstenberg gallery at Donaueschingen, or
the Martyrdom of St Sebastian in the Munich Pinakothek,
contain similar portraits, the original drawings of which are found
in old Holbein's sketch-book at Berlin, or in stray leaves like
those possessed by the duke of Aumale in Paris. Not one of
these fails to give us an insight into the character, or a reflex
of the features, of the members of this celebrated family. Old
Holbein seems to ape Leonardo, allowing his hair and beard
to grow wildly, except on the upper lip. Hans the younger
is a plain-looking boy. But his father points to him with his
finger, and hints that though but a child he is clearly a prodigy.
After 1516 Hans Holbein the elder appears as a defaulter
in the registers of the tax-gatherers at Augsburg; but he
willingly accepts commissions abroad. At Issenheim in Alsace,
where Grunewald was employed in 1516, old Holbein also finds
patrons, and contracts to complete an altarpiece. But mis-
fortune or a bailiff pursues him, and he leaves Issenheim, abandon-
ing his work and tools. According to Sandrart, he wanders to
Basel and takes the freedom of its gild. His brother Sigismund
and others are found suing him for debt before the courts of
Augsburg. Where he lived when he executed the altarpiece,
of which two wings with the date of 1522 are in the gallery of
Carlsruhe, is uncertain; where he died two years later is unknown.
He slinks from^ken at the close of a long life, and disappears
at last heeded by none but his own son, who claims his brushes
and paints from the monks of Issenheim without much chance
of obtaining them. His name is struck off the books of the
Augsburg gild in 1524.
The elder Holbein was a prolific artist, who left many pictures
behind him. Earlier than the Basilica of St Paul, already mentioned,
is the Basilica of St Mary Maggiore, and a Passion in eleven pieces,
in the Augsburg gallery, both executed in 1499. Another Passion,
with the root of Jesse and a tree of the Dominicans, is that preserved
in the Staedel, Saalhof, and church of St Leonard at Frankfort. It
was executed in 1501. The Passion of Donaueschingen was finished
after 1502, in which year was completed the Passion of Kaisheim, a
conglomerate of twenty-seven panels, now divided amongst the
galleries of Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Schleissheim. An
altarpiece of the same class, commissioned for the monastery of
St Moritz at Augsburg in 1504-1508, has been dispersed and lost.
1512 is the date of a Conception in the Augsburg gallery, long
assigned, in consequence of a forged inscription, to Hans Holbein the
younger. A diptych, with a Virgin and Child, and a portrait of an
old man, dated 1513, came in separate parts into the collections of
Mr Posonyi and Count Lanckoronski at Vienna. The sketch-books
of Berlin, Copenhagen and Augsburg give a lively picture of the
forms and dress of Augsburg residents at the beginning of the l6th
century. They comprise portraits of the emperor Maximilian, the
future Charles V., Kunz von der Rosen, the fool of Maximilian, the
Fuggers, friars, merchants, and at rare intervals ladies.
See also the biography by Stodtner (Berlin, 1896).
HOLBEIN, HANS, the younger (1497-1543), German painter,
favourite son of Hans Holbein the elder, was probably born at
Augsburg about the year 1497. Though Sandrart and Van
Mander declare that they do not know who gave him the first
lessons, he doubtless received an artist's education from his
father. About 1515 he left Augsburg with Ambrose, his elder
brother, to seek employment as an illustrator of books at Basel.
His first patron is said to have been Erasmus, for whom, shortly
after his arrival, he illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches an
edition of the Encomium Moriae, now in the museum of Basel.
But his chief occupation was that of drawing titlepage-blocks
and initials for new editions of the Bible and classics issued
from the presses of Froben and other publishers. His leisure
hours, it is supposed, were devoted to the production of rough
painter's work, a schoolmaster's sign in the Basel collection,
a table with pictures of St Nobody in the library of the university
at Zurich. In contrast with these coarse productions, the portraits
of Jacob Meyer and his wife in the Basel museum, one of which
purports to have been finished in 1516, are miracles of workman-
ship. It has always seemed difficult indeed to ascribe such
excellent creations to Holbein's nineteenth year; and it is
hardly credible that he should have been asked to do things
of this kind so early, especially when it is remembered that
neither he nor his brother Ambrose were then allowed to matricu-
late in the guild of Basel. Not till 1517 did Ambrose, whose
life otherwise remains obscure, join that corporation; Hans,
not overburdened with practice, wandered into Switzerland,
where (1517) he was employed to paint in the house of Jacob
Hertenstein at Lucerne. In 1519 Holbein reappeared at Basel,
where he matriculated and, there is every reason to think,
married. Whether, previous to this time, he took advantage of
his vicinity to the Italian border to cross the Alps is uncertain.
Van Mander says that he never was in Italy; yet the large
wall-paintings which he executed after 1519 at Basel, and the
series of his sketches and pictures which is still extant, might
lead to the belief that Van Mander was misinformed. The
spirit of Holbein's compositions for the Basel town hall, the
scenery and architecture of his numerous drawings, and the cast
of form in some of his imaginative portraits, make it more
likely that he should have felt the direct influence of North
Italian painting than that he should have taken Italian elements
from imported works or prints. The Swiss at this period
wandered in thousands to swell the ranks of the French or
imperial armies fighting on Italian soil, and the road they took
may have been followed by Hans on a more peaceful mission.
He shows himself at all events familiar with Italian examples
HOLBEIN
579
at various periods of his career; and if we accept as early works the
" Flagellation," and the " Last Supper " at Basel, coarse as they
are, they show some acquaintance with Lombard methods of
painting, whilst in other pieces, such as the series of the Passion in
oil in the same collection, the modes of Hans Holbein the elder are
agreeably commingled with a more modern, it may be said Italian,
polish. Again, looking at the " Virgin " and " Man of Sorrows "
in the Basel museum, we shall be struck by a searching metallic
style akin to that of the Ferrarese; and the " Lais " or the " Venus
and Amor " of the same collection reminds us of the Leonard-
esques of the school of Milan. When Holbein settled down to an
extensive practice at Basel in 1519, he decorated the walls of
the house " Zum Tanz " with simulated architectural features
of a florid character after the fashion of the Veronese; and his
wall paintings in the town-hall, if we can truly judge of them
by copies, reveal an artist not unfamiliar with North Italian
composition, distribution, action, gesture and expression. In
his drawings too, particularly in a set representing the Passion
at Basel, the arrangement, and also the perspective, form and
decorative ornament, are in the spirit of the school of Mantegna.
Contemporary with these, however, and almost inexplicably
in contrast with them as regards handling, are portrait-drawings
such as the likenesses of Jacob Meyer, and his wife, which are
finished with German delicacy, and with a power and subtlety
of hand seldom rivalled in any school. Curiously enough, the
same contrast may be observed between painted compositions
and painted portraits. The " Bonifacius Amerbach " of 1519 at
Basel is acknowledged to be one of the most complete examples
of smooth and transparent handling that Holbein ever executed.
His versatility at this period is shown by a dead Christ (1521),
a corpse in profile on a dissecting table, and a set of figures in
couples; the " Madonna and St Pantalus," and " Kaiser Henry
with the Empress Kunigunde " (1522), originally composed for
the organ loft of the Basel cathedral, now in the Basel museum.
Equally remarkable, but more attractive, though injured, is
the " Virgin and Child between St Ursus and St Nicholas " (not
St Martin) giving alms to a beggar, in the gallery of Solothurn.
This remarkable picture is dated 1522, and seems to have been
ordered for an altar in the minster of St Ursus of Solothurn by
Nicholas Conrad, a captain and statesman of the i6th century,
whose family allowed the precious heirloom to fall into decay
in a chapel of the neighbouring village of Grenchen. Numerous
drawings in the spirit of this picture, and probably of the same
period in his career, might have led Holbein's contemporaries
to believe that he would make his mark in the annals of Basel
as a model for painters of altarpieces as well as a model for
pictorial composition and portrait. The promise which he gave
at this time was immense. He was gaining a freedom in draughts-
manship that gave him facility to deal with any subject. Though
a realist, he was sensible of the dignity and severity of religious
painting. His colour had almost all the richness and sweetness
of the Venetians. But he had fallen on evil times, as the next
few years undoubtedly showed. Amongst the portraits which
he executed in these years are those of Froben, the publisher,
known only by copies at Basel and Hampton Court, and Erasmus,
who sat in 1523, as he likewise did in 1530, in various positions,
showing his face threequarters as at Longford, Basel, Turin,
Parma, the Hague and Vienna, and in profile as in the Louvre
or at Hampton Court. Besides these, Holbein made designs
for glass windows, and for woodcuts, including subjects of every
sort, from the Virgin and Child with saints of the old time to
the Dance of Death, from gospel incidents extracted from
Luther's Bible to satirical pieces illustrating the sale of indulgences
and other abuses denounced by Reformers. Holbein, in this
way, was carried irresistibly with the stream of the Reformation,
in which, it must now be admitted, the old traditions of religious
painting were wrecked, leaving nothing behind but unpictorial
elements which Cranach and his school vainly used for pictorial
purposes.
Once only, after 1526, and after he had produced the " Lais "
and " Venus and Amor," did Holbein with impartial spirit give
his services and pencil to the Roman Catholic cause. The burgo-
master Meyer, whose patronage he had already enjoyed, now
asked him to represent himself and his wives and children in
prayer before the Virgin; and Holbein produced the celebrated
altarpiece now in the palace of Prince William of Hesse at
Darmstadt, the shape and composition of which are known to
all the world by its copy in the Dresden museum. The drawings
for this masterpiece are amongst the most precious relics in the
museum of Basel. The time now came when art began to suffer
from unavoidable depression in all countries north of the Alps.
Holbein, at Basel, was reduced to accept the smallest commissions
even for scutcheons. Then he saw that his chances were
dwindling to nothing, and taking a bold resolution, armed with
letters of introduction from Erasmus to More, he crossed the
Channel to England, where in the one-sided branch of portrait
painting he found an endless circle of clients. Eighty-seven
drawings by Holbein in Windsor Castle, containing an equal
number of portraits, of persons chiefly of high quality, testify
to his industry in the years which divide 1528 from 1543. They
are all originals of pictures that are still extant, or sketches
for pictures that were lost or never carried out. Sir Thomas
More, with whom he seems to have had a very friendly connexion,
sat to him for likenesses of various kinds. The drawing of his
head is at Windsor. A pen-and-ink sketch, in which we see
More surrounded by all the members of his family, is now in
the gallery of Basel, and numerous copies of a picture from it
prove how popular the lost original must once have been. At
the same period were executed the portraits of Warham (Lambeth
and Louvre), Wyatt (Louvre), Sir Henry Guildford and his
wife (Windsor), all finished in 1527, the astronomer Nicholas
Kratzer (Louvre), Thomas Godsalve (Dresden), and Sir Bryan
Tuke (Munich) in 1528. In this year, 1528, Holbein returned
to Basel, taking to Erasmus the sketch of More's family. With
money which he brought from London he purchased a house
at Basel wherein to lodge his wife and children, whose portraits
he now painted with all the care of a husband and father (1528).
He then witnessed the flight of Erasmus and the fury of the
iconoclasts, who destroyed in one day almost all the religious
pictures at Basel. The municipality, unwilling that he should
suffer again from the depression caused by evil times, asked him
to finish the frescoes of the town-hall, and the sketches from these
lost pictures are still before us to show that he had not lost the
spirit of his earlier days, and was still capable as a composer. His
" Rehoboam receiving the Israelite Envoys," and " Saul at the
Head of his Array meeting Samuel," testify to Holbein's power
and his will, also proved at a later period by the " Triumphs of
Riches and Poverty," executed for the Steelyard in London
(but now lost), to prefer the fame of a painter of history to that
of a painter of portraits. But the reforming times still remained
unfavourable to art. With the exception of a portrait of
Melanchthon (Hanover) which he now completed, Holbein
found little to do at Basel. The year 1530, therefore, saw him
again on the move, and he landed in England for the second
time with the prospect of bettering his fortunes. Here indeed
political changes had robbed him of his earlier patrons. The
circle of More and Warham was gone. But that of the merchants
of the Steelyard took its place, for whom Holbein executed the
long and important series of portraits that lie scattered throughout
the galleries and collections of England and the Continent, and
bear date after 1532. Then came again the chance of practice
in more fashionable circles. In 1533 the " Ambassadors "
(National Gallery), and the " Triumphs of Wealth and Poverty "
were executed, then the portraits of Leland and Wyatt (Longford),
and (1534) the portrait of Thomas Cromwell. ThroughCromwell
Holbein probably became attached to the court, in the pay of
which he appears permanently after 1537. From that time
onwards he was connected with all that was highest in the
society of London. Henry VIII. invited him to make a family
picture of himself, his father and family, which obtained a
post of honour at Whitehall. The beautiful cartoon of a part
of this fine piece at Hardwicke Hall enables us to gauge its
beauty before the fire which destroyed it in the i7th century.
Then Holbein painted Jane Seymour in state (Vienna), employing
580
HOLBERG
some English hand perhaps to make the replicas at the Hague,
Sion House and Woburn; he finished the Southwell of the
Uffizi (copy at the Louvre), the jeweller Morett at Dresden,
and last, not least, Christine of Denmark, who gave sittings at
Brussels in 1538. During the journey which this work involved
Holbein took the opportunity of revisiting Basel, where he made
his appearance in silk and satin, and pro forma only accepted
the office of town painter. He had been living long and con-
tinuously away from home, not indeed observing due fidelity
to his wife, who still resided at Basel, but fairly performing the
duties of keeping her in comfort. His return to London in
autumn enabled him to do homage to the king in the way
familiar to artists. He presented to Henry at Christmas a
portrait of Prince Edward. Again abroad in the summer of
1539, he painted with great fidelity the princess Anne of Cleves,
at Diiren near Cologne, whose form we still see depicted in the
great picture of the Louvre. That he could render the features
of his sitter without flattery is plain from this one example.
Indeed, habitual flattery was contrary to his habits. His
portraits up to this time all display that uncommon facility for
seizing character which his father enjoyed before him, and
which he had inherited in an expanded form. No amount of
labour, no laboriousness of finish and of both he was ever
prodigal betrayed him into loss of resemblance or expression.
No painter was ever quicker at noting peculiarities of physiog-
nomy, and it may be observed that in none of his faces, as
indeed in none of the faces one sees in nature, are the two sides
alike. Yet he was not a child of the i6th century, as the
Venetians were, in substituting touch for line. We must not
look in his works for modulations of surface or subtle contrasts
of colour in juxtaposition. His method was to the very last
delicate, finished and smooth, as became a painter of the old
school.
Amongst the more important creations of Holbein's later time
we should note his " Duke of Norfolk " at Windsor, the hands
of which are so perfectly preserved as to compensate for the
shrivel that now disfigures the head. Two other portraits of
1541 (Berlin and Vienna), the Falconer at the Hague, and John
Chambers at Vienna (1542), are noble specimens of portrait
art; most interesting and of the same year are the likenesses
of Holbein himself, of which several examples are extant one
particularly good at Fahna, the seat of the Stackelberg family
near Riga, and another at the Uffizi in Florence. Here Holbein
appears to us as a man of regular features, with hair just turning
grey, but healthy in colour and shape, and evidently well to
do in the world. Yet a few months only separated him then
from his death-bed. He was busy painting a picture of Henry
the VIII. confirming the Privileges of the Barber Surgeons
(Lincoln's Inn Fields), when he sickened of the plague and died
after making a will about November 1543. His loss must have
been seriously felt in England. Had he lived his last years in
Germany, he would not have changed the current which decided
the fate of painting in that country; he would but have shared
the fate of Diirer and others who merely prolonged the agony
of art amidst the troubles of the Reformation. (J. A. C.)
The early authorities are Karel Van Mander's Het Schilder Boek
(1604), and J. von Sandrart, Accademia Todesca (1675). See also
R. N. Wornum, Life and Work of Holbein (1867); H. Knackfuss,
Holbein (1899); G. S. Davies, Holbein (1903); A. F. G. A. Wolt-
mann, Holbein und seine Zeit (1876).
HOLBERG, LUDVIG HOLBERG, BARON (1684-1754), the
great Scandinavian writer, was born at Bergen, in Norway, on
the 3rd of December 1684. Both Holberg's parents died in
his childhood, his father first, leaving a considerable property;
and in his eleventh year he lost his mother also. Before the
latter event, however, the family had been seriously im-
poverished by a great fire, which destroyed several valuable
buildings, but notwithstanding this, the mother left to each of
her six children some little fortune. In 1695 the boy Holberg
was taken into the house of his uncle, Peder Lem, who sent him
to the Latin school, and prepared him for the profession of a
soldier; but soon after this he was adopted by his cousin Otto
Munthe, and went to him up in the mountains. His great
desire for instruction, however, at last induced his family to
send him back to Bergen, to his uncle, and there he remained,
eagerly studying, until the destruction of that city by fire in
1702, when he was sent to the university of Copenhagen. But
he soon exhausted his resources, and, having nothing to live
upon, was glad to hurry back to Norway, where he accepted
the position of tutor in the house of a rural dean at Voss. He
soon returned to Copenhagen, where in 1 704 he took his degree,
and worked hard at French, English and Italian. But he had
to gain his living, and accordingly he accepted the post of tutor
once more, this time in the house of Dr Smith, vice-bishop of
Bergen. The good doctor had travelled much, and the reading
of his itineraries and note-books awakened such a longing for
travel in the young Holberg that at last, at the close of 1704,
having scraped together 60 dollars, he went on board a ship
bound for Holland. He proceeded as far as Aix-la-Chapelle,
where he fell sick of a fever, and suffered so much from weakness
and poverty, that he made his way on foot to Amsterdam, and
came back to Norway. Ashamed to be seen so soon in Bergen,
he stopped at Christianssand, where he lived through the winter,
supporting himself by giving lessons in French. In the spring
of 1706 he travelled, in company with a student named Brix,
through London to Oxford, where he studied for two years,
gaining his livelihood by giving lessons on the violin and the flute.
He mentions, with gratitude, the valuable libraries of Oxford,
and it is pleasant to record that it was while he was there that
it first occurred to him, as he says, " how splendid and glorious a
thing it would be to take a place among the authors." Through
London and Elsinore he reached Copenhagen a third time, and
began to lecture at the university; his lectures were attended,
but he got no money. He was asked in 1709 to conduct a rich
young gentleman to Dresden, and on his return journey he
lectured at Leipzig, Halle and Hamburg. Once more in Copen-
hagen, he undertook to teach the children of Admiral Gedde.
Weary with this work, he took a post at Borch College in 1710,
where he wrote, and printed in 1711, his first work, An Introduc-
tion to the History of the Nations of Europe, and was permitted
to present to King Frederick IV. two manuscript essays on
Christian IV. and Frederick III. The king soon after presented
him with the title of Professor, and with the Rosenkrantz grant
of 100 dollars for four years, the holder of which was expected
to travel. Holberg accordingly started in 1714, andvisited, chiefly
on foot, a great portion of Europe. From Amsterdam he walked
through Rotterdam to Antwerp, took a boat to Brussels, and on
foot again reached Paris. Walking and skating, he proceeded
in the depth of winter to Marseilles, and on by sea to Genoa.
On the last-mentioned voyage he caught a fever, and nearly
died in that city. On his recovery he pushed on to Civita Vecchia
and Rome. When the spring had come, being still very poor
and in feeble health, he started homewards on foot by Florence,
across the Apennines, through Bologna, Parma, Piacenza, Turin,
over the Alps, through Savoy and Dauphine to Lyons, and
finally to Paris, where he arrived in excellent health. After
spending a month in Paris, he walked on to Amsterdam, took
sail to Hamburg, and so went back to Denmark in 1716. He
spent the next two years in extreme poverty, and published his
Introduction to Natural and Popular Law. But at last, in 1718,
his talents were recognized by his appointment as professor
of metaphysics at the university of Copenhagen; and in 1720
he was promoted to the lucrative chair of public eloquence,
which gave him a seat in the consistory. His pecuniary troubles
were now at an end. Hitherto he had written only on law,
history and philology, although in a Latin controversy with
the jurist Andreas Hojer of Flensborg his satirical genius had
flashed out. But now, and until 1728, he created an entirely
new class of humorous literature under the pseudonym of Hans
Mikkelsen. The serio-comic epic of Peder Paars, the earliest
of the great classics of the Danish language, appeared in 1719.
This poem was a brilliant satire on contemporary manners, and
enjoyed an extraordinary success. But the author had offended
in it several powerful persons who threatened his life, and if
Count Danneskjold had not personally interested the king in
HOLBORN
581
him, Holberg's career might have had an untimely close. During
the next two years he published five shorter satires, all of which
were well received by the public. The great event of 1721 was
the erection of the first Danish theatre in Gronnegade, Copen-
hagen; Holberg took the direction of this house, in which was
played, in September 1722, a Danish translation of L'Avare.
Until this time no plays had been acted in Denmark except in
French and German, but Holberg now determined to use his
talent in the construction of Danish comedy. The first of his
original pieces performed was Den politiske Kandestdber (The
Pewterer turned Politician); he wrote other comedies with
miraculous rapidity, and before 1722 was closed, there had been
performed in succession, and with immense success, Den Vaegel-
sindede (The Waverer), Jean de France, Jeppe paa Bjerget, and
Cert the Westphalian. Of these five plays, four at least are
masterpieces; and they were almost immediately followed by
others. Holberg took no rest, and before the end of 1723
the comedies of Barselsluen (The Lying-in Room), The Eleventh
of July, Jakob von Thyboe, Den Bundeslose (The Fidget), Erasmus
Montanus, Don Ranudo, Ulysses of Ithaca, Without Head or Tail,
Witchcraft and Melampe had all been written, and some of them
acted. In 1724 the most famous comedy that Holberg produced
was Henrik and Pernille. But in spite of this unprecedented
blaze of dramatic genius the theatre fell into pecuniary difficulties,
and had to be closed, Holberg composing for the last night's
performance, in February 1727, a Funeral of Danish Comedy.
All this excessive labour for the stage had undermined the great
poet's health, and in 1725 he had determined to take the baths
at Aix-la-Chapelle; but instead of going thither he wandered
through Belgium to Paris, and spent the winter there. In the
spring he returned to Copenhagen with recovered health and
spirits, and worked quietly at his protean literary labours until
the great fire of 1728. In the period of national poverty and
depression that followed this event, a puritanical spirit came
into vogue which was little in sympathy with Holberg's dramatic
or satiric genius. He therefore closed his career as a dramatic
poet by publishing in 1731 his acted comedies, with the addition
of five which he had no opportunity of putting on the stage.
With characteristic versatility, he adopted the serious tone of
the new age, and busied himself for the next twenty years with
historical, philosophical and statistical writings. During this
period he published his poetical satire called Metamorphosis
(1726), his Epistolae ad virum perittustrem (1727), his Description
of Denmark and Norway (1729), History of Denmark, Universal
Church History, Biographies of Famous Men, Moral Reflections,
Description of Bergen (1737), A History of the Jews, and other
learned and laborious compilations. The only poem he published
at this time was the famous Nicolai Klimii Her subterraneum
(1741), afterwards translated into Danish by Baggesen. When
Christian VI. died in 1747, pietism lost its sway; the theatre
was reopened and Holberg was appointed director, but he soon
resigned this arduous post. The six comedies he wrote in his
old age did not add to his reputation. His last published work
was his Epistles, in 5 vols. the last of them posthumous (1754).
In 1747 he was created by the new king Baron of Holberg. In
August 1753 he took to his bed, and he died at Copenhagen
on the 28th of January 1754, in the seventieth year of his age.
He was buried at Soro, in Zealand. He had never married, and
he bequeathed all his property, which was considerable, to Soro
College.
Holberg was not only the founder of Danish literature and the
greatest of Danish authors, but he was, with the exception of
Voltaire, the first writer in Europe during his own generation.
Neither Pope nor Swift, who perhaps excelled him in particular
branches of literary production, approached him in range of
genius, or in encyclopaedic versatility. Holberg found Denmark
provided with no books, and he wrote a library for her. When
he arrived in the country, the Danish language was never heard
in a gentleman's house. Polite Danes were wont to say that a
man wrote Latin to his friends, talked French to the ladies,
called his dogs in German, and only used Danish to swear at
his servants. The single genius of Holberg revolutionized this
system. He wrote poems of all kinds in a language hitherto
employed only for ballads and hymns; he instituted a theatre,
and composed a rich collection of comedies for it; he filled the
shelves of the citizens with works in their own tongue on history,
law, politics, science, philology and philosophy, all written in
a true and manly style, and representing the extreme attain-
ment of European culture at the moment. Perhaps no author
who ever lived has had so vast an influence over his country-
men, an influence that is still at work after 200 years.
The editions of Holberg's works are legion. Complete editions of
the Comedies are too numerous to be guoted ; the best is that brought
out in 3 vols. by F. L. Lichtenberg, in 1870. Of Peder Poors there
exist at least twenty-three editions, besides translations in Dutch,
German and Swedish. The Iter subterraneum has been three several
times translated into Danish, ten times into German, thrice intp
Swedish, thrice into Dutch, thrice into English, twice into French,
twice into Russian and once into Hungarian. The life of Holberg
was written by Welhaven in 1858 and by Georg Brandes in 1884.
Among works on his genius by foreigners may be mentioned an
exhaustive study by Robert Prutz (1857), and Holberg considM
comme imitateur de Moliere, by A. Legrelle (Paris, 1864). (E. G.)
HOLBORN, a central metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N.W. by St Pancras, N.E. by Finsbury,
S.E. by the City of London, S. and W. by the City of Westminster
and St Marylebone. Pop. (1901), 59,405. Area 405-1 acres.
Its main thoroughfare is that running E. and W. under the
names of Holborn Viaduct, High Holborn and New Oxford
Street.
The name of Holborn was formerly derived from Old Bourne,
a tributary of the Fleet, the valley of which is clearly seen where
Holborn Viaduct crosses Farringdon Street. Of the existence
of this tributary, however, there is no evidence, and the origin
of the name is found in Hole-bourne, the stream in the hollow,
in allusion to the Fleet itself. The fall and rise of the road across
the valley before the construction of the viaduct (1869) was
abrupt and inconvenient. In earlier times a bridge here crossed
the Fleet, leading from Newgate, while a quarter of a mile west
of the viaduct is the site of Holborn Bars, at the entrance to
the City, where tolls were levied. The better residential district
of Holborn, which extends northward to Euston Road in the
borough of St Pancras, is mainly within the parish of St George,
Bloomsbury. The name of Bloomsbury is commonly derived
from William Blemund, a lord of the manor in the i5th century.
A dyke called Blemund's Ditch, of unknown origin, bounded
it on the south, where the land was marshy. During the i8th
century Bloomsbury was a fashionable and wealthy residential
quarter. The reputation of the district immediately to the
south, embraced in the parish of St Giles in the Fields, was far
different. From the i7th century until modern times this was
notorious as a home of crime and poverty. Here occurred some
of the earliest cases of the plague which spread over London
in 1664-1665. The opening of the thoroughfares of New Oxford
Street (1840) and Shaftesbury Avenue (1855) by no means
wholly destroyed the character of the district. The circus
of Seven Dials, east of Shaftesbury Avenue, affords a typical
name in connexion with the lowest aspect of life in London.
A similar notoriety attached to Saffron Hill on the eastern
confines of the borough. By a singular contrast, the neighbour-
ing thoroughfare of Hatton Garden, leading north from Holborn
Circus, is a centre of the diamond trade.
Of the ecclesiastical buildings of Holborn that of first
interest is the chapel of St Etheldreda in Ely Place, opening
from Holborn Circus. Ely Place takes its name from a palace
of the bishops of Ely, who held land here as early as the I3th
century. Here died John of Gaunt in 1399. The property was
acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton, Lord Chancellor under
Queen Elizabeth, after whom Hatton Garden is named; though
the bishopric kept some hold upon it until the i8th century.
The chapel, the only remnant of the palace, is a beautiful
Decorated structure with a vaulted crypt, itself above ground-
level. Both are used for worship by Roman Catholics, by whom
the chapel was acquired in 1874 and opened five years later
after careful restoration. The present parish church of St
Giles in the Fields, between Shaftesbury Avenue and New
HOLCROFT HOLDEN, SIR I.
Oxford Street, dates from 1734, but here was situated a leper's
hospital founded by Matilda, wife of Henry I., in not. Its
chapel became the parish church on the suppression of the
monasteries. The church of St Andrew, the parish of which
extends into the City, stands near Holborn Viaduct. It is by
Wren, but there are traces of the previous Gothic edifice in the
tower. Sacheverell was among its rectors (1713-1724), and
Thomas Chatterton (1770) was interred in the adjacent burial
ground, no longer extant, of Shoe Lane Workhouse; the register
recording his Christian name as William. Close to this church
is the City Temple (Congregational).
Two of the four Inns of Court, Lincoln's Inn and Gray's
Inn, lie within the borough. Of the first the Tudor gateway
opens upon Chancery Lane. The chapel, hall and residential
buildings surrounding the squares within, are picturesque, but
of later date. To the west lie the fine square, with public gardens,
still called, from its original character, Lincoln's Inn Fields.
Gray's Inn, between High Holborn and Theobald's Road, and
west of Gray's Inn Road, is of similar arrangement. The fabric
of the small chapel is apparently of the I4th century, and may
have been attached to the manor house of Portpool, held at
that period by the Lords Grey of Wilton. Of the former Inns
of Chancery attached to these Inns of Court the most note-
worthy buildings remaining are those of Staple Inn, of which
the timbered and gabled Elizabethan front upon High Holborn
is a unique survival of its character in a London thoroughfare;
and of Barnard's Inn, occupied by the Mercer's School. Both
these were attached to Gray's Inn. Of Furnival's and Thavies
Inns, attached to Lincoln's Inn, only the names remain. The
site of the first is covered by the fine red brick buildings of the
Prudential Assurance Company, Holborn Viaduct. Among
other institutions in Holborn, the British Museum, north of
New Oxford Street, is pre-eminent. The varied collections
of Sir John Soane, accumulated at his house in Lincoln's Inn
Fields, are open to view as the Soane Museum. There may also
be mentioned the Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn
Fields, with museum; the Royal Colleges of Organists, and of
Veterinary Surgeons, the College of Preceptors, the Jews'
College, and the Metropolitan School of Shorthand. Among
hospitals are the Italian, the Homoeopathic, the National for
the paralysed and epileptic, the Alexandra for children with
hip disease, and the Hospital for sick children. The Foundling
Hospital, Guilford Street, was founded by Thomas Coram in
1739-
HOLCROFT, THOMAS (1745-1809), English dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was born on the loth of December 1745
(old style) in Orange Court, Leicester Fields, London. His
father, besides having a shoemaker's shop, kept riding horses for
hire; but having fallen into difficulties was reduced ultimately
to the necessity of hawking pedlary. The son accompanied
his parents in their tramps, and succeeded in procuring the
situation of stable boy at Newmarket, where he spent his evenings
chiefly in miscellaneous reading and the study of music.
Gradually he obtained a knowledge of French, German and
Italian. At the end of his term of engagement as stable boy he
returned to assist his father, who had again resumed his trade
of shoemaker in London; but after marrying in 1765, he became
a teacher in a small school in Liverpool. He failed in an attempt
to set up a private school, and became prompter in a Dublin
theatre. He acted in various strolling companies until 1778,
when he produced The Crisis; or, Love and Famine, at Drury
Lane. Duplicity followed in 1781. Two years later he went
to Paris as correspondent of the Morning Herald. Here he
attended the performances of Beaumarchais's Manage de Figaro
until he had memorized the whole. The translation of it, with
the title The Follies of the Day, was produced at Drury Lane
in 1784. The Road to Ruin, his most successful melodrama,
was produced in 1792. A revival in 1873 ran for 118 nights.
Holcroft died on the 23rd of March 1809. He was a member
of the Society for Constitutional Information, and on that
account was, in 1794, indicted of high treason, but was discharged
without a trial. Among his novels may be mentioned Alwyn
(1780), an account, largely autobiographical, of a strolling
comedian, and H ugh Trevor (1794-1797). He also was the author
of Travels from Hamburg through Westphalia, Holland and the
Netherlands to Paris, of some volumes of verse and of translations
from the French and German.
His Memoirs written by Himself and continued down to the Time of
his Death, from his Diary, Notes and other Papers, by William Hazlitt,
appeared in 1816, and was reprinted, in a slightly abridged form, in
1852.
HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON (1822-1896), English classical
scholar, came of an old Staffordshire family. He was educated
at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and Trinity College,
Cambridge (senior classic, 1845; fellow, 1847). He was vice-
principal of Cheltenham College (1853-1858), and headmaster
of Queen Elizabeth's school, Ipswich (1858-1883). He died
in London on the ist of December 1896. In addition to several
school editions of portions of Cicero, Thucydides, Xenophon
and Plutarch, he published an expurgated text of Aristophanes
with a useful onomasticon (re-issued separately, 1902) and larger
editions of Cicero's De officiis (revised ed., 1898) and of the
Octavius of Minucius Felix (1853). His chief works, however,
were his Foliorum silvula (1852), a collection of English extracts
for translation into Greek and Latin verse; Folia silvulae
(translations of the same) ; and Foliorum cenluriae, a companion
volume of extracts for Latin prose translation. In English
schools these books have been widely used for the teaching of
Latin and Greek composition.
HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC, BART. (1807-1897), English inventor
and manufacturer, was the son of Isaac Holden, a native of
Cumberland, and was born at Hurlet, a village between Paisley
and Glasgow, on the 7th of May 1807. His early life was passed
in very straitened circumstances, but his father spared no pains
to give him as much elementary education as possible. At the
age of ten he began to work as weaver's draw-boy, and after-
wards was employed in a cotton mill. Meanwhile his education
was continued at the night schools, and from time to time,
as funds allowed, he was taken from work and sent to the
grammar-school, to which he at last went regularly for a year
or two until he was fifteen, when his father removed to Paisley
and apprenticed him to an uncle, a shawl-weaver there. This
proving too much for his strength, in 1823 he became assistant
teacher in a school at Paisley, and in 1828 he was appointed
mathematical teacher in the Queen's Square Academy, Leeds.
At the end of six months he was transferred to Lingard's grammar
school, near Huddersfield, and shortly afterwards became
classical master at Castle Street Academy, Reading. It was here
that in 1829 he invented a lucifer match by adopting sulphur
as the medium between the explosive material and the wood,
but he refused to patent the invention. In 1830 his health
again failed, and he returned to Scotland, where a Glasgow
friend set up a school for him. After six months, however,
he was recommended for the post of bookkeeper to Messrs.
Townend Brothers, worsted manufacturers, of Cullingworth,
where his interest in machinery soon led to his transfer from
the counting-house to the mill. There his experiments led him
to the invention of his square motion wool-comber and of a
process for making genappe yarns, a patent for which was taken
out by him in conjunction with S. C. Lister (Lord Masham)
in 1847. The firm of Lister & Holden, which established a
factory near Paris in 1848, carried on a successful business, and
in 1859, when Lister retired, was succeeded by Isaac Holden
and Sons, which became the largest wool-combing business in
the world, employing upwards of 4000 workpeople. In 1865
Holden's medical advisers insisted on complete change of
occupation, and he entered parliament as Liberal member for
Knaresborough. From 1868 to 1882 he was without a seat,
but in the latter year he was elected for the northern division
of the West Riding, and in 1885 for Keighley. He was created
a baronet in 1893, and died suddenly at Oakworth House,
near Keighley, on the i3th of August 1897.
His son and heir, Sir Angus Holden, was in 1908 created a
peer with the title of Baron Holden of Alston.
HOLDERLIN HOLGUIN
583
HOLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1770-
1843), German poet, was born on the 2oth of March 1770, at
Lauffen on the Neckar. His mother removing, after a second
marriage, to Niirtingen, he began his education at the classical
school there. He was destined by his relations for the church,
and with this view was later admitted to the seminaries at
Denkendorf and Maulbronn. At the age of eighteen he entered
as a student of theology the university of Tubingen, where he
remained till 1793. He was already the writer of occasional
verses, and had begun to sketch his novel Hyperion, when he
was introduced in this year to Schiller, and obtained through
him the post of tutor to the young son of Charlotte von Kalb.
A year later he left this situation to attend Fichte's lectures,
and to be near Schiller in Jena. The latter recognized in the
young poet something of his own genius, and encouraged him
by publishing some of his early writings in his periodicals Die
neue Thalia and Die Horen. In 1796 Holderlin obtained the
post of tutor in the family of the banker J. F. Gontard in Frank-
fort-on-Main. For Gontard's beautiful and gifted wife, Susette,
the " Diotima " of his Hyperion, he conceived a violent passion;
and she became at once his inspiration and his ruin. At the
end of two years, during which time the first volume of Hyperion
was published (1797), a crisis appears to have occurred in their
relations, for the young poet suddenly left Frankfort. In spite
of ill-health, he now completed Hyperion, the second volume of
which appeared in 1799, and began a tragedy, Der Tod des
Empedokles, a fragment of which is published among his works.
His friends became alarmed at the alternate depression and
nervous irritability from which he suffered, and he was induced
to go to Switzerland, as tutor in a family at Hauptwill. There
his health improved; and several of his poems, among which
are Der blinde Stinger, An die Hoffnung and Dichlermut, were
written at this time. In 1801 he returned home to arrange for
the publication of a volume of his poems; but, on the failure
of this enterprise, he was obliged to accept a tutorship at
Bordeaux. " Diotima " died a year later, in June 1802, and the
news is supposed to have reached Holderlin shortly afterwards,
for in the following month he suddenly left Bordeaux, and
travelled homewards on foot through France, arriving at
Niirtingen destitute and insane. Kind treatment gradually
alleviated his condition, and in lucid intervals he occupied himself
by writing verses and translating Greek plays. Two of these
translations the Antigone and Oedipus rex of Sophocles
appeared in 1804, and several of his short poems were published
by Franz K. L. von Seckendorff in his Musenalmanach, 1807
and 1808. In 1804 Holderlin obtained the sinecure post of
librarian to the landgrave Frederick V. of Hesse-Homburg,
and went to live in Homburg under the supervision of friends;
but two years later becoming irremediably but harmlessly insane,
he was taken in the summer of 1807 to Tubingen, where he
remained till his death on the 7th of June 1843.
Holderlin's writings are the production of a beautiful and
sensitive mind; but they are intensely, almost morbidly, sub-
jective, and they lack real human strength. Perhaps his strongest
characteristic was his passion for Greece, the result of which
was that he almost entirely discarded rhyme in favour of the
ancient verse measures. His poems are all short pieces; of
his tragedy only a fragment was written. Hyperion, oder der
Eremil in Griechenland (1797-1799), is a romance in letters, in
which the stormy fervour of the " Sturm und Drang " is combined
with a romantic enthusiasm for Greek antiquity. The interest
centres not in the story, for the novel has little or none
Hyperion is a young Greek who takes part in the rising of his
people against the Turks in 17705 but in its lyric subjectivity
and the dithyrambic beauty of its language.
Holderlin's lyrics, Lyrische Gedichte, were edited by L. Uhland and
G. Schwab in 1826. A complete edition of his works, Sdmtliche
Werke, with a biography by C. T. Schwab, appeared in 1846; also
Dichtungen by K. Kostlin (Tubingen, 1884), and (the best edition)
Gcsammelte Dichtungen by B. Litzmann (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1897).
For biography and criticism, see C. C. T. Litzmann, F. Holderlins
Leben (Berlin, 1890), A. Wilbrandt, Holderlin (2nd ed., Berlin, 1891),
and C. Miiller, Friedrich Holderlin, sein Leben und sein Dichten
(Bremen, 1894).
HOLDERNESSE, EARL OP, an English title borne by Sir
John Ramsay and later by the family of Darcy. John Ramsay
(c. 1580-1626), a member of the Scottish family of Ramsay of
Dalhousie, was knighted for his share in rescuing James VI.
from the hands of John Ruthven, earl of Cowrie, in August
1600. In 1606 the king created him Viscount Haddington and
Lord Ramsay of Barns, and in 1621 made him an English peer
as earl of Holdernesse. Ramsay died without surviving issue
in February 1626, when his titles became extinct. In 1644
Charles I. created his nephew, Prince Rupert, earl of Holdernesse,
but when the prince died unmarried in November 1682 the
earldom again became extinct. Conyers Darcy (1599-1689),
who was made earl of Holdernesse in 1682 only a few days after
the death of Rupert, was the son and heir of Conyers Darcy,
Lord Darcy and Conyers (c. 1571-1654), and succeeded his
father in these baronies in March 1654. He was succeeded as 2nd
earl by his only son Conyers (c. 1620-1692), who was member
of parliament for Yorkshire during the reign of Charles II. In
his turn he was succeeded by his grandson Robert (1681-1722).
Robert's only son, Robert Darcy, 4th earl of Holdernesse (1718-
1778), was a diplomatist and a politician. From 1744 to 1746 he
was ambassador at Venice and from 1749 to 1751 he represented
his country at the Hague. In 1 7 5 1 he became one of the secretaries
of state, and he remained in office until March 1761, when he
was dismissed by George III. From 1771 to 1776 he acted as
governor to two of the king's sons, a " solemn phantom " as
Horace Walpole calls him. He left no sons, and all his titles
became extinct except the barony of Conyers, which had been
created by writ in 1509 in favour of his ancestor Sir William
Conyers (d. 1525). This descended to his only daughter Amelia
(1754-1784), the wife of Francis Osborne, afterwards 5th duke of
Leeds, and when the 7th duke of Leeds died in 1859 it passed to
his nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling
into abeyance on his death. Hornby castle in Yorkshire, now
the principal seat of the dukes of Leeds, came to them through
marriage of the 5th duke with the heiress of the families of
Conyers and of Darcy.
HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL (1806-1860), Jewish rabbi, a leader
of reform in the German Synagogue, was born in Posen in 1806
and died in Berlin in 1860. In 1836 he was appointed rabbi
at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in 1840 he was transferred to the
rabbinate of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He then became prominent
as an advocate on the one hand of religious freedom (much
trammelled at the time by Prussian state laws) and on the
other of reform within the Jewish community. Various rabbinical
conferences were held, at Brunswick (1844), Frankfort-on-the-
Main (1845) and Breslau (1846). At all of these Holdheim was
a strong supporter of the policy of modifying ritual (especially
with regard to Sabbath observance, marriage laws and liturgical
customs). In 1846 he was chosen Rabbi of the new Berlin
congregation and there exercised considerable influence on the
course of Jewish reform.
See I. H. Ritter in the Jewish Quarterly Review, i. 202. The
same authority has written the life of Holdheim in vol. iii. of his
Geschichte der judischen Reformation (Berlin, 1865). Graetz in
his History passes an unfavourable judgment on Holdheim, and
there were admittedly grounds for opposition to Holdheim's
attitude. A moderate criticism is contained in Dr D. Philipson's
History of the Reform Movement in Judaism (London, 1906).
HOLGllfN, a town of the high plateau country in the interior
of Oriente province, Cuba, about 65 m. N.W. of Santiago de
Cuba. Pop. (1907) 7592. The town is near the Maranon and
Jigii6 rivers, on a plain from which hills rise on all sides except
the E., on which side it is open to the winds of the plateau.
Holguin was long the principal acclimatization station for
Spanish troops. The oldest public buildings are two churches
built in 1800 and 1809 respectively. Holgufn has trade in
cabinet woods, tobacco, Indian corn and cattle products, which
it exports through its port Gibara, about 25 m. N.N.E., with
which it is connected by railway. Holguin was settled about
1720 and became a ciudad (city) in 1751. In the Ten Years'
War of 1868-78 and in the revolution of 1895-98 Holguin was
an insurgent centre.
5 8 4
HOLIDAY HOLL
HOLIDAY, originally the " holy day," a festival set apart
for religious observances as a memorial of some sacred event
or sacred person; hence a day on which the ordinary work or
business ceases. For the religious sense see FEASTS AND
FESTIVALS, and SUNDAY. Apart from the use of the term for
a single day of rest or enjoyment, it is commonly used in the
plural for a recognized and regular period (as at schools, Sic.) of
absence from work. It is unnecessary here to deal with what
may be regarded as private holidays, which are matters of
agreement between, employer and employed or between the
authorities of this or that institution and those who attend it.
In recent years there has been a notable tendency in most
occupations to shorten the hours of labour, and make holidays
more regular. It will suffice to deal here with public holidays,
the observance of which is prescribed by the state. In one
respect these have been diminished, in so far as saints' days are
no longer regarded as entailing non-attendance at the government
offices in England, as was the case at the beginning of the igth
century. But while the influence of religion in determining
such holidays has waned, the importance of making some com-
pulsory provision for social recreation has made itself felt. In
England four days, known as Bank Holidays (q.v.), are set apart
by statute to be observed as general holidays, while the sovereign
may by proclamation appoint any day to be similarly observed.
Endeavours have been made from time to time to get additional
days recognized as general holidays, such as Empire Day
(May 24th), Arbor Day, &c. In the British colonies there is
no uniform practice. In Canada eight days are generally ob-
served as public holidays: New Year's Day, Good Friday,
Easter Monday, Christmas Day, the birthday of the sovereign,
Victoria Day, Dominion Day and Labour Day. Some of the
provinces have followed the American example by adding an
Arbor Day. Alberta and Saskatchewan observe Ash Wednesday.
In Quebec, where the majority of the population is Roman
Catholic, the holy days are also holidays, namely, the Festival
of the Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Easter Monday,
the Ascension, All Saint's Day, Conception Day, Christmas
Day. In 1897 Labour Day was added. In New South Wales,
the ist of January, Good Friday, Easter Eve, Easter Monday,
the birthday of the sovereign, the ist of August, the birthday
of the prince of Wales, Christmas Day and the 26th of December,
are observed as holidays. In Victoria there are thirteen public
holidays during the year, and in Queensland fourteen. In New
Zealand the public holidays are confined to four, Christmas
Day, New Year's Day, Good Friday and Labour Day. In most
of the other British colonies the usual number of public holidays
is from six to eight.
In the United States there is no legal holiday in the sense of
the English bank holidays. A legal holiday is dependent upon
state and territorial legislation. It is usual for the president
to proclaim the last Thursday in November as a day of thanks-
giving; this makes it only a legal holiday in the District of
Columbia, and in the territories, but most states make it a
general holiday. Independence Day (July 4th) and Labour Day
(first Monday in September) are legal holidays in most states.
There are other days which, in connexion with particular events
or in remembrance of particular persons, have been made legal
holidays by particular states. For example, Lincoln's birthday,
'Washington's birthday, Memorial Day (May 3Oth) , Patriots' Day
(April igth, Maine and Mass.), R. E. Lee's birthday (Jan. ipth,
Ala., Fla., Ga., Va.), Pioneers' Day (July 24th, Utah), Colorado
Day (Aug. ist), Battle of New Orleans (Jan. 8th, La.), Benning-
ton Battle Day (Aug. i6th, Vt.) , Defenders's Day (Sept. 1 2th, Md.) ,
Arbor Day (April 22nd, Nebraska; second Friday in May R.I.,
&c.), Admission Day (September gth, Cal.; Oct. 3ist, Nev.), Con-
federate Memorial Day (April 26th, Ala., Fla., Ga., Miss., May
loth, N. & S. Car., June 3rd, La., Miss., Texas), &c.
See M'Curdy, Bibliography of Articles relating to Holidays (Boston,
1905). (T. A. I.)
HOLINSHED (or HOLLINGSHEAD), RAPHAEL (d. c. 1580),
English chronicler, belonged probably to a Cheshire family, and
according to Anthony Wood was educated at one of the English
universities, afterwards becoming a "minister of God's Word."
The authenticity of these facts is doubtful, although it is possible
that Raphael was the Holinshed who matriculated from Christ's
College, Cambridge, in 1544. About 1560 he came to London
and was employed as a translator by Reginald or Reyner Wolfe,
to whom he says he was " singularly beholden." Wolfe was
already engaged in the preparation of a universal history, and
Holinshed worked for some years on this undertaking; but
after Wolfe's death in 1573 the scope of the work was abridged,
and it appeared in 1578 as the Chronicles of England, Scotland,
and Ireland. The work was in two volumes, which were illus-
trated, and although Holinshed did a great deal of the work he
received valuable assistance from William Harrison (1534-1593)
and others, while the part dealing with the history of Scotland
is mainly a translation of Hector Boece's Scotorum historiae.
Afterwards, as is shown by his will, Holinshed served as steward to
Thomas Burdet of Bramcott, Warwickshire, and died about 1580.
A second edition of the Chronicles, enlarged and improved but
without illustrations, which appeared in 1587, contained statements
which were offensive to Queen Elizabeth and her advisers, and im-
mediately after publication some of the pages were excised by order
of the privy council. These excisions were published separately in
1723. An edition of the Chronicles, in accordance with the original
text, was published in six volumes in 1808. The work contains a
large amount of information, and shows that its compilers were men
of great industry; but its chief interest lies in the fact that it was
largely used by Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists;
Shakespeare, who probably used the edition of 1587, obtaining from
the Chronicles material for most of his historical plays, and also for
Macbeth, King Lear and part of Cymbeline. A single manuscript by
Holinshed is known to be extant. This is a translation of Florence
of Worcester, and is in the British Museum.' See W. G. Boswell-
Stone, Shakspere's Holinshed. The Chronicle and the historical plays
compared (London, 1896).
HOLKAR, the family name of the Mahratta ruler of Indore
(q.v.), which has been adopted as a dynastic title. The termina-
tion -kar implies that the founder of the family came from the
village of Hoi near Poona.
HOLL, FRANK (1845-1888), English painter, was born in
London on the 4th of July 1845, and was educated chiefly at
University College School. He was a grandson of William
Holl, an engraver of note, and the son of Francis Holl, A.R.A.,
another engraver, whose profession he originally intended to
follow. Entering the Royal Academy schools as a probationer
in painting in 1860, he rapidly progressed, winning silver and
gold medals, and making his debut as an exhibitor in 1864 with
" A Portrait," and " Turned out of Church," a subject picture.
"A Fern Gatherer" (1865); "The Ordeal" (1866); "Con-
valescent " (the somewhat grim pathos of which attracted
much attention), and " Faces in the Fire " (1867), succeeded.
Holl gained the travelling studentship in 1868; the successful
work was characteristic of the young painter's mood, being
" The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." His insatiable
zeal for work of all kinds began early to undermine the artist's
health, but his position was assured by the studentship picture,
which created a sort of furore, although, as with most of his
works, the blackness of its coloration, probably due to his
training as an engraver, was even more decidedly against it
than the sadness of its theme. Otherwise, this painting ex-
hibited nearly all the best technical qualities to which he ever
attained, except high finish and clearness, and a very sincere
vein of pathos. Holl was much below Millais in portraiture,
and far inferior in all the higher ways of design; in technical
resources, relatively speaking, he was but scantily provided.
The range of his studies and the manner of his painting were
narrower than those of Josef Israels, with whom, except as a
portrait-painter, he may better be compared than with Millais.
In 1870 he painted " Better is a Dinner of Herbs where Love is,
than a Stalled Ox and Hatred therewith "; " No Tidings from
the Sea," a scene in a fisherman's cottage, in 1871 a story told
with breath-catching pathos and power; " I am the Resurrection
and the Life " (1872); " Leaving Home " (1873), " Deserted "
(1874), both of which had great success; "Her First-born,"
girls carrying a baby to the grave. (1876); and " Going Home "
(1877). In 1877 he painted the two pictures " Hush " and
HOLLAND, C. HOLLAND, IST BARON
585
" Hushed." " Newgate, Committed for Trial," a very sad and
telling piece, first attested the breaking down of the painter's
health in 1878. In this year he was elected A.R.A., and exhibited
" The Gifts of the Fairies," " The Daughter of the House,"
" Absconded," and a very fine portrait of Samuel Cousins, the
mezzotint engraver. This last canvas is a masterpiece, and
deserved the success which attended the print engraved from
it. Holl was overwhelmed with commissions, which he would
not decline. The consequences of this strain upon a constitution
which was never strong were more or less, though unequally,
manifest in " Ordered to the Front," a soldier's departure
(1880); "Home Again," its sequel, in 1883 (after which he
was made R.A.). In 1886 he produced a portrait of Millais
as his diploma work, but his health rapidly declined and he
died at Hampstead, on the aist of July 1888. Roll's better
portraits, being of men of rare importance, attest the command-
ing position he occupied in the branch of art he so unflinchingly
followed. They include likenesses of Lord Roberts, painted
for queen Victoria (1882); the prince of Wales, Lord
Dufferin, the duke of Cleveland (1885); Lord Overstone,
Mr Bright, Mr Gladstone, Mr Chamberlain, Sir J. Tenniel, Earl
Spencer, Viscount Cranbrook, and a score of other important
subjects. (F. G. S.)
HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733-1769), English actor, was born
in Chiswick, the son of a baker. He made his first appearance
on the stage in the title role of Oroonoko at Drury Lane in 1755,
John Palmer, Richard Yates and Mrs Gibber being in the cast.
He played under Garrick, and was the original Florizel in the
latter's adaptation of Shakespeare's Winter's Tale. Garrick
thought highly of him, and wrote a eulogistic epitaph for his
monument in Chiswick church.
His nephew, Charles Holland (1768-1849) was also an actor,
who played with Mrs Siddons and Kean.
HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART. (1788-1873), English
physician and author, was born at Knutsford, Cheshire, on the
27th of October 1788. His maternal grandmother was the
sister of Josiah Wedgwood, whose grandson was Charles Darwin;
and his paternal aunt was the mother of Mrs Gaskell. After
spending some years at a private school at Knutsford, he was
sent to a school at Newcastle-on-Tyne, whence after four years
he was transferred to Dr J. P. Estlin's school near Bristol.
There he at once took the position of head boy, in succession to
John Cam Hobhouse, afterwards Lord Broughton, an honour
which required to be maintained by physical prowess. On
leaving school he became articled clerk to a mercantile firm
in Liverpool, but, as the privilege was reserved to him of passing
two sessions at Glasgow university, he at the close of his second
session sought relief from his articles, and in 1806 began the
study of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, where he
graduated in 1811. After several years spent in foreign travel,
he began practice in 1816 as a physician in London according
to his own statement, " with a fair augury of success speedily
and completely fulfilled." This "success," he adds, "was
materially aided by visits for four successive years to Spa, at
the close of that which is called the London season." It must
also, however, be in a great degree attributed to his happy
temperament and his gifts as a conversationalist qualities
the influence of which, in the majority of cases belonging to
his class of practice, is often of more importance than direct
medical treatment. In 1816 he was elected F.R.S., and in
1828 F.R.C.S. He became physician in ordinary to Prince
Albert in 1840, and was appointed hi 1852 physician in ordinary
to the queen. In April 1853 he was created a baronet. He was
also a D.C.L. of Oxford and a member of the principal learned
societies of Europe. He was twice married, his second wife
being a daughter of Sydney Smith, a lady of considerable literary
talent, who published a biography of her father. Sir Henry
Holland at an early period of his practice resolved to devote
to his professional duties no more of his time than was necessary
to secure an income of 5000 a year, and also to spend two
months of every year solely in foreign travel. By the former
resolution he secured leisure for a wide acquaintance with
general literature, and for a more than superficial cultivation
of several branches of science; and the latter enabled him,
besides visiting, " and most of them repeatedly, every country
of Europe," to make extensive tours in the other three con-
tinents, journeying often to places little frequented by European
travellers. As, moreover, he procured an introduction to nearly
all the eminent personages in his line of travel, and knew many
of them in his capacity of physician, his acquaintance with
"men and cities" was of a species without a parallel. The
London Medical Record, in noticing his death, which took place
on his eighty-fifth birthday, October 27, 1873, remarked that
it " had occurred under circumstances highly characteristic
of his remarkable career." On his return from a journey in
Russia he was present, on Friday, October 24th, at the trial of
Marshal Bazaine in Paris, dining with some of the judges in
the evening. He reached London on the Saturday, took ill
the following day, and died quietly on the Monday afternoon.
Sir Henry Holland was the author of General View of the Agri-
culture of Cheshire (1807) ; Travels in the Ionian Isles, Albania,
Thessaly and Greece (1812-1813, 2 "d ed., 1819); Medical Notes and
Reflections (1839); Chapters on Mental Physiology (1852); Essays on
Scientific and other Subjects contributed to the Edinburgh and Quarterly
Reviews (1862) ; and Recollections of Past Life (1872).
HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, IST BARON (1705-1774), English
statesman, second son of Sir Stephen Fox, was born on the
28th of September 1705. Inheriting a large share of the riches
which his father had accumulated, he squandered it soon after
attaining his majority, and went to the Continent to escape from
his creditors. There he made the acquaintance of a country-
woman of fortune, who became his patroness and was so lavish
with her purse that, after several years' absence, he was in a
position to return home and, in 1735, to enter parliament as
member for Hindon in Wiltshire. He became the favourite
pupil and devoted supporter of Sir Robert Walpole, achieving
unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the worst political
arts of his master and model. As a speaker he was fluent
and self-possessed, imperturbable under attack, audacious in
exposition or retort, and able to hold his own against Pitt
himself. Thus he made himself a power in the House of Commons
and an indispensable member of several administrations. He
was surveyor-general of works from 1737 to 1742, was member
for Windsor from 1741 to 1761; lord of the treasury in 1743,
secretary at war and member of the privy council in 17^6, and
in 1755 became leader of the House of Commons, secretary
of state and a member of the cabinet under the duke of New-
castle. In 1757, in the rearrangements of the government,
Fox was ultimately excluded from the cabinet, and given the
post of paymaster of the forces. During the war, which Pitt
conducted with extraordinary vigour, and in which the nation
was intoxicated with glory, Fox devoted himself mainly to
accumulating a vast fortune. In 1762 he again accepted the
leadership of the House, with a seat in the cabinet, under the
earl of Bute, and exercised his skill in cajolery and corruption
to induce the House of Commons to approve of the treaty of
Paris of 1763; as a recompense, he was raised to the House of
Lords with the title of Baron Holland of Foxley, Wiltshire,
on the i6th of April 1763. In 1765 he was forced to resign the
paymaster generalship, and four years later a petition of the
livery of the city of London against the ministers referred to
him as " the public defaulter of unaccounted millions." The
proceedings brought against him in the court of exchequer
were stayed by a royal warrant; and in a statement published
by him he proved that in the delays in making up the accounts
of his office he had transgressed neither the law nor the custom
of the time. From the interest on the outstanding balances
he had, none the less, amassed a princely fortune. He strove,
but in vain, to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl, a
dignity upon which he had set his heart, and he died at Holland
House, Kensington, on the ist of July 1774, a sorely disappointed
man, with a reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness
which cannot easily be matched, and with an unpopularity
which justifies the conclusion that he was the most thoroughly
hated statesman of his day. Lord Holland married in 1744
586 HOLLAND, IST EARL OF HOLLAND,
BARON
Lady Georgina Caroline Lennox, daughter of the duke of
Richmond, who was created Baroness Holland, of Holland,
Lincolnshire, in 1762. There were four sons of the marriage:
Stephen, 2nd Lord Holland (d. 1774); Henry (d. an infant);
Charles James (the celebrated statesman); and Henry Edward
(1755-1811), soldier and diplomatist.
See Walpole's and other memoirs of the time, also the article Fox,
CHARLES JAMES.
HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, IST EARL OF (1590-1649), 2nd
son of Robert, ist earl of Warwick, and of Penelope, Sir Philip
Sidney's " Stella," daughter of Walter Devereux, ist earl of
Essex, was baptized on the i9th of August 1590, educated at
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, knighted on the 3rd of June
1610, and returned to parliament for Leicester in 1610 and 1614.
In 1610 he was present at the siege of Juliers. Favours were
showered upon him by James I. He was made gentleman of
the bedchamber to Charles, prince of Wales, and captain of the
yeomen of the guard; and on the 8th of March 1623 he was
raised to the peerage as Baron Kensington. In 1624 he was
sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage treaty between Charles
and Henrietta Maria. On the isth of September he was created
earl of Holland, and in 1625 was sent on two further missions,
first to Paris to arrange a treaty between Louis XIII.' and the
Huguenots, and later to the Netherlands in company with
Buckingham. In October 1627 he was given command of the
troops sent to reinforce Buckingham at Rhe, but through
delay in starting only met the defeated troops on their return.
He succeeded Buckingham as chancellor of Cambridge Uni-
versity; was master of the horse in 1628, and was appointed
constable of Windsor and high steward to the queen in 1629.
He interested himself, like his elder brother, Lord Warwick,
in the plantations; and was the first governor of the Providence
company in 1630, and one of the proprietors of Newfoundland
in 1637. In 1631 he was made chief-justice-in-eyre south of
the Trent, and in this capacity was responsible for the unpopular
revival of the obsolete forest laws. He intrigued at court against
Portland and against Strafford, who expressed for him the
greatest contempt. In 1636 he was disappointed at not obtaining
the great office of lord high admiral, but was made instead
groom of the stole. In 1639 he was appointed general of the
horse, and drew ridicule upon himself by the fiasco at Kelso.
In the second war against the Scots he was superseded in favour
of Conway. He opposed the dissolution of the Short Parliament,
joined the peers who supported the parliamentary cause, and
gave evidence against Strafford. He was, however, won back
to the king's side by the queen, and on the i6th of April 1641
made captain general north of the Trent. Dissatisfied, however,
with Charles's refusal to grant him the nomination of a new
baron, he again abandoned him, refused the summons to York,
and was deprived of his office as groom of the stole at the instance
of the queen, who greatly resented his ingratitude. He was
chosen by the parliament in March and July 1642 to communicate
its votes to Charles, who received him, much to his indignation,
with studied coldness. He was appointed one of the committee
of safety in July; made zealous speeches on behalf of the
parliamentary cause to the London citizens; and joined Essex's
army at Twickenham, where, it is said, he persuaded him to
avoid a battle. In 1643 he appeared as a peacemaker, and after
failing to bring over Essex, he returned to the king. His recep-
tion, however, was not a cordial one, and he was not reinstated
in his office of groom of the stole. After, therefore, accompanying
the king to Gloucester and taking part in the first battle of
Newbury, he once more returned to the parliament, declaring
that the court was too much bent on continuing hostilities,
and the influence of the " papists " too strong for his patriotism.
He was restored to his estates, but the Commons obliged the
Lords to exclude him from the upper house, and his petition
in 1645 for compensation for his losses and for a pension was
refused. His hopes being in this quarter also disappointed, he
once again renewed his allegiance to the king's cause; and
after endeavouring to promote the negotiations for peace in
1645 and 1647 he took up arms in the second Civil War, received
a commission as general, and put himself at the head of 600 men
at Kingston. He was defeated on the 7th of July 1647, captured
at St Neots shortly afterwards, and imprisoned at Warwick
Castle. He was tried before a " high court of justice " on the
3rd of February 1649, and in spite of his plea that he had received
quarter was sentenced to death. He was executed together with
Hamilton and Capel on the 9th of March. Clarendon styles
him " a very well-bred man and a fine gentleman in good times." *
He was evidently a man of shallow character, devoid of ability,
raised far above his merits and hopelessly unfit for the great
times in which he lived. Lord Holland married Elizabeth,
daughter and heiress of Sir Walter Cope of Kensington, and,
besides several daughters, had four sons, of whom the eldest,
Robert, succeeded him as 2nd earl of Holland, and inherited
the earldom of Warwick in 1673.
HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3 RD BARON
(1773-1840), was the son of Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland,
his mother, Lady Mary Fitzpatrick, being the daughter of the
earl of Upper Ossory. He was born at Winterslow House in
Wiltshire, on the 2ist of November 1773, and his father died
in the following year. He was educated at Eton and at Christ
Church, Oxford, where he became the friend of Canning, of
Hookham Frere, and of other wits of the time. Lord Holland
did not take the same political side as his friends in the conflicts
of the revolutionary epoch. He was from his boyhood deeply
attached to his uncle, C. J. Fox, and remained steadily loyal
to the Whig party. In 1791 he visited Paris 2nd became ac-
quainted with Lafayette and Talleyrand, and in 1793 he again
went abroad to travel in France and Italy. At Florence he
met with Lady Webster, wife of Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart.,
who left her husband for him. She was by birth Elizabeth
Vassall (1770-1845), daughter of Richard Vassall, a planter
in Jamaica. A son was born of their irregular union, a Charles
Richard Fox (1796-1873), who after some service in the navy
entered the Grenadiers, and was known in later life as a collector
of Greek coins. His collection was bought for the royal museum
of Berlin when he died in 1873. He married Lady Mary Fitz-
clarence, a daughter of William IV. by Mrs Jordan. Sir Godfrey
Webster having obtained a divorce, Lord Holland was enabled
to marry on the 6th of July 1797. He had taken his seat in
the House of Lords on the 5th of October 1796. During several
years he may be said almost to have constituted the Whig party
in the Upper House. His protests against the measures of the
Tory ministers were collected and published, as the Opinions
of Lord Holland (1841), by Dr Moylan of Lincoln's Inn. In 1800
he was authorized to take the name of Vassall, and after 1807
he signed himself Vassall Holland, though the name was no part
of his title. In 1860 Lord and Lady Holland went abroad and
remained in France and Spain till 1805, visiting Paris during
the Peace of Amiens, and being well received by Napoleon.
Lady Holland always professed a profound admiration of
Napoleon, of which she made a theatrical display after his fall,
and he left her a gold snuff-box by his will. In public life Lord
Holland took a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities.
He was appointed to negotiate with the American envoys,
Monroe and W. Pinkney, was admitted to the privy council on the
27th of August 1806, and on the isth of October entered the
cabinet " of all the talents " as lord privy seal, retiring with
the rest of his colleagues in March 1807. He led the opposition
to the Regency bill in 1811, and he attacked the "orders in
council " and other strong measures of the government taken
to counteract Napoleon's Berlin decrees. He was in fact in
politics a consistent Whig, and in that character he denounced
the treaty of 1813 with Sweden which bound England to consent
to the forcible union of Norway, and he resisted the bill of 1816
for confining Napoleon in St Helena. His loyalty as a Whig
secured recognition when his party triumphed in the struggle
for parliamentary reform, by his appointment as chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Lord Grey and Lord
Melbourne, and he was still in office when he died on the 22nd
of October 1840. Lord Holland is notable, not for his somewhat
1 Hist, of the Rebellion, xi. 263.
HOLLAND, J. G. HOLLAND
587
insignificant political career, but as a patron of literature, as
a writer on his own account, and because his house was the
centre and the headquarters of the Whig political and literary
world of the time; and Lady Holland (who died on the i6th
of November 1845) succeeded in taking the sort of place in
London which had been filled in Paris during the i8th century
by the society ladies who kept "salons." Lord Holland's
Foreign Reminiscences (1850) contain much amusing gossip
from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic era. His Memoirs of
the Whig Party (1852) is an important contemporary authority.
His small work on Lope de Vega (1806) is still of some value.
Holland had two legitimate sons, Stephen, who died in 1800,
and Henry Edward, who became 4th Lord Holland. When this
peer died in December 1859 the title became extinct.
See The Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland, edited by the earl of
Ilchester (1908); and Lloyd Sanders, The Holland House Circle
(1908).
HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881), American author
and editor, was born in Belchertown, Massachusetts, on the
24th of July 1819. He graduated in 1843 at the Berkshire
Medical College (no longer in existence) at Pittsfield, Mass.,
and after practising medicine in 1844-1847, and making an
unsuccessful attempt, with Charles Robinson (1818-1894),
later first governor of the state of Kansas, to establish a hospital
for women, he taught for a brief period in Richmond, Virginia,
and in 1848 was superintendent of schools in Vicksburg, Missis-
sippi. In 1849 he became assistant editor under Samuel Bowles,
and three years later one of the owners, of the Springfield (Massa-
chusetts) Republican, with which he retained his connexion
until 1867. He then travelled for some time in Europe, and
in 1870 removed to New York, where he helped to establish
and became editor and one-third owner of Scribner's Monthly (the
title of which was changed in 1881 to The Century), which
absorbed the periodicals Hours at Home, Putnam's Magazine
and the Riverside Magazine. He remained editor of this
magazine until his death. Dr Holland's books long enjoyed
a wide popularity. The earlier ones were published over the
pseudonym " Timothy Titcomb." His writings fall into four
classes: history and biography, represented by a History of
Western Massachusetts (1855), and a Life of Abraham Lincoln
(1865); fiction, of which Miss Gilbert's Career (1860) and The
Story of Sevenoaks (1875) remain faithful pictures of village
life in eastern United States; poetry, of which Bitter-Sweet
(1858) and Kalhrina, Her Life and Mine (1867) were widely
read; and a series of homely essays on the art of living, of
which the most characteristic were Letters to Young People,
Single and Married (1858), Gold Foil, hammered from Popular
Proverbs (1859), Letters to the Jonses (1863), and Every-Day
Topics (2 series, 1876 and 1882). While a resident of New
York, where he died on the izth of October 1881, he identified
himself with measures for good government and school reform,
and in 1872 became a member and for a short time in 1873 was
president of the Board of Education.
See Mrs H. M. Plunkett's Josiah Gilbert Holland (New York,
1894).
HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637), English scholar, "the
translator-general in his age," was born at Chelmsford in Essex.
He was the son of a clergyman, John Holland, who had been
obliged to take refuge in Germany and Denmark with Miles
Coverdale during the Marian persecution. Having become a
fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and taken the degree of
M.A., he was incorporated at Oxford (July nth, 1585). Having
subsequently studied medicine, about 1595 he settled as a
doctor in Coventry, but chiefly occupied himself with translations.
In 1628 he was appointed headmaster of the free school, but,
owing probably to advancing age, he held office for only eleven
months. His latter days were oppressed by poverty, partly
relieved by the generosity of the common council of Coventry,
which in 1632 assigned him 3, 6s. 8d. for three years, " if he
should live so long." He died on the gth of February, 1636-
1637. His fame is due solely to his translations, which included
Livy, Pliny's Natural History, Plutarch's Morals, Suetonius,
Ammianus Marcellinus and Xenophon's Cyropaedia. He
published also an English version, with additions, of Camden's
Britannia. His Latin translation of Brice Bauderon's Pharma-
copaea and his Regimen sanitatis Salerni were published after
his death by his son, HENRY HOLLAND (1583-71650), who
became a London bookseller, and is known to bibliographers
for his Bazilualogia; a Booke of Kings, beeing the true and liuely
Effigies of all our English Kings from the Conquest (1618), and
his Hertiiologia Anglica (1620).
HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450),
Scottish writer, author of the Buke of the Howlat, was secretary
or chaplain to the earl of Moray (1450) and rector of Halkirk,
near Thurso. He was afterwards rector of Abbreochy, Loch
Ness, and later held a chantry in the cathedral of Norway.
He was an ardent partisan of the Douglases, and on their over-
throw retired to Orkney and later to Shetland. He was employed
by Edward IV. in his attempt to rouse the Western Isles through
Douglas agency, and in 1482 was excluded from the general
pardon granted by James III. to those who would renounce
their fealty to the Douglases.
The poem, entitled the Buke of the Howlat, written about
1450, shows his devotion to the house of Douglas:
" On ilk beugh till embrace
Writtin in a bill was
O Dowglass, O Dowglass
Tender and trewe!"
(ii. 400-403).
and is dedicated to the wife of a Douglas
" Thus for ane Dow of Dunbar drew I this Dyte,
Dowit with ane Dowglass, and boith war thei dowis."
but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that
house may be discarded. Sir Walter Scott's judgment that the
Buke is " a poetical apologue . . . without any view whatever
to local or natural politics " is certainly the most reasonable.
The poem, which extends to 1001 lines written in the irregular
alliterative rhymed stanza, is a bird-allegory, of the type familiar
in the Parlemsnl of Foules. It has the incidental interest of
showing (especially in stanzas 62 and 63) the antipathy of the
" Inglis-speaking Scot " to the " Scots-speaking Gael " of the
west, as is also shown in Dunbar's Flyting with Kennedy.
The text of the poem is preserved in the Asloan and Bannatyne
MSS. Fragments of an early i6th century black-letter edition,
discovered by D. Laing, are reproduced in the Adversaria of the
Bannatyne Club. The poem has been frequently reprinted, by
Pinkerton, in his Scottish Poems (1792); by D. Laing (Bannatyne
Club 1823; reprinted in " New Club " series, Paisley, 1882); by the
Hunterian Club in their edition of the Bannatyne MS., and by A.
Diebler (Chemnitz, 1893). The latest edition is that by F. J. Amours
in Scottish Alliterative Poems (Scottish Text Society, 1897), pp. 47-81.
(See also Introduction pp. xx.-xxxiv.)
HOLLAND, officially the kingdom of the Netherlands
(Koningrijk der Nederlanden), a maritime country in the north-
west of Europe. The name Holland is that of the former count-
ship, which forms part of the political, as well as the geographical
centre of the kingdom (see the next article).
Topography. Holland is bounded on the E. by Germany,
on the S. by Belgium, on the W. and N. by the North Sea, and
at the N.E. corner by the Dollart. From Stevensweert south-
ward to the extreme corner of Limburg the boundary line is
formed by the river Maas or Meuse. 1 On the east a natural
geographical boundary was formed by the long line of marshy
fens extending along the borders of Overysel, Drente and
Groningen. The kingdom extends from 53 32' 21" (Groningen
Cape on Rottum Island) to 50 45' 49" N. (Mesch in the
province of Limburg), and from 3 23' 27* (Sluis in the province
of Zeeland) to 7 12' 20" E. (Langakkerschans in the province
of Groningen). The greatest length from north to south, viz.
that from Rottum Island to Eisden near Maastricht is 164 m.,
and the greatest breadth from south-west to north-east, or from
Zwin near Sluis to Losser in Overysel, 144 m. The area is subject
1 At Maastricht, however, a portion lies on the left bank of the
river, measured, according to the treaty with Belgium, igth of April
1839, art. 4, by an average radius of 1200 Dutch fathoms (7874 ft.)
from the outer glacis of the fortress.
588
HOLLAND
[GEOGRAPHY
to perpetual variation owing, on the one hand, to the erosion
of the coasts, and, on the other, to reclamation of land by means
of endiking and drainage operations. In 1889 the total area
was calculated at 12,558 sq. m., and, including the Zuider Zee
and the Wadden (2050 sq. m.) and the Dutch portion of the
Dollart (23 sq. m.), 14, 613 sq. m. In no country in Europe has
the character of the territory exercised so great an influence on
the inhabitants as in the Netherlands; and, on the other hand,
no people has so extensively modified the condition of its territory
as the Dutch. The greatest importance attaches therefore to
the physical conformation of the country.
The coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to north-
east, and is formed by a row of sand dunes, 171 m. in length, fringed
- t by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into
the sea. In the north and south, however, this line is
broken by the inlets of the sea which form the Frisian and the South
Holland and Zeeland islands respectively ; but the dunes themselves
are found continued along the seaward side of these islands, thus
indicating the original continuity of the coast-line. The breadth of
the dunes naturally varies greatly, the maximum width of about
4375 yds. being found at Schoorl, north-west of Alkmaar. The
average height of the individual dune-tops is not above 33 ft., but
attains a maximum of 197 ft. at the High Blinkert, near Haarlem.
The steepness of the dunes on the side towards the sea is caused by
the continual erosion, probably traceable, in part at least, to the
channel current (which at mean tide has a velocity of 14 or 15 in.
per second), and to the strong west or north-west winds which carry
off large quantities of material. This alteration of coast-line appears
at Loosduinen, where the moor or fenland formerly developed
behind the dunes now crops out on the shore amid the sand, being
pressed to the compactness of lignite by the weight of the sand
drifted over it. Again, the remains of the Roman camp Brittenburg
or Huis te Britten, which originally lay within the dunes and, after
being covered by them, emerged again in 1520, were, in 1694, 1600
paces out to sea, opposite Katwijk; while, besides Katwijk itself,
several other villages of the west coast, as Domburg, Scheveningen,
Egmond, have been removed further inland. The tendency of the
dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the planting
of bent-grass (Arundo arenaria), whose long roots serve to bind the
sand together. It must be further remarked that both the " dune-
pans," or depressions, which are naturally marshy through their
defective drainage, and the geest grounds that is, the grounds along
the foot of the downs have been in various places either planted
with wood or turned into arable and pasture land; while the
numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to
the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland, the example set
by Amsterdam in 1853 in supplying itself with this water having
been readily followed by Leiden, the Hague, Flushing, &c.
As already remarked, the coast-line of Holland breaks up into a
series of islands at its northern and southern extremities. The
principal sea-inlets in the north are the Texel Gat or Marsdiep and
the Vlie, which lead past the chain of the Frisian Islands into the
large inland sea or gulf called the Zuider Zee, and the Wadden or
"shallows," which extend along the shores of Friesland and
Groningen as far as the Dollart and the mouth of the Ems. The
inland sea-board thus formed consists of low coasts of sea-clay
protected by dikes, and of some high diluvial strata which rise far
enough above the level of the sea to make dikes unnecessary, as in
the case of the Gooi hills between Naarden and the Eem, the Veluwe
hills between Nykerk and Elburg, and the steep cliffs of the Gaaster-
land between Oude My-dum and Stavoren. The Dollart was formed
in 1277 by the inundation of the Ems basin, more than thirty villages
being destroyed at once. The Zuider Zee and the bay in the Frisian
coast known as the Lauwers Zee also gradually came into existence
in the I3th century. The extensive sea-arms forming the South
Holland and Zeeland archipelago are the Hont or West Scheldt, the
East Scheldt, the Grevelingen (communicating with Krammer
and the Volkerak) and the Haringvliet, which after being joined by
the Volkerak is known as the Hollandsch Diep. These inlets were
formerly of much greater extent than now, but are gradually closing
up owing to the accumulation of mud deposits, and no longer have
the same freedom of communication with one another. At the head
of the Hollandsch Diep is the celebrated railway bridge of the
Moerdyk (1868-1871) 1607 yds. in length; and above this bridge lies
the Biesbosch (" reed forest "), a group of marshy islands formed by
a disastrous inundation in 1421, when seventy-two villages and
upwards of 100,000 lives were destroyed.
Besides the dunes the only hilly regions of Holland are the southern
half of the province of Limburg, the neighbourhood of Nijmwegen,
the hills of Utrecht, including the Gooi hills, the Veluwe
lefaad region m Gelderland, the isolated hills in the middle and
' east of Overysel and the Hondsrug range in Drente.
The remainder of the country is flat, and shows a regular
downward slope from south-east to north-west, in which direction
the rivers mainly flow. The elevation of the surface of the country
ranges between the extreme height of 1057 ft. near Vaals in the
farthest corner of Limburg, and 16-20 ft. below the Amsterdam zero 1
in some of the drained lands in the western half of the country. In
fact, one quarter of the whole kingdom, consisting of the provinces
of North and South Holland, the western portion of Utrecht as
far as the Vaart Rhine, Zeeland, except the southern part of Zeeland-
Flandcrs, and the north-west part of North Brabant, lies below the
Amsterdam zero; and altogether 38% of the country, or all that
part lying west of a line drawn through Groningen, Utrecht and
Antwerp, lies within one metre above the Amsterdam zero and would
be submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes.
This difference between the eastern and western divisions of Holland
has its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil. The
western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a
monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land, carefully drained in
regular lines of canals bordered by stunted willows, and dotted over
with windmills, the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and
poplar which surround each isolated farm-house. The landscape of
the eastern division is considered less typical. Here the soil consists
mainly of sand and gravel, and the prevailing scenery is formed of
waste heaths and patches of wood, while here and there fertile
meadows extend along the banks of the streams, and the land is laid
out in the highly regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation
(see DRENTE).
The entire drainage of Holland is into the North Sea. The three
principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maas (Meuse) and the Scheldt
(Schelde), and all three have their origin outside the Di ver s
country, whilst the Scheldt has its mouth only in Holland,
iving its name to the two broad inlets of the sea which bound the
Jeeland islands. The Rhine in its course through Holland is merely
the parent stream of several important branches, splitting up into
Rhine and Waal, Rhine and Ysel, Crooked Rhine and Lek (which
takes two-thirds of the waters), and at Utrecht into Old Rhine and
Vecht, finally reaching the sea through the sluices at Katwijk as
little more than a drainage canal. The Ysel and the Vecht flow to
the Zuider Zee; the other branches to the North Sea. The Maas,
whose course is almost parallel to that of the Rhine, follows in a wide
curve the general slope of the country, receiving the Roer, the Mark
and the Aa. Towards its mouth its waters find their way into. all
the channels intersecting the South Holland archipelago. The main
stream joining the Waal at Gorinchem flows on to Dordrecht as the
Merwede, and is continued thence to the sea by the Old Maas, the
North, and the New Maas, the New Maas being formed by the
junction of the Lek and the North. From Gorinchem the New
Merwede (constructed in the second half of the igth century) extends
between dykes through the marshes of the Biesbosch to the
Hollandsch Diep. These great rivers render very important service
as waterways. The mean velocity of their flow seldom exceeds 4-9
ft., but rises to 6-4 ft. when the river is high. In the lower reaches of
the streams the velocity and slope are of course affected by the tides.
In the Waal ordinary high water is perceptible as far up as Zalt
Bommel in Gelderland, in the Lek the maximum limits or ordinary
and spring tides are at Vianen and Kuilenburg respectively, in the
Ysel above the Katerveer at the junction of the Willemsvaart and
past Wyhe midway between Zwolle and Deventer; and in the Maas
near Heusden and at Well in Limburg. Into the Zuider Zee there
also flow the Kuinder, the Zwarte Water, with its tributary the Vecht,
and the Eem. The total length of navigable channels is about
1150 m., but sand banks and shallows not infrequently impede the
shipping traffic at low; water during the summer. The smaller
streams are often of great importance. Except where they rise in
the fens they call into life a strip of fertile grassland in the midst
of the barren sand, and are responsible for the existence of many
villages along their banks. Following the example of the great
Kampen irrigation canal in Belgium, artificial irrigation is also
practised by means of some of the smaller streams, especially in
North Brabant, Drente and Overysel, and in the absence of streams,
canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the
same service. The low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers,
being readily laid under water, have been not infrequently chosen as
sites for fortresses. As a matter of course, the streams are also
turned to account in connexion with the canal system the Dommel,
Berkel, Vecht, Regge, Holland Ysel, Gouwe, Rotte, Schie, Spaarne,
Zaan, Amstel, Dieze, Amer, Mark, Zwarte Water, Kuinder and the
numerous Aas in Drente and Groningen being the most important
in this respect.
It is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy
lakes which exist, especially in .Friesland and Groningen, and are
connected with rivers or streamlets. Those of Friesland Lakes.
are of note for the abundance of their fish and their beauty
of situation, on which last account the Uddelermeer in Gelderland is
also celebrated. The Rockanje Lake near Brielle is remarkable for
the strong salty solution which covers even the growing reeds with a
J The datum plane, or basis of the measurement of heights, is
throughout Holland, and also in some of the border districts of
Germany, the Amsterdamsch Peil (A.P.), or Amsterdam water-level,
and represents the average high water-level of the Y at Amsterdam
at the time when it was still open to the Zuider Zee. Local and
provincial " peils " are, however, also in use on some water-ways.
B
C
D
7" E
HOLLAND
9 * 4 6 3 '.
Scale. 1:1,500,000
English Miles
Capitals of Countries
Capitals of Provinces
Boundaries of Provinces.
Rail ways..
Canals Marsh
Fortifications
-., t. Schevenin
i he Hague Cs Gravenh
DIKES: DRAINAGE]
HOLLAND
589
hard crust. Many of the lakes are nothing more than deep pits or
marshes from which the peat has been extracted.
Dikes. The circumstance that so much of Holland is below
the sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence
on the drainage, the climate and the sanitary conditions of the
country, as well as on its defence by means of inundation. The
endiking of low lands against the sea which had been quietly
proceeding during the first eleven centuries of the Christian era,
received a fresh impetus in the I2th and i3th centuries from the
fact that the level of the sea then became higher in relation to
that of the land. This fact is illustrated by the broadening of
river mouths and estuaries at this time, and the beginning of
the formation of the Zuider Zee. A new feature in diking was
the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers,
sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated
on the spot. Thus the dam on the Amstel (1257) was the origin
of Amsterdam, and the dam on the Ye gave rise to Edam. But
Holland's chief protection against inundation is its long line of
sand dunes, in which only two real breaches have been effected
during the centuries of erosion. These are represented by the
famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and the Honds-
bossche Zeewering, or sea-defence, which were begun respectively
in the first and second halves of the isth century. The first
extends for a distance of over 4000 yds. between the villages
of Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the
second is about 4900 yds. long, and extends from Kamperduin
to near Petten, whence it is continued for another noo yds.
by the Pettemer dike. These two sea dikes were reconstructed
by the state at great expense between the year 1860 and 1884,
having consisted before that time of little more than a protected
sand dike. The earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and
by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by zinkstukken
(sinking pieces), artificial structures of brushwood laden with
stones, and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of
which the current is to some extent turned aside. The West-
kapelle dike, 12,468 ft. long, has a seaward slope of 300 ft., and
is protected by rows of piles and basalt blocks. On its ridge,
39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a service railway.
The cost of its upkeep is more than 6000 a year, and of the
Hondsbossche Zeewering 2000 a year. When it is remembered
that the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (Teredo navalis),
the ravages of which were discovered in 1731, the labour and
expense incurred in the construction and maintenance of the
sea dikes now existing may be imagined. In other parts of the
coast the dunes, though not pierced through, have become so
wasted by erosion as to require artificial strengthening. This
is afforded, either by means of a so-called sleeping dike (slaper-
dyk) behind the weak spot, as, for instance, between Kadzand
and Breskens in Zeeland-Flanders, and again between 's Graven-
zande and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or breakwaters
(hoofden, heads) projecting at intervals into the sea and composed
of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such breakwaters
was that constructed in 1857 at the north end of the island of
Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water.
Similar constructions are to be found on the seaward side of
the islands of Walcheren, Schouwen and Voorne, and between
's Gravenzande and Scheveningen, and Katwijk and Noordwijk.
Owing to the obstruction which they offer to drifting sands,
artificial dunes are in course of time formed about them, and
in this way they become at once more effective and less costly
to maintain. The firm and regular dunes which now run from
Petten to Kallantsoog (formerly an island), and thence north-
wards to Huisduinen, were thus formed about the Zyper (1617)
and Koegras (1610) dikes respectively. From Huisduinen to
Nieuwediep the dunes are replaced by the famous Helder sea-
wall. The shores of the Zuider Zee and the Wadden, and the
Frisian and Zuider Zee islands, are also partially protected by
dikes. In more than one quarter the dikes have been repeatedly
extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea, the work
of reclamation being aided by a natural process. Layer upon
layer of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes, until
a new fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-
grasses begin to grow. Upon these clay-lands (kwdders) horses,
cattle and sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide, and in
course of time they are in turn endiked.
River dikes are as necessary as sea dikes, elevated banks
being found only in a few places, as on the Lower Rhine. Owing
to the unsuitability of the foundations, Dutch dikes are usually
marked by a great width, which at the crown varies between
13 and 26 ft. The height of the dike ranges to 40 in. above
high water-level. Between the dikes and the stream lie " fore-
lands " (interwaarderi) , which are usually submerged in winter,
and frequently lie i or 2 yds, higher than the country
within the dikes. These forelands also offer in course of time
an opportunity for endiking and reclamation. In this way
the towns of Rotterdam, Schiedam, Vlaardingen and Maasluis
have all gradually extended over the Maas dike in order to
keep in touch with the river, and the small town of Delftshaven
is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike.
Impoldering. The first step in the reclamation of land is to " im-
polder " it, or convert it into a " polder " (i.e. a section of artificially
drained land), by surrounding it with dikes or quays for the twofold
purpose.of protecting it from all further inundation from outside and
of controlling the amount of water inside. Impoldering for its own
sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means of
drainage were restricted. But in the beginning of the 15th century
new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to
the purpose of pumping water. It was gradually recognized that the
masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been
carried on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands,
and also that a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the
fertile sea-clay under the peat. It became usual, therefore, to make
the subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of
peat from it, this condition being established by proclamation in 1595.
Drainage. It has been shown that the western provinces of
Holland may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level. In fact
the surface of the sea-clay in these provinces is from nj to l6J ft.
below the Amsterdam zero. The ground-water is, therefore, re-
latively very high and the capacity of the soil for further absorption
proportionately low. To increase the reservoir capacity of the polder,
as well as to conduct the water to the windmills or engines, it is
intersected by a network of ditches cut at right angles to each" other,
the amount of ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area
to be drained. In modern times pumping engines have replaced
windmills, and the typical old Dutch landscape with its countless
hooded heads and swinging arms has been greatly transformed by
the advent of the chimney stacks of the pumping-stations. The
power of the pumping-engines is taken on the basis of 12 h.p. per
1000 hectares for every metre that the water has to be raised, or
stated in another form, the engines must be capable of raising nearly
9 ft of water through I yd. per acre per minute. The main aitches,
or canals, afterwards also serve as a means of navigation. The level
at which it is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes
the unit of water measurement for the polder, and is called the
polder's zomer peil (Z.P.) or summer water-level. In pasture-
polders (koepolders) Z.P. is I to I j ft. below the level of the polder,
and in agricultural polders 2 J to 3$ ft. below. Owing to the shrinkage
of the soil in reclaimed lands, however, that is, lands which have been
drained after fen or other reclamation, the sides of the polder are
often higher than the middle, and it is necessary by means of small
dams or sluices to make separate water-tight compartments
(afpolderingen), each having its own unit of measurement. Some
polders also have a winter peil as a precaution against the increased
fall of water in that season. The summer water-level of the pasture
polders south of the former Y is about 4 to 8 ft. below the Amsterdam
zero, but in the Noorderkwartier to the north, it reaches 10^ ft. below
A. P. in the Beschotel polder, and in reclaimed lands (droogmakerijen)
may be still lower, thus in the Reeuwyk polder north of Gouda it is
21 J ft. below.
The drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial
means, according to the slope of the ground. Nearly all the polders
of Zeeland and South Holland are able to discharge naturally into
the sea at average low water, self-regulating sluices being used.
But in North Holland and Utrecht on the contrary the polder
water has generally to be raised. In some deep polders and drained
lands where the water cannot be brought to the required height
at once, windmills are found at two or even _three different levels.
The final removal of polder water, however, is only truly effected
upon its discharge into the " outer waters " of the country, that is,
the sea itself or the large rivers freely communicating with it; and
this happens with but a small proportion of Dutch polders, such
as those of Zeeland, the Holland Ysel and the Noorderkwartier.
As the system of impoldering extended, the small sluggish rivers
were gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through
which they flowed, and by sluices from the waters with which they
communicated. Their level ranges from about ij to 4 ft. above
that of the pasture polders. In addition, various kinds of canals
59
HOLLAND
[FAUNA AND FLORA
and endiked or embanked lakes had come into existence, forming
altogether a vast network of more or less stagnant waters. These waters
are utilized as the temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder
water, each system of reservoirs being termed a boezem (bosom or
basin), and all lands watering into the same boezem being considered
as belonging to it. The largest boezem is that of Friesland, which
embraces nearly the whole province. It sometimes happens that
a polder is not in direct contact with the boezem to which it belongs,
but first drains into an adjacent polder, from which the water is
afterwards removed. In the same way, some boczems discharge
first into others, which then discharge into the sea or rivers. This
is usually the case where there is a great difference in height between
the surface of the boezem and the outer waters, and may be illus-
trated by the Alblasserwaard and the Rptte boezems in the pro-
vinces of South and North Holland respectively. In time of drought
the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run back into the
polders, and so serve a double purpose as water-reservoirs. Boezems,
like polders, have a standard water-level which may not be ex-
ceeded, and as in the polder this level may vary in the different
parts of an extended boezem. The height of the boezem peil ranges
beween ij ft. above to if ft. below the Amsterdam zero, though
the average is about I to if ft. below. Some boezems, again, which
are less easily controlled, have a " danger water-level ' at which
they refuse to receive any more water from the surrounding polders.
The Schie or Delflands boezem of South Holland is of this kind,
and such a boezem is termed besloten or " sequestered," in con-
tradistinction to a " free " boezem. A third kind of boezem is the
reserve or berg-boezem, which in summer may be made dry and used
for agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The
centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this
complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclama-
tion are better imagined than described, and even at the present
day the evidences ofthe struggle are far less apparent than real.
Geology. Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of
Maastricht, the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed
by Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered
by recent deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep
borings have revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the
" Crags " of East Anglia. They are divided into the Diestien,
corresponding in part with the English Coralline Crag, the Scaldisien
and Poederlien corresponding with the Walton Crag, and the
Amstelien corresponding with the Red Crag df Suffolk. In the
south of Holland the total thickness of the Pliocene series is only
about 200 ft., and they are covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary
deposits; but towards the north the beds sink down and at the
same time increase considerably in thickness, so that at Utrecht a
deep boring reached the top of the Pliocene at a depth of 513 ft.
and at 1198 ft. it had not touched the bottom. At Amsterdam
the top of the Pliocene lay 625 ft. below the surface, but the boring,
1098 ft. deep, did not reach the base of the uppermost division of the
Pliocene, viz. the Amstelien. Eastward and westward of Amsterdam,
as well as southward, the Pliocene beds rise slowly to the surface,
and gradually decrease in thickness. They were laid down in a
broad bay which covered the east of England and nearly the whole
of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is
evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the
deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to
England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of
northern shells in the upper divisions of the Pliocene series indicates
the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift containing
Scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east of the
Zuider Zee. The more modern deposits of Holland consist of
alluvium, wind-blown sands and peat. 1
Climate. Situated in the temperate zone between 50 and 53 N.
the climate of Holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and
night extending in the north to nine hours, and there is a corre-
spondingly wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the
region of variable winds. On an average of fifty years the mean
annual temperature was 49-8 Fahr. ; the maximum, 93-9 Fahr. ;
the minimum, 5-8 Fahr. The mean annual barometric height is
29-93 m -; the mean annual moisture, 81 %; the mean annual
rainfall, 27-99 m - The mean annual number of days with rain is
204, with snow 19, and with thunder-storms 18. The increased
rainfall from July to December (the summer and autumn rains), and
the increased evaporation in spring and summer (5-2 in. more than
the rainfall), are of importance as regards " poldering " and draining
operations. The prevalence of south-west winds during nine
months of the year and of north-west during three (April June) has
a strong influence on the temperature and rainfall, tides, river
mouths and outlets, and also, geologically, on dunes and sand drifts,
and on fens and the accumulation of clay on the coast. The west
winds of course increase the moisture, and moderate both the winter
cold and the summer heat, while the east winds blowing over the
1 See J. Lori6, Contributions a la geologie des Pays-has (1885-1895),
Archives du Mus. Teyler (Haarlem), ser. 2, vol. ii. pp. 109-240,
vol. iii. pp. 1-160, 375-461, vol. iv. pp. 165-309 and Bull. soc.
beige geol. vol. iii. (1889); Mem. pp. 409-449; F. W. Harmer,
"On the Pliocene Deposits of Holland, &c., Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., London, vol. Hi. (1896) pp. 748-781, pis. xxxiv., xxxv.
continent have an opposite influence. It cannot be said that the
climate is particularly good, owing to the changeableness of the
weather, which may alter completely within a single day. The
heavy atmosphere likewise, and the necessity of living within doors
or in confined localities, cannot but exercise an influence on the
character and temperament of the inhabitants. Only of certain
districts, however, can it be said that they are positively unhealthy ;
to this category belong some parts of the Holland provinces, Zeeland,
and Friesland, where the inhabitants are exposed to the exhalations
from the marshy ground, and the atmosphere is often burdened
with sea-fogs.
Fauna. In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive
forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter,
martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals,
and the weasel, ermine and pole-cat among the more common.
In the 1 8th century wolves still roamed the country in such large
numbers that hunting parties were organized against them; now
they are unknown. Roebuck and deer are found in a wild state
in Gelderland and Overysel, foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded
regions on the borders of the country, and hares and rabbits in the
dunes and other sandy stretches. Among birds may be reckoned
about two hundred and forty different kinds which are regular
inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of these are migratory.
The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel, magpie, jay, raven,
various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden-crested wren, tufted lark
and titmouse are among the birds which breed here. Birds of
passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of various kinds,
golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, finch and nightingale. Storks are
plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most
characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape.
Flora. The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four
physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely,
the heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (Erica
tetralix) and ling (Calluna vulgaris) cover all the waste sandy regions
in the eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the
meadow-lands is monotonous. In the more damp and marshy
places the bottom is covered with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth
equisetum, and rush. In the ditches and pools common yellow and
white water-lilies are seen, as well as water-soldier (Stratiotes aloides),
great and lesser reed-mace, sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant
forms of the dunes are stunted and meagre as compared with the
same forms elsewhere. The most common plant here is the stiff
sand-reed (Arundo arenaria), called sand-oats in Drente and Overy-
sel, where it is much used for making mats. Like the sand-reed,
the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the buckthorn (Hippophae
rhamnoides) perform a useful service in helping to bind the sand
together. Furze and the common juniper are regular dune plants,
and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel and
Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (Rosa pimpinelli-
folia) also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (Sedum acre), field
fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep's fescue grass,
the pretty Solomon-seal (Polygonatum officinale), and the broad-
leaved or marsh orchis (Orchis latifolia). The sea-plants which
flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly assist
the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated in places.
Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and Groningen, the
Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer the shore
to sandspurry (Spergularia), or sea-poa or floating meadow grass
(Glyceria maritima), which grows up to the dikes, and affords pasture
for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the Bies-
bosch lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable quantities
for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (Zostera
marina) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider
Zee, where it is gathered (or trade purposes during the months of
June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along
the rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the
sand and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common.
Population. The following table shows the area and popula-
tion in the eleven provinces of the Netherlands:
Province
Area in
Population
Population
Density per
sq. m. in
sq. m.
1890.
1900.
1900.
North Brabant
,980
509,628
553-842
280
Gelderland .
,965
512,202
566,549
288
South Holland
,166
949,641
1,144,448
981
North Holland
,070
829,489
968,131
905
Zeeland .
690
199,234
216,295
313
Utrecht .
534
221,007
251.034
470
Friesland .
,282
335-558
340,262
265
Overysel .
Groningen
,291
790
295,445
272,786
333,338
299,602
258
379
Drente
1,030
130,704
148,544
144
Limburg .
850
255,721
281,934
332
Total . .
12,648
4,5",4I5
5,i04,i37 2
404
1 This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province.
COMMUNICATIONS]
HOLLAND
The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces
of North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and
Drente on the other. This divergence is partly explained by
the difference of soil which in Drente comprises the maximum
of waste lands, and in South Holland the minimum and partly
also by the greater facilities which the seaward provinces enjoy
of earning a subsistence, and the greater variety of their indus-
tries. The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague,
Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen,
Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht,
Leeuwarden, Zwolle, Delft, 's Hertogenbosch, Schiedam,
Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn, Helder, Enschede, Gouda, Zaandam,
Kampen,Hilyersum, Flushing, Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen
and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns, such as Assen,
Enschede, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen, Zaandam,
.Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy
fact that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an
equal share in the general increase of population. This, taken
in conjunction with the advance in trade and shipping, the
diminution in emigration, and the prosperity of the savings
banks, points to a favourable state in the condition of the people.
Communications. The roads are divided into national or royal
roads, placed directly under the control of the waterstaat and sup-
Roads ported by the state; provincial roads, under the direct
control of the states of the provinces, and almost all
supported by the provincial treasuries; communal and polder
roads, maintained by the communal authorities and the polder
boards; and finally, private roads. The system of national roads,
mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827, but still in process of
extension, brings into connexion nearly all the towns.
The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends
into every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost
Canals a marit i me appearance. The united length of the canals
exceeds 1500 m. As a matter of course the smaller
streams have been largely utilized in their formation, while the
necessity for a comprehensive drainage system has also contributed
in no small degree. During the years 1815-1830 a large part of the
extensive scheme of construction inaugurated by King William I.
was carried out, the following canals, among others, coming into
existence in that period: the North Holland ship canal (depth,
16$ ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the Grift canal between
Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting Zwolle with
the Ysel, thej'Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William's canal (6J ft.),
from 's Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the Ternuzen-Ghent ship
canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again taken up by the
state, which alone or in conjunction with the provincial authorities
constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal (1859-1869), the drainage
canals of the " Peel " marsh in North Brabant, and of the eastern
provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892) from the Maas to
Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel (1884-1888)
canals from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and the
Stieltjes (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals
in Drente, the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and
Groningen, the Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to
Delfzyl, and the New Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Har-
lingen by way of Leeuwarden to the Lauwars Zee. The large ship
canals to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, called the New Waterway
and the North Sea canal respectively, were constructed in 1866-1872
and 1865-1876 at a cost of 2\ and 3 million pounds sterling, the
former by widening the channel of the Scheur north of Rozenburg,
and cutting across the Hook of Holland, the latter by utilizing the
bed of the Y and cutting through the dunes at Ymuiden. In 1876
an agreement was arrived at with Germany for connecting the
important drainage canals in Overysel, Drente and Groningen with
the Ems canal system, as a result of which the Almelo-Noordhorn
(1884-1888) and other canals came into existence.
The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In
Zeeland they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the
river mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere
and Flushing (1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from
Zierikzee also to the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866)
canal connects the East and West Scheldt; similarly in South
Holland the Voorne canal unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas,
which does not allow the passage of large vessels above Brielle;
whilst owing to the banks and shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis
the New Waterway was cut to Rotterdam. Of another character
is the Zederik canal, which unites the principal river of central
Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the Linge with the Merwede
at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek and the Zederik
canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine (1881-1893;
depth 10-2 ft.). Again, a totally different character belongs to the
canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of -Holland
where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only waterways
which render possible the drainage of the fens and the export of
peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in
Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned!, the Dedems-
yaart connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt;
in Drente the Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen
with Meppel, and receives on the eastern side the drainage canals
of the Drente fens, namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen
Vaart (1850-1860; 1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the
Lauwers Zee by the Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Win-
schoten and the Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it
into connexion with the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the
province and in Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal
from Harlingen to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeu-
warden to the Lemmer, whence there is a busy traffic with Amster-
dam ; and the Caspar Robles or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep
connect it with Groningen.
The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly accom-
plished. The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem,
opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (Hollandsch
Yzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij). In 1845 the state under- KaUwa y*-
took to develop the railway system, and a company of private
individuals was formed to administer it under the title of the
Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Staatspoorwegen. In 1860, how-
ever, the total length of railways was only 208 m., and in that year
a parliamentary bill embodying a comprehensive scheme of con-
struction was adopted. By 1872 this programme was nearly com-
pleted, and 542 m. of new railway had been added. In 1873 and
1875 a second and a third bill provided for the extension of the
railway system at the cost of the state, and, in 1876, 1882 and 1890
laws were introduced readjusting the control of the various lines,
some of which were transferred to the Holland railway. The state
railway system was completed in 1892, and since that time the
utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new under-
takings. These include various local lines such as the line Alkmaar-
Hoorn (1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Ensched6-Ahaus in Germany
(1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the
line Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg) Koevorden-Stadskanal-
Veendam-Delfzyl, connecting all the fen countries on the eastern
borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was opened
in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch
railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from
north and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The
two longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem
(I862-I867), 1 Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877)
to Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company,
and the State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870)
(junction at Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866) Arnhem (1865)
Nijmwegen (1879) Venlo (1883) Maastricht (1865). The four
transverse lines belong to the State and Holland railways alter-
nately and are, beginning with the State railway: (l) the line
Flushing (1872) Rozendaal (1860) Tilburg (1863) Bokstel
(whence there is a branch line belonging to the North Brabant and
Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany, opened
in 1873) Eindhoven Venlo and across Prussian border (1866);
(2) the line Hook of Holland Rotterdam (1893) Dordrecht (1872-
1877) Elst (1882-1885) Nijmwegen (1879) Cleves, Germany
(1865) ; (3) the line Rotterdam Utrecht (1866-1869) and Amsterdam
Utrecht Arnhem (1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856):
this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway com-
pany, but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line
Amsterdam Hilversum Amersfoort Apeldoorn (1875), whence it
is continued (a) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen,
Germany (1865); (b) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Ensched^ (1866)
to Gronau, Germany; (c) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winters-
wyk (1878). Of these (i) and (2) form the main transcontinental
routes in connexion with the steamboat service to England (ports
of Queenborough and Harwich respectively). Two other lines of
railway, both belonging to the state, also traverse the country west
to east, namely, the line Rozendaal 's Hertogenbosch (1890)
Nijmwegen, and in the extreme north, the line from Harlingen
through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen (1866) to the border at
Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected with the German
railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces are further
connected by the lines Amsterdam Zaandam (1878) Enkhuizen
(1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the Zuider Zee to
Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to Leeuwarden (1883-
1885); the Netherlands Central railway, Utrecht Amersfoort
Zwoole Kampen (1863); and the line Utrecht 's, Hertogenbosch
(1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by the
lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely,
via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt.
In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in
the post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean
Amsterdam time.
Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented
by steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or
across the country on special embankments, while one of them is
1 The dates indicate the period of construction of the different
sections.
592
HOLLAND
[AGRICULTURE: INDUSTRIES
carried across the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge.
The state first began to encourage the construction of these local
_ light railways by means of subsidies in 1893, since when
some of the most prominent lines have come into exist-
ence, such as Purmerend Alkmaar (1898), Zutphen
Emmerich (1902), along the Dedemsyaart in Overysel (1902), from
's Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in
Belgium (1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland
and Zeeland islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam
and Numansdorp on the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda
or Bergen-op-Zoom, via Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee
and Brouwershaven (1900). An electric tramway connects Haarlem
and Zandvoort. The number of passengers carried by the steam-
tramways is relatively higher than that of the railways. The value
of the goods traffic is not so high, owing, principally, to the want of
intercommunication between the various lines on account of .differ-
ences in the width of the gauge.
Agriculture. Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren
stretches of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland
and North Brabant. They formerly served to support large
flocks of sheep and some cattle, but are gradually transformed
by the planting of woods, as well as by strenuous efforts at
cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two principal
agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North
Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products
of cultivation on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat,
and on the sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax
and beetroot are also cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco,
hemp, hops, colza and chicory form special cultures. With the
possible exception of oats, the cereals do not suffice for home
consumption, and maize is imported in large quantities for
cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and breweries.
Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and
flourish especially on the low fen soil and geest grounds along the
foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland.
The principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions,
asparagus, gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &c. The principal
flowers are hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other
bulbous plants, the total export of which is estimated at over
200,000. Fruit is everywhere grown, and there is a special
cultivation of grapes and figs in the Westland of South Holland.
The woods, or rather the plantations, covering 6%, consist
of (i) the so-called forest timber (opgaandhout; Fr. arbres
de haute futaie), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar, birch,
ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood
(akkermaal or hakhout), embracing the elder, willow, beech,
oak, &c. This forms no unimportant branch of the national
wealth.
With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under
permanent pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most char-
acteristic industries of the country. The provinces of
Friesland, North and South Holland, and Utrecht take
the lead as regards both quality and numbers. A smaller,
hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep are kept upon
the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also favour the
rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most important
in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of horse
commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous
in Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are
generally kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably
improved under the care of the government (state and provincial),
which grants subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the
importation of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of
factories for dairy produce, schools, &c.
Fisheries. The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said
to have been in existence already in the I3th century, and in the
following century received a considerable impetus from the dis-
covery how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland
fisherman. It steadily declined during the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries,
however, but again began to revive in the last half of the igth century.
The fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas,
namely, the " deep-sea " fishery of the North Sea, and the " inner "
(binnengaaisch) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the
South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be
further divided into the so-called " great " or " salt-herring " fishery,
mainly carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer
and autumn, and the "fresh-herring" fishery, chiefly pursued at
Scheveningen, Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring
fisheries is enhanced by the careful methods of smoking and salting,
the export of salted fish being considerable. In the winter the
largest boats are laid up and the remainder take to line-fishing.
Middelharnis, Pernis and Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch
of fishery, which yields halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl
fisheries of the coast yield sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &c., of
which a large part is brought alive to the market. In the Zuider
Zee small herring, flat fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught,
the chief fishing centres being the islands of Texel, Urk and
Wieringen, and the coast towns of Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen,
Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk, Vollenhove. The
anchovy fishing which takes place in Maj?, June and July sometimes
yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are obtained
on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while
salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the
New Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in
the hands of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large
quantities of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not
only supply the great local demand, but allow of large exports.
Manufacturing Industries. The mineral resources of Holland
give no encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception
of the coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a
few furnaces in Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and
gravel in the making of dikes and roads, and of clay in brick-
works and potteries, the quarrying of stone at St Pietersberg,
&c. Nevertheless the industry of the country has developed
in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium.
The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which
flourishes especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where
jute is also worked into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen
and linen goods Tilburg ranks first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht
and Eindhoven; that of half- woollens is best developed at
Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry include
carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin
and liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and
beer-brewing in most of the principal towns; shoe-making and
leather-tanning in the Langstraat district of North Brabant;
paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the Zaan, and in Limburg;
the manufacture of earthenware and faience at Maastricht,
the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and
Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine
at Osch; chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting
and broom-making at Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-
cutting and the manufacture of quinine at Amsterdam; and
the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven, Amsterdam,
Utrecht, Kampen, &c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance
in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller
towns along the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding
yards are at Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing,
where there is a government dockyard for building warships.
Trade and Shipping. To obtain a correct idea of the trade of
Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of
other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible
to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be
formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in
the rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to
the public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large
fleet of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are
becoming more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine
transport trade have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the
commercial business at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and
transit trade. The other principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen
(for Belgium), Harlingen, Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam,
Groningen, den Helder, Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the
national mail steamship services are the lines to the East and VVest
Indies, Africa and the United States. An examination of its lists
of exports and imports will show that Holland receives from its
colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, cinnamon;
from England and Belgium its manufactured goods and coals;
petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United States; grain
from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of the Black
Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn from
England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-
ore from Spain ; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to
Germany, its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish
to Belgium and Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and
Hamburg, as well as England. The bulk of trade is carried on with
Germany and England; then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the
United States, &c. In the last half of the igth century the total
value of the foreign commerce was more than trebled.
Constitution and Government. The government of the Nether-
lands is regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848
and 1887, under which the sovereign's person is inviolable and
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT]
HOLLAND
593
the ministers are responsible. The age of majority of the
sovereign is eighteen. The crown is hereditary in both the
male and the female line according to primogeniture; but it
is only in default of male heirs that females can come to the
throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first subject
of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange. The
sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the
ultimate direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war
and peace, to make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one
or both chambers of parliament, the supreme command of the
army and navy, the supreme administration of the state finances
and of the colonies and other possessions of the kingdom, and
the prerogative of mercy. By the provisions of the same con-
stitution he establishes the ministerial departments, and shares
the legislative power with the first and second chambers of
parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at
the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial
executive functions are entrusted are eight in number ministers
respectively of the interior, of " water-staat," trade and industry
(that is, of public works, including railways, post-office, &c.),
of justice, of finance, of war, of marine, of the colonies and
of foreign affairs. There is a department of agriculture, but
without a minister at its head. The heads of departments are
appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the sovereign, usually
determined, however, as in all constitutional states, by the
will of the nation as indicated by its representatives.
The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South
Holland sending 10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and
Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4, Overysel, Limburg and Groningen
each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each 2. According to
the fundamental law (Grondivet) of 1887, they are chosen by
the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear
the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but
also from amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank.
Those deputies who are not resident in the Hague are entitled
to receive i6s. 8d. a day during the session. The duration of
parliament is nine years, a third of the members retiring every
three years. The retiring members are eligible for re-election.
The members of the second chamber are chosen in the electoral
districts by all capable male citizens not under 23 years of age,
who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum of
one guilder (is. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of
members is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the
Hague 3, Groningen and Utrecht 2 members each. Members must
be at least thirty years old, and receive an annual allowance
of 166, besides travelling expenses. They only, and the govern-
ment, have the right of initiating business, and of proposing
amendments. Their term is four years, but they are re-eligible.
All communications from the sovereign to the states-general
and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures
relating to internal administration or to foreign possessions,
are first submitted to the consideration of the council of state,
which consists of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who
is the president. The state council also has the right of making
suggestions to the sovereign in regard to subjects of legislation
and administration.
The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial
states, which are returned by direct election by the same electors
as vote for the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-
half of the members retire every three years subject to re-election
or renewal. The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner
for the province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in
the year, they name a committee of deputy-states which manages
current general business, and at the same time exercises the right
of control over the affairs of the communes. At the head of every
commune stands a communal council, whose members must be not
under 23 years of age. They are elected for six years (one-third of
the council retiring every two years) by the same voters as for the
provincial states. Communal franchise is further restricted, how-
ever, to those electors who pay a certain sum to the communal rates.
The number of councillors varies according to the population between
7 and 45. One of the special duties of the council is the super-
vision of education. The president of the communal council is the
burgomaster, who is named by the sovereign in every instance for.
six years, and receives a salary varying from 40 to over 600.
Provision is made for paying the councillors a certain fee called
" presence-money " when required. The burgomaster has the
power to suspend any of the council's decrees for 30 days. The
executive power is vested in a college formed by the burgomaster
and two, three or four magistrates (wethouders) to be chosen by and
from the members of the council. The provinces are eleven in
number.
National Defence. The home defence system of Holland is a
militia with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in
the " militia " or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7.
Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called
up for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace
strength under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half
are permanent cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300. of the
year's contingent were trained for eight months and more, and
5200 for four months. The war strength of the militia is 105,000,
that of the second line or reserve 70,000. The defence of the country
is based on the historic principle of concentrating the people and
their resources in the heart of the country, covered by a wide belt
of inundations. The chosen line of defence is marked by a series
of forts which control the sluices, extending from Amsterdam,
through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and through Utrecht to
Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues thence by
the Hpllandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast also
is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about 26,000,
all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily enlisted
European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was 2,33 1 ,255.
The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists (1909) of
9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels, manned by
8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines. Re-
cruiting is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of
conscription amongst the maritime population.
Justice. The administration of justice is entrusted (l) to the
high council (hooge rand) at the Hague, the supreme court of the
whole kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials
and for the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts
of justice established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeu-
warden and 's Hertogenbosch ; (3) to tribunals established in each
arrondissement ; (4_) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of
communes, whose jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount
(under 200 guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who
at the same time look after the interest of minors. The high council
is composed of 12 to 14 councillors, a proctireur-general and three
advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were
formerly divided between the courts of justice and the arrondisse-
ment tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal
code of 1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondisse-
ment courts, which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal
courts.
Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular prin-
ciple at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for
drunkards and beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veen-
huizen in Drente, which were brought from the Society of Charity
(Maatschappij van Weldadigkeid) in 1859. The inmates practise
agriculture, as well as various industries for supplying all the re-
quirements of the colony. The objection raised against these
establishments is that the prisoners do not represent the real vaga-
bondage of the country, but a class of more or less voluntary inmates.
Children under 16 years of age are placed in the three state re-
formatories, and there is an institution for vagabond women at
Rotterdam.
Charitable and other Institutions. Private charities have always
occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the
principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is,
that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All
private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they
can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are
organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities.
At the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural
colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see DRENTE). Of the
numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and
the fine arts, the following are strictly national the Royal Academy
of Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorqlogical Institute
(1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School
of Music, the National Archives, besides various other national
collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at
Middelburg, Utrecht, 's Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there
are private and municipal associations, institutions and collections
in a large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general
utility are the Society for Public Welfare (Maatschappij tot nut
van't algemeen, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction
of educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam
(1873); Teyler's Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and
the societies for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences
(1752) in the same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography
and Ethnology of the Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society
at the Hague, the Royal Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the
Association for the Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &c.
Religion. Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic
traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of
independent religious congregations. The bond between church
594
HOLLAND
[RELIGION: EDUCATION
and state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618)
and the organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (Neder-
landsche Hervormde Kerk) as the national Protestant church, practi-
cally came to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision
of the Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality
of . all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present
organization of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed
by a general assembly or " synod " of deputies from the principal
judicatures, sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into
classes," and the classes again into " circles " (ringen), each circle
comprising from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being
governed by a " church council " or session. The provincial synods
are composed of ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and
these are composed of the ministers belonging to the particular class
and an equal number of elders appointed by the local sessions. The
meetings of the circles have no administrative character, but are
mere brotherly conferences. The financial management in each
congregation is entrusted to a special court (kerk-voogdij) composed
of " notables " and church wardens. In every province there is
besides, in the case of the Reformed Church, a provincial com-
mittee of supervision for the ecclesiastical administration. For the
whole kingdom this supervision is entrusted to a common " colle-
gium " or committee of supervision, which meets at the Hague,
and consists of 1 1 members named by the provincial committee and
3 named by the synod. Some congregations have withdrawn from
provincial supervision, and have thus free control of their own
financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox Church
is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most liberal
thought in the country, and have their own training college at
Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the
Christian Reformed Church (Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk) arose as
a protest against the government and the modern tendencies of the
Reformed Church; and for the same reason those who had founded
the Free University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886
into an independent body called the Nederlandsche Gereformeerde
Kerk. In 1892 these two churches united under the name of the
Reformed Churches (Gereformeerde Kerken) with the doctrine and
discipline of Dort. They have a theological seminary at Kampen.
Other Protestant bodies are the Walloons, who, though possessing
an independent church government, are attached to the Low-Dutch
Reformed Church; the Lutherans, divided into the main body of
Evangelical Lutherans and a smaller division calling themselves
the Re-established or Old Lutherans (Herstelde Lutherschen) who
separated in 1791 in order to keep more strictly to the Augsburg
confession; the Mennonites founded by Menno Simons of Friesland,
about the beginning of the l6th century; the Baptists, whose only
central authority is the General Baptist Society founded at Am-
sterdam in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of Hernhutters
or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zcist and
Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague.
There are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague,
Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the
Hague (1857) and Rotterdam (1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic
Church, which before had been a mission in the hands of papal
legates and vicars, was raised into an independent ecclesiastical
province with five dioceses, namely, the archbishopric of Utrecht,
and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem, Breda, 's Hertogenbosch
and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side by side with
the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the Old
Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (Oud Bisschoppelijke Clerezie),
and the Jansenists (see JANSENISM). The Old Catholics, with whom
the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the I7th century.
Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have bishops
at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort.
They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see UTRECHT). The large
Jewish population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx
of Portuguese Jews at the end of the l6th, and of German Jews in
the beginning of the I7th century. In 1870 they were reorganized
under the central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church,
and divided into head and " ring " synagogues and associated
churches. The Roman Catholic element preponderates in the
southern provinces of Limburg, and North Brabant, but in Fries-
land, Groningen and Drente the Baptists and Christian Reformed are
most numerous.
Education. Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under
the control and supervision of the state, being administered by a
special department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889
the state recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900
passed a law of compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are
generally in the hands of private societies or the municipal authori-
ties, are not interfered with by the state. According to the law of
1889 primary education is carried on in the ordinary and in con-
tinuation schools for boys and girls (co-education having been long
in vogue). These schools are established in every commune, the
state contributing aid at the rate of 25 % of the total expenditure.
The age of admission is six; and the course is for six years, 7-13
being the legal age limits; the fee, from which poverty exempts,
is almost nominal. Nature-study, continued in the secondary
schools, is an essential part in the curriculum of these schools, and
elementary general history, English, French and German are among
the optional subjects. While the boys are instructed in woodwork,
needlework is taught to the girls, its introduction in 1889 having
been the first recognition of practical instruction in any form.
Continuation schools (herhalingsscholen) must be organized wherever
required, and are generally open for six months in winter, pupils
of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending. Secondary schools were
established by the law of 1863 and must be provided by every
commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the Burgher- Day-
and-Evening schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The first
named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in in-
dustrial or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell into
disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two years,
but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the instruction,
though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special local industries;
the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling per annum.
Special mention must be made in this connexion of. the school of
engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic Arts
at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or
a five years' course, and the fees vary from 2, los. to 5 a year.
The instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific.
In both schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course,
that of the higher-burgher schools admitting to the natuVal science
and medical branches of university education, a supplementary
examination in Greek and Latin being required for other branches.
The gymnasia, or classical schools, fall legally speaking under the
head of higher education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000
inhabitants, unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium.
A large proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to
the extent of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and
philological, but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in
favour of scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary
from 5 to 8 a year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and
bursaries, are sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-
burgher schools. Among the schools which give specialized in-
struction, mention must be made of the admirable trade schools
(ambachtsscholeri) established in 1861, and the corresponding in-
dustrial schools for girls; the fishery schools and schools of navi-
gation; the many private schools of domestic science, and of
commerce and industry, among which the municipal school at
Enschedfi (1886) deserves special mention; and the school of social
work, " Das Huis," at Amsterdam (1900). For the education of
medical practitioners, civil -and military, the more important in-
stitutions are the National Obstetrical College at Amsterdam, the
National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National College for
Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at Utrecht
for the training of military apothecaries for the East and West
Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the state
is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture for
every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several
cases), " winter schools " of agriculture and horticulture, and a
state agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in
home and colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, in-
cluding board and lodging, are about 50 a year. According to the
law of 1898, the state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or
testing-stations. Other schools of the same class are the Gerard
Adriaan van Swieten schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry
in Drente, the school of instruction in butter and cheese making
(zuivelbereiding) at Bolsward and the state veterinary college at
Utrecht.
There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden
(1575). Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athe-
naeums of Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in
1811, but that of Amsterdam was converted into a municipal
university in 1877. In each of these universities there are five
faculties, namely, law, theology, medicine, science and mathe-
matics, and literature and philosophy, the courses for which are
respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven years for the two
last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (16, 135. 4d.) per
annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of degrees are
conferred, namely, the ordinary (candidaats) and the " doctor's "
degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only eligible
for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university at Amster-
dam founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of con-
ferring degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science.
The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of en-
gineering in all its branches, architecture and naval construction,
has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of " en-
gineer." The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as at
the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at
Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the
Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same
nature as Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The
centre of Dutch university life, which is non-residential, Is the
students' corps, at the head of which is a " senate," elected annually
from among the students of four years' standing. Membership of
the corps is gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only
passport to the various social and sports societies.
. All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession
by examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in
the state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private
HOLLAND
595
denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private
state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this
class of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years.
In the last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary
" practice " school attached to each college, and students are also
taught to make models explanatory of the various subjects of in-
struction after the manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slojd) system.
Assistant-teachers wishing to qualify as head-teachers must have
had two years' practical experience. Pupil-teachers can only give
instruction under the supervision of a certificated teacher. The
minimum salary of teachers is determined by law. The teaching,
which follows the so-called " Heuristic " method, and the equipment
of schools of every description, arc admirable.
Finance. The following statement shows the revenue and
expenditure of the kingdom for the years 1^889, 1900-1901 and
1905:
Revenue.
Source.
1889.
1901.
1905-
L
Excise
3.678,075
4,042,500
4,514,998
Direct taxation .
2,300,865
2,900,175
3,135-665
Indirect taxation .
2,004,745
1,805,583
1,946,666
Post Office
539,405
865,750
1,103,333
Government telegraphs .
Export and Import duties
106,970
440,247
187,375
801,500
211,333
930,912
State domains
213,186
147,000
139,000
Pilot dues ....
106,079
191,667
200,000
State lotteries
54,609
54,250
52,666
Game and Fisheries .
1 1, 660
n,ooo
",750
Railways
361,512
349,01 1
Part paid by East Indies on
account of interest and
' redemption of public debt
Netherland Bank contribu-
.
321,916
tion
160,500
Total 1
9,475,337
11,394,220
14,017,079
Expenditure.
Object.
1889.
1901.
1905-
National Debt
2,727,591
2,906,214
2,899,770
Department of War .
1,798,698
1,893,036
2,474,011
Waterstaat
1,790,291
2,448,339
2,869,951
Finance .
1,537,404
2,092,343
2,297,180
Marine .
1,038,536
1,388,141
1,396,137
Interior .
815,188
1,330,563
1,613,134
Justice .
426,343
529,159
592,073
Colonies .
93,829
109,768
251,150
Dept. of Foreign Affairs .
57,312
71,101
82,403
Royal Household .
Superior Authorities of the
54,166
66,667
66,666
State ......
52,476
56,792
58,251
Unforeseen Expenditure .
i,745
4,166
4,166
Total 2 ....
10,393,579
12,896,289
14,907,781
The total debt in 1905 amounted to 96,764,266, the annual
interest amounted to 3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905,
27,416,651 has been devoted to the redemption of the public debt.
The total wealth of the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling.
The various provinces and communes have separate budgets. The
following table gives a statement of the provincial and communal
finances:
Revenue.
1889.
1900.
1905-
Provincial
Communal ....
722,583
6,132,000
445,333
9,311,666
718,199
12,750,083
Expenditure.
1889.
1900.
1905-
Provincial
Communal ....
740,333
5,683,800
445,333
8,503,250
702,718
12,085,250
1 Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail.
1 Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment
of annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway extension,
&c.
Colonies. The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have
an area of 600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000,
among which are 35,000 Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000
Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant Asiatics. The West Indian
possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or the government
of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of Curacoa
and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of
St Martin, Curacoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000
sq. m., with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are
Europeans, and the rest negroes and other people of colour,
and Chinese.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief place is due to the following geo-
graphical publications: Dr H. Blink, Nederland en zijne Bewoners
(Amsterdam, 1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography;
Tegeniyoordige Staal van Nederland (Amsterdam, 1897); R.
Schuiling, Aardrijkskunde van Nederland (Zwolle, 1884); A. A.
Beekman, De Strijd om het Bestaan (Zutphen, 1887), a manual on
the characteristic hydrography of the Netherlands; and E. Reclus'
Nouvelle geographic universelle (1879; vol. iv.). The Gedenboek
uitgeyen ter gelegenheid van het fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk
Instituut van Ingenieurs, 1847-1897 ('s Gravenhage, 1898), is an
excellent aid in studying technically the remarkable works on
Dutch rivers, canals, sluices, railways and harbours, and drainage
and irrigation works. The Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van
Nederland, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem, 1895), is a complete gazetteer
with historical notes, and Nomina Geographica Neerlandica, published
by the Netherlands Geographical Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &c.),
contains a history of geographical names. Geschiedenis van den
Boereastand en den landbouw in Nederland, H. Blink (Groningen,
1902), and the report on agriculture, published at the Hague by the
Royal Commission appointed in 1896, furnish special information
in connexion with this subject. Of more general interest are : Eene
halve Eeuiv, 1848-1898, edited by Dr P. H. Ritter (Amsterdam,
1898), containing a series of articles on all subjects connected with
the kingdom during the second half of the igth century, written by
specialists; and Les Pays Bas (Leiden, 1899), and La Hollande
geographique, ethnologique, politique, &c. (Paris, 1900), both works
of the same class as the preceding.
Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as
well as literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to
Edmondo de Amicis (Holland, translated from the Italian, London,
1883); H. Havard, Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &c. (translated from
the French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, Holland and the
Hollanders (London, 1899) in the igth century. Mention may also
be made of Old Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee, by W. J.
Tuyn (translated from the Dutch, London, 1901), Nieuwe Wander-
lingen door Nederland, by J. Craandijk and P. A. Schipperns
(Haarlem ,1888); Friesland Meres and through the Netherlands,
by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); On Dutch Waterways, by G. C.
Davis (London, 1887); Hollande et hollandais, by H. Durand
(Paris, 1893); and Holland and Belgium by Professor N. G. van
Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860), the last three
being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations. Works of
historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are Merkwaardige
Kasteelen in Nederland, by J. van Lennep and W. J. Hofdyk (Leiden,
1881-1884); Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden, by G. van Arkel and
A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society (Am-
sterdam, 1891); and Oud Holland, edited by A. D. de Vries and N.
de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous con-
tributions to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters.
Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the
Royal Zoological Society " Natura Artis Magistra " at Amsterdam,
and the Natuurlijke Historic van Nederland (Haarlem, 1856-^1863)
written by specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military
and naval defence may be studied in De vesting Holland, by A. L. W.
Seijffardt (Utrecht, 1887), and the Handbook of the Dutch Army,
by Major W. L. White, R.A. (London, 1896) ; ecclesiastical history
in The Church in the Netherlands, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893) ;
and education in vol. viii. of the Special Reports on Educational
Subjects issued by the Board of Education, London. Statistics are
furnished by the annual publication of the Society for Statistics in
the Netherlands, Amsterdam.
HISTORY FROM 1579 TO MODERN TIMES'
The political compact known as the Union of Utrecht differed
from its immediate predecessors, the Pacification of Ghent, the
Union of Brussels and the Perpetual Edict, in its
permanence. The confederacy of the northern pro-
vinces of the Netherlands which was effected (2gth
of January 1579) by the exertions of John of Nassau,
was destined to be the beginning of a new national
life. The foundation was laid on which the Republic of the
3 For the history of the Netherlands previous to the confederacy
of the northern provinces in 1579 see NETHERLANDS.
Conse-
quences
of the
Valoa of
Utrecht.
59 6
HOLLAND
[HISTORY FROM 1579
United Netherlands was to be raised. ' Its immediate results
were far from promising. The falling away of the Walloon
provinces and the Catholic nobles from the patriot cause
threatened it with ruin. Nothing but the strong personal
influence and indefatigable labours of the prince of Orange
stood in the way of a more general defection. Everywhere,
save in staunch and steadfast Holland and Zeeland, a feeling
of wavering and hesitation was spreading through the land.
In Holland and Zeeland William was supreme, but elsewhere
his aims and his principles were misrepresented and misunder-
stood. He saw that unaided the patriotic party could not hope
to resist the power of Philip II., and he had therefore resolved
to gain the support of France by the offer of the sovereignty
of the Netherlands to the duke of Anjou. But Anjou
plenty was a Catholic, and this fact aroused among the Pro-
offerea testants a feeling that they were being betrayed.
to the gut the prince persisted in the policy he felt to be a
necessity, and (23rd of Jan. 1581) a treaty was con-
cluded with the duke, by which he, under certain
conditions, agreed to accept the sovereignty of the Netherland
provinces, except Holland and Zeeland. These two provinces
The Baa were unwilling to have any sovereign but William
against himself, and after considerable hesitation he agreed
William ot to become their Count (24th of July 1581). He felt
Orange. tnat ne wag j us tjfi e d m taking this step because of the
Ban which Philip had published on the isth of March
1581, in which Orange had been proclaimed a traitor and
miscreant, and a reward offered to any one who would take his
life. His practical answer to the king was the act
^ -Abjuration, by which at his persuasion the repre-
sentatives of the provinces of Brabant, Flanders,
Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Utrecht, assembled
at the Hague, declared that Philip had forfeited his sovereignty
over them, and that they held themselves henceforth absolved
from their allegiance to him. In a written defence,
Apology the famous ;! pology, published later in the year, William
replied at great length to the charges that had been
brought against him, and carrying the war into the enemy's
camp, endeavoured to prove that the course he had pursued
was justified by the crimes and tyranny of the king.
The duke of Anjou was solemnly inaugurated as duke of
Brabant (February 1582), and shortly afterwards as duke of
Gelderland, count of Flanders and lord of Friesland.
William had taken up his residence at Antwerp in
Lite ot order to give the French prince his strongest personal
Orange support, and while there a serious attempt was made
u P n h!s life ( March l8th ) b y a youth named Jean
Jaureguy. He fired a pistol at the prince close to his
head, and the ball passed under the right ear and out at the left
jaw. It was a terrible wound, but fortunately not fatal. Mean-
while Anjou soon grew tired of his dependent position and of
the limitations placed upon his sovereignty. He resolved by
a secret and sudden attack (i7th of January 1583) to make
himself master of Antwerp and of the person of Orange.
French ^ ne assau l t was ma de, but it proved an utter failure.
Fury. The citizens resisted stoutly behind barricades, and
the French were routed with heavy loss. The "French
Fury " as it was called, rendered the position of Anjou in the
Netherlands impossible, and made William himself unpopular
in Brabant. He accordingly withdrew to Delft. In the midst
of his faithful Hollanders he felt that he could still organize
resistance, and stem the progress made by Spanish arms and
Spanish influence under the able leadership of Alexander of
Parma. Antwerp, with St Aldegonde as its burgomaster, was
still in the hands of the patriots and barred the way to the sea,
and covered Zeeland from invasion. Never for one moment did
William lose heart or relax his efforts and vigilance; he felt that
with the two maritime provinces secure the national cause need
not be despaired of. But his own days had now drawn to their
end. The failure of Jaureguy did not deter a young Catholic
zealot, by name Balthazar Gerard, from attempting to assas-
sinate the man whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of
God and the king. Under the pretext of seeking a passport,
Gerard penetrated into the Prinsenhof at Delft, and Assas .
firing point blank at William as he left the dining slnation
hall, mortally wounded him (loth of July 1584). of William
Amidst general lamentations " the Father of his the s " eot -
Country," as he was called, was buried with great state in the
Nieuwe Kerk at Delft at the public charge.
But though the great leader was dead, he had not striven or
worked in vain. The situation was critical, but there was no
panic. Throughout the revolted provinces there was a general
determination to continue the struggle to the bitter end. To
make head, however, against the victorious advance of Parma,
before whose arms all the chief towns of Brabant and Flanders,
Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and lastly after a valiant defence
Antwerp itself had fallen, it was necessary to look for the pro-
tection of a foreign ruler. The government, now that the com-
manding personal influence of William was no more, was without
any central authority which could claim obedience. The States-
General were but the delegates of a number of sovereign pro-
vinces, and amongst these Holland by its size and wealth (after
the occupation by the Spaniards of Brabant and
Flanders) was predominant.- Maurice of Nassau, Maurice
William's second son, had indeed on his father's death Nassau.
been appointed captain and admiral-general of the
Union, president of the Council of State, and stadholder of
Holland and Zeeland, but he was as yet too young, only seventeen,
to take a leading part in affairs. Count Hohenloo took the
command of the troops with the title of lieutenant-general. Two
devoted adherents of William of Orange, Paul Buys, advocate
of Holland, and Johan van Oldenbarne veldt, pensionary
of Rotterdam, were the statesmen who at this difficult
juncture took the foremost part in directing the policy offered
of the confederacy. They turned first to France, to Henry
The sovereignty of the provinces was offered to Henry
III., but the king, harassed by civil discords in his
own country, declined the dangerous honour (1585). Repelled
in this direction, the States-General next turned themselves to
England. Elizabeth was alarmed by the successes of the Spanish
arms, and especially by the fall of Antwerp; and, though refus-
ing the sovereignty, she agreed to send a force of 5000 foot and
1000 horse to the aid of the Provinces under the com-
mand of the earl of Leicester, her expenses being -
guaranteed by the handing over to her the towns general.
of Flushing, Brill and Rammekens as pledges (loth
of August 1585). Leicester, on landing in Holland, was in the
presence of the States- General and of Maurice of Nassau invested
with the title of governor-general and practically sovereign
powers (February 1586).
The new governor had great difficulties to contend with. He
knew nothing of the language or the character of the people he
was called upon to govern; his own abilities both as p a /^, re
general and statesman were mediocre; and he was and with-
hampered constantly in his efforts by the niggardliness drawai of
and changing whims of his royal mistress. In trying Lelcester -
to consolidate the forces of the Provinces for united action and
to centralize its government, he undoubtedly did his best,
according to his lights, for the national cause.. But he was too
hasty and overbearing. His edict prohibiting all commercial
intercourse with the enemy at once aroused against him the
bitter hostility of the merchants of Holland and Zeeland, who
thrived by such traffic. His attempts to pack the council of
State, on which already two Englishmen had seats, with personal
adherents and to override the opposition of the provincial
states of Holland to his arbitrary acts, at last made his position
impossible. The traitorous surrender of Deventer and Zutphen
by their English governors, Stanley and York, both Catholics,
rendered all Englishmen suspect. The States of Holland under
the leadership of Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, took up an attitude
of resolute hostility to him, and the States of Holland dominated
the States-General. In the midst of these divided councils the
important seaport of Sluis was taken by Parma. Utterly dis-
credited, Leicester (6th of August 1587) abandoned the task,
HISTORY FROM 1579]
HOLLAND
597
in which he had met with nothing but failure, and returned
to England.
Nothing could have been worse than the position of the States
at the beginning of 1588. Had Parma had a free hand, in all
probability he would have crushed out the revolt
johanvan an( j reconquered the northern Netherlands. But the
attention of the Spanish king was at this time con-
centrated upon the success of the Invincible Armada.
The army of Parma was held in readiness for the invasion of
England, and the United Provinces had a respite. They were
fortunately able to avail themselves of it. The commanding
abilities of Oldenbarneveldt, now advocate of Holland, gradually
gathered into his hands the entire administration of the Republic.
He became indispensable and, as his influence grew, more and
more did the policy of the provinces acquire unity and con-
sistency of purpose. At the same time Maurice of
Maurice Nassau, now grown to man's estate, began to display
Nassau. those military talents which were to gain for him the
fame of being the first general of his time. But
Maurice was no politician. He had implicit trust in the
advocate, his father's faithful friend and counsellor, and for
many years to come the statesman and the soldier worked in
harmony together for the best interests of their country (see
OLDENBARNEVELDT, and MAURICE, prince of Orange). At the
side of Maurice, as a wise adviser, stood his cousin William Louis,
stadholder of Friesland, a trained soldier and good commander
in the field.
After the destruction of the Armada, Parma had been occupied
with campaigns on the southern frontier against the French,
an< ^ ^ Netherlander had been content to stand on
g uar d against attack. The surprise of Breda by a
stratagem (8th of March 1 590) was the only military
event of importance up to 1591. But the two stadholders had
not wasted the time. The States' forces had been reorganized
and brought to a high state of military discipline and training.
In 1591 the States-General, after considerable hesitation, were
persuaded by Maurice to sanction an offensive campaign. It
was attended by marvellous success. Zutphen was captured
on the 2oth of May, Deventer on the 2oth of June. Parma,
who was besieging the fort of Knodsenburg, was forced to retire
with loss. Hulst fell after a three days' investment, and finally
Nymegen was taken on the 2ist of October. The fame of
Maurice, a consummate general at the early age of twenty-four,
was on all men's lips. The following campaign was signalized
by the capture of Steenwyk and Koevorden. On the
?. 8th of December 1592 Parma died, and the States
were delivered from their most redoubtable adversary.
In 1593 the leaguer of Geertruidenburg put the seal on Maurice's
reputation as an invincible besieger. The town fell after an
New investment of three months. Groningen was the
province chief fruit of the campaign of 1 594. With its dependent
ofstadt district it was formed into a new province under the
en Landea. name of Stadt en Landen. William Louis became
the stadholder (see GRONINGEN). The soil of the northern
Netherlands was at last practically free from the presence of
Spanish garrisons.
The growing importance of the new state was signalized by
the conclusion, in 1596, of a triple alliance between England,
France and the United Provinces. It was of short
duration an d purchased by hard conditions, but it
of France, implied the recognition by Henry IV. and Elizabeth
England of the States - General, as a sovereign power, with
"united whom treaties could be concluded. Such a recognition
Provinces. was justified by the brilliant successes of the campaign
of 1597. It began with the complete rout of a Spanish
force of 4500 men at Turnhout in January, with scarcely any
loss to the victors. Then in a succession of sieges Rheinberg,
Meurs, Groenlo, Bredevoort, Enschede, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal
and Lingen fell into the hands of Maurice.
The relations of the Netherlands to Spain were in 1598 com-
pletely changed. Philip II. feeling death approaching, resolved
to marry his elder daughter, the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia,
port.
to her cousin, the Cardinal Archduke Albert of Austria, who
had been governor-general of the Netherlands since 1596,
and to erect the Provinces into an independent sove- Aibeet ^^
reignty under their joint rule. The instrument was Isabel,
executed in May; Philip died in September; the Sovereigns
marriage took place in November. In case the mar- f'* e "
Nether-
riage should have no issue, the sovereignty of the i a ,,ds. ,
Netherlands was to revert to the king of Spain. The
archdukes (such was their official title) did not make their
joyeuse entree into Brussels until the close of 1599. The step
was taken too late to effect a reconciliation with the rebel
provinces. Peace overtures were made, but the conditions
were unacceptable. The States-General never seriously con-
sidered the question of giving in their submission to the new
sovereigns. The traders of Holland and Zeeland had thriven
mightily by the war. Their ships had penetrated to the East
and West Indies, and were to be found in every sea. The year
1600 saw the foundation of the Chartered East India Company
(see DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY). The question of freedom
of trade with the Indies had become no less vital to the Dutch
people than freedom of religious worship. To both these con-
cessions Spanish policy was irreconcilably opposed.
Dunkirk, as a nest of freebooters who preyed upon Dutch
commerce, was made the objective of a daring offensive campaign
in 1600 by the orders of the States-General under the
influence of Oldenbarneveldt in the teeth of the opposi-
tion of the stadholders Maurice and William Louis.
By a bold march across Flanders, Maurice reached
Nieuport on the ist of July, and proceeded to invest it. The
archduke Albert, however, followed hard on his steps with an
army of seasoned troops, and Maurice, with his communications
cut, was forced to fight for his existence. A desperate combat
took place on the dunes between forces of equal strength and
valour. Only by calling up his last reserves did victory declare
for Maurice. The archduke had to fly for his life. Five thousand
Spaniards were killed; seven hundred taken, and one hundred
and five standards. To have thus worsted the dreaded Spanish
infantry in open fight was a great triumph for the States troops
and their general, but it was barren of results. Maurice refused
to run further risks and led back his army to Holland. For the
following three years all the energies alike of the archdukes and
the States-General were concentrated on the siege
of Ostend (isth of July i6oi-2oth of Sept. 1604), the
solitary possession of the Dutch in Flanders. The
heroic obstinacy of the defence was equalled by the perseverance
of the attack, and there was a vast expenditure, especially on
the side of the Spaniards, of blood and treasure. At last when
reduced to a heap of ruins, Ostend fell before the resolution of
Ambrosio de Spinola, a Genoese banker, to whom the command
of the besiegers had been entrusted (see SPINOLA). A month
before the surrender, however, another and more commodious
seaport, Sluis, had fallen into the possession of the States army
under Maurice, and thus the loss of Ostend was discounted.
Spinola proved himself to be a general of a high order, and the
campaigns of 1606 and 1607 resolved themselves into a duel
of skill between him and Maurice without much ad-
vantage accruing to either side. But the archdukes' Negotia-
, .. tlons for
treasury was now empty, and their credit exhausted; pt a <*.
both sides were weary of fighting, and serious negotia-
tions for peace were set on foot. The disposition of the Spaniards
to make concessions was further quickened by the destruction
of their fleet at Gibraltar by the Dutch admiral Heemskerk,
(April 1607). But there were many difficulties in the way.
The peace party in the United Provinces headed by Olden-
barneveldt was opposed by the stadholders Maurice and William
Louis, the great majority of the military and naval officers,
the Calvinist preachers and many leading merchants. The
Spaniards on their side were obdurate on the subjects of freedom
of trade in the Indies and of freedom of religious worship. At
last, after the negotiations had been repeatedly on the point of
breaking off, a compromise was effected by the mediation of
the envoys of France and England. On- the 9th of April 1609
598
HOLLAND
[HISTORY FROM 1579
Armlahts
and
a truce for twelve years was agreed upon. On all points the
Dutch demands were granted. The treaty was concluded with
The tne P rov i nces ) " ' n tne quality of free States over
Twelve whom the archdukes made no pretentions." The uti
Years' possidelis as regards territorial possession was recog-
Truce. n ized. Neither the granting of freedom of worship
to Roman Catholics nor the word " Indies " was mentioned,
but in a secret treaty King Philip undertook to place no hindrance
in the way of Dutch trade, wherever carried on.
One of the immediate results of this triumph of his policy was
the increase of Oldenbarneveldt's influence and authority in the
Theo- government of the Republic. But though Maurice
logical and his other opponents had reluctantly yielded to
strife la the advocate's skilful diplomacy and persuasive
Holland, arguments, a soreness remained between the statesman
and the stadholder which was destined never to be healed. The
country was no sooner relieved from the pressure of external
war than it was torn by internal discords. After a brief inter-
ference in the affairs of Germany, where the intricate question
of the Cleves-Jiilich succession was already preparing the way
for the Thirty Years' War, the United Provinces became immersed
in a hot and absorbing theological struggle with which were
mixed up important political issues. The province
of Holland was the arena in which it was fought out.
domarus. Two prof essors of theology at Leiden, Jacobus Arminius
(see ARMINIUS) and Franciscus Gomarus, became the
leaders of two parties, who differed from one another upon
certain tenets of the abstruse doctrine of predestination.
Gomarus supported the orthodox Calvinist view; Arminius
assailed it. The Arminians appealed to the States of Holland
(1610) in a Remonstrance in which their theological position
Remon- was defined. They were henceforth known as " Re-
strants an</monstrants"; their opponents were styled "Contra-
Cootra- .Remonstrants." The advocate and the States of
Holland took sides with the Remonstrants, Maurice
and the majority of the States-General (four provinces
out of seven) supported the Contra-Remonstrants. It became
a question of the extent of the rights of sovereign princes under
the Union. The States-General wished to summon a national
synod, the States of Holland refused their assent, and made
levies of local militia.(waard-gelders) for the maintenance of order.
The States-General (pth of July 1618) took up the challenge,
and the prince of Orange, as captain-general, was placed at the
head of a commission to go in the first place to Utrecht, which
supported Oldenbarneveldt, and then to the various cities of
Holland to insist on the disbanding of the ivaard-
gelders. On the side of Maurice, whom the army
obeyed, was the power of the sword. The opposition
collapsed; the recalcitrant provincial states were purged; and
the leaders of the party of state rights the advocate himself,
Hugo de Groot (see GROTIUS), pensionary of Rotterdam, and
Hoogerbeets, pensionary of Leiden, were arrested and thrown
into prison. The whole proceedings were illegal, and the illegality
was consummated by the prisoners being brought before a
oidcn- special tribunal of 24 judges, nearly all of whom were
barne- personal enemies of the accused. The trial was
veldt merely a preliminary to condemnation. The advocate
executed. wag sentence( j to death, and executed (i3th of May
1619) in the Binnenhof at the Hague. The sentences of Grotius
and Hoogerbeets were commuted to perpetual imprisonment.
Meanwhile the National Synod had been summoned and had
met at Dort on the I3th of November 1618. One hundred
members, many of them foreign divines, composed
this great assembly, who after 1 54 sittings gave their
seal to the doctrines of the Netherlands Confession and
the Heidelberg Catechism. The Arminians were condemned,
their preachers deprived, and the Remonstrant patty placed
under a ban (6th of May 1619).
In 1621 the Twelve Years' Truce came to an end, and war
broke out once more with Spain. Maurice, after the death of
Oldenbarneveldt, was supreme in the land, but he missed
sorely the wise counsels of the old statesman whose tragic end
he had been so largely instrumental in bringing about. He
and Spinola found themselves once more at the head
of the armies in the field, but the health of the stad-
holder was undermined, and his military genius was
under a cloud. Deeply mortified by his failure to relieve Breda,
which was blockaded by Spinola, Maurice fell seriously
ill, and died on the 2 3 rd of April 1625. He was
succeeded in his dignities by his younger brother
Frederick Henry (see FREDERICK HENRY, prince of Orange),
who was appointed stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
Overyssel and Gelderland, captain and adjutant-general of the
Union and head of the Council of State. Frederick Henry was as
a general scarcely inferior to Maurice, and a far more able states-
man. The moderation of his views and his conciliatory temper
did much to heal the wounds left by civil and religious strife,
and during his time the power and influence of the stadholderate
attained their highest point. Such was his popularity The
and the confidence he inspired that in 1631 his great period of
offices of state were declared hereditary, in favour of Frederick
his five-year-old son, by the Acte de Survivance. He Hear y-
did much to justify the trust placed in him, for the period of
Frederick Henry is the most brilliant in the history of the Dutch
Republic. During his time the East India Company, which had
founded the town of Batavia in Java as their adminis- TneEast
trative capital, under a succession of able governor- and West
generals almost monopolized the trade of the entire lntlla Com-
Orient, made many conquests and established a net- panies -
work of factories and trade posts stretching from the Cape of
Good Hope to Japan (see DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY). The
West India Company, erected in 1621, though framed on the
same model, aimed rather at waging war on the enemies' com-
merce than in developing their own. Their fleets for some years
brought vast booty into the company's coffers. The Mexican
treasure ships fell into the hands of Piet Heyn, the boldest of
their admirals, in 1628; and they were able to send armies
across the ocean, conquer a large part of Brazil, and set up a
flourishing Dutch dominion in South America (see DUTCH WEST
INDIA COMPANY). The operations of these two great chartered
companies occupy a place among memorable events of Frederick
Henry's stadholderate; they are therefore mentioned here, but
for further details the special articles must be consulted.
When Frederick Henry stepped into his brother's place, he
found the United Provinces in a position of great danger and of
critical importance. The Protestants of Germany
were on the point of being crushed by the forces of the
Austrian Habsburgs and the Catholic League. It lay Henry.
with the Netherlands to create a diversion in the favour
of their co-religionists by keeping the forces of the Spanish
Habsburgs fully occupied. But to do so with their flank exposed
to imperialist attack from the east, was a task involving grave
risks and possible disaster. In these circumstances, Frederick
Henry saw the necessity of securing French aid. It was secured
by the skilful diplomacy of Francis van Aarssens (g.v.) but
on hard conditions. Richelieu required the assistance of the
Dutch fleet to enable him to overcome the resistance of the
Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle. The far-sighted stadholder,
despite popular opposition, by his powerful personal influence
induced the States-General to grant the naval aid, and thus
obtain the French alliance on which the safety of the republic
depended.
The first great military success of Frederick Henry was in
1629. His capture of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), hitherto
supposed to be impregnable, after a siege of five slegesof
months was a triumph of engineering skill. Wesel Heno-
also was taken by surprise this same year. In 1631 a genbosch
large Spanish fleet carrying a picked force of 6000 ^ D ^ aes '
soldiers, for the invasion of Zeeland, was completely
destroyed by the Dutch in the Slaak and the troops made
prisoners. The campaign of the following year was made
memorable by the siege of Maestricht. This important frontier
town lying on both sides of the river Meuse was taken by the
prince of Orange in the teeth of two relieving armies, Spanish
HISTORY FROM 1579]
HOLLAND
599
and Imperialist, whose united forces were far larger than his own.
This brilliant feat of arms was the prelude to peace negotiations,
Death which led to a lengthy exchange of diplomatic notes.
of the No agreement, however, was reached. The death of
infanta tne infanta Isabel in November 1633, and the reversion
Isabel. of the Netherlands to the sovereignty of the king
of Spain, rendered all efforts to end the war, for the time being,
fruitless.
At this juncture a strengthening of the French alliance seemed
to the prince not merely expedient, but necessary. He had
to contend against a strong peace party in Holland
headed by the pensionary Pauw, but with the aid of
Franc*. the diplomatic skill of Aarssens all opposition was
overcome. Pauw was replaced as pensionary by
Jacob Cats, and the objections of Richelieu were met and
satisfied. A defensive and offensive alliance with France was
concluded early in 1635 against the king of Spain, and each
party bound itself not to make a peace or truce without the
assent of the other. A large French force was sent into the
Netherlands and placed under the command of the prince of
Orange. The military results of the alliance were during the
first two campaigns inconsiderable. The Cardinal Infant
Ferdinand had been appointed governor of the Netherlands,
and he proved himself an excellent general, and there were
dissensions in the councils of the allies. In 1637 the stadholder
was able to add to his fame as an invincible besieger of cities.
His failure to relieve Breda had hastened the death of Maurice.
It fell in 1625 into the hands of Spinola after a blockade
< of P Breda. ^ e k ven months; it was now retaken by Frederick
Henry after a siege of eleven weeks, in the face of
immense difficulties. The reluctance of the States of Holland,
and of Amsterdam in particular, to grant adequate supplies
caused the campaigns of 1638 and 1639 to be in the main defen-
sive and dilatory. An attempted attack on Antwerp was foiled
by the vigilance of the Cardinal Infant. A body of 6000 men
under Count William of Nassau were surprised and utterly
cut to pieces. The year 1639, which had begun with abortive
negotiations, and in which the activity of the stadholder had
been much hampered by ill-health, was not to end, however,
without a signal triumph of the Dutch arms, but it was to be
on sea and not on land. A magnificent Spanish armada consisting
of 77 vessels, manned by 24,000 soldiers and sailors under the
command of Admiral Oquendo, were sent to the Channel in
September with orders to drive the Dutch from the narrow
seas and land a large body of troops at Dunkirk. Attacked by
a small Dutch fleet under Admiral Marten Tromp,
the Spaniards sheltered themselves under the English
Downs. Downs by the side of an English squadron. Tromp
kept watch over them until he had received large
reinforcements, and then (2ist of October) boldly attacked them
as they lay in English waters. Oquendo himself with seven
vessels escaped under cover of a fog; all the rest of the fleet
was destroyed. This crushing victory assured to the Dutch
the command of the sea during the rest of the war. The naval
power of Spain never in fact recovered from the blow.
The triumph of Tromp had, however, a bad effect on public
feeling in England. The circumstances under which the battle
En Hsh ^ ^ ne Downs was won were galling to the pride of
and Dutch the English people, and intensified the growing
Com- unfriendliness between two nations, one of whom
mere/a/ possessed and the other claimed supremacy upon
the seas. The prosperity of the world-wide Dutch
commerce was looked upon with eyes of jealousy across the
Channel. Disputes had been constantly recurring between
Dutch and English traders in the East Indies and elsewhere,
and the seeds were already sown of that stern rivalry which was
to issue in a series of fiercely contested wars. But in
^ 1630-1640 civil discords in England stood in the way
andMary. of a strong foreign policy, and the adroit Aarssens
was able so " to sweeten the bitterness of the pill "
as to bring King Charles not merely to " overlook the scandal
of the Downs," but to consent to the marriage of the princess
royal with William, the only son of the stadholder. The wed-
ding of the youthful couple (aged respectively 14 and 10 years)
took place on the i2th of May 1641 (see WILLIAM II., prince
of Orange). This royal alliance gave added influence and
position to the house of Orange-Nassau.
About this time various causes brought about a change in
the feelings which had hitherto prevented any possibility of
peace between Spain and the United Netherlands, changed
The revolt of Portugal (December 1640) weakened relations
the Spanish power, and involved the loss to Spain of otthe
the Portuguese colonies. But it was in the Portuguese provinces
colonies that the conquests of the Dutch East and with
West India Companies had been made, and the France
question of the Indies as between Netherlander and aadS P' la -
Spaniard assumed henceforth quite a different complexion.
Aarssens, the strongest advocate of the French alliance, passed
away in 1641, and his death was quickly followed by those of
Richelieu and Louis XIII. The victory of Conde at Rocroy
opened the eyes of Frederick Henry to the danger of a French
conquest of the Belgian provinces; and, feeling his health
growing enfeebled, the prince became anxious before his death
to obtain peace and security for his country by means of an
accommodation with Spain. In 1643 negotiations were opened
which, after many delays and in the face of countless difficulties,
were at length, four years later, to terminate successfully.
The course of the pourparlers would doubtless have run
more smoothly but for the infirm health and finally the death
of the prince of Orange himself. Frederick Henry ^^ t
expired on the I4th of March 1647, and was buried Frederick
by the side of his father and brother in Delft. In Henry his
his last campaigns he had completed with signal Iast cam '
success the task which, as a military commander, he p *"*'
had set himself, of giving to the United Provinces a thoroughly
defensible frontier of barrier fortresses. In 1644 he captured
Sas de Ghent; in 1645 Hulst. That portion of Flanders which
skirts the south bank of the Scheldt thus passed into the posses-
sion of the States, and with it the complete control of all the
waterways to the sea.
The death of the great stadholder did not, however, long delay
the carrying out of the policy on which he had set his heart,
of concluding a separate peace with Spain behind the
back of France, notwithstanding the compact of 1635 ?*
with that power. A provisional draft of a treaty had Munster.
already been drawn up before the demise of Frederick
Henry, and afterwards, despite the strenuous opposition of the
new prince of Orange (who, under the Acte de Suroivance, had
inherited all his father's offices and dignities) and of two of the
provinces, Zeeland and Utrecht, the negotiations were by the
powerful support of the States of Holland and of the majority
of the States-General, quickly brought to a successful issue. The
treaty was signed at Munster on the 3oth of January 1648. It
was a peace practically dictated by the Dutch, and involved
a complete surrender of everything for which Spain had so
long fought. The United Provinces were recognized complete
as free and independent, and Spain dropped all her triumph
claims; the uti possidelis basis was adopted in respect tthe
to all conquests; the Scheldt was declared entirely
closed a clause which meant the ruin of Antwerp for the profit
of Amsterdam; the right to trade in the East and West Indies
was granted, and all the conquests made by the Dutch from
the Portuguese were ceded to them; the two contracting parties
agreed to respect and keep clear of each other's trading grounds;
each was to pay in the ports of the other only such tolls as natives
paid. Thus, triumphantly for the revolted provinces, the eighty
years' war came to an end. At this moment the republic of the
United Netherlands touched, perhaps, the topmost point of its
prosperity and greatness.
No sooner was peace concluded than bitter disputes arose
between the provincial States of Holland and the prince of
Orange, supported by the other six provinces, upon the question
of the disbanding of the military forces. William was a young
man (he was twenty-one at the time of his father's death) of
6oo
HOLLAND
[HISTORY FROM 1579
Provinces.
tloa la
KSO.
the highest abilities and of soaring ambition. He was totally
opposed to the peace with Spain, and wished to bring about
a speedy resumption of the war. With this view he
of aovern- entere d into secret negotiations for a French alliance
meat In which, as far as can be gathered from extant records,
the had for its objects the conquest and partition by the
allies of the Belgic provinces, and joint action in
_ . , , . ? c , , i T r A i-
England on behalf of Charles II. As a preliminary
step William aimed at a centralization of the powers of govern-
ment in the United Provinces in his own person. He saw clearly
the inherent defects of the existing federation, and he wished
to remedy a system which was so complicated as to be at times
almost unworkable. The States-General were but the delegates,
the stadholders the servants, of a number of sovereign provinces,
each of which had different historical traditions and a different
form of government, and one of which Holland in wealth and
importance outweighed the other six taken together. Between
the States of Holland and the States-General there was constant
jealousy and friction. And yet strangely enough
//on o S " the States of Holland themselves were not really
Holland representative of the people of that province, but only
and of the limited, self-coopting burgher aristocracies of
certain towns, each of which with its rights and liberties
had a quasi-independence of its own. Foremost among
these was the great commercial capital, Amsterdam, whose rich
burgher patriciate did not scruple on occasion to defy the
authority of the States-General, the stadholder and even of the
States of Holland themselves.
The States of Holland had, in the years that followed the
truce of 1609, measured their strength with that of the States-
General, but the issue had been decided conclusively
Theposi- j n favour of the federal authority by the sword of
i!,.r. 3., * f
Maurice. The party and the principles of Olden-
barneveldt, however, though crushed, were not extin-
guished, and though Frederick Henry by his personal influence
and prudent statesmanship had been able to surmount the
difficulties placed in his way, he had had to encounter at times
strong opposition, and had been much hampered in the conduct
both of his campaigns and of his policy. With the conclusion
of the peace of Munster and the death of the veteran stadholder
the struggle for predominance in the Union between the Orange-
federalist and the Hollander States-rights parties was certain
to be renewed. The moment seemed to be favourable for the
assertion of provincial sovereignty because of the youth and
inexperience of the new prince of Orange. But William II.,
though little more than a boy, was endowed with singular
capacity and great strength of will, and he was intent upon
ambitious projects, the scope of which has been already indicated.
The collision came, which was perhaps inevitable. The States-
The ques- General in the disbanding of the forces wished to
tion of retain the cadres of the regiments complete in case of a
. disband- renewal of the war. The States of Holland objected,
ing the ^nd, although the army was a federal force, gave orders
for the general disbanding of the troops in the pay of
the province. The officers refused to obey any orders but those
of the council of State of the Union. The provincial states, on
their part, threatened them with loss of pay. At this juncture
the States-General, as in 1618, appointed a commission headed
by the prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland, and
provide for the maintenance of order and the upholding of the
Union. Both parties put themselves in the wrong, the province
by refusing its quota to the federal war-sheet, the generality
by dealing with individual towns instead of with the states of
the province. The visitation was a failure. The town councils,
though most of them willing to receive William in his capacity
as stadholder, declined to give a hearing to the commission.
The Amsterdam refused absolutely to admit either stad-
Prisoners holder or commission. In these circumstances William
ofLoeven-i resolved upon strong measures. Six leading mem-
stela - bers of the States of Holland were seized (3oth of
July 1650) and imprisoned in Loevenstein Castle, and troops
under the command of William Frederick, stadholder of Fries-
land, were sent to surprise Amsterdam. But the town council
had been warned, and the gates were shut and guarded. The
coup d'etat nevertheless was completely successful. The anti-
Orange party, remembering the fate of Oldenbarneveldt, were
stricken with panic at the imprisonment of their leaders. The
States of Holland and the town council of Amsterdam gave in
their submission. The prisoners were released, and public thanks
were rendered to the prince by the various provincial states for
" his great trouble, care and prudence.'' William appeared to
be master of the situation but his plans for future action were
never to be carried into effect. Busily engaged in sudden
secret negotiations with France, he had retired to his Death of
hunting seat at Dieren, when he fell ill with smallpox wiuiam
on the 27th of October. A few days later he expired "
at the Hague (6th of November), aged but twenty-four years.
A week after his death, his widow, the princess Mary of England,
gave birth to a son who, as William III., was to give added lustre
to the house of Orange.
The anti-Orange particularist party, which had just suffered
decisive defeat, now lifted up its head again. At the instance of
Holland a Grand Assembly was summoned, consisting
of delegates from all the provinces, to consider the Tne
state of the Union, the army and religion. It met at
the Hague on the i8th of January 1651. The conclu-
sions arrived at were that all sovereign powers resided in the
provinces, and that to them severally, each within its own
borders, belonged the control of the military forces and of
religion. There was to be no captain-general of the Union. All
the provinces, except Friesland and Groningen, which remained
true to William Frederick of Nassau-Dietz, agreed to leave the
office of stadholder vacant. The practical result was the estab-
lishment of the hegemony of Holland in the Union, and the
handing over of the control of its policy to the patrician oligarchies
who formed the town councils of that province.
Such a system would have been unworkable but for the fact
that with the revival of the political principles of Oldenbarne-
veldt, there was found a statesman of commanding Tng off]ce
ability to fill the office in which the famous advocate O f Grand
of Holland had for so many years been " minister of Pension-
all affairs " in the forming state. The title of advocate ary '
had indeed been replaced by that of grand pensionary (Rood
Pensionaris) , but the duties assigned to the office remained the
same, the only change of importance being that the advocate
was appointed for life, the grand pensionary for a term of five
years. The grand pensionary was nominally the paid servant
of the States of Holland, but his functions were such as to permit
a man of talent and industry in the stadholderless republic to
exercise control in all departments of policy and of government.
All correspondence passed through his hands, he wrote all
despatches, conducted the debates over which he presided, kept
the minutes, drafted the resolutions, and was ex officio the
leader and spokesman of the delegates who represented the
Province of Holland in the States-General. Such was the
position to which John de Witt, a young man of
twenty-eight years of age, belonging to one of the ^ /t "
most influential patrician families of Dordrecht (his
father, Jacob de Witt, was one of the prisoners of Loevenstein)
was appointed in 1653. From that date until 1672 it was his
brain and his will that guided the affairs of the United Nether-
lands. He was supreme in the States of Holland, and Holland
was dominant in the States-General (see JOHN DE WITT).
The death of William II. had left the Dutch republic at the
very highest point of commercial prosperity, based upon an
almost universal carrying trade, and the strictest Dfa uteg
system of monopoly. Friction and disputes had between
frequently arisen between the Dutch and the English English
traders in different parts of the world, and especially ^ Dutch
in the East Indies, culminating in the so-called
" Massacre of Amboyna "; and the strained relations between
the two nations would, but for the civil discords in England,
have probably led to active hostilities during the reign of
Charles I. With the accession of Cromwell to power the breach
HISTORY FROM 1579]
HOLLAND
60 1
with
England.
Peace of
West-
minster.
where.
was widened. A strong party in the Provinces were unfriendly
to the Commonwealth, and insults were offered in the Hague
to the English envoys. The parliament replied by passing the
memorable Navigation Act (Oct. 1651), which struck a deadly
blow at the Dutch carrying trade. It was the beginning of that
struggle for supremacy upon the seas which was to end, after
Naval three great wars, in the defeat of the weaker country.
struggle The first English war lasted from May 1652 to April
1654, and within fifteen months twelve sea-fights took
place, which were desperately contested and with
varying success. The leaders on both sides the Netherlanders
Tromp (killed in action on the roth of August 1653) and de
Ruyter, the Englishmen Blake and Monk covered themselves
with equal glory. But the losses to Dutch trade were so serious
that negotiations for peace were set on foot by the burgher party
of Holland, and Cromwell being not unwilling, an agreement
was reached in the Treaty of Westminster, signed on
the sth of April 1654. The Dutch conceded the
striking of the flag and compensation for English
claims against the Dutch in the East Indies and else-
The act of Seclusion, which barred the young prince of
Orange from holding the office of stadholder and of captain-
general, had been one of the conditions on which Cromwell had
insisted. The consent of the States-General was refused, but by
a secret treaty Holland, under the influence of de
Seclusion. Witt, accepted it in their own name as a sovereign
province. The popular feeling throughout the United
Provinces was strongly antagonistic to the act of Seclusion,
by which at the dictation of a foreign power a ban of exclusion
was pronounced against the house of Orange-Nassau, to which
the republic owed its independence.
In 1658, the States-General interfered to save the Danes from
Charles Gustavus of Sweden. In 1659 a treaty of peace was
War with conc l u ded between France, England and the United
Sweden. Provinces with a view to the settlement of the Dano-
Swedish question, which ended in securing a northern
peace in 1660, and in keeping the Baltic open for Dutch trade.
The foreign affairs of the republic were throughout these years
ably conducted by de Witt, and the position of Dutch colonial
expansion in the Eastern seas made secure and firm. An
advantageous peace with Portugal was made in 1662.
Meanwhile the Commonwealth in England had been followed
in 1660 by the restoration of the monarchy. To conciliate the
new king the act of Seclusion was repealed, and the
education of the young prince of Orange was under-
taken by the States of Holland under the super-
intendence of de Witt. But Charles owed a grudge
against Holland, and he was determined to gratify it. The
Navigation Act was re-enacted, old grievances revived, and
finally the Dutch colony of New Netherland was seized in time
of peace (1664) and its capital, New Amsterdam, renamed New
York. War broke out in 1665, and was marked by a series of
terrific battles. On the i3th of June 1665 the Dutch admiral
Obdam was completely defeated by the English under the
duke of York. The four days' fight (uth-i4th of June 1666)
ended in a hard-won victory by de Ruyter over Monk, but later
in this year (August 3rd) de Ruyter was beaten by Ayscue
and forced to take refuge in the Dutch harbours. He had his
revenge, for on the 22nd of June 1667 the Dutch fleet under
de Ruyter and Cornelius de Witt made their way up the Medway
as far as Chatham and burnt the English fleet as it lay at anchor.
Negotiations between the two countries were already in progress
and this event hastened a settlement. The peace of
Breda was signed (3131 of July 1667) on terms on
the whole favourable to the Dutch. New Netherland
was retained by England in exchange for Suriname. In the
following year by the efforts of Sir William Temple the much
vaunted Triple Alliance was concluded between Great
Triple Britain, the United Provinces and Sweden to check
Alliance, the ambitious designs of Louis .XIV. The instability
of Charles II., who sold himself to Louis by the treaty
of Dover (1670), speedily rendered it of no effect, and left the
Second
English
war.
Peace of
Breda.
United Provinces to face unaided the vengeance of the French
king.
From 1668 to 1672 Louis made ready to destroy the Dutch,
and so well had his diplomacy served him that they were left with-
out a friend in Europe. In 1672 the storm broke: the
English without a declaration of war tried, unsuccess- pf n
fully, to intercept the Dutch Mediterranean fleet; invasion.
and the French at the same time sctforthinapparently
irresistible strength to overcome the despised traders of Holland.
The States were ill-prepared on land though their fleet was
strong and ready; party spirit had become intensely bitter as
the prince of Orange (see WILLIAM III.) grew to man's estate,
and the ruling burgher party, knowing how great was the
popularity of William, especially in the army, had purposely
neglected their land forces. Town after town fell before the
French armies, and to de Witt and his supporters there seemed
to be nothing left but to make submission and accept the best
terms that Louis XIV. would grant. The young prince alone
rose to the height of the occasion, and set his face against such
cowardly counsels, and he had the enthusiastic support WH n am
of the great majority of the people. Amidst general ///. stud-
acclamation William was elected stadholder, first of holder and
Zeeland, then of Holland, and was appointed captain- Ca ^J",~
general of the Union (June 1672). Meanwhile the
fleet under de Ruyter had encountered a combined English
and French force in Solebay (7th of June), and after a
desperate fight, in which the French had but slackly supported
their allies, had more then held its own. William,
in his turn, with an army wholly insufficient to meet e*^/,'"'
the French in the open field, was able to persuade war .
his countrymen to open the dikes and by flooding
the land to prevent its occupation by the enemy. The courage
and resourcefulness of their youthful leader inspired Murder
the people to make heroic sacrifices for their independ- of the
ence, but unfortunately such was the revulsion of
feeling against the grand pensionary, that he himself
and his brother Cornelius were torn in pieces by an infuriated
mob at the Hague (2oth of August).
William, now supreme in the States, while on land struggling
with chequered success against the superior forces of the
French, strove by his diplomacy, and not in vain, to
gain allies for the republic. The growing power of
France caused alarm to her neighbours, and Sweden, minster.
Denmark, Spain and the emperor lent a willing ear
to the persuasions of the stadholder and were ready to aid his
efforts to curb the ambition of Louis. On sea in 1673 de Ruyter,
in a series of fiercely contested battles, successfully maintained
his strenuous and dogged conflict against the united English
and French fleets. In England the war was exceedingly un-
popular, and public opinion forced Charles II. to conclude peace.
The treaty of Westminster, which provided that all conquests
should be restored, was signed on the i4th of February 1674.
The French now found themselves threatened on many sides,
and were reduced to the defensive. The prince, how-
ever, suffered a defeat at Seneff, and was in 1674
prevented from invading France. The war, neverthe- France.
less, during the following years was on the whole
advantageous to the Dutch. In 1676 a Dutch squadron fought
two hard but indecisive battles with a superior French force,
off Stromboli (Sth of January) and off Messina (22nd of April).
In the last-named fight Admiral de Ruyter was badly Degth gf
wounded and died (2gth of April). In 1677 negotia- ae Ruyter.
tions for peace went on, and were forwarded by the
marriage, at the close of the year, of William of Orange with
his cousin the princess Mary, daughter of the duke of York.
At last (August 1678) a peace was concluded at Nym-
wegen by which the Dutch secured the integrity
and independence of their country. All the conquests
made by the French were given up.
The aggressive policy of Louis XIV. in the years that followed
the peace of Nymwegen enabled William to lay the foundations
of the famous confederacy which changed the whole aspect
ot
602
HOLLAND
[HISTORY FROM 1579
of European politics. The league of Augsburg (1686), which
followed the revocation of the edict of Nantes, placed Orange
at the head of the resistance to French domination.
/titfsfiury. The I ea 8 ue was formed by the emperor, Spain, Sweden,
the United Provinces and by several German states.
In England William and Mary were looked upon as the natural
successors to the throne on the death of James II., and William
kept up close relations with the malcontents in Church and
State, who disliked the arbitrary and papistical policy of his
father-in-law. But with the birth of a prince of Wales the
situation was changed, and William determined to intervene
actively in English affairs. His opportunity came when Louis
XIV., having declared war against the Empire, had invaded the
Palatinate. The opposition of Amsterdam to an English
expedition, in the absence of danger from the side of
Revoiu- France, was overcome. The Revolution of 1688
1688. ensued, and England became, under William's strong
rule, the chief member of the Great Coalition against
French aggression. In the Grand Alliance of 1680-1690 he was
accused of sacrificing Dutch to English interests, but there
can be no doubt that William loved his native country better
than his adopted one, and was a true patriot. If the United
Provinces suffered in prosperity through their close relations
with and subordination to Great Britain during a
The long series of years, it was due not to the policy of
AWaace. William, but to the fact that the territory of the
republic was small, open to attack by great military
powers, and devoid of natural resources. The stadholder's
authority and popularity continued unimpaired, despite of
his frequent absences in England. He had to contend, like his
predecessors, with the perennial hostility of the burgher aristo-
cracy of Amsterdam, and at times with other refractory town
councils, but his power in the States during his life was almost
autocratic. His task was rendered lighter by the influence and
ability of Heinsius, the grand pensionary of Holland,
VHUam a w j se an( j p ru( j en t statesman, whose tact and modera-
t' on i n dealing with thedetails and difficulties of internal
administration were conspicuous. The stadholder
gave to Heinsius his fullest confidence, and the pensionary on
his part loyally supported William's policy and placed his
services ungrudgingly at his disposal (see HEINSIUS).
The conduct of the war by the allies was far from successful.
In 1690 (July ist) Waldeck was defeated by Luxemburg at
Fleurus; and the Anglo-Dutch fleet was so severely
handled by Tourville (loth July) off Beachy Head
that for two years the command of the sea remained
in the possession of the French. A striking victory off Cape la
Hogue (agth of May 1692) restored, however, supremacy to
the allies. On land the combined armies fared ill. In 1691
the French took Mons, and in 1692 Namur, in which year after
a hard-fought battle William was defeated at Steenkirk and in
1693 at Neerwinden. But William's military genius never shone
so brightly as in the hour of defeat; he never knew what it was
to be beaten, and in 1695 his recapture of Namur was a real
triumph of skill and resolution. At last, after long negotiations,
exhaustion compelled the French king to sign the peace of
Ryswick in 1697, in which William was recognized
Ryswkk. D y F rance ^ king of England, the Dutch obtaining
a favourable commercial treaty, and the right to
garrison the Netherland barrier towns. This peace, however, did
no more than afford a breathing space during which Louis XIV.
prepared for a renewal of the struggle. The great question of
the Spanish succession was looming in all men's eyes, and
though partition treaties between the interested
Dea . t .! 1 of powers were concluded in 1698 and 1 700, it is practically
///_ ' certain that the French king held himself little bound
by them. In 1701 he elbowed the Dutch troops
out of the barrier towns; he defied England by recognizing
James III. on the death of his father; and it was clear
that another war was imminent when William III. died in
1702.
In 1672 the stadholdership in five provinces had been made
hereditary in the family of the prince of Orange, but William
died childless, and the republican burgher party was strong
enough to prevent the posts being filled up. William stgdf
had wished that his cousin, Count John William hoideritss
Friso of Nassau, stadholder of Friesland and Gron- Govero-
ingen, should succeed him, but his extreme youth and meat -
the jealousy of Holland against a " Frisian " stood in the way
of his election. The result was a want of unity in counsel and
action among the provinces, Friesland and Groningen standing
aloof from the other five, while Holland and Zeeland had to pay
for their predominance in the Union by being left to bear the
bulk of the charges. Fortunately there was no break of continuity
in the policy of the States, the chief conduct of affairs remaining,
until his death in 1720, in the capable and tried hands of the
grand pensionary Heinsius, who had at his side a number of
exceptionally experienced and wise counsellors among these
Simon van Slingeland, for forty-five years (1680-1725) secretary
of the council of state, and afterwards grand pensionary of
Holland (1727-1736), and Francis Fagel, who succeeded his
father in 1699 as recorder (Griffier) of the States-General, and
held that important office for fifty years. The tradition of
William III. was thus preserved, but with the loss of the firm
hand and strong personality of that great ruler the United
Provinces wers relegated to a subordinate place in the councils
of the nations, and with the gradual decadence of its navy
the Dutch republic ceased to rank as a power to be reckoned
with.
In the War of the Spanish Succession, which broke out in 1702,
Dutch troops took part in the campaigns of Marlborough and
Eugene, and had their share in winning the great w
victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Ouden- ofthc
arde (1708) and Malplaquet (1709). At the peace of Spanish
Utrecht, concluded in 1713, the interests of the Su *s-
Netherlands were but half-heartedly supported by
the English plenipotentiaries, and the French were able to obtain
far more favourable terms than they had the power to exact.
But they were compelled to abandon all claim to the Spanish
Netherlands, which were formally handed over to the United
Provinces, as trustees, to be by them, after the conclusion of a
satisfactory barrier treaty, given up to the emperor,
and be known henceforth as the Austrian Netherlands,
The peace of Utrecht taught the Dutch that the great
powers around them, while ready to use their resources for
war, would not scruple to abandon them when they wanted
peace; they, therefore, determined henceforth to stand clear
of all foreign complications. With 1713 the influence of the
United Netherlands upon European politics comes almost to
an end.
The ruling party in the States took an active part in securing
George I. on the throne of England; and they succeeded in
coming to an agreement both with France and with
Austria over the difficulties connected with the barrier
towns, and were thus able in tranquillity to concentrate
their energies upon furthering the interests of their trade. Under
the close oligarchical rule of the patrician families, who filled
all offices in the town councils, the States of Holland, in which
the influence of Amsterdam was dominant, and which in their
turn exercised predominance in the States-General, became more
and more an assembly of " shopkeepers " whose policy was to
maintain peace for the sake of the commerce on which they
thrived. For thirty years after the peace of Utrecht the Provinces
kept themselves free from entanglement in the quarrels of
their neighbours. The foundation of the Ostend East
India Company (see OSTEND COMPANY), however, < ^ ead
by the emperor Joseph II. in 1723, at once aroused company.
the strong opposition of the Amsterdam merchants
who looked upon this invasion of their monopoly with alarm,
and declared that the Ostend Company had been set up in
contravention to the terms of Article V. of the treaty of Munster.
In maintaining this position the States had the support of
England, but it was not until 1731 that they succeeded in
obtaining the suppression of the company by consenting to
Pence
policy.
HISTORY FROM 1579]
HOLLAND
603
William
IV.
guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. This
step led in 1743 to their being involved in the War of the
War of the Austrian Succession, and thus being drawn into hostili-
Austrian ties with France, which invaded the barrier country.
Succes- in 1744 they formed with Great Britain, Austria and
**"" Saxony, a Quadruple Alliance, and put a contingent
of troops in the field. The Dutch took an active part in the
campaign of 1745 and suffered heavily at Fontenoy, after which
battle Marshal Saxe overran the Austrian Netherlands. The
French captured all the barrier towns, and in 1747
//ooo"" entered Dutch Flanders and made an easy conquest.
1747 The United Provinces, as in 1672, seemed to lie at the
mercy of their enemies, and as in that eventful year,
popular feeling broke down the opposition of the burgher
oligarchies, and turned to William IV., prince of Orange, as the
saviour of the state. John William Friso had died
young in 1711, leaving a posthumous son, William
Charles Henry Friso, who was duly elected stadholder
by the two provinces, Friesland and Groningen, which were
always faithful to his family, and in 1722 he became also, though
with very limited powers, stadholder of Gelderland. The other
provinces, however, under pressure from Holland, bound them-
selves not to elect stadholders, and they refused to revive the
office of captain-general of the Union. By the conquest of
Dutch Flanders Zeeland was threatened, and the states of that
province, in which there were always many Orange partisans,
elected (April 1747) William stadholder, captain-general and
admiral of Zeeland. The example once given was infectious,
and was followed in rapid succession by Holland, Utrecht and
Overysel. Finally the States-General (May 4) appointed the
prince, who was the first member of his family to be stad-
holder of all the seven provinces, captain and admiral-general of
the Union, and a little later these offices were declared hereditary
in both the male and female lines.
William IV., though not a man of great ability, was sincerely
anxious to do his utmost for securing the maintenance of peace,
and the development of the resources and commercial
prosperity of the country, and his powerful dynastic
connexions (he had married Anne, eldest daughter
of George II.) gave him weight in the councils of
Europe.. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, in which the
influence of Great Britain was exerted on behalf of the States,
though it nominally restored the old condition of things, left
the Provinces crippled by debt, and fallen low from their old
position among the nations. At first the stadholder's efforts
to promote the trade and welfare of the country were hampered
by the distrust and opposition of Amsterdam, and other strong-
holds of anti-Orange feeling, and just as his good
intentions were becoming more generally recognized,
William unfortunately died, on the 22nd of October
1751, aged forty years, leaving his three-year-old son,
William V., heir to his dignities. The princess Anne of England
became regent, but she had a difficult part to play, and on the
outbreak of the Seven Years' War in which the
n"fand Provinces were determined to maintain neutrality,
Regent. her English leanings brought much unpopularity upon
her. She died in 1759, and for the next seven years
the regency passed into the hands of the States, and the
government was practically stadholderless.
In 1766 William V. was declared to be of age; and his accession
to power was generally welcomed. He was, however, a weak
WUll m V man > without energy or resolution, and he allowed
' himself to be entirely led by his old guardian the
duke of Brunswick, and by his wife Frederica Wilhelmina
of Prussia, a woman of marked ability, to whom he entirely
deferred. In the American War of Independence William's
sympathies were strongly on the English side, while those
of the majority of the Dutch people were with the revolted
colonies. It is, however, certain that nothing would have driven
the Provinces to take part in the war but for the overbearing
attitude of the British government with regard to the right of
neutral shipping upon the seas, and the heavy losses sustained
IV.
Peace of
Parts.
by Dutch commerce at the hands of British privateers. The
famous agreement, known as the " Armed Neutrality," with
which in 1780 the States of the continent at the fhe
instigation of Catherine II. of Russia replied to the Armed
maritime claims put forward by Great Britain drew the Neu ~
Provinces once more into the arena of European politics.
Every effort was made by the English to prevent the Dutch
from joining the league, and in this they were assisted by the
stadholder, but at last the States-General, though only by the
bare majority of four provinces against three, determined to
throw in their lot with the opponents of England.
Nothing could have been more unfortunate, for the England.
country was not ready for war, and party spirit was too
strong for united action to be taken or vigorous preparations
to be made. When war broke out Dutch commerce was
destroyed, and the Dutch colonies were at the mercy of the
English fleet without the possibility of a blow being struck in
their defence. An indecisive, but bravely fought action with
Admiral Parker at the Dogger Bank showed, however, that the
Dutch seamen had lost none of their old dogged courage, and did
much to soothe the national sense of humiliation. In the negotia-
tions of the Treaty of Paris (1783) the Dutch found
themselves abandoned by their allies, and compelled
to accept the disadvantageous but not ungenerous
terms accorded to them by Great Britain. They had to sacrifice
some of their East Indian possessions and to concede to the
English freedom of trade in the Eastern seas.
One result of this humiliating and disastrous war was the
strengthening of the hands of the anti-Orange burgher-regents,
who had now arrogated to themselves the name of
"patriots." It was they, and not the stadholder, who p atrlot ,,
had been mainly responsible for the Provinces joining p ar t y .
"the Armed Neutrality," but the consequences of the
war, in which this act had involved them, was largely visited
upon the prince of Orange. The " patriot " party did their
utmost to curtail his prerogatives, and harass him with petty
insults, and at last the Prussian king was obliged to / n < en , ea .
interfere to save his niece, who was even more un- tioaof
popular than her weak husband, from being driven the King of
from the country. In 1784 the emperor Joseph II.
took advantage of the dissensions in the Provinces to
raise the question of the opening of the Scheldt. He himself
was, however, no more prepared for attack than the Republic
for defence, but the Dutch had already sunk so low,
that they agreed to pay a heavy indemnity to induce
the Austrians to drop a demand they were unable to Emperor.
enforce. To hold the mouth of the Scheldt and
prevent at all costs a revival of Antwerp as a commercial port
had been for two centuries a cardinal point of Dutch policy.
This difficulty removed, the agitation of the " patriots " against
the stadholderate form of government increased in violence, and
William speedily found his position untenable. An insult offered
to the prince of Orange in 1787 led to an invasion
of the country by a Prussian army. Amsterdam invasion.
capitulated, the country was occupied, and the patriot
leaders declared incapable of holding any office. The Orange
party was completely triumphant, and William V., under the
protection of Prussia and England, with which states R t gt om .
the United Provinces were compelled to ally themselves, tion to
was restored to power. It was, however, impossible Z%. er f
to make the complicated and creaking machinery of
the constitution of the worn-out republic of the United Nether-
lands work smoothly, and in all probability it would have been
within a very short time replaced by an hereditary monarchy,
had not the cataclysm of the French Revolution swept it away
from its path, never to be revived.
When war broke out between the French revolutionary
government and the coalition of kings, the Provinces The Preach
remained neutral as long as they could. It was not till invade the
Dumouriez had overrun all the Austrian Netherlands Nether-
in 1 792,and had thrown open the passage of the Scheldt, '*
that they were drawn into the war. The patriot party sided with
604
HOLLAND
[HISTORY FROM 1579
the French, but for various reasons the conquest of the
country was delayed until 1795. In the closing months
of 1794 Pichegru, at the head of a large and victorious army,
invaded the Provinces. The very severe frost of that winter gave
his troops an easy passage over all the rivers and low-lying
Over- lands; town after town fell before him; he occupied
throw of Amsterdam, and crossing the ice with his cavalry
thestad- took the Dutch fleet, as it lay frost-bound at the
olderate. Texe j The stadho i der and his family fled to Eng l an d,
and the disorganized remnants of the allied forces under
the duke of York retreated into Germany. The " patriots," as
the anti-Orange republicans still styled themselves,
wni'tam v. rece i ve d the French with open arms and public re-
joicings, and the government was reorganized so as
to bring it into close harmony with that of Paris. The stad-
holderate, the offices of captain and admiral-general, and all the
ancient organization of the United Netherlands were abolished,
and were transformed into the Batavian Republic, in close
alliance with France. But the Dutch had soon cause
Ba('iv/-m to re ret their revolutionary ardour. French alliance
Republic, meant French domination, and participation in the
wars of the Revolution. Its consequences were the
total ruin of Dutch commerce, and the seizure of all the Dutch
colonies by the English. Internally one change of government
succeeded another; after the States-General came a
o/"o"vern- nat ' ona ' convention; then in 1798 a constituent
meat. assembly with an executive directory; then chambers
of representatives; then a return to the earlier systems
under the names of the eight provincial and one central Com-
missions (r8oi). These changes were the outcome of a gradual
reaction in a conservative direction.
The peace of Amiens gave the country a little rest, and the
Dutch got back the Cape of Good Hope and their West Indian
colonies; it was, however, but the brief and deceptive
Coasti- interlude between two storms; when war began
tut/on of .
isos. . again England once more took possession of all she
had restored. In 1805 the autocratic will of Napoleon
Bonaparte imposed upon them a new constitution, and Rutger
Jan Schimmelpenninck (1765-1825) was made, under the
ancient title of grand pensionary, head of the government.
In the next year the French emperor added Holland,
as the United Provinces were now named, to the ring of
dependent sovereignties, by means of which he sought to
build up a universal empire, and he forced his brother Louis
to be the unwilling king of art unwilling people. The new
i oais king was a man of excellent intentions and did his
Bonaparte best to promote the interest of his subjects, but finding
King of himself unable to protect them from the despotic
" ' overlordship of his brother, after a four years' reign,
Louis abdicated. In 1810 the Northern Netherlands by decree
of Napoleon were incorporated in the French empire, and had
to bear the burdens of conscription and of a crushing weight of
taxation. The defeat of Leipzig in 1813 was the signal for a
general revolt in the Netherlands; the prince of Orange (son
of William V.) was recalled, and amidst general
T J >e rejoicing accepted at Amsterdam the offer of the
Sovereign J . , . . ,_,
Prince. sovereignty under a free constitution (Dec. i, 1813),
with the title of sovereign prince. On the downfall
of Napoleon the great powers determined to create in the Low
Countries a powerful state, and by the treaty of London (June
14, 1814) the Belgians were united with the Dutch
provinces to form the kingdom of the Netherlands,
Kingdom which was also to include the bishopric of Liege and
of the the duchy of Bouillon, and the prince of Orange was
placed upon the throne on the isth of March 1815 as
William I., king of the Netherlands (see WILLIAM I.,
king of the Netherlands). The ancestral possessions of the
House of Nassau were exchanged for Luxemburg, of which
territory King William in his personal capacity
dred Days Decame grand duke. The carrying out of the treaty
was delayed by the Hundred Days' campaign,
which for a short time threatened its very existence. The
consti-
daring invasion of Napoleon, however, afforded the Dutch and
Belgian contingents of the allied army the opportunity to fight
side by side under the command of William, prince of Orange,
eldest son of the new king, who highly distinguished himself by
his gallantry at Quatre Bras, and afterwards at Waterloo where
he was wounded (see WILLIAM II., king of the Nether-
lands). The Congress of Vienna confirmed the wluiam '
arrangements made by the treaty of London, and a^sefe."
William I. was crowned king of the Netherlands at
Brussels on the 27th of September 1815. Under the constitu-
tion the king, as hereditary sovereign, possessed full executive
powers, and the initiative in proposing laws. He had
the power of appointing his own council of state.
The legislative body bore the time-honoured title of of the
States-General, and was divided into an Upper Nether-
Chamber nominated by the king, and a Lower Chamber
elected by the people. Freedom of worship, freedom of the
press, and political equality were principles of the constitution,
guaranteed to all.
The union of the Dutch and Belgian provinces, like so many
of the territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, was
an attempt to create a strong state out of diverse D iff ereace
and jarring elements. It was an artificial union, between*
which nothing but consummate tact and statesman- the Dutch
ship could have rendered permanent and solid. North aad Bel X' c
and south were divided from one another by religious P
belief, by laws and usages, by material interests, and
by two centuries and a half of widely severed national
life. The Belgians were strict Catholics, the Dutch Calvinistic
Protestants. The Dutch were chiefly a commercial and sea-
faring people, with interests in distant lands and colonial
possessions; the Belgians were agriculturists, except where
their abundance of minerals made them manufacturers. The
national traits of the Dutch were a blend of German and English,
the national leaning of the Belgians was towards France and
French ideals. Nevertheless the materials were there out of
which a really broad-minded and conciliatory handling of religion
and racial difficulties might have gradually built up a Nether-
land nation able to hold from its population and resources
a considerable place among European powers. For it must not
be forgotten that some two-thirds of the Belgian people are by
origin and language of the same race as the Dutch. But when
difficulties and differences arose between North and South, at
they were sure to arise, they were not dealt with wisely. The
king had good intentions, but his mind was warped by Dutch
prejudices, and he was ill-advised and acted unadvisedly. The
consequences were the Belgian Revolution of 1830, Tne
which ended in the intervention of the great powers, Belgian
and the setting up, in 1831, of Belgium as an indepen- Revoiu-
dent kingdom. The final settlement of outstanding
questions between the two countries was not reached till 1839
(for an account of the Belgian Revolution, see BELGIUM). King
Williaml.inthefollowingyear,havingbecomeunpopular
through his resistance to reform, resigned his crown to H////J"
his son William II., who reigned in peace till his //.
death in 1849, when he was succeeded by his eldest
son William III. (see WILLIAM III., king of the Netherlands).
His accession marked the beginning of constitutional govern-
ment in the Netherlands. William I. had been to /tcces-
a large extent a personal ruler, but William II., sioa of
though for a time following in his father's steps, had William
been moved by the revolutionary outbreaks of 1848
to concede a revision of the constitution. The fundamental
law of 1848 enacted that the first chamber of the States-
General should be elected by the Provincial Estates
instead of being appointed by the king, and that the JJjj,^""'
second chamber should be elected directly by all O fi848.
persons paying a certain amount in taxation. Ministers
were declared responsible to the States-General, and a liberal
measure of self-government was also granted. During the long
reign of William III. (1840-1890) the chief struggles of parties
in the Netherlands centred round religious education. On
HISTORY FROM 1579]
HOLLAND
605
educa
thin.
the one side are the liberals, divided into moderates and
progressives, the representatives to a large extent of the com-
Poiitkai niercial towns. Opposed to them is the coalition of
parties la the orthodox Protestant conservatives, styled anti-
the Nether- revolutionaries, supported by the Calvinistic peasantry,
laads - and the Catholics, who represent about one-third of
the population and have their headquarters in Dutch Brabant,
Dutch Flanders and Limburg. There is also in the Netherlands
a small, but very strenuous socialist party, which was founded
by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor Domela-Nieuwenhuis.
It draws its chief strength from Amsterdam and certain country
districts of Friesland.
The liberals were in power from 1871 to 1888 continuously,
but a Catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under Baron Mackay
held office from 1888 to 1891, and again a coalition
Religious ministry was formed in 1901 with Dr Kuyper at its
head. From 1894 to 1897 a ministry of moderate
liberals supported by a large part of the Catholic
and anti-revolutionary parties were in power. The constitu-
tion of 1848 made it the duty of the state to provide free primary
secular education, but it allowed to members of all creeds the
liberty of establishing private schools, and this was carried into
effect by a law passed in 1857 by the joint efforts of the liberals
and Catholics against the opposition of the orthodox Calvinists.
But the long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the Catholic-
Calvinist coalition, and united them against the neutral schools,
and in 1889 they were able to pass a law enabling not only the
unsectarian public schools, but all private schools organized
by societies and bodies recognized by the law to receive sub-
ventions from the state. In 1890 there were 3000 public schools
with 450,000 scholars and 1300 private schools with 195,000
scholars.
The subject of the extension of the franchise has also been
the cause of violent party strife and controversy. It was taken
in hand as early as 1872, but as a revision of the constitution
was necessary, no change was actually carried out till 1887.
The law of that year lowered the qualification of the payer of
a direct tax to 10 fl. Votes were given to all householders
paying a certain minimum house duty, and to all lodgers who
had for a given time paid a minimum of rent, also to all who
possessed certain educational and social qualifications, whose
definition was left to be specified by a later law. The passing
of such a law was deferred by the coalition (Catholic-Orthodox)
ministry of 1888-1891. The liberal ministry of 1891 attempted
to deal with the question, and a proposal was made by the
minister Tak van Poortvliet, which almost amounted to universal
suffrage. The educational qualification was to be
*'*" 5/OD able to write, the social that of not receiving charitable
"suffrage, relief. This proposal caused a cleavage right through
all parties. It was supported by the radical left, by
a large portion of the Orthodox-Calvinists under Dr Kuyper,
and by some Catholics; it had against it the moderate liberals,
the aristocratic section of the Orthodox-Calvinists, the bulk of
the Catholics, and a few radicals under an influential leader
van Houten. After a fierce electoral fight the Takkians were
victors at the first polls, but were beaten at the second ballots.
Of the 46 Takkians, 35 were liberals; of the 54 anti-Takkians,
24 were Catholics. A moderate liberal ministry was formed
(1894) and in 1896 carried into law what was known as the
van Houten project. It gave the right of voting to all Dutchmen
over twenty-five years of age, who paid i fl. in direct taxation;
were householders or lodgers as denned in 1887, or tenants of
a vessel of, at least, 24 tons; were the recipients of certain
salaries or had certain deposits in the public funds or savings
banks. By this reform the number of electors, which had been
raised in 1887 from 140,000 to 300,000, was augmented to
700,000. The question of universal military service
service'. nas a ' so divided parties. The principle of personal
service has been strongly opposed by the Catholics
and conservatives, but became the law of the land in 1898, though
exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain
classes of students.
The long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of Achin
have during a series of years been a source of trouble to Dutch
ministries. In 1871-1872 Great Britain, in exchange
for certain possessions of Holland on the coast of The
Guinea, agreed to recognize the right of the Dutch Jar."
to occupy the north of Sumatra. The sultan of
Achin opposed by force of arms the efforts of the Dutch to make
their occupation effective, and has succeeded in maintaining a
vigorous resistance, the Dutch colonial troops suffering severely
from the effects of the insalubrious climate. Until 1871 the
surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned into
a deficit, and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the
war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries
and of cabinets.
William III. dying in 1890 was succeeded by his only surviving
child, Wilhelmina. The new queen being a minor, her mother,
the queen-dowager Emma, became regent. One
effect of the accession of Queen Wilhelmina was the
severance of the bond between the Netherlands and m /na.
Luxemburg. The grand duchy, being hereditary
only in the male line, passed to the nearest agnate, the duke of
Nassau. In 1898 the queen, having reached the age of eighteen,
assumed the government. She married in 1901 Prince Henry of
Mecklenburg. The outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 led to
a strong outburst of sympathy among the Dutch on behalf of
their kinsmen in South Africa, and there were times during the
war, especially after President Kruger had fled from the
Transvaal in a Dutch war vessel and had settled in Holland,
when it was a task of some difficulty for the Dutch government
to prevent the relations between Great Britain and the Nether-
lands from becoming strained. The ministry, however, under
Dr Kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of
the Boers in restraint, and to maintain towards Great Britain
a correct attitude of strict neutrality. In 1903 the government
took strong measures to prevent a threatened general strike of
railway employees, the military were called out, and occupied the
stations. A bill was passed by the States-General declaring
railway strikes illegal. The elections of 1905 for the Second
Chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four. Dr Kuyper
accordingly resigned, and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed
by Th. H. de Meester. The fact that up to 1908 the queen had
not become a mother gradually caused some public concern as
to the succession; but in 1909 Queen Wilhelmina, amid naiional
rejoicings, gave birth to a princess.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See (for the general history) J. Wagenaar,
Vaderlandsche historic, to 1751 (21 vols., 1749-1759); continuation
by Az. P. Loosjes, from 1751-1810 (48 vols., 1786-1811); W.
Bilderdijk, Geschiedenis der Vaderlands (13 vols., 1832-1853);
Groen G. van Prinsterer, Handboek der Geschtedenis van het Voder-
land (6th ed., 1895); (for particular periods): L. ab Aitzema,
Saken van spaet en oorlogh in ende om trent de Vereenigde Nederlanden
(1621-1668) (15 vols., 1657-1671); continuation by Lambert van
den Bos (Lambertus Sylvius) (4 vols., 1685-1699). The work of
Aitzema contains a large number of important diplomatic and other
documents; A. de Wicquefort, Histoire des provinces des Pays-Bas
depuis la paix de Munster (1648-1658) (2 vols., 1710^-1743); in these
volumes will be also found a rich collection of original documents;
R. Fruin, Tienjaren uit den tactig jarigen oorlog (15881508), (6th ed.,
1905), a standard work; J. L. Motley, History of the united, Nether-
lands (1584-1609), (4 vols., 1860-1868); P. J. Blok, History of the
Peopleofthe Netherlands, vol. iii. (1568-1621) (trans, by Ruth Putnam,
1900) j Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii. ch. xix. and vol. iv. ch. xxv.
(see the bibliographies); Ant. L. Pontales, Vingt annees de re-
publique parlementaire au I7me siecle. Jean de Witt, grand pensionnaire
de Hollande (1884); E. C. de Gerlache, Histoire du royaume des
Pays-Bas 1814-1830 (3 vols., 1859); Bosch J. de Kemper, Ge-
schiedenis van Nederland na 1830 ( vols., 1873-1882); also the
following important works: Groen G. van Prinsterer, Archives ou
correspondance inedite de la maison d 'Orange-Nassau, 2 e seVie (1584-
1688) (5 vols., 1857-1860); J. de Witt, Brieven (1652-1660) (6 vols.,
1 7 2 3~i 7 2 5); A. Kluit, Historic der Hcllandsche Staatsregering tot
1795 (5 vols., 1802-1805); G. W. Vreede, Inleiding tot eene ge-
schiedenis der Nederlandsche diplomatic (6 vols., 1850-1865); J. C. de
Jonge, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewesen (6 vols., 1833-
1848); E. Luzac, Holland's Rijkdom (4 vols., 1781); R. Fruin,
Geschiedenis der Staatsinslellingen in Nederland tot den val der Re-
publiek, edn. Colenbrander (1901); N. G. van Kampen, Geschiedenis
der Nederlanders buiten Europa (4 vols., 1833); W. J. A. Jonckbloet,
6o6
HOLLAND, COUNTY OF
Geschiedenis dcr, Nederlandsche Letterkunde (2 vols. 1881); C. Busken
Hiiet, Het Land van Rembrandt-studien over de N ordnederlandsche
beschaving in de i?e eeuw (2 vols., 1886); L. D. Petit, Repertorium
der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreffende de geschiedenis des Vater-
lands in tijdschriften en mengel werken tot op 1900 verschenen, 2 parts
(1905); other parts of this valuable repertorium are in course of
publication. (G. E.)
HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF. The first mention
of Holland in any document is found in an imperial gift brief
dated May 2nd, 1064. In this the phrase " omnis comitatus
in Hottandt " occurs, but without any further description of the
locality indicated. A comparison with other documentary
evidence, however, leads to the identification of Holland with
the forestum Merweda, or the bush-grown fenland lying between
the Waal, the old Meuse and the Merwe. It is the district
surrounding the town of Dordrecht. A portion of the original
Holland was submerged by a great inundation in 1421, and its
modern appellation of Biesbosch (reed-forest) is descriptive of
what must have been the condition of the entire district in early
times. The word Holland is indeed by many authorities thought
to be a corruption of Holt-land (it was sometimes so spelt by
13th-century writers) and to signify wood-land. The earliest
spelling is, however, Holland, and it is more probable that it
means lowlying-land (hoi = hollow), a derivation which is
equally applicable to the district in Lincolnshire which bears
the same name.
The title count of Holland appears to have been first borne
by the Frisian count Dirk III., who founded Dordrecht (about
1015) and made it his residence (see below). It was
The first notj however, till late in the i ith century that his
successors adopted the style " Hollandensis comes " as
their territorial designation (it is found for the first
time on a seal of Dirk V. 1083), and that the name Holland
became gradually extended northwards to connote all the
land subject to the rule of the counts between Texel and
the Maas.
The beginnings of the history of this feudal state (the later
Holland) centre round the abbey of Egmont in whose archives
its records have been preserved. In 922 Charles the
Simple gave in full possession to a count in Frisia,
Dirk by name (a shortened form of Diederic, Latin Theodoricus),
" the church of Egmont with all that belonged to it from Swit-
hardeshage to Kinhem." This man, usually known as Dirk I.,
died about 939 and was succeeded by his son of the same name.
Among the records of the abbey of Egmont is a document by
which the emperor Arnulf gave to a certain count Gerolf the
same land " between Swithardeshage and Kinhem," afterwards
held by Dirk I. It is generally assumed that this Gerolf was
his father, otherwise their deed of gift would not have been
preserved among the family papers. Dirk II. was
the founder of the abbey of Egmont. His younger
son Egbert became archbishop of Treves. His elder son Arnulf
married Liutgardis, daughter of -Siegfried of Luxemburg and
sister-in-law of the emperor Henry II. He obtained from the
emperor Otto III., with whom he was in great favour
of his in 983, a considerable extension of territory, that now
domin- covered by the Zuider Zee and southward down to
Ions. Nijmwegen. In the deed of gift he is spoken of as
holding the three countships of Maasland, Kinhem or Kennemer-
land and Texla or Texel; in other words his rule extended over
the whole country from the right bank of the Maas or Meuse to
the Vlie. He appears also to have exercised authority at Ghent.
He died in 988. Arnulf was count till 993, when he was
slain in battle against the west Frisians, and was
succeeded by his twelve-year-old son Dirk III. During the
guardianship of his mother, Liutgardis, the boy was despoiled of
almost all his possessions, except Kennemerland and Maasland.
But no sooner was he arrived at man's estate than
/// " Dirk turned upon his enemies with courage and vigour.
He waged war successfully with Adelbold, the powerful bishop
of Utrecht, and made himself master not only of his ancestral
possessions, but of the district on the Meuse known as the
Bushland of Merweda (forestum Merweda), hitherto subject to
Dirk I.
Dirk II.
Araulf.
the see of Utrecht. In the midst of this marshy tract, at a
point commanding the courses of the Meuse and the Waal,
he built a castle (about 1015) and began to levy
tolls. Around this castle sprang up the town of Thure- ' ' ouadam
drecht or Dordrecht. The possession of this stronghold Dordrecht.
was so injurious to the commerce of Tiel, Cologne
and the Rhenish towns with England that complaints were
made by the bishop of Utrecht and the archbishop of Cologne
to the emperor. Henry II. took the part of the complainants
and commissioned Duke Godfrey of Lorraine to
chastise the young Frisian count. Duke Godfrey
invaded Dirk's lands with a large army, but they were toiratoe!'
impeded by the swampy nature of the country and
totally defeated with heavy loss (July 29, 1018). The duke
was himself taken prisoner. The result was that Dirk was not
merely confirmed in his possession of Dordrecht and the Merweda
Bushland (the later Holland) but also of the territory of a vassal
of the Utrecht see, Dirk Bavo by name, which he Beginning
conquered. This victory of 1018 is often regarded as of the
the true starting-point of the history of the county of County of
Holland. Having thus established his rule in the Mo """'-
south, Dirk next proceeded to bring into subjection the
Frisians in the north. He appointed his brother Siegfrid or
Sikka as governor over them. In his later years Dirk went
upon a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from which he returned in
1034; and ruled in peace until his death in 1039.
His son, Dirk IV., was one of the most enterprising of his
warlike and strenuous race. He began the long strife with the
counts of Flanders, as to the lordship over Walcheren Dtft jv
and other islands of Zeeland; the quarrel was im-
portant, as dealing with the borderland between French and
German overlordship. This strife, which lasted 400 years, did
not at first break out into actual warfare, because both Dirk
and Baldwin V. of Flanders had a common danger in Quarrel
the emperor Henry III., who in 1046 occupied the w ith
lands in dispute. Dirk allied himself with Godfrey Flanders
the Bearded of Lorraine, who was at war with the **V' .
... . . 111 / i eei&no.
emperor, and his territory was invaded by a powerful
imperial fleet and army (1047). But Dirk entrenched himself
in his stronghold at Vlaardingen, and when winter came on he
surrounded and cut off with his light boats a number of the
enemy's ships, and destroyed a large part of their army as they
made their way amidst the marches, which impeded their
retreat. He was able to recover what he had lost and to make
peace on his own terms. Two years later he was again assailed by
a coalition headed by the archbishop of Cologne and the bishop
of Utrecht. They availed themselves of a very hard winter to
penetrate into the land over the frozen water. Dirk offered a
stout resistance, but, according to the most trustworthy account,
was enticed into an ambuscade and was killed in the fight (1049).
He died unmarried and was succeeded by his brother Floris I.
Floris, like his predecessors, was hard-fighting and tenacious.
He gradually recovered possession of his ancestral lands. He
found a formidable adversary in the able and warlike pl f
William, who, becoming bishop of Utrecht in 1054,
was determined to recover the lost possessions of his see; and
in 1058, in alliance with Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, Egbert,
margrave of Brandenburg, the bishop of Liege and others,
invaded the Frisian territory. At first success attended the
invaders and many places fell into their hands, but finally they
were surprised and defeated near Dordrecht. The counts of
Guelders and Louvain were among the prisoners that fell into
the hands of Floris. The attack was renewed in 1061. In a
battle at Nederhemert Floris met with his death in the hour
of victory. He is said to have been killed as, wearied with
pursuing, he lay asleep under a tree. He was succeeded by his
son, Dirk V., a child, under the guardianship of his Dlfk y
mother, Gertrude of Saxony. Bishop William seems
now to have seized his opportunity and occupied all the territory
that he claimed. In this he was confirmed by two charters of
the emperor Henry IV. (April 30 and May 2, 1064). Among
the possessions thus assigned to him is found comitatus omnis
HOLLAND, COUNTY OF
607
Robert
the
in Hollandt cum omnibus ad bannum regalem perlinentibus. An
examination of these documents shows the possessions of Dirk
as in Westflinge et circa oras Rheni, i.e. west of the Vlie and
around the mouths of the Rhine. Gertrude and her son appear
to have withdrawn to the islands of Frisia (Zeeland), leaving
William in undisturbed occupation of the disputed lands.
In 1063 Gertrude contracted a marriage with Robert, the
second son of Baldwin V. of Flanders, a man famous for his
adventurous career (see FLANDERS). On his marriage his father
invested him with Imperial Flanders, as an apanage
including the islands of Frisia (Zeeland) west of the
Frisian Scheldt. He now became guardian to his stepson,
guardian j n whose inheritance lay the islands east of the Scheldt.
'stepson Robert thus, in his own right and that of Dirk, was
ruler of all Frisia (Zeeland), and thus became known
among his Flemish countrymen as Robert the Frisian. The
death of his brother Baldwin VI. in 1070 led to civil war in
Flanders, the cla;m of Robert to the guardianship of his nephew
Arnulf being disputed by Richilde, the widow of Baldwin.
The issue was decided by the decisive victory of Robert at
Cassel (February 1071) when Arnulf was killed and Richilde
taken prisoner (see FLANDERS). While Robert was thus engaged
in Flanders, an effort was made to recover " the County of
Holland " and other lands now held by William of Utrecht.
The people rose in revolt, but by command of the emperor
Henry IV. were speedily brought back under episcopal rule by
an army under the command of Godfrey the Hunchback,
Oodfre.x duke o f Lower Lorraine. Again in 1076, at the request
Hunch- of the bishop, Duke Godfrey visited his domains in
back of the Frisian borderland. At Delft, of which town
Lorraine tradition makes Godfrey the founder, the duke was
Ho/ten treacherously murdered (February 26, 1076). William
of Utrecht died on the i7th of the following April.
Dirk V., now grown to man's estate, was not slow to take
advantage of the favourable juncture. With the help of Robert
(his stepfather) he raised an army, besieged Conrad,
Bishop of the successor of William, in the castle of Ysselmonde
Utrecht and took him prisoner. The bishop purchased his
surrenders liberty by surrendering all claim to the disputed lands.
Henceforth the Frisian counts became definitively
known as counts of Holland. Dirk V. died in 1091
and was succeeded by his son Floris II. the Fat. This count
had a peaceful and prosperous reign of thirty-one years.
FH>Hs II After his death (1122) his widow, Petronilla of Saxony,
governed in the name of Dirk VI., who was a minor.
The accession of her half-brother, Lothaire of Saxony, to the
imperial throne on the death of Henry V. greatly strengthened
her position. The East Frisian districts, Oostergoo
and Westergoo, were by Lothaire transferred from
the rule of the bishops of Utrecht to that of the counts of Holland
(1125). These Frisians proved very troublesome subjects to
Dirk VI. In 1132 they rose in insurrection under the leader-
ship of Dirk's own brother, Floris the Black. The emperor
Conrad III. (1138), who was of the rival house of Hohen-
staufen, gave back these Frisian districts to the bishop; it
was in truth somewhat of an empty gift. The Frisian
peasants and fisher folk loved their independence, and
were equally refractory to the rule of any distant overlord,
whether count or bishop. Dirk VI. was succeeded in 1157 by
Floris III.
Floris III. reversed the traditional policy of his house by
allying himself with the Hohenstaufens. He became a devoted
Floris adherent and friend of Frederick Barbarossa. He had
///. ' troubles with West Friesland and Groningen, and a
war with the count of Flanders concerning their
respective rights in West Zeeland, in which he was beaten.
In 1170 a great flood caused immense devastation in the north
and helped to form the Zuider Zee. In 1189 Floris accompanied
Frederick Barbarossa upon the third Crusade, of which he was a
distinguished leader. He died in 1190 at Antioch of
pestilence. His son, Dirk VII., had a stormy, but on
the whole successful reign. Contests with the Flemings in West
Dirk VI
Dirk VII.
Zeeland and with the West Frisians, stirred up to revolt by his
brother William, ended in his favour. The brothers were
reconciled and William was made count of East Friesland. In
1202, however, Dirk was defeated and taken prisoner by the
duke of Brabant, and had to purchase peace on humiliating terms.
He only survived his defeat a short time and died early in
1204, leaving as his only issue a daughter, Ada, 17 years of age.
The question of female succession thus raised was not likely
to be accepted without a challenge by William. It had been the
intention of Dirk VII. to secure the recognition of his daughter's
rights by appointing his brother her guardian. His widow
Alida, however, an ambitious woman of strong character, as
soon as her husband was dead, hurried on a marriage between
Ada and Count Louis of Loon; and attempted with the nobles
of Holland, who now for the first time make their appearance as
a power in the country, to oppose the claim which William had
made to the countship as heir in the male line. A struggle
ensued. William was supported *by the Zeelanders WIIIlsm ,
and Ada was forced to fly to England. William,
by a treaty concluded with Louis of Loon in 1206, became
undisputed count. He took an active part in the events of his
time. He fought by the side of the emperor Otto IV. in the great
battle of Bouvines in 1214 (see PHILIP AUGUSTUS), and was
taken prisoner. Two years later he accompanied Louis, the
eldest son of Philip Augustus, in his expedition against King
John of England. William is perhaps best known in history by
his taking part in the fourth Crusade. He distinguished himself
greatly at the capture of Damietta (1219). He did not long
survive his return home, dying in 1222. The earliest charters
conveying civic privileges in the county of Holland date from
his reign those of Geertruidenberg (1213) and of Dordrecht
(1220). His son Floris IV., being a minor, succeeded Fi orlslv
him under the guardianship of his maternal uncle,
Gerard III. of Gelderland. He maintained in later life close
relations of friendship with Gerard, and supported him in his
quarrel with the bishop of Utrecht (1224-1226). Floris was
murdered in 1235 at a tournament at Corbie in Picardy by the
count of Clermont. Another long minority followed his death,
during which his brother Otto, bishop of Utrecht, acted as
guardian to his nephew William II.
William II. became a man of mark. Pope Innocent IV.,
having deposed the emperor Frederick II., after several princes
had refused to allow themselves to be nominated in
the place of the Hohenstaufen, caused the young
count of Holland to be elected king of the Romans
(1247) by an assembly composed chiefly of German ecclesiastics.
William took Aachen in 1248 and was there crowned Elected
king; and after Frederick's death in 1250, he had a Ktngof
considerable party in Germany. He brought a war **
with Margaret of Flanders (Black Margaret) to a on " lns -
successful conclusion (i 253). He was on the point of proceeding
to Rome to be crowned emperor, when in an expedition against
the West Frisians he perished, going down, horse and armour,
through the ice (1256). Like so many of his predecessors he
left his inheritance to a child. Floris V. was but
two years old on his father's death; and he was
destined during a reign of forty years to leave a deeper
impress upon the history of Holland than any other of its
counts. Floris was a man of chivalrous character and high
capacity, and throughout his reign he proved himself an able
and beneficent ruler. Alike in his troubles with his turbulent
subjects and in the perennial disputes with his neighbours
he pursued a strong, far-sighted and successful policy. But his
active interest in affairs was not limited to the Netherlands.
He allied himself closely with Edward I. of England A m ance
in his strife with France, and secured from the English w uh
king great trading advantages for his people; the Edward I.
staple of wool was placed at Dort (Dordrecht) and
the Hollanders and Zeelanders got fishing rights on
the English coast. So intimate did their relations become that
Floris sent his son John to be educated at the court of Edward
with a view to his marriage with an English princess. To
Floris V.
6o8
HOLLAND, COUNTY OF
balance the power of the nobles he granted charters to many of
the towns. Floris made himself master of Amstelland and
First Gooiland; and Amsterdam, destined to become the
Charter to chief commercial town of Holland, counts him the
Amster- founder of its greatness. Its earliest extant charter
dates from 1275. In 1296 Floris forsook the alliance
of Edward I. for that of Philip IV. of France, probably because
Edward had given support to Guy, count of Flanders, in his
dynastic dispute with John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut,
Floris's nephew (see FLANDERS). The real motives of his policy
will, however, never be known, for shortly afterwards a con-
spiracy of disaffected nobles, headed by Gijsbrecht van Amstel,
Gerard van Velzen and Wolfert van Borselen, was
Fioi-is K* formed against him. He was by them basely murdered
in the castle of Muiden (June 27, 1296). The tragic
event has been immortalized in dramas from the pens of
Holland's most famous writers (see VONDEL, HOOFT). The
burghers and people, who Iftiew him to be their best friend,
took such vengeance on his slayers as permanently to reduce
the power of the nobles.
John I., his son, was in England when his father was murdered;
he was but 15 years of age, feeble in body and mind. He was
j hnl married to Eleanor, daughter of Edward I. His
reign was a struggle between John of Avesnes, the
young count's guardian and next heir, and Wolfert van Borselen,
who had a strong following in Zealand. In 1 299 van Borselen
was killed, and a few months later John I. died. John of
Avesnes was at once recognized as his successor by the Hollanders.
Thus with John I. ended the first line of counts, after a rule
of nearly 400 years. Europe has perhaps never seen
Bxtioc- an a bi er se ries o f princes than these fourteen lineal
tioa of
the first descendants of Dirk I. Excepting the last there
line of is not a weak man among them. Physically handsome
^h"rhi b and Stron 8> m del knights of the days of chivalry,
character. narc ^ fighters, wise statesmen, they were born leaders
of men; always ready to advance the commerce of
the country, they were the supporters of the growing towns,
and likewise the pioneers in the task of converting a land
of marshes and swamps into a fertile agricultural territory
rich in flocks and herds. As individuals they had their
failings, but one and all were worthy members of a high-souled
race.
John of Avesnes, who took the title of John II., was the son
of John of Avesnes, count of Hainaut, and Alida, sister of
.inhnii. William II. of Holland. On his succession to the
of the countship the Hollanders were willing to receive him,
House of but the Zeelanders were hostile; and a long struggle
Avesnes. ensuec j before his authority was generally recognized.
In 1301 Bishop William of Utrecht invaded Amstelland, but
was killed in battle. John made use of his victory to secure the
election of his brother Guy as bishop in his place. A war with
the Flemings followed, in which the Flemings were at first
victorious, but after a struggle of many vicissitudes they were at
length driven out of Holland and Zeeland in 1304. John II; died
in that year and was succeeded by his son William III., surnamed
the Good (1304-1337). In his reign the long-standing quarrel
with Flanders, which had during a century and a half
caused so many wars, was finally settled by the treaty
of 1323, by which the full possession of West Zeeland
was granted to William, who on his part renounced all claim in
Imperial Flanders. The Amstelland with its capital, Amsterdam,
which had hitherto been held as a fief of Utrecht, was by William,
on the death of his uncle Bishop Guy, finally annexed to Holland.
This count did much to encourage civic life and to develop the
resources of the country. He had close relations through
marriage with the three principal European dynasties of his
time. His wife was Jeanne of Valois, niece of the French king;
in 1323 the emperor Louis the Bavarian wedded his daughter
Margaret; and in 1328 his third daughter, Philippa of Hainaut,
was married to Edward III. of England. By their alliance
William III. occupied a position of much dignity and influence,
which he used to further the interests and increase the welfare
Wlllltm
in.
William
IV.
of his hereditary lands. He was in all respects a great prince
and a wise and prudent statesman. He was succeeded by his
son, William IV., who was the ally of his brother-in-law,
Edward III., in his French wars. He was fond of adven-
ture, and in 1343 made a journey to the Holy Land in
disguise, and on his way took part in an expedition of the
knights of the Teutonic Order against the infidel Wends and
Lithuanians. He was killed in battle against the Frisians in
1345. He left no children, and the question as to the succession
now brought on Holland a period of violent civil commotions.
His inheritance was claimed by his eldest sister,
the empress Margaret, as well as by Philippa of
Hainaut, or in other words, by Edward III. of England.
Margaret came in person and was duly recognized
as countess in Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut; but returned
to her husband after appointing her second son (the eldest,
Louis, renounced his rights) Duke William of Bavaria, as
stadholder in her place. William was but sixteen, and disorder
and confusion soon reigned in the land. The sudden death of
the emperor in 1347 added to the difficulties of his position.
In 1349 Margaret was induced to resign her sovereignty, and
the stadholder became count under the title of William \ynn am y.
V. This was the time of the formation of the famous of the
parties in Holland, known as Kabbeljauws (Cods) House of
and Hoeks (Hooks); the former, the burgher party, Bavarla -
were the supporters of William (possibly the name was
derived from the light blue, scaly looking Bavarian coat of
arms), the latter the party of the disaffected nobles, who wanted
to catch and devour the fat burgher fish. In 1350 such was
the disorder in the land that Margaret, at the request of the nobles,
came to Holland to take into her own hands the reins of govern-
ment. The struggle between the nobles and the cities broke out
into civil war. Edward III. came to Margaret's aid, winning
a sea-fight off Veere in 1351; a few weeks later the Hooks
and their English allies were defeated by William and the Cods
at Vlaardingen an overthrow which ruined Margaret's cause.
Edward III. shortly afterwards changed sides, and the empress
saw herself compelled (1354) to come to an understanding with
her son, he being recognized as count of Holland and Zeeland,
she of Hainaut. Margaret died two years later, leaving William,
who had married Matilda of Lancaster, in possession of the
entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance (July 1356). His tenure
of power was, however, very brief. Before the close of 1357
he showed such marked signs of insanity that his wife, with his
own consent and the support of both parties, invited
Duke Albert of Bavaria, younger brother of William Bavaria.
V., to be regent, with the title of Ruward (1358).
William lived in confinement for 31 years. Albert died
in 1404, having ruled the land well and wisely for 46 years,
first as Ruward, then as count. Despite outbreaks from time
to time of the Hook and Cod troubles, he was able to make his
authority respected, and to help forward in many ways the
social progress of the country. The influence of the towns was
steadily on the increase, and their government began to fall
into the hands of the burgher patrician class, who formed the
Cod party. Opposed to them were the nobility and the lower
classes, forming the Hook party. In Albert's latter years a
fresh outbreak of civil war (1392-1395) was caused by the count's
espousing the side of the Cods, while the Hooks had the support
of his eldest son, William. Albert was afterwards reconciled
to his son, who succeeded him as William VI. in 1404.
On his accession to power William upheld the Hooks, vl '""
and secured their ascendancy. His reign was much
troubled with civil discords, but he was a brave soldier, and was
generally successful in his enterprises. He died in 1417, leaving
an only child, a daughter, Jacqueline (or Jacoba),
who had in her early youth been married to John,
heir to the throne of France. At a gathering held at Bavaria.
the Hague (August 15, 1416) the nobles and repre-
sentatives of the cities of Holland and Zeeland had promised at
William's request to support his daughter's claims to the suc-
cession. But John of France died (April 1417), and William VI.
HOLLAND, COUNTY OF
609
Accession
of the
Burgun-
dian
Dynasty.
Philip the
Good.
about a month later, leaving the widowed Jacqueline at
17 years of age face to face with a difficult situation. She
was at first welcomed in Holland and Zeeland, but found
her claims opposed by her uncle, John of Bavaria, supported
by the Cod party. Every one from whom she might have
expected help betrayed her in turn, her second husband John
IV. of Brabant, her third husband Humphrey of Gloucester,
her cousin Philip the Good of Burgundy, all behaved shamefully
to her. Her romantic and sad life has rendered the courageous
and accomplished Jacqueline the most picturesque figure in
the whole history of Holland. She struggled long against her
powerful kinsfolk, nor did she know happiness till near the end
of her life, when she abandoned the unequal strife, and found
repose with Francis of Borselen, Ruward of Holland, her fourth
husband. Him Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, craftily
seized; and thereby in 1433 the Duchess Jacqueh'ne was com-
pelled to cede her rights over the counties of Holland and
Hainaut. Consequently at her death in 1436, as she left no
children, Philip succeeded to the full and undisputed
possession of her lands. He had already acquired by
inheritance, purchase or force almost all the other
Netherland states; and now, with the extinction of
the Bavarian line of counts, Holland ceased to have
an independent existence and became an outlying province
of the growing Burgundian power (see BURGUNDY). During
the years that followed the accession to the sovereignty
of Duke Philip, Holland plays but an insignificant
part. It was governed by a stadholder, and but
small respect was shown for its chartered rights and privileges.
The quarrels between the Hook and Cod factions still continued,
but the outbreaks of civil strife were quickly repressed by the
strong hand of Philip. Holland during this time contented
Flourish- herself with growing material prosperity. Her
lag state herring fishery, rendered more valuable by the curing
ot process discovered or introduced by Benkelszoon,
brought her increasing wealth, and her fishermen
were already laying the foundations of her future maritime
greatness. It was in the days of Duke Philip that Lorenz
Koster of Haarlem contributed his share to the discovery of
printing. During the reign of Charles the Bold (1467-1477)
the Hollanders, like the other subjects of that warlike
the Bold P r i nce . suffered much from the burden of taxation.
An outbreak at Hoorn was by Charles sternly repressed.
The Hollanders were much aggrieved by the establishment
of a high court of justice for the entire Netherlands at Mechlin.
(1474). This was regarded as a serious breach of their privileges.
The succession of Mary of Burgundy led to the grant-
Burgundy. * n 8 t Holland as to the other provinces of the Nether-
lands, of the Great Privilege of March 1477, which
restored the most important of their ancient rights and liberties
(see NETHERLANDS). A high court of justice was established
for Holland, Zeeland and Friesland, and the use of the native
language was made official. The Hook and Cod troubles
again disturbed the country. Hook uprisings took place at
Leiden and Dordrecht and had to be repressed by armed
force.
By the sudden death of the Duchess Mary in 1482 her posses-
sions, including the county of Holland, passed to her infant son,
Philip, under the guardianship of his father the Arch-
minanof ^ u ^ e Maximilian of Austria. Thus the Burgundian
Austria. dynasty was succeeded by that of the Habsburgs.
During the regency of Maximilian the turbulence of
the Hooks caused much strife and unrest in Holland. Their
leaders, Francis of Brederode and John of Naaldwijk, seized
Rotterdam and other places. Their overthrow finally ended
Phin n the strife Detween Hooks and Cods. The " Bread
the Fair. an( ^ Cheese War," an uprising of the peasants in
North Holland caused by famine, is a proof of the
misery caused by civil discords and oppressive taxation. In
1494, Maximilian having been elected emperor, Philip was
declared of age. His assumption of the government was greeted
with joy in Holland, and in his reign the province enjoyed rest
'
and its fisheries benefited from the commercial treaty con-
cluded with England. The story of Holland during The
the long reign of his son and successor Charles III. Emperor
(1506-1555), better known as the emperor Charles V., Charles v.
belongs to the general history of the Netherlands jj?f**
(see NETHERLANDS). On the abdication of Charles, his
son Philip II. of Spain became Philip III., count of Holland, the
ruler whose arbitrary rule in church and state brought about
the revolt of the Netherlands. His appointment of
William, prince of Orange, as stadholder of Holland
and Zeeland was destined to have momentous results to the
future of those provinces (see WILLIAM THE SILENT). The
capture of Brill and of. Flushing in 1572 by the Sea- wuiiam
Beggars led to the submission of the greater part of of Orange
Holland and Zeeland to the authority of the prince stad-
of Orange, who, as stadholder, summoned the states "'" er>
of Holland to meet at Dordrecht. This act was the beginning of
Dutch independence. From this time forward William made
Holland his home. It became the bulwark of the f he revo fl
Protestant faith in the Netherlands, the focus of the of the
resistance to Spanish tyranny. The sieges of Haarlem, Nether-
Alkmaar and Leiden saved Holland from being ' ands -
overwhelmed by the armies of Alva and Requesens and stemmed
the tide of Spanish victory. The act of federation between
Holland and Zeeland brought about by the influence
of William was the germ of the larger union of Utrecht
between the seven northern provinces in 1579. But
within the larger union the inner and closer union between
Holland and Zeeland continued to subsist. In 1580, when the
sovereignty of the Netherlands was offered to the Abiura-
duke of Anjou, the two maritime provinces refused tion ot
to acquiesce, and forced William to accept the title Philip's
of count of Holland and Zeeland. In the following
year William in the name of the two provinces
solemnly abjured the sovereignty of the Spanish king (July 24).
After the assassination of William (1584) the title of count of
Holland was never revived.
In the long struggle of the united provinces with Spain,
which followed the death of Orange, the brunt of the conflict
fell upon Holland. More than half the burden of the charges
of the war fell upon this one province; and with Zeeland it
furnished the fleets which formed the chief defence of the country.
Hence the importance attached to the vote of Holland in the
assembly of the States-General. That vote was given by deputies
at the head of whom was the advocate (in later times called
the grand pensionary) of Holland, and who were responsible to,
and the spokesmen of, the provincial states. These states, which
met at the Hague in the same building as the States-General,
consisted of representatives of the burgher oligarchies (regents)
of the principal towns, together with representatives of the
nobles, who possessed one vote only. The advocate was the
paid minister of the states. He presided over their
meetings, kept their minutes and conducted all Oovern-
correspondence, and, as stated above, was their Holland.
spokesman in the States-General. The advocate (or
grand pensionary) of Holland therefore, if an able man, had
opportunities for exercising a very considerable influence,
becoming in fact a kind of minister of all affairs. It was this
influence as exerted by the successive advocates of
Holland, Paul Buys and Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, J l d ""^"
which rendered abortive the well-meant efforts of the tteve ut.
earl of Leicester to centralize the government of the
United Provinces. After his departure (1587) the advocate of
Holland, Oldenbarneveldt, became the indispensable statesman
of the struggling republic. The multiplicity of his functions
gave to the advocate an almost unlimited authority in the details
of administration, and for thirty years the conduct of affairs
remained in his hands (see OLDENBARNEVELDT). This meant
the undisputed hegemony of Holland in the federation, in othei
words of the burgher oligarchies who controlled the town cor-
porations of the province, and especially of Amsterdam. This
authority of Holland was, however, more than counterbalanced
6io
HOLLAND, COUNTY OF
Sove-
reignty,
by the extensive powers with which the stadholder princes
of Orange were invested; and the chief crises in the internal
Contest history of the Dutch republic are to be found in
between the struggles for supremacy between two, in reality,
the Prin- different principles of government. On the one side
c 'P les of the principle of provincial sovereignty which gave to
and Pro- the voice of Holland a preponderating weight that was
vinciai decisive; on the other side the principle of national
sovereignty personified in the princes of Orange, to
whom the States-General and the provincial states
delegated executive powers that were little less than monarchical.
The conclusion of the twelve years' truce in 1609 was a triumph
for Oldenbarneveldt and the province of Holland over the
opposition of Maurice, prince of Orange. In 1617 the
outbreak of the religious dispute between the Remon-
Orange strant and Contra-remonstrant parties brought on a
and John life and death struggle between the sovereign province
bane'"' of Holland and the States-General of the union. The
veldt. sword of Maurice decided the issue in favour of the
States-General. The claims of Holland were overthrown
and the head of Oldenbarneveldt fell upon the scaffold (1619).
The stadholder, Frederick Henry of Orange, ruled with well-nigh
Frederick monarchical authority (1625-1647), but even he at the
Henry height of his power and popularity had always to
Prince of reckon with the opposition of the states of Holland
Orange. an( j Q f A ms t er( i am; and many of his plans of campaign
were thwarted by the refusal of the Hollanders to furnish supplies.
His son William II. was but 21 years of age on succeeding
to the stadholdership, and the states of Holland were
II Pfi^-g sufficiently powerful to carry through the negotiations
of Orange. f r the peace of Minister (1648) in spite of his opposi-
tion. A life and death conflict again ensued, and once
more in 1650 the prince of Orange by armed force crushed the
opposition of the Hollanders. The sudden death of William in
the hour of his triumph caused a complete revolution in the
government of the republic. He left no heir but a posthumous
infant, and the party of the burgher regents of Holland was
once more in the ascendant. The office of stadholder
was abolished, and John de Witt, the grand pensionary
(Raod-Pensionaris) of Holland, for two decades held
in his hands all the threads of administration, and occupied the
same position of undisputed authority in the councils of the land
as Oldenbarneveldt had done at the beginning of the century.
Amsterdam during this period was the centre and head of the
United Provinces. The principle of provincial sovereignty was
carried to its extreme point in the separate treaty concluded
with Cromwell in 1654, in which the province of Holland agreed
to exclude for ever the prince of Orange from the office of stad-
holder of Holland or captain-general of the union. In 1672
another revolution took place. John de Witt was
^""prince murdered > and William III. was called to fill the office
of Orange, of dignity and authority which had been held by his
ancestors of the house of Orange, and the stadholder-
ship was declared to be hereditary in his family. But William
died without issue (see WILLIAM III.) and a stadholderless period,
during which the province of Holland was supreme in the union,
followed till 1737. This change was effected smoothly, for
though William had many differences with Amsterdam, he had
in Anthony Heinsius (van der Heim), who was grand pensionary
of Holland from 1690 to his death in 1720, a statesman whom
he thoroughly trusted, who worked with him in the furtherance
of his policy during life and who continued to carry out that
policy after his death. In 1737 there was once more a reversion
to the stadholdership in the person of William IV.,
Hv"prjnce wnose powers were strengthened and declared heredi-
of Orange, tary both in the male and female line in 1747. But
until the final destruction of the federal republic by
the French armies, the perennial struggle went on between the
Holland or federal party (Slants gesinden) centred at Amsterdam
out of which grew the patriot party under William V. and the
Orange or unionist party (Oranjegesinden), which was strong in
the smaller provinces and had much popular support among
Consti-
tution
of the
States of
Holland.
the lower classes. The French conquest swept away the old
condition of things never to reappear; but allegiance to the
Orange dynasty survived, and in 1813 became the rallying
point of a united Dutch people. At the same time the leading
part played by the province of Holland in the history of the
republic has not been unrecognized, for the country ruled over
by the sovereigns of the house of Orange is always popularly,
and often officially, known as Holland.
The full title of the states of Holland in the I7th and i8th
centuries was: de Ed.de Groot Mogende Heeren Staaten van
Holland en Westfriesland. After 1608 this assembly
consisted of nineteen members, one representing the
nobility (ridderschap) , and eighteen, the towns. The
member for the nobles had precedence and voted first.
The interests of the country districts (het platte land)
were the peculiar charges of the member for the nobles.
The nobles also retained the right of appointing repre-
sentatives to sit in the College of Deputed Councillors, in certain
colleges of the admiralty, and upon the board of directors of
the East India Company, and to various public offices. The
following eighteen towns sent representatives: South Quarter
(i) Dordrecht, (2) Haarlem, (3) Delft, (4) Leiden, (5) Amsterdam,
(6) Gouda, (7) Rotterdam, (8) Gorinchem, (9) Schiedam, (10)
Schoonhoven, (n) Brill; North Quarter: (12) Alkmaar,
(13) Hoorn, (14) Enkhuizen, (15) Edam, (16) Monnikendam,
(17) Medemblik, (18) Purmerend. Each town (as did also the
nobles) sent as many representatives as they pleased, but the
nineteen members had only one vote each. Each town's deputa-
tion was headed by its pensionary, who was the spokesman
on behalf of the representatives. Certain questions such as
peace and war, voting of subsidies, imposition of taxation,
changes in the mode of government, &c., required unanimity
of votes. The grand pensionary (Raad-Pensionaris)
was at once the president and chief administrative *" ""*"
Penslon-
officer of the states. He presided over all meetings, ary .
conducted the business, kept the minutes, and was
charged with the maintenance of the rights of the states, with the
execution of their resolutions and with the entire correspondence.
Nor were his functions only provincial. He was the head and
the spokesman of the deputation of the states to the States-
General of the union; and in the stadholderless period the
influence of such grand pensionaries of Holland as John de Witt
and Anthony Heinsius enabled the complicated and intricate
machinery of government in a confederacy of many sovereign
and semi-sovereign authorities without any recognized head
of the state, to work with comparative smoothness and a remark-
able unity of policy. This was secured by the indisputable
predominance in the union of the province of Holland. The
policy of the states of Holland swayed the policy of the generality,
and historical circumstances decreed that the policy of the
states of Holland during long and critical periods should be
controlled by a succession of remarkable men filling the office
of grand pensionary. The states of Holland sat at the Hague in
the months of March, July, September and November. During
the periods of prorogation the continuous oversight of the business
and interests of the province was, however, never neglected.
This duty was confided to a body called the College college oi
of Deputed Councillors (het Kollegie der Gekommitteerde
Roden), which was itself divided into two sections,
one for the south quarter, another for the north
quarter. The more important that for the south
consisted, of ten members, (i) the senior member of the
nobility, who sat for life, (2) representatives (for periods of three
years) of the eight towns: Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, Leiden,
Amsterdam, Gouda, Rotterdam and Gorinchem, with a tenth
member (usually elected biennially) for the towns of Schiedam,
Schoonhoven and Brill conjointly. The grand pensionary
presided over the meetings of the college, which had the general
charge of the whole provincial administration, especially of
finance, the carrying out of the resolutions of the states, the
maintenance of defences, and the upholding of the privileges
and liberties of the land. With particular regard to this last-
Deputed
Council-
lors.
quarter
HOLLAND HOLLES
611
named duty the college deputed two of its members to attend
all meetings of the states-general, to watch the proceedings and
report at once any proposals which they held to be contrary
to the interests or to infringe upon the rights of the province
of Holland. The institution of the College of Deputed Councillors
might thus be described as a vigilance committee of the states in
perpetual session. The existence of the college, with its many
weighty and important functions, must never be lost sight of
by students who desire to have a clear understanding of the
remarkable part played by the province of Holland in the history
of the United Netherlands. (G. E.)
HOLLAND, a city of Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
Macatawa Bay (formerly called Black Lake), near Lake Michigan,
and 25 m. W.S.VV. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 3945; (1900)
7790, of whom a large portion were of Dutch descent ; (1904) 8966 ;
(1910) 10,490 It is served by the Pere Marquette Railroad,
by steamboat lines to Chicago and other lake ports, and by
electric lines connecting with Grand Rapids, Saugatuck, and the
neighbouring summer resorts. On Macatawa Bay are Ottawa
Beach, Macatawa Park, Jenison Park, Central Park, Castle
Park and Waukezoo. In the city itself are Hope College
(co-educational; founded in 1851 and incorporated as a college
in 1866), an institution of the (Dutch) Reformed Church in
America; and the Western Theological Seminary (1869;
suspended 1877-1884) of the same denomination. Holland is a
grain and fruit shipping centre, and among its manufactures
are furniture, leather, grist mill products, iron, beer, pickles,
shoes, beet sugar, gelatine, biscuit (Holland rusk), electric and
steam launches, and pianos. In 1008 seven weekly, one daily,
and two monthly papers (four denominational) were published
at Holland, five of them in Dutch. The municipality owns its
water-works and electric-lighting plant. Holland was founded
in 1847 by Dutch settlers, under the leadership of the Rev.
A. C. Van Raalte, and was chartered as a city in 1867. In 1871
much of it was destroyed by a forest fire.
HOLLAND, a cloth so called from the country where it was
first made. It was originally a fine plain linen fabric of a brownish
colour unbleached flax. Several varieties are now made:
hollands, pale hollands and fine hollands. They are used for
aprons, blinds, shirts, blouses and dresses.
HOLLAR, WENZEL or WENCESLAUS [VACLAF HOLAR] (1607-
1677), Bohemian etcher, was born at Prague on the i3th of July
1607, and died in London, being buried at St Margaret's church,
Westminster, on the 28th of March 1677. His family was
ruined by the capture of Prague in the Thirty Years' War, and
young Hollar, who had been destined for the law, determined
to become an artist. The earliest of his works that have come
down to us are dated 1625 and 1626; they are small plates,
and one of them is a copy of a Virgin and Child by Dtirer, whose
influence upon Hollar's work was always great. In 1627 he was
at Frankfort, working under Matthew Merian, an etcher and
engraver; thence he passed to Strassburg, and thence, in 1633,
to Cologne. It was there that he attracted the notice of the
famous amateur Thomas, earl of Arundel, then on an embassy
to the imperial court; and with him Hollar travelled to Vienna
and Prague, and finally came in 1637 to England, destined to
be his home for many years. Though he lived in the household
of Lord Arundel, he seems to have worked not exclusively for
him, but to have begun that slavery to the publishers which was
afterwards the normal condition of his life. In his first year in
England he made for Stent, the printseller, the magnificent
View of Greenwich, nearly a yard long, and received thirty
shillings for the plate, perhaps a twentieth part of what would
now be paid for a single good impression. Afterwards we hear
of his fixing the price of his work at fourpence an hour, and
measuring his time by a sandglass. The Civil War had its effect
on his fortunes, but none on his industry. Lord Arundel left
England in 1642, and Hollar passed into the service of the
duke of York, taking with him a wife and two children. With
other royalist artists, notably Inigo Jones and Faithorne, he
stood the long and eventful siege of Basing House; and as we
have some hundred plates from his hand dated during the years
1643 and 1644 he must have turned his enforced leisure to good
purpose. Taken prisoner, he escaped or was released, and joined
Lord Arundel at Antwerp, and there he remained eight years,
the prime of his working life, when he produced his finest plates
of every kind, his noblest views, his miraculous " muffs " and
" shells," and the superb portrait of the duke of York. In 1652
he returned to London, and lived for a time with Faithorne the
engraver near Temple Bar. During the following years were
published many books which he illustrated: Ogilby's Virgil
and Homer, Stapylton's Juvenal, and Dugdale's Warwickshire,
St Paul's and Monasticon (part i.). The booksellers continued
to impose on the simple-minded foreigner, pretending to decline
his work that he might still further reduce the wretched price
he charged them. Nor did the Restoration improve his position.
The court did nothing for him, and in the great plague he lost
his young son, who, we are told, might have rivalled his father
as an artist. After the great fire he produced some of his famous
" Views of London "; and it may have been the success of these
plates which induced the king to send him, in 1668, to Tangier,
to draw the town and forts. During his return to England
occurred the desperate and successful engagement fought by his
ship the " Mary Rose," under Captain Kempthorne, against
seven Algerine men-of-war, a brilliant affair which Hollar
etched for Ogilby's Africa. He lived eight years after his
return, still working for the booksellers, and retaining to the end
his wonderful powers; witness the large plate of Edinburgh
(dated 1670), one of the greatest of his works. He died in extreme
poverty, his last recorded words being a request to the bailiffs
that they would not carry away the bed on which he was dying.
Hollar's variety was boundless; his plates number some 2740,
and include views, portraits, ships, religious subjects, heraldic
subjects, landscapes, and still life in a hundred different forms.
No one that ever lived has been able to represent fur, or shells,
or a butterfly's wing as he has done. His architectural drawings,
such as those of Antwerp and Strassburg cathedrals, and his
views of towns, are mathematically exact, but they are pictures
as well. He could reproduce the decorative works of , other
artists quite faultlessly, as in the famous chalice after Mantegna's
drawing. His Theatrum mulierum and similar collections
reproduce for us with literal truth the outward aspects of the
people of his day; and his portraits, a branch of art in which
he has been unfairly disparaged, are of extraordinary refinement
and power.
Almost complete collections of Hollar's works exist in the British
Museum and in the library at Windsor Castle. Two admirable
catalogues of his plates have been made, one in 1745 (and ed. 1759)
by George Vertue, and one in 1853 by Parthey. The latter, pub-
lished at Berlin, is a model of German thoroughness and accuracy.
HOLLES, DENZIL HOLLES, BARON (1599-1680), English
statesman and writer, second son of John Holies, ist earl of
Clare (c. 1564-1637), by Anne, daughterof Sir Thomas Stanhope,
was born on the 3ist of October 1599. The favourite son of his
father and endowed with great natural abilities, Denzil Holies
grew up under advantageous circumstances. Destined to
become later one of the most formidable antagonists of King
Charles's arbitrary government, he was in early youth that
prince's playmate and intimate companion. The earl of Clare
was, however, no friend to the Stuart administration, being
especially hostile to the duke of Buckingham; and on the
accession of Charles to the throne the king's offers of favour
were rejected. In 1624 Holies was returned to parliament for
Mitchell in Cornwall, and in 1628 for Dorchester. He had from
the first a keen sense of the humiliations which attended the
foreign policy of the Stuart kings. Writing to Strafford, his
brother-in-law, on the 29th of November 1627, he severely
censures Buckingham's conduct of the expedition to the Isle
of Rhe; "since England was England," he declared, "it
received not so dishonourable a blow "; and he joined in the
demand for Buckingham's impeachment in 1628. To these
discontents were now added the abuses arising from the king's
arbitrary administration. On the 2nd of March 1629, when
Sir John Finch, the speaker, refused to put Sir John Eliot's
Protestations and was about to adjourn the House by the king's
6l2
HOLLES
command, Holies with another member thrust him back into
the chair and swore " he should sit still till it pleased them to
rise." Meanwhile Eliot, on the refusal of the speaker to read
the Protestations, had himself thrown them into the fire; the
usher of the black rod was knocking at the door for admittance,
and the king had sent for the guard. But Holies, declaring that
he could not render the king or his country better service, put
the Protestations to the House from memory, all the members
rising to their feet and applauding. In consequence a warrant
was issued for his arrest with others on the following day.
They were prosecuted first in the Star Chamber and subsequently
in the King's Bench. When brought upon his habeas corpus
before the latter court Holies offered with the rest to give bail,
but refused sureties for good behaviour, and argued that the
court had no jurisdiction over offences supposed to have been
committed in parliament. On his refusal to plead he was
sentenced to a fine of 1000 marks and to imprisonment during
the king's pleasure. Holies had at first been committed and
remained for some time a close prisoner in the Tower of London.
The " close " confinement, however, was soon changed to a
" safe " one, the prisoner then having leave to take the air and
exercise, but being obliged to maintain himself at his own expense.
On the 29th of October Holies, with Eliot and Valentine, was
transferred to the Marshalsea. His resistance to the king's
tyranny did not prove so stout as that of some of his comrades
in misfortune. Among the papers of the secretary Sir John
Coke is a petition of Holies, couched in humble and submissive
terms, to be restored to the king's favour; 1 having given the
security demanded for his good behaviour, he was liberated
early in 1630, and on the 3Oth of October was allowed bail.
Being still banished from London he retired to the country,
paying his fine in 1637 or 1638. The fine was repaid by the
parliament in July 1644, and the judgment was revised on a
writ of error in 1668. In 1638 we find him, notwithstanding
his recent experiences, one of the chief leaders in his county
of the resistance to ship money, though it would appear that
he subsequently made submission.
Holies was a member of the Short and Long Parliaments
assembled in 1640. According to Laud he was now " one of the
great leading men in the House of Commons," and in Clarendon's
opinion he was " a man of more accomplished parts than any
of his party " and of most authority. He was not, however,
in the confidence of the republican party. Though he was at
first named one of the managers for the impeachment of Stratford,
Holies had little share in his prosecution. According to Laud
he held out to Strafford hopes of saving his life if he would use
his influence with the king to abolish episcopacy, but the earl
refused, and Holies advised Charles that Strafford should demand
a short respite, of which he would take advantage to procure
a commutation of the death sentence! In the debate on the
attainder he spoke on behalf of Strafford's family, and later
obtained some favours from the parliament for his eldest son.
In all other matters in parliament Holies took a principal part.
He was one of the chief movers of the Protestation of the 3rd
of May 1641, which he carried up to the Lords, urging them to
give it their approval. Although, according to Clarendon,
he did not wish to change the government of the church, he
showed himself at this time decidedly hostile to the bishops.
He took up the impeachment of Laud to the House of Peers,
supported the Londoners' petition for the abolition of episcopacy
and the Root and Branch Bill, and afterwards urged that the
bishops impeached for their conduct in the affair of the late
canons should be accused of treason. He showed equal energy
in the affairs of Ireland at the outbreak of the rebellion, supported
strongly the independence and purity of the judicial bench,
and opposed toleration of the Roman Catholics. On the gth
of July 1641 he addressed the Lords on behalf of the queen of
Bohemia, expressing great loyalty to the king and royal family
and urging the necessity of supporting the Protestant religion
everywhere. Together with Pym, Holies drew up the Grand
Remonstrance, and made a vigorous speech in its support on
l Hist. MSS. Contm., MSS. of Earl Cowper, i. 422.
the 22nd of November 1641, in which he argued for the right
of one House to make a declaration, and asserted: " If kings
are misled by their counsellors we may, we must tell them of
it." On the isth of December he was a teller in the division
in favour of printing it. On the great subject of the militia
he also showed activity. He supported Hesilriges' Militia Bill
of the 7th of December 1641, and on the 3ist of December he
took up to the king the Commons' demand for a guard under
the command of Essex. " Holles's force and reputation,"
said Sir Ralph Verney, " are the two things that give the success
to all actions." After the failure of the attempt by the court
to gain over Holies and others by offering them posts in the
administration, he was one of the " five members " impeached
by the king. 2 Holies at once grasped the full significance of the
king's action, and after the triumphant return to the House
of the five members, on the nth of January, threw himself
into still more pronounced opposition to the arbitrary policy
of the crown. He demanded that before anything further was
done the members should be cleared of their impeachment;
was himself leader in the impeachment of the duke of Richmond ;
and on the 3ist of January, when taking up the militia petition
to the House of Lords, he adopted a very menacing tone, at the
same time presenting a petition of some thousands of supposed
starving artificers of London, congregated round the House.
On the isth of June he carried up the impeachment of the nine
Lords who had deserted the parliament; and he was one of
the committee of safety appointed on the 4th of July.
On the outbreak of the Civil War (see GREAT REBELLION)
Holies, who had been made lieutenant of Bristol, was sent
with Bedford to the west against the marquess of Hertford,
and took part in the unsuccessful siege of the latter at Sherborne
Castle. He was present at Edgehill, where his regiment of
Puritans recruited in London was one of the few which stood
firm and saved the day for the parliament. On the I3th of
November his men were surprised at Brentford during his
absence, and routed after a stout resistance. In December
he was proposed for the command of the forces in the west,
an appointment which he appears to have refused. Notwith-
standing his activity in the field for the cause of the parliament,
the appeal to arms had been distasteful to Holies from the
first. As early as September he surprised the House by the
marked abatement of his former " violent and fiery spirit,"
and his changed attitude did not escape the taunts of his enemies,
who attributed it scornfully to his disaster at Brentford or to
his new wife. He probably foresaw that, to whichever side
victory fell, the struggle could only terminate in the suppression
of the constitution and of the moderate party on which all his
hopes were based. His feelings and political opinions, too,
were essentially aristocratic, and he regarded with horror the
transference of the government of the state from the king and
the ruling families to the parliamentary leaders. He now
advocated peace and a settlement of the disputes by concessions
on both sides: a proposal full of danger because impracticable,
and one therefore which could only weaken the parliamentary
resistance and prolong the struggle. He warmly supported
the peace negotiations on the 2ist of November and the 22nd
of December, and his attitude led to a breach with Pym and the
more determined party. In June 1643 he was accused of
complicity in Waller's plot, but swore to his innocency; and
his arrest with others of the peace party was even proposed
in August, when Holies applied for a pass to leave the country.
The king's successes, however, for the moment put a stop to
all hopes of peace; and in April 1644 Holies addressed the
citizens of London at the Guildhall, calling upon them " to
join with their purses, their persons, and their prayers together "
to support the army of Essex. In November Holies and White-
locke headed the commission appointed to treat with the king
at Oxford. He endeavoured to convince the royalists of the
necessity of yielding in time, before the " new party of hot men "
should gain the upper hand. Holies and Whitelocke had a
2 The speech of January 5 attributed to him and printed in
Thomason Tracts, E 199 (55), is a forgery.
HOLLES
613
private meeting with the king, when at Charles's request they
drew up the answer which they advised him to return to the
parliament. This interview was not communicated to the other
commissioners or to parliament, and though doubtless their
motives were thoroughly patriotic, their action was scarcely
compatible with their position as trustees of the parliamentary
cause. Holies was also appointed a commissioner at Uxbridge
in January 1645 alj d endeavoured to overcome the crucial
difficulty of the militia by postponing its discussion altogether.
As leader of the moderate (or Presbyterian) party Holies now
came into violent antagonism with Cromwell and the army
faction. " They hated one another equally "; and Holies
would not allow any merit in Cromwell, accusing him of cowardice
and attributing his successes to chance and good fortune.
With the support of Essex and the Scottish commissioners
Holies endeavoured in December 1644 to procure Cromwell's
impeachment as an incendiary between the two nations, and
" passionately " opposed the self-denying ordinance. In return
Holies was charged with having held secret communications
with the king at Oxford and with a correspondence with Lord
Digby; but after a long examination by the House he was
pronounced innocent on the igth of July 1645. Determined
on Cromwell's destruction, he refused to listen to the prudent
counsels of Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper, who urged that Cromwell
was too strong to be resisted or provoked, and on the 2gth of
March 1647 drew up in parliament a hasty proclamation declaring
the promoters of the army petition enemies to the state; in
April challenging Ireton to a duel.
The army party was now thoroughly exasperated against
Holies. " They were resolved one way or other to be rid of
him," says Clarendon. On the i6th of June 1647 eleven members
including Holies were charged by the army with various offences
against the state, followed on the 23rd by fresh demands for
their impeachment and for their suspension, which was refused.
On the 26th, however, the eleven members, to avoid violence,
asked leave to withdraw. Their reply to the charges against
them was handed into the House on the igth of July, and on
the 2oth Holies took leave of the House in A grave and learned
speech . . .After the riot of the apprentices on the 26th, for
which Holies disclaimed any responsibility, the eleven members
were again (3oth of July) recalled to their seats, and Holies was
one of the committee of safety appointed. On the flight of the
speaker, however, and part of the parliament to the army, and
the advance of the latter to London, Holies, whose party and
policy were now entirely defeated, left England on the 22nd of
August for Sainte-Mere Eglide in Normandy. On the 26th of
January 1648 the eleven members, who had not appeared
when summoned to answer the charges against them, were
expelled. Not long afterwards, however, on the 3rd of June,
these proceedings were annulled; and Holies, who had then
returned and was a prisoner in the Tower with the rest of the
eleven members, was discharged. He returned to his seat on
the i4th of August.
Holies was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with
the king at Newport on the i8th of September 1648. Aware
of the plans of the extreme party, Holies threw himself at the
king's feet and implored him not to waste time in useless negotia-
tions, and he was one of those who stayed behind the rest in
order to urge Charles to compliance. On the ist of December
he received the thanks of the House. On the occasion of Pride's
Purge on the 6th of December Holies absented himself and
escaped again to France. From his retirement there he wrote
to Charles II. in 1651, advising him to come to terms with the
Scots as the only means of effecting a restoration; but after
the alliance he refused Charles's offer of the secretaryship of
state. In March 1654 Cromwell, who in alarm at the plots being
formed against him was attempting to reconcile some of his
opponents to his government, sent Holies a pass " with notable
circumstances of kindness and esteem." His subsequent move-
ments and the date of his return to England are uncertain, but in
1656 Cromwell's resentment was again excited against him as
the supposed author of a tract, really written by Clarendon.
He appears to have been imprisoned, for his release was ordered
by the council on the 2nd of September 1659.
Holies took part in the conference with Monk at Northumber-
land House, when the Restoration was directly proposed, and
with the secluded members took his seat again in parliament on
the 2ist of February 1660. On the 23rd of February he was
chosen one of the council to carry on the government during
the interregnum; on the 2nd of March the votes passed against
him and the sequestration of his estates were repealed, and on
the 7th he was made custos rotulorum for Dorsetshire. He
took a leading part in bringing about the Restoration, was
chairman of the committee of seven appointed to prepare an
answer to the king's letter, and as one of the deputed Lords
and Commons he delivered at the Hague the invitation to Charles
to return. He preceded Charles to England to prepare for his
reception, and was sworn of the privy council on the sth of June.
He was one of the thirty-four commissioners appointed to try
the regicides in September and October. On the aoth of April
1661 he was created Baron Holies of Ifield in Sussex, and became
henceforth one of the leading members of the Upper House.
Holies, who was a good French scholar, was sent as ambassador
to France on the 7th of July 1663. He was ostentatiously
English, and a zealous upholder of the national honour and
interests; but his position was rendered difficult by the absence
of home support. On the 27th of January 1666 war was declared,
but Holies was not recalled till May. Pepys remarks on the
i4th of November: " Sir G. Cartaret tells me that just now my
Lord Holies had been with him and wept to think in what a
condition we are fallen." Soon afterwards he was employed
on another disagreeable mission in which the national honour
was again at stake, being sent to Breda to make a peace with
Holland in May 1667. He accomplished his task successfully,
the articles being signed on the 2ist of June.
On the 1 2th of December he protested against Lord Clarendon's
banishment and was nearly put out of the council in consequence.
In 1668 he was manager for the Lords in the celebrated Skinner's
case, in which his knowledge of precedents was of great service,
and on which occasion he published the tract The Grand
Question concerning Ike Judicature of the House of Peeres (1669).
Holies, who was honourably distinguished by Charles as a " stiff
and sullen man," and as one who would not yield to solicitation,
now became with Halifax and Shaftesbury a leader in the
resistance to the domestic and foreign policy of the court.
Together with Halifax he opposed both the arbitrary Conventicle
Act of 1670 and the Test Oath of 1675, his objection to the
latter being chiefly founded on the invasion of the privileges
of the peers which it involved; and he defended with vigour
the right of the Peers to record their protests. On the 7th of
January 1676 Holies with Halifax was summarily dismissed
from the council. On the occasion of the Commons petitioning
the king in favour of an alliance with the Dutch, Holies addressed
a Letter to Van Beuninghen at Amsterdam on " Love to our
Country and Hatred of a Common Enemy," enlarging upon the
necessity of uniting in a common defence against French aggres-
sion and in support of the Protestant religion. " The People
are strong but the Government is weak," he declares; and he
attributes the cause of weakness to the transference of power
from the nobility to the people, and to a succession of three weak
princes. " Save what (the Parliament) did, we have not taken
one true step nor struck one true stroke since Queen Elizabeth."
He endeavoured to embarrass the government this year in his
tract on Some Considerations upon the Question whether the
parliament is dissolved by its prorogation for 15 months. It was
held by the Lords to be seditious and scandalous; while for
publishing another pamphlet written by Holies entitled The
Grand Question concerning the Prorogation of this Parliament
(otherwise The Long Parliament dissolved) the corrector of the
proof sheets was committed to the Tower and fined 1000.
In order to bring about the downfall of Danby (afterwards duke
of Leeds) and the disbanding of the army, which he believed
to be intended for the suppression of the national liberties, Holies
at this time (1677-1679) engaged, as did many others, in a
614
HOLLOWAY HOLLY
dangerous intrigue with Courtin and Barillon, the French envoys,
and Louis XIV.; he refused, however, the latter's presents on
the ground that he was a member of the council, having been
appointed to Sir William Temple's new modelled cabinet in
1679. Barillon described him as at this period in his old age
" the man of all England for whom the different cabals have the
most consideration," and as firmly opposed to the arbitrary
designs of the court. He showed moderation in the Popish
Plot, and on the question of the exclusion followed Halifax
rather than Shaftesbury. His long and eventful career closed
by his death on the 1 7th of February 1680.
The character of Holies has been drawn by Burnet, with whom
he was on terms of friendship. " Hollis was a man of great
courage and of as great pride. ... He was faithful and firm to his
side and never changed through the whole course of his life. . . .
He argued well but too vehemently; for he could not bear
contradiction. He had the soul of an old stubborn Roman
in him. He was a faithful but a rough friend, and a severe
but fair enemy. He had a true sense of religion; and was a
man of an unblameable course of life and of a sound judgment
when it was not biased by passion." l Holies was essentially
an aristocrat and a Whig in feeling, making Cromwell's supposed
hatred of " Lords " a special charge against him; regarding the
civil wars rather as a social than as a political revolution, and
attributing all the evils of his time to the transference of political
power from the governing families to the " meanest of men."
He was an authority on the history and practice of parliament
and the constitution, and besides the pamphlets already men-
tioned was the author of The Case Stated concerning the Judicature
of the House of Peers in the Point of Appeals (1675); The Case
Stated of the Jurisdiction of the House of Lords in the point of
Impositions (1676); Letter of a Gentleman to his Friend showing
that the Bishops are not to be judges in Parliament in Cases Capital
(1679); Lord Holies his Remains, being a 2nd letter to a Friend
concerning the judicature of the Bishops in Parliament. . . ? He
also published A True Relation of the unjust accusation of certain
French gentlemen (1671), an account of Holles's intercession on
their behalf and of his dispute with Lord Chief Justice Keeling;
and he left Memoirs, written in exile in 1649, and dedicated
" to the unparalleled Couple, Mr Oliver St John . . . and Mr
Oliver Cromwell . . ." published in 1699 and reprinted in Baron
Maseres's Select Tracts relating to the Civil Wars, i. 189. Several
speeches of Holies were printed and are extant, and his Letter
to Van Beuninghen has been already quoted.
Holies married (i) in 1628 Dorothy, daughter and heiress of
Sir Francis Ashley; (2) in 1642 Jane, daughter and co-heiress of
Sir John Shirley of Ifield in Sussex and widow of Sir Walter
Covert of Slougham, Sussex; and (3) in 1666 Esther, daughter
and co-heiress of Gideon Le Lou of Columbiers in Normandy,
widow of James Richer. By his first wife he left one son, Francis,
who succeeded him as 2nd baron. He had no children by his
other wives, and the peerage became extinct in the person of
his grandson Denzil, 3rd Baron Holies, in 1694, the estates
devolving on John Holies (1662-1711), 4th earl of Clare and duke
of Newcastle.
Holles's brother, JOHN HOLLES, 2nd earl of Clare (1595-1666),
was member of parliament for East Retford in three parliaments
before succeeding to the peerage in 1637. He took some part in
the Civil War, but " he was very often of both parties, and never
advantaged either." The earldom of Clare, which had been
granted in 1624 by James I. to his father, John Holies, in return
for the payment of 5000, became merged in the dukedom of
Newcastle in 1694, when John Holies, the 4th earl, was created
duke of Newcastle.
Holles's Life has been written by C. H. Firth in the Dictionary
of National Biography; by Horace Walpole in Royal and Noble
Authors, ii. 28; by Guizot in Monk's Contemporaries (Eng. trans.,
1851); and by A. Collins in Historical Collections of Noble Families
(1752), and in the Biographia Britannica. See also S. R. Gardiner,
1 Burnet's History of His Own Times, vi. 257, 268.
* The rough draft, apparently in Holles's handwriting, is in Egerton
MSS. ff. 136-149.
History of England (1883-1884), and History of the Great Civil War
(1893); Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion, edited by W. D.
Macray ; G. Burnet, History of His Own Time ( 1 833) ; and B. White-
lock, Memorials (1732). (P. C. Y.)
HOLLOWAY, THOMAS (1800-1883), English patent-medicine
vendor and philanthropist, was born at Devonport, on the 22nd
of September 1800, of humble parents. Until his twenty-eighth
year he lived at Penzance, where he assisted his mother and
brother in the baker's shop which his father, once a warrant
officer in a militia regiment, had left them at his death. On
coming to London he made the acquaintance of Felix Albinolo,
an Italian, from whom he obtained the idea for the ointment
which was to carry his name all over the world. The secret of
his enormous success in business was due almost entirely to
advertisement, in the efficacy of which he had great faith. He
soon added the sale of pills to that of the ointment, and began
to devote the larger part of his profits to advertising. Holloway's
first newspaper announcement appeared on the i5th of October
1837, and in 1842 his yearly expenses for publicity had reached
the sum of 5000; this expenditure went on steadily increasing
as his sales increased, until it had reached the figure of 50,000
per annum at the time of his death. It is, however, chiefly
by the two princely foundations the Sanatorium and the
College for Women at Egham (q.v.), endowed by Holloway
towards the close of his life that his name will be perpetuated,
more than a million sterling having been set apart by him for the
erection and permanent endowment of these institutions. In
the deed of gift of the college the founder credited his wife, who
died in 1875, with the advice and counsel that led him to provide
what he hoped might ultimately become the nucleus of a uni-
versity for women. The philanthropic and somewhat eccentric
donor (he had an unconcealed prejudice against doctors, lawyers
and parsons) died of congestion of the lungs at Sunninghill on
the 26th of December 1883.
HOLLY (Ilex Aquifolium), the European representative of a
large genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Ilicineae,
containing about 1 70 species. The genus finds its chief develop-
ment in Central and South America; is well developed in Asia,
especially the Chinese -Japanese area, and has but few species
in Europe, Africa and Australia. In Europe, where I. Aquifolium
is the sole surviving species, the genus was richly represented
during the Miocene period by forms at first South American and
Asiatic, and later North American in type (Schimper, Paleont,
veget. iii. 204, 1874). The leaves are generally leathery and
evergreen, and are alternate and stalked; the flowers are com-
monly dioecious, are in axillary cymes, fascicles or umbellules,
and have a persistent four- to five-lobed calyx, a white, rotate
four- or rarely five- or six-cleft corolla, with the four or five
stamens adherent to its base in the male, sometimes hypogynous
in the female flowers, and a two- to twelve-celled ovary; the
fruit is a globose, very seldom ovoid, and usually red drupe,
containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones.
The common holly, or Hulver (apparently the K^Xaorpos of
Theophrastus; 3 Ang.-Sax. holen or holegn; Mid. Eng. holyn or
holin, whence holm and holmtree;* Welsh, celyn; Ger. Stech-
palme, Hulse, Hulst; O.Fr.houx; andFr. houlx), s I. Aquifolium,
is an evergreen shrub or low tree, having smooth, ash-coloured
bark, and wavy, pointed, smooth and glossy leaves, 2 to 3 in.
long, with a spinous margin, raised and cartilaginous below, or,
as commonly on the upper branches of the older trees, entire
3 Hist. Plant, i. 9. 3, iii. 3. i, and 4. 6, et passim. On the aqui-
folium or aquifolia of Latin authors, commonly regarded as the
holly, see A. de Grandsagne, Hist. Nat. de Flint, bk. xvi., " Notes,"
pp. 199, 206.
4 The term "holm," as indicative of a prevalence of holly, is
stated to have entered into the names of several places in Britain.
From its superficial resemblance to the holly, the tree Quercus Ilex,
the evergreen oak, received the appellation of " holm-oak."
6 Skeat (Etymolog. Diet., 1879) with reference to the word holly
remarks: " The form of the base KUL (=Teutonic HUL) is probably
connected with Lat. culmen, a peak, culmus, a stalk; perhaps
because the leaves are 'pointed.' Grimm (Deut. Worterb. Bd. iv.)
suggests that the term Hulst, as the O.H.G. Hulis, applied to the
butcher's broom, or knee-holly, in the earliest times used for hedges,
may have reference to the holly as a protecting (hullender) plant.
HOLLYHOCK
615
a peculiarity alluded to by Southey in his poem The Holly
Tree. The flowers, which appear in May, are ordinarily dioecious,
as in all the best of the cultivated varieties in nurseries (Card.
Chron., 1877, i. 149). Darwin (Dif. Forms of Flow., 1877, p.
297) says of the holly: " During several years I have examined
many plants, but have never found one that was really herma-
phrodite." Shirley Hibberd, however (Card. Chron., 1877,
ii. 777), mentions the occurrence of " flowers bearing globose
anthers well furnished with pollen, and also perfect ovaries. "
In his opinion,/. Aquifolium changes its sex from male to female
with age. In the female flowers the stamens are destitute of
pollen, though but slightly or not at all shorter than in the male
flowers; the latter are more numerous than the female, and have
a smaller ovary and a larger corolla, to which the filaments
adhere for a greater length. The corolla in male plants falls
off entire, whereas in fruit-bearers it is broken into separate
Ilex Aquifolium. Shoot bearing leaves and fruit about j nat. size.
1. Flower with abortive stamens. 4. Fruit.
2. Flower with abortive pistil. 5. Fruit cut transversely
3. Floral diagram showing arrangement showing the four
of parts in horizontal section. one-seeded stones.
segments by the swelling of the young ovary. The holly occurs
in Britain, north-east Scotland excepted, and in western and
southern Europe, from as high as 62 N. lat. in Norway to Turkey
and the Caucasus and in western Asia. It is found generally
in forest glades or in hedges, and does not flourish under the
shade of other trees. In England it is usually small, probably
on account of its destruction for timber, but it may attain to
60 or 70 ft. in height, and Loudon mentions one tree at Claremont,
in Surrey, of 80 ft. Some of the trees on Bleak Hill, Shropshire,
are asserted to be 14 ft. in girth at some distance from the
ground(^V. and Q., sth ser., xii. 508). The holly is abundant in
France, especially in Brittany. It will grow in almost any soil
not absolutely wet, but flourishes best in rather dry than moist
sandy loam. Beckmann (Hist, of Invent., 1846, i. 193) says that
the plant which first induced J. di Castro to search for alum in
Italy was the holly, which is there still considered to indicate
that its habitat is aluminiferous. The holly is propagated by
means of the seeds, which do not normally germinate until their
second year, by whip-grafting and budding, and by cuttings of
the matured summer shoots, which, placed in sandy soil and
kept under cover of a hand-glass in sheltered situations, generally
strike root in spring. Transplantation should be performed in
damp weather in September and October, or, according to some
writers, in spring or on mild days in winter, and care should be
taken that the roots are not dried by exposure to the air. It is
rarely injured by frosts in Britain, where its foliage and bright
red berries in winter render it a valuable ornamental tree. The
yield of berries has been noticed to be less when a warm spring,
following on a wet winter season, has promoted excess of growth.
There are numerous varieties of the holly. Some trees have
yellow, and others white or even black fruit. In the fruitless
variety laurifolia, " the most floriferous of all hollies " (Hibberd),
the flowers are highly fragrant; the form known as femina is,
on the other hand, remarkable for the number of its berries.
The leaves in the unarmed varieties aureo-marginata and albo-
marginata are of great beauty, and infer ox they are studded with
sharp prickles. The holly is of importance as a hedge-plant,
and is patient of clipping, which is besi performed by the knife.
Evelyn's holly hedge at Say's Court, Deptford, was 400 ft. long,
9 ft. high and 5 ft. in breadth. To form fences, for which Evelyn
recommends the employment of seedlings from woods, the
plants should be 9 to 12 in. in height, with plenty of small
fibrous roots, and require to be set i to 15 ft. apart, in well-
manured and weeded ground and thoroughly watered.
The wood of the holly is even-grained and hard, especially
when from the heartwood of large trees, and almost as white
as ivory, except near the centre of old trunks, where it is brownish.
It is employed in inlaying and turning, and, since it stains well,
in the place of ebony, as for teapot handles. For engraving it
is inferior to box. When dry it weighs about 47! ft), per cub. ft.
From the bark of the holly bird-lime is manufactured. From
the leaves are obtainable a colouring matter named ilixanthin,
Hide acid, and a bitter principle, ilicin, which has been variously
described by different analytical chemists. They are eaten by
sheep and deer, and in parts of France serve as a winter fodder
for cattle. The berries provoke in man violent vomiting and
purging, but are eaten with immunity by thrushes and other
birds. The larvae of the moths Sphinx liguslri and Phoxopteryx
naevana have been met with on holly. The leaves are mined
by the larva of a fly, Phytomyza ilicis, and both on them and
the tops of the young twigs occurs the plant-louse Aphis ilicis
(Kaltenbach, Pflanzenfeinde, 1874, p. 427). The custom of
employing holly and other plants for decorative purposes at
Christmas is one of considerable antiquity, and has been regarded
as a survival of the usages of the Roman Saturnalia, or of an old
Teutonic practice of hanging the interior of dwellings with ever-
greens as a refuge for sylvan spirits from the inclemency of
winter. A Border proverb defines an habitual story-teller as
one that " lees never but when the hollen is green." Several
popular superstitions exist with respect to holly. In the county
of Rutland it is deemed unlucky to introduce it into a house
before Christmas Eve. In some English rural districts the prickly
and non-prickly kinds are distinguished as " he " and " she "
holly; and in Derbyshire the tradition obtains that according
as the holly brought at Christmas into a house is smooth or
rough, the wife or the husband will be master. Holly that has
adorned churches at that season is in Worcestershire and Here-,
fordshire much esteemed and cherished, the possession of a
small branch with berries being supposed to bring a lucky year;
and Lonicerus mentions a notion in his time vulgarly prevalent
in Germany that consecrated twigs of the plant hung over a door
are a protection against thunder.
Among the North American species of Ilex are I. opaca, which
resembles the European tree, the Inkberry, /. (Prinos) glabra, and
the American Black Alder, or Winterberry, /. (Prinos) verticillata.
Hooker (FL of Brit. India, i. 598, 606) enumerates twenty-four Indian
species of Ilex. The Japanese /. crenata, and /.' latifolia, a remark-
ably hardy plant, and the North American /. Cassine, are among
the species cultivated in Britain. The leaves of several species of
Ilex are used by dyers. The member of the genus most important
economically is /. paraguariensis, the prepared leaves of which con-
stitute Paraguay tea, or MATE (q.v.). Knee holly is Ruscus aculeatus,
or butcher's broom (see BROOM); sea holly, Eryngium maritimum,
an umbelliferous plant; and the mountain holly of America, Nemo-
panthes canadensis, also a member of the order Ilicineae.
Besides the works above mentioned, see Louden, Arboretum, ii.
506 (1844).
HOLLYHOCK (from M.E. holt doubtless because brought
from the Holy Land, where it is indigenous (Wedg.) and A.-S.
6i6
HOLLY SPRINGS HOLMES, O. W.
hoc, a mallow), Althaea rosea, a perennial plant of the natural
order Malvaceae, a native of the East, which has been cultivated
in Great Britain for about three centuries. The ordinary
hollyhock is single-blossomed, but the florists' varieties have
all double flowers, of white, yellow, rose, purple, violet and
other tints, some being almost black. The plant is in its prime
about August, but by careful management examples may be
obtained in blossom from July to as late as November. Holly-
hocks are propagated from seed, or by division of the root, or
by planting out in rich sandy soil, in a close frartie, with a gentle
bottom heat, single eyes from woodshoots, or cuttings from
outgrowths of the old stock or of the lateral offsets of the spike.
The seed may be sown in October under cover, the plants
obtained being potted in November, and kept under glass till
the following April, or, if it be late-gathered, in May or June,
in the open ground, whence, if required, the plants are best
removed in October or April. In many gardens, when the plants
are not disturbed, self-sown seedlings come up in abundance
about April and May. Seedlings may also be raised in February
or March, by the aid of a gentle heat, in a light and rich moist
soil; they should not be watered till they have made their
second leaves, and when large enough for handling should be
pricked off in a cold frame; they are subsequently transferred
to the flower-bed. Hollyhocks thrive best in a well-trenched
and manured sandy loam. The spikes as they grow must be
staked; and water and, for the finest blossoms, liquid manure
should be liberally supplied to the roots. Plants for exhibition
require the side growths to be pinched out; and it is recom-
mended, in cold, bleak or northerly localities, when the flowering
is over, and the stalks have been cut off 4 to 6 in. above the soil,
to earth up the crowns with sand. Some of the finest double-
flowered kinds of hollyhock do not bloom well in Scotland.
The plant is susceptible of great modification under cultivation.
The forms now grown are due to the careful selection and
crossing of varieties. It is found that the most diverse varieties
may be raised with certainty from plants growing near together.
The young shoots of the hollyhock are very liable to the
attacks of slugs, and to a disease occasioned by a fungus, Puccinia
malvacearum, which .is a native of Chile, attained notoriety
in the Australian colonies, and finally, reaching Europe in
1869, threatened the extermination of the hollyhock, the soft
parts of the leaves of which it destroys, leaving the venation
only remaining. It has been found especially hurtful to the
plant in dry seasons. It is also parasitic on the wild mallows.
The disease appears on the leaves as minute hard pale-brown
pustules, filled with spores which germinate without a resting-
period, but when produced late in the season may last as resting-
spores until next spring. Spraying early in the season with
Bordeaux mixture is an effective preventive, but the best means
of treatment is to destroy all leaves as soon as they show signs
of being attacked, and to prevent the growth of other host-plants
such as mallows, in the neighbourhood. In hot dry seasons, red-
spider injures the foliage very much, but may be kept at bay
by syringing the plants frequently with plenty of clean water.
HOLLY SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of Marshall
county, Mississippi, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, 45 m.
S.E. of Memphis. Pop. (1890) 2246; (1900) 2815 (1559
negroes); (1910) 2192. Holly Springs is served by the Illinois
Central and the Kansas City, Memphis & Birmingham (Frisco
System) railways. The city has broad and well-shaded streets,
and a fine court-house and court-house square. It is the seat
of Rust University (opened in 1867), a Methodist Episcopal
institution for negroes; of the Mississippi Synodical College
(1905; Presbyterian), for white girls; and of the North Missis-
sippi Agricultural Experiment Station. The principal industries
are the ginning, compressing and shipping of cotton, and the
manufacture of cotton-seed oil, but the city also manufactures
pottery and brick from clay obtained in the vicinity, and has
an ice factory, bottling works and marble works. The munici-
pality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting
plant. Holly Springs was founded in 1837 and was chartered
as a city in 1896. Early in December 1862 General Grant
established here a large depot of supplies designed for the use
of the Federal army while on its march toward Vicksburg, but
General Earl Van Dorn, with a brigade of cavalry, surprised
the post at daylight on the 2oth of this month, burned the supplies
and took 1500 prisoners. Holly Springs was the home and is
the burial-place of Edward Gary Walthall (1831-1898), a Demo-
cratic member of the United States Senate in 1885-1894 and
in 1895-1898.
HOLMAN, JAMES (1786-1857), known as the "Blind
Traveller," was born at Exeter on the isth of October 1786.
He entered the British navy in 1798 as first-class volunteer, and
was appointed lieutenant in April 1807. In 1810 he was invalided
by an illness which resulted in total loss of sight. In considera-
tion of his helpless circumstances he was in 1812 appointed one
of the royal knights of Windsor, but the quietness of such a
life harmonized so ill with his active habits and keen interests
that he requested leave of absence to go abroad, and in 1819,
1820 and 1821 journeyed through France, Italy, Switzerland,
the parts of Germany bordering on the Rhine, Belgium and the
Netherlands. On his return he published The Narrative of a
Journey through France, &c. (London, 1822). He again set out
in 1822 with the design of making the circuit of the world, but
after travelling through Russia into Siberia, he was suspected
of being a spy, was arrested when he had managed to penetrate
1000 m. beyond Smolensk, and after being conducted to the
frontiers of Poland, returned home by Austria, Saxony, Prussia
and Hanover. He now issued Travels through Russia, Siberia,
&c. (London, 1825). Shortly afterwards he again set out to
accomplish by a somewhat different method the design which
had been frustrated by the Russian authorities; and an account
of his remarkable achievement was published in four volumes
in 1834-1835, under the title of A Voyage round the World,
including Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, &c.,
from 1827 to 1832. His last journeys were through Spain,
Portugal, Moldavia, Montenegro, Syria and Turkey; and he
was engaged in preparing an account of this tour when he died
in London on the 29th of July 1857.
HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (1809-1894), American writer
and physician, was born on the 29th of August 1809 at Cambridge,
Mass. His father, Abiel Holmes (1763-1837), was a Calvinist
clergyman, the writer of a useful history, Annals of America,
and of much very dull poetry. His mother (the second wife of
Abiel) was Sarah Wendell, of a distinguished New York family.
Through her Dr Holmes was descended from Governors Thomas
Dudley and Simon Bradstreet of Massachusetts, and from her
he derived his cheerfulness and vivacity, his sympathetic
humour and wit. From Phillips (Andover) Academy he entered
Harvard in the " famous class of '29," made further illustrious
by the charming lyrics which he wrote for the anniversary
dinners from 1851 to 1889, closing with the touching "After
the Curfew." After graduation he studied law perfunctorily
for a year and dabbled in literature, winning the public ear by
a spirited lyric called forth by the order to destroy the old
frigate Constitution. These verses were sung all over the land,
and induced the Navy Department to revoke its order and save
the old ship. Turning next to medicine, and convinced by a
brief experience in Boston that he liked it, he went to Paris in
March 1833. He studied industriously under Louis and other
famous physicians and surgeons in France, and in his vacations
visited the Low Countries, England, Scotland and Italy. Re-
turning to Boston at the close of 1835, filled with a high pro-
fessional ambition, he sought practice, but achieved only
moderate success. Social, brilliant in conversation, and a writer
of gay little poems, he seemed to the grave Bostonians not suffi-
ciently serious. He won prizes, however, for professional papers,
and lectured on anatomy at Dartmouth College. He wrote
two papers on homoeopathy, which he attacked with trenchant
wit; also a valuable paper on the malarial fevers of New England.
In 1843 he published his essay on the Contagiousness of Puerperal
Fever, which stirred up a fierce controversy and brought upon
him bitter personal abuse; but he maintained his position
with dignity, temper and judgment ; and in time he was honoured
HOLMES, O. W.
617
as the discoverer of a beneficent truth. The volume of his
medical essays holds some of his most sparkling wit, his shrewdest
observation, his kindliest humanity. In 1840 he married Amelia
Lee Jackson, daughter of the Hon. Charles Jackson (1775-1855),
formerly associate justice of the State supreme judicial court,
a lady of rare charm alike of mind and character. She died in
the winter of 1887-1888. Their first-born child, Oliver Wendell
Holmes, afterwards became chief justice of that same bench
on which his grandfather sat. In 1847 Dr Holmes was appointed
professor of anatomy and physiology in the Medical School
of Harvard University, the duties involving the giving of in-
struction also in kindred departments, so that, as he said, he
occupied " not a chair, but a settee in the school." He delivered
the anatomical lectures until November 1882, and in later years
these were his only link with the medical profession. They were
fresh, witty and lively; and the students were sent to him at
the end of the day, when they were fagged, because he alone
could keep them awake. In later years he made few finished
contributions to medical knowledge; his eager and impetuous
temperament caused him to leave more patient investigators
to push to ultimate results the suggestions thrown out by his
fertile and imaginative mind.
In 1836, being in that year the Phi Beta Kappa poet at
Harvard University, he published his first volume of Poems,
which afterwards reached a second edition. Among these earlier
lyrics was " The Last Leaf," one of the most delicate combina-
tions of pathos and humour in literature. His collected poetry
fills three volumes. In 1856-1857 a Boston publishing house
(Phillips, Sampson, and Co.) invited James Russell Lowell to
edit a new magazine, which he agreed to do on condition that
he could secure the assistance of Dr Holmes. By this urgent
invitation the Doctor was equally surprised and flattered, for
heretofore he had stood rather outside the literary coterie of
Cambridge and Boston. He accepted with pleasure, and at once
threw himself into the enterprise with zeal. He christened it
The Atlantic Monthly; and, as Mr Howells afterwards said, he
" not only named but made " it, for in each number of its first
volume there appeared one of the papers of the Autocrat of the
Breakfast Table. The opening of the Autocrat " I was just
going to say when I was interrupted " is explained by the fact
that in the old New England Magazine (1831 to 1833) the Doctor
had published two Autocrat papers, which, by his wish, have
never been reprinted. In the commercial panic of 1857 the new
magazine would inevitably have failed had it not been for these
fascinating essays. Their originality of conception, their wit
and humour, their suggestions of what then seemed bold ideas,
and their expression of New Englandism, all combined to make
them so popular that the most harassed merchant in that gloomy
winter purchased them as a dose of cheering medicine. Thus Dr
Holmes made The Atlantic Monthly, which in return made
him. A success so immediate and so splendid settled the rest
of his career; he ceased to be a physician and became an author.
These twelve papers were immediately (1858) published as a
volume. No sooner was the Autocrat silent than the Professor
(1859) succeeded him at the breakfast table. The Professor
was preferred by more thoughtful readers, though it has hardly
been so widely popular as the Autocrat. Its theology, which
seemed in those days audacious, frightened many of the strict
and old-fashioned religionists of New England, though to-day
it seems mild enough. Twelve years later, in 1871, the Landlady
had another boarder, who took the vacant chair the Poet
(published 1872). But here Holmes fell a little short. In these
three books, especially in the Autocrat and the Professor, the
Doctor wrote as he talked at many a dinner table in Boston,
but less well. The animation and clash of talk roused him. The
dinners of the Saturday Club are among Boston's proudest
traditions, as they were the chief pleasure of Dr Holmes's life.
There he met Emerson, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Sumner,
Agassiz, Motley, and many other charming talkers, and among
them all he was admitted to be the best.
There were characters and incidents, but hardly a story, in
the Autocrat and the Professor. Holmes had an ambition for
more sustained work, and in 1861 his novel, Elsie Venner, at
first called The Professor's Story, was published. The book
was illuminated throughout by admirable pictures of character
and society in the typical New England town. But the rattle-
snake element was unduly extravagant, and in other respects
the book was open to criticism as a work of art. It was written
with the same purpose which informed the greatest part of the
Doctor's literary work, and which had already been scented
and nervously condemned by the religious world. By heredity
the Doctor was a theologian; no other topic enchained him
more than did the stern and merciless dogmas of his Calvinist
forefathers. His humanity revolted against them, his reason con-
demned them, and he set himself to their destruction as his task
in literature. The religious world of his time was still so largely
under the control of old ideas that he was assailed as a freethinker
and a subverter of Christianity; though before his death opinions
had so changed that the bitterness of the attacks upon him
seemed incredible, even to some of those who had most
vehemently made them. None the less, undaunted and pro-
foundly earnest, he returned, six years later, to the same line of
thought in his second novel, The Guardian Angel (published
1867). This, though less well known than Elsie Venner, is in
many respects better. No more lifelike and charming picture
of the society of the New England country-town of the middle
third of the igth century has ever been drawn, and every page
sparkles with wit and humour. In 1884 and 1885 it was followed,
still in the same line, by A Mortal Antipathy, a production
inferior to its predecessors.
Holmes generally held himself aloof from politics, and from
those " causes " of temperance, abolition and woman's rights
which enthralled most of his contemporaries in New England.
The Civil War, however, aroused him for the time; finding him
first a strenuous Unionist, it quickly converted him into an
ardent advocate of emancipation. His interest was enhanced
by the career of his elder son Oliver (see below), who was three
times severely wounded, and finally rose to the rank of lieut.-
colonel in the Northern army. He wrote some ringing war
lyrics, and in 1863 delivered the Fourth of July oration in
Boston, which showed a masterly appreciation of the stirring
public questions of the day. In 1878 Dr Holmes wrote a memoir
of the historian John Lothrop Motley, an affectionate tribute to
one who had been his dear friend. In 1884 he contributed the
life of Emerson to the American " Men of Letters " series. He
admired the "Sage of Concord," but was not quite in intellectual
sympathy with him. Both were Liberals in thought, but in
widely different ways. But in spite of this handicap the volume
proved very popular. In 1888 he began the papers which he
happily christened Over the Tea Cups. As a tour de force on the
part of a man of nearly fourscore years they are very remarkable.
After his return from Paris in 1835 Dr Holmes lived in Boston,
with summer sojournings at Pittsfield and Beverly Farms, and
occasional trips to neighbouring cities, until 1886. He then
undertook a four months' journey in Europe, and in England
had a sort of triumphal progress. On his return he wrote Our
Hundred Days in Europe (1887), a courteous recognition of the
hospitality and praise which had been accorded to him. During
this visit Cambridge University made him Doctor of Letters,
Edinburgh University made him Doctor of Laws, and Oxford
University made him Doctor of Civil Law. Already, in 1880,
Harvard University had made him Doctor of Laws. He died
on the 7th of October 1894, and was buried from King's Chapel,
Boston, in the cemetery of Mount Auburn.
His eldest son Oliver Wendell (b. 1841), who graduated from
Harvard in 1861 and fought in the Civil War, retiring from the
army as brevet lieut.-colonel in 1864, took up the study of
law and was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1866. He was'
for some years editor of the American Law Review, and after
being professor in the Harvard Law School in 1882 was appointed
in the same year a judge of the Massachusetts supreme court,
rising to be chief justice in 1899. In 1902 he was made a judge
of the United States Supreme Court. His work on The Common
Law (1881) and his edition (1873) of Kent's Commentaries
6i8
HOLMFIRTH HOLSTEN
are his principal publications; and he became widely recognized
as one of the great jurists of his day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Holmes's Complete Works, in 13 volumes, were
published at Boston in 1891. See J. T. Morse, Life and Letters of Oliver
Wendell Holmes (London, 1896); G. B. Ives, Bibliography (Boston,
1907); and the bibliography in P. K. Foley's American Authors
(Boston, 1897). An essay by Sir Leslie Stephen is prefixed to the
" Golden Treasury " edition (1903) of The Autocrat of the Break-
fast Table. See also monographs by William Sloane Kennedy
(Boston, 1882); Emma E. Brown (Boston, 1884). 0- T. Mo.)
HOLMFIRTH, an urban district in the Holmfirth parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on
and Holme and the Ribble, 6 m. S. of Huddersfield, and on the
Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 8977. The
valley, walled by bold hills, is very picturesque. In 1852 great
destruction was wrought in the town by the bursting of a reservoir
in the vicinity. The large industrial population is employed in
woollen manufactories, and in the neighbouring stone quarries.
HOLOCAUST (Gr. oKoKavarov, or okoKavrov, wholly burnt),
strictly a sacrifice wholly destroyed by fire, such as the sacrifices
of the Jews, described in the Pentateuch as " whole burnt
offerings " (see SACRIFICE). The term is now often applied to a
catastrophe on a large scale, whether by fire or not, or to a
massacre or slaughter.
HOLOCENE (from Gr. oXos, whole, KO.IVOS, recent), in geology,
the time division which embraces the youngest of all the forma-
tions; it is equivalent to the " Recent " of some authors. The
name was proposed in 1860 by P. Gervais. The oldest deposits
that may be included are those containing neolithic implements;
deposits of historic times should also be grouped here; pre-
sumably the youngest are those to be chronicled by the last man.
The Holocene formations obviously include all the varieties of
deposits which are accumulating at the present day: the grqvels
and alluvia of rivers; boulder clays, moraines and fluvio-glacial
deposits; estuarine, coastal and abyssal deposits of the seas,
and their equivalents in lakes; screes, taluses, wind-borne dust
and sand and desert formations; chemical deposits from saline
waters; peat, diatomite, marls, foraminiferal and other oozes;
coral, algal and shell banks, and other organic deposits; mud,
lava and dust deposits of volcanic origin and extrusions of asphalt
and pitch; to all these must be added the works of man.
HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES (1861- ), British artist, was
born in Leeds on the 9th of April 1861. He received his art
education under Prof essorLegros at the Slade School, University
College, London, where he had a distinguished career. After
passing six months at Newlyn, where he painted his first picture
exhibited in the Royal Academy, " Fishermen Mending a Sail "
(1885), he obtained a travelling scholarship and studied for two
years in Italy, a sojourn which greatly influenced his art. At his
return, on the invitation of Legros, he became for two years
assistant-master at the Slade School, and there devoted himself
to painting and etching. Among his pictures may be mentioned
" The Death of Torrigiano " (1886), " The Satyr King " (1889),
" The Supper at Emmaus," and, perhaps his best picture, " Pan
and Peasants " (1893). For the church of Aveley, Essex, he
painted a triptych altarpiece, " The Adoration of the Shepherds,"
with wings representing " St Michael " and " St Gabriel," and
designed as well the window, " The Resurrection." His portraits,
such as that of " G. F. Watts, R.A.," in the Legros manner, show
much dignity and distinction. Sir Charles Holroyd has made his
chief reputation as an etcher of exceptional ability, combining
strength with delicacy, and a profound technical knowledge of
the art. Among the best known are the " Monte Oliveto "
series, the " Icarus " series, the " Monte Subasio " series, and
the " Eve " series, together with the plates, " The Flight into
Egypt," " The Prodigal Son," " A Barn on Tadworth Common "
(etched in the open air), and "The Storm." His etched
heads of " Professor Legros," "Lord Courtney" and "Night,"
are admirable alike in knowledge and in likeness. His principal
dry-point is " The Bather." In all his work Holroyd displays
an impressive sincerity, with a fine sense of composition, and of
style, allied to independent and modern feeling. He was
appointed the first keeper of the National Gallery of British Art
(Tate Gallery), and on the retirement of Sir Edward Poynter
in 1906 he received the directorship of the National Gallery.
He was knighted in 1903. His Michael Angela Buonarotti
(London, Duckworth, 1903) is a scholarly work of real value.
HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON (1837-1909), German states-
man, for more than thirty years head of the political department
of the German Foreign Office. Holstein's importance began
with the dismissal of Bismarck in 1890. The new chancellor,
Caprivi, was ignorant of foreign affairs; and Holstein, as the
repository of the Bismarckian tradition, became indispensable.
This reluctance to emerge into publicity has been ascribed to the
part he had played under Bismarck in the Arnim affair, which
had made him powerful enemies; it was, however, possibly due
to a shrinking from the responsibility of office. Yet the weakness
of his position lay just in the fact that he was not ultimately
responsible. He protested against the despatch of the " Kruger
telegram," but protested in vain. On the other hand, where
his ideas were acceptable, he was generally able to realize them.
Thus it was almost entirely due to him that Germany acquired
Kiao-chau and asserted her interests in China, and the acquisition
of Samoa was also largely his work. If the skill and pertinacity
with which Holstein carried through his plans in these matters
was learned in the school of Bismarck, he had not acquired
Bismarck's faculty for foreseeing their ulterior consequences.
This is true of his Chinese policy, and true also of his part in the
Morocco crisis. The emperor William II. 's journey to Tangier
was undertaken on his advice, as a protest against the supposed
attempt at the isolation of Germany; but of the later develop-
ments of German policy in the Morocco question he did not
approve, on the ground that the result would merely be to
strengthen the Anglo-French entente; and from the i2th of
March 1906 onwards he took no active part in the matter. To
the last he believed that the position of Germany would remain
unsafe until an understanding had been arrived at with Great
Britain, and it was this belief that determined his attitude
towards the question of the fleet, " beside which," he wrote in
February 1909, " all other questions are of lesser account."
His views on this question were summarized in a memorandum
of December 1907, of which Herr von Rath gives a resume.
He objected to the programme of the German Navy League on
three main grounds: (i) the ill-feeling likely to be aroused in
South Germany, (2) the inevitable dislocation of the finances
through the huge additional charges involved, (3) the suspicion
of Germany's motives in foreign countries, which would bind
Great Britain still closer to France. As for the idea that
Germany's power would be increased, this he wrote in reply
to a letter from Admiral Galster was " a simple question of
arithmetic "; for how would the sea-power of Germany be rela-
tively increased if for every new German ship Great Britain built
two? Herr von Holstein retired on the resignation of Prince
Btilow, and died on the 8th of May 1909.
See Hermann von Rath, " Erinnerungen an Herrn von Holstein "
in the Deutsche Revue for October 1909. He is also frequently
mentioned passim in Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe's Memoirs.
HOLSTEIN, formerly a duchy of Germany. Until about mo
the county of Holstein formed part of the duchy of Saxony, and
it was made a duchy in 1472. From 1460 to 1864 it was ruled
by members of the house of Oldenburg, some of whom were also
kings of Denmark. It is now the southern part of the Prussian
province of Schleswig-Holstein. (See SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, and
for history SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION.
HOLSTEN, KARL CHRISTIAN JOHANN (1825-1897), German
theologian, was born at Giistrow, Mecklenburg, on the 3ist of
March 1825, and educated at Leipzig, Berlin and Rostock,
where in 1852 he became a teacher of religion in the Gymnasium.
In 1870 he went to Bern as professor of New Testament studies,
passing thence in 1876 to Heidelberg, where he remained until
his death on the 26th of January 1897. Holsten was an adherent
of the Tubingen school, and held to Baur's views on the alleged
antagonism between Petrinism and Paulinism.
Among his writings are Zum Evangelium d. Paulus und d. Petrus
(1867); Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt (1880); Die syn-
optischen Evangelien nach der Form ihres Inhalts (1886).
HOLSTENIUS HOLTEI
619
HOLSTENIUS, LUCAS, the Latinized name of Luc Holste
(1596-1661), German humanist, geographer and theological
writer, was born at Hamburg. He studied at Leiden university,
where he became intimate with the most famous scholars of the
age J. Meursius, D. Heinsius and P. Cluverius, whom he
accompanied on his travels in Italy and Sicily. Disappointed
at his failure to obtain a post in the gymnasium of his native
town, he left Germany for good. Having spent two years in
Oxford and London, he went to Paris. Here he obtained the
patronage of N. de Peiresc, who recommended him to Cardinal
Francesco Barberini, papal nuncio and the possessor of the most
important private library in Rome. On the cardinal's return
in 1627 he took Holstenius to live with him in his palace and
made him his librarian. Although converted to Roman Catho-
licism in 1625, Holstenius showed his liberal-mindedness by
strenuously opposing the strict censorship exercised by the
Congregation of the Index. He was appointed librarian of the
Vatican by Innocent X., and was sent to Innsbruck by Alexander
VII. to receive Queen Christina's abjuration of Protestantism.
He died in Rome on the 2nd of February 1661. Holstenius was
a man of unwearied industry and immense learning, but he
lacked the persistency to carry out the vast literary schemes he
had planned. He was the author of notes on Cluvier's Italia
antiqua (1624); an edition of portions of Porphyrius (1630),
with a dissertation on his life and writings, described as a model
of its kind; notes on Eusebius Against Hierocles (1628), on
the Sayings of the later Pythagoreans (1638), and the De diis
et mundo of the neo-Platonist Sallustius (1638); Notae et
castigationes in Slephani Byzantini ethnica (first published in
1684) ; and Codex regularum, Collection of the Early Rules of the
Monastic Orders (1661). His correspondence (Epislolae ad
diversos, ed. J. F. Boisscnade, 1817) is a valuable source of
information on the literary history of his time.
See N. Wilckens, Leben des gelehrten Lucae Holstenii (Hamburg,
I 7 2 3)l Johann Moller, Cimbria literata, iii. (1744).
HOLSTER, a leather case to hold a pistol, used by a horseman
and properly fastened to the saddle-bow, but sometimes worn
in the belt. The same word appears in Dutch, from which the
English word probably directly derives. The root is hel- or hul-
lo cover, and is seen in the 0. Eng. heolster, a place of shelter or
concealment, and in " hull " a sheath or covering. The German
word for the same object, holfter, is, according to the New
English Dictionary, from a different root.
HOLT, SIR JOHN (1642-1710), lord chief justice of England,
was born at Thame, Oxfordshire, on the 3oth of December 1642.
His father, Sir Thomas Holt, possessed a small patrimonial
estate, but in order to supplement his income had adopted the
profession of law, in which he was not very successful, although
he became sergeant in 1677, and afterwards for his political
services to the " Tories " was rewarded with knighthood. After
attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon,
of which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year
entered Oriel College, Oxford. He is said to have spent a very
dissipated youth, and even to have been in the habit of taking
purses on the highway, but after entering Gray's Inn about 1660
he applied himself with exemplary diligence to the study of law.
He was called to the bar in 1663. An ardent supporter of civil
and religious liberty, he distinguished himself in the state trials
which were then so common by the able and courageous manner in
which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In 1685-1686
he was appointed recorder of London, and about the same time
he was made king's sergeant and received the honour of knight-
hood. His giving a decision adverse to the pretensions of the
king to exercise martial law in time of peace led to his dismissal
from the office of recorder, but he was continued in the office
of king's sergeant in order to prevent him from becoming counsel
for accused persons. Having been one of the judges who acted
as assessors to the peers in the Convention parliament, he took
a leading part in arranging the constitutional change by which
William III. was called to the throne, and after his accession he
was appointed lord chief justice of the King's Bench. His merits
as a judge are the more apparent and the more remarkable
when contrasted with the qualities displayed by his predecessors
in office. In judicial fairness, legal knowledge and ability, clear-
ness of statement and unbending integrity he has had few if
any superiors on the English bench. Over the civil rights of his
countrymen he exercised a jealous watchfulness, more especially
when presiding at the trial of state prosecutions, and he was
especially careful that all accused persons should be treated with
fairness and respect. He is, however, best known for the firmness
with which he upheld his own prerogatives in opposition to the
authority of the Houses of Parliament. On several occasions
his physical as well as his moral courage was tried by extreme
tests. Having been requested to supply a number of police
to help the soldiery in quelling a riot, he assured the messenger
that if any of the people were shot he would have the soldiers
hanged, and proceeding himself to the scene of riot he was
successful in preventing bloodshed. While steadfast in his
sympathies with the Whig party, Holt maintained on the bench
entire political impartiality, and always held himself aloof from
political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the chan-
cellorship in 1700 he was offered the great seal, but declined it.
His death took place in London on the 5th of March 1710.
He was buried in the chancel of Redgrave church.
Reports of Cases determined by Sir John Holt (1681-1710) appeared
at London in 1738; and The Judgments delivered in the case of Ashby
v. White and others, and in the case of John Paly and others, printed
from original MSS., at London (1837). See Burnet's Own Times;
Taller, No. xiv. ; a Life, published in 1764; Welsby, Lives of Eminent
English Judges of the i?th and l8th Centuries (1846) ; Campbell 's
Lives of the Lord Chief Justices; and Foss, Lives of the Judges.
HOLTEI, KARL EDUARD VON (1798-1880), German poet
and actor, was born at Breslau on the 24th of January 1798,
the son of an officer of Hussars. Having served in the Prussian
army as a volunteer in 1815, he shortly afterwards entered the
university of Breslau as a student of law; but, attracted by
the stage, he soon forsook academic life and made his debut
in the Breslau theatre as Mortimer in Schiller's Maria Stuart.
He led a wandering life for the next two years, appearing less
on the stage as an actor than as a reciter of his own poems.
In 1821 he married the actress Luise Rogee (1800-1825), and
was appointed theatre-poet to the Breslau stage. He next
removed to Berlin, where his wife fulfilled an engagement at
the Court theatre. During his sojourn here he produced the
vaudevilles Die Wiener in Berlin (1824), and Die Berliner in Wien
(1825), pieces which enjoyed at the time great popular favour.
In 1825 his wife died; but soon after her death he accepted an
engagement at the Konigsstadter theatre in Berlin, when he
wrote a number of plays, notably Lenore (1829) and Der alte
Feldherr (1829). In 1830 he married Julie Holzbecher (1809-
1839), an actress engaged at the same theatre, and with her
played in Darmstadt. Returning to Berlin in 1831 he wrote
for the composer Franz Glaser (1798-1861) the text of the opera
Des Adlers Horst (1835), and for Ludwig Devrient the drama,
Der dumme Peter (1837). In 1833 Holtei again went on the
stage and toured with his wife to various important cities,
Hamburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich and Vienna. In the last
his declamatory powers as a reciter, particularly of Shakespeare's
plays, made a furore, and the poet-actor was given the appoint-
ment of manager of the Josefstadter theatre in the last-named
city. Though proud of his successes both as actor and reciter,
Holtei left Vienna in 1836, and from 1837 to 1839 conducted the
theatre in Riga. Here his second wife died, and after wandering
through Germany reciting and accepting a short engagement
at Breslau, he settled in 1847 at Graz, where he devoted himself
to a literary life and produced the novels Die Vagabunden (1851),
Christian Lammfell (1853) and Der letzte Komodiant (1863).
The last years of his life were spent at Breslau, where being in
poor circumstances he found a home in the Kloster der barm-
herzigen Brtider, and here he died on the i2th of February 1880.
As a dramatist Holtei may be said to have introduced the
"vaudeville" into Germany; as an actor, although remaining
behind the greater artists of his time, he contrived to fascinate
his audience by the dramatic force of his exposition of character;
as a reciter/especially of Shakespeare, he knew no rival. August
620
HOLTY HOLY
Lewald said of Holtei that by the energy of his poetic conception
and plastic force he brought his audience round to his own ideas;
and he added, " an eloquence such as his I have never met with
in any other German."
Holtei was not only a stage-poet but a lyric-writer of great
charm. Notable among such productions are Schlesische
Gedichte (1830; zoth ed., 1893), Gedichte (sth ed., 1861), Stimmen
des Waldes (and ed., 1854). Mention ought also to be made
of Holtei's interesting autobiography, Vierzig Jahre (8 vols.,
1843-1850; 3rd ed., 1862) with the supplementary volume
Noch ein Jahr in Schlesien (1864).
Holtei's Theater appeared in 6 vols. (1867) ; his Erzahlende Schrif-
ten, 39 vols. (1861-1866). See M. Kurnick, Karl von Holtei, e^n
Lebensbild (1880) ; F. Wehl, Zeit und Memchen (1889) ; O. Storch,
K. von Holtei (1898).
HOLTY, LUDWIG HEINRICH CHRISTOPH (1748-1776),
German poet, was born on the 2ist of December 1748 at the
village of Mariensee in Hanover, where his father was pastor.
In 1 769 he went to study theology at Gottingen. Here he formed
a close friendship with J. M. Miller, J. H. Voss, H. Boie, the
brothers Stolberg and others, and became one of the founders
of the famous society of young poets known as the Gottinger
Dichterbund or Hain. When in 1774 he left the university he
had abandoned all intention of becoming a clergyman; but he
was not destined to enter any other profession. He died of
consumption on the ist of September 1776 at Hanover. Holty
was the most gifted lyric poet of the Gottingen circle. He was
influenced both by Uz and Klopstock, but his love for the
Volkslied and his delight in nature preserved him from the
artificiality of the one poet and the unworldliness of the other.
A strain of melancholy runs through all his lyrics. His ballads
are the pioneers of the rich ballad literature on English models,
which sprang up in Germany during the next few years. Among
his most familiar poems may be mentioned Vb' immer Treu' und
Redlichkeit, Tanzt dem schonen Mai entgegen, Rosen auf dem
Weg gestreut, and Wer wollte sich mil Grillen plagen?
Holty's Gedichte were published by his friends Count Friedrich
Leopold zu Stolberg and J. H. Voss (Hamburg, 1783) ; a new edition,
enlarged by Voss, with a biography (1804); a more complete but
still imperfect edition by F. Voigts (Hanover, 1857). The first
complete edition was that of Karl Halm (Leipzig, 1870), who had
access to MSS. not hitherto known. See H. Ruete, Holty, sein Leben
und Dichten (Guben, 1883), and A. Sauer, Der Gottinger Dichterbund,
vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1894), where an excellent selection of Holty's
poetry will be found.
HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP
VON (1829-1889), German jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in
the Mark of Brandenburg, on the i4th of October 1829, was
descended from a family of the old nobility. He was educated
at Berlin and at Pforta, afterwards studying law at the uni-
versities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. The struggles of
1848 inspired him with youthful enthusiasm, and he remained
for the rest of his life a strong advocate of political liberty.
In 1852 he graduated LL.D. at Berlin; in 1857 he became a
Privatdocent, and in 1860 he was nominated a professor extra-
ordinary. The predominant party in Prussia regarded his
political opinions with mistrust, and he was not offered an
ordinary professorship until February 1873, after he had decided
to accept a chair at the university of Munich. At Munich he
passed the last nineteen years of his life. During the thirty
years that he was professor he successively taught several
branches of jurisprudence, but he was chiefly distinguished as
an authority on criminal and international law. He was
especially well fitted for organizing collective work, and he has
associated his name with a series of publications of the first
value. While acting as editor he often reserved for himself,
among the independent monographs of which the work was
composed, only those on subjects distasteful to his collaborators
on account of their obscurity or lack of importance. Among
the compilations which he superintended may be mentioned
his Encyclopadie der Rechtswissenschaft (Leipzig, 1870-1871,
2 vols.; his Handbuch des deutschen Strafrechts (Berlin, 1871-
1877, 4 vols.), and his Handbuch des Volkerrechts auf Grundlage
europHischer Staatspraxis (Berlin, 1885-1890, 4 vols.). Among
his many independent works may be mentioned: Das irische
Gefdngnissystem (Leipzig, 1859), Franzosische Rechtszustandc
(Leipzig, 1859), Die Deportation als Strafmittel (Leipzig, 1859),
Die Kiirzungsfahigkeit der Freiheitsstrafen (Leipzig, 1861), Die
Reform der Staatsanwaltschaft in Deulschland (Berlin, 1864),
Die Umgestaltung der Staatsanwaltschaft (Berlin, 1865), Die
Principien der Politik (Berlin, 1869), Das Verbrechen des Hordes
und die Todesslrafe (Berlin, 1875), Rumdniens Uferrechte an
der Donau (Leipzig, 1883; French edition, 1884). He also
edited or assisted in editing a number of periodical publications
on legal subjects. From 1866 to the time of his death he was
associated with Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow in editing Samm-
lung gemeinverstdndlicher wissenschaftlicher Vortrage (Berlin).
Von Holtzendorff died at Munich on the 4th of February 1889.
HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS (1832- ), German
Protestant theologian, son of Karl Julius Holtzmann (1804-
1877), was born on the I7th of May 1832 at Karlsruhe, where
his father ultimately became prelate and counsellor to the supreme
consistory. He studied at Berlin, and eventually (1874) was
appointed professor ordinarius at Strassburg. A moderately
liberal theologian, he became best known as a New Testament
critic and exegete, being the author of the Commentary on the
Synoptics (1889; 3rd ed., 1901), the Johannine books (1890;
2nd ed., 1893), and the Acts of the Apostles (1901), in the series
Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament. On the question of
the relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, Holtzmann in his
early work, Die synoptischen Evangelien, ihr Ursprung und
geschichtlicher Charakter (1863), presents a view which has been
widely accepted, maintaining the priority of Mark, deriving
Matthew in its present form from Mark and from Matthew's
earlier " collection of Sayings," the Logia of Papias, and Luke
from Matthew and Mark in the form in which we have them.
Other noteworthy works are the Lehrbuch der histor.-kritischen
Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1885, 3rd ed., 1892), and the
Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie (2 vols., 18961897). He
also collaborated with R. Zopffel in the preparation of a small
Lexikonfiir Theologie und Kirchenwesen (1882 ; 3rd ed., 1895), and in
1893 became editor of the Theol. Jahresbericht.
HOLUB, EMIL (1847-1902), Bohemian traveller in south-
central Africa, was born at Holitz, eastern Bohemia, on the
7th of October 1847. He was educated at Prague University,
where he graduated M.D. In 1872 he went to the Kimberley
diamond-fields, and with the money earned by his practice
as a surgeon undertook expeditions into the northern Transvaal,
Mashonaland and through Bechuanaland to the Victoria
Falls, making extensive natural history collections, which he
brought to Europe in 1879 and distributed among over a hundred
museums and schools. In 1883 he went back to South Africa
with his wife, intending to cross the continent to Egypt. In
June 1886 the party crossed the Zambezi west of the Victoria
Falls, and explored the then almost unknown region between
that river and its tributary the Kafue. When beyond the
Kafue the camp was attacked by the Mashukulumbwe, and
Holub was obliged to retrace his steps. He returned to Austria
in 1887 with a collection of great scientific interest, of over
13,000 objects, now in various museums. Holub died at Vienna
on the 2ist of February 1902.
His principal works are: Eine Culturskizze des Marutse-Mambunda-
reichs (Vienna, 1879); Sieben Jahre in Siidafrika, &c. (2 vols.,
Vienna, 1880-1881), of which an English translation appeared ; Die
Colonisation Afrikas (Vienna, 1882) ; and Von der Kapstadt ins Land
der Maschukulumbe (2 vols., Vienna, 1818-1890).
HOLY, sacred, devoted or set apart for religious worship or
observance; a term characteristic of the attributes of perfection
and sinlessness of the Persons of the Trinity, as the objects of
human worship and reverence, and hence transferred to those
human persons who, either by their devotion to a spiritual
ascetic life or by their approximation to moral perfection,
are considered worthy of reverence. The word in Old Eng-
lish was halig, and is common to other Teutonic languages;
cf. Ger. and Dutch heilig, Swed. helig, Dan. hellig. It is
derived from hal, hale, whole, and cognate with " health."
The New English Dictionary suggests that the sense-develop-
ment may be from "whole," i.e.. inviolate, from "health,
HOLY ALLIANCE HOLYHEAD
621
well-being," or from " good-omen," " augury." It is impossible
to get behind the Christian uses, in which from the earliest
times it was employed as the equivalent of the Latin sacer and
sanclus.
HOLY ALLIANCE, THE. The famous treaty, or declaration,
known by this name was signed in the first instance by Alexander
I., emperor of Russia, Francis I., emperor of Austria, and
Frederick Wilh'am III., king of Prussia, on the 26th of September
1815, and was proclaimed by the emperor Alexander the same
day at a great review of the allied troops held on the Champ
des Vertus near Paris. The English version of the text is as
follows:
In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity.
Holy Alliance of Sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia,
Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and
the Emperor of Russia, having, in consequence of the great events
which have marked the course of the three last years in Europe, and
especially of the blessings which it has pleased Divine Providence to
shower down upon those States which place their confidence and
their hope on it alone, acquired the intimate conviction of the
necessity of settling the steps to be observed by the Powers, in their
reciprocal relations, upon the sublime truths which the Holy Religion
of our Saviour teaches;
Government and Political Relations.
They solemnly declare that the present Act has no other object
than to publish, in the face of the whole world, their fixed resolution,
both in the administration of their respective States, and in their
political relations with every other Government, to take for their
sole guide the precepts of that Holy Religion, namely, the precepts
of Justice, Christian Charity and Peace, which, far from being
applicable only to private concerns, must have an immediate
influence on the councils of Princes, and guide all their steps, as being
the only means of consolidating human institutions and remedying
their imperfections. In consequence, their Majesties have agreed
on the following Articles :
Principles of the Christian Religion.
Art. I. Conformably to the words of the Holy Scriptures which
command all men to consider each other as brethren, the Three con-
tracting Monarchs will remain united by the bonds of a true and
indissoluble fraternity, and, considering each other as fellow country-
men, they will, on all occasions and in all places, lend each other aid
and assistance; and, regarding themselves towards their subjects
and armies as fathers of families, they will lead them, in the same
spirit of fraternity with which they are animated, to protect Religion,
Peace and Justice.
Fraternity and Affection.
Art. II. In consequence, the sole principle of force, whether
between the said Governments or between their Subjects, shall be
that of doing each other reciprocal service, and of testifying by un-
alterable good will the mutual affection with which they ought to be
animated, to consider themselves all as members of one and the same
Christian nation ; the three allied Princes looking on themselves as
merely delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the One
family, namely, Austria, Prussia and Russia, thus confessing that the
Christian world, of which they and their people form a part, has in
reality no other Sovereign than Him to whom alone power really
belongs, because in Him alone are found all the treasures of love,
science and infinite wisdom, that is to say, God, our Divine Saviour,
the Word of the Most High, the Word of Life. Their Majesties
consequently recommend to their people, with the most tender
solicitude, as the sole means of enjoying that Peace which arises
from a good conscience, and which alone is durable, to strengthen
themselves every day more and more in the principles and exercise
of the duties which the Divine Saviour has taught to mankind.
Accession of Foreign Powers.
Art. III. All the Powers who shall choose solemnly to avow the
sacred principles which have dictated the present Act, and shall
acknowledge how important it is for the happiness of nations, too
long agitated, that these truths should henceforth exercise over the
destinies of mankind all the influence which belongs to them, will
be received with equal ardour and affection into this Holy Alliance.
The credit for inspiring this singular document was claimed by
the Baroness von Kriidener (q.v.) ; in any case it was the outcome
of the tsar's mood of evangelical exaltation, and was in its
inception perfectly sincere. Neither Frederick William nor
Francis signed willingly, the latter remarking that " if it was a
question of politics, he must refer it to his chancellor, if of
religion, to his confessor." Metternich called it a " loud-sounding
nothing," Castlereagh, " a piece of sublime mysticism and
nonsense." None the less, in accordance with its last article,
the signatures of all the European sovereigns were invited to the
instrument, the pope and the Ottoman sultan alone being
excepted. The prince regent courteously declined to sign, on
the constitutional ground that all acts of the British crown
required the counter-signature of a minister, but he sent a letter
expressing his " entire concurrence with the principles laid down
by the ' august sovereigns ' and stating that it would always be
his endeavour to regulate his conduct by their ' sacred maxims.' "
With these exceptions, all the European sovereigns sooner or
later appended their names.
In popular parlance, which has found its way into the language
of serious historians, the " Holy Alliance " soon became
synonymous with the combination of the great powers by whom
Europe was ruled in concert during the period of the congresses,
and associated with the policy of reaction which gradually
dominated their counsels. For the understanding of the inner
history of the diplomacy of this period, however, a clear dis-
tinction must be drawn between the Holy Alliance and the Grand,
or Quadruple (Quintuple) Alliance. The Grand Alliance was
established on definite treaties concluded for definite purposes,
of which the chief was the preservation of peace on the basis of
the territorial settlement of 1815. The Holy Alliance was a
general treaty hardly indeed a treaty at all which bound its
signatories to act on certain vague principles for no well-defined
end; and in its essence it was so far from necessarily .reactionary
that the emperor Alexander at one time declared that it involved
the grant of liberal constitutions by princes to their subjects.
Its main significance was due to the persistent efforts of the tsar
to make it the basis of the " universal union," or general con-
federation of Europe, which he wished to substitute for the actual
committee of the great powers, efforts which were frustrated
by the vigorous diplomacy of Castlereagh, acting as the
mouthpiece of the British government (see EUROPE: History;
ALEXANDER I. of Russia; LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART,
2ND MARQUIS OF).
As a diplomatic instrument the Holy Alliance never, as a
matter of fact, became effective. None the less, its principles
and the fact of its signature powerfully affected the course of
European diplomacy during the igth century. It strongly
influenced the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia, to whom the
brotherhood of sovereigns by divine right was an article of
faith, inspiring the principles of the convention of Berlin (between
Russia, Austria and Prussia) in 1833, and the tsar's intervention
in 1849 to crush the Hungarian insurrection on behalf of his
brother of Austria. That it had become synonymous with a
conspiracy against popular liberties was, however, a mere
accident of the point of view of those who interpreted its prin-
ciples. It was capable of other and more noble interpretations,
and it was avowedly the inspiration of the famous rescript of
the emperor Nicholas II., embodied in the circular of Count
Muraviev to the European courts (August 4th, 1898), which
issued in the first international peace conference at the Hague
in 1899. (W. A. P.)
HOLYHEAD (Caergybi, the fort of Cybi, the saint mentioned
by Matthew Arnold as meeting St Seiriol of Penm6n, Anglesey),
a seaport and market-town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on
the small Holy Island, at the western end of the county. Pop.
of urban district (1901) 10,079. Here the London and North-
Western railway has a terminus, 2635 m. from London by rail.
Holy Island is connected with Anglesey by an embankment,
J m. long, over which pass the railway and main road, the tide
flowing fast under the central piers. Once a small fishing village,
the town has since William IV.'s reign acquired importance as
the Dublin mail steam station. Its magnificent harbour of refuge
was begun in 1847 and opened in September 1873. The east
breakwater scheme, which would have covered the Platter's
rocks still very troublesome and the Skinner's, was abandoned
for buoys which mark the spots. The north breakwater is
7860 ft. long (instead of 5360, as originally planned). The
roadstead (400 acres) and enclosed area (267 acres) together
make a magnificent shelter for shipping. The rubble mound
of the breakwater was very costly to the railway company, as
time after time it was swept away by storms. On it is a central
622
HOLY ISLAND HOL YOKE
wall of some 38 ft. above low water, and on the wall a promenade
sheltered by a parapet. The lighthouse is at the end of the
breakwater, of which the whole cost was nearly 15 million
sterling. Additional works, begun in 1873- by the company, to
extend the old harbour and lengthen the quay by 4000 ft.,
were opened by King Edward VII. (as prince of Wales) in 1880.
These cost another half million. George IV. passed through
Holyhead in 1821 on his way to Ireland, and there is a com-
memorative tablet on the old harbour pier. The church is said
to occupy the site of the old monastery (6th or early 7th century)
of St Cybi, of whom there is a rude figure in the porch. The
churchyard wall, 6 ft. thick, is possibly partly Roman. On the
south of the harbour is an obelisk in memory of Captain Skinner,
of the steam packets, washed overboard in 1833. Pen Caergybi
rises perpendicularly from the sea to the height of 719 ft., at
some 2 m. from the town; it is a mass of serpentine rocks, off
which lie the North and South Stacks, each with a lighthouse
with a revolving light, visible for 20 m., and 197 ft. above high
water on the South Stack. On the hill are traces of British
fortification, including a circular building, probably a Roman
watch-tower. Coasting trade and fishing, with some shipbuilding
and the Irish traffic, occupy most of the inhabitants.
See Hon. W. Stanley's Holy Island and Holyhead.
HOLY ISLAND, or LINDISFARNE, an irregularly shaped island
in the North Sea, 2 m. from the coast of Northumberland, in
which county it is included. Pop. (1901) 405. It is joined to
the mainland at low water by flat sands, over which a track,
marked by wooden posts and practicable for vehicles, leads to the
island. There is a station on the North-Eastern railway at
Beal, 9 m. S.E. of Berwick, opposite the island, but ij m. inland.
The island measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 15 N. to S., extreme
distances. Its total area is 1051 acres. On the N. it is sandy
and barren, but on the S. very fertile and under cultivation.
Large numbers of rabbits have their warrens among the sands,
and, with fish, oysters and agricultural produce, are exported.
There are several fresh springs on the island, and in the north-
east is a lake of 6 acres. At the south-west angle is the little
fishing village (formerly much larger) which is now a favourite
summer watering-place. Here is the harbour, offering good
shelter to small vessels. Holy Island derives its name from a
monastery founded on it by St Aidan, and restored in 1082 as a
cell of the Benedictine monastery at Durham. Its ruins, still
extensive and carefully preserved, justify Scott's description
of it as a " solemn, huge and dark-red pile." An islet, lying off
the S.W. angle, has traces of a chapel upon it, and is believed to
have offered a retreat to St Cuthbert and his successors. The
castle, situated east of the village, on a basaltic rock about 90 ft.
high, dates from c. 1500.
When St Aidan came at the request of King Oswald to preach
to the Northumbrians he chose the island of Lindisfarne as the
site of his church and monastery, and made it the head of the
diocese which he founded in 635. For some years the see con-
tinued in peace, numbering among its bishops St Cuthbert,
but in 793 the Danes landed on the island and burnt the settle-
ment, killing many of the monks. The survivors, however,
rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when,
through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland,
taking with them the body of St Cuthbert and other holy relics.
The church and monastery were again destroyed and the bishop
and monks, on account of the exposed situation of the island,
determined not to return to it, and settled first at Chester-le-
Street and finally at Durham. With the fall of the monastery
the island appears to have become again untenanted, and
probably continued so until the prior and convent of Durham
established there a cell of monks from their own house. The
inhabitants of Holy Island were governed by two bailiffs at
least as early as the I4th century, and, according to J. Raine
in his History of North Durham (1852), are called " burgesses
or freemen " in a private paper dated 1728. In 1323 the bailiffs
and community of Holy Island were commanded to cause all
ships of the burthen of thirty tons or over to go to Ereswell
with their ships provisioned for a month at least and under
double manning to be ready to set out on the king's service.
Towards the end of the i6th century the fort on Holy Island
was garrisoned for fear of foreign invasion by Sir William
Read, who found it very much in need of repair, the guns being
so decayed that the gunners " dare not give fire but by trayne,"
and the master gunner had been " miserably slain " in discharg-
ing one of them. During the Civil Wars the castle was held for
the king until 1646, when it was taken and garrisoned by the
parliamentarians. The only other historical event connected
with the island is the attempt made by two Jacobites in 1715 to
hold it for the Pretender.
HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB (1817-1906), English secularist
and co-operator, was born at Birmingham, on the I3th of April
1817. At an early age he became an Owenite lecturer, and in
1841 was the last person convicted for blasphemy in a public
lecture, though this had no theological character and the in-
criminating words were merely a reply to a question addressed
to him from the body of the meeting. He nevertheless under-
went six months' imprisonment, and upon his release invented
the inoffensive term " secularism " as descriptive of his opinions,
and established the Reasoner in their support. He was also
the last person indicted for publishing an unstamped newspaper,
but the prosecution dropped upon the repeal of the tax. His
later years were chiefly devoted to the promotion of the co-
operative movement among the working classes. He wrote
the history of the Rochdale Pioneers (1857), The History of
Co-operation in England (1875; revised ed., 1906), and The
Co-operative Movement of To-day (1891). He also published
(1892) his autobiography, under the title of Sixty Years of an
Agitator's Life, and in 1905 two volumes of reminiscences,
Bygones worth Remembering. He died at Brighton on the 22nd
of January 1906.
See J. McCabe, Life and Letters of G. J. Holyoake (2 vols., 1908) ;
C. W. F. Goss, Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G. J.
Holyoake (1908).
HOLYOKE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in a bend of the Connecticut river, about 8 m. N.
of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 21,915; (1890) 35,637; (1900)
45,712; (1910 census) 57,730. Of the total population in
1900, 18,921 were foreign-born, including 6991 French-Canadians,
5650 Irish, 1602 Germans and 1118 English; and 33,626 were
of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including
12,370 of Irish and 11,050 of French-Canadian parentage. The
city's area is about 17 sq. m. The city is served by the Boston
& Maine, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways,
and by an interurban line. Holyoke is characteristically an
industrial and mercantile city; it has some handsome public
buildings (the city hall and the public library, founded in 1870,
being especially noteworthy) and attractive environs. Holyoke
is the railway station for Mt Holyoke College, in South Hadley,
about 4 m. N. by E. of Holyoke; the city is connected with
South Hadley by an electric line. Just above Holyoke the
Connecticut leaves the rugged highlands through a rift between
Mt Tom (1214 ft.; ascended by a mountain-railway from
Holyoke) and Mt Holyoke (954 ft.), and begins a meandering
valley course, falling (in the Hadley Falls) in great volume some
60 ft. in about 15 m. The water-power was unutilized until
1849, when a great dam (1017 ft. long) was completed, which
enabled vast power to be developed along a series of canals
laid out from the river. This was, in its day, a colossal under-
taking; and its success transformed Holyoke from a farming
village into a great manufacturing centre in 1900 and 1905
the ninth largest of the commonwealth. In 1900 a stone dam
(1020 ft.), said to be the second largest in New England, was
completed at a cost of about $750,000. Cotton manufactures
first, and later paper products were chief in importance, and
Holyoke now leads all the cities in the United States in the
manufacture of fine paper. In 1905 the total value of all factory
products was $30,731,332, of which $10,620,255 (or 34-6% of
the total) represented paper and wood pulp; $5,019,817, cotton
goods; $1,318,409, woollen goods; $1,756,473, book binding
and blank books, and $2,022,759, foundry and machine-shop
HOLYSTONE HOLY WEEK
623
products. Silk and worsted goods are other important manu-
factures. Opposite Holyoke, in Hampshire county, is South
Hadley Falls. The municipality owns and operates the gas
and electric-lighting plants and the water works (the water-
supply being derived from natural ponds, some of which are
outside the city limits), and owns and leases (to the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railroad) a railway extending (10-3 m.)
to Westfield, Mass. Holyoke was originally a part of Springfield,
and after 1774 of West Springfield. In 1850 it was incorporated
as a township, and in 1873 was chartered as a city.
HOLYSTONE, a soft kind of sandstone used by sailors for
scrubbing and cleaning the decks of ships. The origin of the word
is doubtful. Some authorities hold that it arose from the general
practice of scrubbing the decks for Sunday service; while others
think the name arises from the fact that the stone so employed
is naturally porous and full of holes. A small flint or stone having
a natural hole in it, and worn as a charm, is also called a holy-
stone.
HOLY WATER, technically the water with which Christian
believers sign the cross on their foreheads on entering or leaving
church. The edict of Gratian lays down that it should be
exorcized and blessed by the priest and sprinkled with exorcized
salt. This rite is found in the Gelasian, Gregorian and other
sacramentaries. In the East the water wa$ blessed once a
month, in the Latin Church it is now blessed every Sunday.
In the 4th century in the East it was usual to wash the hands on
entering the church (see ABLUTION).
In the early church water was not expressly consecrated for
baptisms and other lustrations. " Water," says Tertullian in
his tract on baptism, " was the abode at the first of the divine
Spirit, being more acceptable then (to God) than the other
elements." He pictures the world in the beginning: " total
darkness, formless as yet, without tending of stars, the melancholy
abyss, the earth unprepared, the heaven undevelopt. The liquid
alone an ever perfect material, smiling, simple, pure in its own
right, as a worthy vehicle underlay the God." Water was
similarly pure in itself in the old Persian religion.
The Canons of Hippolytus, or Egyptian church order, of about
A.D. 250, give no prayer for consecration of fonts, but enact
that " at cock crow the baptismal party shall take their stand
near waving water, pure, prepared, sacred, of the sea." The
Teaching of the Apostles, c. 100, merely insists on " living,"
that is, clear and running water. The ancient feeling, especially
Jewish, was that in lustrations the same water must not pass
twice over the body. A stagnant pool was useless. Bubbling
waters too seemed to have a spirit in them.
Either because running water was not always at hand, or
as part of the growing tendency of the church to multiply
ceremonies, rituals arose late in the 3rd century for consecrating
water. The sacramentary of Serapion, c. 350, provides a prayer
asking that the divine Word may descend into the water and
hallow it, as of old it hallowed the Jordan. In the Roman order
of baptism the priest prays that " the font may receive the grace
of the only begotten Son from the holy Spirit, and that the latter
may impregnate with hidden admixture of His light this water
prepared for the regeneration of mankind, to the end that man
through a sanctification conceived from the immaculate womb
of the divine font, may emerge a heavenly offspring reborn as a
new creature." The water is then exorcized and evil spirits
warned off, and lastly blessed. During the prayer the priest
twice signs the water with the cross, and once blows upon it.
The first mention of a special consecration of water for other
ends than baptism is in the Acts of Thomas (? A.D. 200); it is
for the purgation of a youth already baptized who had killed
his mistress because she would not live chastely with him. The
apostle prays: " Fountain sent unto us from Rest, Power of
Salvation from that Power proceeding which overcomes and
subjects all to its own will, come and dwell within these waters,
that the Charisma (gift) of the holy Spirit may be fully perfected
through them." The youth then washes his hands, which on
touching the sacrament had withered up, and is healed.
The church shared the universal belief that holiness or the holy
Spirit is quasi-material and capable of being held in suspense
in water, just as sin is a half material infection, absorbed and
carried away by it. So Tertullian writes: " The water which
carried the Spirit of God (probably regarded as a shadow or
reflection-soul) borrowed holiness from that which was carried
upon it; for every underlying matter must needs absorb and
take up the quality of that matter which overhangs it; especially
does a corporeal so absorb a spiritual, as this can easily penetrate
and settle into it owing to the subtlety of its substance."
" Water, " he continues, " was generically hallowed by the
Spirit of God brooding over it at creation, and therefore all
special waters are holy, and at once obtain the sacrament of
sanctification when God is invoked (over them.) For the Spirit
from heaven instantly supervenes and is upon the waters, hallow-
ing them out of itself, and being so hallowed they drink up a
power of hallowing."
What is done in material semblance, he then argues, is repeated
in the unseen medium of the Spirit. The stains of idolatry, vice
and fraud are not visible on the flesh, yet they resemble real dirt.
" The waters are medicated in a manner through the, intervention
of the angel, and the Spirit is corporeally washed in the water
and the flesh is spiritually purified in the same."
Tertullian believed that an angel was sent down, when God
was invoked, like that which stirred the pool of Bethesda. As
regards rival Isiac and Mithraic baptisms, he asserts that their
waters are destitute of divine power; nay, are rather tenanted
by the devil who in this matter sets himself to rival God. " With-
out any religious rite at all," he urges, " unclean spirits brood
upon waters, aspiring to repeat that primordial gestation of the
divine Spirit." And he instances the " darkling springs and
lonely rivers which are said to snatch, to wit by force of a harmful
spirit." In the sequel he defines the role of the angel of baptism
who does not infuse himself in waters, already holy from the first ;
but merely presides over the washing of the faithful, and ensures
their being made pure for the reception of the holy Spirit in the
rite of confirmation which immediately follows. " The devil
who till now ruled over us, we leave behind overwhelmed in the
water."
From all this we conclude that what is poetry to us akin to
the folk-lore of water-sprites, naiads, kelpies, river-gods and
water-worship in general was to Tertullian and to the genera-
tions of believers who fashioned the baptismal rites, ablutions
and beliefs of the church, nothing less than grim reality and
unquestionable fact.
See John, marquess of Bute, and E. A. Wallis Budge, The Blessing
of the Waters (London, 1901); E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture
(London, 1903). (F. C. C.)
HOLY WEEK (t^o/idj yueyaXrj, ayla or rCiv ayiwv,
eurpaKTOs, also ityiepai. iraSTj/uaTtoc, i7yuepai oraijpcbcujuai: hebdomas
[or seplimana] major, sancta, authenlica [i.e. canonizata, du
Cange], ultima, poenosa, luctuosa, nigra, inofficiosa, muta, crucis,
lamentationum, indulgent iae) , in the Christian ecclesiastical year
the week immediately preceding Easter. The earliest allusion
to the custom of marking this week as a whole with special
observances is to be found in the Apostolical Constitutions
(v. 18, 19), dating from the latter half of the 3rd century A.D.
Abstinence from wine and flesh is there commanded for all the
days, while for the Friday and Saturday an absolute fast is
enjoined. Dionysius Alexandrinus also, in his canonical epistle
(260 A.D.), refers to the six fasting days (e T&V vqartiSiv rifjJtpaC)
in a manner which implies that the observance of them had
already become an established usage in his time. There is
some doubt about the genuineness of an ordinance attributed
to Constantine, in which abstinence from public business was
enforced for the seven days immediately preceding Easter
Sunday, and also for the seven which followed it; the Codex
Theodosianus, however, is explicit in ordering that all actions
at law should cease, and the doors of all courts of law be closed
during those fifteen days (1. ii. tit. viii.). Of the particular days
of the " great week " the earliest to emerge into special promin-
ence 'was naturally Good Friday. Next came the Sabbatum
Magnum (Holy Saturday or Easter Eve) with its vigil, which
624
HOLYWELL HOMBERG
in the early church was associated with an expectation that the
second advent would occur on an Easter Sunday.
For details of the ceremonial observed in the Roman Catholic
Church during this week, reference must be made to the Missal and
Breviary. In the Eastern Church the week is marked by similar
practices, but with less elaboration and differentiation of rite. See
also EASTER, GOOD FRIDAY, MAUNDY THURSDAY, PALM SUNDAY
and PASSION WEEK.
HOLYWELL (Tre'/ynnon, well-town), a market town and
contributory parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales,
situated on a height near the left bank of the Dee estuary, 196 m.
from London by the London & North-Western railway (the
station being 2 m. distant). Pop. of urban district (1901) 2652.
The parish church (i 769) has some columns of an earlier building,
interesting brasses and strong embattled tower. The remains of
Basingwerk Abbey (Maes glas, green field), partly Saxon and
partly Early English, are near the station. It is of uncertain
origin but was used as a monastery before 1119. In 1131
Ranulph, 2nd earl of Chester, introduced the Cistercians. In
1535. when its revenues were 150, ^s. 3d., it was dissolved, but
revived under Mary I. and used as a Roman Catholic burial
place in 1647. Scarcely any traces remain of Basingwerk castle,
an old fort. Small up to the beginning of the igth century,
Holywell has increasingly prospered, thanks to lime quarries,
lead, copper and zinc mines, smelting works, a shot manufactory,
copper, brass, iron and zinc works; brewing, tanning and
mineral water, flannel and cement works. St Winifred's holy
well, one of the wonders of Wales, sends up water at the rate
of 21 tons a minute, of an almost unvarying temperature,
higher than that of ordinary spring water. To its curative
powers many crutches and ex voto objects, hung round the well,
as in the Lourdes Grot, bear ample witness. The stones at the
bottom are slightly reddish, owing to vegetable substances.
The well itself is covered by a fine Gothic building, said to have
been erected by Margaret, countess of Richmond and mother
of Henry VII., with some portions of earlier date. The chapel
(restored) is used for public service. Catholics and others visit
it in great numbers. There are swimming baths for general use.
In 1870 a hospice for poorer pilgrims was erected. Other public
buildings are St Winifred's (Catholic) church and a convent,
a town hall and a market-hall. The export trade is expedited
by quays on the Dee.
HOLYWOOD, a seaport of county Down, Ireland, on the east
shore of Belfast Lough, 4^ m. N.E. from Belfast by the Belfast
& County Down railway. Its pleasant situation renders it a
favourite residential locality of the wealthier classes in Belfast.
There was a religious settlement here from the 7th century, which
subsequently became a Franciscan monastery. The old church
dating from the late i2th or early i3ih century marks its site.
A Solemn League and Covenant was signed here in 1644 for the
defence of the kingdom, and the document is preserved at Belfast.
HOLZMINDEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Bruns-
wick, on the right bank of the Weser, at the foot of the Sollinger
Mountains, at the junction of the railways Scherfede-Holz-
minden and Soest-Borssum, 56 m. S.W. of Brunswick. Pop.
(1905) 9938. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
church, a gymnasium, an architectural school and a school of
engineering. The prosperity of the town depends chiefly on
agriculture and the manufacture of iron and steel wares, and of
chemicals, but weaving and the making of pottery are also
carried on, and there are baryta mills and polishing-mills for
sandstone. By means of the Weser it carries on a lively trade.
Holzminden obtained municipal rights from Count Otto of
Eberstein in 1245, and in 1410 it came into the possession of
Brunswick.
HOLZTROMPETE (Wooden Trumpet), an instrument some-
what resembling the Alpenhorn (q.v.) in tone-quality, designed
by Richard Wagner for representing the natural pipe of the
peasant in Tristan and Isolde. This instrument is not unlike
the cor anglais in rough outline, being a conical tube of approxi-
mately the same length, terminating in a small globular bell,
but having neither holes nor keys; it is blown through a cup-
shaped mouthpiece made of horn. The Holztrompete is in
the key of C; the scale is produced by overblowing, whereby
the upper partials from the 2nd to the 6th are produced. A
single piston placed at a third of the distance from the mouth-
piece to the bell gives the notes D and F. Wagner inserted a
note in the score concerning the
cor anglais for which the part
was originally scored, and advised - s 4 s
the Use of oboe Or clarinet tO * Harmonic Series.
reinforce the latter, the effect intended being that of a powerful
natural instrument, unless a wooden instrument with a natural
scale be specially made for the part, which would be preferable.
The Holztrompete was used at Munich for the first performance
of Tristan and Isolde, and was still in use there in 1897. At
Bayreuth it was also used for the Tristan performances at the
festivals of 1886 and 1889, but in 1891 W. Heckel's clarina,
an instrument partaking of the nature of both oboe and clarinet,
was substituted for the Holztrompete and has been retained
ever since, having been found more effective. 1 (K. S.)
HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum,
which occurs in a document of 1035), one of the ceremonies used
in the granting of a fief, and indicating the submission of a
vassal to his lord. It could be received only by the suzerain
in person. With head uncovered the vassal humbly requested
to be allowed to enter into the feudal relation; he then laid
aside his sword and spurs, ungirt his belt, and kneeling before
his lord, and holding his hands extended and joined between
the hands of his lord, uttered words to this effect: " I become
your man from this day forth, of life and limb, and will hold
faith to you for the lands I claim to hold of you." The oath of
fealty, which could be received by proxy, followed the act of
homage; then came the ceremony of investiture, either directly
on the ground or by the delivery of a turf, a handful of earth, a
stone, or some other symbolical object. Homage was done not
only by the vassal to whom feudal lands were first granted but
by every one in turn by whom they were inherited, since they
were not granted absolutely but only on condition of military
and other service. An infant might do homage, but he did not
thus enter into full possession of his lands. The ceremony was
of a preliminary nature, securing that the fief would not be
alienated; but the vassal had to take the oath of fealty, and
to be formally invested, when he reached his majority. The
obligations involved in the act of homage were more general
than those associated with the oath of fealty, but they provided
a strong moral sanction for more specific engagements. They
essentially resembled the obligations undertaken towards a
Teutonic chief by the members of his " comitatus " or " gefolge,"
one of the institutions from which feudalism directly sprang.
Besides homagium ligeum, there was a kind of homage which
imposed no feudal duty; this was homagium per paragium,
such as the dukes of Normandy rendered to the kings of France,
and as the dukes of Normandy received from the dukes of
Brittany. The act of liege homage to a particular lord did not
interfere with the vassal's allegiance as a subject to his sovereign,
or with his duty to any other suzerain of whom he might hold
lands.
The word is also used of the body of tenants attending a
manorial court, or of the court in a court baron (consisting of
the tenants that do homage and make inquiries and presentments,
termed a homage jury).
HOMBERG, WILHELM (1652-1715), Dutch natural philo-
sopher, was the son of an officer of the Dutch East India Company,
and was born at Batavia (Java) on the 8th of January 1652.
Coming to Europe with his family in 1670, he studied law at
Jena and Leipzig, and in 1674 became an advocate at Magdeburg.
In that town he made the acquaintance of Otto von Guericke,
and under his influence determined to devote himself to natural
ience. He, therefore, travelled in various parts of Europe for
study, and after graduating in medicine at Wittenberg, settled
in Paris in 1682. From 1685 to 1690 he practised as a physician
at Rome; then returning to Paris in 1691, he was elected a
member of the Academy of Sciences and appointed director of
1 Communicated by Madame Wagner, December 28th, 1897.
HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HOHE HOME, D. D.
625
its chemical laboratory. Subsequently he became teacher of
physics and chemistry (1702), and private physician (1705) to
the duke of Orleans. His death occurred at Paris on the 24th of
September 1715. Homberg was not free from alchemistical
tendencies, but he made many solid contributions to chemical
and physical knowledge, recording observations on the prepara-
tion of Kunkel's phosphorus, on the green colour produced in
flames by copper, on the crystallization of common salt, on the
salts of plants, on the saturation of bases by acids, on the freezing
of water and its evaporation in vacuo, &c. Much of his work
was published in the Recueil de I' Academic des Sciences from
1692 to 1714. The Sal Sedativum Hombergi is boracic acid,
which he discovered in 1702, and " Homberg's phosphorus "
is prepared by fusing sal-ammoniac with quick lime.
HOMBURG-VOR-DER-HOHE, a town and watering-place
of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prettily
situated at the south-east foot of the Taunus Mountains, 12 m.
N. of Frankfort-on-Main, with which it is connected by rail.
Pop. (1905) 13,740. Homburg consists of an old and a new
town, the latter, founded by the landgrave of Hesse-Homburg
Frederick II. (d. 1708), being regular and well-built. Besides
the palatial edifices erected in connexion with the mineral
water-cure, there are churches of various denominations,
Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Russian-Greek and Anglican,
schools and benevolent institutions. On a neighbouring hill
stands the palace of the former landgraves, built in 1680 and
subsequently enlarged and improved. The White Tower,
183 ft. in height, is said to date from Roman times, and certainly
existed under the lords of Eppstein, who held the district in
the 1 2th century. The palace is surrounded by extensive
grounds, laid out in the manner of an English park. The eight
mineral springs which form the attraction of the town to
strangers belong to the class of saline acidulous chalybeates
and contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime.
Their use is beneficial for diseases of the stomach and intestines,
and, externally, for diseases of the skin and rheumatism. The
establishments connected with the springs are arranged on a
scale of great magnificence, and include the Kurhaus (built
1841-1843), with a theatre, the Kaiser Wilhelmsbad and the
Kurhausbad. They lie grouped round a pretty park which
also furnishes the visitors with facilities for various recreations,
such as lawn tennis, croquet, polo and other games. The
industries of Homburg embrace iron founding and the manu-
facture of leather and hats, but they are comparatively un-
important, the prosperity of the town being almost entirely
due to the annual influx of visitors, which during the season
from May to October inclusive averages 12,000. In the beautiful
neighbourhood lies the ancient Roman castle of Saalburg,
which can be reached by an electric tramway.
Homburg first came into repute as a watering-place in 1834,
and owing to its gaming-tables, which were set up soon after,
it rapidly became one of the favourite and most fashionable
health-resorts of Europe. In 1849 the town was occupied by
Austrian troops for the purpose of enforcing the imperial decree
against gambling establishments, but immediately on their
withdrawal the bank was again opened, and play continued
unchecked until 1872, when the Prussian government refused
to renew the lease for gambling purposes, which then expired.
As the capital of the former landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg,
the town shared the vicissitudes of that state.
Homburg is also the name of a town in Bavaria. Pop. (1900)
4785. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church,
and manufactures of iron goods. In the neighbourhood are the
ruins of the castles of Karlsberg and of Hohenburg. The family
of the counts of Homburg became extinct in the isth century.
The town came into the possession of Zweibrucken in 1755
and later into that of Bavaria.
See Supp, Bad Homburg (7th ed., Homburg, 1903) ;. Baumstark,
Bad Homburg und seine Heilquellen (Wiesbaden, 1901); Schiek,
Homburg und Umgebung (Homburg, 1896) ; Will, Der Kurort
Homburg, seine Miner alquellen (Homburg, 1880); Hoeben, Bad
Homburg und sein Heilapparat (Homburg, 1901); and N. E. Yorke-
Davies, Homburg and its Waters (London, 1897).
HOME, EARLS OF. Alexander Home or Hume, ist earl of
Home (c. 1566-1619), was the son of Alexander, 5th Lord Hcme
(d. 1575), who fought against Mary, queen of Scots, at Carberry
Hill and at Langside, but was afterwards one of her most stalwart
supporters, being taken prisoner when defending Edinburgh
castle in her interests in 1573 and probably dying in captivity.
He belonged to an old and famous border family, an early member
of which, Sir Alexander Home, was killed at the battle of Verneuil
in 1424. This Sir Alexander was the father of Sir Alexander
Home (d. 1456), warden of the marches and the founder of the
family fortunes, whose son, another Sir Alexander (d. 1491),
was created a lord of parliament as Lord Home in 1473, being
one of the band of nobles who defeated the forces of King James
III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in 1488. Other distinguished
members of the family were: the first lord's grandson and
successor, Alexander, 2nd Lord Home (d. 1506), chamberlain
of Scotland; and the latter's son, Alexander, 3rd Lord Home
(d. 1516), a person of great importance during the reign of
James IV., whom he served as chamberlain. He fought at
Flodden, but before the death of the king he had led his men
away to plunder. During the minority of the new king, James
V., he was engaged in quarrelling with the regent, John Stewart,
duke of Albany, and in intriguing with England. In September
1516 he was seized, was charged with treachery and beheaded,
his title and estates being restored to his brother George in 1522.
George, who was killed in September 1547 during a skirmish
just before the battle of Pinkie, was the father of Alexander,
the sth lord.
Alexander Home became 6th Lord Home on his father's death
in August 1575, and took part in many of the turbulent incidents
which marked the reign of James VI. He was warden of the
east marches, and was often at variance with the Hepburns,
a rival border family whose head was the earl of Bothwell;
the feud between the Homes and the Hepburns was an old one,
and it was probably the main reason why Home's father, the
5th lord, sided with the enemies of Mary during the period of
her intimacy with Bothwell. Home accompanied James to
England in 1603 and was created earl of Home in 1605; he died
in April 1619.
His son James, the 2nd earl, died childless in 1633 when his
titles passed to a distant kinsman, Sir James Home of Colding-
knows (d. 1666), a descendant of the ist Lord Home. This
earl was in the Scottish ranks at the battle of Preston and lost
his estates under the Commonwealth, but these were restored
to him in 1661. His descendant, William, the Sth earl (d. 1761)
fought on the English side at Prestonpans, and from his brother
Alexander, the gth earl (d. 1786), the present earl of Home
is descended. In 1875 Cospatrick Alexander, the nth earl
(1799-1881), was created a peer of the United Kingdom as
Baron Douglas, and his son Charles Alexander, the izth earl
(b. 1834), took the additional name of Douglas. The principal
strongholds of the Homes were Douglas castle in Haddington
and Home castle in Berwickshire.
See H. Drummond, Histories of Noble British Families (1846).
HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886), Scottish spiritualist,
was born near Edinburgh on the zoth of March 1833, his father
being said to be a natural son of the loth earl of Home, and his
mother a member of a family credited with second sight. He
went with his mother to America, and on her death was adopted
by an aunt. In the United States he came out as a spiritualistic
medium, though, it should be noted, he never sought to make
money out of his exhibitions. In 1855 he came to England and
gave numerous seances, which were attended by many well-
known people. Robert Browning, the poet, went to one of these,
but without altering his contempt for spiritualism, and he
subsequently gave his impression of Home in the unflattering
poem of "Sludge the Medium" (1864); Home, nevertheless,
had many disciples, and gave seances at several European courts.
He became a Roman Catholic, but was expelled from Rome as
a sorcerer. In 1866 Mrs Lyon, a wealthy widow, adopted him
as her son, and settled 60,000 upon him. Repenting, however,
of her action, she brought a suit for the return of her money,
626
HOME, J. HOMER
on the ground that it had been obtained by " spiritual " influence.
It was held that the burden of establishing the validity of the
gift lay on Home, and as he failed to do so the case was decided
against him. He continued, however, to give seances, mostly
on the Continent, and in 1871 appeared before the tsar of Russia
and two Russian scientists, who attested the phenomena evoked.
Returning to England he submitted to a series of experiments
designed to test his pretensions before Professor (subsequently
Sir William) Crookes, which the latter declared to be thoroughly
genuine; and Professor von Boutlerow, of the Russian Academy
of Science, after witnessing a similar series of experiments,
expressed the same opinion. Home published two volumes
of Incidents of my Life and Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism.
He married successively two well-connected Russian ladies.
He died at Auteuil, France, on the 2ist of June 1886.
HOME, JOHN (1722-1808), Scottish dramatic poet, was born
on the 22nd of September 1722 at Leith, where his father,
Alexander Home, who was distantly related to the earls of
Home, filled the office of town-clerk. He was educated at the
grammar school of his native town, and at the university of
Edinburgh, where he graduated M.A. in 1742. Though he
showed a fondness for the profession of arms, he studied divinity,
and was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh in 1745. In
the same year he joined as a volunteer against the Pretender,
and was taken prisoner at the battle of Falkirk (1746). With
many others he was carried to the castle of Doune in Perthshire,
but soon effected his escape. In July 1746 Home was presented
to the parish of Athelstaneford, Haddingtonshire, vacant by
the death of Robert Blair, the author of The Grave. He had
leisure to visit his friends and became especially intimate with
David Hume who belonged to the same family as himself. His
first play, Agis: a tragedy, founded on Plutarch's narrative,
was finished in 1747. He took it to London and submitted it
to Garrick for representation at Drury Lane, but it was rejected
as unsuitable for the stage. The tragedy of Douglas was sug-
gested to him by hearing a lady sing the ballad of Gil Morrice
or Child Maurice (F. J. Child, Popular Ballads, ii. 263). The
ballad supplied him with the outline of a simple and striking
plot. After five years' labour he completed his play, which
he took to London for Garrick's opinion. It also was rejected,
but on his return to Edinburgh his friends resolved that it
should be brought out in that city. It was produced on the
1 4th of December 1756 with overwhelming success, in spite
of the opposition of the presbytery, who summoned Alexander
Carlyle to answer for having attended its representation. Home
wisely resigned his charge in 1757, after a visit to London, where
Douglas was brought out at Covent Garden on the uth of March.
Peg Woffington played Lady Randolph, a part which found a
later exponent in Mrs Siddons. David Hume summed up his
admiration for Douglas by saying that his friend possessed
" the true theatric genius of Shakespeare and Otway, refined
from the unhappy barbarism of the one and licentiousness of
the other." Gray, writing to Horace Walpole (August, 1757),
said that the author " seemed to have retrieved the true language
of the stage, which has been lost for these hundred years," but
Samuel Johnson held aloof from the general enthusiasm, and
averred that there were not ten good lines in the whole play
(Boswell, Life, ed. Croker, 1848, p. 390). In 1758 Home became
private secretary to Lord Bute, then secretary of state, and was
appointed tutor to the prince of Wales; and in 1760 his patron's
influence procured him a pension of 300 per annum and in
1763 a sinecure worth another 300. Garrick produced Agis
at Drury Lane on the 2ist of February 1758. By dint of good
acting and powerful support, according to Genest (Short Account
&c., iv. 513 seq.), the piece kept the stage for eleven days, but
it was lamentably inferior to Douglas. In 1760 his tragedy,
The Siege of Aquileia, was put on the stage, Garrick taking the
part of Aemilius. In 1769 his tragedy of The Fatal Discovery
had a run of nine nights; Alonzo also (1773) had fair success
in the representation; but his last tragedy, Alfred (1778), was
so coolly received that he gave up writing for the stage. In
1778 he joined a regiment formed by the duke of Buccleuch.
He sustained severe injuries in a fall from horseback which
permanently affected his brain, and was persuaded by his
triends to retire. From 1767 he resided either at Edinburgh
or at a villa which he built at Kilduff near his former parish.
It was at this time that he wrote his History of the Rebellion of
1745, which appeared in 1802. Home died at Merchistort
Bank, near Edinburgh, on the sth of September 1808, in his
eighty-sixth year.
The Works of John Home were collected and published by Henry
Mackenzie in 1822 with " An Account of the Life and Writings
of Mr John Home," which also appeared separately in the same year,
but several of his smaller poems seem to have escaped the editor's
observation. These are " The Fate of Caesar," "Verses upon
Inveraray," " Epistle to the Earl of Eglintoun," "Prologue on the
Birthday of the Prince of Wales, 1759 " and several " Epigrams,"
which are printed in vol. ii. of Original Poems by Scottish Gentlemen
(1762).! See also Sir W. Scott, "The Life and Works of John Home"
in the Quarterly Review (June, 1827). Douglas is included in numer-
ous collections of British drama. Voltaire published his Le Cafe, ou
I'&cossaise (1760), Londres (really Geneva), as a translation from the
work of Mr Hume, described as pasteur de I'eglise d'Edimbourg, but
Home seems to have taken no notice of the mystification.
HOMEL, or GOMEL, a town of Russia, in the government of
Mogilev, and 132 m. by rail S.S.E. of the town of Mogilev, on
the Sozh, a tributary of the Dnieper. Pop. (1900) 45.8i,
nearly half of whom are Jews. It is an important junction of
the railways from Vilna to Odessa and from Orel to Poland,
and is in steamer communication with Kiev and Mogilev. In
front of Prince Paskevich's castle stands an equestrian statue
of the Polish general Joseph Poniatowski, and in the cathedral
is the tomb of the chancellor Nikolai Petrovich Rumantsev,
by Canova. The town carries on a brisk trade in hops, corn
and timber; there are also paper-pulp mills and oil factories.
Homel was founded in the I2th century, and after changing
hands several times between Poles and Russians was annexed
to Russia in 1772. In 1648 it suffered at the hands of the Cossack
chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki.
HOME OFFICE, a principal government department in the
United Kingdom, the creation of which dates from 1782, when
the conduct of foreign affairs, which had previously been divided
between the northern and southern secretaries, was handed
over to the northern department (see FOREIGN OFFICE). The
home department retained control of Irish and colonial affairs,
and of war business until 1794, when an additional secretary
of state was re-appointed. In 1801 the colonial business was
transferred from the home department, which now attends only
to domestic -affairs. The head of the department, the principal
secretary of state for home affairs, or home secretary, is a
member of the government for the time being, and of the cabinet,
receiving a salary of 5000 a year. He is the proper medium
of communication between the sovereign and the subject, and
receives petitions addressed to the crown. He is responsible
for the maintenance of the king's peace and attends to the
administration of criminal justice, police and prisons, and
through him the sovereign exercises his prerogative of mercy.
Within his department is the supervision of lunatic asylums,
reformatories and industrial schools, and it is his duty to see
after the internal well-being of the country, to enforce the rules
made for the health or safety of the community generally,
and especially of those classes employed in special trades or
dangerous occupations. He is assisted by a permanent under-
secretary, a parliamentary secretary and several assistant
under-secretaries.
See Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (1907).
HOMER 1 ("O/iTjpos), the great epic poet of Greece. Many of
the works once attributed to him are lost; those which remain
are the two great epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, thirty-three
Hymns, a mock epic (the Battle of the Frogs and Mice), and
some pieces of a few lines each (the so-called Epigrams).
Ancient Accounts of Homer. Of the date of Homer probably
no record, real or pretended, ever existed. Herodotus (ii. 53)
maintains that Hesiod and Homer lived not more than 400 years
1 This article was thoroughly revised by Dr D. B. Monro before his
death in 1905; a few points have since been added by Mr. T. W.
Allen.
HOMER
627
before his own time, consequently not much before 850 B.C.
From the controversial tone in which he expresses himself it is
evident that others had made Homer more ancient; and accord-
ingly the dates given by later authorities, though very various,
generally fall within the loth and nth centuries B.C. But none
of these statements has any claim to the character of external
evidence.
The extant lives of Homer (edited in Westermann's Vitarum
Scriptores Graeci minores) are eight in number, including the
piece called the Contest of Hesiod and Homer. The longest is
written in the Ionic dialect, and bears the name of Herodotus,
but is certainly spurious. In all probability it belongs to the
time which was fruitful beyond all others in literary forgeries,
viz. the 2nd century of our era. 1 The other lives are certainly not
more ancient. Their chief value consists in the curious short
poems or fragments of verse which they have preserved the
so-called Epigrams, which used to be printed at the end of
editions of Homer. These are easily recognized as " Popular
Rhymes," a form of folk-lore to be met with in most countries,
treasured by the people as a kind of proverbs. 2 In the Homeric
epigrams the interest turns sometimes on the characteristics
of particular localities Smyrna and Cyme (Epigr. iv.), Erythrae
(Epigr. vi., vii.), Mt Ida (Epigr. x.), Neon Teichos (Epigr. i.);
others relate to certain trades or occupations potters (Epigr.
xiv.), sailors, fishermen, goat herds, &c. Some may be fragments
of longer poems, but evidently they are not the work of any
one poet. The fact that they were all ascribed to Homer merely
means that they belong to a period in the history of the Ionian
and Aeolian colonies when " Homer " was a name which drew
to itself all ancient and popular verse.
Again, comparing the " epigrams " with the legends and
anecdotes told in the Lives of Homer, we can hardly doubt that
they were the chief source from which these Lives were
derived. Thus in Epigr. iv. we find a blind poet, a native of
Aeolian Smyrna, through which flows the water of the sacred
Meles. Here is doubtless the source of the chief incident of the
Herodotean Life the birth of Homer " Son of the Meles." The
epithet Aeolian implies high antiquity, inasmuch as according
to Herodotus Smyrna became Ionian about 688 B.C. Naturally
the lonians had their own version of the story a version which
made Homer come out with the first Athenian colonists.
The same line of argument may be extended to the Hymns,
and even to some of the lost works of the post-Homeric or
so-called " Cyclic " poets. Thus:
1. The hymn to the Delian Apollo ends with an address of
the poet to his audience. When any stranger comes and asks
who is the sweetest singer, they are to answer with one voice,
the " blind man that dwells in rocky Chios; his songs deserve
the prize for all time to come." Thucydides, who quotes this
passage to show the ancient character of the Delian festival,
seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn.
Hence we may most naturally account for the belief that Homer
was a Chian.
2. The Margites a humorous poem which kept its ground
as the reputed work of Homer down to the time of Aristotle
began with the words, " There came to Colophon an old man,
a divine singer, servant of the Muses and Apollo." Hence
doubtless the claim of Colophon to be the native city of Homer
a claim supported in the early times of Homeric learning by the
Colophonian poet and grammarian Antimachus.
3. The poem called the Cypria was said to have been given
by Homer to Stasinus of Cyprus as a daughter's dowry. The
connexion with Cyprus appears further in the predominance given
in the poern, to Aphrodite.
4. The Little Iliad and the Phocais, according to the Herodotean
life, were composed by Homer when he lived at Phocaea with
a certain Thestorides, who carried them off to Chios and there
gained fame by reciting them as his own. The name Thestorides
occurs in Epigr. v.
1 See a paper in the Diss. Philol. Halenses, ii. 97-219.
2 Compare the Popular Rhymes of Scotland, published by Robert
Chambers.
5. A similar story was told about the poem called the Taking
of Oechalia (OixaXias "AXaxus), the subject of which was one
of the exploits of Heracles. It passed under the name of Creo-
phylus, a friend or (as some said) a son-in-law of Homer; but
it was generally believed to have been in fact the work of the
poet himself.
6. Finally the Thebaid always counted as the work of Homer.
As to the Epigoni, which carried on the Theban story, some
doubt seems to have been felt.
These indications render it probable that the stories connecting
Homer with different cities and islands grew up after his poems
had become known and famous, especially in the new and
flourishing colonies of Aeolis and Ionia. The contention for
Homer, in short, began at a time when his real history was lost,
and he had become a sort of mythical figure, an " eponymous
hero," or personification of a great school of poetry.
An interesting confirmation of this view from the negative
side is furnished by the city which ranked as chief among the
Asiatic colonies of Greece, viz. Miletus. No legend claims for
Miletus even a visit from Homer, or a share in the authorship of
any Homeric poem. Yet Arctinus of Miletus was said to have
been a " disciple of Homer," and was certainly one of the earliest
and most considerable of the " Cyclic " poets. His Aethiopis
was composed as a sequel to the Iliad; and the structure and
general character of his poems show that he took the Iliad as
his model. Yet in his case we find no trace of the disputed
authorship which is so common with other " Cyclic " poems.
How has this come about? Why have the works of Arctinus
escaped the attraction which drew to the name of Homer such
epics as the Cypria, the Little Iliad, the Thebaid, the Epigoni,
the Taking of Oechalia and the Phocais. The most obvious
account of the matter is that Arctinus was never so far forgotten
that his poems became the subject of dispute. We seem through
him to obtain a glimpse of an early post-Homeric age in Ionia,
when the immediate disciples and successors of Homer were
distinct figures in a trustworthy tradition when they had not
yet merged their individuality in the legendary " Homer " of the
Epic Cycle.
Recitation of the Poems. The recitation of epic poetry was
called in historical times " rhapsody " (pa^c^Sia). The word
pa^cj&js is post-Homeric, but was known to Pindar, who gives
two different explanations of it " singer of stitched verse "
(paTTTwv enkuv aoiSoi), and "singer with the wand" (p*a/356s).
Of these the first is etymologically correct (except that it should
rather be " stitcher of verse ") ; the second was suggested by
the fact, for which there is early evidence, that the reciter was
accustomed to hold a wand in his hand perhaps, like the
sceptre in the Homeric assembly, as a symbol of the right to a
hearing. 3
The first notice of rhapsody meets us at Sicyon, in the reign
of Cleisthenes (600-560 B.C.), who " put down the rhapsodists
on account of the poems of Homer, because they are all about
Argos and the Argives " (Hdt. v. 67). This description applies
very well to the Iliad, in which Argos and Argives occur on
almost every page. It may have suited the Thebaid still better,
but there is no need to understand it only of that poem, as Grote
does. The incident shows that the poems of the Ionic Homer had
gained in the 6th century B.C., and in the Doric parts of the Pelo-
ponnesus, the ascendancy, the national importance and the
almost canonical character which they ever afterwards retained.
At Athens there was a law that the Homeric poems should be
recited (paif/iaoelo-dai.) on every occasion of the Panathenaea.
This law is appealed to as an especial glory of Athens by the
orator Lycurgus (Leocr. 102). Perhaps therefore the custom
of public recitation was exceptional, 4 and unfortunately we do
not know when or by whom it was introduced. The Platonic
dialogue Hipparchus attributes it to Hipparchus, son of Peisis-
tratus. This, however, is .part of the historical romance of
1 Compare the branch of myrtle at an Athenian feast (Aristoph.,
Nub., 1364).
4 The Iliad was also recited at the festival of the Brauronia, at
Brauron in Attica (Hesych. s.v.
HOMER
which the dialogue mainly consists. The author makes (perhaps
wilfully) all the mistakes about the family of Peisistratus which
Thucydides notices in a well-known passage (vi. 54-59). In one
point, however, the writer's testimony is valuable. He tells us
that the law required the rhapsodists to recite " taking each
other up in order (e wroXi^ecos ktfxi-rjs), as they still do." This
recurs in a different form in the statement of Diogenes Laertius
(i. 2. 57) that Solon made a law that the poems should be recited
" with prompting " (e wro/3oX^s). The question as between
Solon and Hipparchus cannot be settled; but it is at least clear
that a due order of recitation was secured by the presence of
a person charged to give the rhapsodists their cue (wro/3dXXeti').
It was necessary, of course, to divide the poem to be recited into
parts, and to compel each contending rhapsodist to take the part
assigned to him. Otherwise they would have chosen favourite
or show passages.
The practice of poets or rhapsodists contending for the prize
at the great religious festivals is of considerable antiquity,
though apparently post-Homeric. It is brought vividly before us
in the Hymn to Apollo (see the passage mentioned above),
and in two Hymns to Aphrodite (v. and ix.). The latter of these
may evidently be taken to belong to Salamis in Cyprus and the
festival of the Cyprian Aphrbdite, in the same way that the
Hymn to Apollo belongs to Delos and the Delian gathering.
The earliest trace of such contests is to be found in the story
of Thamyris, the Thracian singer, who boasted that he could
conquer even the Muses in song (//. ii. 594 ff.).
Much has been made in this part of the subject of a family
or clan (ytvos) of Homeridae in the island of Chios. On the one
hand, it seemed to follow from the existence of such a family that
Homer was a mere "eponymus," or mythical ancestor; on the
other hand, it became easy to imagine the Homeric poems
handed down orally in a family whose hereditary occupation it
was to recite them, possibly to add new episodes from time to
time, or to combine their materials in new ways, as their poetical
gifts permitted. But, although there is no reason to doubt the
existence of a family of " Homeridae," it is far from certain that
they had anything to do with Homeric poetry. The word
occurs first in Pindar (Nem. 2. 2), who applies it to the rhapso-
dists ('O/iTjpiSai PO.-KT&V ew'tuv aoifioi). On this a scholiast says
that the name " Homeridae " denoted originally descendants
of Homer, who sang his poems in succession, but afterwards was
applied to rhapsodists who did not claim descent from him.
He adds that there was a famous rhapsodist, Cynaethus of
Chios, who was said to be the author of the Hymn to Apollo, and
to have first recited Homer at Syracuse about the 69th Olympiad.
Nothing here connects the Homeridae with Chios. The state-
ment of the scholiast is evidently a mere inference from the
patronymic form of the word. If it proves anything, it proves
that Cynaethus, who was a Chian and a rhapsodist, made no
claim to Homeric descent. On the other hand our knowledge of
Chian Homeridae comes chiefly from the lexicon of Harpocration,
where we are told that Acusilaus and Hellanicus said that they
were so called from the poet; whereas Seleucus pronounced
this to be an error. Strabo also says that the Chians put forward
the Homeridae as an argument in support of their claim to
Homer. These Homeridae, then, belonged to Chios, but there
is no indication of their being rhapsodists. On the contrary,
Plato and other Attic writers use the word to include interpreters
and admirers in short, the whole " spiritual kindred " of
Homer. And although we hear of " descendants of Creophylus "
as in possession of the Homeric poems, there is no similar story
about descendants of Homer himself. Such is the evidence on
which so many inferences are based.
The result of the notices now collected is to show that the
early history of epic recitation consists of (i) passages in the
Homeric hymns showing that poets contended for the prize at
the great festivals, (2) the passing mention in Herodotus of
rhapsodists at Sicyon, and (3) a law at Athens, of unknown
date, regulating the recitation at the Panathenaea. Let us now
compare these data with the account given in the Homeric poems.
The word " rhapsode " does not yet exist; we hear only of the
"singer" (doi56s), who does not carry a wand or laurel-branch,
but the lyre ((frbpnvyg), with which he accompanies his "song."
In the Iliad even the epic "singer" is not met with. It is
Achilles himself who sings the stories of heroes (icXea. avSpwv)
in his tent, and Patroclus is waiting (res ponder e paratus), to
take up the song in his turn (//. ix. 191). Again we do not hear
of poetical contests (except in the story of Thamyris already
mentioned) or of recitation of epic poetry at festivals. The
Odyssey gives us pictures of two great houses, and each has its
singer. The song is on a subject taken from the Trojan war, at
some point chosen by the singer himself, or by his hearers.
Phemius pleases the suitors by singing of the calamitous return of
the Greeks; Demodocus sings of a quarrel between Ulysses and
Achilles, and afterwards of the wooden horse and the capture
of Troy.
It may be granted that the author of the Odyssey can hardly
have been just such a singer as he himself describes. The songs
of Phemius and Demodocus are too short, and have too much
the character of improvisations. Nor is it necessary to suppose
that epic poetry, at the time to which the picture in the Odyssey
belongs, was confined to the one type represented. Yet in
several respects the conditions under which the singer finds himself
in the house of a chieftain like Odysseus or Alcinous are more
in harmony with the character of Homeric poetry than those of
the later rhapsodic contests. The subdivision of a poem like
the Iliad or Odyssey among different and necessarily unequal
performers must have been injurious to the effect. The highly
theatrical manner of recitation which was fostered by the spirit
of competition, and by the example of the stage, cannot have
done justice to the even movement of the epic style. It is not
certain indeed that the practice of reciting a long poem by the
agency of several competitors was ancient, or that it prevailed
elsewhere than at Athens; but as rhapsodists were numerous,
and popular favour throughout Greece became more and more
confined to one or two great works, it must have become almost
a necessity. That it was the mode of recitation contemplated
by the author of the Il^ad or Odyssey it is impossible to believe.
The difference made by substituting the wand or branch of
laurel for the lyre of the Homeric singer is a slighter one, though
not without significance. The recitation of the Hesiodic poems
was from the first unaccompanied by the lyre, i.e. they were
confessedly said, not sung; and it was natural that the example
should be extended to Homer. For it is difficult to believe that
the Homeric poems were ever " sung " in the strict sense of the
word. We can only suppose that the lyre in the hands of the
epic poet or reciter was in reality a piece of convention, a " sur-
vival " from the stage in which narrative poetry had a lyrical
character. Probably the poets of the Homeric school that
which dealt with war and adventure were the genuine descend-
ants of minstrels whose " lays " or " ballads " were the amuse-
ment of the feasts in an earlier heroic age; whereas the Hesiodic
compositions were non-lyrical from the first, and were only in
verse because that was the universal form of literature.
It seems, then, that if we imagine Homer as a singer in a royal
house of the Homeric age, but with more freedom regarding the
limits of his subject, and a more tranquil audience than is allowed
him in the rapid movement of the Odyssey, we shall piobably
not be far from the truth.
Time and Place of Homer. The oldest direct references to
the Iliad and Odyssey are in Herodotus, who quotes from both
poems (ii. 53). The quotation from the Iliad is of interest
because it is made in order to show that Homer supported the
story of the travels of Paris to Egypt and Sidon (whereas the
Cyclic poem called the Cypria ignored them), and also because
the part of the Iliad from which it comes is cited as the " Aristeia
of Diomede." This was therefore a recognized part of the poem.
The earliest mention of the name of Homer is found in a
fragment of the philosopher Xenophanes (of the 6th century
B.C., or possibly earlier), who complains of the false notions
implanted through the teaching of Homer. The passage shows,
not merely that Homer was well known at Colophon in the time
of Xenophanes, but also that the great advance in moral and
HOMER
629
religious ideas which forced Plato to banish Homer from his
republic had made itself felt in the days of the early Ionic
philosophers.
Failing external testimony, the time and place of the Homeric
poems can only be determined (if at all) by internal evidence.
This is of two main kinds: (a) evidence of history, consisting
in a comparison of the political and social condition, the
geography, the institutions, the manners, arts and ideas of
Homer with those of other times; (b) evidence of language,
consisting in a comparison with later dialects, in respect of
grammar and vocabulary. To these may be added, as occasion-
ally of value, (c) much evidence of the direct influence of Homer
upon the subsequent course of literature and art.
(a) The political condition of Greece in the earliest times
known to history is separated from the Greece of Homer by an
interval which can hardly be overestimated. The great national
names are different: instead of Achaeans, Argives, Danai, we
find Hellenes, subdivided into Dorians, lonians, Aeolians
names either unknown to Homer, or mentioned in terms more
significant than silence. At the dawn of Greek history Mycenae
is no longer the seat of empire; new empires, polities and
civilizations have grown up Sparta with its military discipline,
Delphi with its religious supremacy, Miletus with its commerce
and numberless colonies, Aeolis and Ionia, Sicily and Magna
Graecia.
While the political centre of Homeric Greece is at Mycenae,
the real centre is rather to be found in Boeotia. The Catalogue
of the Ships begins with Boeotia; the list of Boeotian towns is
much the longest; and they sail, not from the bay of Argos,
but from the Boeotian harbour of Aulis. This position is not
due to its chiefs, who are all of inferior rank. The importance of
Boeotia for Greek civilization is further shown by the ancient
worship of the Muses on Mount Helicon, and the fact that the
oldest poet whose birthplace was known was the Boeotian
Hesiod. Next to Boeotia and the neighbouring countries, it
appears that the Peloponnesus, Crete and Thessaly were the
most important seats of Greek population.
In the Peloponnesus the face of things was completely altered
by the Dorian conquest, no trace of which is found in Homer.
The only Dorians known in Homer are those that the Odyssey
(xix. 177) places in Crete. It is difficult to connect them with the
Dorians of history.
The eastern shores of the Aegean, which the earliest historical
records represent to us as the seat of a brilliant civilization, giving
way before the advance of the great military empires (Lydia
and afterwards Persia), are almost a blank in Homer's map.
The line of settlements can be traced in the Catalogue from
Crete to Rhodes, and embraces the neighbouring islands of Cos
and Calymnos. The colonization of Rhodes by Tlepolemus is
related (//. ii. 661 ff.), and seems to mark the farthest point
reached in the Homeric age. Between Rhodes and the Troad
Homer knows of but one city, Miletus which is a Carian ally
of Troy and the mouth of one river, the Cayster. Even the
Cyclades Naxos, Paros, Melos are unknown to the Homeric
world. The disposition of the Greeks to look to the west for the
centres of religious feeling appears in the mention of Dodona and
the Dodonaean Zeus, put in the mouth of the Thessalian Achilles.
To the north we find the Thracians, known from the stories
of Thamyris the singer (//. ii. 595), and Lycurgus, the enemy of
the young god Dionysus (II. vi. 130). Here the Trojan empire
begins. It does not appear, however, that the Trojans are thought
of as people of a different language. As this is expressly said of
the Carians, and of the Trojan allies who were " summoned from
afar," the contrary rather is implied regarding Troy itself.
The mixed type of government described by Homer con-
sisting of a king guided by a council of elders, and bringing all
important resolutions before the assembly of the fighting men
does not seem to have been universal in Indo-European com-
munities, but to have grown up in many different parts of the
world under the stress of similar conditions. The king is the
commander in war, and the office probably owed its existence to
military necessities. It is not surrounded with any special
sacredness. There were ruling families, laying claim to divine
descent, from whom the king was natarally chosen, but his own
fitness is the essence of his title. The aged Laertes is set aside;
the young Telemachus does not succeed as a matter of course.
Nor are any very definite rights attached to the office. Each
tribe in the army before Troy was commanded by its own king
(or kings); but Agamemnon was supreme, and was "more a
king " dScuriXtirepos) than any other. The assembly is summoned
on all critical occasions, and its approval is the ultimate sanction.
A king therefore stands in almost as much need of oratory as of
warlike skill and prowess. Even the division of the spoil is not
made in the Iliad by Agamemnon, but by " the Achaeans "
(II. i. 162, 368). The taking of Briseis from Achilles was an
arbitrary act, and against all rule and custom. The council
is more difficult to understand. The "elders" (yepovrts) of the
Iliad are the same as the subordinate "kings"; they are
summoned by Agamemnon to his tent, and form a small council
of nine or ten persons. In Troy we hear of elders of the people
(5rnj.oytpovTts) who are with Priam, and are men past the
military age. So in Ithaca there are elders who have not gone to
Troy with the army. It would seem therefore that the meeting
in Agamemnon's tent was only a copy or adaptation of the true
constitutional "council of elders," which indeed was essentially
unfitted for the purposes of military service. The king's palace,
if we may judge from Tiryns and Mycenae, was usually in a strong
situation on an "acropolis." In the later times of democracy the
acropolis was reserved for the temples of the principal gods.
Priesthood in Homer is found in the case of particular temples,
where an officer is naturally wanted to take charge of the sacred
inclosure and the sacrifices offered within it. It is perhaps an
accident that we do not hear of priests in Ithaca. Agamemnon
performs sacrifice himself, not because a priestly character was
attached to the kingly office, but simply because he was " master
in his own house."
The conception of " law " is foreign to Homer. The later
words for it (yojuos, trip-pa) are unknown, and the terms which
he uses (61*77 and 0e/us) mean merely " custom." Judicial
functions are in the hands of the elders, who " have to do with
suits " (SiKatnroXoi), and " uphold judgments " (0e/uoras
eipiiarat). On such matters as the compensation in cases of
homicide, it is evident that there were no rules, but merely a
feeling, created by use and wont, that the relatives of the slain
man should be willing to accept payment. The sense of anger
which follows a violation of custom has the name of " Nemesis "
righteous displeasure.
As there is no law in Homer, so there is no morality. That
is to say, there are no general principles of action, and no words
which indicate that acts have been classified as good or bad,
right or wrong. Moral feeling, indeed, existed and was denoted
by " Aidos " ; but the numerous meanings of this word shame,
veneration, pity show how rudimentary the idea was. And
when we look to practice we find that cruel and even treacherous
deeds are spoken of without the least sense that they deserve
censure. The heroes of Homer are hardly more moral agents
than the giants and enchanters of a fairy tale.
The religious ideas of Homer differ in some important points
from those of later Greece. The Apollo of the Iliad has the
character of a local Asiatic deity " ruler of Chryse and goodly
Cilia and Tenedos." He may be compared with the Clarian
and the Lycian god, but he is unlike the Apollo of Dorian times,
the " deliverer " and giver of oracles. Again, the worship of
Dionysus, and of Demeter and Persephone, is mainly or wholly
post-Homeric. The greatest difference, however, lies in the
absence of hero-worship from the Homeric order of things.
Castor and Polydeuces, for instance, are simply brothers of
Helen who died before the expedition to Troy (//. iii. 243.)
The military tactics of Homer belong to the age when the
chariot was the principal engine of warfare. Cavalry is unknown,
and the battles are mainly decided by the prowess of the chiefs.
The use of the trumpet is also later. It has been supposed
indeed that the art of riding was known in Homer's own time,
because it occurs in comparisons. But the riding which he
630
HOMER
describes (//. xv. 679) is a mere exhibition of skill, such as we may
see in a modern circus. And though he mentions the trumpet
(//. xviii. 219), there is nothing to show that it was used, as in
historical times, to give the signal for the charge.
The chief industries of Homeric times are those of the carpenter
(rlitTUv),. the worker in leather (aKirrorofios), the smith or
worker in metal (xaXwvs) whose implements are the hammer
and pincers and the potter ((cepa/ww); also spinning and
weaving, which were carried on by the women. The fine arts
are represented by sculpture in relief, carving in wood and ivory,
embroidery. Statuary is later; it appears to have come into
existence in the 7th century, about the time when casting in
metal was invented by Rhoecus of Samos. In general, as was
well shown by A. S. Murray, 1 Homeric art does not rise above the
stage of decoration, applied to objects in common use; while
in point of style it is characterized by a richness and variety
of ornament which is in the strongest contrast to the simplicity
of the best periods. It is the work, in short, not of artists but of
skilled workmen; the ideal artist is " Daedalus," a name which
implies mechanical skill and intricate workmanship, not beauty
of design.
One art of the highest importance remains. The question
whether writing was known in the time of Homer was raised in
antiquity, and has been debated with especial eagerness ever
since the appearance of Wolf's Prolegomena. In this case we
have to consider not merely the indications of the poems, but
also the external evidence which we possess regarding the use
of writing in Greece. This latter kind of evidence is much more
considerable now than it was in Wolf's time. (See WRITING
elsewhere in these volumes.)
The oldest known stage of the Greek alphabet appears to be
represented by inscriptions of the islands of Thera, Melos and
Crete, which are referred to the 4oth Olympiad (620 B.C.). The
oldest specimen of a distinctively Ionian alphabet is the famous
inscription of the mercenaries of Psammetichus, in Upper Egypt,
as to which the only doubt is whether the Psammetichus in
question is the first or the second, and consequently whether
the inscription is to be dated Ol. 40 or Ol. 47. Considering that
the divergence of two alphabets (like the difference of two
dialects) requires both time and familiar use, we may gather
from these facts that writing was well known in Greece early in
the 7th century B.C. 2
The rise of prose composition in the 6th century B.C. has
been thought to mark the time when memory was practically
superseded by writing as a means of preserving literature
the earlier use of letters being confined to short documents,
such as lists of names, treaties, laws, &c. This conclusion,
however, is by no means necessary. It may be that down to
comparatively late times poetry was not commonly read, but
was recited from memory. But the question is From what
time are we to suppose that the preservation of long poems was
generally secured by the existence of written copies? Now,
without counting the Homeric poems which doubtless had
exceptional advantages in their fame and popularity we find
a body of literature dating from the 8th century B.C. to which
the theory of oral transmission is surely inapplicable. In the
Trojan cycle alone we know of the two epics of Arctinus, the
Little Iliad of Lesches, the Cypria, the Nostoi. The Theban
cycle is represented by the Thebaid (which Callinus, who was
of the 7th century, ascribed to Homer) and the Epigoni. Other
ancient epics ancient enough to have passed under the name
of Homer are the Taking of Oechalia, and the Phocdis. Again,
there are the numerous works attributed to Hesiod and other
1 Contemporary Review, vol. xxiii. p. 218 ff.
2 The fact that the Phoenician Vau (f ) was retained in the Greek
alphabets, and the vowel v added, shows that when the alphabet was
introduced the sound denoted by F was still in full vigour. Other-
wise F would have been used for the vowel u, just as the Phoenician
consonant Ypd became the vowel t. But in the Ionic dialect the
sound of F died out soon after Homer's time, if indeed it was still
pronounced then. It seems probable therefore that the introduction
of the alphabet is not later than the composition of the Homeric
poems.
poets of the didactic, mythological and quasi-historical schools
Eumelus of Corinth, Cinaethon of Sparta, Agias of Troezen, and
many more. The preservation of this vast mass can only be
attributed to writing, which must therefore have been in use for
two centuries or more before there was any considerable prose
literature. Nor is this in itself improbable.
The further question, whether the Iliad and Odyssey were
originally written, is much more difficult. External evidence
does not reach back so far, and the internal evidence is curiously
indecisive. The only passage which can be interpreted as a
reference to writing occurs in the story of Bellerophon, told by
Glaucus in the sixth book of the Iliad. Proetus, king of Corinth,
sent Bellerophon to his father-in-law the king of Lycia, and gave
him " baneful tokens " (ffrj^ara Xirypa, i.e. tokens which were
messages of death), " scratching on a folded tablet many spirit-
destroying things, and bade him show this to his father-in-law,
that he might perish." The king of Lycia asked duly (on the
tenth day from the guest's coming) for a token (rjrte o-fjua
ISiaBai), and then knew what Proetus wished to be done. In
this account there is nothing to show exactly how the message
of Proetus was expressed. The use of writing for the purpose of
the token between " guest-friends " (tessera hospitalis) is certainly
very ancient. Mommsen (Rom. Forsch. i. 338 ff.) aptly com-
pares the use in treaties, which are the oldest species of public
documents. But we may suppose that tokens of some kind
like the marks which the Greek chiefs make on the lots (//. vii.
175 ff.) were in use before writing was known. In any system
of signs there were doubtless means of recommending a friend,
or giving warning of the presence of an enemy. There is no
difficulty, therefore, in understanding the message of Proetug
without alphabetical writing. But, on the other hand, there
is no reason for so understanding it.
If the language of Homer is so ambiguous where the use
of writing would naturally be mentioned, we cannot expect to
find more decisive references elsewhere. Arguments have been
founded upon the descriptions of the blind singers in the Odyssey,
with their songs inspired directly by the Muse; upon the appeals
of the poet to the Muses, especially in such a place as the opening
of the Catalogue; upon the Catalogue itself, which is a kind of
historical document put into verse to help the memory; upon
the shipowner in the Odyssey, who has " a good memory for his
cargo," &c. It may be answered, however, that much of this
is traditional, handed down from the time when all poetry was
unwritten. Moreover it is one thing to recognize that a literature
is essentially oral in its form, characteristic ,of an age which was
one of hearing rather than of reading, and quite another to hold
that the same literature was preserved entirely by oral trans-
mission.
The result of these various considerations seems to be that
the age which we may call the Homeric the age which is brought
before us in vivid outlines in the Iliad and Odyssey lies beyond
the earliest point to which history enables us to penetrate.
And so far as we can draw any conclusion as to the author
(or authors) of the two poems, it is that the whole debate between
the cities of Aeolis and Ionia was wide of the mark. The author
of the Iliad, at least, was evidently a European Greek who
lived before the colonization of Asia Minor; and the claims
of the Asiatic cities mean no more than that in the days of their
prosperity these were the chief seats of the fame of Homer.
This is perhaps the place to consider whether the poems are to be
regarded as possessing in any degree the character of historical
record. The question is one which in the absence of satisfactory
criteria will generally be decided by taste and predilection. A few
suggestions, however, may be made.
i. The events of the Iliad take place in a real locality, the general
features of which are kept steadily in view. There is no doubt
about Sigeum and Rhoeteum, or the river Scamander, or the islands
Imbros, Lemnos and Tenedos. It is at least remarkable that a legend
of the national interest of the " tale of Troy " should be so definitely
localized, and that in a district which was never famous as a seat of
Greek population. It may be urged, too, that the story of the Iliad
is singularly free from the exaggerated and marvellous character
which belongs as a rule to the legends of primitive peoples. Ths
apple of discord, the arrows of Philoctetes, the invulnerability of
Achilles, and similar fancies, are the additions of later poets. This
HOMER
631
sobriety, however, belongs not to the whole Iliad, but to the events
and characters of the war. Such figures as Bellerophon, Ni'obe, the
Amazons, which are thought of as traditions from an earlier genera-
tion, show the marvellous element at work.
2. Certain persons and events in the story have a distinctly
mythical stamp. Helen is a figure of this kind. There was another
story according to which she was carried off by Theseus, and re-
covered by her brothers the Dioscuri. There are even traces of a
third version, in which the Messenian twins, Idas and Lynceus,
appear.
3. The analogy of the French epic, the Chanson de Roland,
favours the belief that there was some nucleus of fact. The defeat
of Roncevaux was really suffered by a part of Charlemagne's army.
But the Saracen army is purely mythical, the true enemy having
been the Gascons. If similarly we leave, as historical, the plain of
Troy, and the name Agamemnon, we shall perhaps not be far wrong.
(b) The dialect of Homer is an early or " primitive " form of
the language which we know as that of Attica in the classical
age of Greek literature. The proof of this proposition is to be
obtained chiefly by comparing the grammatical formation and
the syntax of Homer with those of Attic. The comparison of
the vocabulary is in the nature of things less conclusive on the
question of date. It would be impossible to give the evidence
in full without writing a Homeric grammar, but a few specimens
may be of interest.
1. The first aorist in Greek being a " weak " tense, i.e. formed
by a suffix (-<ra), whereas the second aorist is a " strong " tense,
distinguished by the form of the root-syllable, we expect to find a
constant tendency to diminish the number of second aorists in use.
No new second aorists, we may be sure, were formed any more than
new " strong " tenses, such as came or sang, can be formed in
English. Now in Homer there are upwards of 80 second aorists
(not reckoning aorists of " Verbs in fu,' such as tariyi, I/STJC), whereas
in all Attic prose not more than 30 are found. In this point therefore
the Homeric language is manifestly older. In Attic poets, it is true,
the number of such aorists is much larger than in prose. But here
again we find that they bear witness to Homer. Of the poetical
aorists in Attic the larger part are also Homeric. Others are not
really Attic at all, but borrowed from earlier Aeolic and Doric
poetry. It is plain, in short, that the later poetical vocabulary was
separated from that of prose mainly by the forms which the influence
of Homer had saved from being forgotten.
2. While the whole class of " strong " aorists diminished, certain
smaller groups in the class disappeared altogether. Thus we find in
Homer, but not in the later language :
(a) The second aorist middle without the " thematic " 6 or o: as
?/S\T)-TO, was struck; &0i-ro, perished; aX-ro, leaped.
(b) The aorist formed by reduplication: as &i&a.ti>, taught;
XeAa/3o0<u, to seize. These constitute a distinct formation, generally
with a " causative " meaning; the solitary Attic specimen is f/yajov.
3. It had long been known that the subjunctive in Homer often
takes a short vowel (e.g. in the plural, -op.a>, -ere instead of -uiuv,
-irre, and in the Mid. -OM<U, &c. instead of -afiai, &c.). This was
generally said to be done by " poetic licence," or metri gratia. In
fact, however, the Homeric subjunctive is almost quite regular,"
though the rule which it obeys is a different one from the Attic. It
may be summed up by saying that the subjunctive takes u or ij when
the indicative has o or e, and not otherwise. Thus Homer has
t-ptv, we go, l-o-iiiv, let us go. The later Z-w-^ex was at first a solecism,
an attempt to conjugate a " verb in pt " like the " verbs in a."
It \yill be evident that under this rule the perfect and first aorist
subjunctive should always take a short vowel; and this accordingly
is the case, with very few exceptions.
4. The article (6, i), r6) in Homer is chiefly used as an independent
pronoun (he, she, it), a use which in Attic appears only in a few com-
binations (such as A pit . . . 6 Si, the one . . . the other). This differ-
ence is parallel to the relation between the Latin itte and the article
of the Romance languages.
5. The prepositions offer several points of comparison. What the
grammarians called " tmesis," the separation of the preposition from
the verb with which it is compounded, is peculiar to Homer. The
true account of the matter is that in Homer the place of the pre-
position is not rigidly fixed, as it was afterwards. Again, " with "
is in Homer avv (with the dative), in Attic prose perk, with the
genitive. Here Attic poetry is intermediate; the use of <rin> is
retained as a piece of poetical tradition.
6. In addition to the particle &v, Homer has another, KW, hardly
distinguishable in meaning. The Homeric uses of #K and ntv are
different in several respects from the Attic, the general result being
that the Homeric syntax is more elastic. And yet it is perfectly
definite and precise. Homer uses no constructions loosely or without
corresponding differences of meaning. His rules are equally strict
with those of the later language, but they are not the same rules.
And they differ chiefly in this, that the less common combinations
of the earlier period were disused altogether in the later.
7. In the vocabulary the most striking difference is that many
words appear from the metre to have contained a sound which they
afterwards lost, viz. that which is written in some Greek alphabets
by the " digamma " F. Thus the words 4pa, &OTU, tpyov, ZTTOS,
and many others must have been written at one time Fava, F&.OTV,
'Ftpyov, ftjros. This letter, however, died out earlier in Ionic than
in most dialects, and there is no proof that the Homeric poems were
ever written with it.
These are not, speaking generally, the differences that are
produced by the gradual divergence of dialects in a language.
They are rather to be classed with those which we find between
the earlier and the later stages of every language which has
had a long history. The Homeric dialect has passed into New
Ionic and Attic by gradual but ceaseless development of the
same kind as that which brought about the change from Vedic
to classical Sanskrit, or from old high German to the present
dialects of Germany.
The points that have been mentioned, to which many others
might be added, make it clear that the Homeric and Attic dialects
are separated by differences which affect the whole structure
of the language, and require a considerable time for their develop-
ment. At the same time there is hardly one of these differences
which cannot be accounted for by the natural growth of the
language. It has been thought indeed that the Homeric dialect
was a mixed one, mainly Ionic, but containing Aeolic and even
Doric forms; this, however, is a mistaken view of the processes
of language. There are doubtless many Homeric forms which
were unknown to the later Ionic and Attic, and which are found
in Aeolic or other dialects. In general, however, these are older
forms, which must have existed in Ionic at one time, and may
very well have belonged to the Ionic of Homer's time. So too
the digamma is called " Aeolic " by grammarians, and is found
on Aeolic and Doric inscriptions. But the letter was one of the
original alphabet, and was retained universally as a numeral.
It can only have fallen into disuse by degrees, as the sound
which it denoted ceased to be pronounced. The fact that there
are so many traces of it in Homer is a strong proof of the antiquity
of the poems, but no proof of admixture with Aeolic.
There is one sense, however, in which an admixture of dialects
may be recognized. It is clear that the variety of forms in
Homer is too great for any actual spoken dialect. To take a
single instance: it is impossible that the genitives in -oio and
in -ou should both have been in everyday use together. The
form in -oio must have been poetical or literary, like the old
English forms that survive in the language of the Bible. The
origin of such double forms is not far to seek. The effect of
dialect on style was always recognized in Greece, and the dialect
which had once been adopted by a particular kind of poetry
was ever afterwards adhered to. The Epic of Homer was doubt-
less formed originally from a spoken variety of Greek, but
became literary and conventional with time. It is Homer
himself who tells us, in a striking passage (//. iv. 437) that all
the Greeks spoke the same language that is to say, that they
understood one another, in spite of the inevitable local differences.
Experience shows how some one dialect in a country gains a
literary supremacy to which the whole nation yields. So Tuscan
became the type of Italian, and Anglian of English. But as
soon as the dialect is adopted, it begins to diverge from the
colloquial form. Just as modern poetical Italian uses many
older grammatical forms peculiar to itself, so the language of
poetry, even in Homeric times, had formed a deposit (so to
speak) of archaic grammar. There were doubtless poets before
Homer, as well as brave men before Agamemnon; and indeed
the formation of a poetical dialect such as the Homeric must
have been the work of several generations. The use of that
dialect (instead of Aeolic) by the Boeotian poet Hesiod, in a
kind of poetry which was not of the Homeric type, tends to
the conclusion that the literary ascendancy of the epic dialect
was anterior to the Iliad and Odyssey, and independent of the
influence exercised by these poems.
What then was the original language of Homer? Where
and when was it spoken? [The answer given to this question
by Aug. Fick (in 1883) and still held, with modifications, by
some European scholars can no longer be maintained. Pick's
original statement was that in or about the 6th century B.C.
632
HOMER
the poems, which had originally worn an Aeolic dress, were
transposed into Ionic. To this it is easily answered that such
an event is not only unique in history, but contrary to all that
we know of the Greek genius. At the period in question an
Aeolic literature, the lyrics of Sappho and Alcaeus, were in
existence. If it was found necessary to transpose the Aeolic
Homer, why did the Aeolic lyric verse escape? If, however,
as is the view of some of Pick's followers, the transposition took
place several centuries earlier, before species of literature had
appropriated particular dialects, then the linguistic facts upon
which Pick relied to distinguish the " Aeolic " and " Ionic "
elements in Homer disappear. We have no means of knowing
what the Aeolic and Ionic of say the o,th century were, or if
there were such dialects at all. Certain prominent historical
differences between Aeolic and Ionic (the digamma and a) are
known to be unoriginal. The view that Homer underwent
at any time a passage frdm one dialect to another may be dis-
missed. The tendency of modern dialectologists is to divide
the Greek dialects into Dorian and non-Dorian. The non-
Dorian dialects, Ionic, Attic and the various forms of Aeolic,
are regarded as relatively closely akin, and go by the common
name " Achaean." They formed the common language of Greece
before the Doric invasion. As the scene which Homer depicts
is prae-Dorian Greece, it is reasonable to call his language
Achaean. The historical divergences of Achaean into Aeolian
and Ionic were later than the Migration, and were due to the
well-known effects of change of soil and air.
To what local variety of Achaean Homeric Greek belonged
it is idle to ask. Thessaly, Boeotia and Mycenae have equal
claims. It seems clearer that when once this local variety of
Achaean had been used by poets of eminence as their vehicle
for national history, it established its right to be considered
the one poetical language of Hellas. As the dialect of the Arno
in Italy, of Castille in Spain, by the virtue of the genius
of the singers who used them, became literary " Italian " and
" Spanish," so this variety of Achaean elevated itself to the
position of the volgare illustre of Greece. 1 ] (T. W. A.)
(c) The influence of Homer upon the subsequent course of
Greek literature is a large subject, even if we restrict it to the
centuries which immediately followed the Homeric age. It
will be enough to observe that in the earliest elegiac poets, such
as Archilochus, Tyrtaeus and Theognis, reminiscences of Homeric
language and thought meet us on every page. If the same
cannot be said of the ancient epic poems, that is because of the
extreme scantiness of the existing fragments. Much, however,
is to be gathered from the arguments of the Trojan part of the
Epic Cycle (preserved in the Codex Venetus of the Iliad, a full
discussion of which will be found in the Journal of Hellenic
Studies, 1884, pp. 1-40). An examination of these arguments
throws light on two chief aspects of the relation between Homer
and his " cyclic " successors.
1. The later poets sought to complete the story of the Trojan
war by supplying the parts which did not fall within the Iliad
and Odyssey the so-called anle-homerica and post-homerica.
They did so largely from hints and passing references in Homer.
Thus the successive episodes of the siege related at length in
the Little Iliad, and ending with the story of the Wooden Horse,
are nearly all taken from passages in the Odyssey. Much the
same may be said of the Nosti.
2. With this process of expansion and development (so to speak)
of Homeric themes is combined the addition of new characters.
Such, in the Little Iliad (e.g.), are the story of the Palladium
and of the treachery of Sinon. Such, too, -in the Cypria are the
new legendary figures Palamedes, Iphigenia, Telephus, Laocoon.
These new elements in the narrative are evidently due not only
to the natural growth of legend in a people highly endowed
with imagination, but in a large proportion also to the new
1 See D. B. Monro's Homer's Odyssey, books xiii.-xxiv. (Oxford,
1901, p. 455 sqq.), and the abstract of his paper on the Homeric
Dialect read to the Congress of Historical Sciences at Rome, 1903:
Atti del Congresso internazionale di scienze storiette, ii. 152, 153, 1905,
" II Dialetto omerico."
races and countries with which the Greeks came into contact,
as well as to their own rapid advance in wealth and civilization.
It will be observed that the two poems of Arctinus are remarkable
for the proportion of new matter of the latter kind. The
Aelhiopis shows us the allies of Troy reinforced by two peoples
that are evidently creations of oriental fancy, the Amazons and
Memnon with his Aethiopians. The Iliu Persis, again, was
the oldest authority for the story of Laocoon and of the con-
sequent escape of Aeneas a story which connected a surviving
branch of the house of Priam with the later inhabitants of the
Troad. On the other hand the fate of Creusa (sed me magna
deum genetrix his detinel oris) is a link with the worship of Cybele.
The journey of Calchas to Colophon and his death there, as told
in the Nosti, is another instance of the kind. These facts point
to a familiarity with the Greek colonies in Asia which contrasts
strongly with the silence of the Iliad and Odyssey.
Study of Homer. The Homeric Question. The critical study of
Homer began in Greece almost with the beginning of prose writing.
The first name is that of Theagenes of Rhegium, contemporary of
Cambyses (525 B.C.), who is said to have founded the " new
grammar " (the older " grammar " being the art of reading and
writing), and to have been the inventor of the allegorical interpreta-
tions by which it was sought to reconcile the Homeric mythology
with the morality and speculative ideas of the 6th century B.C.
The same attitude in the " ancient quarrel of poetry and philosophy "
was soon afterwards taken by Anaxagoras; and after him by his
pupil Metrodorus of Lampsacus, who explained away all the gods,
and even the heroes, as elementary substances and forces (Agamem-
non as the upper air, &c.).
The next writers on Homer of the " grammatical " type were
Stesimbrotus of Thasos (contemporary with Cimon) and Antimachus
of Colophon, himself an epic poet of mark. The Thebaid of Anti-
machus, however, was not popular, and seems to have been a
great storehouse of mythological learning rather than a poem of the
Homeric school.
Other names of the pre-Socratic and Socratic times are mentioned
by Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. These were the "ancient
Homerics " (oi dpxcuoi 'O/wjpucoO, who busied themselves much with
the hidden meanings of Homer; of whom Aristotle says, with his
profound insight, that they see the small likenesses and overlook
the great ones (Metaph. xii.).
The text of Homer must have attracted some attention when
Antimachus came to be known as the " corrector " (SiopOwte) of a
distinct edition (IxSoo-ts). Aristotle is said himself to have made a
recension for the use of Alexander the Great. This is unlikely. His
remarks on Homer (in the Poetics and elsewhere) show that he had
made a careful study of the structure and leading ideas of the poems,
but do not throw much light on the text.
The real work of criticism became possible only when great collec-
tions of manuscripts began to be made by the princes of the genera-
tion after Alexander, and when men of learning were employed to
sift and arrange these treasures. In this way the great Alexandrian
school of Homeric criticism began with Zenodotus, the first chief of
the museum, and was continued by Aristophanes and Aristarchus.
In Aristarchus ancient philology culminated, as philosophy had done
in Socrates. All earlier learning either passed into his writings, or
was lost; all subsequent research turned upon his critical and
grammatical work.
The means of forming a judgment of the Alexandrine criticism
are scanty. The literary form which preserved the works of the
great historians was unfortunately wanting, or was not sufficiently
valued, in the case of the grammarians. Abridgments and newer
treatises soon drove out the writings of Aristarchus and other
founders of the science. Moreover, a recension could not be repro-
duced without new errors soon creeping in. Thus we find that
Didymus, writing in the time of Cicero, does not quote the readings
of Aristarchus as we should quote a textus receptus. Indeed, the
object of his work seems to have been to determine what those
readings were. Enough, however, remains to show that Aristarchus
had a clear notion of the chief problems of philology (except per-
haps those concerning etymology). He saw, for example, that it was
not enough to find a meaning for the archaic words (the y\saaa.i, as
they were called), but that common words (such as TT&VOS, <60os)
had their Homeric uses, which were to be gathered by due induction.
In the same spirit he looked upon the ideas and beliefs of Homer as
a consistent whole, which might be determined from the evidence
of the poems. He noticed especially the difference between the
stories known to Homer and those given by later poets, and made
many comparisons between Homeric and later manners, arts and
institutions. Again, he was sensible of the paramount value of
manuscript authority, and appears to have introduced no readings
from mere conjecture. The frequent mention in the Scholia of
" better " and " inferior " texts- may indicate a classification made
by him or by the general opinion of critics. His use of the " obelus "
to distinguish spurious verses, which made so large a part of his fame
HOMER
633
in antiquity, has rather told against him with modern scholars. 1
It is chiefly interesting as a proof of the confusion in which the text
must have been before the Alexandrian times; for it is impossible to
understand the readiness of Aristarchus to suspect the genuineness
of verses unless the state of the copies had pointed to the existence
of numerous interpolations. On this matter, however, we are left
to conjecture.
Our knowledge of Alexandrian criticism is derived almost wholly
from a single document, the famous Iliad of the library of St Mark
in Venice (Codex Venetus 454, or Yen. A), first published by the
French scholar Villoison in 1788 (Scholia antiquissima ad Homeri
Iliadem). This manuscript, written in the loth century, contains
(l) the best text of the Iliad, (2) the critical marks of Aristarchus and
(3) Scholia, consisting mainly of extracts from four grammatical
works, viz. Didymus (contemporary of Cicero) on the recension of
Aristarchus, Aristonicus (fl. 24 B.C.) on the Critical marks of Aris-
tarchus, Herodian (fl. A.D. 160) on the accentuation, and Nicanor
(fl. A.D. 127) on the punctuation, of the Iliad.
These extracts present themselves in two distinct forms. One
series of scholia is written in the usual way, on a margin reserved
for the purpose. The other consists of brief scholia, written in very
small characters (but of the same period) on the narrow space left
vacant round the text. Occasionally a scholium of this kind gives
the substance of one of the longer extracts; but as a rule they are
distinct. It would seem, therefore, that after the manuscript was
finished the " marginal scholia " were discovered to be extremely
defective, and a new series of extracts was added in a form which
interfered as little as possible with the appearance of the book. 2
The mention of the Venetian Scholia leads us at once to the
Homeric controversy ; for the immortal Prolegomena of F. A. Wolf 3
appeared a few years after Villoison's publication, and was founded
in great measure upon the fresh and abundant materials which it
furnished. Not that the " Wolfian theory " of the Homeric poems
is directly supported by anything in the Scholia; the immediate
object of the Prolegomena was not to put forward that theory, but
to elucidate the new and remarkable conditions under which the
text of Homer had to be settled, viz. the discovery of an apparatus
criticus of the 2nd century B.C. The questions regarding the original
structure and early history of the poems were raised (forced upon
him, it may be said) by the critical problem; but they were really
originated by facts and ideas of a wholly different order.
The i8th century, in which the spirit of classical correctness had
the most absolute dominion, did not come to an end before a powerful
reaction set in, which affected not only literature but also speculation
and politics. In this movement the leading ideas were concentrated
in the word Nature. The natural condition of society, natural law,
natural religion, the poetry of nature, gained a singular hold, first on
the English philosophers from Hume onwards, and then (through
Rousseau chiefly) on the general drift of thought and action in Europe.
In literature the effect of these ideas was to set up a false opposition
between nature and art. As political writers imagined a patriarchal
innocence prior to codes of law, so men of letters sought in popular
unwritten poetry the freshness and simplicity which were wanting
in the prevailing styles. The blind minstrel was the counterpart of
the noble savage. The supposed discovery of the poems of Ossian
fell in with this train of sentiment, and created an enthusiasm for the
study of early popular poetry. Homer was soon drawn into the circle
of inquiry. Blackwell (Professor of Greek at Aberdeen) had insisted,
in a book published in 1735, on the "naturalness" of Homer; and
Wood (Essay on the Original Genius of Homer, London, 1769) was the
first who maintained that Homer composed without the help of
writing, and supported his thesis by ancient authority, and also by
the parallel of Ossian. Both these books were translated into
German, and their ideas passed into the popular philosophy of the
day. Everything in short was ripe for the reception of a book that
brought together, with masterly ease and vigour, the old and the
new Homeric learning, and drew from it the historical proof that
Homer was no single poet, writing according to art and rule, but a
name which stood for a golden age of the true spontaneous poetry
of genius and nature.
The part of the Prolegomena which deals with the original form
of the Homeric poems occupies pp. xl.-clx. (in the first edition).
Wolf shows how the question of the date of writing meets us on the
1 See the chapter in Cobet's Miscellanea crilica, pp. 225-239.
2 The existence of two groups of the Venetian Scholia was first
noticed by Jacob La Roche, and they were first distinguished in
the edition of W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1875). There is also a group of
Scholia, chiefly exegetical, a collection of which was published by
Villoison from a MS. Ven. 453 (s. xi.) in his edition of 1788, and has
been again edited by W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1877). The most im-
portant collection of this group is contained in the Codex Townleianus
(Burney 86 s. xi.) of the British Museum, edited by E. Maass,
(Oxford, 1887-1888). The vast commentary of Eustathius (of the
12th century) marks a third stage in the progress of ancient Homeric
learning.
3 Prolegomena ad Homerum, sive de operum Homericorum prisca et
genuina forma variisque mutationibus et probabili ratione emendandi,
scripsit Frid. Aug. Wolfius, volumen i. (1795).
threshold of the textual criticism of Homer and accordingly enters
into a full discussion, first of the external evidence, then of the
indications furnished by the poems. Having satisfied himself that
writing was unknown to Homer, he is led to consider the real mode
of transmission, and finds this in the Rhapsodists, of whom the
Homeridae were an hereditary school. And then comes the conclu-
sion to which all this has been tending: "the die is cast" the
Iliad and Odyssey cannot have been composed in the form in which
we know them without the aid of writing. They must therefore
have been, as Bentley had said, " a sequel of songs and rhapsodies,"
" loose songs not collected together in the form of an epic poem till
about 500 years after." This conclusion he then supports by the
character attributed to the " Cyclic " poems (whose want of unity
showed that the structure of the Iliad and Odyssey must be the work
of a later time), by one or two indications of imperfect connexion,
and by the doubts of ancient critics as to the genuineness of certain
parts. These, however, are matters of conjecture. " Historia
loquitur." The voice of antiquity is unanimous in declaring that
" Peisistratus first committed the poems of Homer to writing, and
reduced them to the order in which we now read them."
The appeal of Wolf to the " voice of all antiquity " is by no means
borne out by the different statements on the subject. According to
Heraclides Ponticus (pupil of Plato), the poetry of Homer was first
brought to the Peloponnesus by Lycurgus, who obtained it from the
descendants of Creophylus (Polit. fr. 2). Plutarch in his Life of
Lycurgus (c. 4) repeats this story, with the addition that there was
already a faint report of the poems in Greece, and that certain de-
tached fragments were in the possession of a few persons. Again,
the Platonic dialogue Hipparchus (which though not genuine is
probably earlier than the Alexandrian times) asserts that Hipparchus,
son of Peisistratus, first brought the poems to Athens, and obliged
the rhapsodists at the Panathenaea to follow the order of the text,
" as they still do," instead of reciting portions chosen at will. The
earliest authority for attributing any work of the kind to Peisistratus
is the well-known passage of Cicero (De Oral. 3. 34: " Quis doctior
eisdem temporibus illis, aut cujus eloquentia litteris instructior fuisse
traditur quam Pisistrati ? qui primus Homeri libros, confusos antea,
sic disposuisse dicitur ut nunc habemus "). To the same effect
Pausanias (yii. p. 594) says that the change of the name Donoessa to
Gonoessa (in //. ii. 573) was thought to have been made by
" Peisistratus or one of his companions," when he collected the poems,
which were then in a fragmentary condition. Finally, Diogenes
Laertius (i. 57) says that Solon made a law that the poems should be
recited with the help of a prompter so that each rhapsodist should
begin where the last left off; and he argues from this that Solon did
more than Peisistratus to make Homer known. The argument is
directed against a certain Dieuchidas of Megara, who appears to have
maintained that the verses about Athens in the Catalogue (//. ii.
546-556) were interpolated by Peisistratus. The passage is un-
fortunately corrupt, but it is at least clear that in the time of Solon,
according to Diogenes, there were complete copies of the poems, such
as could be used to control the recitations. Hence the account of
Diogenes is quite irreconcilable with the notices on which Wolf relied.
It is needless to examine the attempts which have been made to
harmonize these accounts. Such attempts usually start with the
tacit assumption that each of the persons concerned Lycurgus,
Solon, Peisistratus, Hipparchus must have done something for the
text of Homer, or for the regulation of the rhapsodists. But we
have first to consider whether any of the accounts come to us on
such evidence that we are bound to consider them as containing a
nucleus of truth.
In the first place, the statement that Lycurgus obtained the poems
from descendants of Creophylus must be admitted to be purely
mythical. But if we reject it, have we any better reason for believing
the parallel assertion in the Platonic Hipparchus ? It is true that
Hipparchus is undoubtedly a real person. On the other hand it is
evident that the Peisistratidae soon became the subject of many
fables. Thucydides notices as a popular mistake the belief that
Hipparchus was the eldest son of Peisistratus, and that consequently
he was the reigning " tyrant " when he was killed by Aristogiton.
The Platonic Hipparchus follows this erroneous version, and may
therefore be regarded as representing (at best) mere local tradition.
We may reasonably go further, and see in this part of the dialogue a
piece of historical romance, designed to put the " tyrant " family
in a favourable light, as patrons of literature and learning.
Again, the account of the Hipparchus is contradicted by Diogenes
Laertius, who says that Solon provided for the due recitation of the
Homeric poems. The only good authorities as to this point are the
orators Lycurgus and Isocrates, who mention the law prescribing the
recitation, but do not say when or by whom it was enacted. The
inference seems a fair one, that the author of the law was really
unknown.
With regard to the statements which attribute some work in con-
nexion with Homer to Peisistratus, it was noticed by Wolf that Cicero,
Pausanias and the others who mention the matter do so nearly in
the same words, and, therefore, appear to have drawn from a common
source. This source was in all probability an epigram quoted in two
of the short lives of Homer, and there said to have been inscribed
on the statue of Peisistratus at Athens. In it Peisistratus is made to
say of himself that he "collected Homer, who was formerly sung
634
HOMER
in fragments, for the golden poet was a citizen of ours, since we
Athenians founded Smyrna." The other statements repeat these
words with various minor additions, chiefly intended to explain how
the poems had been reduced to this fragmentary condition, and how
Peisistratus set to work to restore them. Thus all the authority for
the work of Peisistratus " reduces itself to the testimony of a single
anonymous inscription " (Nutzhorn p. 40). Now, what is the value
of that testimony? It is impossible of course to believe that a
statue of Peisistratus was set up at Athens in the time of the free
republic. The epigram is almost certainly a mere literary exercise.
And what exactly does it say? Only that Homer was recited in
fragments by the rhapsodists, and that these partial recitations were
made into a continuous whole by Peisistratus; which does not
necessarily mean more than that Peisistratus did what other authori-
ties ascribe to Solon and Hipparchus, viz. regulated the recitation.
Against the theory which sees in Peisistratus the author of the
first complete text of Homer we have to set the absolute silence
of Herodotus, Thucydides, the orators and the Alexandrian
grammarians. And it can hardly be thought that their silence is
accidental. Herodotus and Thucydides seem to tell us all that they
know of Peisistratus. The orators Lycurgus and Isocrates make a
great deal of the recitation of Homer at the Panathenaea, but know
nothing of the poems having been collected and arranged at Athens,
a fact which would have redounded still more to the honour of the
city. Finally, the Scholia of the Ven. A contain no reference or
allusion to the story of Peisistratus. As these Scholia are derived in
substance from the writings of Aristarchus, it seems impossible to
believe that the story was known to him. The circumstance that
it is referred to in the Scholia Townleiana and in Eustathius, gives
additional weight to this argument.
The result of these considerations seems to be that nothing rests
on good evidence beyond the fact that Homer was recited by law at
the Panathenaic festival. The rest of the story is probably the
result of gradual expansion and accretion. It was inevitable that
later writers should speculate about the authorship of such a law,
and that it should be attributed with more or less confidence to
Solon or Peisistratus or Hipparchus. The choice would be deter-
mined in great measure by political feeling. It is probably not an
accident that Dieuchidas, who attributed so much to Peisistratus,
was a Megarian. The author of the Hipparchus is evidently influ-
enced by the anti-democratical tendencies in which he only followed
Plato. In the times to which the story of Peisistratus can be traced,
the 1st century B.C., the substitution of the " tyrant " for the
legislator was extremely natural. It was equally natural that the
importance of his work as regards the text of Homer should be
exaggerated. The splendid patronage of letters by the successors of
Alexander, and especially the great institutions which had been
founded at Alexandria and Pergamum, had made an impression on
the imagination of learned men which was reflected in the current
notions of the ancient despots. It may even be suspected that anec-
dotes in praise of Peisistratus and Hipparchus were a delicate form of
flattery addressed to the reigning Ptolemy. Under these influences
the older stories of Lycurgus bringing Homer to the Peloponnesus,
and Solon providing for the recitation at Athens, were thrown into
the shade.
In the later Byzantine times it was believed that Peisistratus was
aided by seventy grammarians, of whom Zenodotus and Aristarchus
were the chief. The great Alexandrian grammarians had become
figures in a new mythology. It is true that Tzetzes, one of the
writers from whom we have this story, gives a better version, accord-
ing to which Peisistratus employed four men, viz. Onomacritus,
Zopyrus of Heraclea, Orpheus of Croton, and one whose name
is corrupt (written iirucayiaiXos). Many scholars (among them
Ritschl) accept this account as probable. Yet it rests upon no better
evidence than the other.
The effect of Wolf's Prolegomena was so overwhelming that,
although a few protests were made at the time, the true Homeric
controversy did not begin till after Wolf's death (1824). His specu-
lations were thoroughly in harmony with the ideas and sentiment of
the time, and his historical arguments, especially his long array of
testimonies to the work of Peisistratus, were hardly challenged.
The first considerable antagonist of the Wolfian school was G. W.
Nitzsch, whose writings cover the years 1828-1862, and deal with
every side of the controversy. In the earlier part of his Meletemata
(1830) he took up the question of written or unwritten literature,
on which Wolf's whole argument turned, and showed that the art
of writing must be anterior to Peisistratus. In the later part of
the same series of discussions (1837), and in his chief work (Die
Sagenpoesie der Griechen, 1852), he investigated the structure of
the Homeric poems, and their relation to the other epics of the
Trojan cycle. These epics had meanwhile been made the subject
of a work which for exhaustive learning and delicacy of artistic
perception has few rivals in the history of philology, the Epic Cycle
of F. G. Welcker. The confusion which previous scholars had made
between the ancient post-Homeric poets (Arctinus, Lesches, &c.) and
the learned mythological writers (such as the " scriptor cyclicus " of
Horace) was first cleared up by Welcker. Wolf had argued that if
the cyclic writers had known the Iliad and Odyssey which we possess,
they would have imitated the unity of structure which distinguishes
these two poems. The result of Welcker's labours was to show that
the Homeric poems had influenced both the form and the substance
of epic poetry.
In this way there arose a conservative school who admitted more
or less freely the absorption of pre-existing lays in the formation of
the Iliad and Odyssey, and also the existence of considerable inter-
polations, but assigned the main work of formation to prehistoric
times, and to the genius of a great poet. Whether the two epics
were by the same author remained an open question; the tendency
of this group of scholars was decidedly towards separation. Regard-
ing the use of writing, too, they were not unanimous. K. O. Miiller,
for instance, maintained the view of Wolf on this point, while he
strenuously combated the inference which Wolf drew from it.
The Prolegomena bore on the title-page the words " Volumen I.";
but no second volume ever appeared, nor was any attempt made by
Wolf himself to carry his theory further. The first important steps
in that direction were taken by Gottfried Hermann, chiefly in two
dissertations, De inter polationibus Homeri (Leipzig, 1832), and De
iteralis Homeri (Leipzig, 1840), called forth by the writings of Nitzsch.
As the word " interpolation " implies, Hermann did not maintain
the hypothesis of a congeries of independent " lays." Feeling the
difficulty of supposing that all the ancient minstrels sang of the
" wrath of Achilles " or the " return of Ulysses " (leaving out even
the capture of Troy itself), he was led to assume that two poems of no
great compass dealing with these two themes became so famous at an
early period as to throw other parts of the Trojan story into the back-
ground, and were then enlarged by successive generations of rhapso-
dists. Some parts of the Iliad, moreover, seemed to him to be
older than the poem on the wrath of Achilles; and thus in addition
to the " Homeric " and " post-Homeric " matter he distinguished a
" pre-Homeric " element.
The conjectures of Hermann, in which the Wolfian theory found
a modified and tentative application, were presently thrown into
the shade by the more trenchant method of Lachmann, who (in two
papers react to the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841) sought to
show that the Iliad was made up of sixteen independent " lays,"
with various enlargements and interpolations, all finally reduced
to order by Peisistratus. The first book, for instance, consists of a
lay on the anger of Achilles (1-347), an d two continuations, the
return of Chryseis (430-492) and the scenes in Olympus (348-429,
493-61 1 ). The second book forms a second lay, but several passages,
among them the speech of Ulysses (278-332), are interpolated. In
the third book the scenes in which Helen and Priam take part (in-
cluding the making of the truce) are pronounced to be interpolations;
and so on. Regarding the evidence on which these sweeping results
are founded, opinions will vary. The degree of smoothness or con-
sistency which is to be expected on the hypothesis of a single author
will be determined by taste rather than argument. The dissection
of the first book, for instance, turns partly on a chronological in-
accuracy which might well escape the poet as well as his hearers.
In examining such points we are apt to forget that the contradictions
by which a story is shown to be untrue are quite different from those
by which a confessedly untrue story would be shown to be the work
of different authors.
/ Structure of the Iliad. The subject of the Iliad, as the first
line proclaims, is the " anger of Achilles." The manner in which
this subject is worked out will appear from the following summary
in which we distinguish (i) the plot, i.e. the story of the quarrel,
(2) the main course of the war, which forms a sort of underplot,
and (3) subordinate episodes.
I. Quarrel of Achilles with Agamemnon and the Greek army
Agamemnon, having been compelled to give up his
prize Chryseis, takes Briseis from Achilles Thereupon
Achilles appeals to his mother Thetis, who obtains from
Zeus a promise that he will give victory to the Trojans
until the Greeks pay due honour to her son Meanwhile
Achilles takes no part in the war.
II. Agamemnon is persuaded by a dream sent from
Zeus to take the field with all his forces.
His attempt to test the temper of the army
nearly leads to their return.
Catalogue of the army (probably a later addition).
Trojan muster Trojan catalogue.
III. Meeting of the Armies Paris challenges Menelaus
Truce made.
" Teichoscopy," Helen pointing out to Priam
the Greek leaders.
The duel Paris is saved by Aphrodite.
IV. Truce broken by Pandarus.
Advance of the armies Battle.
V. Aristeia of Diomede his combat with Aphrodite
VI. Meeting with Glaucus Visit of Hector to the
(1-311) city, and offering of a peplus to Athena.
(312-529) Visit of Hector to Paris to Andromache.
VII. Return of Hector and Paris to the field.
Duel of Ajax and Hector.
Truce for burial of dead.
The Greeks build a wall round their camp.
VIII. Battle The Trojans encamp on the field.
HOMER
635
IX. Agamemnon sends an embassy by night, offering Achilles
restitution and full amends Achilles refuses.
X. Dploneia Night expedition of Odysseus and
Dipmede (in all probability added later).
XT. Aristeia of Agamemnon he is wounded Wounding
of Diomede and Odysseus.
Achilles sends Antilochus to inquire about Machaon.
XII. Storming of the wall the Trojans reach the ships.
XIII. Zeus ceases to watch the field Poseidon secretly
comes to the aid of the Greeks.
XIV. Sleep of Zeus, by the contrivance of Hera.
XV. Zeus awakened Restores the advantage to the Tro-
jans Ajax alone defends the ships.
XVI. Achilles is persuaded to allow Patroclus to take the field.
Patroclus drives back the Trojans kills Sarpedon
is himself killed by Hector.
XVI I. Battle for the body of Patroclus-Aristeia of Menelaus.
XVIII. News of the death of Patroclus is brought to Achilles
Thetis comes with the Nereids promises to obtain new
armour for him from Hephaestus.
The shield of Achilles described.
XIX. Reconciliation of Achilles His grief and desire to avenge
Patroclus.
XX. The gods come down to the plain Combat of Achilles
with Aeneas and Hector, who escape.
XXI. The Scamander is choked with slain rises against
Achilles, who is saved by Hephaestus.
XXII. Hector alone stands against Achilles his flight
round the walls he is slain.
XXIII. Burial of Patroclus Funeral games.
XXIV. Priam ransoms the body of Hector his burial.
Such is the " action " (irpats) which in Aristotle's opinion
showed the superiority of Homer to all later epic poets. But the
proof that his scheme was the work of a great poet does not
depend merely upon the artistic unity which excited the wonder
of Aristotle. A number of separate " lays " might conceivably
be arranged and connected by a man of poetical taste in a
manner that would satisfy all requirements. In such a case,
however, the connecting passages would be slight and weak.
Now, in the Iliad these passages are the finest and most character-
istic. The element of connexion and unity is the story of the
" wrath of Achilles "; and we have only to look at the books
which give the story of the wrath to see how essential they are.
Even if the ninth book is rejected (as Grote proposed), there
remain the speeches of the first, sixteenth and nineteenth books.
These speeches form the cardinal points in the action of the Iliad
the framework into which everything else is set; and they
have also the best title to the name of Homer.
The further question, however, remains, What shorter
narrative piece fulfilling the conditions of an independent poem
has Lachmann succeeded in disengaging from the existing
Iliad? It must be admitted that when tried by this test his
" lays " generally fail. The " quarrel of the chiefs," the " muster
of the army," the " duel of Paris and Menelaus," &c., are excellent
beginnings, but have no satisfying conclusion. And the reason
is not far to seek. The Iliad is not a history, nor is it a series
of incidents in the history, of the siege. It turns entirely upon
a single incident, occupying a few days only. The several
episodes of the poem are not so many distinct stories, each with
an interest of its own. They are only parts of a single main
event. Consequently the type of epic poem which would be
produced by an aggregation of shorter lays is not the type
which we have in the Iliad. Rather the Iliad is itself a single
lay which has grown with the growth of poetical art to the
dimensions of an epic.
But the original nucleus and parts of the incidents may be
the work of a single great poet, and yet other episodes may be
of different authorship, wrought into the structure of the poem
in later times. Various theories have been based on this supposi-
tion. Grote in particular held that the original poem, which
he called the Achilleiis, did not include books ii.-vii., ix., x., xxiii.,
xxiv. Such a view may be defended somewhat as follows.
Of the books which relate the events during the absence of
Achilles from the Greek ranks (ii.-xv.), the last five are directly
related to the main action. They describe the successive steps
by which the Greeks are driven back, first from the plain to
the rampart, then to their ships. Moreover, three of the chief
heroes, Agamemnon, Diomede and Ulysses, are wounded, and
this circumstance, as Lachmann himself admitted, is steadily
kept in mind throughout. It is otherwise with the earlier books
(especially ii.-vii.). The chief incidents in that part of the poem
the panic rush to the ships, the duels of Paris and Menelaus, and
of Hector and Ajax, the Aristeia of Diomede stand in no
relation to the mainspring of the poem, the promise made by
Zeus to Thetis. It is true that in the thirteenth and fourteenth
books the purpose of Zeus is thwarted for a time by other gods;
but in books ii.-vii. it is not so much thwarted as ignored.
Further, the events follow without sufficient connexion. The
truce of the -third book is broken by Pandarus,'and Agamemnon
passes along the Greek ranks with words of encouragement, but
without a hint of the treachery just committed. The Aristeia
of Diomede ends in the middle of the sixth book ; he is uppermost
in all thoughts down to ver. 311, but from this point, in the
meetings of Hector with Helen and Andromache, and again in
the seventh book when Hector challenges the Greek chiefs,
his prowess is forgotten. Once more, some of the incidents
seem to belong properly to the beginning of the war. The joy
of Menelaus on seeing Paris, Priam's ignorance of the Greek
leaders, the speeches of Agamemnon in his review of the ranks
(in book iv.), the building of the wall all these are in place after
the Greek landing, but hardly in the ninth year of the siege.
On the other hand, it may be said, the second book opens
with a direct reference to the events of the first, and the mention
of Achilles in the speech of Thersites (ii. 239 sqq.) is sufficient to
keep the main course of events in view. The Catalogue is .con-
nected with its place in the poem- by the lines about Achilles
(686-694) . When Diomede is at the height of his Aristeia Helenus
says (//. vi. 99), " We did not so fear even Achilles." And when
in the third book Priam asks Helen about the Greek captains, or
when in the seventh book nine champions come forward to
contend with Hector, the want of the greatest hero of all is
sufficiently felt. If these passages do not belong to the period
of the wrath of Achilles, how are we to account for his con-
spicuous absence ?
Further, the want of smoothness and unity which is visible in
this part of the Iliad may be due to other causes than difference
of date or authorship. A national poet such as the author of
the Iliad cannot always choose or arrange his matter at his own
will. He is bound by the traditions of his art, and by the feelings
and expectations of his hearers. The poet who brought the
exploits of Diomede into the Iliad doubtless had his reasons for
doing so, which were equally strong whether he was the poet of
the Achilleis or a later Homerid or rhapsodist. And if some of the
incidents (those of the third book in particular) seem to belong
to the beginning of the war, it must be considered that poetically,
and to the hearers of the Iliad, the war opens in the third book,
and the incidents are of the kind that is required in such a place.
The truce makes a pause which heightens the interest of the
impending battle; the duel and the scene on the walls are
effective in bringing some of the leading characters on the stage,
and in making us acquainted with the previous history. The
story of Paris and Helen especially, and the general position of
affairs in Troy, is put before us in a singularly vivid manner.
The book in short forms so good a prologue to the action of the
war that we can hardly be wrong in attributing it to the genius
which devised the rest of the Iliad.
The case against the remaining books is of a different kind.
The ninth and tenth seem like two independent pictures of the
night before the great battle of xi.-xvii. Either is enough to fill
the space in Homer's canvas; and the suspicion arises (as when
two Platonic dialogues bear the same name) that if either had
been genuine, the other would not have come into existence.
If one of the two is to be rejected it must be the tenth, which is
certainly the less Homeric. It relates a picturesque adventure,
conceived in a vein more approaching that of comedy than any
other part of the Iliad. Moreover, the language in several places
exhibits traces of post-Homeric date. The ninth book, on the
other hand, was rejected by Grote, chiefly on the grounds that
the embassy to Achilles ought to have put an end to the quarrel,
and that it is ignored in later passages, especially in the speeches
6 3 6
HOMER
of Achilles (xi. 609; xvi. 72, 85). His argument, however,
rests on an assumption which we are apt to bring with us to the
reading of the Iliad , but which is not borne out by its language,
viz. that there was some definite atonement demanded by
Achilles, or due to him according to the custom and sentiment
of the time. But in the Iliad the whole stress is laid on the anger
of Achilles, which can only be satisfied by the defeat and extreme
peril of the Greeks. 1 He is influenced by his own feeling, and
by nothing else. Accordingly, in the ninth book, when they
are still protected by the rampart (see 348 sqq.) , he rejects gifts and
fair words alike; in the sixteenth he is moved by the tears and
entreaties of Patroclus, and the sight of the Greek ships on fire;
in the nineteenth his anger is quenched in grief. But he makes
no conditions, either in rejecting the offers of the embassy or in
returning to the Greek army. And this conduct is the result,
not only of his fierce and inexorable character, but also (as the
silence of Homer shows) of the want of any general rules or
principles, any code of morality or of honour, which would have
required him to act in a different way.
Finally, Grote objected to the two last books that they prolong
the action of the Iliad beyond the exigencies of a coherent
scheme. Of the two, the twenty-third could more easily be
spared. In language, and. perhaps in style and manner, it is
akin to the tenth; while the twenty-fourth is in the pathetic
vein of the ninth, and like it serves to bring out new aspects
of the character of Achilles.
Dr E. Kammer has given some strong reasons for doubting the
genuineness of the passage in book xx. describing the duel between
Achilles and Aeneas (79-352). The incident is certainly very much
out of keeping with the vehement action of that part of the poem,
and especially with the moment when Achilles returns to the field,
eager to meet Hector and avenge the death of his friend. The
interpolation (if it is one) is probably due to local interests. It
contains the well-known prophecy that the descendants of Aeneas are
to rule over the Trojans, pointing to the existence of an Aenead
dynasty in the Troad. So, too, the legend of Anchises in the Hymn
to Aphrodite is evidently local ; and Aeneas becomes more prominent
in the later epics, especially the Cypria and the 'IXiou vipais of
Arctinus.
Structure of the Odyssey. In the Odyssey, as in the Iliad, the
events related fall within a short space of time. The difficulty
of adapting the long wanderings of Ulysses to a plan of this
type is got over by the device first met with in the Odyssey
of making the hero tell the story of his own adventures. In
this way the action is made to begin almost immediately before
the actual return of Ulysses. Up to the time when he reaches
Ithaca it moves on three distinct scenes: we follow the fortunes
of Ulysses, of Telemachus on his voyage in the Peloponnesus,
and of Penelope with the suitors. The art with which these
threads are woven together was recognized by Wolf himself,
who admitted the difficulty of applying his theory to the
" admirabilis summa et compages " of the poem. Of the
comparatively few attempts which have been made to dissect
the Odyssey, the most moderate and at tractive is that of Professor
A. Kirchhoff of Berlin. 2
According to Kirchhoff, the Odyssey as we have it is the result of
additions made to an original nucleus. There was first of all a
" Return of Odysseus," relating chiefly the adventures with the
Cyclops, Calypso and the Phaeacians; then a continuation, the
scene of which lay in Ithaca, embracing the bulk of books xiii.-xxiii.
The poem so formed was enlarged at some time between Ol. 30 and
Ol. 50 by the stories of books x.-xii. (Circe, the Sirens, Scylla, &c.),
and the adventures of Telemachus. Lastly, a few passages were
interpolated in the time of Peisistratus.
The proof that the scenes in Ithaca are by a later hand than the
ancient " Return " is found chiefly in a contradiction discussed by
Kirchhoff in his sixth dissertation (pp. 135 sqq., ed. 1869). Sometimes
Ulysses is represented as aged and worn by toil, so that Penelope,
for instance, cannot recognize him; sometimes he is really in the
prime of heroic vigour, and his appearing as a beggarly old man is
the work of Athena's wand. The first of these representations is
evidently natural, considering the twenty eventful years that have
passed ; but the second, Kirchhoff holds, is the Ulysses of Calypso's
1 On this point see a paper by Professor Packard in the Trans, of
the American Philological Association (1876).
2 Die Composition der Odyssee (Berlin, 1869). A full discussion of
this book is given by Dr E. Kammer, Die Einheit der Odyssee (Leipzig,
1873).
island and the Phaeacian court. He concludes that the aged Ulysses
belongs to the " continuation " (the change wrought by Athena's
wand being a device to reconcile the two views), and hence that the
continuation is the work of a different author.
Ingenious as this is, there is really very slender ground for
Kirchhoff's thesis. The passages in the second half of the Odyssey
which describe the appearance of Ulysses do not give two well-
marked representations of him. Sometimes Athena disguises him
as a decrepit beggar, sometimes she bestows on him supernatural
beauty and vigour. It must be admitted that we are not told
exactly how long in each case the effect of these changes lasted.
But neither answers to his natural appearance, or to the appearance
which he is imagined to present in the earlier books. In the palace
of Alcinous, for instance, it is noticed that he is vigorous but
" marred by many ills " (Od. viii. 137) ; and this agrees with the
scenes of recognition in the latter part of the poem.
The arguments by which Kirchhoff seeks to prove that the stories
of books x.-xii. are much later than those of book ix. are not more
convincing. He points put some resemblances between these three
books and the Argonautic fables, among them the circumstance that
a fountain Artacia occurs in both. In the Argonautic story this
fountain is placed in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, and answers to
an actual fountain known in historical times. Kirchhoff argues that
the Artacia of the Argonautic story must have been taken from the
real Artacia, and the Artacia of the Odyssey again from that of the
Argonautic story. And as Cyzicus was settled from Miletus, he
infers that both sets of stories must be comparatively late. It is
more probable, surely, that the name Artacia occurred independ-
ently (as most geographical names are found to occur) in more than
one place. Or it may be that the Artacia of the Odyssey suggested
the name to the colonists of Cyzicus, whence it was adopted into
the later versions of the Argonautic story. The further argument
that the Nostoi recognized a son of Calypso by Ulysses but no son
of Circe, consequently that Circe was unknown to the poet of the
Nostoi, rests (in the first place) upon a conjectural alteration of a
passage in Eustathius, and, moreover, has all the weakness of an
argument from silence, in addition to the uncertainty arising from
our very slight knowledge of the author whose silence is in question.
Finally, when Kirchhoff finds traces in books x.-xii. of their having
been originally told by the poet himself instead of being put in the
mouth of his hero, we feel that inaccuracies of this kind are apt to
creep in wherever a fictitious story is thrown into the form of an
autobiography.
Inquiries conducted with the refinement which characterizes
those of Kirchhoff are always instructive, and his book contains very-
many just observations; but it is impossible to admit his main
conclusions. And perhaps we may infer that no similar attempt can
be more successful. It does not indeed follow that the Odyssey is
free from interpolations. The Nuia of book xi. may be later (as
Lauer maintained), or it may contain additions, which could easily
be inserted in a description of the kind. And the last book is pro-
bably by a different hand, as the ancient critics believed. But the
unity of the Odyssey as a whole is apparently beyond the reach of
the existing weapons of criticism.
Chorizontes. When we are satisfied that each of the great
Homeric poems is either wholly or mainly the work of a single
poet, a question remains which has been matter of controversy
in ancient as well as modern times Are they the work of the
same poet? Two ancient grammarians, Xeno and Hellanicus,
were known as the "separators" (01 x^P'f OJT) ; and Arist-
archus appears to have written a treatise against their heresy.
In modern times some of the greatest names have been on the
side of the " Chorizontes."
If, as has been maintained in the preceding pages, the external
evidence regarding Homer is of no value, the problem now
before us may be stated in this form: Given two poems of
which nothing is known except that they are of the same school
of poetry, what is the probability that they are by the same
author? We may find a fair parallel by imagining two plays
drawn at hazard from the works of the great tragic writers.
It is evident that the burden of proof would rest with those
who held them to be by the same hand.
The arguments used in this discussion have been of very various
calibre. The ancient Chorizontes observed that the messenger
of Zeus is Iris in the Iliad, but Hermes in the Odyssey; that the
wife of Hephaestus is one of the Charites in the Iliad, but
Aphrodite in the Odyssey; that the heroes in the Iliad do not
eat fish; that Crete has a hundred cities according to the
Iliad, and only ninety according to the Odyssey; that irponapoide
is used in the Iliad of place, in the Odyssey of time, &c. Modern
scholars have added to the list, especially by making careful
comparisons of the two poems in respect of vocabulary and
HOMER
637
grammatical forms. Nothing is more difficult than to assign
the degree of weight to be given to such facts. The difference
of subject between the two poems is so great that it leads to
the most striking differences of detail, especially in the voca-
bulary. For instance, the word </>6(3os, which in Homer means
"flight in battle" (not "fear"), occurs thirty-nine times in
the Iliad, and only once in the Odyssey; but then there are
no battles in the Odyssey. Again, the verb ftTjyvvm, " to
break," occurs forty-eight times in the Iliad, and once in
the Odyssey, the reason being that it is constantly used of
breaking the armour of an enemy, the gate of a city, the hostile
ranks, &c. Once more, the word <rK6ros, " darkness," occurs
fourteen times in the Iliad, once in the Odyssey. But in every
one of the fourteen places it is used of " darkness " coming
over the sight of a fallen warrior. On the other side, if words
such as (urd/upflos, " a bath," -xtpviifs, " a basin for the hands,"
\faxn, " a place to meet and talk," &c., are peculiar to the
Odyssey, we have only to remember that the scene in the Iliad
is hardly ever laid within any walls except those of a tent.
These examples will show that mere statistics of the occurrence
of words prove little, and that we must begin by looking to the
subject and character of each poem. When we do so, we at
once find ourselves in the presence of differences of the broadest
kind. The Iliad is much more historical in tone and character.
The scene of the poem is a real place, and the poet sings (as
Ulysses says of Demodocus) as though he had been present
himself, or had heard from one who had been. The supernatural
element is confined to an interference of the gods, which to the
common eye hardly disturbs the natural current of affairs.
The Odyssey, on the contrary, is full of the magical and romantic
" speciosa miracula," as Horace called them. Moreover, these
marvels which in their original form are doubtless as old as
anything in the Iliad, since in fact they are part of the vast
stock of popular tales (Ma'rchen) diffused all over the world
are mixed up in the Odyssey with the heroes of the Trojan war.
This has been especially noticed in the case of the story of
Polyphemus, one that is found in many countries, and in versions
which cannot all be derived from Homer. W. Grimm has pointed
out that the behaviour of Ulysses in that story is senseless and
foolhardy, utterly beneath the wise and much-enduring Ulysses
of the Trojan war. The reason is simple; he is not the Ulysses
of the Trojan war, but a being of the same world as Polyphemus
himself the world of giants and ogres. The question then is
How long must the name of Ulysses have been familiar in the
legend (Sage) of Troy before it made its way into the tales of
giants and ogres (Mdrchen), where the poet of the Odyssey
found it ?
Again, the Trojan legend has itself received some extension
between the time of the Iliad and that of the Odyssey. The
story of the Wooden Horse is not only unknown to the Iliad,
but is of a kind which we can hardly imagine the poet of the
Iliad admitting. The part taken by Neoptolemus seems also
to be a later addition. The tendency to amplify and complete
the story shows itself still more in the Cyclic poets. Between
the Iliad and these poets the Odyssey often occupies an inter-
mediate position.
This great and significant change in the treatment of the heroic
legends is accompanied by numerous minor differences (such
as the ancients remarked) in belief, in manners and institutions,
and in language. These differences bear out the inference that
the Odyssey is of a later age. The progress of reflection is especially
shown in the higher ideas entertained regarding the gods. The
turbulent Olympian court has almost disappeared. Zeus has
acquired the character of a supreme moral ruler; and although
Athena and Poseidon are adverse influences in the poem, the
notion of a direct contest between them is scrupulously avoided.
The advance of morality is shown in the more frequent use of
terms such as " just " (3i/c<uos), " piety " (<XHT?), " insolence "
(u/3pts), "god-fearing" (fltouSifc), "pure" (ayvos); and also
in the plot of the story, which is distinctly a contest between
right and wrong. In matters bearing upon the arts of life it
is unsafe to press the silence of the Iliad. We may note, however,
the difference between the house of Priam, surrounded by distinct
dwellings for his many sons and daughters, and the houses of
Ulysses and Alcinous, with many chambers under a single roof.
The singer, too, who is so prominent a figure in the Odyssey
can hardly be thought to be absent from the Iliad merely
because the scene is laid in a camp.
Style of Homer. A few words- remain to be said on the style
and general character of the Homeric poems, and on the com-
parisons which may be made between Homer and analogous
poetry in other countries.
The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been pointed
out once for all by Matthew Arnold. " The translator of Homer,"
he says, " should above all be penetrated by a sense of four
qualities of his author that he is eminently rapid; that he
is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought
and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in
his words ; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance
of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally,
that he is eminently noble " (On Translating Homer, p. 9).
The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his
use of the hexameter verse. It is characteristic of early literature
that the evolution of the thought that is, the grammatical
form of the sentence is guided by the structure of the verse;
and the correspondence which consequently obtains between the
rhythm and the grammar the thought being given out in lengths,
as it were, and these again divided by tolerably uniform pauses
produces a swift flowing movement, such as is rarely found
when the periods have been constructed without direct reference
to the metre. That Homer possesses this rapidity without
falling into the corresponding faults that is, without becoming
either " jerky " or monotonous is perhaps the best proof of
his unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness,
both of thought and of expression, which characterize Homer
were doubtless qualities of his age; but the author of the Iliad
(like Voltaire, to whom Arnold happily compares him) must
have possessed the national gift in a surpassing degree. The
Odyssey is in this respect perceptibly below the level of the Iliad.
Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression and
plainness of thought, these are not the distinguishing qualities
of the great epic poets Virgil, Dante, Milton. On the contrary,
they belong rather to the humbler epico-lyrical school for which
Homer has been so often claimed. The proof that Homer does
not belong to that school that his poetry is not in any true
sense " ballad-poetry " is furnished by the higher artistic
structure of his poems (already discussed), and as regards style
by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold the
quality of nobleness. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained
through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates
Homer from all forms of " ballad-poetry "and " popular epic." 1
But while we are on our guard against a once common error,
we may recognize the historical connexion between the Iliad
and Odyssey and the " ballad " literature which undoubtedly
preceded them in Greece. It may even be admitted that the
swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity of thought and
style, which we admire in the Iliad are an inheritance from the
earlier " lays " the xXea avSp&v such as Achilles and Patroclus
sang to the lyre in their tent. Even the metre the hexameter
verse may be assigned to them. But between these lays and
Homer we must place the cultivation of epic poetry as an art. 2
The pre-Homeric lays doubtless furnished the elements of such
a poetry the alphabet, so to speak, of the art; but they must
have been refined and transmuted before they formed poems
like the Iliad and Odyssey.
A single example will illustrate this. In the scene on the
walls of Troy, in the third book of the Iliad, after Helen has
pointed out Agamemnon, Ulysses and Ajax in answer to Priam's
1 " As a poet Homer must be acknowledged to excel Shakespeare in
the truth, the harmony, the sustained grandeur, the satisfying com-
pleteness of his images " (Shelley, Essays, &c., i. 51, ed. 1852).
" The old English balladist may stir Sir Philip Sidney's heart like
a trumpet, and this is much ; but Homer, but the few artists in the
grand style, can do more they can refine the raw natural man, they
can transmute him " (On Translating Homer, p. 61).
6 3 8
HOMER
questions, she goes on unasked to name Idomeneus. Lachmann,
whose mind is full of the ballad manner, fastens upon this as an
irregularity. " The unskilful transition from Ajax to Idomeneus,
about whom no question had been asked," he cannnot attribute to
the original poet of the lay (Betrachtungen, p. 15, ed. 1865).
But, as was pointed out by A. Romer * this is exactly the varia-
tion which a poet would introduce to relieve the primitive
ballad-like sameness of question and answer; and moreover it
forms the transition to the lines about the Dioscuri by which the
scene is so touchingly brought to a close.
Analogies. The development of epic poetry (properly so
called) out of the oral songs or ballads of a country is a process
which in the nature of things can seldom be observed. It seems
clear, however, that the hypothesis of epics such as the Iliad
and Odyssey having been formed by putting together or even
by working up shorter poems finds no support from analogy.
Narrative poetry of great interest is found in several countries
(such as Spain and Servia), in which it has never attained to
the epic stage. In Scandinavia, in Lithuania, in Russia, accord-
ing to Gaston Paris (Histoire poeliquede Charlemagne, p. 9), the
national songs have been arrested in a form which may be called
intermediate between contemporary poetry and the epic. The
true epics are those of India, Persia, Greece, Germany, Britain and
France. Most of these, however, fail to afford any useful points of
comparison, either from their utter unlikeness to Homer, or
because there is no evidence of the existence of anterior popular
songs. The most instructive, perhaps the only instructive,
parallel is to be found in the French " chansons de geste," of
which the Chanson de Roland is the earliest and best example.
These poems are traced back with much probability to the loth
century. They are epic in character, and were recited by pro-
fessional jongleurs (who may be compared to the doiOoi of
Homer). But as early as the 7th century we come upon traces
of short lays (the so-called cantilenes) which were in the mouths
of all and were sung in chorus. It has been held that the
chansons de geste were formed by joining together " bunches "
of these earlier cantilenes, and this was the view taken by
Leon Gautier in the first edition of Les Epopees franqaises (1865).
In the second edition, of which the first volume appeared in
1878, he abandoned this theory. He believes that the epics
were generally composed under the influence of earlier songs.
" Our first epic poets," he says, " did not actually and materially
patch together pre-existent cantilenes. They were only inspired
by these popular songs; they only borrowed from them the
traditional and legendary elements. In short, they took nothing
from them but the ideas, the spirit, the life; they ' found '
(ils ont trouve) all the rest " (p. 80). But he admits that " some
of the old poems may have been borrowed from tradition, without
any intermediary " (ibid.} ; and when it is considered that the
traces of the " cantilenes " are slight, and that the degree in
which they inspired the later poetry must be a matter of im-
pression rather than of proof, it does not surprise us to find
other scholars (notably Paul Meyer) attaching less importance
to them, or even doubting their existence. 2
When Leon Gautier shows how history passes into legend,
and legend again into romance, we are reminded of the difference
1 Die exegetischen Scholien der Ilias, p. vii.
" On comprend que des chants populaires nes d'un eVe'nement
6clatant, victoire ou d^faite, puissent contribuer 4 former la tradition,
a en arrSter les traits; ils peuyent aussi devenir le centre de 16gendes
qui se forment pour les expliquer; et de la sorte leur substance au
moins arrive au poete 6pique qui 1'introduit dans sa composition.
Voila ce qui a pu se produire pour de chants tres-courts, dont il est
d'ailleurs aussi difficile d'affirmer que de nier 1'existence. Mais on
peut expliquer la formation des chansons de geste par une autre hypo-
these " (Meyer, Recherches stir I'epopee franc_aise, p. 65). " Ce qui
a fait naitre la thforie des chants ' lyrico-<5piques ' ou des cantilenes,
c'est le systfeme de Wolf sur les poemes homeYiques, et de Lachmann
sur les Nibelungen. Mais, au moins en ce qui concerne ce dernier
poeme, le systeme est d^truit. . . . On tire encore argument des
romances espagnoles, qui, dit-on, sont des ' cantilenes ' non encore
arrivees a l'6popec. . . . Et c'est le malheur de cette theorie: faute
de preuves directes, elle cherche des analogies au dehors; en Espagne,
elle trouve des ' cantilenes,' mais pas d'<Jpop6e ; en Allemagne, une
6pop4e, mais pas de cantilenes ! " (Ibid. p. 66).
noticed above between the Iliad and the Odyssey, and between
Homer and the early Cyclic poems. And the peculiar degradation
of Homeric characters which appears in some poets (especially
Euripides) finds a parallel in the later chansons de geste. 3
The comparison of Homer with the great literary epics calls
for more discursive treatment than would be in place here.
Some external differences have been already indicated. Like
the French epics, Homeric poetry is indigenous, and is distin-
guished by this fact, and by the ease of movement and the
simplicity which result from it, from poets such as Virgil, Dante
and Milton. It is also distinguished from them by the com-
parative absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's
poetry a sense of the greatness of Rome and Italy is the leading
motive of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the " chosen
delicacy " of his language. Dante and Milton are still more
faithful exponents of the religion and politics of their time.
Even the French epics are pervaded by the sentiment of fear and
hatred of the Saracens. But in Homer the interest is purely
dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or religion;
the war turns on no political event; the capture of Troy lies
outside the range of the Iliad. Even the heroes are not the chief
national heroes of Greece. The interest lies wholly (so far as we
can see) in the picture of human action and feeling.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A complete bibliography of Homer would fill
volumes. The following list is intended to include those books
only which are of first-rate importance.
The editio princeps of Homer, published at Florence in 1488, by
Demetrius Chalcondylas, and the Aldine editions of 1504 and 1517,
have still some value beyond that of curiosity. The chief modern
critical editions are those of Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804-
1807), Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836), Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn,
1858), La Roche (Odyssey, 1867-1868; Iliad, 1873-1876, both at
Leipzig); Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889-1891; Iliad, 2 vols.,
1901 and 1907); W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-
1902); Merry and Riddell (Odyssey i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886);
Monro (Odyssey xui.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901); Monro
and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford). The com-
mentaries of Barnes, Clarke and Ernesti are practically super-
seded; but Heyne's Iliad (Leipzig, 1802) and Nitzsch's commentary
on the Odyssey (books i.-xii., Hanover, 1826-1840) are still useful.
Nageibach's Anmerkungen zur Ilias (A, B 1-483, F) is of great value,
especially the third edition (by Autenrieth, Nuremberg, 1864). The
unique Scholia Veneta on the Iliad were first made known by Villoison
(Homeri Ilias ad veteris codicis Veneti fidem recensita, Scholia in
earn antiquissima ex eodem codice aliisque nunc primum edidit, cum
Asteriscis, Obeliscis, aliisque signis criticis, Joh. Baptista Caspar
d'Ansse de Villoison, Venice, 1788); reprinted, with many additions
from other MSS., by Bekker (Scholia in Homeri Iliadem, Berlin,
1825-1826). A new edition has been published by the Oxford Press
(Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem, ed. Gul. Dindorfius) ; six volumes
have appeared (1875-1888), the last two edited by Professor E.
Maass. The vast commentary of Eustathius was first printed at
Rome in 1542; the last edition is that of Stallbaum (Leipzig, 1827).
The Scholia on the Odyssey were published by Buttmann (Berlin,
1821), and with greater approach to completeness by W. Dindorf
(Oxford, 1855). Although Wolf at once perceived the value of the
Venetian Scholia on the Iliad, the first scholar who thoroughly ex-
plored them was C. Lehrs (De Aristarchi studiis Homericis, Konigs-
berg, 1833; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1865). Of the studies in the same
field which have appeared since, the most important are: Aug.
Nauck, Aristophanis Byzantii fragmenta (Halle, 1848); L. Frie?-
lander, Aristonici irtpi a^/jLtiav 'I\id5os reliquiae (Gottingen, 1853);
M. Schmidt, Didymi Chalcenteri fragmenta (Leipzig, 1854); L.
Friedlander, Nicanoris vipi 'IXioxrjs vriyinj* reliquiae (Berlin, 1857) ;
Aug. Lentz, Herodiani Technici reliquiae (Leipzig, 1867); J. La
Roche, Die homerische Textkritik im Alterthum (Leipzig, 1866) and
Homerische Untersuchungen (Leipzig, 1869); Ad. Romcr, Die Werke
der Aristarcheer im Cod. Venet. A. (Munich, 1875); A. Ludwich,
Aristarch's Homerische Textkritik (2 vols. Leipzig, 18841885); and
Die Homeruulgata als vor-Alexandrinisch erwiesen (Leipzig, 1898).
The literature of the " Homeric Question " begins practically with
Wolf's Prolegomena (Halle, 1795). Of the earlier books Wood's
Essay on the Original Genius and Writings of Homer is the most
interesting. Wolf's views were skilfully popularized in W. Miiller's
Homerische Vorschule (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1836). G. Hermann's
dissertations De inter polationibus Homeri (1832) and De iteratis apud
Homerum (1840) are reprinted in his Opuscula. Lachmann's two
papers (Betrachtungen uber Homer's Ilias) were edited together by
M. Haupt (2nd ed., Berlin, 1865). Besides the somewhat voluminous
writings of Nitzsch, and the discussions contained in the histories
of Greek literature by K. O. Muller, Bernhardy, Ulrici and Th.
Bergk, and in Grote's History of Greece, see Welcker, Der epische
* A. Lang, Contemporary Review, vol. xvii., N.S., p. 588.
HOMER, W. HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS 639
Cydus Oder die homerischen Dichter (Bonn, 1835-1849); on Proclus
and the Cycle reference may also be made to Wilamowitz-Mollendorf
p. 328 seq.; E. Bethe, Rhein. Mus. (1891), xxvi. p. 593 seq.; O.
Immisch, Festschrift Th. Gomperz dargebracht (1902), p. 237 sq.;
Lauer, Geschichte der homerischen Poesie (Berlin, 1851); Sengebusch,
two dissertations prefixed to the two volumes of W. Dindorf's Homer
in the Teubner series (1855-1856); Friedlander, Die homerische
Kritik von Wolf bis Grote (Berlin, 1853) ; Nutzhorn, Die Entstehungs-
weise der homerischen Gedichte, mit Vorwort von J. N. Madvig
(Leipzig, 1869) ; E. Kammer, Zur homerischen Frage (Konigsberg,
1870); and Die Einheit der Odyssee (Leipzig, 1873); A. Kirchhoff,
Die Composition der Odyssee (Berlin, 1869); Volkmann, Geschichte
tind Kritik der Wolf'schen Prolegomena (Leipzig, 1874) ; K. Sittl, Die
Wiederholungen in der Odyssee (Munchen, 1882) ; U. v. Wilamowitz-
Mollendorf, Homerische Untersuchungen (Berlin, 1884); O. Seeck,
Die Quellen der Odyssee (Berlin, 1887); F. Blass, Die Interpolationen
in der Odyssee (Leipzig, 1905). The interest taken in the question by
English students is sufficiently shown in the writings of W. E.
Gladstone, F. A. Paley, Henry Hayman (in the Introduction to his
Odyssey), P. Geddes, R. C. Jebb and A. Lang (see especially the
latter's Homer and his Age, 1907).
The Homeric dialect must be studied in the books (such as those
of G. Curtius) that deal with Greek on the comparative method.
The best special work is the brief Griechische Formenlehre of H. L.
Ahrens (Gottingen, 1852). Other important works are those of Aug.
Pick: Die homerische Odyssee in der urspriinglichen Sprachform
wiederhergestelt (Gottingen, 1883); Die homerische Ilias (ibid.,
1886); W. Schulze, Quaestiones epicae (Giiterslohe, 1892). On
Homeric syntax the chief book is B. Delbruck's Syntactische For-
schungen (Halle, 1871-1879), especially yols. i. and iv. ; on metre, &c.,
Hartel's Homerische Sludien (i.-iii., Vienna); Knos, De digammo
Homerico quaestiones (Upsala, 1872-1873-1878); Thumb, Zur
Geschichte des griech. Digamma, Indogermanische Forschungen (1898),
ix. 294 seq. The papers reprinted in Bekker's Homerische Blatter
(Bonn, 18631872) and Cobet's Miscellanea Critica (Leiden, 1876)
are of the highest value. Hoffmann's Quaestiones Homericae (Claus-
thal, 1842) is a useful collection of facts. Buttmann's Lexilogus, as
an example of method, is still worth study.
The antiquities of Homer using the word in a wide sense may
be studied in the following books: Volcker, Vber homerische
Geographie und Weltkunde (Hanover, 1830) ; Niigelsbach's Homeri-
sche Theologie (2nd ed., Nuremberg, 1861); H. Brunn, Die Kunst bei
Homer (Munich, 1868) ; W. W. Lloyd, On the Homeric Design of
the Shield of Achilles (London, 1854); Buchholz, Die homerischen
Realien (Leipzig, 1871-1873); W. Helbig, Das homerische Epos
aus den Denkmdlern erlautert (Leipzig, 1884; 2nd ed., ibid., 1887);
W. Reichel, Vber homerische Waffen (Vienna, 1894); C. Robert,
Studien zur Ilias (Berlin, 1901); W. Ridgeway, The Early Age of
Greece (Cambridge, 1901); V. Berard, Les Pheniciens el I'Odyssee
(Paris. 1902-1903) ; C. Robert, " Topographische Probleme der
Ilias," in Hermes, xlii., 1907, pp. 78-112.
Among other aids should be mentioned the Index Homericus of
Seber (Oxford, 1780); Prendergast's Concordance to the Iliad
(London, 1875) ; Dunbar's id. to the Odyssey and Hymns (Oxford,
1880); Frohwein, Verbum Homericum, (Leipzig, 1881); Gehring,
Index Homericus (Leipzig, 1891); the Lexicon Homericum, edited
by H. Ebeling (Leipzig, 1880-1885) and the facsimile of the
cod. Ven. A (Sijthoff; Leiden, 1901), with an introduction by
D. Comparetti. ' (D. B. M.)
HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-1910), American painter, was born
in Boston, U.S.A., on the 24th of February 1836. At the age
of nineteen he was apprenticed to a lithographer. Two years
later he opened a studio in Boston, and devoted much of his
time to making drawings for wood-engravers. In 1859 he re-
moved to New York, where he studied in the night-school of the
National Academy of Design. During the American Civil War
he was with the troops at the front, and contributed sketches to
Harper's Weekly. The war also furnished him with the subjects
for the first two pictures which he exhibited (1863), one of which
was " Home, Sweet Home." His " Prisoners from the Front "-
perhaps his most generally popular picture was exhibited in
New York in 1865, and also in Paris in 1867, where he was spend-
ing the year in study. Among his other paintings in oil are
" Snap the Whip " (which was exhibited at the Philadelphia
Centennial Exhibition of 1876, and, in company with " The
Country Schoolroom," at the Paris Salon the following year),
" Eating Water-melon," " The Cotton Pickers," " Visit from the
Old Mistress, Sunday Morning," " The Life-Line " and " The
Coming of the Gale." His genius, however, has perhaps shown
better in his works in water-colour, among which are his marine
studies painted at Gloucester, Mass., and his " Inside the Bar,"
" The Voice from the Cliffs " (pictures of English fisherwomen),
" Tynemouth," " Wrecking of a Vessel " and " Lost on the
Grand Banks." His work, which principally consists of genre
pictures, is characterized by strength, rugged directness and
unmistakable freshness and originality, rather than by technical
excellence, grace of line or beauty of colour. He was little
affected by European influences. His types and scenes, apart
from his few English pictures, are distinctly American soldiers
in blue, New England children, negroes in the land of cotton,
Gloucester fishermen and stormy Atlantic seas. Besides being
a member of the Society of Painters in Water-color, New York,
he was elected in 1864 an associate and the following year a
member of the National Academy of Design.
HOMESTEAD, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 8 m. S.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 7911; (1900) 12,554, of whom 3604 were foreign-born
and 640 were negroes; (U.S. census, 1910) 18,713. It is served
by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie railways,
and by the short Union Railroad, which connects with the
Bessemer & Lake Erie and the Wabash railways. The borough
has a Carnegie library and the C.M. Schwab Manual Training
School. Partly in Homestead but chiefly in the adjoining borough
of Munhall (and therefore not reported as in Homestead by the
U.S. Census) is one of the largest plants in the United States for
the manufacture of steel used in the construction of bridges and
steel-frame buildings and of steel armour-plate, and this is
its chief industry; among Homestead's other manufactures are
glass and fire-bricks. The water-works are owned and operated
by the municipality. Homestead was first settled in 1871, and
it was incorporated in 1880. In 1892 a labour strike lasting
143 days and one of the most serious in the history of the United
States was carried on here by the National Amalgamated
Association of Iron and Steel Workers of the United States
against the Carnegie Steel Company. The arrival (on the 6th
of July) of a force of about 200 Pinkerton detectives from New
York and Chicago resulted in a fight in which about 10 men
were killed, and to restore order two brigades of the state militia
were called out. See STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS.
HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS, laws (principally
in the United States) designed primarily either to aid the head
of a family to acquire title to a place of residence or to protect
the owner against loss of that title through seizure for debt.
These laws have all been enacted in America since about the
middle of the igth century, and owe their origin to the demand
for a population of the right sort in a new country, to the con-
viction that the freeholder rather than the tenant is the natural
supporter of popular government, to the effort to prevent
insolvent debtors from becoming useless members of society, and
to the belief that such laws encourage the stability of the family.
By the cessions of several of the older states, and by various
treaties with foreign countries, public lands have been acquired
for the United States in every state and territory of the Union
except the original thirteen, and Maine, Vermont, Kentucky,
Tennessee and Texas. For a time they were regarded chiefly
as a source of revenue, but about 1820, as the need of revenue
for the payment of the national debt decreased and the in-
habitants of an increasing number of new states became eager to
have the vacant lands within their bounds occupied, the demand
that the public lands should be disposed of more in the interest
of the settler became increasingly strong, and the homestead
idea originated. Until the advent of railways, however, the
older states of the North were opposed to promoting the develop-
ment of the West in this manner, and soon afterwards the
Southern representatives in Congress opposed the general
homestead bills in the interests of slavery, so that except in
isolated cases where settlers were desired to protect some frontier,
as in Florida and Oregon, and to a limited extent in the case of
the Pre-emption Act of 1841 (see below), the homestead principle
was not applied by the national government until the Civil
War had begun. A general homestead bill was passed'by Congress
in 1860, but this was vetoed by President James Buchanan;
two years later, however, a similar bill became a law. The act
of 1862 originally provided that any citizen of the United States,
or applicant for citizenship, who was the head of a family, or
640
HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS
twenty-one years of age, or, if younger, had served not less than
fourteen days in the army or navy of the United States during an
actual war, might apply for 160 acres or less of unappropriated
public lands, and might acquire title to this amount of land by
residing upon and cultivating it for five years immediately
following, and paying such fees as were necessary to cover the
cost of administration; a homestead acquired in this manner
was exempted from seizure for any debt contracted prior to the
date of issuing the patent. A commutation clause of this act
permitted title to be acquired after only six months of residence
by paying $1.25 per acre, as provided in the Pre-emption Act
of 1841. Act of 1872, amended in 1001, allows any soldier or
seaman, who has served at least ninety days in the army or navy
of the United States during the Civil War, the Spanish-American
War or in the suppression of the insurrection in the Philippines,
and was honourably discharged, to apply for a homestead, and
permits the deduction of the time of such service, or, if discharged
on account of wounds or other disability incurred in the line of
duty, the full term of his enlistment, from the five years otherwise
required for perfecting title, except that in any case he shall
have resided upon and cultivated the land at least one year
before the passing of title. Since 1866 mineral lands have been
for the most part excluded from entry as homesteads.
In accordance with the provisions of the homestead law,
718,930 homesteads, containing 96,495,414 acres, were estab-
lished in forty-two years, and besides this principal act, Congress
has passed several minor ones of a like nature, that is, acts designed
to benefit the actual settler who improves the land. Thus the
Pre-emption Act of 1841 gave to any head of a family or any single
person over twe.nty-one years of age, who was a citizen of the
United States or had declared his intention to become one,
permission to purchase not to exceed 160 acres of public lands
after he had resided upon and improved the same for six months;
the Timber-Culture Act of 1873 allowed title to 160 acres of
public prairie-land to be given to any one who should plant upon
it 40 acres of timber, and keep the same in good growing con-
dition for ten years; and the Desert-Land Act of 1877 gave to
any citizen of the United States, or to any person who had
declared his intention to become one, the privilege of acquiring
title to 640 acres of such public land as was not included in
mineral or timber lands, and would not without irrigation produce
an agricultural crop, by paying twenty-five cents an acre and
creating for the tract an artificial water-supply. These several
land acts, however, invited fraud to such an extent that in time
they promoted the establishment of large land holdings by
ranchmen and others quite as much as they encouraged settle-
ment and cultivation, and so great was this evil that in 1891 the
Timber-Culture and Pre-emption Acts were repealed, the total
amount of land that could be acquired by any one person under
the several land laws was limited to 320 acre's, the Desert-Land
Act was so amended as to require an expenditure of at least three
dollars an acre for irrigation, and the original Homestead Act
was so amended as to disqualify any person who was already
proprietor of more than 160 acres in any state or Territory of
the Union for acquiring any more land under its provisions;
and in 1896 a residence of fourteen months was required before
permitting commutation or the purchase of title. But even
these measures were inadequate to prevent fraud. In 1894
Congress, in what is known as the Carey Act, donated to Cali-
fornia, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Utah,
Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico and the Dakotas so much of
1,000,000 acres each of desert-lands as each should cause to be
irrigated, reclaimed and occupied within ten years, 1 not less than
20 acres of each 160 acres to be cultivated by actual settlers;
and in several of these states and territories irrigating companies
have been formed and land offered to settlers in amounts not
exceeding 160 acres to each, on terms requiring the settler to
purchase ample and perpetual water-rights. In 1902, Congress
appropriated the proceeds of the sales of public lands in these
states and territories to form a reclamation fund to be used for
1 In 1901 it was provided that the ten years should date from the
segregation of the lands from the public domain.
the construction and maintenance of irrigation works, and lands
reclaimed by this means are open to homestead entries, the entry-
man being required to pay for the cost of reclamation in ten
equal annual instalments without interest. When Texas was
admitted to the Union the disposal of its public lands was
reserved to the state, and under its laws every person who is the
head of a family and without a homestead may acquire title
to 1 60 acres of land by residing upon and improving it for
three years; every unmarried man eighteen years of age or over
may acquire title to 80 acres in the same way.
A short time before the National Homestead Act for aiding
citizens to acquire homesteads went into operation, some of
the state legislatures had passed homestead and exemption
laws designed to protect homesteads or a certain amount of pro-
perty against loss to the owners in case they should become
insolvent debtors, and by the close of the century the legislature
of nearly every state in the Union had passed a law of this nature.
These laws vary greatly. In most states the exemption of a
homestead or other property from liability for debts can be
claimed only by the head of a family, but in Georgia it may be
claimed by any aged or infirm person, by any trustee of a family
of minor children, or by any person on whom any woman or
girls are dependent for support; and in California, although
the head of a family may claim exemption for a homestead valued
at $5000, any other person may claim exemption for a homestead
valued at $1000. In some states exemptions may be claimed
either for a farm limited to 40, 80, 160 or 200 acres, or for a
house and one or more lots, usually limited in size, in a town,
village or city; in other states the homestead for which exemp-
tion may be claimed is limited in value, and this value varies
from $500 to $5000. With the homestead are usually included
the appurtenances thereto, and the courts invariably interpret
the law liberally; but many states also exempt a specified
amount of personal property, including wearing apparel, furni-
ture, provisions, tools, libraries and in some cases domestic
animals and stock in trade. A few states exempt no homestead
and only a small amount of personal property; Maryland,
for example, exempts only $100 worth of property besides money
payable in the nature of insurance, or for relief, in the event
of sickness, injury or death. To some debts the exemption
does not usually apply; the most common of these are taxes,
purchase money, a debt secured by mortgage on the homestead
and debts contracted in making improvements upon it; in
Maryland the only exception is a judgment for breach of promise
to marry or in case of seduction. If the homestead belongs to
a married person, the consent of both husband and wife is
usually required to mortgage it. Finally, some states require
that the homestead for which exemption is to be claimed shall
be previously entered upon record, others require only occupancy,
and still others permit the homestead to be designated whenever
a claim is presented.
Following the example of either the United States Congress
or the state legislatures, the governments of several British
colonial states and provinces have passed homestead laws. In
Quebec every settler on public lands is allowed, after receiving
a patent, an exemption of not to exceed 200 acres from that
of his widow, of his, her or their children and descendants in
the direct line. In Ontario an applicant for a homestead may
have not to exceed 200 acres of unappropriated public land for
farming purposes by building a house thereon, occupying it
for five years, and bringing at least fifteen acres under cultiva-
tion; the exemption of such a homestead from liability to
seizure for debts is, however, limited to twenty years from
the date of application for the land, and does not extend even
during that period to rates or taxes. Manitoba, British Columbia,
Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia, West Australia
and New Zealand also have liberal homestead and exemption
laws.
See J. B. Sanborn, " Some Political Aspects of Homestead Legisla-
tion," in The American Historical Review (1900); Edward Manson,
" The Homestead Acts," in the Journal of the Society of Comparative
Legislation (London, 1899); S. D. Thompson, A Treatise on
HOMEYER HOMICIDE
641
Homesteads and Exemptions (San Francisco, 1886); P. Bureau,
Le Homestead ou V Insaisissabilile de la petite propriete fonciere
(Paris, 1894), and L. Vacher, Le Homestead aux Etats-Unis (Paris,
1899). (N. D. M.)
HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV (1795-1874), German jurist,
was born on the i3th of August 1795 at Wolgast in Pomerania.
After studying law at the universities of Berlin, Gottingen
and Heidelberg (1813-1817), he settled as a Privaldocent, in
1821, at the university of Berlin, where he became ordinary
professor of law in 1827. His principal works are his edition
of the Sachsenspiegel (in 3 vols., 1827, 3rd ed., 1861, containing
also some other important sources of Saxon or Low German
law), which is still unsurpassed in accuracy and sagacity of
research, and his book on Die Haus- und H of mar ken (1870),
in which he has given a history of the use of trade-marks among
all the Teutonic nations of Europe, and which is full of important
elucidations of the history of law and also contains valuable
contributions to the history of art and civilization. In 1850
Homeyer was elected a member of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences, in the Transactions of which he published various
papers exhibiting profound learning (fiber die Heimat, 1852 ;
Cenealogie der Handschriflen des Sachsenspiegels, 1859 ; Die
Stadtbilcher des Mittelalters, 1860; Der Dreissigste, 1864, &c.).
He died on the 2oth of October 1874.
HOMICIDE (Lat. homicidium) , the general and neutral term
for the killing of one human being by another. The nature
of the responsibility of the slayer to the state and to the relatives
of the slain has been one of the chief concerns of all systems
of law from the earliest times, and it has been variously con-
sidered from the points of view of the sanctity of human life,
the interests of the sovereign, the injury to the family of the
slain and the moral guilt, i.e. the motives and intentions, of
the slayer.
The earliest recorded laws (those of Khammurabi) do not
contain any sweeping general provision as to the punishment
of homicide. The death penalty is freely imposed but not
for homicide. " If a man strike a gentleman's daughter that
she dies, his own daughter is to be put to death, if a poor man's
the slayer pays v mina." In the Mosaic law the general command
" Thou shall not kill " of the Decalogue is in terms absolute.
In primitive law homicide, however innocent, subjected the
slayer to the lawful vengeance of the kindred of the slain, unless
he could make some composition with him. This lex talionis
(a life for a life) resulted: (i) in a course of private justice
which still survives in the vendetta of Corsica and Albania, and
the blood feuds arising out of " difficulties " in the southern and
western parts of the United States; (2) in the recognition of
sanctuaries and cities of refuge within which the avenger of
blood might not penetrate to kill an innocent manslayer; and
(3) in the system of wite, bote and wer, by which the life of
every man had its assessed price payable to his chief and his
next of kin.
It took long to induce the relatives of the slain to appreciate
anything beyond the fact of the death of their kinsman or
to discriminate between intentional and accidental homicide.
By the laws of Khammurabi (206, 208) striking a man in a
quarrel without deadly intent but with fatal effect was treated
as a matter for compensation according to the rank of the slain.
The Pentateuch discriminates between the man " who lieth in
wait for" or "cometh presumptuously" on "his neighbour to
slay him with guile " (Exodus xxi. 13, 14), and the man "who
killeth his neighbour ignorantly whom he hated not in time past "
(Deut. xix. 4). But even killing by misadventure exposed the
slayer to the avenger of blood. " As a man goeth into the
wood with his neighbour to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth
a stroke with the axe to cut down a tree and the head slippeth
from the helve and lighteth upon his neighbour that he die:
he shall flee into one of these cities (of refuge) and live " (Deut.
xix. 5).
Under the early laws of Teutonic and Celtic communities
the inconveniences of the blood feud were gradually mitigated
(see CRIMINAL LAW) by the system of wite and wer (or eric),
XIII. 21
but the blood feud continued long in Friesland and Lower
Saxony, and in parts of Switzerland until the i6th century.
In England under the Norman system homicide became a plea
of the crown, and the rights of the kindred to private vengeance
and to compensation were gradually superseded in favour of
the right of the king to forfeitures where the homicide amounted
to a crime (felony).
Though homicide was thus made a public offence and not
a matter for private vengeance, it took long to discriminate
between those forms of homicide which should and those which
should not be punished.
The terms of act in English law used to describe criminal
homicide are murder (mord, meurlre, murdrum), manslaughter
andfelo de se (or suicide by a person of sound mind).
The original meaning of the word " murder " seems to have
been secret homicide, " Murdrum proprie dicitur mors alicujus
occulta cujus interfector ignoratur " (Dialogus de Scaccario i. x.);
and Glanville says: Duo sunt genera homicidii. unum est quod
dicitur murdrum quod nullo vidente nullo sciente clam perpetratur,
ila quod non assignatur clamor popularis (hue and cry), est et
aliud homicidium quod diciter simplex homicidium. After the
Conquest, and for the protection of the ruling race, a fine (also
called murdrum) was levied for the king on the hundred or other
district in which a stranger was found dead, if the slayer was not
brought to justice and the blood kin of the slain did not present
Englishry, there being a presumption (in favour of the Exchequer)
that the deceased was a Frenchman. After the assize of Clarendon
(1166) the distinction between the killing of Normans and
Englishmen gradually evaporated and the term murder came to
acquire its present meaning of deliberate as distinct from
secret homicide. In 1267 it was provided that the murder fine
should not be levied in cases of death by " misadventure "
(per infortunium) - 1 But at that date and for long afterwards
homicide in self-defence or by misadventure or even while of
unsound mind involved at the least a forfeiture of goods, and
required a pardon. These pardons, and restitution of the goods,
became a matter of course, and the judges appear at a later date
to have been in the habit of directing an acquittal in such cases.
But it was not until 1828 that the innocence of excusable homicide
was expressly declared. The rule is now expressed in s. 7 of the
Offences against the Person Act 1861: "No punishment or
forfeiture shall be incurred by any person who shall kill another
by misfortune, or in his own defence, or in any other manner
without felony."
The further differentiation between different degrees of
criminal homicide was marked by legislation of Henry VIII.
(1531) taking away benefit of clergy in the case of "wilful
murder with malice prepensed " (aforethought), and that phrase
is still the essential element in the definition of " wilful murder,"
which is committed " when a person of sound memory and
discretion unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature or being
and under the king's peace with malice aforethought either
express or implied " (3 Co. Inst. 47). The whole development
of the substantive law as to murder rests on judicial rulings as
to the meaning of malice prepense coupled with the extrajudicial
commentaries of Coke, Hale and Foster; for parliament, though
often tempted by bills and codes, has never ventured on a
legislative definition. Much discussion has ranged round the
phrase " malice aforethought," and it has undoubtedly been
expanded by judicial decision so as to create what is described
as " constructive " murder. According to the view of the
criminal code commissioners of 1879 (Parl. Pap., 1879, c. 23, 45,
p. 23) the term " malice aforethought " is now a common name
for all the following states of mind:
1. An intent, preceding the act, to kill or do grievous bodily harm
to the person or to any other person:
2. Knowledge that the act done is likely to produce such conse-
quences, whether coupled with an intention to produce them
or not :
3. An intent to commit any felony: or
4. An intent to resist an officer of police in the execution of his duty.
1 See Select Pleas of Crown, I (Selden Society Publ.) ; Pollock and
Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, ii. 458, 476, 478.
642
HOMICIDE
The third form of malice aforethought has been much
controverted. When it was first recognized as creating a liability
for wilful murder almost all felonies were capital offences: but
even at the end of the lyth century Lord Holt expressed a view
that it should be limited to felonies involving violence or danger
to life, e.g. assault with intent to rob, or setting fire to a dwelling-
house. And Sir James Stephen's opinion is that, to justify
conviction of murder by an act done with intent to commit a
felony, the act done must be one dangerous to life or known
to be likely to cause death.
Starting with the definition above given, English law still
retains so much of its medieval character as to presume all
homicide to be " malicious, and therefore murder, unless it is
either justified by the command or permission of the law, excused
on the ground of accident or self-preservation, or alleviated
into manslaughter by being the involuntary consequence of some
act not strictly lawful or occasioned by some sudden and suffi-
ciently violent provocation." The truth of the facts alleged in
justification, excuse or alleviation, is for the jury to determine:
the question whether if true they support the plea for which they
are put forward is for the court.
In the administration of the English criminal law as to homi-
cide the consequences of too strict an adherence to the technical
definitions of the offences are avoided (a) by the exercise of the
jury of their powers to convict of manslaughter only even in
cases where they are directed that the offence is murder or
nothing; (b) by the report of the judge as to the particular
circumstances of each case in which a conviction of murder has
been followed by the statutory sentence of death; (c) by the
examination of all the evidence in the case by the Home Office
in order to enable the secretary of state to determine whether the
prerogative of mercy should be exercised.
Homicide is justifiable and not criminal when the killing is
done in the execution of the law. The most important case of
justifiable homicide is the execution of a criminal in due course
of public justice. This condition is most stringently interpreted.
" To kill the greatest of malefactors deliberately, uncompelled,
and extrajudicially is murder. . . . And further, if judgment of
death be given by a judge not authorized by lawful commission,
and execution is done accordingly, the judge is guilty of murder "
(Stephen's Commentaries, book vi. c. iv.). The execution must
be carried out by the proper officer or his deputy: any person
executing the sentence without such authority, were it the judge
himself, would be guilty of murder. And the sentence must be
strictly pursued: to execute a criminal by a kind of death other
than that to which he has been judicially condemned is murder.
Homicide committed by an officer of justice in the course of
carrying out his duty, as such, is also justifiable; e.g. where a
felon resists a legal arrest and is killed in the effort to arrest him
(see 2 Pollock and Maitland, 476); where officers in dispersing
a riotous assemblage kill any of the mob, &c. (see RIOT). In these
cases the homicide must be shown to have been absolutely
necessary. Again, homicide is justifiable if committed in the
defence of person or property against forcible and heinous crime,
such as murder, violent robbery, rape or burglary. In this con-
nexion there has been much discussion as to whether the person
attacked is under a duty to retreat: and in substance the
justification depends on the continuous necessity of attack or
defence in order to prevent the commission by the deceased of
the crime threatened.
Homicide is excusable and not criminal at all when committed
either by misadventure or in self-defence. In the former case
the homicide is excused; where a man in the course of doing some
lawful work, accidentally and without intention kills another,
e.g. shooting at a mark and undesignedly hitting and killing a
man. The act must be strictly lawful, and death by misadventure
in unlawful sports is not a case of excusable homicide. Homicide
in self-defence is excusable when the slayer is himself in immediate
danger of death, and has done all he could to avoid the assault.
Accordingly, if he strikes and kills his assailant after the assault
is over, this is not excusable homicide. But if the assault has
been premeditated, as in the case of a duel, the death of either
antagonist has under English law always been held to be murdei
and not excusable homicide. The excuse of self-defence covers
the case in which a person in defence of others whom it is his
duty to protect children, wife, master, &c. kills an assailant.
It has been considered doubtful whether the plea of self-defence
is available to one who has himself provoked a fray, in the course
of which he is so pressed by his antagonist that his only resource
is to kill him.
In English law the term " manslaughter " is applied to those
forms of homicide which though neither justifiable nor excusable
are attended by alleviating circumstances which bring them
short of wilful murder. The offence is not defined by statute,
but only by judicial rulings. Its punishment is as a maximum
penal servitude for life, and as a minimum a fine or recognizances
to be of good behaviour. The quantum of punishment between
the limits above stated is in the discretion of the court, and not,
as under continental codes, with fixed minima; and the offence
includes acts and omissions of very varying gravity, from acts
which only by the charitable appreciation of a jury fall short
of wilful murder, to acts or omissions which can only technically
be described as criminal, e.g. where one of two persons engaged
in poaching, by pure accident gets caught in a hedge so that
his gun goes off and kills his fellow-poacher. This may be
described as an extreme instance of " constructive crime."
There are two main forms of " manslaughter ":
1. " Voluntary " homicide under grave and sudden provoca-
tion or on a sudden quarrel in the heat of passion, without the
slayer taking undue advantage or acting in an unusual manner.
The substance of the alleviation of guilt lies in the absence of
time for cool reflection or the formation of a premeditated design
to kill. Under English law the provocation must be by acts
and not by words or gestures, and must be serious and not trivial,
and the killing must be immediately after provocation and
while the slayer has lost his self-control in consequence of the
provocation. The provocation need not be by assault or violence,
and perhaps the best-recognized example is the slaying by a
husband of a man found committing adultery with the slayer's
wife. In the case of a sudden quarrel it does not matter who
began or provoked the quarrel. This used to be called " chance
medley."
2. " Involuntary " homicide as a result of great rashness
or gross negligence in respect of matters involving danger to
human life, e.g. in driving trains or vehicles, or in dealing with
dangerous weapons, or in performing surgical operations, or in
taking care of the helpless.
The innumerable modes in which criminal liability for killing
others has been adjudged under the English definitions of
murder and manslaughter cannot be here stated, and can only
be studied by reference to the judicial decisions collected and
discussed in Russell on Crimes and other English text-books, and
in the valuable work by Mr J. D. Mayne on the criminal law of
India, in which the English common law rulings are stated
side by side with the terms and interpretations of the Indian
penal code. Much labour has been expended by many jurists
in efforts to create a scientific and acceptable classification of
the various forms of unlawful homicide which shall properly
define the cases which should be punishable by law and the
appropriate punishment. Their efforts have resulted in the
establishment in almost every state except the United Kingdom
of statutory definitions of the crime, beginning with the French
penal code and going down to the criminal code of Japan. In
the case of England, as a result of the labours of Sir James
Stephen, a code bill was submitted to parliament in 1878. In 1879
a draft code was prepared by Blackburn, Lush and Barry, and was
presented to parliament. It was founded on and prepared with
Sir J. Stephen, and is a revision of his digest of the criminal law.
After defining homicide and culpable homicide, the draft
code (cl. 174) declares culpable homicide to be murder in the
following cases: (a) if the offender means to cause the death
of the person killed; (ft) if the offender means to cause to the
person killed any bodily injury which is known to the offender
to be likely to cause death, and if the offender, whether he does
HOMICIDE
643
or does not mean to cause death, is reckless whether death ensues
or not; (c) if the offender means to cause death or such bodily
injury as aforesaid to one person, so that if that person be killed
the offender would be guilty of murder, and by accident or
mistake the offender kills another person though he does not
mean to hurt the person killed ; (d) if the offender for any unlaw-
ful object does an act which he knows or ought to have known
to be likely to cause death, and thereby kills any person, though
he may have desired that his object should be effected without
hurting any one.
Further (cl. 175), it is murder (whether the offender means
or not death to ensue, or knows or not that death is likely to
ensue) in the following cases: " (a) if he means to inflict
grievous bodily injury for the purpose of facilitating the com-
mission of any of the offences hereinafter mentioned, or the
flight of the offender upon the commission or attempted com-
mission thereof, and death ensues from his violence; (b) if he
administers any stupefying thing for either of the purposes
aforesaid and death ensues from the effects thereof; (c) if he
by any means wilfully stops the breath of any person for either
of the purposes aforesaid and death ensues from such stopping
of the breath." The following are the offences referred to:
" high treason and other offences against the king's authority,
piracy and offences deemed to be piracy, escape or rescue from
prison or lawful custody, resisting lawful apprehension, murder,
rape, forcible abduction, robbery, burglary, arson." Cl. 176
reduces culpable homicide to manslaughter if the. person who
causes death does so "in the heat of passion caused by sudden
provocation "; and " any wrongful act or insult of such a nature
as to be sufficient to deprive any ordinary person of the power
of self-control may be provocation if the offender acts upon it
on the sudden, and before there has been time for his passion
to cool. Whether any particular wrongful act or insult amounts
to provocation and whether the offender was deprived of self-
control shall be questions of fact; but no one shall be deemed
to give provocation by doing that which he had a legal right to
do, or which the offender incited him to do in order to provide
an excuse for killing him or doing grievous bodily harm to any
person." Further, " an arrest shall not necessarily reduce the
offence from murder to manslaughter because an arrest was
illegal, but if the illegality was known to the offender it may be
evidence of provocation"; (cl. 177) "culpable homicide not
amounting to murder is manslaughter."
The definitions embodied in these clauses though not yet
accepted by the British legislature, have in substance been
embodied in the criminal codes of Canada (1892 ss. 227-230),
New Zealand (1893, ss. 163-166), Queensland (1899, ss. 300-305),
and Western Australia (1901, ss. 275-280).
From the point of view of civil as distinct from criminal
responsibility homicide does not by the common law give any
cause of action against the person causing the death of another
in favour of the wife or blood relations of the deceased. In
early law this was otherwise; and the wer or eric of the deceased
came historically before the right of chief or state. But under
English law the rights of relations, except by way of appeal for
felony, 1 were swept aside in favour of the crown, on the principle
that every homicide is presumed felonious (murder) unless the
contrary is proved, and that in all cases of homicide not justifiable
by law a forfeiture was incurred. The rights of the relatives
were also defeated by application of the maxim " aclio personalis
morltur cum persond " (" a personal action dies with the person ")
to all proceedings for injury to the person or to reputation. In
Scotland the old theory was preserved in the law as to
assythement.
In England the law was altered at the instance of Lord
Campbell in 1846 (9 & 10 V. c. 93) so as to give a right of a
claim by the husband, wife, parent or child of a person killed
by a wrongful (or even criminal) act, neglect or default
by another which would have given the deceased if he had sur-
1 Appeals remained in the law till 1819, but were long before this
disused. In the middle ages they were used as a means of getting
compensation.
vived a cause of action against the wrongdoer. The com-
pensation payable is what the surviving relative has lost by
the death, and under the Workmen's Compensation Act 1906
(in all cases to which it applies) the employer is liable even
without negligence to compensate the dependants of an employee
killed by an accident arising out of and in the course of the
employment; and in such cases even if the death was due to
serious and wilful misconduct by the employee, compensation is
payable.
In the Indian penal code the definitions of murder are so
drawn as to limit the offences to cases where it was actually
intended to cause death or bodily injury by the acts or omissions
of the slayer, and the definition of culpable homicide short
of murder is so drawn as to exclude the forms of unintentional
manslaughter due to neglect of duty, e.g. in the conduct of
trains or ships or vehicles. This last omission was supplied
in 1870. The Indian code does not treat as murder either
duelling or helping Hindu widows to commit suttee (s. 301,
exception 5). In most of the British possessions in Asia and
in east Africa the Indian definitions of homicide have been
adopted. In the rest of the colonies, except South Africa, the
law of homicide depends on the English common law as modified
by colonial codes or statutes. In South Africa it rests mainly
on the Roman Dutch law.
Europe. In European codes distinctions corresponding to
those of the English law are drawn between premeditated
and other forms of criminal homicide; but more elaborate
distinctions are drawn between the degrees of deliberation
or criminality manifested in the slaying, and the minimum or
maximum penalty is varied accordingly.
In the French penal code voluntary homicide is called murder
(meurtre, art. 295): but if committed with premeditation or
lying in wait is styled assassinat (guel-apens) (296-298). Poison-
ing (even if the poison is not fatal), is specially punished, as
is parricide (on the lines of the obsolete English offence of petty
treason), and infanticide, i.e. the killing of newly-born infants.
Assassination, poisoning and parricide are at present capital
offences; but a bill to abolish the death sentence has been
laid before the French parliament.
The German code distinguishes between voluntary homicide
which is done with deliberation and such homicide committed
without deliberation (ss. 211, 212), and provides for mitigation
of punishment where the slaying was provoked without fault
in the slayer by any wrongful act or serious insult upon the
slayer or his relatives by the slain (213). Parricide and infanti-
cide are specially punished (214, 215), as is killing another
person at his express and earnest request (216) an offence
which would in England be murder and it is a separate offence
to cause the death of another, the penalty being increased
if the offender was peculiarly bound by office, calling or trade
to use a care which he did not use (222).
The Italian code punishes as homicide those who with intention
to kill cause the death of another (364). The death penalty is
not imposed, but scales of punishment are provided to deal
with aggravated forms of the offence. Thus ergastolo (penal
servitude for life) is the punishment in the case of homicide
of ascendants and descendants, or with premeditation, or under
the sole impulse of brutal ferocity or with gross cruelty (gram
sevizie), or by means of arson, inundation, drowning and certain
other crimes, or to secure the gains or conceal the commission,
or to secure immunity from the consequences, of another crime
(366). Personal violence resulting in death inflicted without
intention to kill is punishable minore poend (368), and it is
criminal to cause the death of another by imprudence, negligence
or lack of skill in an art or profession (imperitia nella propria
arte o professione), or by non-observance of regulations, orders
or instructions.
The Spanish code has like those of Italy and France special
punishments for parricide (417) and for assassination, in which
are included killing for reward or promise of reward or by
inundation (418), and for aiding another to commit suicide (421).
Both the Italian and the Spanish codes afford a special mitigation
644
HOMILETICS HOMILY
to infanticide committed to avoid dishonour to the mother of
the infant or her family.
America. The most notable difference between England
and the United States in regard to the law on this subject is
the recognition by state legislation of degrees in murder. English
law treats all unlawful killing not reducible to manslaughter
as of the same degree of guilt in law. American statutes seek
to discriminate for purposes of punishment between the graver
and the less culpable forms of murder. Thus an act of the
legislature of Pennsylvania (22nd of April 1794) declares " all
murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison or by
lying in wait or by any other kind of wilful, deliberate and
premeditated killing, or which shall be committed in the per-
petration of or attempt to perpetrate any arson, rape, robbery
or burglary shall be deemed murder of the first degree; and all
other kinds of murder shall be deemed murder of the second
degree." This legislation has been copied or adopted in many
if not most of the other states. There are also statutory degrees
of manslaughter in the legislation of some of the states. The
differences of legislation, coupled with the power of the jury
in some states to determine the sentence, and the limitations on
the right of the judges to comment on the testimony adduced,
lead to very great differences between the administration of the
law as to homicide in the two countries.
AUTHORITIES. Stephen, Hist. Cr. Law, Digest Criminal Law-
Russell on Crimes (7th ed., 1909); Archbold, Criminal Pleading (23rd
ed., 1905); Bishop, American Criminal Law (8th ed.); Pollock
and Maitland, Hist. English Law; Pike, History of Crime. (W. F. C.)
HOMILETICS (Gr. djuiXijrutfc, from 6iu\fiv, to assemble
together), in theology the application of the general principles of
rhetoric to the specific department of public preaching. It
may be further defined as the science that treats of the analysis,
classification, preparation, composition and delivery of sermons.
The formation during recent years of such lectureships as the
" Lyman Beecher " course at Yale University has resulted
in increased attention being given to homiletics, and the published
volumes of this series are the best contribution to the subject.
The older literature is cited exhaustively in W. G. Blaikie, For
the Work of the Ministry (1873); and D. P. Kidder, Treatise on
Homiletics (1864).
HOMILY, a simple religious address, less elaborate than
a sermon, and confining itself to the practical exposition of
some ethical topic or some passage of Scripture. The word
t>iu\ia from 6jtuXIi' (onov, stXoj), meaning communion, inter-
course, and especially interchange of thought and feeling by
means of words (conversation), was early employed in classical
Greek to denote the instruction which a philosopher gave to
his pupils in familiar talk (Xenophon, Memorabilia, I. ii. 6. 15).
This usage of the word was long preserved (Aelian, Varia Historia,
iii. 19); and the 6jiuXi7cras of Acts xx. n may safely be taken
to assign not only a free and informal but also a didactic character
to the apostle Paul's discourse in the upper chamber of Troas,
when " he talked a long while, even till break of day." That
the " talk " on that occasion partook of the nature of the "exposi-
tion " (TV'-) of Scripture, which, undertaken by a priest,
elder or other competent person, had become a regular part
of the service of the Jewish synagogue, 1 may also with much
probability be assumed. The custom of delivering expositions
or comments more or less extemporaneous on the lessons of the
day at all events passed over soon and readily into the Christian
Church, as may be gathered from the first Apology (c. 67) of
Justin Martyr, where we read that, in connexion with the practice
of reading portions from the collected writings of the prophets
and from the memoirs of the apostles, it had by that time become
usual for the presiding minister to deliver a discourse in which
" he admonishes the people, stirring them up to an imitation
of the good works which have been brought before their notice."
This discourse, from its explanatory character, and from the
easy conversational manner of its delivery, was for a long time
called 6/uXia rather than Xo7os: it was regarded as part of
'See Philo, Quod omnis probus liber, sec. 12 (ed. Mangey ii. 458;
cf. ii. 630).
the regular duty of the bishop, but he could devolve it, if he
thought fit, on a presbyter or deacon, or even on a layman.
An early and well-known instance of such delegation is that
mentioned by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. vi. 19) in the case of Origen
(216 A.D.). 2 In course of time the exposition of the lesson
for the day came more frequently to assume a more elaborate
character, and to pass into the category of a Xo7os or even
</>iXocro0ta or </>tXoao</>?j/ia; but when it did so the fact was as
far as possible denoted by a change of name, the word 6/i'Xia
being reserved for the expository or exegetical lecture as dis-
tinguished from the pulpit oration or sermon. 3 While the church
of the 3rd and 4th centuries could point to a brilliant succes-
sion of great preachers, whose discourses were wont to be taken
down in shorthand and circulated among the Christian public
as edifying reading, it does not appear that the supply of ordinary
homiletical talent kept pace with the rapidity of church extension
throughout the Roman empire. In the smaller and remoter
communities it not uncommonly happened that the minister
was totally unqualified to undertake the work of preaching;
and though, as is curiously shown by the case of Rome (Sozomen,
Hist. Eccl. vii. 19), the regular exposition of the appointed
lessons was by no means regarded as part of the necessary
business of a church, it was generally felt to be advisable that
some provision should be made for the public instruction of
congregations. Even in Jerome's time (De Vir. III. c. 115),
accordingly, it had become usual to read, in the regular meetings
of the churches which were not so fortunate as to possess a com-
petent preacher, the written discourses of celebrated fathers;
and at a considerably later period we have on record the canon
of at least one provincial council (that of Vaux, probably the
third, held in 529 A.D.), positively enjoining that if the presbyter
through any infirmity is unable himself to preach, " homilies
of the holy fathers " (homiliae sanctorum patrum) are to be
read by the deacons. Thus the finally fixed meaning of the
word homily as an ecclesiastical term came to be a written dis-
course (generally possessing the sanction of some great name)
read in church by or for the officiating clergyman when from
any cause he was unable to deliver a sermon of his own. As
the standard of clerical education sank during the dark ages,
the habit of using the sermons of others became almost universal.
Among the authors whose works were found specially serviceable
in this way may be mentioned the Venerable Bede, who is credited
with no fewer than 140 homilies in the Basel and Cologne editions
of his works, and who certainly was the author of many Homiliae
de Tempore which were much in vogue during the 8th and
following centuries. Prior to Charlemagne it is probable that
several other collections of homilies had obtained considerable
popularity, but in the time of that emperor these had suffered
so many mutilations and corruptions that an authoritative
revision was felt to be imperatively necessary. The result was
the well-known Homiliarium, prepared by Paul Warnefrid,
otherwise known as Paulus Diaconus (?..). * It consists of
2 Sozomen (Hist. Eccl. vii. 19) mentions that in Alexandria in his
day the bishop alone was in the custom of preaching; but this, he
implies, was a very exceptional state of matters, dating only from the
time of Arius.
3 To the more strictly exegetical lectures the names fJirvVtis,
^TXWOTa, efryTjTucd, (K0f<rft.s, were sometimes applied. But as no
popular discourse delivered from the pulpit could ever be exclusively
expository and as on the other hand every sermon professing to be
based on Scripture required to be more or less " exegetical " and
" textual," it would obviously be sometimes very hard to draw the
line of distinction between o^iXia and Xo-yoj. It would be difficult to
define very precisely the difference in French between a " conference"
and a " sermon "' ; and the same difficulty seems to have been experi-
enced in Greek by Photius, who says of the eloquent pulpit orations
of Chrysostom, that they were <3/uXot rather than Xd-yoi.
4 Manuscript copies are preserved at Heidelberg, Darmstadt,
Frankfort, Giessen, Cassel and other places. It was first printed at
Spires in 1482. In the Cologne edition of 1530 the title runs
Homiliae seu mavis sermones sive conciones ad populum, praestantissi-
morum ecclesiae doctorum Hieronymi, Augustini, Ambrosii, Gregorii,
Origenis, Chrysostomi, Bedae, &c., in hunc ordinem digeslae per
Alchuinum levitam, idque injungente ei Carolo M. Rom. Imp. cui a
secretis fuit. Though thus attributed here to Alcuin, who is known
to have revised the Lectionary or Comes Hieronymi, the compilation
HOMOEOPATHY
645
176 homilies arranged in order for all the Sundays and festivals
of the ecclesiastical year; and probably was completed before
the year 780. Though written in Latin, its discourses were
doubtless intended to be delivered in the vulgar tongue; the
clergy, however, were often too indolent or too ignorant for this,
although by more than one provincial council they were enjoined
to exert themselves so that they might be able to do so. 1 Hence
an important form of literary activity came to be the translation
of the homilies approved by the church into the vernacular.
Thus we find Alfred the Great translating the homilies of Bede;
and in a similar manner arose ^Elfric's -Anglo-Saxon Homilies
and the German Homiliarium of Ottfried of Weissenburg.
Such Homiliaria as were in use in England down to the end of
the 1 5th century were at the time of the Reformation eagerly
sought for and destroyed, so that they are now extremely rare,
and the few copies which have been preserved are generally
in a mutilated or imperfect form. 2
The Books of Homilies referred to in the 35th article of the
Church of England originated at a convocation in 1542, at
which it was agreed " to make certain homilies for stay of such
errors as were then by ignorant preachers sparkled among
the people." Certain homilies, accordingly, composed by digni-
taries of the lower house, were in the following year produced
by thz prolocutor; and after some delay a volume was published
in 1547 entitled Certain sermons or homilies appointed by the
King's Majesty to be declared and read by all parsons, vicars,
or curates every Sunday in their churches where they have cure.
In 1563 a second Book of Homilies was submitted along with
the 39 Articles to convocation; it was issued the same year
under the title The second Tome of Homilies of such matters
as were promised and instituted in the former part of Homilies,
set out by the authority of the Queen's Majesty, and to be read in
every Parish Church agreeably. Of the twelve homilies contained
in the first book, four (the ist, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) are probably
to be attributed to Cranmer, and one (the i2th) possibly to
Latimer; one (the 6th) is by Bonner; another (the sth) is
by John Harpsfield, archdeacon of London, and another (the
nth) by Thomas Becon, one of Cranmer's chaplains. The
authorship of the others is unknown. The second book consists
of twenty-one homilies, of which the ist, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, Sth, gth,
i6th and i7th have been assigned to Jewel, the 4th to Grindal,
the 5th and 6th to Pilkington and the i8th to Parker. See the
critical edition by Griffiths, Oxford, 1869. The homilies are not
now read publicly, though they are sometimes appealed to in
controversies affecting the doctrines of the Anglican Church.
HOMOEOPATHY (from the Greek Sjuoios, like, and Trades,
feeling). The distinctive system of therapeutics which bears
the name of homoeopathy is based upon the law similia similibus
curenlur, 3 the originator of which was S. C. F. Hahnemann, a
of the Homiliarium is in the emperor's own commission entrusted to
Paul, to whom it is assigned in the earlier printed editions also. A
comparison of different editions shows that the contents increased
with the ever-growing number of saints' days and festivals, new
discourses by later preachers like Bernard being constantly added.
1 Neander, Church History, v. 174 (Eng. trans, of 1851).
* An ancient English metrical homiliarium is preserved in the
library of the university of Cambridge, Earlier versions of it have
existed, and a portion of perhaps the earliest copy, dating from about
the middle of the Ijth century, was published >n 1862 by Mr J. Small,
librarian to the university of Edinburgh.
' An interesting controversy has been carried on between the
members of the homoeopathic school as to the proper construction of
the Latin motto which constitutes its acknowledged basis. For
many years the verb at the conclusion of the sentence was used in the
indicative mood, curantur, thus making the sentence a positive one.
After extended research it has been discovered that Hahnemann
himself never employed the word curantur as descriptive of his law
of cure, but always wrote curentur, which greatly modifies the meaning
of the phrase. If the subjunctive mood be used, the motto reads,
" Let similars be treated by similars," or " similars should be treated
by similars." The reading similia similibus curentur was officially
adopted as the correct reading of the sentence by the American
Institute of Homoeopathy at its session held in Atlantic City, N.J.,
on the 2Oth of June 1899; and the words are so inscribed on the
monument erected to the memory of Hahnemann and unveiled in
Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of June 1900, and also are those
carved upon the tomb of Hahnemann in Pere-la-Chaise, Paris.
native of Meissen in Germany, who discovered his new principle
while he was experimenting with cinchona bark in 1790, and
announced it in ijg6. 4 The essential tenets of homoeopathy
with which is contrasted the " allopathy " (aXXos, other) of
the " orthodox " therapeutics are that the cure of disease
is effected by drugs that are capable of producing in a healthy
individual symptoms similar to those of the disease to be treated,
and that to ascertain the curative virtues of any drug it must
be "proved " upon healthy persons that is, taken by individuals
of both sexes in a state of health in gradually increasing doses.
The manifestations of drug action thus produced are carefully
recorded, and this record of " drug-diseases," after being verified
by repetition on many " provers," constitutes the distinguishing
feature of the homoeopathic materia medica, which, while it
embraces the sources, preparation and uses of drugs as known
to the orthodox pharmacopoeia, contains, in addition, the
various-" provings " obtained in the manner above described.
Besides the promulgation of the doctrine of similars, Hahne-
mann also enunciated a theory to account for the origin of all
chronic diseases, which he asserted were derived either tiirectly
or remotely from psora (the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or
sycosis (fig- wart disease). This doctrine, although at first
adopted by some of the enthusiastic followers of Hahnemann,
was almost immediately discarded by very many who had a
firm belief in his law of cure. In the light of advancing science
such theories are entirely untenable, and it was unfortunate for
the system of medicine which he founded that Hahnemann
should have promulgated such an hypothesis. It served as a
target for the shafts of ridicule showered upon the system by
those who were its opponents, and even at the present time
there still exists in the minds of many misinformed persons
the conviction that homoeopathy is a system of medicine that
bases the origin of all chronic disease on the itch or on syphilis
or fig-warts.
Another peculiar feature of homoeopathy is its posology or
theory of dose. It may be asserted that homoeopathic posology
has nothing more to do with the original law of cure than the
psora (itch) theory has, and that it was one of the later creations
of Hahnemann's mind. Most homoeopathists believe more or
less in the action of minute doses of medicine, but it must not
be considered as an integral part of the system. The dose is
the corollary, not the principle. Yet in the minds of many,
infinitesimal doses of medicine stand for homoeopathy itself,
the real law of cure being completely put into the background.
The question of dose has also divided the members of the homoeo-
pathic school into bitter factions, and is therefore a matter for
careful consideration. Many employ low potencies, 5 i.e. mother
4 Some points of Hahnemann's system were borrowed from
previous writers as he himself, though imperfectly, admits. Not
to mention others, he was anticipated by Hippocrates, and especially
by Paracelsus (1495-1541). The identical words similia similibus
curantur occur in the Geneva edition (1658) of the works of Paracelsus,
as a marginal heading of one of the paragraphs; and in the " Frag-
menta Medica," Op. Omnia, i. 168, 169, occurs the following
passage :
Simile similis cura ; non contrarium.
" Quisquis enim cum laude agere Medicum volet, is has nugas
longe valere jubeat. Nee enim ullus unquam morbus calidus per
frigida sanatus fuit, nee frigidus per calida. Simile autem suum
simile frequenter curavit, scilicet Mercurius sulphur, et sulphur
Mercurium; et sal ilia, velut et ilia sal. Interdum quidem cum
proprietate junctum frigidum sanavit calidum; sed id non factum
est ratione frigidi, verum ratione naturae alterius, quam a primo illo
omnino diversam facimus."
It is very remarkable that in Hahnemann's enumeration of authors
who anticipated him in regard to the doctrine of Similia, he makes
no mention of the views of Paracelsus, though the very words seem
to be taken from the works of that physician. The other point in
Hahnemann's doctrine that medicines should be tried first on
healthy persons he admits to have been enunciated by Haller.
Roughly it has been acted on by physicians in all ages, but certainly
more systematically since Hahnemann's time. In the most character-
istic feature of Hahnemann's practice " the potentizing," "dynam-
izing," of medicinal substances he appears to have been original.
6 Two methods of preparing medicines are recognized, one on the
decimal, the other on the centesimal scale. The pure tinctures are de-
nominated " mother tinctures," and represented by the Greek $. To
HOMOEOPATHY
tinctures, first, second, sixth dilutions, &c., while others use
hundred-thousandths and millionths.
Some homoeopathists of the present day still believe with
Hahnemann that, even after the material medicinal particles
of a drug have been subdivided to the fullest extent, the continua-
tion of the dynamization or trituration or succussion develops a
spiritual acurative agency, and that the liigher the potency, the
more subtle and more powerful is the curative action. Hahne-
mann says (Organon, 3rd American edition, p. 101), " It is only
by means of the spiritual influence of a morbific agent that our
spiritual vital power can be diseased, and in like manner only
by the spiritual operation of medicine can health be restored."
This is absolutely denied by others. Thus there exist two schools
among the adherents of homoeopathy. On the one hand there
are the Hahnemannians, the " Purists " or " High Potency "
men, who still profess to regard the Organon as their Bible,
who believe in all the teachings of Hahnemann, who .adhere
in their prescriptions to the single dose, the single medicine, and
the highest possible potency, and regard the doctrine of the
spiritual dynamization acquired by trituration and succussion
as indubitable. On the other side there are the " Rational "
or " Low Potency " men, who believe in the universality of
the law of cure, but think that it cannot always be applied, on
account of an imperfect materia medica and a lack of know-
ledge on the part of the physician. They believe that in many
cases of severe and acute pain palliatives are required, and that
they are free to use all the adjuvants at present known to science
for the relief of suffering humanity massage, balneology,
electricity, hygiene, &c. The American Institute of Homoeo-
pathy, the national body of the United States, has adopted the
following resolution and ordered it to be published conspicuously
in each number of the Transactions of the society: " A homoeo-
pathic physician is one who adds to his knowledge of medicine
a special knowledge of homoeopathic therapeutics. All that
pertains to the great field of medical learning is his by tradition,
by inheritance, by right."
It is claimed that the effect produced upon both the laity and
the general profession of medicine by the introduction of homoeo-
pathy was salutary in many ways. It diminished the quantity
of medicine that was formerly considered necessary for the
eradication of disease, and thus revealed the fact that the
vis medicalrix naturae is often sufficient, with occasional and
gentle assistance, to cure many diseases, especially those fevers
that run a definite and regular course. Corroboration of the
law similia similibus curenturisseen, according to homoeopathists,
in the adoption of the serum therapy, which consists in the
treatment of the most malignant diseases (diphtheria, lock-jaw,
typhoid fever, tuberculosis, bubonic plague) by introducing
into the system a modified form (similar) of those poisons that
produce them in the healthy individual. Hahnemann un-
doubtedly deserves the credit of being the first to break decidedly
with the old school of medical practice, in which, forgetful of
the teachings of Hippocrates, nature was either overlooked or
rudely opposed by wrong and ungentle methods. We can
scarcely now estimate the force of character and of courage
which was implied in his abandoning the common lines of
medicine. More than this, he and his followers showed results
in the treatment of disease which compared very favourably
with the results of contemporaiy orthodox practice.
make a first decimal dilution or first decimal trituration, 10 drops of
the mother tincture, or 10 grains of a crude substance, are mixed with
90 drops of alcohol, or 90 grains of saccharum lactis (sugar of milk)
respectively. The liquid is thoroughly shaken, or the powder care-
fully triturated, and the bottles containing them marked I X, mean-
ing first decimal dilution or trituration. To make the 2 X potency,
10 drops or 10 grains of this first dilution or trituration are mixed
with 90 drops of pure alcohol, or 90 grains of milk sugar, and are
succussed or triturated as above described, and marked 2 X dilution
or trituration. This subdivision of particles may be continued to an
indefinite degree. On the Hahnemannian or centesimal scale the
medicines are prepared in the same manner, the difference being that
I drop or grain is mixed with 99 drops or grains, to make the first
centesimal, which is marked I c or I simply, and so on for the second
and higher dilutions.
Homoeopathy has given prominence to the therapeutical
side of medicine, and has done much to stimulate the stud>
of the physiological action of drugs. It has done service in
directing more special attention to various powerful drugs,
such as aconite, nux vomica, belladonna, and to the advantage
of giving them in simpler forms than wers common before the
days of Hahnemann. But in the medical profession homoeo-
pathy nevertheless remains under the stigma of being a dissenting
sect. It has been publicly announced that if the homoeopathists
would abolish the name " homoeopathy," and remove it from
their periodicals, colleges, hospitals, dispensaries and asylums,
they would be received within the fold of the regular profession.
These conditions have been accepted by a few homoeopathists
who have become members of the most prominent medical
association in the United States.
Homoeopathy as it exists to-day can, in the opinion of its
adherents, stand by itself, and its progress for a century in face
of prolonged and determined opposition appears to its upholders
to be evidence of its truth. There are still, indeed, in both
schools of medical thought, men who stand fast by their old
principles. There are homoeopathists who can see nothing
but evil in the practice of their brothers of the orthodox school,
as there are allopathists who still regard homoeopathy as a
humbug and a sham. There are, however, liberal-minded men
in both schools, who look upon the adoption of any safe and
efficient method of curing disease as the birthright of the true
physician, and who allow every man to prescribe for his patients
as his conscience may dictate, and, provided he be educated
in all the collateral branches of medical science, are ready to
exchange views for the good of suffering humanity.
Great Britain. Homoeopathy is not rapidly extending in Great
Britain, and its recognition has been slow. The first notice taken
of the new system of therapeutics was by the Medical Society of
London in 1826. . In 1827 the physician of Prince Leopold of Saxe-
Coburg, Dr F. H. F. Quin (1799-1878), who had previously studied
homoeopathy in Germany and practised it in Italy, came to England,
and it was through his efforts that the system was introduced.
Three other physicians, Dr Belluomini, Dr Roman! and Dr Tagliani,
claimed priority, but careful research established Dr Quin's title.
Quin was a successful man professionally and socially, and brought
upon himself in a short time the anathema of the Royal College of
Physicians. In 1844 Dr William Henderson, professor of pathology
in the university of Edinburgh, embraced the Hahnemannian system.
A storm of opposition arose, and Professor J. Y. Simpson (the dis-
coverer of chloroform anaesthesia) published a volume, with the
alliterative title, Homoeopathy, its Tenets and Tendencies, Theoretical,
Theological, and Therapeutical. This brochure was answered by
Professor Henderson, the title of his book being Homoeopathy Fairly
Represented. From 1827 to 1837 there were but a dozen practitioners
of homoeopathy in London, but during 1837 to 1847 the number
increased to between seventy and eighty. In 1857 there were
upwards of two hundred practitioners in the kingdom, with thirty-
three institutions in which the law of similars was used as a basis of
practice. In 1867 the increase was not so rapid, the number being
261. A society was formed about this period for " the protection of
homoeopathic practitioners and students," which proved of great
value in binding the sect together. In 1870 congresses were estab-
lished, and annual meetings held, which have continued to the present
time. In 1901 there were over three hundred homoeopathic physicians
in the British Isles, of whom between seventy and eighty were in
London alone. There were seventy-nine chemists, of whom seventeen
were located in London, and eighty-two towns and cities in the
country contained from one to ten homoeopathic practitioners each,
together with many established chemists for dispensing homoeo-
pathic medicines. The British Homoeopathic Society was founded by
Quin in 1844, and has numerous members and fellows, besides
corresponding members in all portions of the world, including
Australia, India and Tasmania. The London Homoeopathic Hospital
was founded in 1850, also largely through the efforts of Quin, and a
few years afterwards moved to Great Ormond Street. During the
cholera epidemic of 1854 the statistics of this hospital showed a
mortality of 16-4 %, against 51-8 % of other metropolitan charities.
The London Homoeopathic Hospital has a convalescent home under
its management at Eastbourne. There are also dispensaries in Baling
and West Middlesex, Kensington, Notting Hill and Bayswater.
Similar institutions are located in Bath, Birkenhead, Birmingham,
Bootle, Bournemouth, Brighton, Bristol, Bromley, Cheltenham,
Cheshire, Croydon, Dublin, Eastbourne, Edinburgh, Folkestone,
Hastings and St Leonards, Ipswich, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool,
Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Plymouth, Torquay,
Tunbridge Wells, Weston-super-Mare. The homoeopathic journals
include the Homoeopathic World, the London Homoeopathic Hospital
HOMOEOPATHY
647
Reports, the Journal of the British Homoeopathic Society, and the
British Homoeopathic Review, the last being issued by the British
Homoeopathic Association, which was founded in 1902 for the purpose
of developing and extending homoeopathy in Great Britain. The
British Journal of Homoeopathy was first published in 1843, and was
edited by Drs Drysdale, Russell and Black. For many years it was
the foremost homoeopathic journal in the world. Its motto was In
certis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus charitas. One reason why
homoeopathy has not advanced as rapidly in the British Isles as in
America is said to be the discrimination exercised against it by the
General Medical Council, and another is want of cohesion amongst
the homoeopaths themselves.
United States. Homoeopathy was introduced into the United
States by Dr Hans Birch Gram, who was born in Boston. His
father being Danish, Gram in his eighteenth year went to Copen-
hagen, where he graduated in 1814. In 1823 he became acquainted
with homoeopathy, and brought a knowledge of it to America in
1825 when he settled in New York. The first homoeopathic associa-
tion was formed in 1833 in Philadelphia, the second in New York,
1834, and homoeopathy became known in the different states some-
what in the following order: New York, 1825; Pennsylvania,
1828; Louisiana, 1836; Connecticut, 1837; Massachusetts, 1837-
1838; Maryland, 1837; Delaware, 1837; Kentucky, 1837; Ver-
mont, 1838; Rhode Island, 1839; Ohio, 1839; New Jersey, 1840;
Maine, 1840; New Hampshire, 1840; Michigan, 1841; Georgia,
1842; Wisconsin, 1842; Alabama, 1843; Illinois, 1843; Tennessee,
1844; Missouri, 1844; Texas, 1848; Minnesota, 1852; Nebraska,
1862; Colorado, 1863; Iowa, 1871. After 1871 the spread of the
system was rapid throughout every state in the Union, and it is in
the United States that homoeopathy principally flourishes. There
are thousands of homoeopathic physicians, and their clients number
several millions. It may be noted that departments of homoeopathy
are connected with the universities of Boston, Michigan, Iowa,
Minnesota and Kansas City.
Canada. The early history of homoeopathy can be traced back
nearly to 1850 in the province of Quebec, In the Dominion of
Canada the various provinces control the licensing of physicians,
excepting in Quebec, which is the only province having a separate
homoeopathic board of examiners. This is under the control of the
Montreal homoeopathic Association, and is known as the College
of Homoeopathic Physicians and Surgeons of Montreal. Three
examiners are annually appointed by the association. Successful
candidates receive the diploma of the college, and are entitled to
add to their degree the letters M.C.H.P.S. A certificate of successful
examination is forwarded to the lieutenant-governor at Quebec, who,
" if satisfied of the loyalty, integrity and good morals of the applicant,
may grant him a license to practise surgery, physic and midwifery, or
either of them, in the province of Quebec.' The word " loyalty " has
been decided by the provincial secretary to mean a British subject.
This is the only government medical license now issued in the British
empire, the others being by provincial boards or colleges of physicians
and surgeons. In 1894 there was no homoeopathic institution in
the province; at present the Montreal Homoeopathic Hospital is in
active operation. Two homoeopathic papers are published monthly
the Homoeopathic Record in Montreal, and the Homoeopathic Messenger
in Toronto. In 1870, in the province of Ontario, the three schools,
allopathic, homoeopathic and eclectic, united for examining purposes
into one board called the medical council, seventeen members repre-
senting the old school and five the other two systems. Finally the
eclectics were merged in the old school, the board appointing five of
Hahnemann's followers for examining purposes. Grace Hospital at
Toronto (erected 1892) was begun as a dispensary in 1887.
Germany. In 1810 Hahnemann published his Organon, which
was the starting-point of homoeopathy in Germany. In 1811 an
endeavour was made to found an institution in Leipzig in which
practitioners might learn the new method of treatment theoretically
and practically, but it was not a success, as the entire tide of pro-
fessional opinion was against the system. In 1829, at the celebra-
tion of the fiftieth anniversary of Hahnemann's doctorate, the
German Central Society was organized, holding its first meeting in
1830. In the university hospital of Munich some experiments
were made to test the efficacy of homoeopathic medicines, but
these were not successful. In 1831 the government prohibited
homoeopathists from dispensing their own medicines; this was a
severe blow to the system. In 1834 there was a division among the
homoeopathists themselves, which much retarded the progress of
the school. A homoeopathic hospital was established about this
time (January 1833) m Leipzig, but there was such constant wrang-
ling among the physicians connected with it that its sphere of useful-
ness was curtailed, and it was finally converted into a dispensary.
The Baden Homoeopathic Society was established in 1834. The
homoeopathic hospital in Munich was established in 1836, but
suffered a similar fate to that of Leipzig, and was converted into a
dispensary. The rather equivocal success of these hospitals in
Saxony and Bavaria was in direct contrast to the fate of two newly
established hospitals in Austria, one in Vienna and the other in Linz,
which were very successful, and aroused great interest both among
physicians and laymen. During the political confusion of 1846 and
1849 there was complete stagnation of everything medical in Germany.
But during all these years, though the public institutions were few,
the literature on homoeopathic subjects became very extensive, and
exercised a significant influence upon the system in all parts of the
world. Hahnemann died in 1843, and on the loth of August 1851 a
bronze monument to him was unveiled at Leipzig. The Leipzig
dispensary lived thirty-three years. From 1842 to 1874 there were
treated in this institution 65,106 patients. In 1901 there were about
250 homoeopathic physicians in Germany; they appeared to be
strongest at Berlin, in the province of Brandenburg, in Pomerania
and Westphalia, Saxony, Hessen and in Wiirttemberg.
Austria-Hungary. Homoeopathy was introduced into Austria
about 1817, and in 1819 its practice was forbidden by law. Shortly
afterwards the physician attending the archduke John became a
homoeopath. In 1825 the doctrine was introduced into Vienna.
To test the efficacy of the system Francis I. ordered that experiments
be made with homoeopathic medicines, and for this purpose a ward
furnished with twelve beds was allotted. The results were satis-
factory to the new system, and it made gigantic strides in Vienna.
During the cholera epidemic of 1836 an increased impetus was given
to the new school by the reported brilliant successes of the treatment.
Societies were founded and journals published. In 1846 a second
hospital was founded. In 1850 a third hospital was opened, and
clinical lectures upon the system were delivered. In 1873 the Society
of Homoeopathic Physicians was formed. Between the years 1873
and 1893 homoeopathy declined. In 1901, in thirty-seven cities
and towns there were to be found about fifty physicians and two
hospitals, and it was estimated that about seventy-five more were
scattered in Moravia, Bohemia, Tirol, Salzburg and the coast
provinces. There is a professorship of homoeopathy at the University
of Budapest,, and homoeopathic clinics are held at the new Rochus
Hospital in Ulloi Street, and also in the homoeopathic department
of the Hospital Bethesda of the Reformed Community. The
Elizabeth Hospital, exclusively homoeopathic, has existed for many
years.
Russia. The homoeopathic system was introduced into Russia in
1823. In 1825 great impetus was given to the new doctrine by the
conversion of Dr Bigel, physician to the grand duke Constantine.
In 1829 the grand duke ordered a series of experiment's to be con-
ducted to prove the truth or fallacy of homoeopathy, and they
demonstrated the success of the new school. In 1841 a hospital was
established in Moscow, and in 1849 similar institutions were founded
in Nizhniy-Novgorod. Since then homoeopathy has been steadily
practised, and has penetrated to the remotest parts of Russia. In
1 88 1 the civil engineers proposed to commemorate the virtues of the
emperor Alexander II. by the erection of a hospital; a committee for
collecting funds was created, and 58,064 roubles were handed to the
Charity Society of the followers of homoeopathy at St Petersburg for
the erection and founding of a homoeopathic hospital. The founda-
tion stone of the edifice was laid on loth June 1893, the emperor
Alexander III. giving 5000 roubles. The inauguration of a new
dispensary and a pharmacy took place on the igth of April 1898, and
the hospital : tself, intended originally for fifty beds, was opened on
the 1st of November 1898. There are sixteen free beds, three of them
being in the name of the emperor Nicholas, the empress Maria
Feodorovna, and the emperor Alexander III. On the 28th of
January 1899 an imperial edict was issued granting the rights of
public service to the doctors of the hospital and dispensaries of the
Charity Society, thus placing them on an equality with the doctors
of the prevailing medical school.
France. Homoeopathy was first introduced into France in 1830
by Count de Guidi, doctor of medicine, doctor of science, and
inspector of the university, who practised in Lyons. About the
same year Dr Antoine Petroz, widely known by his Grand diction-
naire des sciences medicales, began practising homoeopathy in Paris,
and his establishment became the headquarters of the new system
there. In 1835 Hahnemann himself came to the capital. In 1832
the homoeopathic method of treating disease was introduced into
the Hospice de Choisy, and in 1842 into the hospital of Carentan.
Tessier practised the new doctrine in his wards in the Hospital St
Marguerite, and in the Children's Hospital up to the year 1862, when
he retired. The first homoeopathic society was established in 1832
(the Soci6t<5 Gallicain), Hahnemann becoming president in 1835;
in 1845 the Soci6t6 de Mcklecine Hom6opathique was organized;
and in 1860 the two were united for the better interests of the school.
In 1901 there were at Paris three hospitals the Hospital St Jacques
with fifty-five beds, the Hahnemann Hospital with thirty-five beds,
and the new Protestant Hospital for Children with twenty-five beds.
At Lyons there is the Hospital St Luc. The medical journals include
L'Art medical, La Revue homeopathique beige, Journal beige d'homeo-
pathie, La Therapeutique Integrate, La Revue homiopathique franc.aise.
In the year 1900 the medical officers of the republic having super-
vision over the medical department of the International Exhibition
officially recognized the members of the homoeopathic school, and
arranged for the proper accommodation and reception of the Inter-
national Congress of Homoeopathic Physicians held in June. On
the 3Oth of that month, with appropriate ceremonies, the remains of
Hahnemann were removed from the cemetery of Mpntmartre and
deposited in Pere-la-Chaise, and a monument bearing a suitable
inscription was erected to the memory of the founder of homoeopathy.
Italy. The Austrians when they entered Naples in 1821 brought
homoeopathy into Italy, the general in command of the army being
HOMONYM HONDA
a devoted friend of Hahnemann. In 1828 Dr Count Sebastian de
Guidi came from Lyons and assisted in spreading the doctrine.
During the period from 1830 to 1860 many physicians practised
homoeopathy, and the literature on the subject became extensive.
A homoeopathic clinic was established and a ward opened in Trinity
Hospital at Naples, and a homoeopathic physician was appointed
to the count of Syracuse. During the severe cholera epidemics of
1854, 1855, 1865 the success of homoeopathic treatment of that
disease was so marked under the care of Dr Rubini that the attention
of the authorities was directed to the system. In 1860 the homoeo-
pathic practice was introduced into the Spedale della Cesarea, and
since that period homoeopathy has been recognized with more or less
favour in most of the cities. The Italian Homoeopathic Institute
is recognized by royal warrant as an established institution, and its
regulations are approved by the government. In Turin the legal
seat of the Homoeopathic Institute, there is a hospital under the
management of the State Association. The homoeopathic medical
press consists of the Revista Omiopatica, established in 1855. and
L'Omiopatico in Italia, the organ of the Italian Homoeopathic
Institute, which first appeared in 1884.
Spain. Homoeopathy was introduced into Spain in 1829 by a
physician to the Royal Commission sent by the king of Naples to
attend the marriage of Maria Christina with Don Ferdinand VII.
Shortly after this, a merchant of Cadiz visited Hahnemann in
Coethen, and was cured of a serious disorder; he returned to Spain
with a supply of homoeopathic literature, and immediately sent a
medical student to Leipzig to study the new system. In 1843
many cases of cholera were treated homoeopathically in Madrid.
The civil war, which did not terminate until 1840, arrested all
medical investigation in Spain, but in 1843 there still existed in
Madrid five pharmacies and a number of homoeopathic physicians.
About this time Dr Tosi Nunez returned from an investigation of
the new system with Hahnemann, and owing to his success in the
treatment of disease was created one of the physicians of the bed-
chamber to the queen, who soon afterwards conferred upon him the
title of marquis, with the grand crosses of the Charles III. and of the
Civil Order of Beneficiencia. This recognition by high authority
gave an impetus to homoeopathy which has continued ever since.
Denmark. Homoeopathy was unknown in Denmark until the
year 1821, when Hans Christian Lund, a medical practitioner,
adopted it. Hahnemann, however, had been both before and after
that time consulted by Danes, and consequently homoeopathic
therapeutics was recognized in different parts of the country.
Lund translated many of Hahnemann's works into Danish, as well
as those of other eminent members of the new school. (W. T. H.)
HOMONYM (Gr. ojtooi'ojios, having the same name, from
ojuos, same, alike, and ovo^a, name), a term in philology for
those words which differ in sense but are alike either in sound
or spelling or both. Words alike only in spelling but rot in sound,
e.g. " bow," are sometimes called homographs ; and words alike
only in sound but not in spelling, e.g. " meat," " meet," homo-
phones. Skeat (Etymol. Diet.) gives a list of English homonyms.
ROMS, or HUMS (anc. Emesa or Emessa, near the Hittite
Kadesh), a town of Syria, on the right bank of the Orontes,
and capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of Syria (Damascus).
Pop. 30,000 (20,000 Moslem, 10,000 Christian). The importance
of the place arises from its command of the great north road
from Egypt, Palestine and Damascus by the Orontes valley.
Invading armies from the south have often been opposed near
Horns, from the time of Rameses II., who had to fight the
battle of Kadesh, to that of Ibrahim Pasha, who broke the first
line of Ottoman defence in 1831 by his victory there. Ancient
Emesa, in the district of Apamea, was a very old Syrian city,
devoted to the worship of Baal, the sun god, of whose great
temple the emperor Heliogabalus was originally a priest (A.D.
218). As a centre of native influences it was overawed by the
Seleucid foundation of Apamea; but it opposed the Roman
advance. There Aurelian crushed, in A.D. 272, the Syrian
national movement led by Zenobia. Caracalla made it a Roman
colony, and later it became the capital of a small province,
Phoenicia Libanesia or ad Libanum. About 630 it was captured
by the Moslem leader, Khalid ibn Walid, who is buried there.
It now became the capital of ajund, or military district, which
under the Omayyad Caliphs extended from Palmyra to the
sea. Under the Arabs it was one of the largest cities in Syria,
with walls and a strong citadel, which stood on a hill, occupying
perhaps the site of the great sun temple. The ruins of this
castle, blown up by Ibrahim Pasha, are still the most con-
spicuous feature of Horns, and contain many remains of ancient
buildings. Its men were noted for their courage in war, and its
women for their beauty. The climate was extolled for its
excellence, and the land for its fertility. A succession of gardens
bordered the Orontes, and the vineyards were remarkable for
their abundant yield of grapes. When the place capitulated
the great church of St John was divided between the Christians
and Moslems, an arrangement which apparently lasted until
the arrival of the Turks. At the end of the nth century it
fell into crusading hands, but was recovered by the Moslems
under Saladin in 1187. Its decay probably dates from the
invasion of the Mongols (1260), who fought two important
battles with the Egyptians (1281 and 1299) in its vicinity. The
construction of a carriage road to Tripoli led to a partial revival
of prosperity and to an export of cereals and fruit, and this
growth has, in turn, been accentuated by the railway, which now
connects it with Aleppo and the Damascus-Beirut line. The
district is well planted with mulberries and produces much silk,
most of which is worked up on the spot. (D. G. H.)
HO-NAN, a central province of China, bounded N. partly
by the Hwang-ho (which it crosses to the west of Ho-nan Fu,
forming an arm northwards between the provinces of Shan-si
and Chih-li), on the W. by Shen-si, on the S. by Hu-peh, and
on the E. by Ngan-hui. It occupies an area of 81,000 sq. m.,
with a population of about 22,100,000, and contains nine
prefectural cities. Its capital is K'ai-feng Fu. The prefecture
of Hwai-k'ing, north of the Hwang-ho, consists of a fertile plain,
" rendered park-like by numerous plantations of trees and
shrubs, among which thick bosquets of bamboo contrast with
the gloomy groves of cypress." All kinds of cereals grow
luxuriantly, and the general productiveness of the district
is indicated by the extreme denseness of the population. The
most noticeable feature in that portion of the province which
is properly called Ho-nan is the Fu-niu Shan range, which runs
east and west across this part of the province. Coal is found on
the south of the Hwang-ho in the districts of Ho-nan Fu, the
ancient capital, Lushan and Ju Chow. The chief products
of the province are, however, agricultural, especially in the
valley of the Tang-ho and Pai-ho, which is an extensive and
densely populated plain running north and south from the
Fu-niu Shan. Cotton is also grown extensively and forms
the principal article of export, and a considerable quantity
of wild silk is produced from the Fu-niu Shan. Three roads
from the east and south unite at Ho-nan Fu, and one from the
west. The southern road leads to Ju Chow, where it forks,
one branch going to Shi-ki-chen, connecting the trade from
Fan-cheng, Han-kow, and the Han river generally, and the other
to Chow-kia-k'ow near the city of Ch'en-chow Fu, at the con-
fluence of the three rivers which unite to form the Sha-ho; the
second road runs parallel with the Hwang-ho to K'ai-feng Fu;
the third crosses the Hwang-ho at Mengching Hien, and passes
thence in a north-easterly direction to Hwai-k'ing Fu, Sew-wu
Hien and Wei-hui Fu, at which place it joins the high road
from Peking to Fan-cheng; and the western road follows the
southern bank of the Hwang-ho for 250 m. to its great bend
at the fortified pass known as the Tung-kwan, where it joins the
great wagon road leading through Shan-si from Peking to Si-gan
Fu. Ho-nan is now traversed north to south by the Peking-
Hankow railway (completed 1905). The line crosses the Hwang-
ho by Yung-tse and runs east of the Fu-niu Shan. Branch lines
serve Ho-nan Fu and K'ai-feng Fu.
HONAVAR, or ONORE, a seaport of British India, in the
North Kanara district of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 6929. It is
mentioned as a place of trade as early as the i6th century, and
is associated with two interesting incidents in Anglo-Indian
history. In 1670, the English factors here had a bull-dog
which unfortunately killed a sacred bull, in revenge for which
they were all murdered, to the number of eighteen persons,
by an enraged mob. In 1784 it was bravely defended for three
months by Captain Torriano and a detachment of sepoys against
the army of Tippoo Sultan.
HONDA, or SAN BARTOLOMEO DE HONDA, a town of the
department of Tolima, Colombia, on the W. bank of the Magdalena
river, 580 m. above its mouth. In 1906 Mr F. Loraine Petre
HONDECOETER HONDURAS
649
estimated the population at 7000. It is about 650 ft. above
sea-level and stands at the entrance to a narrow valley formed
by spurs of the Central Cordillera, through which a picturesque
little stream, called the Guali, flows into the Magdalena. The
town overlooks the rapids of the Magdalena, and is shut in
closely by spurs of the Eastern and Central Cordilleras. The
climate is hot and damp and the temperature frequently rises
to 102 F. in the shade. Honda dates back to the beginning of
the 1 7th century, and has been one of the important centres of
traffic in South America for three hundred years. Within the
city there is an iron bridge across the Guali, and there is a sus-
pension bridge across the Magdalena at the head of the rapids. A
railway 18 m. long connects with the landing place of LaDorada,
or Las Yeguas, where the steamers of the lower Magdalena
discharge and receive their cargoes (the old landing at Carocali
nearer the rapids having been abandoned), and with Arran-
caplumas, i| m. above, where navigation of the upper river
begins. Up to 1908 the greater part of the traffic for Bogota
crossed the river at this point, and was carried on mule-back
over the old camino real, which was at best only a rough bridle-
path over which transportation to Bogota (67 m. distant) was
laborious and highly expensive; now the transshipment is
made to smaller steamboats on the upper river for carriage to
Girardot, 93 m. distant, from which place a railway runs to the
Bogota plateau. Honda was nearly destroyed by an earthquake
in 1808.
HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D* (c. 1636-1695), Dutch
painter, was born at Utrecht, it is said, about 1636, and died
at Amsterdam on the 3rd of April 1695. Old historians say
that, being the grandson of Gillis and son of Gisbert d'Honde-
coeter, as well as nephew of J. B. Weenix, he was brought up
by the last two to the profession of painting. Of Weenix we
know that he married one Josina d'Hondecoeter in 1638.
Melchior was, therefore, related to Weenix, who certainly
influenced his style. As to Gillis and Gisbert some points still
remain obscure, and it is difficult to accept the statement that
they stood towards each other in the relation of father and son,
since both were registered as painters at Utrecht in 1637. Both
it appears had practised art before coming to Utrecht, but where
they resided or what they painted is uncertain. Unhappily
pictures scarcely help us to clear up the mystery. In the Fiirsten-
berg collection at Donaueschingen there is a " Concert of Birds "
dated 1620, and signed with the monogram G. D. H.; and we
may presume that G. D. H. is the man whose " Hen and Chickens
in a Landscape " in the gallery of Rotterdam is inscribed " G. D.
Hondecoeter, 1652 "; but is the first letter of the monogram
to stand for Gillis or Gisbert? In the museums of Dresden and
Cassel landscapes with sportsmen are catalogued under the
name of Gabriel de Heusch (?), one of them dated 1529, and
certified with the monogram G. D. H., challenging attention
by resemblance to a canvas of the same class inscribed G. D.
Hond. in the Berlin Museum. The question here is also whether
G. means Gillis or Gisbert. Obviously there are two artists
to consider, one of whom paints birds, the other landscapes
and sportsmen. Perhaps the first is Gisbert, whose son Melchior
also chose birds as his peculiar subject. Weenix too would
naturally teach his nephew to study the feathered tribe. Melchior,
however, began his career with a different speciality from that
by which he is usually known. Mr de Stuers affirms that he
produced sea-pieces. One of his earliest works is a " Tub with
Fish," dated 1655, in the gallery of Brunswick. But Melchior
soon abandoned fish or fowl. He acquired celebrity as a painter
of birds only, which he represented not exclusively, like Fyt,
as the gamekeeper's perquisite after a day's shooting, or stock
of a poulterer's shop, but as living beings with passions, joys,
fears and quarrels, to which naturalists will tell us that birds
are subject. Without the brilliant tone and high finish of Fyt,
his Dutch rival's birds are full of action; and, as Burger truly
says, Hondecoeter displays the maternity of the hen with as
much tenderness and feeling as Raphael the maternity of
Madonnas. But Fyt was at home in depicting the coat of
deer and dogs as well as plumage. Hondecoeter cultivates a
narrower field, and seldom goes beyond a cock-fight or a display
of mere bird life. Very few of his pictures are dated, though
more are signed. Amongst the former we should note the "Jack-
daw deprived of his Borrowed Plumes " (1671), at the Hague,
of which Earl Cadogan has a variety; or " Game and Poultry "
and " A Spaniel hunting a Partridge " (1672), in the gallery of
Brussels; or " A Park with Poultry " (1686) at the Hermitage of
St Petersburg. Hondecoeter, in great favour with the magnates
of the Netherlands, became a member of the painters' academy
at the Hague in 1659. William III. employed him to paint his
menagerie at Loo, and the picture, now at the Hague museum,
shows that he could at a pinch overcome the difficulty of
representing India's cattle, elephants and gazelles. But he
is better in homelier works, with which he adorned the royal
chateaux of Bensberg and Oranienstein at different periods
of his life (Hague and Amsterdam). In 1688 Hondecoeter took
the freedom of the city of Amsterdam, where he resided till his
death. His earliest works are more conscientious, lighter and
more transparent than his later ones. At all times he is bold
of touch and sure of eye, giving the motion of birds with great
spirit and accuracy. His masterpieces are at the Hague and at
Amsterdam. But there are fine examples in private collections
in England, and in the public galleries of Berlin, Caen, Carlsruhe,
Cassel, Cologne, Copenhagen, Dresden, Dublin, Florence,
Glasgow, Hanover, London, Lyons, Montpellier, Munich, Paris,
Rotterdam, Rouen, St Petersburg, Stuttgart and Vienna.
HONDURAS, a republic of Central America, bounded on the
N. by the Caribbean Sea, F. by Nicaragua, S. by Nicaragua,
the Pacific Ocean and Salvador, and W. by Guatemala. (For
map see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop. (1905) 500,136; area,
about 46,500 sq. m. Honduras is said to owe its name, meaning
in Spanish " depths," to the difficulty experienced by its original
Spanish explorers in finding anchorage off its shores; Cape
Gracias a Dios (Cape " Thanks to God ") is the name bestowed,
for analogous reasons, on its easternmost headland, which
shelters a small harbour, now included in Nicaragua. Modem
navigators are not confronted by the same difficulty; for,
although the north coast is unbroken by any remarkable inlet
except the Carataska Lagoon, a land-locked lake on the east,
with a narrow entrance from the sea, there are many small
bays and estuaries, such as those of Puerto Cortes, Omoa, Ulua,
La Ceiba and Trujillo, which serve as harbours. The broad
basin of the Caribbean Sea, bounded by Honduras, Guatemala
and British Honduras, is known as the bay or gulf of Honduras.
Several islets and the important group of the Bay Islands
(q.v.) belong to the republic. On the Pacific the Hondurian
littoral is short but of great commercial value; for it consists
of a frontage of some 60 m. on the Bay of Fonseca (q.v.), one of
the finest natural harbours in the world. The islands of Tigre,
Sacate Grande and Gueguensi, in the bay, belong to Honduras.
The frontier which separates the republic from Nicaragua
extends across the continent from E.N.E to W.S.W. It is
defined by the river Segovia, Wanks or Coco, for about one-
third of the distance; it then deflects across the watershed on
the east and south of the river Choluteca, crosses the main
Nicaraguan Cordillera (mountain chain) and follows the river
Negro to the Bay of Fonseca. The line of separation from
Salvador is irregularly drawn, first in a northerly and then in
a westerly direction; beginning at the mouth of the river
Goascoran, in the Bay of Fonseca, it ends 12 m. W. of San
Francisco city. At this point begins the Guatemalan frontier,
the largest section of which is delimited along the crests of the
Sierra de Merendon. On the Caribbean seaboard the estuary
of the Motagua forms the boundary between Honduras and
Guatemala.
Physical Features. The general aspect of the country is moun-
tainous; its southern half is traversed by a continuation of the main
Nicaraguan Cordillera. The chain does not, in this republic, approach
within 50 or 60 m. of the Pacific; nor does it throughout maintain
its general character of an unbroken range, but sometimes turns
back on itself, forming interior basins or valleys, within which are
collected the headwaters of the streams that traverse the country in
the direction of the Atlantic Ocean. Nevertheless, viewed from the
650
HONDURAS
Pacific, it presents the appearance of a great natural wall, with many
volcanic peaks towering above it and with a lower range of mountains
intervening between it and the sea. It would almost seem that at
one time the Pacific broke at the foot of the great mountain barrier,
and that the subordinate coast range was subsequently thrust up by
volcanic forces. At one point the main range is interrupted by a
great transverse valley or plain known as the plain of Comayagua,
which has an extreme length of about 40 m., with a width of from
5 to 15 m. From this plain the valley of the river Humuya extends
north to the Atlantic, and the valley of the Goascoran extends south
to the Pacific. These three depressions collectively constitute a
great transverse valley reaching from sea to sea, which was pointed
out soon after the conquest as an appropriate course for inter-
oceanic communication. The mountains of the northern half of
Honduras are not volcanic in character and are inferior in altitude to
those of the south, which sometimes exceed 10,000 ft. The relief of
all the highlands of the Atlantic watershed is extremely varied;
its culminating points are probably in the mountain mass about the
sources of the Choluteca, Sulaco and Roman, and in the Sierra de
Pija, near the coast. Farther eastward the different ranges are less
clearly marked and the surface of the country resembles a plateau
intersected by numerous watercourses.
The rivers of the Atlantic slope of Honduras are numerous and
some of them of large size and navigable. The largest is the Ulua,
with its tributary the Humuya. It rises in the plain of Comayagua
and flows north to the Atlantic ; it drains a wide expanse of territory,
comprehending nearly one-third of the entire state, and probably
discharges a greater amount of water into the sea than any other
river of Central America, the Segovia excepted. It may be navi-
gated by steamers of light draught for the greater part of its course.
The Rio Roman or Aguan is a large stream falling into the Atlantic
near Trujillo, with a total length of about 120 m. Its largest tributary
is the Rio Mangualil, celebrated for its gold washings, and it may be
ascended by boats of light draft for 80 m. Rio Tinto, Negro or
Black River, called also Poyer or Poyas, is a considerable stream,
navigable by small vessels for about 60 m. Some English settle-
ments were made on its banks during the i8th century. The Patuca
rises near the frontier of Nicaragua, and enters the Atlantic east
of the Brus or Brewer lagoon. The Segovia is the longest river
in Central America, rising within 50 m. of the Bay of Fonseca,
and flowing into the Caribbean Sea at Cape Gracias a Dios (see
NICARAGUA). Three considerable rivers flow into the Pacific the
Goascoran, Nacaome and Choluteca, the last named having a length
of about 150 m. The Goascoran, which almost interlocks with
the Humuya, in the plain of Comayagua, has a length of about
80 m. The lake of Yojoa or Taul6be is the only large inland lake in
Honduras, and is about 25 m. in length, by 6 to 8 in breadth. Its
surface is 2050 ft. above the sea. It has two outlets on the south,
the rivers Jaitique and Sacapa, which unite about 15 m. from the
lake; and it is drained on the north by the Rio Blanco, a narrow,
deep stream falling into the Ulua. It has also a feeder on the north,
in the form of a subterranean stream of beautiful clear water, which
here comes to the surface. The Carataska or Caratasca lagoon is a
shallow salt-water lake connected by a narrow channel with the
Atlantic, and near the mouth of the Segovia. It contains several
large sandy islands.
Honduras resembles the neighbouring countries in the general
character of its geological formations, fauna and flora. Here, as in
other Central American states, there ai'e but two seasons, the wet,
from May to November, and the dry, from November to May. On
the moist lowlands of the Atlantic coast the climate is oppressive,
but on the highlands of the interior it is delightful. At Tegucigalpa,
on the uplands, a year's observations showed the maximum tempera-
ture to be 90 F. in May, and the minimum to be 50 F. in December,
the range of variation during the whole year being within 40 F.
See also CENTRAL AMERICA: Geology, Fauna, Flora, Climate.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Honduras are in many
cases of the Indian or aboriginal type, and the European element
is very small, although it shares in the social, political and
economic preponderance of the Spanish-speaking half-castes
(Ladinos or Mestizos), who are the most numerous section of
the population. Throughout the country there are many
interesting relics of the native civilization which was destroyed
by the Spanish invaders in the i6th century. In the eastern
portion of the state, between the Rio Roman, Cape Gracias
a Dios, and the Segovia river, the country is almost exclusively
occupied by native Indian tribes, known under the general
names of Xicaques and Poyas. In many districts the Indians
are known as Lencas, a generic name which includes several
tribes akin to the Mayans of Guatemala. Portions of all of these
tribes have accepted the Roman Catholic religion, and live
in peaceful neighbourhood and good understanding with the
white inhabitants. There are, however, considerable numbers,
probably about QO.OOO in all, who live among the mountains,
and still conform closely to the aboriginal modes of life. They
all cultivate the soil, and are good and industrious labourers.
A small portion of the coast, above Cape Gracias, is occupied
by the Sambos, a mixed race of Indians and negroes, which,
however, is fast disappearing. Spreading along the entire
north coast are the Caribs, a vigorous race, descendants of the
Caribs of St Vincent, one of the Windward Islands. These,
to the number of 5000, were deported in 1796 by the English
and landed on the island of Roatan. They still retain their
native language, although it tends to disappear and be replaced
by Spanish and a bastard dialect of English; they are active,
industrious and provident, forming the chief reliance of the
mahogany cutters on the coast. A portion of them, who have
a mixture of negro blood, are called the Black Caribs. They
profess the Roman Catholic religion, but retain many of their
native rites and superstitions. In the departments of Gracias,
Comayagua and Choluteca are many purely Indian towns.
The aggregate population, according to an official estimate
made in 1905, is 500,136, but a complete and satisfactory
census cannot be taken throughout the country, since the
ignorant masses of the people, and especially the Indians, avoid
a census as in some way connected with military conscription
or taxation. The bulk of the Spanish population exists on the
Pacific slope of the continent, while on the Atlantic declivity
the country is uninhabited or but sparsely occupied by Indian
tribes, of which the number is wholly unknown. In 1905 there
were fewer than n inhabitants per sq. m., but all the available
data tend to show that the population increases rapidly, owing
to the continuous excess of births over deaths. The first census,
taken in 1791, gave the total population as only 95,500. There
is little emigration or immigration.
Chief Towns. The capital is Tegucigalpa (pop. 1905, about
35,000); other important towns are Jutigalpa (18,000), Comaya-
gua (8000), and the seaports of Amapala (4000), Trujillo (4000),
and Puerto Cortes (2500). These are described in separate
articles. The towns of Nacaome, La Esperanza, Choluteca
and Santa Rosa have upwards of 10,000 inhabitants.
Communications. Means of communication are very defective.
In 1905 the only railway in the country was that from Puerto Cortes
to La Pimienta, a distance of 57 m. This is a section of the proposed
inter-oceanic railway for which the external debt of the republic was
incurred. For the completion of the line concessions, one after
another, were granted, and expired or were revoked. Other railways
are projected, including one along the Atlantic coast, an extension
from La Pimienta to La Brea on the Pacific, and a line from Teguci-
galpa to the port of San Lorenzo. The capital is connected with
other towns by fairly well made roads, which, however, are not kept
in good repair. In the interior generally, all travelling and transport
are by mules and ox-carts over roads which defy description.
Honduras joined the Postal Union in 1879. The telegraph service
is conducted by the government and is inefficient. Telephones are
in use in Tegucigalpa and a few of the more important towns.
Commerce and Industry. Although grants of land for mining and
agricultural purposes are readily made by the state to companies
and individual capitalists, the economic development of Honduras
iias been a very slow process, impeded as it has been by political
disturbances and in modern times by national bankruptcy, heavy
import and export duties, and the scarcity of both labour and
capital. The natural wealth of the country is great and consists
especially in its vegetable products. The mahogany and cedar of
Honduras are unsurpassed, but reckless destruction of these and of
other valuable cabinet-woods and dye-woods has much reduced the
supply available for export. Rubber-planting, a comparatively
modern industry, has proved successful, and tends to supplement the
almost exhausted stock of wild rubber. Of still greater importance
are the plantations of bananas, especially in the northern maritime
province of Atlantida, where coco-nuts are also grown. Coffee,
:obacco, sugar, oranges, lemons, maize and beans are produced in all
sarts, rice, cocoa, indigo and wheat over more limited areas. Cattle
and pigs are bred extensively; cattle are exported to Cuba, and
dairy-farming is carried on with success. Sheep-farming is almost an
unknown industry. Turtle and fish are obtained in large quantities
off the Atlantic seaboard. In its mineral resources Honduras ranks
irst among the states of Central America. Silver is worked by a
3ritish company, gold by an American company. Gold-washing
was practised in a primitive manner even before the Spanish conquest,
and in the l8th century immense quantities of gold and silver were
obtained by the Spaniards from mines near Tegucigalpa. Opals,
ilatinum, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, antimony, iron, lignite and
coal have been found, but the causes already enumerated have
HONDURAS
651
prevented the exploitation of any of these minerals on a large scale,
and the total value of the ores exported was only 174,800 in 1904
and 239,426 in 1905. The total value of the exports in a normal
year ranges from about 500,000 to 600,000, and tnat of the imports
from 450,000 to 550,000. Apart from minerals the most valuable
commodity exported is bananas (209,263 in 1905) ; coco-nuts,
timber, hides, deer-skins, feathers, coffee, sarsaparilla and rubber are
items of minor importance. Nearly 90 % of the exports are shipped
to the United States, which also send to Honduras more than half of
its imports. These chiefly consist of cotton goods, hardware and
provisions. The manufacturing industries of Honduras include the
plaiting of straw hats, cigar-making, brick-making and the distilla-
tion of spirits.
Finance. Owing to the greater variety of its products and the
possession of a metallic currency, Honduras is less affected by
fluctuations of exchange than the neighbouring republics, in which
little except paper money circulates. The monetary unit is the silver
peso or dollar of 100 cents, which weighs 25 grammes, -900 fine, and
is worth about is. 8d.; the gold dollar is worth about 43. The
principal coins in circulation are the i-cent copper piece, 5, 10, 20,
25 and 50 cents, and I peso silver pieces, and 1,5, 10 and 20 dollar
gold pieces. The metric system of weights and measures, adopted
officially on the 1st of April 1897, has not supplanted the older
Spanish standards in general use. There is onfy one bank in the
republic, the Banco de Honduras, with its head office at Tegucigalpa.
Its bills are legal tender for all debts due to the state.
In July 1909 the foreign debt of Honduras, with arrears of interest,
amounted to 22,470,510, of which more than 17,000,000 were for
arrears of interest. The principal was borrowed between 1867 and
1870, chiefly for railway construction; but it was mainly devoted to
other purposes and no interest has been paid since 1872. The
republic is thus practically bankrupt. The revenue, derived chiefly
from customs and from the spirit, gunpowder and tobacco monopolies
reached an average of about 265,000 during the five years 1901-
1905; the expenditure in normal years is about 250,000. The
principal spending departments are those of war, finance, public
works and education.
Constitution and Government. The constitution of Honduras,
promulgated in 1839 and frequently amended, was to a great
extent recast in 1880. It was again remodelled in 1894, when
a new charter was proclaimed. This instrument gives the
legislative power to a congress of deputies elected for four
years by popular vote, in the ratio of one member for every
10,000 inhabitants. Congress meets on the ist of January
and sits for sixty consecutive days. The executive is entrusted
to the president, who is nominated and elected for four years
by popular vote, and is re-eligible for a second but not for a third
consecutive term. He is assisted by a council of ministers
representing the departments of the interior, war, finance,
public works, education and justice. For purposes of local
administration the republic is divided into sixteen departments.
The highest judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, which
consists of five popularly elected judges; there are also four
Courts of Appeal, besides subordinate departmental and district
tribunals. The active army consists of about 500 regular soldiers
and 20,000 militia, recruited by conscription from all able-
bodied males between the ages ot twenty and thirty. Service
in the reserve is obligatory for a further period of ten years.
Religion and Education. Roman Catholicism is the creed of a very
large majority of the population ; but the constitution grants com-
plete liberty to all religious communities, and no Church is supported
by public funds or receives any other special privilege. Education is
free, secular and compulsory for children between the ages of seven
and fifteen. There are primary schools in every convenient centre,
but the percentage of illiterates is high, especially among the Indians.
The state maintains a central institute and a university at Teguci-
galpa, a school of jurisprudence at Comayagua, and colleges for
secondary education, with special schools for teachers, in each de-
partment. The annual cost of primary education is about i 1 ,000.
History. It was at Cape Honduras that Columbus first
landed on the American continent in 1502, and took possession
of the country on behalf of Spain. The first settlement was
made in 1524 by order of Hernando Cortes, who had heard
rumours of rich and populous empires in this region, and sent
his lieutenant Christobal de Olid to found a Spanish colony.
Olid endeavoured to establish an independent principality, and,
in order to resume control of the settlers, Cortes was compelled
to undertake the long and arduous march across the mountains
of southern Mexico and Guatemala. In the spring of 1525 he
reached the colony and founded the city which is now Puerto
Cortes. He entrusted the administration to a new governor,
whose successors were to be nominated by the king, and returned
to Mexico in 1526. By 1539, when Honduras was incorporated
in the captaincy-general of Guatemala, the mines of the province
had proved to be the richest as yet discovered in the New World
and several large cities had come into existence. The system
under which Honduras was administered from 1539 to 1821,
when it repudiated the authority of the Spanish crown, the
effects of that system, the part subsequently played by Honduras
in the protracted struggle for Central American unity, and the
invasion by William Walker and his fellow-adventurers (1856-
1860), are fully described under CENTRAL AMERICA.
War and revolution had stunted the economic growth of
the country and retarded every attempt at social or political
reform; its future was mortgaged by the assumption of an
enormous burden of debt in 1869 and 1870. A renewal of war
with Guatemala in 1871, and a revolution three years later
in the interests of the ex-president Medina, brought about
the intervention of the neighbouring states and the provisional
appointment to the presidency of Marco Aurelio Soto, a nominee
of Guatemala. This appointment proved successful and was
confirmed by popular vote in 1877 and 1880, when a new con-
stitution was issued and the seat of government fixed at Teguci-
galpa. Fresh outbreaks of civil war occurred frequently between
1883 and 1903; the republic was bankrupt and progress again
at a standstill. In 1903 Manuel Bonilla, an able, popular and
experienced general, gained the presidency and seemed likely
to repeat the success of Soto in maintaining order. As his term
of office drew to a close, and his re-election appeared certain,
the supporters of rival candidates and some of his own dissatisfied
adherents intrigued to secure the co-operation of Nicaragua
for his overthrow. Bonilla welcomed the opportunity of con-
solidating his own position which a successful war would offer;
Jose Santos Zelaya, the president of Nicaragua, was equally
ambitious; and several alleged violations of territory had
embittered popular feeling on both sides. The United States
and Mexican governments endeavoured to secure a peaceful
settlement without intervention, but failed. At the outbreak
of hostilities in February 1907 the Hondurian forces were com-
manded by Bonilla in person and by General Sotero Barahona
his minister of war. One of their chief subordinates was Lee
Christmas, an adventurer from Memphis, Tennessee, who
had previously been a locomotive-driver. Honduras received
active support from his ally, Salvador, and was favoured by
public opinion throughout Central America. But from the
outset the Nicaraguans proved victorious, largely owing to
their remarkable mobility. Their superior naval force enabled
them to capture Puerto Cortes and La Ceiba, and to threaten
other cities on the Caribbean coast; on land they were aided
by a body of Hondurian rebels, who also established a pro-
visional government. Zelaya captured Tegucigalpa after severe
fighting, and besieged Bonilla in Amapala. Lee Christmas
was killed. The surrender of Amapala on the nth of April
practically ended the war. Bonilla took refuge on board the
United States cruiser " Chicago." A noteworthy feature
of the war was the attitude of the American naval officers, who
landed marines, arranged the surrender of Amapala, and pre-
vented Nicaragua prolonging hostilities. Honduras was now
evacuated by the Nicaraguans and her provisional government
was recognized by Zelaya. Miguel R. Davila was president in
1908 and 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Official documents such as the annual presi-
dential message and the reports of the ministries are published in
Spanish at Tegucigalpa. Other periodical publications which throw
much light on the movement of trade and politics are the British
Foreign Office reports (London, annual), United States consular
reports (Washington, monthly), bulletins of the Bureau of American
Republics (Washington), and reports of the Council of the Corpora-
tion of Foreign Bondholders (London, annual). For a more com-
prehensive account of the country and its history, the works of
K. Sapper, E. G. Squier, A. H. Keane and T. Child, cited under
CENTRAL AMERICA, are important. See also E. Pelletier, Honduras
et ses ports: documents officiels sur le chemin-de-fer interoceanique
(Paris, 1869); E. G. Squier, Honduras: Descriptive, Historical and
Statistical (London, 1870); C. Charles, Honduras (Chicago, 1890);
Handbook of Honduras, published by the Bureau of American
652
HONE, N. HONE
Republics (1802); T. R. Lombard, The New Honduras (New York,
1887); H. Jalhay, La Republique de Honduras (Antwerp, 1898);
Perry, Directorio national de Honduras (New York, 1899); H. G.
Bourgeois, Breve noticia sobre Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1900).
HONE, NATHANIEL (1718-1784), British painter, was the
son of a merchant at Dublin, and without any regular training
acquired in his youth much skill as a portrait-painter. Early
in his career he left Dublin for England and worked first in
various provincial towns, but ultimately settled in London,
where he soon made a considerable reputation. His oil-paintings
were decidedly popular, but he gained his chief success by his
miniatures and enamels, which he executed with masterly
capacity. He became a member of the Incorporated Society
of Artists and afterwards a foundation member of the Royal
Academy; but he had several disagreements with his fellow-
members of that institution, and on one occasion they rejected
two of his pictures, one of which was regarded as a satire on
Reynolds and the other on Angelica Kauffman. Most of his
contributions to the Academy exhibitions were portraits.
The quality of his work varied greatly, but the merit of his
miniatures and enamels entitles him to a place among the ablest
artists of the British school. He executed also a few mezzo-
tint plates of reasonable importance, and some etchings. His
portrait, painted by himself two years before his death, is in
the possession of the Royal Academy.
HONE, WILLIAM (1780-1842), English writer and bookseller,
was born at Bath on the 3rd of June 1780. His father brought
up his children with the sectarian narrowness that so frequently
produces reaction. Hone received no systematic education,
and was taught to read from the Bible only. His father having
removed to London in 1783, he was in 1790 placed in an attorney's
office; After two and a half years spent in the office of a solicitor
at Chatham he returned to London to become clerk to a solicitor
in Gray's Inn. But he disliked the law, and had already acquired
a taste for free-thought and political agitation. . Hone married
in 1800, and started a book and print shop with a circulating
library in Lambeth Walk. He soon removed to St Martin's
Churchyard, where he brought out his first publication, Shaw's
Gardener (1806). It was at this time that he and his friend,
John Bone, tried to realize a plan for the establishment of popular
savings banks, and even had an interview on the subject with
the president of the Board of Trade. This scheme, however,
failed. Bone joined him next in a bookseller's business; but
Hone's habits were not those of a tradesman, and bankruptcy
was the result. He was in 1811 chosen by the booksellers as
auctioneer to the trade, and had an office in Ivy Lane. Independ-
ent investigations carried on by him into the condition of
lunatic asylums led again to business difficulties and failure,
but he took a small lodging in the Old Bailey, keeping himself
and his now large family by contributions to magazines and
reviews. He hired a small shop, or rather box, in Fleet Street
but this was on two separate nights broken into, and valuable
books lent for show were stolen. In 1815 he started the Traveller
newspaper, and endeavoured vainly to exculpate Eliza Penning,
a poor girl, apparently quite guiltless, who was executed on a
charge of poisoning. From February i to October 25, 1817,
he published the Reformer's Register, writing in it as the serious
critic of the state abuses, which he soon after attacked in the
famous political squibs and parodies, illustrated by George
Cruikshank. In April 1817 three ex-officio informations were
filed against him by the attorney-general, Sir William Garrow.
Three separate trials took place in the Guildhall before special
juries on the i8th, igth and 2Oth of December 1817. The first,
for publishing Wilkes's Catechism of a Ministerial Member
(1817), was before Mr Justice Abbot (afterwards Lord Tenterden) ;
the second, for parodying the litany and libelling the prince
regent, and the third, for publishing the Sinecurist's Creed
(1817), a parody on the Athanasian creed, were before Lord
Ellenborough (q.v.). The prosecution took the ground that the
prints were calculated to injure public morals, and to bring the
prayer-book and even religion itself into contempt. But there
can be no doubt that the real motives of the prosecution were
political; Hone had ridiculed the habits and exposed the cor-
ruption of the prince regent and of other persons in power. He
went to the rodl of the matter when he wished the jury " to
understand that, had he been a publisher of ministerial parodies,
he would not then have been defending himself on the floor of
that court." In spite of illness and exhaustion Hone displayed
great courage and ability, speaking on each of the three days
for about seven hours. Although his judges were biassed against
him he was acquitted on each count, and the result was received
with enthusiastic cheers by immense crowds within and without
the court. Soon after the trials a subscription was begun which
enabled Hone to get over the difficulties caused by his prosecution.
Among Hone's most successful political satires were The Political
House that Jack built (1819), The Queen's Matrimonial Ladder
(1820), in favour of Queen Caroline, The Man in the Moon
(1820), The Political Showman (1821), all illustrated by Cruik-
shank. Many of his squibs are directed against a certain " Dr
Slop," a nickname given by him to Dr (afterwards Sir John)
Stoddart, of The Times. In researches for his defence he had
come upon some curious and at that time little trodden literary
ground, and the results were shown by his publication in 1820
of his Apocryphal New Testament, and in 1823 of his Ancient
Mysteries Explained. In 1826 he published the Every-day
Book, in 1827-1828 the Table-Book, and in 1829 the Y. ear-Book ;
all three were collections of curious information on manners,
antiquities and various other subjects. These are the works
by which Hone is best remembered. In preparing them he had
the approval of Southey and the assistance of Charles Lamb,
but pecuniarily they were not successful, and Hone was lodged
in King's Bench prison for debt. Friends, however, again came
to his assistance, and he was established in a coffee-house in
Gracechurch Street; but this, like most of his enterprises, ended
in failure. Hone's attitude of mind had gradually changed to
that of extreme d,evoutness, and during the latter years of his
life he frequently preached in Weigh House Chapel, Eastcheap.
In 1830 he edited Strutt's Sports and Pastimes, and he contri-
buted to the first number of the Penny Magazine. He was also
for some years sub-editor of the Patriot. He died at Tottenham
on the 6th of November 1842.
HONE (in O. Eng. han, cognate with Swed. hen ; the root
appears in Skt. c.ana, QO to sharpen), a variety of finely siliceous
stone employed for whetting or sharpening edge tools, and for
abrading steel and other hard surfaces. Synonyms are hone-
stone, whetstone, oilstone and sharpening stone. Hones are
generally prepared in the form of flat slabs or small pencils or
rods, but some are made with the outline of the special instru-
ment they are designed to sharpen. Their abrading action is
due to the quartz or silica which is always present in predominat-
ing proportion, some kinds consisting of almost pure quartz,
while in others the siliceous element is very intimately mixed
with aluminous or calcareous matter, forming a uniform compact
stone, the extremely fine siliceous particles of which impart a
remarkably keen edge to the instruments for the sharpening
of which they are applied. In some cases the presence of minute
garnets or magnetite assists in the cutting action. Hones
are used either dry, with water, or with oil, and generally the
object to be sharpened is drawn with hand pressure backward
and forward over the surface of the hone; but sometimes the
stone is moved over the cutting edge.
The coarsest type of stone which can be included among hones
is the bat or scythe stone, a porous fine-grained sandstone used
for sharpening scythes and cutters of mowing machines, and for
other like purposes. Next come the ragstones, which consist of
quartzose mica-schist, and give a finer edge than any sandstone.
Under the head of oilstones or hones proper the most famous
and best-known qualities are the German razor hone, the Turkey
oilstone, and the Arkansas stone. The German razor hone,
used, as its name implies, chiefly for razors, is obtained from
the slate mountains near Ratisbon, where it forms a yellow
vein of from i to 18 in. in the blue slate. It is sawn into thin
slabs, and these are cemented to slabs of slate which serve as
a support. Turkey oilstone is a close-grained bluish stone
HONEY
653
containing from 70 to 75% of silica in a state of very fine
division, intimately blended with about 20 to 25% of calcite.
It is obtained only in small pieces, frequently flawed and not
tough, so that the slabs must have a backing of slate or wood.
It is one of the most valuable of all whetstones, abrading the
hardest steel, and possessing sufficient compactness to resist
the pressure required for sharpening gravers. The stone comes
from the interior of Asia Minor, whence it is carried to Smyrna.
Of Arkansas stones there are two varieties, both found in the
same district, Garland and Saline counties, Arkansas, United
States. The finer kind, known as Arkansas hone, is obtained
in small pieces at the Hot Springs, and the second -quality, dis-
tinguished as Washita stone, comes from Washita or Ouachita
river. The hones yield on analysis 98% of silica, with small
proportions of alumina, potash and soda, and mere traces of
iron, lime, magnesia and fluorine. They are white in colour,
extremely hard and keen in grit, and not easily worn down
or broken. Geologically the materials are called novaculites,
and are supposed to be metamorphosed sandstone silt, chert
or limestone resulting from the permeation through the mass of
heated alkaline siliceous waters. The finer kind is employed
for fine cutting instruments, and also for polishing steel pivots
of watch-wheels and similar minute work, the second and coarser
quality being used for common tools. Both varieties are largely
exported from the United States in the form of blocks, slips,
pencils, rods and wheels. Other honestones are obtained in
the United States from New York, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Ohio (Deerlick stone) and Indiana (Hindostan or Orange stone).
Among hones of less importance in general use may be noted
the Charley Forest stone or Whittle Hill honestone a good
substitute for Turkey oilstone; Water of Ayr stone, Scotch
stone, or snake stone, a pale grey carboniferous shale hardened
by igneous action, used for tools and for polishing marble
and copper-plates; Idwal or Welsh oilstone, used for small
articles; and cutlers' greenstone from Snowdon, very hard and
close in texture, used for giving the last edge to lancets.
HONEY (Chin, me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S.
medo, medu, mead; Gr. jueXt, in which 6 or 5 is changed into
X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hunig ; Ger. Honig), 1 a sweet
viscid liquid, obtained by bees (see BEE, Bee-keeping) chiefly
from the nectaries of flowers, i.e. those parts of flowers specially
constructed for the elaboration of honey, and, after transportation
to the hive in the proventriculus or crop of the insects, discharged
by them into the cells prepared for its reception. Whether the
nectar undergoes any alteration within the crop of the bee
is a point on which authors have differed. Some wasps, e.g.
Myrapelra scutdlaris' 1 and the genus Nectarina, collect honey.
A honey-like fluid, which consists of a nearly pure solution of
uncrystallizable sugar having the formula CeHuO? after drying
in vacuo, and which is used by the Mexicans in the preparation
of a beverage, is yielded by certain inactive individuals of
Myrmecocystus mexicanus, Wesmael, the honey-ants or pouched
ants (hormigas mieleras or mochileras) of Mexico. 3 The abdomen
in these insects, owing to the distensibility of the membrane
connecting its segments, becomes converted into a globular
thin-walled sac by the accumulation within it of the nectar
supplied to them by their working comrades (Wesmael, Bull,
de I'Acad. Roy. de Brux. v. 766, 1838). By the Rev. H. C.
M'Cook, who discovered the insect in the Garden of the Gods,
Colorado, the honey-bearers were found hanging by their feet,
in groups of about thirty, to the roofs of special chambers in
their underground nests, their large globular abdomens causing
them to resemble " bunches of small Delaware grapes" (Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, p. 197). A bladder-like formation
on the metathorax of another ant, Crematogaster inflatus (F.
Smith, Cat. of Hymenoptera, pt. vi. pp. 136 and 200, pi. ix. fig. i),
1 The term honey in its various forms is peculiar to the Teutonic
S-oup of languages, and in the Gothic New Testament is wanting, the
reek word being there translated melith.
2 See A. White, in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vii. 315, pi. 4.
8 Wetherill (Chem. Gaz. xi. 72, 1853) calculates that the average
weight of the honey is 8-2 times that of the body of the ant, or 0-3942
grammes.
which has a small circular orifice at each posterior lateral angle,
appears to possess a function similar to that of the abdomen
in the honey-ant.
It is a popular saying that where is the best honey there
also is the best wool; and a pastoral district, since it affords a
greater profusion of flowers, is superior for the production of
honey to one under tillage. 4 Dry warm weather is that most
favourable to the secretion of nectar by flowers. This they pro-
tect from rain by various internal structures, such as papillae,
cushions of hairs and spurs, or by virtue of their position (in
the raspberry, drooping), or the arrangement of their con-
stituent parts. Dr A. W. Bennett (How Flowers are Fertilized,
p. 31, 1873) has remarked that the perfume of flowers is generally
derived from their nectar; the blossoms of some plants, how-
ever, as ivy and holly, though almost scentless, are highly
nectariferous. The exudation of a honey-like or saccharine
fluid, as has frequently been attested, is not a function exclusively
of the flowers in all plants. A sweet material, the manna of
pharmacy, e.g. is produced by the leaves and stems of a species
of ash, Fraxinus Ornus ; and honey-secreting glands are to be
met with on the leaves, petioles, phyllodes, stipules (as in Vicia
saliva), or bracteae (as in the Marcgraviaceac) of a considerable
number of different vegetable forms. The origin of the honey-
yielding properties manifested specially by flowers among the
several parts of plants has been carefully considered by Darwin,
who regards the saccharine matter in nectar as a waste product
of chemical changes in the sap, which, when it happened to be
excreted within the envelopes of flowers, was utilized for the
important object of cross-fertilization, and subsequently was
much increased in quantity, and stored in various ways (see Cross
and Self Fertilization of Plants, pp. 402 sq., 1876). It has been
noted with respect to the nectar of the fuchsia that it is most
abundant when the anthers are about to dehisce, and absent
in the unexpanded flower.
Pettigrew is of opinion that few bees go more than 2 m. from
home in search of honey. The number of blossoms visited in order
to meet the requirements of a single hive of bees must be very great;
for it has been found by A. S. Wilson (" On the Nectar of Flowers,"
Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1878, p. 567) that 125 heads of common red clover,
which is a plant comparatively abundant in nectar, yield but one
gramme (15-432 grains) of sugar; and as each head contains about
60 florets, 7,500,000 distinct flower-tubes must on this estimate be
exhausted for each kilogramme (2-204 Ib) of sugar collected. Among
the richer sources of honey are reckoned the apple, asparagus, asters,
barberry, basswood (Tilia americana), and the European lime or
linden (T. europaea), beans, bonesets (Eupatorium), borage, broom,
buckwheat, catnip, or catmint (Nepeta Cataria), cherry, cleome,
clover, cotton, crocus, currant, dandelion, eucalyptus, figwort
(Scrophularia), furze, golden-rod (Solidago), gooseberry, hawthorn,
heather, hepatica, horehound, hyacinth, lucerne, maple, mignonette,
mint, motherwort (Leonurus), mustard, onion, peach, pear, poplar,
quince, rape, raspberry, sage, silver maple, snapdragon, sour-wood
(Oxydendron arboreum, D.C.), strawberry, sycamore, teasel, thyme,
tulip-tree (more especially rich in pollen), turnip, violet and willows,
and the " honey-dew " of the leaves of the whitethorn (Bonner),
oak, linden, beech and some other trees.
Honey contains dextroglucose and laevoglucose (the former
practically insoluble, the latter soluble in \ pt. of cold strong
alcohol), cane-sugar (according to some), mucilage, water, wax,
essential oil, colouring bodies, a minute quantity of mineral
matter and pollen. By a species of fermentation, the cane-
sugar is said to be gradually transformed into inverted sugar
(laevoglucose with dextroglucose). The pollen, as a source of
nitrogen, is of importance to the bees feeding on the honey.
It may be obtained for examination as a sediment from a mixture
of honey and water. Other substances which have been dis-
covered in honey are mannite (Guibourt), a free acid which
precipitates the salts of silver and of lead, and is soluble in water
and alcohol (Calloux), and an uncrystallizable sugar, nearly
related to inverted sugar (Soubeiran, Compt. Rend, xxviii.
774-775 '849). Brittany honey contains cowiain, a ferment
which determines its active decomposition (Wurtz, Diet, de
Chem. ii. 430). In the honey of Polybia apicipennis, a wasp
* Compare Isa. vii. 15, 22, where curdled milk (A.V. " butter ")
and honey as exclusive articles of diet are indicative of foreign in-
vasion, which turns rich agricultural districts into pasture lands or
uncultivated wastes.
654
HONEY
of tropical America, cane-sugar occurs in crystals of large size
(Karsten, Fogg. Ann., C. 550). Dr J. Campbell Brown (" On
the Composition of Honey," Analyst iii. 267, 1878) is doubtful
as to the presence of cane-sugar in any one of nine samples,
from various sources, examined by him. The following average
percentage numbers are afforded by his analyses: laevulose,
36-45; dextrose, 36-57; mineral matter, -15; water expelled
at 100 C., 18-5, and at a much higher temperature, with loss,
7-81: the wax, pollen and insoluble matter vary from a trace
to 2-1%. The specific gravity of honey is about 1-41.
The rotation of a polarized ray by a solution of 16-26 grammes
of crude honey in 100 c.c. of water is generally from -3-2 to
-5 at 60 F.; in the case of Greek honey it is nearly -5-5.
Almost all pure honey, when exposed for some time to light
and cold, becomes more or less granular in consistency. Any
liquid portion can be readily separated by straining through
linen. Honey sold out of the comb is commonly clarified by
heating and skimmimg; but according to Bonner it is always
best in its natural state. The mel depuratum of British pharmacy
is prepared by heating honey in a water-bath, and straining
through flannel previously moistened with warm water.
The term " virgin-honey " (A.-S., hunigtear) is applied to
the honey of young bees which have never swarmed, or to
that which flows spontaneously from honeycomb with or without
the application of heat. The honey obtained from old hives,
considered inferior to it in quality, is ordinarily darker, thicker
and less pleasant in taste and odour. The yield of honey is less
in proportion to weight in old than in young or virgin combs.
The far-famed honey of Narbonne is white, very granular and
highly aromatic; and still finer honey is that procured from
the Corbieres Mountains, 6 to 9 m. to the south-west. The
honey of Gatinais is usually white, .and is less odorous and
granulates less readily than that of Narbonne. Honey from
white clover has a greenish-white, and that from heather a
rich golden-yellow hue. What is made from honey-dew is dark
in colour, and disagreeable to the palate, and does not candy
like good honey. " We have seen aphide honey from sycamores,"
says F. Cheshire (Pract. Bee-keeping, p. 74), " as deep in tone
as walnut liquor, and where much of it is stored the value of
the whole crop is practically nil." The honey of the stingless
bees (Mcliponia and Trigona) of Brazil varies greatly in quality
according to the species of flowers from which it is collected,
some kinds being black and sour, and others excellent (F. Smith,
Trans. Ent. Soc., 3d ser., i. pt. vi., 1863). That of Apis Peronii,
of India and Timor, is yellow, and of very agreeable flavour
and is more liquid than the British sorts. A. unicolor, a bee
indigenous to Madagascar, and naturalized in Mauritius and
the island of Reunion, furnishes a thick and syrupy, peculiarly
scented green honey, highly esteemed in Western India. A
rose-coloured honey is stated (Card. Chron., 1870, p. 1698)
to have been procured by artificial feeding. The fine aroma
of Maltese honey is due to its collection from orange blossoms.
Narbonne honey being harvested chiefly from Labiate plants,
as rosemary, an imitation of it is sometimes prepared by flavour-
ing ordinary honey with infusion of rosemary flowers.
Adulterations of honey are starch, detectable by the microscope,
and by its blue reaction with iodine, also wheaten flour, gelatin,
chalk, gypsum, pipe-clay, added water, cane-sugar and common
syrup, and the different varieties of manufactured glucose. Honey
sophisticated with glucose containing copperas as an impurity is
turned of an inky colour by liquids containing tannin, as tea. Elm
leaves have been used in America for the flavouring of imitation
honey. Stone jars should be employed in preference to common
earthenware for the storage of honey, which acts upon the lead
glaze of the latter.
Honey is mildly laxative in properties. Some few kinds
are poisonous, as frequently the reddish honey stored by the
Brazilian wasp Nectarina (Polistes, Latr. 1 ) Lecheguana, Shuck.,
the effects of which have been vividly described by Aug. de
Saint-Hilaire, 2 the spring honey of the wild bees of East Nepaul,
said to be rendered noxious by collection from rhododendron
1 Memoires du Museum, xi. 313 (1824).
1 Ib. xii. 293, pi. xii. fig. B (1825). The honey, according to
Lassaigne (ib. ix. 319), is almost entirely soluble in alcohol.
flowers (Hooker, Himalayan Journals, i. 100, ed. 1855,1, and the
honey of Trebizond, which from its source, the blossoms, it is
stated, of Azalea pontica and Rhododendron ponticum (perhaps
to be identified with Pliny's Aegolelhron}, acquires the qualities
of an irritant and intoxicant narcotic, as described by Xenophon
(Anab. iv. 8). Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxi. 45) describes as noxious
a livid-colpured honey found in Persia and Gaetulia. Honey
obtained from Kalmia latifolia, L., the calico bush, mountain
laurel or spoon-wood of the northern United States, and allied
species, is reputed deleterious; also that of the sour- wood is
by some good authorities considered to possess undeniable
griping properties; and G. Bidie (Madras Quart. Journ. Med.
Sci., Oct, 1861, p. 399) mentions urtication, headache, extreme
prostration and nausea, and intense thirst among the symptoms
produced by a small quantity only of a honey from Coorg jungle.
A South African species of Euphorbia, as was experienced
by the missionary Moffat (Miss. Lab. p. 32, 1849), yields a
poisonous honey. The nectar of certain- flowers is asserted to
cause even in bees a fatal kind of vertigo. As a demulcent
and flavouring agent, honey is employed in the oxymel, oxymel
scillae, mel boracis, confer.tio piperis, conf. scammonii and conf.
lerebinthinae of the British Pharmacopoeia. To the ancients
honey was of very great importance as an article of diet, being
almost their only available source of sugar. It was valued
by them also for its medicinal virtues; and in recipes of the
Saxon and later periods it is a common ingredient. 3 Of the
eight kinds of honey mentioned by the great Indian surgical
writer Susruta, four are not described by recent authors, viz.
argha or wild honey, collected by a sort of yellow bee; chhatra,
made by tawny or yellow wasps; audalaka, a bitter and acrid
honey-like substance found in the nest of white ants; and
ddla or unprepared honey occurring on flowers. According to
Hindu medical writers, honey when new is laxative, and when
more than a year old astringent (U. C. Dutt, Mat. Med. of the
Hindus, p. 277, 1877). Ceromel, formed by mixing at a gentle
heat one part by weight of yellow wax with four of clarified
honey, and straining, is used in India and other tropical countries
as a mild stimulant for ulcers in the place of animal fats, which
there rapidly become rancid and unfit for medicinal purposes.
The Koran, in the chapter entitled " The Bee," remarks with
reference to bees and their honey: " There proceedeth from
their bellies a liquor of various colour, wherein is a medicine
for men" (Sale's Koran, chap. xvi.). Pills prepared with
honey as an excipient are said to remain unindurated, however
long they may be kept (Med. Times, 1857, i. 269). Mead, of
yore a favourite beverage in England (vol. iv. p. 264), is made
by fermentation of the liquor obtained by boiling in water
combs from which the honey has been drained. In the pre-
paration of sack-mead, an ounce of hops is added to each gallon
of the liquor, and after the fermentation a small quantity of
brandy. Metheglin, or hydromel, is maufactured by ferment-
ing with yeast a solution of honey flavoured with boiled hops
(see Cooley, Cyclop.). A kind of mead is largely consumed
in Abyssinia (vol. i. p. 64), where it is carried on journeys in
large horns (Stern, Wanderings, p. 317, 1862). In Russia a
drink termed lipez is made from the delicious honey of the
linden. The mulsum of the ancient Romans consisted of honey,
wine and water boiled together. The clarre, or piment, of Chaucer's
time was wine mixed with honey and spices, and strained till
clear; a similar drink was bracket, made with wort of ale instead
of wine. L. Maurial (L'Insectologie Agricole for 1868, p. 206)
reports unfavourably as to the use of honey for the production
of alcohol; he recommends it, however, as superior to sugar
for the thickening of liqueurs, and also as a means of sweetening
imperfectly ripened vintages. It is occasionally employed
for giving strength and flavour to ale. In ancient Egypt it
was .valued as an embalming material; and in the East, for
the preservation of fruit, and the making of cakes, sweetmeats,
* For a list of fifteen treatises concerning honey, dating from 1625
to 1868, see Waring, Bibl. Therap. ii. 559, New Syd. Soc. (1879).
On sundry ancient uses for honey, see Beckmann, Hist, of Invent, i.
287 (1846).
HONEYCOMB HONEY-EATER
655
and other articles of food, it is largely consumed. Grafts, seeds
and birds' eggs, for transmission to great distances, are some-
times packed in honey. In India a mixture of honey and milk
or of equal parts of curds, honey and clarified butter (Sansk.
madhu-parka), is a respectful offering to a guest, or to a bride-
groom on his arrival at the door of the bride's father; anc
one of the purificatory ceremonies of the Hindus (Sansk., madhu-
prdsana) is the placing of a little honey in the mouth of a new-
born male infant. Honey is frequently alluded to by the writers
of antiquity as food for children; it is not to this, however
as already mentioned, that Isa. vii. 15 refers. Cream or fresh
butter together with honey, and with or without bread, is
a favourite dish with the Arabs.
Among the observances at the Fandroana or New Year's
Festival, in Madagascar, is the eating of mingled rice and honey
by the queen and her guests; in the same country honey is
placed in the sacred water of sprinkling used at the blessing
of the children previous to circumcision (Sibree, The Great
African Is. pp. 219, 314, 1880). Honey was frequently em-
ployed in the ancient religious ceremonies of the heathen, but
was forbidden as a sacrifice in the Jewish ritual (Lev. ii. n).
With milk or water it was presented by the Greeks as a libation
to the dead (Odyss. xi. 27; Eurip. Orest. 115). A honey-
cake was the monthly food of the fabled serpent-guardian
of the Acropolis (Herod, viii. 41). By the aborigines of Peru
honey was offered to the sun.
The Hebrew word translated " honey " in the authorized version
of the English Bible is debash, practically synonymous with which
areja'ar orja'aritk kad-debash (i Sam. xix. 25-27; cf. Cant. v. i) and
nopheth (Ps. xix. 10, &c.), rendered " honey-comb." Debash de-
notes bee-honey (as in Deut. xxxii. 13 and Jud. xiv. 8) ; the manna
of trees, by some writers considered to have been the " wild honey "
eaten by John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4); the syrup of dates or the
fruits themselves; and probably in some passages (as Gen. xliii. n
and Ez. xxvii. 17) the syrupy boiled juice of the grape, resembling
thin molasses, in use in Palestine, especially at Hebron, under the
name of dibs (see Kitto, Cyclop., and E. Robinson, Bibl. Res. ii. 81).
Josephus (B.J., iv. 8, 3) speaks highly of a honey produced at Jericho,
consisting of the expressed juice of the fruit of palm trees; and
Herodotus (iv. 194) mentions a similar preparation made by the
Gyzantians in North Africa, where it is still in use. The honey
most esteemed by the ancients was that of Mount Hybla in Sicily,
and of Mount Hymettus in Attica (iii. 59). Mahaffy (Rambles in
Greece, p. 148, 2nd ed., l878)describes the honey of Hymettus as by
no means so good as the produce of other parts of Greece not to
say of the heather hills of Scotland and Ireland. That of Thebes,
and more especially that of Corinth, which is made in the thymy
hills towards Cleonae, he found much better (cf. xi. 88). Honey
and wax, still largely obtained in Corsica (vi. 440), were in olden
times the chief productions of the island. In England, in the
I3th and I4th centuries, honey sold at from about 7d. to is. 2d.
a gallon, and occasionally was disposed of by the swarm or hive, or
ruscha (Rogers, Hist, of Agric. and Prices in Eng., i. 418). At
Wrexham, Denbigh, Wales, two honey fairs are annually held, one
on the Thursday next after the 1st of September, and the other the
more recently instituted and by far the larger on the Thursday
following the first Wednesday in October. In Hungary the amounts
of honey and of wax are in favourable years respectively about
190,000 and 12,000 cwt., and in unfavourable years, as, e.g. 1874,
about 12,000 and 3000 cwt. The hives there in 1870 numbered
6i7>47 (or 40 per loop of the population, against 45 in Austria).
Of these 365,711 were in Hungary Proper, and 91,348 (87 per 1000
persons) in the Military Frontier (Keleti, Ubersicht der Bevolk.
Ungarns, 1871 ; Schwicker, Statistik d. K. Ungarn, 1877). In Poland
the system of bee-keeping introduced by Dolinowski has been found
to afford an average of 40 Ib of honey and wax and two new swarms
per hive, the common peasant's hive yielding, with two swarms,
only 3 .Ib of honey and wax. In forests and places remote from
villages in Podolia and parts of Volhynia, as many as 1000 hives may
be seen in one apiary. In the district of Ostrolenka, in the govern-
ment of Plock, and in the woody region of Polesia, in Lithuania, a
method is practised of rearing bees in excavated trunks of trees
(Stanton, " On the Treatment of Bees in Poland," Technologist, vi.
45, 1866). When, in August, in the loftier valleys of Bormio, Italy,
flowering ceases, the bees in their wooden hives are by means of
spring-carts transported at night to lower regions, where they obtain
from the buckwheat crops the inferior honey which serves them for
winter consumption (Ib. p. 38).
In Palestine, " the land flowing with milk and honey " l (Ex. iii.
17; Numb, xiii. 27), wild bees are very numerous, especially in the
1 In Sanskrit, madhu-kulyd, a stream of honey, is sometimes used
to express an overflowing abundance of good things (Monier Williams,
Sansk.-Eng. Diet., p. 736, 1872).
wilderness of Judaea, and the selling of their produce, obtained from
crevices in rocks, hollows in trees and elsewhere, is with many of
the inhabitants a means of subsistence. Commenting on I Sam.
xiv. 26, J. Roberts (Oriental Illust.) remarks that in the East " the
forests literally flow with honey ; large combs may be seen hanging
en the trees, as you pass along, full of honey." In Galilee, and at
Bethlehem and other places in Palestine, bee-keeping is extensively
carried on. The hives are sun-burnt tubes of mud, about 4 f;. in
length and 8 in. in diameter, and, with the exception of a small
central aperture for the passage of the bees, closed at each end with
mud. These are laid together in long rows, or piled pyramidally,
and are protected from the sun by a covering of mud and of boughs.
The honey is extracted, when the ends have been removed, by means
of an iron hook. (See Tristram, Nat. Hist, of the Bible, pp. 322 sqq.,
2nd ed., 1868). Apiculture in Turkey is in a very rude condition.
The Bali-dagh, or " Honey Mount," in the plain of Troy, is so called
on account of the numerous wild bees tenanting the caves in its
precipitous rocks to the south. In various regions of Africa, as on
the west, near the Gambia, bees abound. Cameron was informed by
his guides that the large quantities of honey at the cliffs by the river
Makanyazi were under the protection of an evil spirit, and not one
of his men could be persuaded to gather any (Across Africa, i. 266).
On the precipitous slopes of the Teesta valley, in India, the procuring
of honey from the pendulous bees'-nests, which are sometimes large
enough to be conspicuous features at a mile's distance, is the only
means by which the idle poor raise their annual rent (Hooker, Him.
Journ. ii. 41).
To reach the large combs of Ap^s dorsata and A. testacea, the
natives of Timor, by whom both the honey and young bees are
esteemed delicacies, ascend the trunks of lofty forest trees by the
use of a loop of creeper. Protected from the myriads of angry insects
by a small torch only, they detach the combs from the under surface
of the branches, and lower them by slender cords to the ground
(Wallace, Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool., vol. xi.). (F. H. B.)
HONEYCOMB, a cloth, so called because of the particular
arrangement of the crossing of the warp and weft threads which
form cells somewhat similar to those of the real honeycomb.
They differ from the latter in that they are rectangular instead
of hexagonal. The bottom of the cell is formed by those threads
and picks which weave " plain," while the ascending sides of
the figure are formed by the gradually increasing length of float
of the warp and weft yarns.
The figure shows two of the commonest designs which are used for
these cloths, design A being what is often termed the " perfect honey-
comb "; in the figure it will
be seen that the highest
number of successive white
squares is seven, while the
corresponding highest num-
ber of successive black
squares is five. Two of
each of these maximum
floats form the top or
highest edges of the cell,
and the number of sue-
cessive like squares decreases as the bottom of the cell is reached
when the floats are one of black and one of white (see middle
of design, &c.). The weave produces a reversible cloth, and it is
extensively used for the embellishment of quilts and other fancy
joods. It is also largely used in the manufacture of cotton and linen
bowels. B is, for certain purposes, a more suitable weave than A,
but both are very largely used for the latter class of goods.
HONEY-EATER, or HONEY-SUCKER, names applied by many
writers in a very loose way to a large number of birds, some of
which, perhaps, have no intimate affinity; here they are used in
a more restricted sense for what, in the opinion of a good many
recent authorities, 2 should really be deemed the family Meli-
phagidae excluding therefrom the Nectariniidae or SUN-BIRDS
'q.v.) as well as the genera Promerops and Zosterops with what-
ever allies they may possess. Even with this restriction, the
extent of the family must be regarded as very indefinite, owing
o the absence of materials sufficient for arriving at a satis-
actory conclusion, though the existence of such a family is
>robably indisputable. Making allowance, then, for the imperfect
ight in which they must at present be viewed, what are here
called Meliphagidae include some of the most characteristic
orms of the ornithology of the great Australian region-
members of the family inhabiting almost every part of it, and a
.ingle species only, Ptilotis limbata, being said to occur outside
ts limits. They all possess, or are supposed to possess, a long
Among them especially A. R. Wallace, Ceogr. Distr. Animals, ii.
275-
B
656
HONEY-GUIDEHONEYMOON
protrusible tongue with a brush-like tip, differing, it is believed,
in structure from that found in any other bird Promerops
perhaps excepted and capable of being formed into a suctorial
tube, by means of which honey is absorbed from the nectary
of flowers, though it would seem that insects attracted by the
honey furnish the chief nourishment of many species, while
others undoubtedly feed to a greater or less extent on fruits.
The Meliphagidae, as now considered, are for the most part
small birds, never exceeding the size of a missel thrush; and
they have been divided into more than 20 genera, containing
above 200 species, of which only a few can here be particularized.
Most of these species have a very confined range, being found
perhaps only on a single island or group of islands in the region,
but there are a few which are more widely distributed such
as Glycyphila rufifrons, the white-throated 1 honey-eater, found
over the greater part of Australia and Tasmania. In plumage
they vary much. Most of the species of Ptilotis are characterized
by a tuft of white, or in others of yellow, feathers springing
from behind the ear. In the greater number of the genus
Myzomela* the males are recognizable by a gorgeous display
of crimson or scarlet, which has caused one species, M. sanguino-
lenta, to be known as the soldier-bird to Australian colonists;
but in others no brilliant colour appears, and those of several
genera have no special ornamentation, while some have a
particularly plain appearance. One of the most curious forms
is Prosthemadera the tui or parson-bird of New Zealand, so
called from the two tufts of white feathers which hang beneath
its chin in great contrast to its dark silky plumage, and suggest
a likeness to the bands worn by ministers of several religious
denominations when officiating. 3 The bell-bird of the same
island, Anthornis melanura whose melody excited the admira-
tion of Cook the morning after he had anchored in Queen
Charlotte's Sound is another member of this family, and
unfortunately seems to be fast becoming extinct. But it would
be impossible here to enter much further into detail, though
the wattle-birds, Anthochaera, of Australia have at least to be
named. Mention, however, must be made of the friar-birds,
Tropidorhynchus, of which nearly a score of species, five of them
belonging to Australia, have been described. With their stout
bills, mostly surmounted by an excrescence, they seem to be
the most abnormal forms of the family, and most of them are
besides remarkable for the baldness of some part at least of their
head. They assemble in troops, sitting on dead trees, with a
loud call, and are very pugnacious, frequently driving away
hawks and crows. A. R. Wallace (Malay Archipelago, ii.
150-153) discovered the curious fact that two species of this
genus T. bourensis and T. subcornutus respectively inhabit-
ing the islands of Bouru and Ceram, were the object of natural
" mimicry " on the part of two species of oriole of the genus
Mimela, M. bourouensis and M. forsteni, inhabiting the same
islands, so as to be on a superficial examination identical in
appearance the honey-eater and the oriole of each island pre-
senting exactly the same tints the black patch of bare skin
round the eyes of the former, for instance, being copied in the
latter by a patch of black feathers, and even the protuberance
on the beak of the Tropidorhynchus being imitated by a similar
enlargement of the beak of the Mimeta. The very reasonable
explanation which Wallace offers is that the pugnacity of the
1 The young of this species has the throat yellow.
2 W. A. Forbes published a careful monograph of this genus in
the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1879, pp. 256-279.
3 This bird, according to Sir Walter Buller (Birds of New Zealand,
p. 88), while uttering its wild notes, indulges in much gesticulation,
which adds to the suggested resemblance. It has great power of
mimicry, and is a favourite cage-bird both with the natives and
colonists. On one occasion, says Buller, he had addressed a large
meeting of Mapries on a matter of considerable political importance,
when " immediately on the conclusion of my speech, and before the
old chief to whom my arguments were chiefly addressed had time to
reply, a tui, whose netted cage hung to a rafter overhead, responded
in a clear, emphatic way, ' Tito!' (false). The circumstance naturally
caused much merriment among my audience, and quite upset the
gravity of the venerable old chief, Nepia Taratoa. ' Friend,' said he,
laughing, ' your arguments are very good; but my mokai is a very
wise bird, and he is not yet convinced!' "
former has led the smaller birds of prey to respect it, and it
is therefore an advantage for the latter, being weaker and less
courageous, to be mistaken for it. (A. N.)
HONEY-GUIDE, a bird so called from its habit of pointing
out to man and to the ratel (Mellivora capensis) the nests of
bees. Stories to this effect have been often told, and may be
found in the narratives of many African travellers, from Bruce
to Livingstone. But Layard says (B. South Africa, p. 242)
that the birds will not infrequently lead any one to a leopard
or a snake, and will follow a dog with vociferations, though its
noisy cry and antics unquestionably have in many cases the
effect signified by its English name. If not its first discoverer,
Sparrman, in 1777, was the first who described and figured this
bird, which he met with in the Cape Colony (Phil. Trans.,
Ixvii. 42-47, pi. i.), giving it the name of Culculus indicator,
its zygodactylous feet with the toes placed in pairs two before
and two behind inducing the belief that it must be referred
to that genus. Vicillot in 1816 elevated it to the rank of a genus,
Indicator; but it was still considered to belong to the family
Cuculidae (its asserted parasitical habits lending force to that
belief) by all systematists except Blyth and Jerdon, until it
was shown by Blanford (Obs. Geol. and Zool. Abyssinia, pp.
308, 309) and Sclater (Ibis, 1870, pp. 176-180) that it was more
allied to the barbets, Capitonidae, and, in consequence, was then
made the type of a distinct family, Indicatoridae. In the mean-
while other species had been discovered, some of them differing
sufficiently to warrant Sundevall's foundation of a second genus,
Prodotiscus, of the group. The honey-guides are small birds,
the largest hardly exceeding a lark in size, and of plain plumage,
with what appears to be a very sparrow-like bill. Bowdler
Sharpe, in a revision of the family published in 1876 (Orn.
Miscellany, i. 192-209), recognizes ten species of the genus
Indicator, to which another was added by Dr Reichenow (Journ.
fiir Ornithologie, 1877, p. no), and two of Prodotiscus. Four
species of the former, including I. sparrmani, which was the
first made known, are found in South Africa, and one of the
latter. The rest inhabit other parts of the same continent,
except /. archipclagicus, which seems to be peculiar to Borneo,
and /. xanthonotus, which occurs on the Himalayas from the
borders of Afghanistan to Bhutan. The interrupted geographical
distribution of this genus is a very curious fact, no species having
been found in the Indian or Malayan peninsula to connect
the outlying forms with those of Africa, which must be regarded
as their metropolis. (A. N.)
HONEY LOCUST, the popular name of a tree, Gleditsia
triacanthos, a member of the natural order Leguminosae, and
a native of the more eastern United States of North America.
It reaches from 75 to 140 ft. in height with a trunk 2 or 3, or
sometimes 5 or 6 ft. in diameter, and slender spreading branches
which form a broad, flattish crown. The branchlets bear numer-
ous simple or three-forked (whence the species-name triacanthos)
sharp stiff spines, 3 to 4 in. long, at first red in colour, then
chestnut brown; they are borne above the leaf -axils and
represent undeveloped branchlets; sometimes they are borne
also on the trunk and main branches. The long-stalked leaves
are 7 to 8 in. long with eight to fourteen pairs of narrowly
oblong leaflets. The flowers, which are of two kinds, are borne
in racemes in the leaf-axils; the staminate flowers in larger
numbers. The brown pods are often 12 to 18 in. long, have
thin, tough walls, and contain a quantity of pulp between the
seeds; they contract spirally when drying. The tree was first
cultivated in Europe towards the end of the I7th century
by Bishop Compton in his garden at Fulham, near London,
and is now extensively planted as an ornamental tree. The
name of the genus commemorates Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch
(1714-1786), a friend of Linnaeus, and the author of one of
the earliest works on scientific forestry.
HONEYMOON, the first month after marriage. Lord Avebury
in his Origin of Civilization suggests that the seclusion usually
associated with this period is a survival of marriage by capture,
and answers to the period during which the husband kept his
wife in retirement, to prevent her from appealing to her relatives
HONEYSUCKLE HONG-KONG
657
for release. Others suggest that as the moon commences to
wane as soon as it is at its full, so does the mutual affection
of the wedded pair, the " honeymoon " (with this derivation)
not necessarily referring to any definite period of time.
HONEYSUCKLE (Mid. Eng., honysode, i.e. any plant from
which honey may be sucked, cf. A.-S. huni-suge, privet; Ger.
Geissblatt; Fr. chewefeuille) , botanical name Lonicera, a genus
of climbing, erect or prostrate shrubs, of the natural order
Caprifoliaceae, so named after the 16th-century German botanist
Adam Lonicer. The British species is L. Peridymenum, the
woodbine; L. Caprifolium and L. Xylosteum are naturalized
in a few counties in the south and east of England. Some of
the garden varieties of the woodbine are very beautiful, and
are held in high esteem for their delicious fragrance, even the
wild plant, with its pale flowers,.compensating for its sickly looks
" with never-cloying odours." The North American sub-
evergreen L. sempervirens, with its fine heads of blossoms,
commonly called the
trumpet honeysuckle,
the most handsome of
all the cultivated honey-
suckles, is a distinct and
beautiful species pro-
ducing both scarlet and
yellow flowered varie-
ties, and the Japanese
L. flexuosa var. aureo-
reticidata is esteemed
for its charmingly varie-
gated leaves netted with
golden yellow. The fly
honeysuckle, L. Xylos-
teum, a hardy shrub of
dwarfish, erect habit,
and L. tatarica, of
similar habit, both
European, are amongst
the oldest English gar-
den shrubs, and bear
axillary flowers of
various colours, occur-
Honeysuckle. (a) Flowering branch ; ring two on a peduncle.
(6) flower, nat. size; (c) fruit, slightly There are numerous
reduced. other species, many of
them introduced to our gardens, and well worth cultivating in
shrubberies or as climbers on walls and bowers, either for their
beauty or the fragrance of their blossoms.
In the western counties of England, and generally by agricul-
turists, the name honeysuckle is applied to the meadow clover,
Trifolium pratense. Another plant of the same family (Legu-
minosae) Hedysarum coronarium, a very handsome hardy
biennial often seen in old-fashioned collections of garden plants,
is commonly called the French honeysuckle. The name is
moreover applied with various affixes to several other totally
different plants. Thus white honeysuckle and false honeysuckle
are names for the North American Azalea viscosa; Australian
or heath honeysuckle is the Australian Banksia serrata, Jamaica
honeysuckle, Passiflora laurifolia, dwarf honeysuckle the widely
spread Cornus suecica, Virgin Mary's honeysuckle the European
Pulmonaria officinalis, while West Indian honeysuckle is Tecoma
capensis, and is also a name applied to Desmodium.
The wood of the fly honeysuckle is extremely hard, and
the clear portions between the joints of the stems, when their
pith has been removed, were stated by Linnaeus to be utilized
in Sweden for making tobacco-pipes. The wood is also employed
to make teeth for rakes; and, like that of L. talarica, it is a
favourite material for walking-sticks.
Honeysuckles (Lonicera) flourish in any ordinary garden soil,
but are usually sadly neglected in regard to pruning. This
should be done about March, cutting out some of the old wood,
and shortening back some of the younger growths of the pre-
ceding year. (J. Ws.)
HONFLEUR, a seaport of north-western France, in the
department of Calvados, 57 m. N.E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906)
8735. The town is situated at the foot of a semicircle of hills,
on the south shore of the Seine estuary, opposite Havre, with
which it communicates by steamboat. Honfleur, with its dark
narrow lanes and old houses, has the typical aspect of an old-
fashioned seaport. The most noteworthy of its buildings is the
church of St Catherine, constructed entirely of timber work,
with the exception of the facade added in the i8th century,
and consisting of two parallel naves, of which the more ancient
is supposed to date from the end of the i $th century. Within
the church are several antique statues and a painting by J.
Jordaens " Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane." The church
tower stands on the other side of a street. St Leonard's dates
from the i7th century, with the exception of its fine ogival
portal and rose-window belonging to the 1 6th, and its octagonal
tower erected in the i8th. The ruins of a 16th-century castle
known as the Lieutenance and several houses of the same period
are also of antiquarian interest. The hotel de ville contains
a library and a museum. On the rising ground above the town
is the chapel of N6tre-Dame-de-Grace, a shrine much resorted
to by pilgrim sailors, which is said to have been founded in 1034.
by Robert the Magnificent of Normandy and rebuilt in 1606.
The town has a tribunal and a chamber of commerce and a
communal college. The port, which is protected from the
west winds by the height known as the Cote de Grace, consists
of the tidal harbour and four floating basins The West basin,
dating from the i7th century, and the Centre, East and Carnot
basins. A reservoir affords the means of sluicing the channel and
supplying the basins. The surface available for vessels is about 27
acres. Numerous fishing and coasting vessels frequent the
harbour. In 1907 there entered 375 vessels, of 133,872 tons,
more than half this tonnage being British. The exports go mainly
to England and include poultry, butter, eggs, cheese, chocolate,
vegetables, fruit, seeds and purple ore. There is regular com-
munication by steamer with Southampton. Timber from
Scandinavia, English coal and artificial manures form the
bulk of the imports. There are important saw-mills, as well
as shipbuilding yards, manufactories of chemical manures and
iron foundries.
Honfleur dates from the nth century and is thus four or
five hundred years older than its rival Havre, by which it was
supplanted during the i8th century. During the Hundred
Years' War it was frequently taken and re-taken, the last occupa-
tion by the English ending in 1440. In 1562 the Protestant
forces got possession of it only after a regular siege of the suburb
of St Leonard; and though Henry IV. effected its capture in
1590 he had again to invest it in 1594 after all the rest of
Normandy had submitted to his arms. In the earlier years of
the 1 7th century Honfleur colonists founded Quebec, and Hon-
fleur traders established factories in Java and Sumatra and a
fishing establishment in Newfoundland.
HONG-KONG (properly HIANG-KIANG, the place of "sweet
lagoons "), an important British island-possession, situated
off the south-east coast of China, opposite the province of
Kwang-tung, on the east side of the estuary of the Si-kiang,
38 m. E. of Macao and 75 S.E. of Canton, between 22 9' and
22 i' N., and 114 5' and 114 18' E. It is one of a small cluster
named by the Portuguese " Ladrones " or Thieves, on account
of the notorious habits of their old inhabitants. Extremely
irregular in outline, it has an area of 29 sq. m., measuring iOj m.
in extreme length from N.E. to S.W., and varying in breadth
from 2 to 5 m. A good military road about 22 m. long encircles
the island. From the mainland it is separated by a narrow
channel, which at Hong-Kong roads, between Victoria, the island
capital, and Kowloon Point, is about i m. broad, and which
narrows at Ly-ee-mun Pass to little over a \ m. The
southern coast in particular is deeply indented; and there
two bold peninsulas, extending for several miles into the sea,
form two capacious natural harbours, namely, Deep Water
Bay, with the village of Stanley to the east, and Tytam Bay,
which has a safe, well-protected entrance showing a depth of
658
HONG-KONG
10 to 16 fathoms. An in-shore island on the west coast, called
Aberdeen, or Taplishan, affords protection to the Shekpywan
or Aberdeen harbour, an inlet provided with a granite graving
dock, the caisson gate of which is 60 ft. wide, and the Hope
dock, opened in 1867, with a length of 425 ft. and a depth of
24 ft. Opposite the same part of the coast, but nearly 2 m.
distant, rises the largest of the surrounding islands, Lamma,
whose conspicuous peak, Mount Stenhouse, attains a height of
1 140 ft. and is a landmark for local navigation. On the northern
shore of Hong-Kong there is a patent slip at East or Matheson
Point, which is serviceable during the north-east monsoon,
when sailing vessels frequently approach Victoria through the
Ly-ee-mun Pass. The ordinary course for such vessels is from
the westward, on which side they are sheltered by Green Island
and Kellett Bank. There is good anchorage throughout the
entire channel separating the island from the mainland, except
in the Ly-ee-mun Pass, where the water is deep; the best
anchorage is in Hong-Kong roads, in front of Victoria, where,
over good holding ground, the depth is 5 to 9 fathoms. The
inner anchorage of Victoria Bay, about m. off shore and
out of the strength of the tide, is 6 to 7 fathoms. Victoria,
the seat of government and of trade, is the chief centre of
population, but a tract on the mainland is covered with public
buildings and villa residences. Practically an outlying suburb
of Victoria, Kowloon or (Nine Dragons) is free from the extreme
heat of the capital, being exposed to the south-west monsoon.
Numerous villas have also been erected along the beautiful
western coast of the island, while Stanley, in the south, is
favoured as a watering-place.
1'he island is mountainous throughout, the low granite ridges,
parted by bleak, tortuous valleys, leaving in some places a
narrow strip of level coast-land, and in others overhanging the
sea in lofty precipices. From the sea, and especially from the
magnificent harbour which faces the capital, the general aspect
of Hong-Kong is one of singular beauty. Inland the prospect
is wild, dreary and monotonous. The hills have a painfully
bare appearance from the want of trees. The streams, which
are plentiful, are traced through the uplands and glens by a
line of straggling brushwood and rank herbage. Nowhere is
the eye relieved by the evidences of cultivation or fertility.
The hills, which are mainly composed of granite, serpentine
and syenite, rise in irregular masses to considerable heights,
the loftiest point, Victoria Peak, reaching an altitude of 1825 ft.
The Peak lies immediately to the south-west of the capital, in
the extreme north-west corner of the island, and is used as a
station for signalling the approach of vessels. Patches of land,
chiefly around the coast, have been laid under rice, sweet
potatoes and yams, but the island is hardly able to raise a
home-supply of vegetables. The mango, lichen, pear and
orange are indigenous, and several fruits and esculents have been
introduced. One of the chief products is building-stone, which
is quarried by the Chinese. The animals are few, comprising
a land tortoise, the armadillo, a species of boa, several poisonous
snakes and some woodcock. The public works suffer from the
ravages of white ants. Water everywhere abounds, and is
supplied to the shipping by means of tanks.
Under the Peking Treaty of 1860 the peninsula of Kowloon
(about 5 m. in area) was added to Hong-Kong. The popula-
tion is about 27,000. There are several docks and ware-
houses, and manufactures are being developed.
territory Granite is quarried in the peninsula. An agreement
was entered into in 1898 whereby China leased to
Great Britain for ninety-nine years the territory behind Kowloon
peninsula up to a line drawn from Mirs Bay to Deep Bay and
the adjoining islands, including Lantao. The new district,
which extends to 376 sq. m. in area, is mountainous, with
extensive cultivated valleys of great fertility, and the coast-
line is deeply indented by bays. The alluvial soil of the valleys
yields two crops of rice in the year. Sugar-cane, indigo, hemp,
peanuts, potatoes of different varieties, yam, taro, beans,
sesamum, pumpkins and vegetables of all kinds are also grown.
The mineral resources are as yet unknown. The population
is estimated at about 100,000. It consists of Puntis (or
Cantonese), Hakkas (" strangers ") and Tankas. The Puntis
are agricultural and inhabit the valleys, and they make excellent
traders. The Hakkas are a hardy and frugal race, belonging
mainly to the hill districts. The Tankas are the boat people
or floating population. In the government of the new territory
the existing organization is as far as possible utilized.
Hong-Kong or Victoria harbour constantly presents an
animated appearance, as many as 240 guns having been fired
as salutes in a single day. Its approaches are strongly
fortified. The steaming distance from Singapore is
1520 m. Victoria, the capital, often spoken of as Hong-Kong
(population over 166,000, of whom about 6000 are European
or American), stretches for about 4 m. along the north coast.
Its breadth varies from \ m. in the central portions to 200
or 300 yds. in the eastern and western portions. The town
is built in three layers. The " Praya " or esplanade, 50 ft.
wide, is given up to shipping. The Praya reclamation scheme
provided for the extension of the land frontage of 250 ft. and
a depth of 20 ft. at all states of the tide. A further extension
of the naval dockyard was begun in 1902, and a new commercial
pier was opened in 1900. The main commercial street runs
inland parallel with the Praya. Beyond the commercial portion,
on each side, lie the Chinese quarters, wherein there is a closely
packed population. In 1888, 1600 people were living in the
space of a single acre, and over 100,000 were believed to be
living within an area not exceeding J m.; and the over-
crowding does not tend to diminish, for in one district, in 1900,
it was estimated that there were at the rate of 640,000 persons
on the sq. m. The average, however, for the whole of
the city is 126 per acre, or 80,640 per sq. m. The second
stratum of the town lies ten minutes' climb up the side of the
island. Government house and other public buildings are in
this quarter. There abound " beautifully laid out gardens,
public and private, and solidly constructed roads, some of them
bordered with bamboos and other delicately-fronded trees,
and fringed with the luxuriant growth of semi-tropical ^egeta-
tion. " Finally, the third layer, known as " the Peak, " and reached
by a cable tramway, is clotted over with private houses and
bungalows, the summer health resort of those who can afford
them; here a new residence for the governor was begun in 1900.
Excellent water is supplied to the town from the Pokfolum
and Tytam reservoirs, the former containing 68 million gallons,
the latter 390 millions.
Climate. The temperature has a yearly range of from 45 to 99,
but it occasionally falls below 40, and ice occurs on the Peak. In
January 1893 ice was found at sea-level. The wet season begins in
May, after showers in March and April, and continues until the
beginning of August. During this period rain falls almost without
intermission. The rainfall varies greatly, but the mean is about
90 in. In 1898 only 57-025 in. fell, while in 1897 there were 100-03
in.; in 1899, 72-7 in. and in 1900, 73-7 in. The damp is extremely
penetrating. During the dry season the climate is healthy, but
dysentery and intermittent fever are not uncommon. Bilious
remittent fever occurs in the summer months, and smallpox prevails
from November to March. The annual death-rate per 1000 for the
whole population in 1902 was 21-70.
Population, &c. The following table shows the increase of
population :
Year.
Europe and
American
Civil.
Chinese Civil.
Total (including
Military and Naval
Establishments and
Indians, &c.).
1881
1891
1901
1906
3.040
4,195
3,86o
12,174
148,850
208,383
274,543
306,130
160,402
221,441
283,978
326,961
Education is provided by a few government schools and by a
large number receiving grants-in-aid. The foundation-stone of Hong-
Kong University was laid in March 1910, the buildings being the gift of
Sir Hormusjee Mody, a colonial broker. The Queen's College provides
secondary education for boys. There are several hospitals, one of
which is a government institution. The Hong-Kong savings bank
has deposits amounting to about $1,100,000. There is a police force
composed of Europeans, Indian Sikhs and Chinese; and a strong
military garrison.
HONITON HONOLULU
6 59
Industries. Beyond the cultivation of vegetable gardens there
is practically no agricultural indusl ry in the colony. But although
only 400 acres are cultivated on Hong- Kong island, and the same
number of acres in Kowloon, there are 90,000 acres under cultiva-
tion in the new territory, of which over 7000 acres were in 1900
planted with sugar-cane. Granite quarries are worked. The chief
industries are sugar-refining, the manufacture of cement, paper,
bamboo and rattan ware, carving in wood and ivory, working in
copper and iron, gold-beating and the production of gold, silver
and sandal-wood ware, furniture making, umbrella and j-nricksha
making, and industries connected with kerosene oil and matches.
The manufacture of cotton has been introduced. Ship and boat
building, together with subsidiary industries, such as rope and sail
making, appear less subject to periods -of depression than other
industries.
Trade. Hong-Kong being a free port, there are no official figures
as to the amount of trade ; but the value of the exports and imports
is estimated as about 50,000,000 in the year. Among the principal
goods dealt with are tea, silk, opium, sugar, flax, salt, earthenware,
oil, amber, cotton and cotton goods, sandal-wood, iyory, betel,
vegetables, live stock and granite. There is an extensive Chinese
passenger trade. The following are the figures of ships cleared and
entered :
Year.
Tonnage.
British.
1880
1890
1898
1902
8,359.994
13,676,293
17,265,780
19,709451
3,758,l6o
6,994.919
8,705,648
8.945,976
The Chinese ships rank next to British ships in the amount of
trade. German and Japanese ships follow next.
Finance. The revenue and expenditure are given below :
Year.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
1880
1890
1898
1902
$1,069,948
1,995,220
2,918,159
4,901,073
$ 948,014
1,915,350
2,841,805
4,752,444
The main sources of revenue are licences, rent of government
property, the post-office and land sales. The light dues were reduced
in 1898 from 2j cents to I cent per ton. There is a public debt
of about 340,000, borrowed for public works, which is being paid
off by a sinking fund. The only legal tender is the Mexican dollar,
and the British and Hong-Kong dollar, or other silver dollars of
equivalent value duly authorized by the governor. There are
small silver and copper coins, which are legal tenders for amounts
not exceeding two dollars and one dollar respectively. There is
also a large paper currency in the form of notes issued by the
Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, the Hong-Kong
and Shanghai Banking Corporation and the National Bank of
China, Limited. The foundation of new law courts was laid in 1900.
Administration. Formerly an integral part of China, the island
of Hong-Kong was first ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and the
cession was confirmed by the treaty of Nanking in 1842, the charter
bearing the date 5th of April 1843. The colony is administered by a
governor, executive council and legislative council. The executive
council consists of the holders of certain offices and of such other
members as the crown may nominate. In 1890 there were nine
members. The legislative council consists of the same officials and
of six unofficial members. Of these, three are appointed by the
governor (of whom one must be, and two at present are, members of
the Chinese community) ; one is elected from the chamber of
commerce, and one from the justices of the peace.
AUTHORITIES. Sir G. W. des Voeux, Report on Blue-book of 1888;
A Handbook to Hong-Kong (Hong-Kong, 1893) ; The China Sea
Directory (vol. iii., 3rd ed., 1894); Henry Norman, The Peoples and
Politics of the Far East (London, 1895); Sir E. Hertslet, Treaties
between Great Britain and China and China and Foreign Powers
(London, 1896); A. R. Colquhoun, China in Transformation
(London, 1898); Colonial Possessions Report, No. 84; and other
Colonial Annual Reports.
HONITON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Honiton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
pleasantly situated on rising ground on the left bank of the Otter,
165 m. E.N.E. of Exeter by the London & South-Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 3271. The town consists of one wide
street, down which a stream of water runs, extending for about
i m., and crossed at right angles by a lesser street. The restored
church of St Michael, formerly a parish church, but standing
on a hill about j m. from the town, was built by Courtenay,
bishop of Exeter, about 1482. It retains a curiously carved
screen, and the black marble tomb of Queen Elizabeth's physician,
Marwood, who attained the age of 105. Allhallows Grammar
School, founded in 1614, was enlarged in 1893; St Margaret's
hospital, founded as a lazar-house in the i4th century, is con-
verted into almshouses. Honiton is famous for its lace industry,
established by refugees from Flanders under Queen Elizabeth.
The delicate fabric made by hand on the pillow was long in
demand; its sale was, however, greatly diminished by the
competition of cheaper machine-made goods, and a school of
lace-making was opened to promote its recovery. The town
possesses breweries, tanneries, malthouses, flour-mills, saw-mills,
brick and tile works, potteries and an iron foundry; its trade in
butter is considerable. It is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councillors. Area, 3134 acres.
Honiton (Honelona, Huneton) is situated on the British
Icknield Street, and was probably the site of an early settlement,
but it does not appear in history before the Domesday Survey,
when it was a considerable manor, held by Drew (Drogo) under
the count of Mortain, who had succeeded Elmer the Saxon,
with a subject population of 33, a flock of 80 sheep, a mill and 2
salt- workers. The borough was founded before 1217 by William
de Vernon, earl of Devon, whose ancestor Richard de Redvers
had received the manor from Henry I. In the i4th century it
passed to the Courtenays, and in 1698 Sir William Courtenay
was confirmed in the right of holding court leet, view of frank-
pledge and the nomination of a portreeve, these privileges
having been surrendered to James II. The borough was repre-
sented by two members in parliament in 1300 and 1311, and then
not again till 1640, from which date it returned two members
until disfranchised by the act of 1868, the returning officer being
the portreeve, who was also the chief magistrate of the borough
until its incorporation by charter of 1846. In 1221 Falkes de
Breaute, then custodian of the borough, rendered a palfrey for
holding a three days' fair at the feast of All Saints, transferred
in 1 247 to the feast of St Margaret, and still held under that grant.
A great market for corn and other produce is still held on Saturday
by prescription. The wool manufacture flourished at Honiton
in the reign of Henry VII., and it is said to have been the first
town at which serges were made, but the industry entirely
declined during the igth century. The lace manufacture was
introduced by Flemish refugees, and was flourishing in the reign
of Charles I.
See Victoria County History, Devonshire; A. Farquharsor, History
of Honiton (Exeter, 1868).
HONNEF, a town and climatic health resort of Germany,
beautifully situated on the right bank of the Rhine, at the foot
of the Siebengebirge, 8 m. above Bonn by the railway Cologne-
Konigswinter-Horchheim. Pop. (1905) 6183. It has an Evan-
gelical and a Roman Catholic church, a sanatorium for con-
sumptives, and does a considerable trade in wine. The town is
surrounded by vineyards and orchards, and has annually a large
number of visitors. A mineral spring called the Drachenquelle
is used both for drinking and bathing.
HONOLULU, a city, port of entry, and the capital of Hawaii,
situated in the " city and county of Honolulu," on the S. coast
of the island of Oahu, at the mouth of Nuuanu Valley, 2100 m.
S.W. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890) 22,907; (1900) 39,306,
of whom 24,746 were males, 14,560 were females; about 10,000
were Hawaiians, 15,000 Asiatics, and 5000 Portuguese;
(1910) 52,183. Honolulu is served by the Oahu railway, by
electric lines to the principal suburbs, and by steamship lines
to San Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, Manila, Salina Cruz
(Mexico), Victoria, Sydney, and Chinese and Japanese ports.
The business section and the older residence quarters occupy
low ground, but many of the newer residences are built on the
sides of neighbouring hills and mountains, of which there are
several from 500 to 2000 ft. in height. The Punch Bowl (behind
the city), a hill rising about 500 ft. above the sea, Diamond Head,
a crater about 760 ft. in height, 4 m. to the S.E., and the Nuuanu
Pali, a lofty and picturesque precipice 6 m. up the valley, are
especially known for their commanding views. In front of the
city is the small harbour, well protected from all winds except
those from the S.; in and after 1892 the Hawaiian government
66o
HONORIUS
deepened its entrance from 21 ft. to 30 ft. Six miles to the W.
is the much more spacious Pearl Harbor (all. S. Naval Station),
the bar at the entrance of which was removed (1903) by the U.S.
government. Pearl Harbor and the harbour of Honolulu are the
only safe ports in the archipelago. The streets of Honolulu are
wide, and are macadamized with crushed or broken lava. The
business houses are mostly of brick or stone, and range from two
to six storeys in height. Aoout most of the residences there are
many tropical trees, flowering shrubs and plants. Wood is
the most common material of which the residences are built;
a large portion of these residences are one-storey cottages;
broad verandahs are common; and of the more pretentious
residences the lanai, a semi-outdoor drawing-room with con-
servatories adjoining, is a notable feature. Throughout the city
there is a marked absence of poverty and squalor. There are
good hotels in the city and its suburbs. The government
buildings are extensive and have a pleasing appearance; that
of the executive, in a beautiful park, was formerly the royal
palace and still contains many relics of royalty. Facing the
judiciary building is an heroic statue in bronze of Kamehameha
the Great. About 2 m. W. of the business centre of the city is the
Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, a fine stone building on a com-
manding site, and containing a large collection of Hawaiian and
Polynesian relics and curios, especially Hawaiian feather-work,
and notable collections of fish and of Hawaiian land shells and
birds. Four miles S.E. of the business centre, at the foot of
Diamond Head, is Waikiki sea-beach, noted for its surf-riding,
boating and bathing, and Kapiolani Park, a pleasure resort, near
which is a famous aquarium of tropical fishes. Honolulu has
other parks, a fine Botanical Garden, created by the Bureau of
Agriculture, several public squares, several hospitals, a maternity
home, the Lunalilo Home for aged Hawaiians, an asylum for the
insane, several schools of high rank both public and private
notably Oahu College on the E. edge of the city, first founded as
a school for the children of missionaries in 1841 ; the Honolulu
High School, founded in 1833 as the Oahu Charity School, to
teach English to the half whites; the Royal School, which was
founded in 1840 for the sons of chiefs; and the Normal School,
housed in what was in 1906 the most expensive building on the
island of Oahu a library containing about 14,000 volumes and
the collections of the Hawaiian Historical Society, a number of
benevolent, literary, social and political societies, and an art
league, and is the see of both an Anglican and a Roman Catholic
bishop. In 1907 the .Pacific Scientific Institution for the
advancement of scientific knowledge of the Pacific, its islands
and their people, was established here. Among the clubs of the
city are the Pacific Club, founded in 1853 as the British Club;
the Scottish Thistle Club (1891), of which Robert Louis Stevenson
was a member; the Hawaii Yacht Club, and the Polo, Country
and University Clubs. There are various journals and periodi-
cals, five languages being represented. The chief industries are
the manufacture of machinery (especially machinery for sugar-
refineries) and carriages, rice-milling and ship-building. Hono-
lulu's total exports for the fiscal year 1908 were valued at
$42,238,455, and its imports at $19,985,724. There is a privately
owned electric street car service in the city. The water-works and
electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the Territorial
government, and to the plentiful water-supply is partly due
the luxuriant vegetation of the city. Honolulu's safe harbour,
discovered in 1794, made it a place of resort for vessels (especially
whalers) and traders from the beginning of the igth century.
Kamehameha I. (the Great) lived here from 1803 until 1811.
In 1816 was built a fort which stood until 1857. In 1820 the
city became the principal residence of the sovereign and soon
afterwards of foreign consuls, and thus practically the seat of
government. In 1907 an act was passed by which the former
county of Oahu, including the island of Oahu and the small
islands adjacent, was made a municipal corporation under the
name of the " city and county of Honolulu "; this act came into
effect on the ist of January 1909.
HONORIUS, the name of four popes and one antipope
(Honorius II.; i.e. 2 below).
1. HONORIUS I., pope from 625 to 638, was of a noble Roman
family, his father Petronius having been consul. He was very
active in carrying on the work of Gregory the Great, especially
in England; Bede (Hist. Ecd. ii. 17) gives a letter of his to King
Edwin of Northumbria, in which he admonishes him diligently
to study Gregory's writings; and it was at Edwin's request
that Honorius conferred the pallium on the bishops of Canterbury
and York (ib. ii. 18). He also admonished the Irish for not
following the custom of the Catholic Church in the celebration
of Easter (ib. ii. 19), and commissioned Birinus to preach
Christianity in Wessex (ib. iii. 7). It is, however, in connexion
with the Monothelite heresy that Honorius is most remembered,
his attitude in this matter having acquired fresh importance
during the controversy raised by the promulgation of the dogma
of papal infallibility in 1870. In his efforts to consolidate the
papal power in Italy, Honorius had been hampered by the
schism of " the three chapters " in Istria and Venetia, a schism
that was ended by the deposition in 628 of the schismatic
patriarch Fortunatus of Aquileia-Grado and the elevation of
a Roman sub-deacon to the patriarchate. It is suggested that
help rendered to him in this matter by the emperor Heraclius,
or by the Greek exarch, may have inclined the pope to take the
emperor's side in the Monothelite controversy, which broke out
shortly afterwards in consequence of the formula proposed by
the emperor with a view to reconciling the Monophysites and
the Catholics. However that may be, he joined the patriarchs
of Constantinople and Alexandria in supporting the doctrine
of " one will " in Christ, and expounded this view forcibly, if
somewhat obscurely, in two letters to the patriarch Sergius
(Epist. 4 and 5 in Migne, Patrologia. Ser. Lat. Ixxx. 470, 474).
For this he was, more than forty years after his death (October
638), anathematized by name along with the Monothelite heretics
by the council of Constantinople (First Trullan) in 681; and this
condemnation was subsequently confirmed by more than one
pope, particularly by Leo II. See Hefele, Die Irrlehre des
Honorius u. die vaticanische Lehre der Unfehl^prkeit (1871),
who, however, modified his view in his Conciliengeschichte (1877).
Honorius I. was succeeded by Severinus.
See the articles by R. Zopffel and G. Kriiger in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie (ed. 1900), and by T. Grisar in Wetzer and Welte's
Kirchenlexikon (Freiburg, 1889). In addition to the bibliographies
there given see also U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist., &c.,
Bio-bibliographic, s. " Honorius I. " (Paris, 1905). (W. A. P.)
2. HONORIUS II. (d. 1072), antipope, was the name taken
by Peter Cadalus, who was born at Verona and became bishop
of Parma in 1046. After the death of Pope Nicholas II. in July
1 06 1 he was chosen pope by some German and Lombard bishops
at Basel in opposition to Alexander II., who had been elected
by the party led by Hildebrand, afterwards Pope Gregory VII.
Taking the name of Honorius II., Cadalus was thus the repre-
sentative of those who were opposed to reforms in the Church.
Early in 1062 he advanced towards Rome, and though his
supporters defeated the forces of his rival outside the city, he
soon returned to Parma to await the decision of the advisers
of the young German king, Henry IV., whose mother Agnes
had supported his election. About this time, however, Agnes
was deprived of her power, and the chief authority in Germany
passed to Anno, archbishop of Cologne, who was hostile to
Cadalus. Under these circumstances the antipope again marched
towards Rome in 1063 and entered the city, but was soon
forced to take refuge in the castle of St Angelo. The ensuing
war between the rival popes lasted for about a year, and then
Cadalus left Rome as a fugitive. Refusing to attend a council
held at Mantua in May 1064, he was deposed, arid he died in
1072, without having abandoned his claim to the papal chair.
See the article on Honorius II. in Hauck's Realencyklopadie,
Band viii. (Leipzig, 1900). (A. W. H.*)
HONORIUS II. (Lamberto Scannabecchi), pope from the
of December 1124 to the i3th of February 1130, a native
of Fagnano near Imola, of considerable learning and great
religious zeal, successively archdeacon at Bologna, cardinal-
priest of Sta Prassede under Urban II., cardinal-bishop of Ostia
and Velletri under Paschal II., shared the exile of Gelasius II.
HONORIUS
661
in France, and helped Calixtus II. to conclude the Concorda
of Worms (1122), which settled the investiture contest. He
owed his election in large measure to force employed by thi
Frangipani, but was consecrated with general consent on thi
aist of December 1124. By means of a close alliance with tha
powerful family, he was enabled to maintain peace at Rome
and the death of Emperor Henry V. (1125) further strengthenet
the papal position. He recognized the Saxon Lothair III. as
king of the Romans and later as emperor, and excommunicatec
his rival, Conrad of Hohenstaufen. He sanctioned the Prae-
monstratensian order and that of the Knights Templars. He
excommunicated Count William of Normandy for marriage
in prohibited degree; brought to an end, through the influence
of Bernard of Clairvaux, the struggle with Louis VI. of France
and arranged with Henry I. for the reception of papal legates
in England. He laid claim as feudal overlord to the Norman
possessions in southern Italy (July 1127), and excommunicatec
the claimant, Duke Roger of Sicily, but was unable to prevent
the foundation of the Neapolitan monarchy, for Duke Roger
defeated the papal army and forced recognition in August
1128. Honorius appealed to Lothair for assistance, but died
before it arrived. His successor was Innocent II.
The chief sources for the life of Honorius II. are his " Epistolae et
Privilegia," in I. P. Migne, Patrol. Lot. vol. 166, and the Vitae of
Cardinals Pandulf and Boso in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman,
vitae, vo\. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); also " Codice diplomatico e bollario di
Onorio II." in Fr. Liverani opere, vol. 4 (Macerata, 1859), and
Jaffe'-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman. (1885-1888).
See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle
Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); H. H.
Milraan, Latin Christianity, vol. 4 (London, 1899); Fr. Liverani,
" Lamberto da Fiagnano " in Opere, vol. 3 (Macerata, 1859); A.
Wagner, Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsltum 1086-
1150 (Breslau, 1885); E. Bernheim, Zur Geschichte des Wormser
Concordats (Gottingen, 1878); Volkmar, " Das Verhaltnis Lothars
III. zur Investiturfrage," in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte,
vol. 26. (C. H. HA.)
4. HONORIUS III. (Cencio Savelli), pope from the i8th of
July 1216 to the i8th of March 1227, a highly-educated and
pious Roman, successively canon of Sta Maria Maggiore, cardinal-
deacon of Sta Lucia in Silice, vice-chancellor, chamberlain
and cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e Paolo, was the successor
of Innocent III. He made peace with Frederick II., in accord-
ance with which the emperor was crowned with his wife Constance
in St Peter's on the 22nd of November 1220, and swore to accord
full liberty to the church and to undertake a crusade. Honorius
was eager to carry out the decrees of the Lateran Council of 1215
against the Albigenses and to further the crusade proclaimed
by his predecessor. He crowned Peter of Courtenay emperor
of Byzantium in April 1217; espoused the cause of the young
Henry III. of England against the barons; accepted the Isle
of Man as a perpetual fief; arbitrated differences between
Philip II. of France and James of Aragon; and made special
ecclesiastical regulations for the Scandinavian countries. He
sanctioned the Dominican order (22nd of November 1216),
making St Dominic papal major-domo in 1218; approved the
Franciscan order by bull of the 2gth of November 1223; and
authorized many of the tertiary orders. He maintained, on
the whole, a tranquil rule at Rome; but Frederick II.'s refusal
to interrupt his reforms in Sicily in order to go on the crusade
gave the pope much trouble. Honorius died in 1227, before
the emperor had fulfilled his oath, and was succeeded by
Gregory IX.
Honorius III. left many writings which have been collected and
published by Abb<5 Horoy in the Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica,
vols. i.-ii. (Paris, 1879-1883). Among them are five books of
decretals, compiled about 1226; a continuation of the Liber Ponti-
ficalis; a life of Gregory VII.; a coronation form; and a large
number of sermons. His most important work is the Liber censuum
Romanae ecclesiae, written in 1192 and containing a record of the
income of the Roman Church and of its relations with secular
authorities. The last named is admirably edited by P. Fabre in
Bibliotheque des ecoles fran^aises d'Athenes et de Rome (Paris, 1892).
The letters of Honorius are in F. Liverani, Spicilegium Liberianum
(1863). There are good Regesta in Latin and Italian, edited by
P. Pressutti (Rome, 1888, &c.).
See J. Clausen, Papst Honorius III. (1895) ' p - T. Masetti 7
Pontefici Onorio III. ed Innocenzo IV. a fronte dell' Imperatore
Federico II. nel secolo XIII. (1884); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the
Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-
1902); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. 5, 2nd ed.;
H. H. Milman, Latin Christianity, vol. 5 (London, 1899); T.
Frantz, Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zu'rZeit
des Hohenstaufen Friedrich II. (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden Das
Papsttum u. Byzanz (Berlin, 1903); M. Tangl, Die papstlichen
Kanzleiordungen von 1200-1500 (Innsbruck, 1894); Caillemer, Le
Pape Honorius III. et le droit civil (Lyons, 1881) ; F. Vernet, Etudes
sur les sermons d' Honorius III. (Lyons, 1888). There is an excellent
article, with exhaustive bibliography, by H. Schulz in Hauck's
Realencyklopddie, 3rd edition. (C. H. HA.)
5. HONORIUS IV. (Jacopo Savelli), pope from the 2nd of
April 1285 to the 3rd of April 1287, a member of a prominent
Roman family and grand-nephew of Honorius III., had studied
at the university of Paris, been made cardinal-deacon of Sta
Maria in Cosmedin, and succeeded Martin IV. Though aged
and so crippled that he could not stand alone he displayed
remarkable energy as pope. He maintained peace in the states
of the Church and friendly relations with Rudolph of Habsburg,
and his policy in the Sicilian question was more liberal than that
of his predecessor. He showed special favours to the mendicant
orders and formally sanctioned the Carmelites and Augustinian
Eremites. He was the first pope to employ the great banking
houses in northern Italy for the collection of papal dues. He
died at Rome and was succeeded by Nicholas IV.
See M. Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France,
new ed., vols. 20-22 (Paris, 1894), for the chief sources; A.
Potthast, Regesta pontif. Roman, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); M. Prou,
" Les registres d'Honorius IV. " in Bibliotheque des ecoles fr anfaise's
d Athenes et de Rome (Paris, 1888) ; B. Pawlicki, Papst Honorius IV.
(Munster, 1896); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902). (C. H. HA.)
HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423), son of Theodosius I.,
ascended the throne as " emperor of the West " in 395. The
history of the first thirteen years of the reign of Honorius is
inseparably connected with the name of Stilicho (q.v.), his
guardian and father-in-law. During this period the revolt of
the African prince Gildo was suppressed (398); Italy was
successfully defended against Alaric, who was defeated at
Pollentia (402) and Verona (403); and the barbarian hordes
under the Goth Radagaisus were destroyed (406). After the
downfall and murder of Stilicho (408), the result of palace
intrigues, the emperor was under the control of incompetent
Favourites. In the same year Rome was besieged, and in 410,
for the second time in its history, taken and sacked by Alaric,'
who for a short time set up the city prefect Attalus as a rival
emperor, but soon deposed him as incapable. Alaric died in
:he same year, and in 412 Honorius concluded peace with his
Drother-in-law and successor, Ataulphus (Adolphus), whc married
the emperor's sister Placidia and removed with his troops to
southern Gaul. A number of usurpers laid claim to the throne,
the most important of whom was Constantine. In 409 Britain
and Armorica declared their independence, which was confirmed
}y Honorius himself, and were thus practically lost to the empire.
Honorius was one of the feeblest emperors who ever occupied
the throne, and the dismemberment of the West was only tempor-
arily averted by the efforts of Stilicho, and, later, of Constantius,
a capable general who overthrew the usurpers and was rewarded
with a share in the government. It was only as a supporter
of the orthodox church and persecutor of the heathen that
Honorius displayed any energy. In 399 the exercise of the
pagan cult was prohibited, and the revenues of the temples,
which were to be appropriated for the use of the public or pulled
down, were confiscated to defray the expenses of the army.
Honorius was equally severe on heretics, such as the Donatists
and Manichaeans. He is also to be credited with the abolition
if the gladiatorial shows in 404 (although there is said to be
vidence of their existence later), a reduction of the taxes,
mprovements in criminal law, and the reorganization of the
'efensores cimlatum, municipal officers whose duty it was to
lefend the rights of the people and set forth their grievances.
Honorius at first established his court at Milan, but, on the
66 2
HONOUR HONOURABLE
report of the invasion of Italy, fled to Ravenna, where he resided
till his death on the 27th of August 423.
See Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chs. 28-33 ; J- B. Bury, Later
Roman Empire, i. chs. 1-5, ii. chs. 4, 6; E. A. Freeman, " Tyrants of
Britain, Gaul and Spain" in Eng. Hist. Review (January 1886);
T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (Oxford, 1892), i. chs. 13, 15-18.
HONOUR (Lat. honos or honor, honoris; in English the
word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until
the 1 7th century, but during the i8th century it became fashion-
able to spell the word "honor"; Johnson's and Webster's
Dictionaries stereotyped the English and American spellings
respectively), a term which may be defined as respect, esteem
or deference paid to, or received by, a person in consideration
of his character, worth or position; also the state or condition
of the person exciting the feeling or expression of such esteem;
particularly a high personal character coupled witfi conduct
in accordance with or controlled by a nice sense of what is right
and true and due to the position so held. Further, the word is
commonly used of the dignities, distinctions or titles, granted
as a mark of such esteem or as a reward for services or merit,
and quite generally of the credit or renown conferred by a
person or thing on the country, town or particular society to
which he or it belongs. The standard of conduct may be laid
down not only by a scrupulous sense of what is due to lofty
personal character but also by the conventional usages of society,
hence it is that debts which cannot be legally enforced, such
as gambling debts, are called " debts of honour." Similarly
in the middle ages and later, courts, known as " courts of honour,"
sat to decide questions such as precedence, disputes as to coat
armour &c. (see CHIVALRY); such courts, chiefly military,
are found in countries where duelling has not fallen into desuetude
(see DUEL). In the British House of Lords, when the peers
sit to try another peer on a criminal charge or at an impeachment,
on the question being put whether the accused be guilty or not,
each peer, rising in his place in turn, lays his right hand on his
breast and returns his verdict " upon my honour." As a title
of address, " his honour " or " your honour " is applied in the
United States of America to all judges, in the United Kingdom
only to county court judges. In university or other examina-
tions, those who have won particular distinction, or have under-
gone with success an examination of a standard higher than
that required for a " pass " degree, are said to have passed
" with honours," or an " honours " examination or to have taken
an " honours degree." In many games of cards the ace, king,
queen and knave of trumps are the " honours. "
Funeral or military honours are paid to a dead officer or
soldier. The usual features of such a burial are as follows:
the coffin is carried on a gun-carriage and attended by troops;
it is covered by the national flag, on which rests the soldier's
head-dress, sword or bayonet; if the deceased had been a
mounted soldier, his charger follows with the boots reversed
in the stirrups; three volleys are fired over the grave after
committal, and " last post " or another call is sounded on
the bugles or a roll on the drums is given.
A military force is said to be accorded " the honours of war "
when, after a specially honourable defence, it has surrendered
its post, and is permitted by the terms of capitulation to march
out with colours flying, bands playing, bayonets fixed, &c.
and retaining possession of the field artillery, horses, arms and
baggage. The force remains free to act as combatants for the
remainder of the war, without waiting for exchange or being
considered as prisoners. Usually some point is named to which
the surrendering troops must be conveyed before recommencing
hostilities; thus, during the Peninsular War, at the Convention
of Cintra 1808, the French army under Junot was conveyed
to France by British transports before being free to rejoin
the combatant troops in the Peninsula. By far the most usual
case of the granting of the " honours of war " is in connexion
with the surrender of a fortress. Of historic examples may be
mentioned the surrender of Lille by Marshal Boufflers to Prince
Eugene in 1708, that of Huningen by General Joseph Bar-
banegre (1772-1830) to the Austrians in 1815, and that of
Belfort by Colonel P. Denfert Rochereau to the Germans in
1871.
In English law the term " honour " is used of a seigniory
of several manors held under one baron or lord paramount. The
formation of such lordships dates back to the Anglo-Saxon
period, when jurisdiction of sac and soc was frequently given
in the case of a group of estates lying close together. The
system was encouraged by the Norman lords, as tending to
strengthen the principles of feudal law, but the legislation
of Henry II., which increased the power of the central ad-
ministration, undoubtedly tended to discourage the creation
of new honours. Frequently, they escheated to the crown,
retaining their corporate existence and their jurisdictions;
they then either remained in the possession of the king or were
regranted, diminished in extent. Although an honour contained
several manors, one court day was held for all, but the various
manors retained their separate organizations, having their
" quasi several and distinct courts."
HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy
of honour), a style or title of honour common to the United
Kingdom, the British colonies and the United States of America.
The terms honorabilis and honorabilitas were in use in the middle
ages rather as a form of politeness than as a stereotyped style;
and though Gibbon assimilates the late Roman title of clarissi-
mus to " honourable," as applied to the lowest of the three grades
of rank in the imperial hierarchy, the analogy was good even in
his day only in so far as both styles were applicable to those who
belonged to the less exalted ranks of the titled classes, for the
title " honourable " was not definite^ confined to certain classes
until later. As a formal address it is found frequently in the
Fasten Letters (isth century), but used loosely and interchange-
able with other styles; thus John, Viscount Beaumont, is
addressed alternately as " my worshipful and reverent Lord "
(ii. 88, ed. 1904) and as " my right honorabull Lord " (ii. 118),
while John Paston, a plain esquire, is " my right honurabyll
maister." More than two centuries later Selden, in his Titles
of Honor (1672), does not include "honourable" among the
courtesy titles given to the children of peers. The style was,
in fact, used extremely loosely till well on into the i8th century.
Thus we find in the registers of Westminster Abbey records of the
burial (in 1710) of " The Hon. George Churchill, Esq.," who was
only a son of Sir Winston Churchill, and of " The Hon. Sir
William Godolphin," who had only been created a baronet;
in 1717 was buried "The Hon. Colonel Henry Cornwall," who
was only an esquire and the son of one; in 1743 a rear-admiral
was buried as " The Hon. Sir John Jennings, Kt."; in 1746
" The Hon. Major-General Lowther," whose father was only a
Dublin merchant; and finally, in 1747, "The Hon. Lieutenant-
General Guest," who is said to have begun life as an hostler.
From this time onwards the style of " honourable " tended to
become more narrowly applied; but the whole matter is full
of obscurity and contradictions. The baronets, for instance,
allege that they were usually styled " the honourable " until
the end of the i8th century, and in 1835 they petitioned for the
style as a prefix to their names. The Heralds' College officially
reported on the petition (3ist of October 1835) that the evidence
did not prove the right of baronets to the style, and that its use
" has been no more warranted by authority than when the same
style has been applied to Field Officers in the Army and others."
They added that " the style of the Honourable is given to the
Judges and to the Barons of the Exchequer with others because by
the Decree of 10 James I., for settling the place and precedence
of the Baronets, the Judges and Barons of the Exchequer were
declared to have place and precedence before the younger sons
of Viscounts and Barons." This seems to make the style a
consequence of the precedence; yet from the examples above
given it is clear that it was applied, e.g. in the case of field
officers, where no question of precedence arose. It is not, indeed,
until 1874 that we have any evidence of an authoritative limita-
tion of the title. In this year the wives of lords of appeal, life
peers, were granted style and precedence as baronesses; but
it was provided that their children were not " to assume or use
HONTHEIM HONTHORST
663
the prefix of Honourable, or to be entitled to the style, rank or
precedence of the children of a Baron." In 1898, however,
this was revoked, and it was ordained " that such children shall
have and enjoy on all occasions the style and title enjoyed by
the children of hereditary Barons together with the rank and
precedence, &c." By these acts of the Crown the prefix of
" honourable " would seem to have been restricted and stereo-
typed as a definite title of honour; yet in legal documents the
sons of peers are still styled merely " esquire," with the addition
of " commonly called, &c." This latter fact points to the time
when the prefix " honourable " was a- mark of deference paid
by others rather than a style assumed by right, and relics of this
doubtless survive in the United Kingdom in the conventions
by which an " honourable " does not use the title on his visiting
card and is not announced as such.
As to the actual use and social significance of the style, the
practice in the United Kingdom differs considerably from that
in the colonies or in the United States. In the United Kingdom
marquesses are "most honourable"; earls, viscounts and
barons "right honourable," a style also borne by all privy
councillors, including the lord mayor of London and lord provost
of Edinburgh during office. The title of " honourable " is in the
United Kingdom, except by special licence of the Crown (e.g. in
the case of retired colonial or Indian officials), mainly confined
to the sons and daughters of peers, and is the common style of
the younger sons of earls and of the children of viscounts,
barons and legal life peers. The eldest sons of dukes, marquesses
and earls bear " by courtesy " their father's second title, the
younger sons of dukes and marquesses having the courtesy
title Lord prefixed to their Christian name; while the daughters
of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled Lady. The title of
" honourable " is also given to all present or past maids of
honour, and to the judges of the high court being lords
justices or lords of appeal (who are " right honourable "). A county
court judge is, however, " his honour." The epithet is also
applied to the House of Commons as a body and to individual
members during debate (" the honourable member for X.").
Certain other corporate bodies have, by tradition or grant, the
right to bear the style; e.g. the Honourable Irish Society,
the Inns of Court (Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, &c.)
and the Honourable Artillery Company ; the East India Company
also had the prefix " honourable." The style may not be
assumed by corporate bodies at will, as was proved in the case
of the Society of Baronets, whose original style of " Honourable "
Society was dropped by command.
In the British colonies the title " honourable " is given to
members of the executive and legislative bodies, to judges, &c.,
during their term of service. It is sometimes retained by royal
licence after a certain number of years' service.
In the United States of America the title is very widespread,
being commonly given to any one who holds or has held any office
of importance in state or nation, more particularly to members
of Congress or of the state legislatures, judges, justices, and
certain other judicial and executive officials. Popular amenity
even sometimes extends the title to holders of quite humble
government appointments, and consoles with it the defeated
candidates for a post. See also the article PRECEDENCE.
HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON (1701-1790), German
historian and theologian, was born on the 27th of January 1701
at Trier. He belonged to a noble family which had been for
many generations connected with the court and diocese of the
archbishop-electors, his father, Kaspar von Hontheim, being
receiver-general of the archdiocese. At the age of twelve young
Hontheim was given by his maternal uncle, Hugo Friedrich
von Anethan, canon of the collegiate church of St Simeon
(which at that time still occupied the Roman Porta Nigra at
Trier), a prebend in his church, and on the i3th of May 1713 he
received the tonsure. He was educated by the Jesuits at Trier
and at the universities of Trier, Louvain and Leiden, taking
his degree of doctor of laws at Trier in 1724. During the follow-
ing years he travelled in various European countries, spending
some time at the German College in Rome; in 1728 he was
ordained priest and, formally admitted to the chapter of St
Simeon in 1732, he became a professor at the university of Trier.
In 1738 he went to Coblenz as official to the archbishop-elector.
In this capacity he had plentiful opportunity of studying the
effect of the interference of the Roman Curia in the internal
affairs of the Empire, notably in the negotiations that preceded
the elections of the emperors Charles VII. and Francis I. in which
Hontheim took part as assistant to the electoral ambassador.
It appears that it was the extreme claims of the papal nuncio on
these occasions and his interference in the affairs of the electoral
college that first suggested to Hontheim that critical examination
of the basis of the papal pretensions, the results of which he
afterwards published to the world under the pseudonym of
" Febronius." In 1747, broken down by overwork, he resigned
his position as official and retired to St Simeon's, of which he was
elected dean in the following year. In May 1 748 he was appointed
by the archbishop-elector Francis George (von Schonborn) as
his suffragan, being consecrated at Mainz, in February 1749,
under the title of bishop of Myriophiri in partibus. The arch-
bishop of Trier was practically a great secular prince, and upon
Hontheim as suffragan and vicar-general fell the whole spiritual
administration of the diocese; this work, in addition to that of
pro-chancellor of the university, he carried on single-handed until
1778, when Jean Marie Cuohot d'Herbain was appointed his
coadjutor. On the 2ist of April 1779 he resigned the deanery
of St Simeon's on the ground of old age. He died on the 2nd of
September 1790 at his chateau at Montquentin near Orval,
an estate which he had purchased. He was buried at first in St
Simeon's; but the church was ruined by the French during the
revolutionary wars and never restored, and in 1803 the body
of Hontheim was transferred to that of St Gervasius.
As a historian Hontheim's reputation rests on his contributions
to the history of Trier. He had, during the period of his activity
as official at Coblenz, found time to collect a vast mass of printed
and MS. material which he afterwards embodied in three works
on the history of Trier. Of these the Historia Trevirensis
diplamatica et pragmatica was published in 3 vols. folio in 1730,
the Prodromus hisloriae Trevirensis in 2 vols. in 1757. They give,
besides a history of Trier and its constitution, a large number
of documents and references to published authorities. A third
work, the Hisloriae scriptorum et monumentarum Trevirensis
amplissima collectio, remains in MS. at the city library of Trier.
These books, the result of an enormous labour in collation and
selection in very unfavourable circumstances, entitle Hontheim
to the fame of a pioneer in modern historical methods. It is,
however, as " Febronius " that Hontheim is best remembered.
The character and effect of his book on " the state of the Church
and the lawful power of the Roman pontiff " is described else-
where (see FEBRONIANISM). The author of the book was known
at Rome almost as soon as it was published; but it was not
till some years afterwards (1778) that he was called on to retract.
The terrors of the spiritual power were reinforced by a threat
of the archbishop-elector to deprive not only him but all his
relations of their offices, and Hontheim, after much wavering
and correspondence, signed a submission which was accepted
at Rome as satisfactory, though he still refused to admit, as
demanded, ul proinde merito monarchicum ecclesiae regimen a
catholicis doctoribus appelletur. The removal of the censure
followed (1781) when Hontheim published at Frankfort what
purported to be a proof that his submission had been made of
his own free will (Justini Febronii acti commentarius in suam
retractationem, &c.). This book, however, which carefully
avoided all the most burning questions, rather tended to show
as indeed his correspondence proves that Hontheim had
not essentially shifted his standpoint. But Rome left him
thenceforth in peace.
See Otto Mejer, Febronius, Weihbischof Johann Nikolaus von
Hontheim und sein Widerruf (Tubingen, 1880), with many original
letters. Of later date is the biography by F. X. Kraus in the Allge-
meine deutsche Biographie (1881), which gives numerous references.
HONTHORST, GERARD VAN (1590-1656), Dutch painter
of Utrecht, was brought up at the school of Bloemart, who
664
HOOCH, P. DE
exchanged the style of the Franckens for that of the pseudo-
Italians at the beginning of the i6th century. Infected thus
early with a mania which came to be very general in Holland,
Honthorst went to Italy, where he copied the naturalism and
eccentricities of Michelangelo da Caravaggio. Home again
about 1614, after acquiring a considerable practice in Rome,
he set up a school at Utrecht which flourished exceedingly;
and he soon became so fashionable that Sir Dudley Carleton,
then English envoy at the Hague, recommended his works to
the earl of Arundel and Lord Dorchester. At the same time
the queen of Bohemia, sister of Charles I. and electress palatine,
being an exile in Holland, gave him her countenance and asked
him to teach her children drawing; and Honthorst, thus ap-
proved and courted, became known to Charles I., who invited
him to England. There he painted several portraits, and a vast
allegory, now at Hampton Court, of Charles and his queen as
Diana and Apollo in the clouds receiving the duke of Buckingham
as Mercury and guardian of the king of Bohemia's children.
Charles I., whose taste was flattered alike by the energy of Rubens
and the elegance of Van Dyck, was thus first captivated by the
fanciful mediocrity of Honthorst, who though a poor executant
had luckily for himself caught, as Lord Arundel said, " much
of the manner of Caravaggio's colouring, then so much esteemed
at Rome." It was his habit to transmute every subject into
a night scene, from the Nativity, for which there was warrant
in the example of Correggio, to the penitence of the Magdalen,
for which there was no warrant at all. But unhappily this
caprice, though " sublime in Allegri and Rembrandt," was but
a phantasm in the hands of Honthorst, whose prosaic pencil
was not capable of more than vulgar utterances, and art gained
little from the repetition of these quaint vagaries. Sandrart
gave the measure of Honthorst's popularity at this period
when he says that he had as many as twenty apprentices at one
time, each of whom paid him a fee of 100 florins a year. In 1623
he was president of his gild at Utrecht. After that he went
to England, returning to settle anew at Utrecht, where he married.
His position amongst artists was acknowledged to be important,
and in 1626 he received a visit from Rubens, whom he painted
as the honest man sought for and found by Diogenes Honthorst.
In his home at Utrecht Honthorst succeeded in preserving
the support of the English monarch, for whom he finished in
1631 a large picture of the king and queen of Bohemia " and all
their children." For Lord Dorchester about the same period
he completed some illustrations of the Odyssey; for the king of
Denmark he composed incidents of Danish history, of which
one example remains in the gallery of Copenhagen. In the
course of a large practice he had painted many likenesses
Charles I. and his queen, the duke of Buckingham, and the king
and queen of Bohemia. He now became court painter to the
princess of Orange, settled (1637) at the Hague, and painted in
succession at the Castle of Ryswick and the House in the Wood.
The time not consumed in producing pictures was devoted to
portraits. Even now his works are very numerous, and amply
represented in English and Continental galleries. His most
attractive pieces are those in which he cultivates the style of
Caravaggio, those, namely, which represent taverns, with players,
singers and eaters. He shows great skill in reproducing scenes
illuminated by a single candle. But he seems to have studied
too much in dark rooms, where the subtleties of flesh colour
are lost in the dusky smoothness and uniform redness of tints
procurable from farthing dips. Of great interest still, though
rather sharp in outline and hard in modelling, are his portraits
of the Duke of Buckingham and Family (Hampton Court),
the King and Queen of Bohemia (Hanover and Combe Abbey),
Mary de Medici (Amsterdam town-hall), 1628, the Stadtholders
and their Wives (Amsterdam and Hague), Charles Louis and
Rupert, Charles I.'s nephews (Louvre, St Petersburg, Combe
Abbey and Willin), and Lord Craven (National Portrait
Gallery). His early form may be judged by a Lute-player
(1614) at the Louvre, the Martyrdom of St John in S. M.
della Scala at Rome, or the Liberation of Peter in the Berlin
Museum; his latest style is that of the House in the Wood
(1648), where he appears to disadvantage by the side of
Jordaens and others.
Honthorst was succeeded by his brother William, born
at Utrecht in 1604, who died, it is said, in 1666. He lived
chiefly in his native place, temporarily 'at Berlin. But he
has left little behind except a portrait at Amsterdam,
and likenesses in the Berlin Museum of William and Mary of
England.
HOOCH, PIETER DE (1620-? 1678), Dutch painter, was
born in 1629, and died in Amsterdam probably shortly after
1677. He was a native of Rotterdam, and wandered early t
Haarlem and the Hague. In 1654 we find him again at Rotter-
dam, where in that year he married a girl of Delft, Jannetje
van der Burch. From 1655 to 1657 he was a member of the
painter's gild of Delft, but after that date we have no traces
of his doings until about 1668, when his presence is recorded
in Amsterdam. His dated pictures prove that he was still
alive in 1677, but his death followed probably soon after this
year. De Hooch is one of the kindliest and most charming
painters of homely subjects that Holland has produced. He
seems to have been born at the same time and taught in the
same school as van der Meer and Maes. All three are disciples
of the school of Rembrandt. Houbraken mentions Nicolas
Berchem as De Hooch's teacher. De Hooch only once painted
a canvas of large size, and that unfortunately perished in a fire
at Rotterdam in 1864. But his small pieces display perfect
finish and dexterity of hand, combined with great power of
discrimination. Though he sometimes paints open-air scenes,
these are not his favourite subjects. He is most at home in
interiors illuminated by different lights, with the radiance of the
day, in different intensities, seen through doors and windows.
He thus brings together the most delicate varieties of tone,
and produces chords that vibrate with harmony. The themes
which he illustrates are thoroughly suited to his purpose. Some-
times he chooses the drawing-room where dames and cavaliers
dance, or dine, or sing; sometimes mostly indeed he prefers
cottages or courtyards, where the housewives tend their children
or superintend the labours of the cook. Satin and gold are as
familiar to him as camlet and fur; and there is no article of
furniture in a Dutch house of the middle class that he does
not paint with pleasure. What distinguishes him most besides
subtle suggestiveness is the serenity of his pictures. One of his
most charming was the canvas formerly in the Ashburton
collection, now burnt, where an old lady with a dish of apples
walks with a child along a street bounded by a high wall,
above which gables and a church steeple are seen, while the
sun radiates joyfully over the whole. Fine in another way is
the " Mug of Beer " in the Amsterdam Museum, an interior
with a woman coming out of a pantry and giving a measure
of beer to a little girl. The light flows in here from a small
closed window; but through the door to the right we look into
a drawing-room, and through the open sash of that room we
see the open air. The three lights are managed with supreme
cunning. Beautiful for its illumination again is the " Music
Party," with its contending indoor and outdoor lights, a gem in
the late A. Thieme collection at Leipzig. More subtly suggestive,
in the museum of Berlin, is the " Mother seated near a Cradle."
" A Card Party," dated 1658, at Buckingham Palace, is a good
example of De Hooch's drawing-room scenes, counterpart as
to date and value of a " Woman and Child " in the National
Gallery, and the " Smoking Party," formerly in Lord Enfield's
collection. Another very fine example is the " Interior " with
two women, bought by Sir Julius Wernher. Other pictures
later in the master's career are the " Lady and Child in a
Courtyard," of 1665, in the National Gallery, and the " Lady
receiving a Letter," of 1670, in the Amsterdam Museum (Van
der Hoop collection).
It is possible to bring together over 250 examples of De Hooch.
There are three at St Petersburg, three in Buckingham Palace, three
in the National Gallery, two in the Wallace Collection, six in the Am-
sterdam Museum, some in the Louvre and at Munich and Darmstadt;
many others are in private galleries in England. For England was
the first country to recognize the merit of De Hooch, who only
HOOD, J. B. HOOD, VISCOUNT
665
began to be valued in Holland in the middle of the i8th century. A
celebrated picture at Amsterdam, sold for 450 florins in 1765, fetched
4000 in 1817, and in 1876 the Berlin Museum gave 5400 for a De
Hooch at the Schneider sale "A Dutch Dwelling-room" (820 B).
See Hofstede de Groot's Catalogue raisonne, vol. i., London, 1907.
HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831-1879), American soldier, lieut.-
general of the Confederate army, was born at Owingsville,
Kentucky, in 1831, and graduated from West Point military
academy in 1853. As an officer of the and U.S. cavalry (Colonel
Sidney Johnston) he saw service against Indians, and later he
was cavalry instructor at West Point. He resigned from the
U.S. service in 1861, and became a colonel in the Confederate
army. He was soon promoted brigadier-general, and at the
battle of Gaines's Mill, where he was wounded, won the
brevet of major-general for his gallant conduct. With the
famous " Texas brigade " of the Army of Northern Virginia
he served throughout the campaign of 1862. At Gettysburg
he commanded one of the divisions of Longstreet's corps,
receiving a wound which disabled his arm. With Longstreet
he was transferred in the autumn of 1863 to the Army of
Tennessee. At the battle of Chickamauga (September igth,
zoth) Hood was severely wounded again and his leg was ampu-
tated, but after six months he returned to duty undaunted.
He remained with the Army of Tennessee as a corps commander,
and when the general dissatisfaction with the Fabian policy of
General J. E. Johnston brought about the removal of that officer,
Hood was put in his place with the temporary rank of general.
He had won a great reputation as a fighting general, and it was
with the distinct understanding that battles were to be fought
that he was placed at the head of the Army of Tennessee. But
in spite of skill and courage he was uniformly unsuccessful in
the battles around Atlanta. In the end he had to abandon the
place, but he forthwith sought to attack Sherman in another
direction, and finally invaded Tennessee. His march was pushed
with the greatest energy, but he failed to draw the main body
of the enemy after him, and, while Sherman with a picked force
made his " March to the Sea," Thomas collected an army to
oppose Hood. A severe battle was fought at Franklin on the
3oth of November, and finally Hood was defeated and his army
almost annihilated in the battle of Nashville. He was then
relieved at his own request (January 23rd, 1865). After the war
he was engaged in business in New Orleans, where he died of
yellow fever on the 3oth of August 1879. His experiences in
the Civil War are narrated in his Advance and Retreat (New
Orleans, 1880). Hood's reputation as a bold and energetic
leader was well deserved, though his reckless vigour proved
but a poor substitute for Johnston's careful husbanding of his
strength at this declining stage of the Confederacy.
HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724-1816), British
admiral, was the son of Samuel Hood, vicar of Butleigh in
Somerset, and prebendary of Wells. He was born on the i2th
of December 1724, and entered the navy on the 6th of May
1741. He served part of his time as midshipman with Rodney
in the " Ludlow," and became lieutenant in 1746. He was
fortunate in serving under active officers, and had opportunities
of seeing service in the North Sea. In 1753 he was made com-
mander of the " Jamaica " sloop, and served in her on the
North American station. In 1756, while still on the North
American station, he attained to post rank. In 1757, while in
temporary command of the " Antelope " (50), he drove a French
ship ashore in Audierne Bay, and captured two privateers.
His zeal attracted the favourable notice of the Admiralty and
he was appointed to a ship of his own. In 1759, when captain
of the "Vestal" (32), he captured the French " Bellona "
(32) after a sharp action. During the war his services were wholly
in the Channel, and he was engaged under Rodney in 1759
in destroying the vessels collected by the French to serve as
transports in the proposed invasion of England. In 1778 he
accepted a command which in the ordinary course would have
terminated his active career. He became commissioner of the
dockyard at Portsmouth and governor of the Naval Academy.
These posts were generally given to officers who were retiring
from the sea. In 1780, on the occasion of the king's visit to
Portsmouth, he was made a baronet. The circumstances of
the time were not ordinary. Many admirals declined to serve
under Lord Sandwich, and Rodney, who then commanded
in the West Indies, had complained of want of proper support
from his subordinates, whom he accused of disaffection. The
Admiralty was naturally anxious to secure the services of
trustworthy flag officers, and having confidence in Hood pro-
moted him rear-admiral out of the usual course on the 26th of
September 1780, and sent him to the West Indies to act as
second in command under Rodney, to whom he was personally
known. He joined Rodney in January 1781, and remained
in the West Indies or on the coast of North America till the
close of the War of American Independence. The calculation
that he would work harmoniously with Rodney was not altogether
justified by the results. The correspondence of the two shows
that they were far from being on cordial personal terms with
one another, but Hood always discharged his duty punctually,
and his capacity was so great, and so signally proved, that no
question of removing him from the station ever arose. The
unfortunate turn taken by the campaign of 1781 was largely
due to Rodney's neglect of his advice. If he had been allowed
to choose his own position there can be no doubt that he could
have prevented the comte de Grasse (1722-1788) from reaching
Fort Royal with the reinforcements from France in April (see
RODNEY, LORD). When the fleet went on to the coast of North
America during the hurricane months of 1781 he was sent to
serve with Admiral Graves (i725?-i8o2) in the unsuccessful
effort to relieve the army at Yorktown. But his subordinate
rank gave him no chance to impart a greater measure of energy
to the naval operations. When, however, he returned to the
West Indies he was for a time in independent command owing
to Rodney's absence in England for the sake of his health. The
French admiral, the comte de Grasse, attacked the British islands
of St Kitts and Nevis with a much superior force to the squadron
under Hood's command. The attempt Hood made in January
1782 to save them from capture, with 22 ships to 29, was not
successful, but the series of bold movements by which he first
turned the French out of their anchorage at the Basse Terre
of St Kitts, and then beat off the attacks of the enemy, were
the most brilliant things done by any British admiral during the
war. He was made an Irish peer for his share in the defeat of
the comte de Grasse on the 9th and i2th of April near Dominica.
During the peace he entered parliament as member for West-
minster in the fiercely contested election of 1784, was promoted
vice-admiral in 1787, and in July of 1788 was appointed to
the Board of Admiralty under the second earl of Chatham. On
the outbreak of the revolutionary war he was sent to the Medi-
terranean as commander-in-chief. His period of command,
which lasted from May 1793 to October 1794, was very busy.
In August he occupied Toulon on the invitation of the French
royalists, and in co-operation with the Spaniards. In December
of the same year the allies, who did not work harmoniously
together, were driven out, mainly by the generalship of Napoleon.
Hood now turned to the occupation of Corsica, which he had
been invited to take in the name of the king of England by
Paoli. The island was for a short time added to the dominions
of George III., chiefly by the exertions of the fleet and the
co-operation of Paoli. While the occupation of Corsica was being
effected, the French at Toulon had so far recovered that they
were able to send a fleet to sea. In June Hood sailed in the
hope of bringing it to action. The plan which he laid to attack
it in the Golfe Jouan in June may possibly have served to some
extent as an inspiration, if not as a model, to Nelson for the
battle of the Nile, but the wind was unfavourable, and the attack
could not be carried out. In October he was recalled to England
in consequence of some misunderstanding with the admiralty,
or the ministry, which has never been explained. He had
attained the rank of full admiral in April of 1794. He held no
further command at sea, but in 1796 he was named governor
of Greenwich Hospital, a post which he held till his death
on the 27th of January 1816. A peerage of Great Britain was
conferred on his wife as Baroness Hood of Catherington in
666
HOOD, SIR S. HOOD, THOMAS
1795, and he was himself created Viscount Hood of Whitley in
1796. The titles descended to his son, Henry (1753-1836),
the ancestor of the present Viscount Hood. There are several
portraits of Lord Hood by Abbot in the Guildhall and in the
National Portrait Gallery. He was also painted by Reynolds
and Gainsborough.
There is no good life of Lord Hood, but a biographical notice of him
by M'Arthur, his secretary during the Mediterranean command, is in
the Naval Chronicle, vol. ii. Charnock's Biogr. Nav. vi., Ralfe, Nav.
Biog. i., may also be consulted. His correspondence during his
command in America has been published by the Navy Record
Society. The history of his campaigns will be found in the historians
of the wars in which he served: for the earlier years, Beatson's
Naval and Military Memoirs; for the later, James's Naval History,
vol. i., for the English side, and for the French, Troudes, Batailles
navales de la France, ii. and iii., and Chevalier's Histoire de la marine
fran$aise pendant la guerre de I' independence americaine and Pendant
la Republique. (D. H.)
HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814), British vice-admiral,
cousin of Lord Hood and of Lord Bridport, entered the Royal
Navy in 1776. His first engagement was the battle off Ushant
in 1778, and, soon afterwards transferred to the West Indies,
he was present, under the command of his cousin Sir Samuel
Hood, at all the actions which culminated in Rodney's victory
of April 1 2th, 1782. After the peace, like many other British
naval officers, he spent some time in France, and on his return
to England was given the command of a sloop, from which he
proceeded in succession to various frigates. In the " Juno "
his gallant rescue of some shipwrecked seamen won him a
vote of thanks and a sword of honour from the Jamaica assembly.
Early in 1793 the " Juno " went to the Mediterranean under
Lord Hood, and her captain distinguished himself by an audacious
feat of coolness and seamanship in extricating his vessel from
the harbour of Toulon, which he had entered in ignorance of
Lord Hood's withdrawal. Soon afterwards he was put in com-
mand of a frigate squadron for the protection of Levantine
commerce, and in 1797 he was given the " Zealous " (74), in which
he was present at Nelson's unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz.
It was Captain Hood who conducted the negotiations which
relieved the squadron from the consequences of its failure.
The part played by the " Zealous " at the battle of the Nile
was brilliant. Her first opponent she put out of action in twelve
minutes, and, passing on, Hood immediately engaged other
ships, the " Guerrier " being left powerless to fire a shot. When
Nelson left the coast of Egypt, Hood commanded the blockading
force off Alexandria and Rosetta. Later he rejoined Nelson
on the coast of the two Sicilies, receiving for his services the
order of St Ferdinand.
In the " Venerable " Hood was present at the action of
Algesiras and the battle in the Straits of Gibraltar (1801). In
the Straits his ship suffered heavily, losing 130 officers and men.
A year later Captain Hood was employed in Trinidad as a com-
missioner, and, upon the death of the flag officer commanding
the Leeward station, he succeeded him as Commodore. Island
after island fell to him, and soon, outside Martinique, the French
had scarcely a foothold in the West Indies. Amongst other
measures taken by Hood may be mentioned the garrisoning
of Diamond Rock, which he commissioned as a sloop-of-war
to blockade the approaches of Martinique (see James, Naval
History, iii. 245). For these successes he received, amongst
other rewards, the K.B. In command next of the squadron
blockading Rochefort, Sir Samuel Hood had a sharp fight, on
25th September 1805, with a small French squadron which was
trying to escape. Amongst the few casualties on this occasion
was the Commodore, who lost an arm. Promoted rear-admiral
a few days after this action, Hood was in 1807 entrusted with the
operations against Madeira, which he brought to a successful
conclusion, and a year later went to the Baltic, with his flag
in the " Centaur," to take part in the war between Russia and
Sweden. In one of the actions of this war the " Centaur "
and " Implacable," unsupported by the Swedish ships (which
lay to leeward), cut out the Russian 8o-gun ship " Sevolod "
from the enemy's line and, after a desperate fight, forced her
to strike. The king of Sweden rewarded the admiral with the
Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword. Present in the roads of
Corunna at the re-embarkation of the army of Sir John Moore,
Hood thence returned to the Mediterranean, where for two
years he commanded a division of the British fleet. In 1811
he became vice-admiral. In his last command, that of the
East Indies station, he carried out many salutary reforms,
especially in matters of discipline and victualling. He died
at Madras, 24th December 1814. A lofty column was raised
to his memory on a hill near Butleigh, Somersetshire, and in
Butleigh Church is another memorial, with an inscription
written by Southey.
See Naval Chronicle, xvii. I (the material was furnished by Hood
himself; it docs not go beyond 1806).
His elder brother, Captain ALEXANDER HOOD (1758-1798),
entered the Royal Navy in 1767, and accompanied Captain
Cook in his second voyage round the world. Under Howe and
Rodney he distinguished himself in the West Indies, and at the
victory of April i2th, 1782, he was in command of one of Rodney's
frigates. Under Sir Samuel Hood he then proceeded to the
Mona passage, where he captured the French corvette " Ceres."
With the commander of his prize, the Baron de Percy, Hood
became very intimate, and during the peace he paid a long
visit to France as his late prisoner's guest. In the early part of
the Revolutionary war, ill health kept him at home, and it was
not until 1797 that he went afloat again. His first experience
was bitter; his ship, the " Mars," was unenviably prominent
in the mutiny at Spithead. On April 2ist, 1798, occurred the
famous duel of the " Mars " with the " Hercule," fought in
the dusk near the Bee du Raz. The two ships were of equal force,
but the " Hercule " was newly commissioned, and after over
an hour's fighting at close quarters she struck her flag, having
lost over three hundred" men. The captain of the " Mars "
was mortally wounded early in the fight, and died as the sword
of the French captain was being put in his hand. The latter,
L'Heritier, also died of his wounds.
See Naval Chronicle, vi. 175; Ralfe, Naval Biographies, iv. 48;
James, Naval History, and Chevalier, Hist, de la marine frangaise
sous la premiere republique.
HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845), British humorist and poet,
the son of Thomas Hood, bookseller, was born in London on
the 23rd of May 1799. " Next to being a citizen of the world,"
writes Thomas Hood in his Literary Reminiscences, " it must
be the best thing to be born a citizen of the world's greatest
city." On the death of her husband in 1811 Mrs Hood removed
to Islington, where Thomas Hood had a schoolmaster who
appreciated his talents, and, as he says, " made him feel it im-
possible not to take an interest in learning while he seemed so
interested in teaching." Under the care of this " decayed
dominie," whom he has so affectionately recorded, he earned a
few guineas his first literary fee by revising for the press a
new edition of Paul and Virginia. Admitted soon after into
the counting-house of a friend of his family, he " turned his
stool into a Pegasus on three legs, every foot, of course, being
a dactyl or a spondee "; but the uncongenial profession affected
his health, which was never strong, and he was transferred to
the care of his father's relations at Dundee. There he led a
healthy outdoor life, and also became a large and indiscriminate
reader, and before long contributed humorous and poetical
articles to the provincial newspapers and magazines. As a proof
of the seriousness with which he regarded the literary vocation,
it may be mentioned that he used to write out his poems in printed
characters, believing that that process best enabled him to under-
stand his own peculiarities and faults, and probably unconscious
that Coleridge had recommended some such method of criticism
when he said he thought " print settles it." On his return to
London in 1818 he applied himself assiduously to the art of
engraving, in which he acquired a skill that in after years became
a most valuable assistant to his literary labours, and enabled
him to illustrate his various humours and fancies by a pro-
fusion of quaint devices, which not only repeated to the eye
the impressions of the text, but, by suggesting amusing analogies
and contrasts, added considerably to the sense and effect of
the work.
HOOD, TOM
667
In 1821 Mr John Scott, the editor of the London Magazine,
was killed in a duel, and that periodical passed into the hands
of some friends of Hood, who proposed to make him sub-editor.
His installation into this congenial post at once introduced him
to the best literary society of the time; and in becoming the
associate of Charles I.amb, Carv, de Quincey, Allan Cunningham,
Proctor, Talfourd, Hartley Coleridge, the peasant-poet Clare
and other contributors to the magazine, he gradually developed
his own intellectual powers, and enjoyed that happy intercourse
with superior minds for which his cordial and genial character
was so well adapted, and which he has described in his best
manner in several chapters of Hood's Own. He had married
in 1825, and Odes and Addresses his first work was written
in conjunction with his brother-in-law Mr J. H. Reynolds, the
friend of Keats. S. T. Coleridge wrote to Charles Lamb averring
that the book must be his work. The Plea of the Midsummer
Fairies (1827) and a dramatic romance, Lamia, published
later, belong to this time. The Plea df the Midsummer Fairies
was a volume of serious verse, in which Hood showed himself
a by no means despicable follower of Keats. But he was known
as a humorist, and the public, which had learned to expect
jokes from him, rejected this little book almost entirely. There
was much true poetry in the verse, and much sound sense and
keen observation in the prose of these works; but the poetical
feeling and lyrical facility of the one, and the more solid qualities
of the other, seemed best employed when they were subservient
to his rapid wit, and to the ingenious coruscations of his fancy.
This impression was confirmed by the series of the Comic Annual,
dating from 1830, a kind of publication at that time popular,
which Hood undertook and continued, almost unassisted, for
several years. Under that somewhat frivolous title he treated
all the leading events of the day in a fine spirit of caricature,
entirely free from grossness and vulgarity, without a trait
of personal malice, and with an under-current of true sympathy
and honest purpose that will preserve these papers, like the
sketches of Hogarth, long after the events and manners they
illustrate have passed from the minds of men. But just as the
agreeable jester rose into the earnest satirist, one of the most
striking peculiarities of his style became a more manifest defect.
The attention of the reader was distracted, and his good taste
annoyed, by the incessant use of puns, of which Hood had written
in his own vindication:
" However critics may take offence,
A double meaning has double sense."
Now it is true that the critic must be unconscious of some
of the subtlest charms and nicest delicacies of language who
would exclude from humorous writing all those impressions
and surprises which depend on the use of the diverse sense
of words. The history, indeed, of many a word lies hid in
its equivocal uses; and it in no way derogates from the dignity
of the highest poetry to gain strength and variety from the
ingenious application of the same sounds to different senses,
any more than from the contrivances of rhythm or the accom-
paniment of imitative sounds. But when this habit becomes
the characteristic of any wit, it is impossible to prevent it
from degenerating into occasional buffoonery, and from supplying
a cheap and ready resource, whenever the true vein of humour
becomes thin or rare. Artists have been known to use the
left hand in the hope of checking the fatal facility which practice
had conferred on the right; 'and if Hood had been able to
place under some restraint the curious and complex machinery
of words and syllables which his fancy was incessantly pro-
ducing, his style would have been a great gainer, and much real
earnestness of object, which now lies confused by the brilliant
kaleidoscope of language, would have remained definite and clear.
He was probably not unconscious of this danger; for, as he gained
experience as a writer, his diction became more simple, and his
ludicrous illustrations less frequent. In another annual called
the Gem appeared the poem on the story of " Eugene Aram,"
which first manifested the full extent of that poetical vigour
which seemed to advance just in proportion as his physical
health declined. He started a magazine in his own name,
for which he secured the assistance of many literary men of
reputation and authority, but which was mainly sustained
by his own intellectual activity. From a sick-bed, from which
he never rose, he conducted this work with surprising energy,
and there composed those poems, too few in number, but im-
mortal in the English language, such as the " Song of the Shirt."
(which appeared anonymously in the Christmas number of
Punch, 1843), the " Bridge of Sighs " and the " Song of the
Labourer," which seized the deep human interests of the time,
and transported them from the ground of social philosophy
into the loftier domain of the imagination. They are no clamor-
ous expressions of anger at the discrepancies and contrasts
of humanity, but plain, solemn pictures of conditions of life,
which neither the politician nor the moralist can deny to exist,
and which they are imperatively called upon to remedy. Woman,
in her wasted life, in her hurried death, here stands appealing
to the society that degrades her, with a combination of eloquence
and poetry, of forms of art at once instantaneous and permanent,
and with great metrical energy and variety.
Hood was associated with the Athenaeum, started in 1828
by J. Silk Buckingham, and he was a regular contributor for
the rest of his life. Prolonged illness brought on straitened
circumstances; and application was made to Sir Robert Peel
to place Hood's name on the pension list with which the British
state so moderately rewards the national services of literary
men. This was done without delay, and the pension was con-
tinued to his wife and family after his death, which occurred
on the 3rd of May 1845. Nine years after a monument, raised
by public subscription, in the cemetery of Kensal Green, was
inaugurated by Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) with a
concourse of spectators that showed how well the memory
of the poet stood the test of time. Artisans came from a great
distance to view and honour the image of the popular writer
whose best efforts had been dedicated to the cause and the
sufferings of the workers of the world; and literary men of all
opinions gathered round the grave of one of their brethren
whose writings were at once the delight of every boy and the
instruction of every man who read them. Happy the humorist
whose works and life are an illustration of the great moral truth
that the sense of humour is the just balance of all the faculties
of man, the best security against the pride of knowledge and
the conceits of the imagination, the strongest inducement
to submit with a wise and pious patience to the vicissitudes of
human existence. This was the lesson that Thomas Hood left
behind him. (H.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The list of Hood's separately published works is
as follows: Odes and Addresses to Great People (1825); Whims and
Oddities (two series, 1826 and 1827); The Plea of the Midsummer
Fairies, Hero and Leander, Lycus the Centaur and other Poems (1827),
his only collection of serious verse; The Dream of Eugene Aram, the
Murderer (1831); Tylney Hall, a novel (3 vols., 1834); The Comic
Annual (1830-1842); Hood's Own; or, Laughter from Year to Year
(1838, second series, 1861); Up the Rhine (1840); Hood's Magazine
and Comic Miscellany (1844-1848); National Tales (2 vols., 1837), a
collection of short novelettes; Whimsicalities (1844), with illustra-
tions from Leech's designs; and many contributions to contempo-
rary periodicals.
The chief sources of his biography are: Memorials of Thomas
Hood, collected, arranged and edited by his daughter (1860); his
" Literary Reminiscences " in Hood's Own; Alexander Elliot, Hood
in Scotland (1885). See also the memoir of Hood's friend C. W. Dilke,
by his grandson Sir Charles Dilke, prefixed to Papers of a Critic; and
M. H. Spielmann's History of Punch. There is an excellent edition of
the Poems of Thomas Hood (2 vols., 1897), with a biographical intro-
duction of great interest by Canon Alfred Ainger.
HOOD, TOM (1835-1874), English humorist, son of the poet
Thomas Hood, was born at Lake House, Wanstead, Essex,
on the igth of January 1835. After attending University College
School and Louth Grammar School he entered Pembroke College,
Oxford, in 1853, where he passed all the examinations for the
degree of B.A., but did not graduate. At Oxford he wrote his
Farewell to the Swallows (1853) and Pen and Pencil Pictures
(1857). He began to write for the Liskeard Gazette in 1856, and
edited that paper in 1858-1859. He then obtained a position in
the War Office, which he filled for five years, leaving in 1865
668
HOOD OF AVALON HOOFT
to become editor of Fun, the comic paper, which became very
popular under his direction. In 1867 he first issued Tom Hood's
Comic Annual. In 1861 had appeared The Daughters of King
Daker, and other Poems, after which he published in conjunction
with his sister, Frances Freeling Broderip, a number of amusing
books for children. His serious novels, of which Captain Masters'!
Children (1865) is the best, were not so successful. Hood drew
with considerable facility, among his illustrations being those
of several of his father's comic verses. In private life his geniality
and sincere friendliness secured him the affection and esteem of a
wide circle of acquaintance. He died on the 2oth of November
1874.
A memoir by his sister, F. F. Broderip, is prefixed to the edition
of his poems published in 1877.
HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR WILLIAM ACLAND HOOD,
BARON (1824-1901), English admiral, born on the i4th of July
1824, was the younger son of Sir Alexander Hood of St Andries,
Somerset, 2nd baronet, and grandson of Captain Alexander
Hood, R.N., who, when in command of the " Mars," fell in
action with the French 74-gun ship " Hercule," 2ist of April
1798. At the age of twelve Hood entered the navy, and whilst
still a boy saw active service on the north coast of Spain, and
afterwards on the coast of Syria. After passing through the
established course of gunnery on board the " Excellent " in
1844-1845, he went out to the Cape of Good Hope as gunnery
mate of the " President," the flagship of Rear-Admiral Dacres,
by whom, on the 9th of January 1846, he was promoted to be
lieutenant. As gunnery lieutenant he continued in the " Presi-
dent " till 1849; and in the following year he was appointed
to the " Arethusa " frigate, then commissioned for the Medi-
terranean by Captain Symonds, afterwards the well-known
admiral of the fleet. The outbreak of the Russian war made
the commission a very long one; and on the 27th of November
1854 Hood was promoted to be commander in recognition
of his sen/ice with the naval brigade before Sebastopol. In
1855 he married Fanny Henrietta, daughter of Sir C. F. Maclean.
In 1856 he commissioned the " Acorn " brig for the China
station, and arrived in time to take part in the destruction
of the junks in Fatshan creek on the ist of June 1857, and
in the capture of Canton in the following December, for which,
in February 1858, he received a post-captain's commission.
From 1862 to 1866 he commanded the " Pylades " on the
North American station, and was then appointed to the command
of the " Excellent " and the government of the Royal Naval
College at Portsmouth. This was essentially a gunnery appoint-
ment, and on the expiration of three years Hood was made
Director of Naval Ordnance. He was thoroughly acquainted
with the routine work of the office and the established armament
of the navy, but he had not the power of adapting himself
to the changes which were being called for, and still less of
initiating them; so that during his period of office the armament
of the ships remained sadly behind the general advance. In
June 1874 he was appointed to the command of the " Monarch "
in the Channel Fleet, from which he was relieved in March
1876 by his promotion to flag rank. From 1877 to 1879 he was
a junior lord of the Admiralty, and from 1880 to 1882 he com-
manded the Channel Fleet, becoming vice-admiral on 23rd
July 1880. In June 1885 he was appointed first sea lord of the
Admiralty. The intense conservatism of his character, however,
and his antagonistic attitude towards every change, regardless
of whether it was necessary or not, had much to do with the
alarming state of the navy towards 1889. In that year, on
attaining the age of sixty-five, he was placed on the retired
list and resigned his post at the Admiralty. After two years
of continued ill-health, he died on the isth of November 1901,
and was buried at Butleigh on the 23rd. He had been promoted
to the rank of admiral on the i8th of January 1886; was made
K.C.B. in December 1885; G.C.B. in September 1889; and in
February 1892 was raised to the peerage as Lord Hood of
Avalon, but on his death the title became extinct, (j. K. L.)
HOOD, a covering for the head. The word is in O. Eng. hod,
cognate with Dutch hoed and Ger. Hut, hat, both masculine;
"hood" and "hat" are distantly related; they may be con-
nected with the feminine hoed or Hut, meaning charge, care,
Eng. " heed." Some form of hood as a loose covering easily
drawn on or off the head has formed a natural part of outdoor
costume both for men and women at all times and in all quarters
of the globe where climatic conditions called for it. In the
middle ages and later both men and women are found wearing
it, but with men it tended to be superseded by the hat before
it became merely an occasional and additional head-covering
in time of bad weather or in particularly rigorous climates.
For illustrations and examples of the hood as worn by men and
women in medieval and later times see the article COSTUME;
for the hood or cowl as part of the dress of a religious see COWL,
and as forming a distinctive mark of degree in academic costume
see ROBES. The word is applied to many objects resembling
a hood in function or shape, such as a folding cover for a carriage
to protect the occupants from rain or wind, the belled covering
for the head of a hawk trained for falconry, the endmost planks
in a ship's bottom at bow or stern, and, in botany and zoology,
certain parts of a flower or of the neck of an animal which in
arrangement of structure or of colour recall this article of dress.
In architecture a " hood-mould " is a projecting moulding
carried outside the arch of a door or window; it is weathered
underneath, and when continued horizontally is better known
as a dripstone. The ends of the hood-mould are generally stopped
on a corbel, plain or carved with heads in European churches,
but in those of central Syria terminating in scrolls. Although
in its origin the object of the projecting and weathered hood-
mould was to protect the face of the wall below from rain,
it gives more importance to, and emphasizes, the arch-moulds,
so that it is often employed decoratively inside churches.
The suffix " -hood,' like the cognate " -head," was originally a
substantive meaning rank, status or quality, and was constantly used
in combination with other substantives; cf. in O. Eng. cild-hod, child-
hood ; later it ceased to be used separately and became a mere suffix
denoting condition added to adjectives ; cf. " falsehood," as well as
to substantives.
HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN (1581-1647), Dutch poet
and historian, was born at Amsterdam on the i6th of March
1581. His father was one of the leading citizens of Holland,
both in politics and in the patronage of letters, and for some
time burgomaster of Amsterdam. As early as 1598 the young
man was made a member of the chamber of rhetoric In Liefde
bloeiende, and produced before that body his tragedy of Achilles
and Polyxena, not printed until 1614. In June 1598 he left
Holland and proceeded to Paris, where on the loth of April
1599 he saw the body of Gabrielle d'Estrees lying in state. He
went a few months later to Venice, Florence and Rome, and in
1600 to Naples. During his Italian sojourn he made a deep
and fruitful study of the best literature of Italy. In July 1600
he sent home to the In Liefde bloeiende a very fine letter in verse,
expressing his aspirations for the development of Dutch poetry.
He returned through Germany, and after an absence of three
years and a half found himself in Amsterdam again on the 8th
of May 1601. In 1602 he brought out his second tragedy,
Theseus and Ariadne, printed at Amsterdam in 1614. In 1605
he completed his beautiful pastoral drama Granida, not published
until 1615. He studied law and history at Leiden from 1606
to 1609, and in June of the latter year received from Prince
Maurice of Orange the appointment of steward of Muiden,
bailiff of Gooiland, and lord of Weesp, a joint office of great
emolument. He occupied himself with repairing and adorning
the decayed castle of Muiden, which was his residence during
the remainder of his life. There he entertained the poet Vondel,
the scholar Barlaeus, l Constantin Huygens, Vossius, Laurens
Reael and others. Hooft had been a suitor for the hand of
Anna Roemer Visscher, and after the death of Roemer Visscher
both the sisters visited Muiden. Anna's sympathies were in
time diverted to the school of Jacob Cats, but Marie Tesselschade
maintained close ties with Hooft, who revised her translation
of Tasso. In August 1610 he married Christina van Erp, an
1 Kaspar van Baerle (1584-1648), professor of rhetoric at
Amsterdam, and famous as a Latin poet.
HOOGSTRATEN HOOK, J. C.
669
accomplished lady who died in 1623, and four years later he
married Eleonora Hellemans. In 1612 Hooft produced his
national tragedy of Geeraerdt van Velzen (pr. 1613), a story of
the reign of Count Floris V. In 1614 was performed at Coster's
academy Hooft's comedy of Ware-nar, an adaptation of the
Aulularia of Plautus, first printed in 1617. In 1616 he wrote
another tragedy, Baeto, or the Origin of the Dutch, not printed
until 1626. It was in 1618 that he abandoned poetry for history,
and in 1626 he published the first of his great prose works, the
History of Henry the Great (Henry IV. of France). His next
production was his Miseries of the Princes of the House of Medici
(Amsterdam, 1638). In 1642 he published at Amsterdam a
folio comprising the first twenty books of his Dutch History,
embracing the period from 1555 to 1585, a magnificent per-
formance, to the perfecting of which he had given fifteen years
of labour. The seven concluding books were published posthum-
ously in 1654. His idea of history was gained from Tacitus,
whose works he translated. Hooft died on a visit to the Hague,
whither he had gone to attend the funeral of Prince Frederick
Henry, on the 2ist of May 1647, and was buried in the New
Church at Amsterdam.
Hooft is one of the most brilliant figures that adorn Dutch
literature at its best period. He was the first writer to introduce
a modern and European tone into belles lettres, and the first
to refresh the sources of native thought from the springs of
antique and Renaissance poetry. His lyrics and his pastoral
of Granida are strongly marked by the influence of Tasso and
Sannazaro; his later tragedies belong more exactly to the
familiar tone of his native country. But high as Hooft stands
among the Dutch poets, he stands higher he holds perhaps the
highest place among writers of Dutch prose. His historical
style has won the warmest eulogy from so temperate a critic
as Motley, and his letters are the most charming ever published
in the Dutch language. After Vondel, he may on the whole
be considered the most considerable author that Holland has
produced.
Hooft's poetical and dramatic works were collected in two volumes
(1871, 1875) by P. Leendertz. His letters were edited by B. Huyde-
coper (Leiden, 1738) and by van VIoten (Leiden, 4 vols., 1855). The
best original account of Hooft is given by G. Brandt in his Leven van
P. C. Hooft (1677), and his funeral address (1647), edited together by
J. C. Matthes (Groningen, 1874). There is an account of the Muiden
circle in Edmund Gosse's Literatures of Northern Europe. Many
editions exist of his prose works.
HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN, Dutch painter,
was born, it is said, in 1627 at the Hague, and died at Dort
on the igth of October 1678. This artist, who was first a pupil
of his father, lived at the Hague and at Dort till about 1640,
when on the death of Dirk Hoogstraten he changed his residence
to Amsterdam and entered the school of Rembrandt. A short
time afterwards he started as a master and painter of portraits,
set out on a round of travels which took him (1651) to Vienna,
Rome and London, and finally retired to Dort, where he married
in 1656, and held an appointment as " provost of the mint."
Hoogstraten's works are scarce; but a sufficient number of
them has been preserved to show that he strove to imitate
different styles at different times. In a portrait dated 1645
in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna he imitates Rembrandt ;
and he continues in this vein as late as 1653, when he produced
that wonderful figure of a Jew looking out of a casement, which
is one of the most characteristic examples of his manner in the
Belvedere at Vienna. A view of the Vienna Hofburg, dated
1632, in the same gallery displays his skill as a painter of archi-
tecture, whilst in a piece at the Hague representing a Lady
Reading a Letter as she crosses a Courtyard, or a Lady Consulting
a Doctor, in the Van der Hoop Museum at Amsterdam, he
imitates de Hooch. One of his latest works is a portrait of
Mathys van den Brouck, dated 1670, in the gallery of Amsterdam.
The scarcity of Hoogstraten's pictures is probably due to his
versatility. Besides directing a mint, he devoted some time
to literary labours, wrote a book on the theory of painting
(1678) and composed sonnets and a tragedy. We are indebted
to him for some of the familiar sayings of Rembrandt. He
was an etcher too, and some of his plates are still pre-
served. His portrait, engraved by himself at the age of fifty,
still exists.
HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907), English painter, was
born in London on the 2ist of November 1819. His father,
James Hook, a Northumbrian by descent, Judge Arbitrator
of Sierra Leone, married the second daughter of Dr Adam
Clarke, the commentator on the Bible, who gave to the painter
his second name. Young Hook's first taste of the sea was on
board the Berwick smacks which took him on his way to Wooler.
He drew with rare facility, and determined to become an artist;
and accordingly, without any supervision, he set to work for
more than a year in the sculpture galleries of the British Museum.
In 1836 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy,
where he worked for three years, and elsewhere learned a good
deal of the scientific technique of painting from a nephew of
Opie. His first picture, called " The Hard Task," was exhibited
in 1837, and represented a girl helping her sister with a lesson.
Unusual facility in portraiture and a desire to earn his own
living took the student into Ireland to paint likenesses of the
Waterford family and others; here he produced landscapes of
the Vale of Avoca, and much developed his taste for pastoral
art; later, he was similarly engaged in Kent and Somersetshire.
In 1842 his second exhibited work was a portrait of " Master
J. Finch Smith ": in this year he gained silver medals at the
Royal Academy, and in 1843 he was one of the competitors
in the exhibition of cartoons in Westminster Hall, with a 10
by 7 ft. design of " Satan in Paradise." In 1844 the Academy
contained a picture of a kind with which his name was long
associated, an illustration of the Decameron, called " Pamphilius
relating his Story," a meadow scene in bright light, with
sumptuous ladies, richly clad, reclining on the grass. The British
Institution, 1844 and 1845, set forth two of Hook's idylls, subjects
taken from Shakespeare and Burns, which, with the above,
showed him to be cultivating those veins of romantic sentiment
and the picturesque which were then in vogue, but in a character-
istically fresh and vigorous manner. " The Song of Olden
Times " (Royal Academy, 1845) marked the artist's future path
distinctly in most technical respects. It was in this year Hook
won the Academy gold medal for an oil picture of " The Finding
the Body of Harold." The travelling studentship in painting
was awarded to him for " Rizpah watching the Dead Sons of
Saul " in 1846; and he went for three years to Italy, having
married Miss Rosalie Burton before he left England. Hook
passed through Paris, worked diligently for some time in the
Louvre, traversed Switzerland, and, though he stayed only
part of three years in Italy, gained much from studies of Titian,
Tintoret, Carpaccio, Mansueti and other Venetians. Their
influence thenceforth dominated the coloration of his pictures,
and enabled him to apply the principles to which they had
attained to the representation (as Bonington before him had
done) of romantic subjects and to those English themes of the
land and sea with which the name of the artist is inseparably
associated. " A Dream of Ancient Venice " (R.A., 1848)
the first fruit of these Italian studies " Bayard of Brescia "
(R.A., 1849), "Venice" (B.I., 1849) and other works assured
for Hook the Associateship of the Royal Academy in 1851.
Soon afterwards an incomparable series of English subjects was
begun, in many pastorals and fine brilliant idylls of the sea
and rocks. " A Rest by the Wayside " and " A Few Minutes
to Wait before Twelve o'clock " proved his title to appear,
in 1854, as a new and original painter. After these came
" A Signal on the Horizon " (1857), " A Widow's Son going to
Sea," " The Ship-boy's Letter," "Children's Children are the
Crown of Old Men," " A Coast-boy gathering Eggs," a scene
at Lundy; the perfect "Luff, Boy!" (1859), about which
Ruskin broke into a dithyrambic chant, " The Brook," " Stand
Clear! " " O Well for the Fisherman's Boy!" (1860), " Leaving
Cornwall for the Whitby Fishing," " Sea Urchins," and a score
more as fine as these. The artist was elected a full Academician
on the 6th of March 1860, in the place of James Ward. He died
on the 1 4th of April 1907.
670
HOOK, T. E. HOOKE
See A. H. Palmer, " J. C. Hook, R.A.," Portfolio (1888); F. G
Stephens, " J. C. Hook, Royal Academician: His Life and Work '
Art Annual (London, 1888); P. G. Hamerton, Etching and Etcher
(London, 1877).
HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841), English author
was born in London on the 22nd of September 1788. He spen
a year at Harrow, and subsequently matriculated at Oxford
but he never actually resided at the university. His father
James Hook (1746-1827), the composer of numerous popular
songs, took great delight in exhibiting the boy's extraordinary
musical and metrical gifts, and the precocious Theodore became
" the little pet lion of the green room." At the age of sixteen
in conjunction with his father, he scored a dramatic success
with The Soldier's Return, a comic opera, and this he rapidly
followed up with a series of over a dozen sparkling ventures
the instant popularity of which was hardly dependent on the
inimitableactingof JohnListon and Charles Mathews. But Hook
gave himself up for some ten of the best years of his life to the
pleasures of the town, winning a foremost place in the world oi
fashion by his matchless powers of improvisation and mimicry,
and startling the public by the audacity of his practical jokes.
His unique gift of improvising the words and the music of songs
eventually charmed the prince Regent into a declaration that
" something must be done for Hook." The prince was as good
as his word, and Hook, in spite of a total ignorance of accounts,
was appointed accountant-general and treasurer of the Mauritius
with a salary of 2000 a year. For five delightful years he
was the life and soul of the island, but in 1817, a serious deficiency
having been discovered in the treasury accounts, he was arrested
and brought to England on a criminal charge. A sum of about
12,000 had been abstracted by a deputy official, and for this
amount Hook was held responsible.
During the tardy scrutiny of the audit board he lived obscurely
and maintained himself by writing for magazines and newspapers.
In 1820 he launched the newspaper John Bull, the champion of
high Toryism and the virulent detractor of Queen Caroline.
Witty, incisive criticism and pitiless invective secured it a large
circulation, and from this source alone Hook derived, for the
first year at least, an income of 2000. He was, however,
arrested for the second time on account of his debt to the state,
which he made no effort to defray. In a sponging-house, where
he was confined for two years, he wrote the nine volumes of stories
afterwards collected under the title of Sayings and Doings
(1826-1829). In the remaining twenty-three years of his life
he poured forth no fewer than thirty-eight volumes, besides
numberless articles, squibs and sketches. . His novels are not
works of enduring interest, but they are saved from mediocrity
by frequent passages of racy narrative and vivid portraiture.
The best are Maxwell (1830), Love and Pride (1833), the autobio-
graphic Gilbert Gurney (1836), Jack Brag (1837), Gurney Married
(1838), and Peregrine Bunce (1842). Incessant work had already
begun to tell on his health, when Hook returned to his old social
habits, and a prolonged attempt to combine industry and dissipa-
tion resulted in the confession that he was " done up in purse,
in mind and in body too at last." He died on the 24th of August
1841. His writings in great part are of a purely ephemeral
character; and the greatest triumphs of the improvisatore
may be said to have been writ in wine. Putting aside, however,
his claim to literary greatness, Hook will be remembered as one
of the most brilliant, genial and original figures of Georgian
times.
See the Rev. R. H. D. Barham's Life and Remains of Hook (3rd ed.,
1877); and an article by J. G. Lockhart in the Quarterly Review
(May 1843).
HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875), English divine,
nephew of the witty Theodore, was born in London on the 131(1
of March 1798. Educated at Tiverton and Winchester, he
graduated at Oxford (Christ Church) in 1821, and after holding
an incumbency in Coventry, 1820-1837, and in Leeds, 1837-
1859, was nominated dean of Chichester by Lord Derby. He
received the degree of D.D. in 1837. His friendship towards
the Tractarians exposed him to considerable persecution, but
his simple manly character and zealous devotion to parochial
work gained him the support of widely divergent classes. His
stay in Leeds was marked by vigorous and far-reaching church
extension, and his views on education were far in advance of
his time. Among his many writings are An Ecclesiastical
Biography, containing the Lives of Ancient Fathers and Modern
Divines (8 vols., 1845-1852), A Church Dictionary, The Means
of Rendering more Effectual the Education of the People
The Cross of Christ (1873), The Church and its Ordinance's
(serm.ons, 4 vols., 1876), and Lives of the Archbishops of Canter-
bury (12 vols., 1860-1876). He died on the 2oth of October
1875-
See Life and Letters of Dean Hook, by his son-in-law W R W
Stephens (2 vols., 1878).
HOOKAH (the English spelling of the Persian and Hindustani
huqqu, an adaptation of the Arabic huqqah, a vase or casket
and by transference a pipe for smoking, probably derived from
the Arabic huqq, a hollow place), a pipe with a long flexible
tube attached to a large bowl containing water, often scented,
and resting upon a tripod or stand. The smoke of the tobacco
is made to pass through the water in the bowl, and is thus cooled
before reaching the smoker. The narghile of India is in principle
the same as that of the hookah; the word is derived from nargil,
an Indian name for the coco-nut tree, as when the narghile
was first made the water was placed in a coco-nut. This re-
ceptacle is now often made of porcelain, glass or metal. In
the hubble-bubble the pipe is so contrived that the water in
the bowl makes a bubbling noise while the pipe is being
smoked. This pipe is common in India, Egypt and the East
generally.
HOOKE, ROBERT (1635-1703), English experimental
philosopher, was born on the i8th of July 1635 at Freshwater,
in the Isle of Wight, where his father, John Hooke, was minister
of the parish. After working for a short time with Sir Peter
Lely, he went to Westminster school; and in 1653 he entered
Christ Church, Oxford, as servitor. After 1655 he was employed
and patronized by the Hon. Robert Boyle, who turned his skill
to account in the construction of his air-pump. On the I2th
of November 1662 he was appointed curator of experiments
to the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1663,
and filled the office during the remainder of his life. In 1664
Sir John Cutler instituted for his benefit a mechanical lectureship
of 50 a year, and in the following year he was nominated
professor of geometry in Gresham College, where he subsequently
resided. After the Great Fire of 1666 he constructed a model
'or the rebuilding of the city, which was highly approved, although
the design of Sir C. Wren was preferred. During the progress
of the works, however, he acted as surveyor, and accumulated
n that lucrative employment a sum of several thousand pounds,
discovered after his death in an old iron chest, which had
evidently lain unopened for above thirty years. He fulfilled
he duties of secretary to the Royal Society during five years
after the death of Henry Oldenburg in 1677, publishing in 1681-
1682 the papers read before that body under the title of Philo-
ophical Collections. A protracted controversy with Johann
Hevelius, in which Hooke urged the advantages of telescopic
over plain sights, brought him little but discredit. His reasons
vere good; but his offensive style of argument rendered them
unpalatable and himself unpopular. Many circumstances
oncurred to embitter the latter years of his life. The death,
n 1687, of his niece, Mrs Grace Hooke, wh'o had lived with him
or many years, caused him deep affliction; a law-suit with Sir
ohn Cutler about his salary (decided, however, in his favour
n 1696) occasioned him prolonged anxiety; and the repeated
nticipation of his discoveries inspired him with a morbid
ealousy. Marks of public respect were not indeed wanting to
im. A degree of M.D. was conferred on him at Doctors'
Commons in 1691, and the Royal Society made him, in 1696,
grant to enable him to complete his philosophical inventions.
While engaged on this task he died, worn out with disease,
n the 3rd of March 1703 in London, and was buried in St
lelen's Church, Bishopsgate Street.
In personal appearance Hooke made but a sorry show. His
HOOKER, J. HOOKER, SIR J. D.
671
figure was crooked, his limbs shrunken; his hair hung in dis-
hevelled locks over his haggard countenance. His temper was
irritable, his habits penurious and solitary. He was, however,
blameless in morals and reverent in religion. His scientific
achievements would probably have been more striking if they
had been less varied. He originated much, but perfected
little. His optical investigations led him to adopt in an imperfect
form the undulatory theory of light, to anticipate the doctrine
of interference, and to observe, independently of though sub-
sequently to F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663), the phenomenon of
diffraction. He was the first to state clearly that the motions
of the heavenly bodies must be regarded asa mechanical problem,
and he approached in a remarkable manner the discovery of
universal gravitation. He invented the wheel barometer,
discussed the application of barometrical indications to meteoro-
logical forecasting, suggested a system of optical telegraphy,
anticipated E.F.F. Chladni's experiment of strewing a vibrating
bell with flour, investigated the nature of sound and the function
of the air in respiration and combustion, and originated the
idea of using the pendulum as a measure of gravity. He is
credited with the invention of the anchor escapement for clocks,
and also with the application of spiral springs to the balances
of watches, together with the explanation of their action by
the principle Ut tensio sic vis (1676).
His principal writings are Micrographia (1664) ; Lectiones Cutler-
ianae (1674-1679); and Posthumous Works, containing a sketch
of his " Philosophical Algebra," published by R. Waller in 1705.
HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814-1879), American general, was born
in Hadley, Massachusetts, on the i3th of November 1814.
He was educated at the military academy at West Point (1833-
1837), and on graduating entered the ist U. S. Artillery. In the
war with Mexico (1846-48) he served as a staff officer, and rose
by successive brevets for meritorious services to the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. In 1853 he left the service and bought a large
farm near Sonoma, Cal., which he managed successfully till
1858, when he was made superintendent of military roads in
Oregon. Upon the opening of hostilities in the Civil War of
1861-65, he sacrificed his fine estate and offered his sword to the
Federal Government. He was commissioned brigadier-general
of volunteers on the I7th of May 1861 and major-general
on the 5th of May 1862. The engagement of Williamsburg
(May 5th) brought him and his subordinate Hancock into
prominence, and Hooker received the soubriquet of " Fighting
Joe." He was engaged at the battle of Fair Oaks, and did
splendid service to the Union army during the " Seven Days."
In the campaign of Northern Virginia, under General Pope
(August 1862), he led his division with fiery energy at Bristoe
Station, Manassas and Chantilly. In the Maryland campaign
(September) he was at the head of the I. corps, Army of the
Potomac, forced the defile of South Mountain and opened the
way for the advance of the army. The I. corps opened the great
battle of the Antietam, and sustained a sanguinary fight with the
Confederates under Stonewall Jackson. Hooker himself was
severely wounded. He was commissioned brigadier-general
in the United States army on the 2oth of September 1862, and
in the battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.), under Burnside, he com-
manded the centre grand division (III. and V. corps). He had
protested against the useless slaughter of his men on that
disastrous field, and when Burnside resigned the command
Hooker succeeded him. The new leader effected a much-needed
re-organization in the army, which had fought many "battles
without success. In this task, as in subordinate commands
in battle, Hooker was excelled by few. But his grave defects
as a commander-in-chief were soon to be obvious. By a well-
planned and well-executed flanking movement, he placed himself
on the enemy's flank, but at the decisive moment he checked
the advance of his troops. Lee turned upon him, Jackson
surprised and destroyed a whole army corps, and the battle of
Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS), in which Hooker was himself
disabled, ended in a retreat to the old position. Yet Hooker
had not entirely forfeited the confidence of his men, to whom
he was still " Fighting Joe." The second advance of Lee into
Union territory, which led to the battle of Gettysburg, was
strenuously resisted by Hooker, who would have inflicted a
heavy blow on Lee's scattered forces had he not been condemned
to inaction by orders from Washington. Even then Hooker
followed the Confederates a day only behind them, until, finding
himself distrusted and forbidden to control the movements of
troops within the sphere of operations, he resigned the command
on the eve of the battle (June 28, 1863). Faults of temper
and an excessive sense of responsibility made his continued
occupation of the command impossible, but when after a signal
defeat Rosecrans was besieged in Chattanooga, and Grant
with all the forces of the West was hurried to the rescue, two
corps of the Army of the Potomac were sent over by rail, and
Hooker, who was at least one of the finest fighting generals
of the service, went with them in command. He fought and won
the " Battle above the Clouds " on Lookout Mountain which
cleared the way for the crowning victory of the army of the
Cumberland on Missionary Ridge (see CHATTANOOGA). And in
command of the same corps (consolidated as the XX. corps)
he took part in all the battles and combats of the Atlanta
campaign of 1864. When General McPherson was killed before
Atlanta, the command of Grant's old Army of the Tennessee
fell vacant. Hooker, who, though only a corps commander,
was senior to the other army commanders, Thomas and Schofield,
was normally entitled to receive it, but General Sherman feared
to commit a whole army to the guidance of a man of Hooker's
peculiar temperament, and the place was given to Howard.
Hooker thereupon left the army. He was commissioned brevet-
major-general in the United States army on the I3th of March
1865, and retired from active service with the full rank of major-
general on the 1 5th of October 1868, in consequence of a
paralytic seizure. The last years of his life were passed in the
neighbourhood of New York. He died at Garden City, Long
Island, on the 3ist of October 1879.
HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817- , English
botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir
W.J. Hooker, was born on the 3oth of June 1817, at Halcsworth,
Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost
immediately after taking his M.D. degree there in 1839 joined
Sir James Ross's Antarctic expedition, receiving a commission
as assistant-surgeon on the " Erebus." The botanical fruits of the
three years he thus spent in the Southern Seas were the Flora
Antarctica, Flora Novae Zelandiae and Flora Tasmanica, which
he published on his return. His next expedition was to the
northern frontiers of India (1847-1851), and the expenses in
this case also were partially defrayed by the government. The
party had its full share of adventure. Hooker and his friend
Dr Campbell were detained in prison for some time by the raja of
Sikkim, but nevertheless they were able to bring back important
results, both geographical and botanical. Their survey of
hitherto unexplored regions was published by the Calcutta
Trigonometrical Survey Office, and their botanical observations
formed the basis of elaborate works on the rhododendrons
of the Sikkim Himalaya and on the flora of India. Arrong
other journeys undertaken by Hooker may be mentioned those
to Palestine (1860), Morocco (1871), and the United States
(1877), all yielding valuable scientific information. In the rcidst
of all this travelling in foreign countries he quickly built up for
himself a high scientific reputation at home. In 1855 he was
appointed assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and in 1865 he
succeeded his father as full director, holding the post for twenty
years. At the early age of thirty he was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society, and in 1873 he was chosen its president; he
received three of its medals a Royal in 1854, the Copley in
1887 and the Darwin in 1892. He acted as president of the
British Association at its Norwich meeting of 1868, when his
address was remarkable for its championship of Darwinian
theories. Of Darwin, indeed, he was an early friend and sup-
porter: it was he who, with Lyell, first induced Darwin to
make his views public, and the author of The Origin of Species
has recorded his indebtedness to Hooker's wide knowledge and
balanced judgment. Sir Joseph Hooker is the author of numerous
672
HOOKER, R.
scientific papers and monographs, and his larger books include,
in addition to those already mentioned, a standard Student's
Flora of the British Isles and a monumental work, the Genera
plantarum, based on the collections at Kew, in which he had the
assistance of Bentham. On the publication of the last part of
his Flora of British India in 1897 he was created G. C.S.I., of
which order he had been made a knight commander twenty
years before; and twenty years later, on attaining the age of
ninety, he was awarded the Order of Merit.
HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600), English writer, author of
the Law s of Ecclesiastical Polity, son of Richard Vowell or Hooker,
was born at Heavitree, near the city of Exeter, about the end of
1553 or beginning of 1554. Vowell was the original name of
the family, but was gradually dropped, and in the 1 5th century
its members were known as Vowell alias Hooker. At school,
not only his facility in mastering his tasks, but his intellectual
inquisitiveness and his fine moral qualities, attracted the special
notice of his teacher, who strongly recommended his parents
to educate him for the church. Though well connected, they
were, however, somewhat straitened in their worldly circum-
stances, and Hooker was indebted for admission to the university
to his uncle, John Hooker alias Vowell, chamberlain of Exeter,
and in his day a man of some literary repute, who induced
Bishop Jewel to become his patron and to bestow on him a
clerk's place in Corpus Christi College, Oxford. To this Hooker
was admitted in 1568. Bishop Jewel died in September 1571,
but Dr William Cole, president of the college, from the strong
interest he felt in the young man, on account at once of his
character and his abilities, spontaneously offered to take the
bishop's place as his patron; and shortly afterwards Hooker,
by his own labours as a tutor, became independent of gratuitous
aid. Two of his pupils, and these his favourite ones, were Edwin
Sandys, afterwards author of Europae speculum, and George
Cranmer, grand-nephew of the archbishop. Hooker's reputation
as a tutor soon became very high, for he had employed his
five years at the university to such good purpose as not only to
have acquired great proficiency in the learned languages, but
to have joined to this a wide and varied culture which had
delivered him from the bondage of learned pedantry; in addition
to which he is said to have possessed a remarkable talent for
communicating knowledge in a clear and interesting manner,
and to have exercised a special influence over his pupils' in-
tellectual and moral tendencies. In December 1573 he was
elected scholar of his college; in July 1577 he proceeded to M.A.,
and in September of the same year he was admitted a fellow.
In 1579 he was appointed by the chancellor of the university
to read the public Hebrew lecture, a duty which he continued
to discharge till he left Oxford. Not long after his admission
into holy orders, about 1581, he was appointed to preach at
St Paul's Cross; and, according to Walton, he was so kindly
entertained by Mrs Churchman, who kept the Shunamite's
house where the preachers were boarded, that he permitted
her to choose him a wife, " promising upon a fair summons to
return to London and accept of her choice." The lady selected
by her was" her daughter Joan," who, says the same authority,
" found him neither beauty nor portion; and for her conditions
they were too like that wife's which is by Solomon compared to
a dripping house." It is probable that Walton has exaggerated
the simplicity and passiveness of Hooker hi the matter, but
though, as Keble observes with justice, his writings betray
uncommon shrewdness and quickness of observation, as well as
a vein of keenest humour, it would appear that either gratitude
or some other impulse had on this occasion led his judgment
astray. After his marriage he was, about the end of 1584, pre-
sented to the living of Drayton Beauchamp in Buckinghamshire.
In the following year he received a visit from his two pupils,
Edwin Sandys and George Cranmer, who found him with the
Odes of Horace in his hand, tending the sheep while the servant
was at dinner, after which, when they on the return of the
servant accompanied him to his house, " Richard was called
to rock the cradle." Finding him so engrossed by worldly
and domestic cares, " they stayed but till the next morning,"
and, greatly grieved at his narrow circumstances and unhappy
domestic condition, " left him to the company of his wife Joan."
The visit had, however, results of the highest moment, not
only in regard to the career of Hooker, but in regard to English
literature and English philosophical thought. Sandys prevailed
on his father, the archbishop of York, to recommend Hooker
for presentation to the mastership of the Temple, and Hooker,
though his " wish was rather to gain a better country living,"
having agreed after some hesitation to become a candidate, the
patent conferring upon him the mastership was granted on the
1 7th of March 1584/5. .The rival candidate was Walter Travers,
a Presbyterian and evening lecturer in the same church. Being
continued in the lectureship after the appointment of Hooker,
Travers was in the habit of attempting a refutation in the even-
ing of what Hooker had spoken in the morning, Hooker again
replying on the following Sunday; so it was said " the forenoon
sermon spake Canterbury, the afternoon Geneva." On account
of the keen feeling displayed by the partisans of both, Archbishop
Whitgift deemed it prudent to prohibit the preaching of Travers,
whereupon he presented a petition to the council to have the
prohibition recalled. Hooker published an Answer to the Petition
of Mr Travers, and also printed several sermons bearing on special
points of the controversy; but, feeling strongly the unsatisfactory
nature of such an isolated and fragmentary discussion of separate
points, he resolved to compose an elaborate and exhaustive
treatise, exhibiting the _ fundamental principles by which the
question in dispute must be decided. It is probable that the
work was begun in the latter half of 1586, and he had made
considerable progress with it before, with a view to its completion,
he petitioned Whitgift to be removed to a country parsonage,
in order that, as he said, " I may keep myself in peace and
privacy, and behold God's blessing spring out of my mother
earth, and eat my own bread without oppositions." His desire
was granted in 1591 by a presentation to the rectory of Boscombe
near Salisbury. There he completed the volume containing the
first four of the proposed Eight Books of the Laws of Ecclesiastical
Polity. It was entered at Stationers' Hall on the gth of March
1592, but was not published till 1593 or 1594. In July 1595 he
was promoted by the crown to the rectory of Bishopsbourne near
Canterbury, where he lived to see the completion of the fifth
book in 1597. In the passage from London to Gravesend some
time in 1600 he caught a severe cold from which he never
recovered; but, notwithstanding great weakness and constant
suffering, he " was solicitous in his study," his one desire being
" to live to finish the three remaining books of Polity." His death
took place on the 2nd of November of the same year. A volume
professing to contain the sixth and eighth books of the Polity
was published at London in 1648, but the bulk of the sixth
book, as has been shown by Keble, is an entire deviation from
the subject on which Hooker proposed to treat, and doubtless
the genuine copy, known to have been completed, has been
lost. The seventh book, which was published in a new edition
of the work by Gauden in 1662, and the eighth book, may be
regarded as in substance the composition of Hooker; but, as,
in addition to wanting his final revision, they have been very
unskilfully edited, if they have not been manipulated for theo-
logical purposes, their statements in regard to doubtful matters
must be received with due reserve, and no reliance can be placed
on their testimony where their meaning contradicts that of
other portions of the Polity.
The conception of Hooker in his later years, which we form
from the various accessible sources, is that of a person of low
stature and not immediately impressive appearance, much bent
by the influence of sedentary and meditative habits, of quiet
and retiring manners, and discoloured in complexion and worn
and marked in feature from the hard mental toil which he had
expended on his great work. There seems, however, exaggera-
tion in Walton's statement as to the meanness of his dress;
and Walton certainly misreads his character when he portrays
him as a kind of ascetic mystic. Though he was unworldly
and simple in his desires, and engrossed in the purpose to which
he had devoted his life the " completion of the Polity " his
HOOKER, R.
673
writings indicate that he possessed a cheerful and healthy
disposition, and that he was capable of discovering enjoyment
in everyday pleasures, and of appreciating human life and cha-
racter in a wide variety of aspects. He seems to have had a special
delight in outward nature as he expressed it, he loved " to see
God's blessing spring out of his mother earth "; and he spent
much of his spare time in visiting his parishioners, his deference
towards them, if excessive, being yet mingled with a grave
dignity which rendered unwarrantable liberties impossible. As
a preacher, though singularly devoid of the qualities which win
the applause of the multitude, he always excited the interest
of the more intelligent, the breadth and finely balanced wisdom
of his thoughts and the fascination of his composition greatly
modifying the impression produced by his weak voice and
ineffective manner. Partly, doubtless, on account of his dim-
sightedness, he never removed his eye from his manuscript,
and, according to Fuller, " he may be said to have made good
music with his fiddle and stick alone, having neither pronuncia-
tion nor gesture to grace his matter."
To accede without explanation to the claim put forth for the
Ecclesiastical Polity of Hooker, that it marks an epoch in English
prose literature and English thought, would both be to do some
injustice to writers previous to him, and, if not to overestimate his
influence, to misinterpret its character. By no means can his ex-
cursions in English prose be regarded as chiefly those of a pioneer;
and not only is his intellectual position inferior to that of Shake-
speare, Spenser and Bacon, 1 who alone can be properly reckoned
as the master spirits of the age, but in reality what effect he may
have had upon the thought of his contemporaries was soon dis-
regarded and swept out of sight in the hand-to-hand struggle with
Puritanism, and his influence, so far from being immediate and
confined to one particular era, has since the reaction against Puritan-
ism been slowly and imperceptibly permeating and colouring English
thought. His work is, however, the earliest in English prose with
nough of the preserving salt of excellence to adapt it to the mental
palate of modern readers. Attempts more elaborate than those of
the old chroniclers had been made two centuries previously to employ
English prose both for narrative and for discussion ; and, a few years
before him, Roger Ascham, Sir Thomas More, Latimer, Sir Philip
Sidney, the compilers of the prayer book, and various translators of
the Bible, had in widely different departments of literature brought
to light many samples of the rich wealth of expression that was
latent in the language; but Hooker's is the first independent work
in English prose of notable power and genius, and the vigour and
grasp of its thought are not more remarkable than the felicity of its
literary style. Its more usual and obvious excellences are clearness
of expression, notwithstanding occasionally complicated methods;
great aptness and conciseness in the formation of individual clauses,'
and such a fine sense of proportion and rhythm in their arrange-
ment as almost conceals the difficulties of syntax by which he was
hampered; finished simplicity, notwithstanding a stateliness too
uniform and unbroken; a nice discrimination in the choice of words
and phrases, so as both to portray the exact shade of his meaning,
and to express each of his thoughts with that degree of emphasis
appropriate to its place in his composition. In regard to qualities
more relating to the matter than the manner we may note the subtle
and partly hidden humour; the strong enthusiasm underlying that
seemingly calm and passionless exposition of principles which continu-
ally led him away from the minutiae of temporary disputes, and has
earned for him the somewhat misleading epithet of "judicious;"
the solidity of learning, not ostentatiously displayed, but indicated
in the character and variety of his illustrations and his compre-
hensive mastery of all that relates to his subject ; the breadth of his
conceptions, and the sweep and ease of his movements in the highest
regions of thought ; the fine poetical descriptions occasionally intro-
duced, in which his eloquence attains a grave, rich and massive
harmony that compares not unfavourably with the finest prose of
Milton. His manner is, of course, defective in the flexibility and
variety characteristic of the best models of English prose literature
after the language had been enriched and perfected by long use, and
his sentences, constructed too much according to Latin usages, are
often tautological and too protracted into long concatenations of
clauses; but if, when regarded superficially, his style presents in
some respects a stiff and antiquated aspect, it yet possesses an
original and innate charm that has retained its freshness after the
lapse of nearly three centuries.
The direct interest in the Ecclesiastical Polity is now philosophical
and political rather than theological, for what theological importance
it possessed was rather in regard to the spirit and method in which
theo ogy should be discussed than in regard to the decision of strictly
theological points. Hooker bases his reasoning on principles which
1 If Bacon was the author of The Christian Paradoxes, his philo-
sophical standpoint in reference to religion was not only less advanced
than that of Hooker, but in a sense directly opposed to it.
XIII. 22
he discovered in Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, but the intellectual
atmosphere of his age was different from that which surrounded
them ; he was acted upon by new and more various impulses enabling
him to imbibe more thoroughly the spirit of Greek thought which
was the source of their inspiration, and thus to reach a higher and
freer region than scholasticism, and in a sense to inaugurate modern
philosophy in England. It may be admitted that his principles are
only partially and in some degree capriciously wrought out that if
he is not under the dominion of intellectual tendencies leading to
opposite results there are occasional blanks and gaps in his argument
where he seems sometimes to be groping after a meaning which he
cannot fully grasp; but he is often charged with obscurity simply
because readers of various theological schools, beholding in his
principles what seem the outline and justification of their own ideas,
are disappointed when they find that these outlines instead of ac-
quiring as they narrowly examine them the full and definite form of
their anticipations, widen out into a region beyond their notions and
sympathies, and therefore from their point of view enveloped in mist
and shade. It is the exposition of philosophical principles in the first
and second books of the Polity, and not the application of these
principles in the remaining books that gives the work its standard
place in English literature. It was intended to be an answer to the
attacks of the Presbyterians on the Episcopalian polity and customs,
but no attempt is made directly to oust Presbyterianism from the
place it then held in the Church of England. The work must rather
be regarded as a remonstrance against the narrow ground chosen by
the Presbyterians for their basis of attack, Hooker's exact position
being that " a necessity of polity and regiment may be held in all
churches without holding any form to be necessary."
The general purpose of his reasoning is to vindicate Episcopacy
from objections that had been urged against it, but he attains a result
which has other and wider consequences than this. The fundamental
principle on which he bases his reasoning is the unity and all-
embracing character of law law " whose seat," he beautifully says,
" is the bosom of God, whose voice the harmony of the world." Law
as operative in nature, as regulating each man's individual character
and actions, as seen in the formations of societies and governments
is equally a manifestation and development of the divine order
according to which God Himself acts, is the expression in various
forms of the divine reason. He makes a distinction between natural
and positive laws, the one being eternal and immutable, the other
varying according to external necessity and expediency; and he
includes all the forms of government under laws that are positive and
therefore alterable according to circumstances. Their application is
to be determined by reason, reason enlightened and strengthened by
every variety of knowledge, discipline and experience. The leading
feature in his system is the high place assigned to reason, for, though
affirming that certain truths necessary to salvation could be made
known only by special divine revelation, he yet elevates reason into
the criterion by which these truths are to be judged, and the standard
to determine what in revelation is temporal and what eternal. " It
is not the word of God itself," he says, " which doth or possibly can
assure us that we do well to think it His word." At the same time he
saves himself from the dangers of abstract and rash theorizing by a
deep and absolute regard for facts, the diligent and accurate study of
which he makes of the first importance to the proper use of reason.
" The general and perpetual voice of men is," he says, " as the
sentence of God Himself. For that which all men have at all times
learned, nature herself must needs have taught ; and, God being the
author of nature, her voice is but His instrument." Applying his
principles to man individually, the foundation of morality is, ac-
cording to Hooker, immutable, and rests " on that law which God from
the beginning hath set Himself to do all things by " ; this law is to be
discovered by reason; and the perfection which reason teaches us to
strive after is stated, with characteristic breadth of conception and
regard to the facts of human nature, to be " a triple perfection : first
a sensual, consisting in those things which very life itself requireth,
either as necessary supplements, or as beauties or ornaments there-
of; then an intellectual, consisting in those things which none
underneath man is either capable of or acquainted with; lastly, a
spiritual or divine, consisting in those things whereunto wetend by
supernatural means here, but cannot here attain unto them.
Applying his principles to man as a member of a community, he
assigns practically the same origin and sanctions to ecclesiastical as
to civil government. His theory of government forms the basis of the
Treatise on Civil Government by Locke, although Locke developed
the theory in a way that Hooker would not have sanctioned. The
force and justification of government Hooker derives from public
approbation, either given directly by the parties immediately
concerned, or indirectly through inheritance from their ancestors.
" Sith men," he says, naturally have no full and perfect power to
command whole politic multitudes of men, therefore utterly without
our consent we could in such sort be at no man's commandment
living. And to be commanded we do consent, when that society
whereof we are part hath at any time before consented, without
revoking the same after, by the like universal agreement." His
theory as he stated it is in various of its aspects and applications
liable to objection; but taken as a whole it is the first philosophical
statement of the principles which, though disregarded in the sue
ceeding age, have since regulated political progress in England,
674
HOOKER, T. HOOKER, SIR W. J.
and gradually modified its constitution. One of the corollaries of his
principles is his theory of the relation of church and state, according
to which, with the qualifications implied in his theory of govern-
ment, he asserts the royal supremacy in matters of religion, and
identifies the church and commonwealth as but different aspects of
the same government.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A life of Hooker by Dr Gauden was published in
his edition of Hooker's works (London, 1662). To correct the errors
in this life Walton wrote another, which was published in the 2nd
edition of Hooker's works in 1666. The standard modern edition
of Hooker's works is that by Keble, which first appeared in 1836, and
has since been several times reprinted (1888 edition, revised by Dean
Church and Bishop Paget). The first book of the Laws of Ecclesi-
astical Polity was edited for the Clarendon Press by Dean R W
Church (1868-1876). (T. F. H.)
HOOKER, THOMAS (1586-1647), New England theologian,
was born, probably on the 7th of July 1586, at Marfield, in the
parish of Tilton, County of Leicester, England. He graduated
B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611 at Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
the intellectual centre of Puritanism, remained there as a fellow
for a few years, and then preached in the parish of Esher in
Surrey. About 1626 he became lecturer to the church of St
Mary at Chelmsford, Essex, delivering on market days and
Sunday afternoons evangelical addresses which were notable
for their moral fervour. In 1629 Archbishop Laud took measures
to suppress church lectureships, which were an innovation of
Puritanism. Hooker was placed under bond and retired to
Little Baddow, 4 m. from Chelmsford. In 1630 he was cited
to appear before the Court of High Commission, but he forfeited
his bond and fled to Holland, whence in 1633 he emigrated
to the Colony of Massachusetts Bay in America, and became
pastor at Newtowne (now Cambridge), Mass., of a company
of Puritans who had arrived from England in the previous year
and in expectation of his joining them were called " Mr Hooker's
Company." Hooker seems to have been a leader in the formation
of that sentiment of discontent with the Massachusetts govern-
ment which resulted in the founding of Connecticut. He publicly
criticized the h'mitation of suffrage to church members, and,
according to a contemporary historian, William Hubbard
(General History of New England), " after Mr Hooker's coming
over it was observed that many of the freemen grew to be very
jealous of their liberties." He was a leader of the emigrants
who in 1636 founded Hartford, Connecticut. In a sermon before
the Connecticut General Court of 1638, he declared that " the
choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God's
own allowance " and that " they who have the power to appoint
officers and magistrates, it is in their power, also, to set the
bounds and limitations ol the power and place unto which they
call them." Though this theory was in advance of the age,
Hooker had no idea of the separation of church and state
" the privilege of election, which belongs to the people," he said,
must be exercised " according to the blessed will and law of God."
He also defended the right of magistrates to convene synods,
and in the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639), which
he probably framed, the union of church and state is presupposed.
Hooker was pastor of the Hartford church until his death on
the 7th of July 1647. He was active in the negotiations which
preceded the formation of the New England Confederation
in 1643. In the same year he attended the meeting of Puritan
ministers at Boston, whose object was to defend Congrega-
tionalism, and he wrote a Survey of the Summe of Church
Discipline (1648) in justification of the New England church
system. His other works deal chiefly with the experimental
phases of religion, especially the experience precedent to con-
version. In The Soule's Humiliation (1637), he assigns as a test
of conversion a willingness of the convert to be damned if
that be God's will, thus anticipating the doctrine of Samuel
Hopkins in the following century.
See George L. Walker's Thomas Hooker (New York, 1891); the
appendix of which contains a bibliography of Hooker's published
works.
HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785-1865), English
botanist, was born at Norwich on the 6th of July 1785. His
father, Joseph Hooker of Exeter, a member of the same family
as the celebrated Richard Hooker, devoted much of his time
to the study of German literature and the cultivation of curious
plants. The son was educated at the high school of Norwich,
on leaving which his independent means enabled him to travel
and to take up as a recreation the study of natural history,
especially ornithology and entomology. He subsequently con-
fined his attention to botany, on the recommendation of
Sir James E. Smith, whom he had consulted respecting a rare
moss. His first botanical expedition was made in Iceland, in
the summer of 1809, at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks;
but the natural history specimens which he collected, with
his notes and drawings, were lost on the homeward voyage
through the burning of the ship, and the young botanist himself
had a narrow escape with his life. A good memory, however,
aided him to publish an account of the island", and of its in-
habitants and flora (Tour in Iceland, 1809), privately circulated
in 1811, and reprinted in 1813. In 1810-1811 he made extensive
preparations, and sacrifices which proved financially serious,
with a view to accompany Sir R. Brownrigg to Ceylon, but the
disturbed state of the island led to the abandonment of the
projected expedition. In 1814 he spent nine months in botanizing
excursions in France, Switzerland and northern Italy, and in
the following year he married the eldest daughter of Mr Dawson
Turner, banker, of Yarmouth. Settling at Halesworth, Suffolk,
he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which
became of world-wide renown among botanists. In 1816
appeared the British Jungermanniae, his first scientific work,
which was succeeded by a new edition of William Curtis's
Flora Londinensis, for which he wrote the descriptions (1817-
1828); by a description of the Plantae cryptogamicae of A. von
Humboldt and A. Bonpland; by the Muscologia Britannica,
a very complete account of the mosses of Great Britain and
Ireland, prepared in conjunction with Dr T. Taylor (1818);
and by his Musci exotici (2 vols., 1818-1820), devoted to new
foreign mosses and other cryptogamic plants. In 1820 he
accepted the regius professorship of botany in Glasgow University
where he soon became popular as a lecturer, his style being both
clear and ready. The following year he brought out the Flora
Scotica, in which the natural method of arrangement of British
plants was given with the artificial. Subsequently he pre-
pared or edited many works, the more important being the
following:
Botanical Illustrations (1822) ; Exotic Flora, indicating such of the
specimens as are deserving cultivation (3 vols., 1822-1827); Account
of Sabine's Arctic Plants (1824) ; Catalogue of Plants in the Glasgow
Botanic Garden (1825); the Botany of Parry's Third Voyage (1826);
The Botanical Magazine (38 vols., 1827-1865); Icones Filicum, in
concert with Dr R. K. Greville (2 vols., 1829-1831); British Flora,
of which several editions appeared, undertaken with Dr G. A. W.
Arnott, &c. (1830); British Flora Cryptogamia (1833); Characters oj
Genera from the British Flora (1830); Flora Boreali- Americana (2
vols., 1840), being the botany of British North America collected in
Sir J. Franklin's voyage; The Journal of Botany (4 vols., 1830-1842) ;
Companion to the Botanical Magazine (2 vols., 1835-1836); Icones
plantarum (10 vols., 1837-1854); the Botany of Beechey's Voyage to
the Pacific and Behring's Straits (with Dr Arnott, 1841) ; the Genera
Filicum (1842), from the original coloured drawings of F. Bauer, with
additions and descriptive letterpress ; The London Journal of Botany
(7 vols., 1842-1848); Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of
the Erebus and Terror (1843); Species filicum (5 vols., 1846-1864),
the standard work on this subject; A Century of Orchideae (1846):
Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany (9 vols., 1849-1857)
Niger Flora (1849); Victoria Regm (1851); Museums of Economic
Botany at Kew (1855); Filices exoticae (1857-1859); The British
Ferns (1861-1862); A Century of Ferns (1854); A Second Century
of Ferns (1860-1861).
It was mainly by Hooker's exertions that botanists were
appointed to the government expeditions. While his works
were in progress his herbarium received large and valuable
additions from all parts of the globe, and his position as a botanist
was thus vastly improved. He was made a knight of Hanover
in 1836 and in 1841 he was appointed director of the Royal
Botanical Gardens at Kew, on the resignation of W. T. Aiton.
Under his direction the gardens expanded from n to 75 acres,
with an arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were
erected, and a museum of economic botany was established.
He was engaged on the Synopsis filicum with J. G. Baker
HOOLE HOOPER
675
when he was attacked by a throat disease then epidemic at
Kew, where he died on the i2th of August 1865.
HOOLE, JOHN (1727-1803), English translator and dramatist,
son of a watchmaker and machinist, Samuel Hoole, was born at
Moorfields, London, in December 1727. He was educated at
a private school at Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, kept by James
Bennet, who edited Ascham's English works. At the age of
seventeen he became a clerk in the accountants' department
of the East India House, and before 1767 became one of the
auditors of Indian accounts. His leisure hours he devoted to
the study of Latin and especially Italian, and began writing
translations of the chief works of the Italian poets. He pub-
lished translations of the Jerusalem Delivered of Tasso in 1763,
the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto in 1773-1783, the Dramas of
Metastasio in 1767, and Rinaldo, an early work of Tasso, in
1792. Among his plays are: Cyrus (1768), Timanthes (1770)
and Cleonice, Princess of Bilhynia (1775), none of which achieved
success. The verses of Hoole were praised by Johnson, with
whom he was on terms of intimacy, but, though correct, smooth
and flowing, they cannot be commended for any other merit.
His translation of the Orlando Furioso was superseded by the
version (1823-1831) of W. S. Rose. Hoole was also the friend
of the Quaker poet John Scott of Amwell (1730-1783), whose
life he wrote; it was prefixed to Scott's Critical Essays (1785).
In 1773 he was promoted to be chief auditor of Indian accounts,
an office which he resigned in 1785. In 1786 he retired to the
parsonage of Abinger, Surrey; and afterwards lived at Tenterden,
Kent, dying at Dorking on the 2nd of April 1803.
See Anecdotes of the Life of the late Mr John Hoole, by his surviving
brother, Samuel Hoole (London, 1803). Some of his plays are re-
printed in J. Bell's British Theatre (1797).
HOOLIGAN, the generally accepted modern term for a young
street ruffian or rowdy. It seems to have been first applied to
the young street ruffians of the South-East of London about
1890, but though popular in the district, did not attract general
attention till later, when authentic information of its origin
was lost, but it appears that the most probable source was a
comic song which was popular in the lower-class music-hall
in the late 'eighties or early 'nineties, which described the doings
of a rowdy family named Hooligan (i.e. Irish Houlihan). A
comic character with the same name also appears to have been
the central figure in a series of adventures running through
an obscure English comic paper of about the same date, and
also in a similar New York paper, where his confrere in the
adventures is a German named Schneider (see Notes and Queries,
gth series, vol. ii. pp. 227 and 316, 1898, and loth series, vol. vii. p.
115, 1901). In other countries the " hooligan " finds his counter-
part. The Parisian Apache, so self-styled after the North
American Indian tribe, is a much more dangerous character;
mere rowdyism, the characteristic of the English " hooligan,"
is replaced by murder, robbery and outrage. An equally
dangerous class of young street ruffian is the " hoodlum " of
the United States of America; this term arose in San Francisco
in 1870, and thence spread. Many fanciful origins of the name
have been given, for some of which see Manchester (N.H.)
Notes and Queries, September 1883 (cited in the New English
Dictionary). The " plug-ugly " of Baltimore is another name
for the same class. More familiar is the Australian " larrikin,"
which apparently came into use about 1870 in Melbourne.
The story that the word represents an Irish policeman's pro-
nunciation of " larking " is a mere invention. It is probably
only an adaptation of the Irish " Larry," short for Lawrence.
Others suggest that it is a corruption of the slang Leary Kinchen,
i.e. knowing, wide-awake child.
HOOPER, JOHN (d. 1555), bishop of Gloucester and Worcester
and martyr, was born in Somerset about the end of the isth
century and graduated B.A. at Oxford in 1519- He is said to
have then entered the Cistercian monastery at Gloucester;
but in 1538 a John Hooper appears among the names of the
Black friars at Gloucester and also among the White friars at
Bristol who surrendered their houses to the king. A John Hooper
was likewise canon of Wormesley priory in Herefordshire;
but identification of any of these with the future bishop is doubt-
ful. The Greyfriars' Chronicle says that Hooper was " sometime
a white monk "; and in the sentence pronounced against him
by Gardiner he is described as " olim monachus de Cliiia Ordinis
Cisterciensis," i.e. of the Cistercian house at Cleeve in Somerset.
On the other hand, at his deprivation he was not accused, like
the other married bishops who had been monks or friars, of
infidelity to the vow of chastity; and his own letters to Bullinger
are curiously reticent on this part of his history. He there
speaks of himself as being the only son and heir of his father
and as fearing to be deprived of his inheritance if he adopted
the reformed religion. Before 1546 he had secured employment
in the household of Sir Thomas Arundell, a man of influential
connexions. Hooper speaks of himself at this period as being
" a courtier and living too much of a court life in the palace
of our king." But he chanced upon some of Zwingli's works
and Bullinger's commentaries on St Paul's epistles; and after
some molestation in England and some correspondence with
Bullinger on the -lawfulness of complying against his conscience
with the established religion, he determined to secure what
property he could and take refuge on the continent. He had
an adventurous journey, being twice imprisoned, driven about
for three months on the sea, and reaching Strassburg in the
midst of the Schmalkaldic war. There he married Anne de
Tserclaes, and later on he proceeded by way of Basle to Zurich,
where his Zwinglian convictions were confirmed by constant
intercourse with Zwingli's successor, Bullinger.
It was not until May 1549, after he had published various
works at Zurich, that Hooper again arrived in England. He
at once became the principal champion of Swiss Protestantism
against the Lutherans as well as the Catholics, and was appointed
chaplain to Protector Somerset. Somerset's fall in the following
October endangered Hooper's position, and for a time he was
in hourly dread of imprisonment and martyrdom, more especially
as he had taken a prominent part against Gardiner and Bonner,
whose restoration to their sees was now anticipated. Warwick,
afterwards duke of Northumberland, however, overcame the
reactionaries in the Council, and early in 1550 the Reformation
resumed its course. Hooper became Warwick's chaplain, and
after a course of Lent lectures before the king he was offered
the bishopric of Gloucester. This led to a prolonged contro-
versy; Hooper had already denounced the " Aaronic vestments "
and the oath by the saints prescribed in the new Ordinal; and
he refused to be consecrated according to its rites. Cranmer,
Ridley, Bucer and others urged him to submit in vain; confine-
ment to his house by order of the Council proved equally in-
effectual; and it was not until 'he had spent some weeks in the
Fleet prison that the " father of nonconformity " consented
to conform, and Hooper submitted to consecration with the
legal ceremonies (March 8, 1551).
Once seated in his bishopric Hooper set about his episcopal
duties with exemplary vigour. His visitation of his diocese
(printed in English Hist. Rev. Jan. 1904, pp. 98-121) revealed
a condition of almost incredible ignorance among his clergy.
Fewer than half could say the Ten Commandments; some could
not even repeat the Lord's Prayer in English. Hooper did his
best in the time at his disposal; but in less than a year the
bishopric of Gloucester was reduced to an archdeaconry and
added to Worcester, of which Hooper was made bishop in succes-
sion to Nicholas Heath (q.v.). He was opposed to Northumber-
land's plot for the exclusion of Mary from the throne; but this
did not save him from speedy imprisonment. He was sent to the
Fleet on the ist of September 1553 on a doubtful charge of
debt to the queen; but the real cause was his stanchness to a re-
ligion which was still by law established. Edward VI. 's legislation
was, however, repealed in the following month, and in March
1554 Hooper was deprived of his bishopric as a married man.
There was still no statute by which he could be condemned to
the stake, but Hooper was kept in prison; and the revival of
the heresy acts in December 1554 was swiftly followed by
execution. On the zgth of January 1555, Hooper, Rogers,
Rowland Taylor and others were condemned by Gardiner and
HOOPOE HOORN
degraded by Bonner. Hooper was sent down to suffer at
Gloucester, where he was burnt on the gth of February, meeting
his fate with steadfast courage and unshaken conviction.
Hooper was the first of the bishops to suffer because his
Zwinglian views placed him further beyond the pale than
Cranmer, Ridley and Latimer. He represented the extreme
reforming party in England. While he expressed dissatisfaction
with some of Calvin's earlier writings, he approved of the Con-
sensus Tigurinus negotiated in 1549 between the Zwinglians
and Calvinists of Switzerland; and it was this form of religion
that he laboured to spread in England against the wishes of
Cranmer, Ridley, Bucer, Peter Martyr and other more con-
servative theologians. He would have reduced episcopacy to
narrow limits; and his views had considerable influence on
the Puritans of Elizabeth's reign, when many editions of Hooper's
various works were published.
Two volumes of Hooper's writings are included in the Parker
Society's publications and anocher edition appeared at Oxford in
1855. See also Cough's General Index to Parker Soc. Publ. ; Strype's
Works (General Index); Foxe's Acts and Monuments, ed. Townsend;
Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. State Papers, " Domestic" Series;
Nichols's Lit. Remains of Edward VI. ; Burnet, Collier, Dixon,
Froude and Gairdner's histories; Pollard's Cranmer; Diet. Nat.
Biogr. (A. F. P.)
HOOPOE (Fr. Huppe, Lat. Upupa, Gr. roi/< all names
bestowed apparently from its cry), a bird long celebrated in
literature, and conspicuous by its variegated plumage and its
large erectile crest, 1 the Upupa epops of naturalists, which is
the type of the very peculiar family Upupidae, placed by Huxley
in his group Coccygomorphae, but considered by Dr Murie (Ibis,
1873, p. 208) to deserve separate rank as Epopomorphae. This
species has an exceedingly wide range in the Old World, being
a regular summer-visitant to the whole of Europe, in some parts
of which it is abundant, as well as to Siberia, mostly retiring
Hoopoe.
southwards in autumn to winter in equatorial Africa and India,
though it would seem to be resident throughout the year in
north-eastern Africa and in China. Its power of wing ordinarily
seems to be feeble; but it is capable of very extended flight, as
is testified by its wandering habits (for it occasionally makes
its appearance in places very far removed from its usual haunts),
and also by the fact that when pursued by a falcon it will rapidly
mount to an extreme height and frequently effect its escape from
the enemy. About the size of a thrush, with a long, pointed
and slightly arched bill, its head and neck are of a golden-buff
the former adorned by the crest already mentioned, which begins
to rise from the forehead and consists of broad feathers, gradually
increasing in length, tipped with black and having a subterminal
bar of yellowish-white. The upper part of the back is of a vinous-
1 Hence the secondary meaning of the French word huppe a crest
or tuft (cf. Littre, Dict.franfais, i. 2067.
grey, and the scapulars and flight-feathers are black, broadly
barred with white tinged in the farmer with buff. The tail is
black with a white chevron, marking off about the distal third
part of its length. The legs and feet are as well adapted for
running or walking as for perching, and the scutellations are
continued round the whole of the tarsi. Chiefly on account
of this character, which is also possessed by the larks, Sundevall
(Tentamen, pp. 53-55) united the Upupidae and Alaudidae in
the same " cohors " Holaspideae. Comparative anatomy, how-
ever, forbids its being taken to signify any real affinity between
these groups, and the resemblance on this point, which is by no
means so striking as that displayed by the form of the bill and the
coloration in certain larks (of the genus Certhilauda, for instance),
must be ascribed to analogy merely.
Pleasing as is the appearance of the hoopoe as it fearlessly
parades its showy plumage, some of its habits are much the
reverse. All observers agree in stating that it delights to find
its food among filth of the most abominable description, and this
especially in its winter-quarters. But where it breeds, its nest,
usually in the hole of a tree or of a wall, is not only partly com-
posed of the foulest material, but its condition becomes worse as
incubation proceeds, for the hen scarcely ever leaves her eggs,
being assiduously fed by the cock as she sits; and when the
young are hatched, their faeces are not removed by their parents, 2
as is the case with most birds, but are discharged in the immediate
neighbourhood of the nest, the unsanitary condition of which
can readily be imagined. Worms, grubs, and insects generally
form the hoopoes' food, and upon it they get so fat in autumn
that they are esteemed a delicate morsel in some of the countries
of southern Europe, and especially by the Christian population
of Constantinople. 3
Not a year passes but the hoopoe makes its appearance in
some part or other of the British Islands, most often in spring,
and if unmolested would doubtless stop to breed in them, and
a few instances are known in which it has done so. But its
remarkable plumage always attracts attention, and it is generally
shot down so soon as it is seen, and before it has time to begin a
nest. Eight or nine so-called species of the genus have been
described, but of them the existence of five only has been recog-
nized by Sharpe and Dresser (Birds of Europe, pt. vii.). Besides
the Upupa epops above treated, these are U. indica, resident
in India and Ceylon; U. longirostris, which seems to be the form
of the Indo-Chinese countries; U. marginata, peculiar to Mada-
gascar; and U. africana or U. minor of some writers, which
inhabits South Africa to the Zambesi on the east and Benguela on
the west coast. In habits and appearance they all resemble
the best-known and most widely-spread species. 4 (A. N.)
HOORN, a seaport in the province of North Holland, Holland^
on a bay of the Zuider Zee called the Hoornerhop, and a junction
station 235 m. by rail N. by E. of Amsterdam, on the railway
to Enkhuizen, with which it is also connected by steam tramway.
Pop. (1900) 10,647. Hoorn is distinguished by its old-world
air and the beauty and interest of its numerous gabled houses
of the i6th and i7th centuries. Many of these are decorated
with inscriptions and bas-reliefs, some of which commemorate
the battle on the Zuider Zee in 1573, in which the Beggars
defeated the Spaniards under Count Bossu. Walks and gardens
now surround the town in the place of the old city walls, but a few
towers and gateways adorned with various old coats of arms
are still standing. The fine Gothic bastion tower overlooking
the harbour was built in 1532; the East gate not later than
1578. Among the public buildings of special interest are the
picturesque St John's hospital (1563), now used for military
2 This indeed is denied by Naumann, but by him alone; and the
statement in the text is confirmed by many eye-witnesses.
3 Under the name of Dukipath, in the authorized version of the
Bible translated " lapwing " (Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18), the hoopoe
was accounted unclean by the Jewish law. Arabs have a great
reverence for the bird, imparting to it marvellous medicinal and other
qualities, and making use of its head in all their charms (cf. Tristram,
Nat. Hist, of the Bible, pp. 208, 209).
4 The genera Rhinopomastus and Irrisor are generally placed in the
Family Upupidae, but Dr Murie, after an exhaustive examination
of their osteology, regards them as forming a group of equal value.
HOOSICK FALLS HOP
677
purposes; the old mint; the hospital for aged men and women
(beginning of lyth century); the weigh-house (1609); the town
hall, in which the states of West Friesland formerly met; and
the old court-house, which dates from the beginning of the
1 7th century, though parts of it are older, containing a modern
museum and some early portraits. There are also various
charitable and educational institutions, Protestant and Roman
Catholic churches and a synagogue. The extensive foreign
commerce which Hoorn carried on in the i6th and iyth centuries
has almost entirely vanished, but there is still a considerable
trade with other parts of the Netherlands, especially in cheese
and cattle. The chief industries include gold and silver work,
and there are also tobacco factories, saw-mills and some small
boat-building yards, a considerable number of vessels being
engaged in the Zuider Zee fisheries.
Hoorn, latinized as Horna or Hornum, has existed at least
from the first part of the I4th century, as it is mentioned in a
document of the year 1311, five years earlier than the date
usually assigned for its foundation. In 1356 it received municipal
privileges from Count William V. of Holland, and in 1426 it was
surrounded with walls. It was at Hoorn in 1416 that the first
great net was made for the herring fishery, an industry which
long proved an abundant source of wealth to the town. During
the isth century Hoorn shared in the troubles occasioned by
the different contending factions; in 1569 the Spanish forces
entered the town; but in 1572 it cast in its lot with the states
of the Netherlands. In the i6th century it was a commercial
centre, important for its trade, fisheries and breweries. A
company of commerce and navigation was formed at Hoorn in
1720, and the admiralty offices and storehouses remained here
until their removal to Medemblik in 1795. The English under
Sir Ralph Abercromby took possession of the town in 1799,
and in 1811 it suffered severely from the French. Among the
celebrities of Hoorn are William Schouten, who discovered in
1616 the passage round Cape Horn, or Hoorn, as he named it in
honour of his birthplace; Abel Janszoon Tasman, whose fame
is associated with Tasmania; and Jan Pietersz Coen, governor-
general of the Dutch East Indies.
HOOSICK FALLS, a village of Rensselaer county, New York,
U.S.A., in the township of Hoosick, 27 m. N.E. of Troy, on the
Hoosick river. Pop. of the village (1890) 7014; (1900) 5671, of
whom 1092 were foreign-born; (1905) 5251; (1910) 5532; of the
township (1900) 8631; (1910) 8315. Hoosick Falls is served by
the Boston & Maine Railroad, and is connected by electric
railway with Bennington, Vermont, about 8 m. E. The falls of
the Hoosick river furnish water-power for the manufacture of
agricultural machinery by the Walter A. Wood Mowing and
Reaping Machine Co., which dates from 1866, the business having
been started in 1852 by Walter Abbott Wood (1815-1892),
who was a Republican representative in Congress in 1879-1883.
Other manufactures are knit goods, shirts and collars and paper-
making machinery. Hoosick Falls was settled about 1688 by
Dutch settlers settlers from Connecticut and Massachusetts
came after 1763 and it was first incorporated in 1827. Three
miles N.E. of the village, at Walloomsac, in the township of
Hoosick, the battle of Bennington was fought, on the i6th of
August 1777.
HOP (Ger. Hopfen, Fr. houblon), Humulus Lupulus, L., an
herbaceous twining plant, belonging to the natural order Can-
nabinaceae, which is by some botanists included in the larger
group called Urticaceae by Endlicher. It is of common occur-
rence in hedges and thickets in the southern counties of England,
but is believed not to be native in Scotland. On the European
continent it is distributed from Greece to Scandinavia, and
extends through the Caucasus and Central Asia to the Altai
Mountains. It is common, but doubtfully indigenous, in the
northern and western states of North America, and has been
introduced into Brazil, Australia and the Himalayas.
It is a perennial plant, producing annually several long
twining roughish striated stems, which twist from left to right,
are often 15 to 20 ft. long and climb freely over hedges and
bushes. The roughness of stem and leaves is due to lines of
strong hooked hairs, which help the plant to cling to its support.
The leaves are stalked, opposite, 3-5 lobed, and coarsely serrate,
and bear a general resemblance to those of the vine, but are, as
well as the whole plant, rough to the touch; the upper leaves are
sometimes scarcely divided, or quite entire. The stipules are
between the leaf-stalks, each consisting of two lateral ones united,
or rarely with the tips free. The male and female flowers are
produced on distinct plants. The male inflorescence (fig. i, A)
forms a panicle; the flowers consist of a small greenish five-parted
perianth (a) enclosing five stamens, whose anthers (b) open by
terminal slits. The female inflorescence (fig. i, B) is less con-
spicuous in the young state. The catkin or strobile consists of a
number of small acute bracts, with two sessile ovaries at their
base, each subtended by a rounded bractlet (c). Both the bracts
and bractlets enlarge greatly during the development of the
ovary, and form, when fully grown, the membranous scales of the
strobile (fig. 2, a); they are known as " petals " by hop-growers.
The bracts can then only be distinguished from the bractlets
by being rather more acute and more strongly veined. The
FIG. i. Male (A) and Female (B) Inflorescence of the Hop.
perianth (fig. i,d) is short, cup-shaped, undivided and closely
applied to the ovary, which it ultimately encloses. In the young
strobile the two purple hairy styles (e) of each ovary project
beyond the bracts. The ovary contains a single ovule (fig. i.f)
which -becomes in the fruit an exalbuminous seed, containing
a spirally-coiled embryo (fig. 2, b). The light dusty pollen is
carried by the wind from the male to the female flowers.
The ovary and the base of the bracts are covered with a
yellowish powder, consisting of minute sessile grains, called
lupulin or lupulinic glands. These glands (fig. 2, c) are from
f Jir to xir i n - m diameter, like flattened subovate little saucers in
shape, and attached to a short pedicel. The upper or hemispheri-
cal portion bears a delicate continuous membrane, the cuticle,
which becomes raised by the secretion beneath it of the yellowish
lupulin. The stalk is not perceptible in the gland as found in
commerce. When fresh the gland is seen to be filled with a
yellowish or dark brown liquid; this on drying contracts in bulk
and forms a central mass. It is to these lupulinic glands that
the medicinal properties of the hop are chiefly due. By careful
sifting about i oz. may be obtained from i Ib of hops, but the
East Kent variety is said to yield more than the Sussex hops.
6 7 8
HOP
In hop gardens a few male plants, usually three or four to an
acre, are sometimes planted, that number being deemed sufficient
to fertilize the female flowers. The blossoms are produced in
August, and the strobiles are fit for gathering from the beginning
of September to the middle of October, according to the weather.
The cultivation of hops for use in the manufacture of beer
dates from an early period. In the 8th and pth centuries hop
gardens, called " humularia " or " humuleta," existed in France
and Germany. Until the i6th century, however, hops appear
to have been grown in a very fitful manner, and to a limited
extent, generally only for private consumption; but after
the beginning of the i7th century the cultivation increased
rapidly. The plant was introduced into England from Flanders
in 1525; and in America its cultivation was encouraged by
legislative enactments in 1657. Formerly several plants were
used as well as hops to season ale, hence the name " alehoof "
for Nepeta Glechoma, and " alecost " for Balsamila vulgaris.
The sweet gale, Myrica Gale, and the sage, Salvia officinalis,
FIG. 2. Fruit of Hop.
were also similarly employed. Various hop substitutes, in the
form of powder, have been offered in commerce of late years,
most of which appear to have quassia as a chief ingredient.
The young tender tops of the hop are in Belgium cut off in spring
and eaten like asparagus, and are forced from December to
February.
Medical Use. The principal constituents of the strobiles are
lupulin, one of the few liquid alkaloids; lupulinic acid, a bitter
crystalline body, soluble in ether, which is without any other phar-
macological action than that common to bitter substances; Valerol,
a volatile oil which in old hops undergoes a change to the malodorous
body valerianic acid; resin; trimethylamine; a peculiar modifica-
tion of tannin known as humulotannic acid; and a sesqui-terpene.
The British pharmacopoeia contains two preparations of the strobiles,
an infusion (dose, 1-2 oz.) and a tincture (dose, j-l drachm). The
glands obtained from the strobiles are known in pharmacy as lupulin,
a name which tends to confusion with that of the alkaloid. They
occur in commerce as a bright yellow-brown powder, seen under a
lens to consist of minute glandular particles. The dose of this so-
called lupulin is 2-5 grains. From it there is prepared the Tinctura
Lupulinae of the United States pharmacopoeia, which is given in
doses of 10-60 minims. Furthermore, there are prepared hop pillows,
designed to procure sleep; but these act, when at all, mainly by
suggestion. The pharmacological action of hops is determined first
by the volatile oil they contain, which has the actions of its class.
Similarly the lupulinic acid may act as a bitter tonic. The prepara-
tions of hops, when taken internally, are frequently hypnotic, though
unfortunately different specimens vary considerably in composition,
none of the preparations being standardized. It is by no means
certain whether the hypnotic action of hops is due to the alkaloid
lupulin or possibly to the volatile oil which they contain. Medical
practice, however, is acquainted with many more trustworthy and
equally safe hypnotics. The bitter acid of hops may endow beer
containing it with a certain value in cases of impaired gastric
digestion, and to the hypnotic principle of hops may partly be
ascribed as well as to the alcohol the soporific action of beer
in the case of some individuals.
HOP PRODUCTION IN ENGLAND l
The cultivation of hops in the British Isles is restricted to
England, where it is practically confined to half-a-dozen counties
four in the south-eastern and two in the west-midland districts.
In 1901 the English crop was reported by the Board of Agri-
culture to occupy 51,127 acres. The official returns as to
acreage do not extend back beyond 1868, in which year the total
area was reported to be 64,488 acres. The largest area recorded
since then was 71,789 acres in 1878; the smallest was 44,938
acres in 1907. The extent to which the areas of hops in the
chief hop-growing counties vary from year to year is sufficiently
indicated in Table I., which shows the annual acreages over a
period of thirteen years, 1895 to I 97- The proportions in
which the acres of hops are distributed amongst the counties
concerned vary but little year by year, and as a rule over 60%
belongs to Kent.
TABLE I. Hop Areas of England 1895 to 1907. Acres.
Kent.
Hereford.
Sussex.
Worcester.
Hants.
Surrey.
1895
35-oi8
7553
7489
4024
2875
1783
1896
33.300
6895
5908
3800
2494
1623
1897
31,661
6542
5174
3591
2306
1416
1898
30,941
6651
4829
3567
2263
1313
1899
31-988
7227
4949
3788
2319
1388
1900
3I-5I4
7287
4823
3964
2231
1300
1901
31-242
7497
4800
4029
2133
1232
1902
29,649
6915
4541
3779
2003
969
1903
29,933
6851
4454
3697
1920
901
1904
29,841
6767
4474
3752
1900
877
1905
30,655
6851
4647
3807
1978
843
1906
29,296
6481
4379
3672
1939
777
1907
28,169
6i43
4243
3622
1842
744
Less than 200 acres in all are annually grown in the other hop-
growing counties of England, these being Shropshire, Gloucester-
shire and Suffolk.
The average yield per acre in cwt. in the six counties during
the decade 1897 to 1906 was as follows:
TABLE II.
Kent.
Hereford.
Sussex.
Worcester.
Hants.
Surrey.
9-31
7-14
9-41
7-79
8-78
7-23
Table III. shows the average acreage, yield and total home
produce of England during the decades 1888-1897 and 1898-
1907.
TABLE III.
Periods.
Average Annual
Acreage.
Average Annual
Yield per acre
(cwt.).
Average Annual
Home Produce
(cwt.).
1888-1897
1898-1907
56,370
48,841
7-76
8-84
438,215
434.567
The wide fluctuations in the home production of hops are worthy
of note, as they exercise a powerful influence upon market
prices. The largest crop between 1885, the first year in which
figures relating to production were collected, and 1907 was
1 See Report from the Select Committee on the Hop Industry
(London, 1908).
HOP
6 79
that of 776,144 cwt. in 1886, and the smallest that of 281,291
cwt. in 1888, the former being more than 25 times the size of
the latter. The crop of 1899, estimated at 661,373 cwt., was so
large that prices receded to an extent such as to leave no margin
of profit to the great body of growers, whilst some planters were
able to market the crop only at a loss. The calculated annual
average yields per acre over the years 1885 to 1907 ranged between
12-76 cwt. in 1899 and 4-81 cwt. in 1888. No other staple crop
of British agriculture undergoes such wide fluctuations in yield
as are here indicated, the size of the crop produced bearing no
relation to the acreage under cultivation. For example, the
71,327 acres in 1885 produced only 509,170 cwt., whereas the
51,843 acres in 1899 produced 661,373 cwt. 19,484 acres less
under crop yielded 152,203 cwt. more produce.
Comparing the quantities of home-grown hops with those of
imported hops, of the total available for consumption about
70% on the average is home produce and about 30% is imported
produce. The imports, however, do not vary so much as the
home produce. Table IV. shows the average quantity of
imports to and exports (home-grown) from Great Britain during
the decades 1877-1886, 1887-1896 and 1897-1906.
TABLE IV.
Periods.
Annual Average
Imports (cwt.).
Annual Average
Exports (cwt.).
1877-1886
1887-1896
1897-1906
215,219
194,966
186,362
10,805
9,437
14,808
The highest and lowest imports were 266,952 cwt. in 1885 and
145,122 cwt. in 1887, the latter in the year following the biggest
home-grown crop on record. On a series of years the largest
proportion of imports is from the United States.
During the twenty-five years 1881-1905 the annual values of
the hops imported into England fluctuated between the wide
limits of 2,962,631 in 1882 and 427,753 in 1887. In five other
years besides 1882 the value exceeded a million sterling. The
annual average value over the whole period was 921,000,
whilst the annual average import was 194,000 cwt., consequently
the average value per cwt. was nearly 4, 153., which is approxi-
mately the same as that of the exported product. The quantities
and values of the imported hops that are again exported are
almost insignificant.
HOP PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES
The distribution of the area of hop-cultivation in the United
States showed. great changes during the last decades of the igth
and the first decade of the 2oth century. During the earlier
portion of that period New York was the chief hop-growing
state of the Union, but toward the end of it a great extension
of hop-growing took place on the Pacific coast (in the states of
Oregon, California and Washington), where the richness of the
soil and mildness of the climate are favourable to the bines.
The average annual produce of hops in the United States
from 1900 to 1906 was 423,471 cwt.; of this quantity 80 % was
raised in the three states of the Pacific coast, where the yield
per acre is much larger than in New York. In the latter state
the yield does not appear to exceed 5 or 6 cwt. per acre, whereas
in Oregon it is 9 or 10 cwt., and in Washington and California
from 12 to 14 cwt. The average annual export (chiefly to Great
Britain) in the years from 1899 to 1905 was 108,400 cwt.; the
average import (chiefly from Germany) is about 50,000 cwt.
HOP CULTIVATION
As the county of Kent has always taken the lead in hop-
growing in England, and as it includes about two-thirds of the
hop acreage of the British Isles, the recent developments in
hop cultivation cannot be better studied than in that county.
They were well summarized by Mr Charles Whitehead in his
sketch of the agriculture of Kent, 1 wherein he states that the
hop grounds or hop gardens, as they are called in Kent of
1 Jour'. Roy. Agric. Soc 1899.
poor character and least suitable for hop production have been
gradually grubbed since 1894, on account of large crops, the
importation of hops and low prices. At the beginning of the
igth century there were 290 parishes in Kent in which hops
were cultivated. A century later, out of the 413 parishes in
the county, as many as 331 included hop plantations. The hops
grown in Kent are classified in the markets as " East Kents,"
" Bastard East Kents," " Mid Kents " and " Wealds," according
to the district of the county in which they are produced. The
relative values of these four divisions follow in the same order,
East Kents making the highest and Wealds the lowest rates.
These divisions agree in the main with those defined by geo-
logical formations. Thus, " East Kents " are grown upon the
Chalk, and especially on the outcrop of the soils of the London
Tertiaries upon the Chalk. " Bastard East Kents " are produced
on alluvial soil and soils formed by admixtures of loam, clay-
loams, chalk, marl and clay from the Gault, Greensand and
Chalk formations. " Mid Kents " are derived principally from
the Greensand soils and outcrops of the London Tertiaries in
the upper part of the district. " Wealds " come from soils
on the Weald Clay, Hastings Sand and Tunbridge Wells Sand.
As each " pocket " of hops must be marked with the owner's
name and the parish in which they were grown, buyers of hops
can, without much trouble, ascertain from which of the four
divisions hops come, especially if they have the map of the
hop-growing parishes of England, which gives the name of each
parish. There has been a considerable rearrangement of the
hop plantations in Kent within recent years. Common varieties
as Colegate's, Jones's, Grapes and Prolifics have been grubbed,
and Goldings, Bramlings and other choice kinds planted in their
places. The variety known as Fuggle's, a heavy-cropping
though slightly coarse hop, has been much planted in the Weald
of Kent, and in parts of Mid Kent where the soil is suitable.
In very old hop gardens, where there has been no change of
plant for fifty or even one hundred years in some instances,
except from the gradual process of filling up the places of plants
that have died, there has been replanting with better varieties
and varieties ripening in more convenient succession; and,
generally speaking, the plantations have been levelled up in
this respect to suit the demand for bright hops of fine quality.
A recent classification 2 of the varieties of English hops arranges
them in three groups: (i) early varieties (e.g. Prolific, Bramling,
Amos's Early Bird); (2) mid-season or main-crop varieties
(e.g. Farnham Whitebine, Fuggle's, Old Jones's, Golding);
(3) late varieties (e.g. Grapes, Colgate's).
The cost of cultivating and preparing the produce of an acre
of hop land tends to increase, on account of the advancing rates
of wages, the intense cultivation more and more essential, and
the necessity of freeing the plants from the persistent attacks of
insects and fungi. In 1893 Mr Whitehead estimated the average
annual cost of an acre of hop land to be 35, ios., the following
being the items:
Manure (winter and summer) 6100
Digging o 19 o
Dressing (or cutting) . 060
Poling, tying, earthing, ladder-tying, stringing,
lewing 230
Shimming, nidgeting, digging round and hoeing
hills 300
Stacking, stripping, making bines, &c. . . . o 17 o
Annual renewal of poles 2 10 o
Expense of picking, drying, packing, carriage,
sampling, selling, &c., on average crop of, say,
7 cwt. per acre 105
Rent, rates, taxes, repairs of oast and tacks, interest
on capital , 600
Sulphuring 100
Washing (often two, three or four times) ... 200
Total . . . 35 JO o
Seven years later the average cost per acre in Kent had risen to
quite 37.
2 J. Percival, " The Hop and its English Varieties," Jour, Roy.
Agric. Soc., 1901.
68o
HOP
are
The hops in Kent are usually planted in October
or November, the plants being 6 ft. apart each
way, thus giving 1210 hills or plant-centres per
acre. Some planters still grow potatoes or
mangels between the rows the first year, as the
plants do not bear much until the second year;
but this is considered to be a mistake, as it
encourages wire-worm and exhausts the ground.
Many planters pole hop plants the first year with
a single short pole, and stretch coco-nut-fibre
string from pole to pole, and grow many hops in
the first season. Much of the hop land is ploughed
between the rows, as labour is scarce, and the
spaces between are dug afterwards. It is far better
to dig hop land if possible, the tool used being the
Kent spud. The cost of digging an acre ranges
from i8s. to 2is. Hop land is ploughed or dug
between November and March. After this the plants
" dressed," which means that all the old bine ends are cut off
with a sharp curved hop-knife, and the plant centres kept level
with the ground.
Manuring. Manure is applied in the winter, and dug or ploughed
in. London manure from stables is used to an enormous extent.
It comes by barge or rail, and is brought from the wharves and
stations by traction engines; it costs from 7s. 6d. to 95. per load.
Rags, fur waste, sprats, wool waste and shoddy are also put on
in the winter. In the summer, rape dust, guano, nitrate of soda
and various patent hop manures are chopped in with the Canter-
bury hoe. Fish guano or desiccated fish is largely used; it is
very stimulating and more lasting than some of the other forcing
manures.
The recent investigations into the subject of hop-manuring made
by Dr Bernard Dyer and Mr F. W. E. Shrivell, at Golden Green, near
Tonbridge, Kent, are of interest. In the 1901 report * it was stated
that the object in view was to ascertain how far nitrate of soda, in
the presence of an abundant supply of phosphates and potash, is
capable of being advantageously used as a source of nitrogenous food
for hops. An idea long persisted among hop-growers that nitrate of
soda was an unsafe manure for hops, being likely to produce rank
growth of bine at the expense of quality and even quantity of hops.
During recent years, however, owing very largely to the results of
Weight of Kiln-dried Fuggle's Hops per Acre.
Plot.
Annual Manuring per Acre.
1896
1897
1898
1899
I9OO
Average
of 5
Years.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
Cwt.
A
Phosphates and potash .
I3i
rt
8i
20i
8
nj
B
Phosphates, potash and
2 cwt. nitrate of soda .
16}
9i
IOJ
22\
9f
I3J
C
Phosphates, potash and
4 cwt. nitrate of soda .
i6|
12
u|
23
II
15
D
Phosphates, potash and
6 cwt. nitrate of soda .
I5i
13
13
22i
IQi
143
E
Phosphates, potash and
8 cwt. nitrate of soda .
15
id
i5l
23i
II
15*
F
Phosphates, potash and
10 cwt. nitrate of soda
15
13
15
24i
I0j
i5i
X
30 loads (about 15 tons)
London dung .
13
8
9f
24}
ioi
I3l
In only one year did the very large dressing of 10 cwt. of nitrate
of soda per acre afford any better result than was produced by the
less heavy dressing of 8 cwt. per acre, and this was in 1899, a season
of such abundance and such low prices that it may be regarded as an
abnormal season. If the effect of this one season on the average be
eliminated, the best results, as regards quantity, were obtained on
plot E, receiving 8 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre. But plot C, with
4 cwt. only of nitrate of soda per acre, has been on the average not
more than J cwt. per acre behind plot E.
Valuations of the hops made by merchants and factors show that,
on the whole, the market quality of the produce is very little affected
by manuring. Moreover, chemical investigation of the hops appears
to indicate that the brewing quality is not in any constant or definite
way influenced by the manuring, except where the quantity of nitrate
of soda has amounted to the large dressing of 8 cwt. or more per acre,
a quantity which in some seasons would seem to have been pre-
judicial, although in one season it happened that the highest brewing
value appertained to a sample grown with as much as 10 cwt. per
acre.
The results of modern investigation show that it is very largely
to the presence and proportion of soft resin that hops owe their
preservative value, although the quality of hops is by no means
wholly dependent on this one feature. The resin percentages on the
samples grown on the several plots in 1898, 1899 and 1900 were the
following :
PW
18
9 8
18
99
igc
)O
Total Resin.
Soft Resin.
Total Resin.
Soft Resin.
Total Resin.
Soft Resin.
A
Phosphates and potash . . ' .
Per Cent.
14-15
Per Cent.
9-21
Per Cent.
15-07
Per Cent.
8-60
Per Cent.
14-53
Per Cent.
8-90
B
C
D
E
F
X
Phosphates, potash and 2 cwt. nitrate of soda
Phosphates, potash and 4 cwt. nitrate of soda
Phosphates, potash and 6 cwt. nitrate of soda
Phosphates, potash and 8 cwt. nitrate of soda
Phosphates, potash and 10 cwt. nitrate of soda
30 loads (about 1 5 tons) London dung .
14-30
14-06
13-57
14-11
12-21
13-93
9-20
9-04
8-60
8-85
7-91
8-66
16-59
I5-87
14-90
14-49
15-47
14-92
8-83
9-27
8-70
8-96
9-41
8-80
15-09
14-46
13-46
I3-30
12-77
14-78
8-51
8-16
7-62
7-18
6-77
9-07
these experiments, and of corresponding experiments based upon
these, which have been carried out abroad, hop farmers have much
more freely availed themselves of the aid of this useful manure; and
there is little doubt that the distrust of nitrate of soda as a hop
manure which has existed in the past has been largely due to the fact
that nitrate of soda, like many other nitrogenous manures, has often
been misused (i) by being applied without a sufficient quantity of
phosphates and potash, or (2) by being applied too abundantly, or
(3) by being applied too late in the season, with the result of unduly
delaying the ripening period. On most of the experimental plots
nitrate of soda (in conjunction with phosphates and potash) has been
used as the sole source of nitrogen; but it is, of course, not be to
supposed that any hop-grower would use year after year, as is the
case on some of the plots, nothing but phosphates, potash and nitrate
of soda. Miscellaneous feeding is probably good for plants as well as
for animals, and there is a large variety of nitrogenous manures at the
disposal of the hop-farmer, to say nothing of what, in its place, is one
of the most valuable of all manures, namely, home-made dung.
These experiments were begun in 1894 with a new garden of young
Fuggle's hops. A series of experimental plots was marked out, each
plot being one-sixth of an acre in area. The plots run parallel with
one another, there being four rows of hills in each. The climate of the
district is very dry.
The table given above shows the annual yield of hops per acre
on each plot, and also the average for each plot over the five years
1896-1900.
1 Six Years' Experiments on Hop Manuring (London, 1901).
The general results seem to show that the purchase of town dung
for hops is not economical, unless under' specially favourable terms
as to cost of conveyance, and that it should certainly not be relied
upon as a sufficient manure. Home-made dung is in quite a different
position, as not only is it richer, but it costs nothing for railway
carriage. As a source of nitrogenous manure, purchased dung is on
the whole too expensive. There is a large variety of other nitrogen-
ous manures in the market besides nitrate ot soda, such, for instance
as Peruvian and Damaraland guano, sulphate of ammonia, fish guano,
dried blood, rape dust, furriers' refuse, horn shavings, hoof parings,
wool dust, shoddy, &c. All of these may in turn be used for helping
to maintain a stock of nitrogen in the soil ; and the degree to which
manures of this kind have been recently applied in any hop garden
will influence the grower in deciding as to the quantity of nitrate of
soda he should use in conjunction with them, and also to some extent
in fixing the date of its application.
Dressings of 8 or 10 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre, such as are
applied annually to plots E and F, would be larger than would be put
on where the land has been already dressed with dung or with other
nitrogenous manures; and even, in the circumstances under notice,
although these plots have on the average beaten the others in weight,
the hops in some seasons have been distinctly coarser than those more
moderately manured though in the dry season of 1899 the most
heavily dressed plot gave actually the best quality as well as the
greatest quantity of produce.
With regard to the application of nitrate of soda in case the season
should turn out to be wet, present experience indicates that, on a
soil otherwise liberally manured, 4 cwt.' of nitrate of soda per acre
HOP
681
applied not too late, would be a thoroughly safe dressing. In the case
of neither dung nor any other nitrogenous fertilizers having been
recently applied, there seems no reason for supposing that, even in
a wet season, 6 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre applied early would be
otherwise than a safe dressing, considering both quantity and quality
of produce. In conjunction with dung, or with the early use of other
nitrogenous manures, such as fish, guano, rape dust, &c. it would
probably be wise not to exceed 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre.
As to the date of application, April or May is the latest time at
which nitrate of soda should, in most circumstances, be applied, and
probably April is preferable to May. The quantity used should be
applied in separate dressings of not more than 2 cwt. per acre each,
put on at intervals of a month. Where the quantity of nitrate of soda
used is large, and constitutes the whole of the nitrogenous manure
empjoyed, the first dressing may, on fairly deep and retentive soils,
be given as early as January; or, if the quantity used is smaller, say
in February; while February will, in most cases, probably be early
enough for the first dressing in the case of lighter soils. The condition
of the soil and the degree and distribution of rainfall during both the
previous autumn and the winter, as well as in the spring itself,
produce such varying conditions that it is almost impossible to frame
general rules.
The commonly accepted notion that nitrate of soda is a manure
which should be reserved for use during the later period of the growth
of the bine appears to be erroneous. The summer months, when the
growth of the bine is most active, are the months in which natural
nitrification is going on in the soil, converting soil nitrogen and the
nitrogen of dung, guano, fish, rape dust, shoddy or other fertilizers
into nitrates, and placing this nitrogen at the disposal of the plants;
and it appears reasonable, therefore, to suppose that nitrate of soda
will be most useful to the hops at the earlier stages of their growth,
before the products of that nitrification become abundant. This
would especially be so in a season immediately following a wet
autumn and winter, which have the effect of washing away into the
drains the residual nitrates not utilized by the previous crop.
The necessity, whether dung is used or not, and whatever form of
nitrogenous manure is employed, of also supplying the hops with an
abundance of phosphates, cannot be too strongly urged. The use of
phosphates for hops was long neglected by hop-planters, and even
now there are many growers who do not realize the full importance of
heavy phosphatic manuring. On soils containing an abundance of
lime no better or cheaper phosphatic manure can be used than
ordinary superphosphate, of which as much as 10 cwt. per acre may be
applied without the slightest fear of harm. But if the soil is not de-
cidedly calcareous that is to say, if it does not effervesce when it is
stirred up with some diluted hydrochloric (muriatic) acid bone dust,
phosphatic guano or basic slag should be used as a source of phos-
phates, at the rate of not less than 10 cwt. per acre. On medium
soils, which, without being distinctly calcareous, nevertheless
contain a just appreciable quantity of carbonate of lime, it is probably
a good plan to use the latter class of manures, alternately with super-
phosphate, year and year about; but it is wise policy to use phos-
phates in some form or other every year in every hop garden. They
are inexpensive, and without them neither dung, nitrate of soda,
ammonia salts nor organic manures can be expected to produce both
a full vigorous growth of bine and at the same time a well-matured
crop of full-weighted, well-conditioned hops.
The use of potash salts, on most soils, is probably not needed when
good dung is freely used ; but where this is not the case it is safer in
most seasons and on most soils to give a dressing of potash salts.
On some soils their aid should on no account be dispensed with.
Experiments in hop-manuring have also been conducted in con-
nexion with the South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.
The main results have been to demonstrate the necessity of a liberal
supply of phosphates, if the full benefit is to be reaped from applica-
tions of nitrogenous manure.
Tying, Poling and Picking. Tying the bines to the poles or
strings is essentially women's work. It was formerly always
piecework, each woman taking so many acres to tie, but it is
found better to pay the women is. 8d. to 23. per day, that they
may all work together, and tie the plants in those grounds where
they want tying at once. The new modes of poling and training
hop plants have also altered the conditions of tying.
Many improvements have been made in the methods of poling
and training hops. Formerly two or three poles were placed to
each hop-hill or plant-centre in the spring, and removed in the
winter, and this was the only mode of training. . Recently systems
of training on wires and strings fastened to permanent upright
poles have been introduced. One arrangement of wires and
strings much adopted consists of stout posts set at the end of
every row of hop-hills and fastened with stays to keep them in
place. At intervals in each row a thick pole is fixed. From post
to post in the rows a wire is stretched at a height of f ft.
from the ground, another about 6 ft. from the ground, and another
along the tops of the posts, so that there are three wires. Hooks
are clipped on these wires at regular intervals, and coco- nut-
fibre strings are threaded on them and fastened from wire to
wire, and from post to post, to receive the hop bines. The string
is threaded on the hooks continuously, and is put on those of the
top wire with a machine called a stringer. There are several
methods of training hops with posts or stout poles, wire and
string, whose first cost varies from 20 to 40 per acre. The
system is cheaper in the long run than that of taking down the
poles every year, and the wind does not blow down the poles
or injure the hops by banging the poles together. ' In another
method, extensively made use of in Kent and Sussex, stout posts
are placed at the ends of each row of plants, and, at intervals
where requisite, wires are fastened from top to top only of these
posts, whilst coco-nut-fibre strings are fixed by pegs to the
ground, close to each hop-stock, whence they radiate upwards for
attachment to the wires stretching between the tops of the posts.
This method is more simple and less expensive than the system
first described, its cost being from 24 to 28 per acre. In this
case the plants require to be well " lewed," or sheltered, as the
strings being so light are blown about by the wind. These
methods are being largely adopted, and, together with the practice
of putting coco-nut-fibre strings from pole to pole in grounds
poled in the old-fashioned manner, are important improvements
in hop culture, which have tended to increase the production
of hops. Where the old system of poling with two or three
poles is still adhered to they are always creosoted, most growers
having tanks for the purpose; and, in the new methods of poling,
the posts and poles are creosoted, dipped or kyanized.
At Wye College, Kent, different systems of planting and
training have been tried, the alleys varying in width from 10 ft.
down to 5 ft., and the distance between the hills varying quite
as widely, so that the number of hills to the acre has ranged from
1 2 10 down to 660. The biggest crop was secured on the plot
where hills were 8 ft. apart each way. As a rule, indeed, a
wide alley and abundant space between the plants, thus allowing
the hops plenty of air and light, produced the best results, besides
effecting some saving in the cost of cultivation, as there were only
660 or 680 hills per acre. Of the various methods of training,
the umbrella system gave the biggest crop in each of the three
years,i8p9, 1900, 1901; and it seemed to be the best method,
except in seasons when washing was required early, in which
case the plants were not so readily cleared of vermin.
Much attention is required to keep the bines in their places
on the poles, strings or wire, during the summer. This gives
employment to many women, for whose service in this and fruit-
picking there is considerable demand, and a woman has no
trouble in earning from is. 6d. to is. lod. per day from April
till September at pleasant and not very arduous labour. The
hop-picking follows, and at this women sometimes get 43.
and even 53. per day. This is the real Kent harvest, which
formerly lasted a month or five weeks. Now it rarely extends
beyond eighteen days, as it is important to secure the hops
before the weather and the aphides, which almost invariably
swarm within the bracts of the cones, discolour them and spoil
their sale, as brewers insist upon having bright, " coloury "
hops. Picking is better done than was formerly the case.
The hops are picked more singly, and with comparatively few
leaves, and the pickers are of a somewhat better type than the
rough hordes who formerly went into Kent for " hopping."
Kent planters engage their pickers beforehand, and write to
them, arranging the numbers required and the date of picking.
Many families go into Kent for pea-and fruit-picking and remain
for hop-picking. Without this great immigration of persons,
variously estimated at between 45,000 and 65,000, the crops
of hops could not be picked; and fruit-farmers also would be
unable to get their soft fruit gathered in time without the help
of immigrant hands. The fruit-growers and hop-planters of
Kent have greatly improved the accommodation for these
immigrants.
Concerning the general question as to the advisability or
otherwise of cutting the hop bine at the time of picking, A.D.
682
HOPE, ANTHONY
Hall has ascertained experimentally that if the bine is cut close
to the ground at a time when the whole plant is unripe there
are removed in the bine and leaves considerable quantities
of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which would have
returned to the roots if the bine had not been cut until ripe.
The plant, therefore, would retain a substantial store of these
constituents for the following year's growth if the bine were
left. Chemical analyses have shown that about 30 Ib of nitrogen
per acre may be saved by allowing the jbines to remain uncut,
this representing practically one-third of the total amount of
nitrogen in -the hops, leaf and bine together. There are also
from 25 Ib to 30 Ib of potash in the growth, of which nine-tenths
would return to the roots, with about half the phosphoric acid
and a very small proportion of the lime. It has been demon-
strated that by the practice of. cutting the bines when the hops
are picked the succeeding crop is lessened to the extent of about
one-tenth. As to stripping off the leaves and lower branches
of the plant, it was found that this operation once reduced
the crop 10 % and once 20 %, but that in the year 1899 it did
not affect the crop at all. The inference appears to be that
when there is a good crop it is not reduced by stripping, but
that when there is less vigour in the plant it suffers the more.
Hence, it would seem advisable to study the plant itself in
connexion with this matter, and to strip a little later, or
somewhat less, than usual when the bine is not healthy.
Drying. After being picked, the hops are taken in pokes
long sacks holding ten bushels to the oasts to be dried. The
oasts are circular or square kilns, or groups of kilns, wherein
the green hops are laid upon floors covered with horsehair,
under which are enclosed or open stoves or furnaces. The
heat from these is evenly distributed among the hops above
by draughts below and round them. This is the usual simple
arrangement, but patent processes are adopted here and there,
though they are by no means general. The hops are from nine
to ten hours drying, after which they are taken off the kiln
and allowed to cool somewhat, and are then packed tightly
into " pockets " 6 ft. long and 2 ft. wide, weighing i| cwt,
by means of a hop-pressing machine, which has cogs and
wheels worked by hand. Of late years more care has been
bestowed by some of the leading growers upon the drying of
hops, so as to preserve their qualities and volatile essences, and
to meet the altered requirements of brewers, who must have
bright, well-managed hops for the production of light clear
beers for quick draught. The use, for example, of exhaust
fans, recently introduced, greatly facilitates drying by drawing,
a large volume of air through the hops; and as the temperature
may at the same time be kept low, the risk of getting over-
fired samples is considerably reduced, though not entirely ob-
viated. The adoption of the roller floor is another great advance
in the process of hop-drying, for this, used in conjunction with
a raised platform for the men to stand on when turning, pre-
vents any damage from the feet of the workmen, and reduces
the loss of resin to a minimum. The best results are obtained
when exhaust fans and the roller floor are associated together.
In such cases the roller floor, which empties its load automati-
cally, pours the hop cones into the receiving sheets in usually as
whole and unbroken a condition as that in which they went
on to the kiln.
Pests of the Hop Crop. In recent years the difficulties attendant
upon hop cultivation have been aggravated, and the expenses in-
creased, by regularly recurring attacks of aphis blight due to the
insect A phis (Phorodon) humuli which render it necessary to spray
or syringe every hop plant, every branch and leaf, with insectfcidal
solutions three or four times, and sometimes more often, in each
season. Quassia and soft-soap solutions are usually employed;
they contain from 4 Ib to 8 Ib of soft soap, and the extract of from
8 Ib to 10 Ib of quassia chips to 100 gallons of water. The soft soap
serves as a vehicle to retain the bitterness of the quassia upon the
bines and leaves, making them repulsive to the aphides, which are
thus starved out. Another pest, the red spider, Tetranychus telarius
really one of the " spinning mites " is most destructive in very
hot summers. Congregating on the under surfaces of the leaves, the
red spiders exhaust the sap and cause the leaves to fall, producing
the effect known in Germany as " fire-blast." The hop-wash of soft
soap and quassia, so effective against aphis attack, is of little avail
in the case of red spider. Some success, however, has attended the
use of a solution containing 8 ft to 10 ft of soft soap to loo gallons of
water, with three pints of paraffin added. It is necessary to apply the
washes with great force, in order to break through the webs with
which the spiders protect themselves. Hop-washing is done by
means of large garden engines worked by hand, but more frequently
with horse engines. Resort is sometimes had to steam engines,
which force the spraying solution along pipes laid between the rows
of hops.
Mould or mildew is frequently the source of much loss to hop-
planters. It is due to the action of the fungus Podosphaera castagnei,
and the mischief is more especially that done to the cones. The only
trustworthy remedy is sulphur, employed usually in the form of
flowers of sulphur, from 40 Ib to 60 ft per acre being applied at each
sulphuring. The powder is distributed by means of a machine
drawn by a horse between the rows. The sulphur is fed from a
hopper into a blast-pipe, whence it is driven by a fan actuated by
the travelling wheels, and falls as a dense, wide-spreading cloud upon
the hop-bines. The first sulphuring takes place when the plants are
fairly up the poles, and is repeated three or four weeks later; and
even again if indications of mildew are present. It may be added
that sulphur is also successfully employed in the form of an alka-
line sulphide, such as solution of " liver of sulphur," a variety of
potassium sulphide. (\y. FR.)
HOPE, ANTHONY, the pen-name of ANTHONY HOPE
HAWKINS (1863- ), British novelist, who was born on the
9th of February 1863, the second son of the Rev. E. C. Hawkins,
Vicar of St Bride's, Fleet Street, London. He was educated at
Marlborough and Balliol College, Oxford, where he was president
of the Union Society, and graduated with first classes in Modera-
tions and Final Schools. He was called to the bar at the Middle
Temple in 1877. He soon began contributing stories and sketches
to the St James's Gazette, and in 1890 published his first novel,
A Man of Mark. This was followed by Father Stafford (1891),
Mr Witt's Widow (1892), Change of Air and Sport Royal and
Other Stories (1893). By this time he had attracted by his
vivacious talent the attention of editors and readers; but it
was not till the following year that he attained a great popular
success with the publication (May 1894) of The Prisoner of
Zenda. This was followed a few weeks later by The Dolly Dia-
logues (previously published in separate instalments in the
Westminster Gazette). Both books became parents of a numerous
progeny. The Prisoner of Zenda, owing something to the Prince
Otto of R. L. Stevenson, established a fashion for what was
christened, after its fictitious lo.cality, " Ruritanian romance ";
while the Dolly Dialogues, inspired possibly by " Gyp " and other
French dialogue writers, was the forerunner of a whole school
of epigrammatic drawing-room comedy. The Prisoner of Zenda,
with Mr Alexander as " Rupert Rassendyll," enjoyed a further
success in a dramatized form at the St James's Theatre, which
did still more to popularize the author's fame. In 1894 also
appeared The God in the Car, a novel suggested by the
ambiguous influence on English society of Cecil Rhodes's career;
and Half a Hero, a complementary study of Australian politics.
The same year saw further the publication of The Indiscretion
of the Duchess, in the style of the Dolly Dialogues, and of another
collection of stories named (after the first) The Secret of Wardale
Court. In 1895 Mr Hawkins published Count Antonio, and
contributed to Dialogues of the Day, edited by Mr Oswald Craw-
furd. Comedies of Courtship and The Heart of the Princess
Osra followed in 1896; Phroso in 1897; Simon Dale and
Rupert of Hentzau (sequel of the Prisoner of Zenda) 1898; and
The King's Mirror, a Ruritanian romance with an infusion of
serious psychological' interest, 1899. The author was advancing
from his light comedy and gallant romantic inventions to the
graver kind of fiction of which The God in the Car had been an
earlier essay. Quisante, published in 1900, was a study of
English society face to face with a political genius of an alien
type. Tristram of Blent (1901) embodied an ethical study of
family pride. The Intrusions of Peggy reflected the effects on
society of recent financial fashions. In 1904 he published
Double Harness, and in 1905 A Servant of the Public, two novels
of modern society, containing somewhat cynical pictures of the
condition of marriage. With increasing gravity the novelist
sacrificed some of the charm of his earlier irresponsible gaiety
and buoyancy; but his art retained its wit and urbanity while
HOPE, T. HOPE-SCOTT
683
it gained in grip of the social conditions of contemporary life.
He wrote two plays, The Adventure of Lady Ursula (1898) and
Pilkerton's Peerage (1902), and his later novels include The Great
Miss Driver (1908) and Second String (1909). Mr Hawkins's
attractive and cultured style and command of plot give him a
high place among the modern writers of English fiction. In 1903
he married Miss Elizabeth Somerville Sheldon of New York.
HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831), English art-collector, and
author of Anaslasius, born in London about 1770, was the eldest
son of John Hope of Amsterdam, and was descended from a
branch of an old Scottish family who for several generations
were extensive merchants in London and Amsterdam. About
the age of eighteen he started on a tour through various parts
of Europe, Asia and Africa, where he interested himself especi-
ally in architecture and sculpture, making a large collection of
the principal objects which attracted his attention. On his
return to London about 1796 he purchased a house in Duchess
Street, Cavendish Square, which he fitted up in a very elaborate
style, from drawings made by himself. In 1807 he published
sketches of his furniture, accompanied by letterpress, in a folio
volume, entitled Household Furniture and Interior Decoration,
which had considerable influence in effecting a change in the
upholstery and interior decoration of houses, notwithstanding
that Byron had referred scornfully to him as " House-furnisher
withal, one Thomas hight." Hope's furniture designs were in
that pseudo-classical manner which is generally called " English
Empire." It was sometimes extravagant, and often heavy,
but was much more restrained than the wilder and later flights
of Sheraton in this style. At the best, however, it was a not
very inspiring mixture of Egyptian and Roman motives. In
1809 he published the Costumes of the Ancients, and in 1812
Designs of Modern Costumes, works which display a large amount
of antiquarian research. He was also, as his father had been
the elder Hope's country house near Haarlem was crowded with
fine pictures a munificent patron of the highest forms of art,
and both at his London house and his country seat at Deepdene
near Dorking he formed large collections of paintings, sculpture
and antiques. Deepdene in his day became a famous resort
of men of letters as well as of people of fashion, and among the
luxuries suggested by his fine taste was a miniature library
in several languages in each bedroom. Thorvaldsen, the Danish
sculptor, was indebted to him for the early recognition of his
talents, and he also gave frequent employment to Chantrey and
Flaxman it was to his order that the latter illustrated Dante.
In 1819 he published anonymously his novel Anaslasius, or
Memoirs of a Modern Creek, written at the close of the i8lh century,
a work which, chiefly on account of the novel character of its
subject, caused a great sensation. It was at first generally
attributed to Lord Byron, who told Lady Blessington that he
wept bitterly on reading it because he had not written it and
Hope had. But, though remarkable for the acquaintance it
displays with Eastern life, and distinguished by considerable
imaginative vigour and much graphic and picturesque descrip-
tion, its paradoxes are not so striking as those of Lord Byron;
and, notwithstanding some eloquent and forcible passages,
the only reason which warranted its ascription to him was the
general type of character to which its hero belonged. Hope
died on the 3rd of February 1831. He was the author of two
works published posthumously the Origin and Prospects
of Man (1831), in which his speculations diverged widely from
the usual orthodox opinions, and an Historical Essay on Archi-
tecture (1835), an elaborate description of the architecture of
the middle ages, illustrated by drawings made by himself in
Italy and Germany. He is commonly known in literature as
" Anastasius " Hope. He married (1806) Louisa de la Poer
Beresford, daughter of Lord Decies, archbishop of Tuam.
HOPEDALE, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.; pop. (1905; state census) 2048; (1910) 2188. It is
served by the Milford & Uxbridge (electric) street railway, and
(for freight) by the Grafton & Upton railway. The town lies
in the " dale " between Milford and Mendon, and is cut from
N.W. to S.E. by the Mill river, which furnishes good water
power at its falls. The principal manufactures are textiles,
boots and shoes, and, of most importance, cotton machinery.
The great cotton machinery factories here are owned by the
Draper Company. Hopedale has a public park on the site of
the Ballou homestead, with a bronze statue of Adin Ballou;
a memorial church erected by George A. and Eben S. Draper;
the Bancroft Memorial Library, given by Joseph B. Bancroft in
memory of his wife; and a marble drinking fountain with
statuary by Waldo Story, the gift of Susan Preston Draper,
General W. F. Draper's wife. The village is remarkable for the
comfortable cottages of the workers.
The history of Hopedale centres round the Rev. Adin Ballou
(1803-1890), a distant relative of Hosea Ballou; 1 he left, in
succession, the ministry of the Christian Connexion (1823)
and that of the Universalist Church (1831), because of his
restorationist views. In 1831 he became pastor of an independent
church in Mendon. An ardent exponent of temperance, the
anti-slavery movement, woman's rights, the peace cause and
Christian non-resistance (even through the Civil War), and of
" Practical Christian Socialism," it was in the interests of the
last cause that he founded Hopedale, or "Fraternal Community
No. i," in Milford, in April 1842, the first compact of the com-
munity having been drawn up in January 1841. Thirty persons
joined with him, and lived in a single house on a poor farm of
258 acres, purchased in June 1841. Ballou was for several years
the president of the community, which was run on the plan that
all should have an equal voice as to the use of property, in spite of
the fact that there was individual holding of property. The
community, however, owned the instruments of production, with
the single exception of the important patent rights held by
Ebenezer D. Draper. The result was bickerings between those
who were joint stockholders and those whose only profit came
from their manual labour. In a short time the control of the
community came into the hands of its richest members, E. D.
Draper and his brother, George Draper (1817-1887), who owned
three-fourths of the joint stock. In 1856 there was a total deficit
of about $12,000. The Draper brothers bought up the joint
stock of the community at par and paid its debts, and the com-
munity soon ceased to exist save as a religious society. After
George Draper's death the control of the mills passed to his sons.
These included General William Franklin Draper (1842-1910),
a Republican representative in Congress in 1892-1897 and U.S.
ambassador to Italy in 1897-1900, and Eben Sumner Draper
(b. 1858), lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1906-1908 and
governor in 1909-1911. In 1867 the community was merged
with Hopedale parish, a Unitarian organization. Hopedale was
separated from Milford and incorporated as a township in 1886.
See Adin Ballou's History of Milford (Boston, 1882), his History of
the Hopedale Community, edited by William S. Heywood (Lowell,
1897), his Biography by the same editor (Lowell, 1896) and his
Practical and Christian Socialism (Hopedale, 1854) ; George L. Carey,
" Adin Ballou and the Hopedale Community " (in the New World,
vol. vii., 1898); Lewis G. Wilson, " Hopedale and Its Founder " (in
The New England Magazine, vol. x., 1891); and William F. Draper,
Recollections of a Varied Career (Boston, 1908).
HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT (1812-1873), English barrister
and Tractarian, was born on the i5th of July 1812, at Great
Marlow, Berkshire, the third son of Sir Alexander Hope, and
grandson of the second earl of Hopetoun. He was educated
at Eton and Oxford, where he was a contemporary and friend
of Gladstone and J. H. Newman, and in 1838 was called to the
bar. Between 1840 and 1843 he helped to found Trinity College,
Glenalmond. He was one of the leaders of the Tractarian
movement and entirely in Newman's confidence. In 1851 he was
received with Manning into the Roman Catholic church. At
this time he was making a very large income at the Parliamentary
bar. He only commenced serious practice in this branch of
his profession in 1843, but by the end of 1845 he stood at the head
of it and in 1849 was made a Queen's Counsel. In 1847 he
married Miss Lockhart, granddaughter of Sir Walter Scott, and
on her coming into possession of Abbotsford six years later,
1 Adin Ballou wrote An Elaborate History and Genealogy of the.
Ballous in America (Providence, R.I., if
68 4
HOPFEN HOPKINS, M.
assumed the surname of Hope-Scott. He retired from the bar
in 1870 and died on the 29th of April 1873.
HOPFEN, HANS VON (1835-1904), German poet and novelist,
was born on the 3rd of January 1835, at Munich. He studied
law, and in 1858, having shown marked poetical promise, he
was received into the circle of young poets whom King Maxi-
milian II. had gathered round him, and thereafter devoted
himself to literature. In 1862 he made his debut as an author,
with Lieder und Balladen, which were published in the Munchener
Dichterbuch, edited by E. Geibel. After travelling in Italy (1862),
France (1863) and Austria (1864), he was appointed, in 1865,
general secretary of the " Schillerstiftung," and in this capacity
settled at Vienna. The following year, however, he removed to
Berlin, in a suburb of which, Lichterfelde, he died on the ipth of
November 1904. Of Hopfen's lyric poems, Gedichte Uth ed.,
Berlin, 1883), many are of considerable talent and originality;
but it is as a novelist that he is best known. The novels Pere-
grelta (1864); Verdorben zu Paris (1868, new ed. 1892); Arge
Sitten (1869); Der graue Freund (1874, 2nd ed., 1876); and
Verfehlte Liebe (1876, 2nd ed., 1879) are attractive, while
of his shorter stories Tiroler Geschichten (1884-1885) command
most favour.
An autobiographical sketch of Hopfen is contained in K. E.
Franzos, Ceschichte des Erstlingswerkes (1904).
HOPI, or MOKI (Moquis), a tribe of North American Indians
of Shoshonean stock. They are Pueblo or town-building Indians
and occupy seven villages on three lofty plateaus of northern
Arizona. The first accounts of them date from the expedition
of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado >n 1540. With the town-
building Indians of New Mexico they were then subdued.
They shared in the successful revolt of 1542, but again suffered
defeat in 1586. In 1680, however, they made a successful
revolt against the Spaniards. They weave very fine blankets,
make baskets and are expert potters and wood-carvers. Their
houses are built of stone set in mortar. Their ceremonies are
of an elaborate nature, and in the famous " snake-dance " the
performers carry live rattlesnakes in their mouths. They
number some 1600. (See also PUEBLO INDIANS.)
For Hopi festivals, seesistAnn. Report Bureau of Amer. Ethnology
(1899-1900).
HOPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN, COUNT VON (1712-1789),
Swedish statesman, was the son of Daniel Niklas Hopken, one of
Arvid Horn's most determined opponents and a founder of the
Hat party. When in 1 738 the Hats came into power the younger
Hopken obtained a seat in the secret committee of the diet, and
during the Finnish war of 1741-42 was one of the two com-
missioners appointed to negotiate with Russia. During the
diet of 1746-1747 Hopken 's influence was of the greatest import-
ance. It was chiefly through his efforts that the estates issued
a " national declaration " protesting against the arrogant
attitude of the Russian ambassador, who attempted to dominate
the crown prince Adolphus Frederick and the government.
This spirited policy restored the waning prestige of the Hat
party and firmly established their anti-Muscovite system. In
1746 Hopken was created a senator. In 1751 he succeeded
Gustaf Tessin as prime minister, and controlled the foreign policy
of Sweden for the next nine years. On the outbreak of the
Seven Years' War, he contracted an armed neutrality treaty with
Denmark (1756); but in the following year acceded to the
league against Frederick II. of Prussia. During the crisis of
1760-1762, when the Hats were at last compelled to give an
account of 'their stewardship, Hopken was sacrificed to party
exigencies and retired from the senate as well as from the premier-
ship. On the 22nd of June 1762, however, he was created a
count. After the revolution of 1772 he re-entered the senate
at the particular request of Gustavus III., but no longer exercised
any political influence. His caustic criticism of many of the
royal measures, moreover, gave great offence, and in 1780 he
retired into private life. Hopken was a distinguished author.
The noble style of his biographies and orations has earned
for him the title of the Swedish Tacitus. He helped to found
the Vetenskaps Akademi, and when Gustavus III. in 1786
established the Swedish Academy, he gave Hopken the first
place in it.
See L. G. de Geer, Minne af Grefve A. J. von Hopken (Stockholm,
1882); Carl Silfverstolpe, Grefve Hopkens Skrifter (Stockholm,
1890-1893). (R. N. B.)
HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN (1857- ), American
Sanskrit scholar, was born in Northampton, Massachusetts,
on the 8th of September 1857. He graduated at Columbia
University in 1878, studied at Leipzig, where he received the
degree of Ph.D. in 1881, was an instructor at Columbia in 1881-
1885, and professor at Bryn Mawr in 1885-1895, and became
professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in Yale Uni-
versity in 1895. He became secretary of the American Oriental
Society and editor of its Journal, to which he contributed many
valuable papers, especially on numerical and temporal categories
in early Sanskrit literature. He wrote Caste in Ancient India
(1881); Manu's Lawbook (1884); Religions of India (1895);
The Great Epic of India (1901); and India Old and New
(1901).
HOPKINS, ESEK (1718-1802), the first admiral of the
United States navy, was born at Scituate, Rhode Island, in
1718. He belonged to one of the most prominent Puritan
families of New England. At the age of twenty he went to sea,
and rapidly came to the front as a good sailor and skilful trader.
Marrying, three years later, into a prosperous family of Newport,
and thus increasing his influence in Rhode Island, he became
commodore of a fleet of seventeen merchantmen, the movements
of which he directed with skill and energy. In war as well as
peace, Hopkins was establishing his reputation as one of the
leading colonial seamen, for as captain of a privateer he made
more than one brilliant and successful venture during the Seven
Years' War. In the interval between voyages, moreover, he
was engaged in Rhode Island politics, and rendered efficient
support to his brother Stephen against the Ward faction. At
the outbreak of the War of Independence, Hopkins was appointed
brigadier-general by Rhode Island, was commissioned, December
I 77S> by the Continental Congress, commander-in-chief of the
navy, and in January 1776 hoisted his flag as admiral of the eight
converted merchantmen which then constituted the navy of the
United States. His first cruise resulted in a great acquisition of
material of war and an indecisive fight with H.M.S. " Glasgow."
At first this created great enthusiasm, but criticism soon made
itself heard. Hopkins and two of his captains were tried for
breach of orders, and, though ably defended by John Adams, were
censured by Congress. The commands, nevertheless, were not
interfered with, and a prize was soon afterwards named after the
admiral by their orders. But the difficulties and mutual distrust
continually increased, and in 1777 Congress summarily dismissed
Hopkins from his command, on the complaint of some of his
officers. Before the order arrived, the admiral had detected
the conspiracy against him, and had had the ringleaders tried
and degraded by court-martial. But the Congress followed
up its order by dismissing him from the navy. For the rest of
his life he lived in Rhode Island, playing a prominent part in
state politics, and he died at Providence in 1802.
See Edward Field, Life ofEsek Hopkins (Providence, 1898) ; also an
article by R. Grieve in the New England Magazine of November
1897.
HOPKINS, MARK (1802-1887), American educationist,
great-nephew of the theologian Samuel Hopkins, was born in
Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on the 4th of February 1802.
He graduated in 1824 at Williams College, where he was a tutor
in 1825-1827, and where in 1830, after having graduated in the
previous year at the Berkshire Medical College at Pittsfield,
he became professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric. In
1833 he was licensed to preach in Congregational churches.
He was president of Williams College from 1836 until 1872.
He was one of the ablest and most successful of the old type
of college president. His volume, of lectures on Evidences e]
Christianity (1846) was long a favourite text-book. Of his other
writings, the chief were Lectures on Moral Science (1862), The
Law of Love and Love as a Law (1869), An Outline Study of Man
HOPKINS, S. HOPKINSON, F.
685
(1873), The Scriptural Idea of Man (1883), and Teachings and
Counsels (1884). Dr Hopkins took a lifelong interest in Christian
missions, and from 1857 until his death was president of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (the
American Congregational Mission Board). He died at Williams-
town, on the I7th of June 1887. His son, HENRY HOPKINS
(1837-1908), was also from 1903 till his death president of
Williams College.
See Franklin Carter's Mark Hopkins (Boston, 1892), in the
" American Religious Leaders " series, and Leverett W. Spring's
Mark Hopkins, Teacher (New York, 1888), being No. 4, vol. i., of
the " Monographs of the Industrial Educational Association."
Mark Hopkins's brother, ALBERT HOPKINS ( 1 807-1 87 2) , was long
associated with him at Williams College, where he graduated in
1826 and was successively a tutor (1827-1829), professor of
mathematics and natural philosophy (1829-1838), professor of
natural philosophy and astronomy (1838-1868) and professor
of astronomy (1868-1872). In 1835 he organized and conducted
a Natural History Expedition to Nova Scotia, said to have been
the first expedition of the kind sent out from any American
college, and in 1837, at his suggestion and under his direction,
was built at Williams College an astronomical observatory, said
to have been the first in the United States built at a college
exclusively for purposes of instruction. He died at Williams-
town on the 24th of May 1872.
See Albert C. Sewall's Life of Professor Albert Hopkins (1879).
HOPKINS, SAMUEL (1721-1803), American theologian,
from whom the Hopkinsian theology takes its name, was born
at Waterbury, Connecticut, on the i7th of September 1721.
He graduated at Yale College in 1741; studied divinity at
Northampton, Massachusetts, with Jonathan Edwards; was
licensed to preach in 1742, and in December 1743 was ordained
pastor of the church in the North Parish of Sheffield, or Housa-
tonick (now Great Barrington), Massachusetts, at that time a
small settlement of only thirty families. There he laboured-
preaching, studying and writing until 1769, for part of the
time (1751-1758) in intimate association with his old teacher,
Edwards, whose call to Stockbridge he had been instrumental
in procuring. His theological views having met with much
opposition, however, he was finally dismissed from the pastorate
on the pretext of want of funds for his support. From April
1770 until his death on the 2oth of December 1803, he was
the pastor of the First Church in Newport, Rhode Island, though
during 1776-1780, while Newport was occupied by the British,
he preached at Newburyport, Mass., and at Canterbury and
Stamford, Conn. In 1799 he had an attack of paralysis, from
which he never wholly recovered. Hopkins's theological views
have had a powerful influence in America. Personally he was
remarkable for force and energy of character, and for the utter
fearlessness with which he followed premises to their conclusions.
In vigour of intellect and in strength and purity of moral tone
he was hardly inferior to Edwards himself. Though he was
originally a slave-holder, to him belongs the honour of having
been the first among the Congregational ministers of New
England to denounce slavery both by voice and pen; and to his
persistent though bitterly opposed efforts are probably chiefly
to be attributed the law of 1774, which forbade the importation
of negro slaves into Rhode Island, as also that of 1784, which
declared that all children of slaves born in Rhode Island after
the following March should be free. His training school for negro
missionaries to Africa was broken up by the confusion of the
American War of Independence. Among his publications are a
valuable Life and Character of Jonathan Edwards (1799), and
numerous pamphlets, addresses and sermons, including A
Dialogue concerning the Slavery of the Africans, showing it to be
the Duty and Interest of the American States to emancipate all their
African Slaves (1776), and A Discourse upon the Slave Trade and
the History of the Africans (1793). His distinctive theological
tenets are to be found in his important work, A System
of Doctrines Contained in Divine Revelation, Explained and
Defended (1793), which has had an influence hardly inferior
to that exercised by the writings of Edwards himself. They may
be summed up as follows: God so rules the universe as to pro-
duce its highest happiness, considered as a whole. Since God's
sovereignty is absolute, sin must be, by divine permission, a
means by which this happiness of the whole is secured, though
that this is its consequence, renders it no less heinous in the
sinner. Virtue consists in preference for the good of the whole
to any private advantage; hence the really virtuous man must
willingly accept any disposition of himself that God may deem
wise a doctrine often called " willingness to be damned." All
have natural power to choose the right, and are therefore re-
sponsible for their acts; but all men lack inclination to choose
the right unless the existing " bias " of their wills is transformed
by the power of God from self-seeking into an effective inclination
towards virtue. Hence preaching should demand instant sub-
mission to God and disinterested goodwill, and should teach the
worthlessness of all religious acts or dispositions which are less
than these, while recognizing that God can grant or withhold
the regenerative change at his pleasure.
The best edition of Hopkins's Works is that published in three
volumes at Boston in 1852, containing an excellent biographical
sketch by Professor Edwards A. Park. In 1854 was published
separately Hopkins's Treatise on the Millennium, which originally
appeared in his System of Doctrines and in which he deduced from
prophecies in Daniel and Revelation that the millennium would come
" not far from the end of the twentieth century." See also Stephen
West's Sketches of the Life of the Late Reverend Samuel Hopkins
(Hartford, Conn., 1805), Franklin B. Dexter's Biographical Sketches
of the Graduates of Yale College and Williston Walker's Ten New
England Leaders (New York, 1901). (W. WR.)
HOPKINS, WILLIAM (1793-1866), English mathematician
and geologist, was born at Kingston-on-Soar, in Nottingham-
shire, on the 2nd of February 1793. In his youth he learned
practical agriculture in Norfolk and afterwards took an extensive
farm in Suffolk. In this he was unsuccessful. At the age of
thirty he entered St Peter's College, Cambridge, taking his
degree of B.A. in 1827 as seventh wrangler and M.A. in 1830.
In 1833 he published Elements of Trigonometry. He was dis-
tinguished for his mathematical knowledge, and became emi-
nently successful as a private tutor, many of his pupils attaining
high distinction. About 1833, through meeting Sedgwick at
Barmouth and joining him in several excursions, he became
intensely interested in geology. Thereafter, in papers published
by the Cambridge Philosophical Society and the Geological
Society of London, he entered largely into mathematical in-
quiries connected with geology, dealing with the effects which
an elevatory force acting from below would produce on a portion
of the earth's crust, in fissures, faults, &c. In this way he dis-
cussed the elevation and denudation of the Lake district, the
Wealden area, and the Bas Boulonnais. He wrote also on the
motion of glaciers and the transport of erratic blocks. So ably
had he grappled with many difficult problems that in 1850 the
Wollaston medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society
of London; and in the following year he was elected president.
In his second address (1853) he criticized lie de Beaumont's
theory of the elevation of mountain-chains and showed the
imperfect evidence on which it rested. He brought before the
Geological Society in 1851 an important paper On the Causes
which may have produced changes in the Earth's superficial Tempera-
lure. He was president of the British Association for 1853.
His later researches included observations on the conductivity
of various substances for heat, and on the effect of pressure
on the temperature of fusion of different bodies. He died at
Cambridge on the I3th of October 1866.
Obituary by W. W. Smyth, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Sac. (1867),
p. xxix.
HOPKINSON, FRANCIS (1737-1791), American author and
statesman, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence,
was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of October
1737. He was a son of Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751), a
prominent lawyer of Philadelphia, one of the first trustees of
the College of Philadelphia, now the University of Pennsylvania,
and first president of the American Philosophical Society.
Francis was the first student to enter the College of Philadelphia.
686
HOPKINSON, J. HOPPNER
from which he received his bachelor's degree in 1757 and his
master's degree in 1760. He then studied law in the office in
Philadelphia of Benjamin Chew, and was admitted to the bar
in 1761. Removing after 1768 to Bordentown, New Jersey,
he became a member of the council of that colony in 1774.
On the approach of the War of Independence he identified
himself with the patriot or whig element in the colony, and in
1776 and 1777 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress.
He served on the committee appointed to frame the Articles of
Confederation, executed, with John Nixon (1733-1808) and John
Wharton, the "business of the navy" under the direction of
the marine committee, and acted for a time as treasurer of the
Continental loan office. From 1779 to 1789 he was judge of
the court of admiralty in Pennsylvania, and from 1790 until
his death was United States district judge for that state. He
was famous for his versatility, and besides being a distinguished
lawyer, jurist and political leader, was " a mathematician, a
chemist, a physicist, a mechanician, an inventor, a musician
and a composer of music, a man of literary knowledge and
practice, a writer of airy and dainty songs, a clever artist with
pencil and brush and a humorist of unmistakeable power "
(Tyler, Literary History of the American Revolution). It is as
a writer, however, that he will be remembered. He ranks as
one of the three leading satirists on the patriot side during the
War of Independence. His ballad, The Battle of the Kegs (1778),
was long exceedingly popular. To alarm the British force at
Philadelphia the Americans floated kegs charged with gun-
powder down the Delaware river towards that city, and the
British, alarmed for the safety of their shipping, fired with cannon
and small arms at everything they saw floating in the river.
Hopkinson's ballad is an imaginative expansion of the actual
facts. To the cause of the revolution this ballad, says Professor
Tyler, " was perhaps worth as much just then as the winning
of a considerable battle." Hopkinson's principal writings are
The Pretty Story (1774), A Prophecy (1776) and The Political
Catechism (1777). Among his songs may be mentioned
The Treaty and The New Roof, a Song for Federal Mechanics;
and the best known of his satirical pieces are Typographical
Method of conducting a Quarrel, Essay on White Washing and
Modern Learning. His Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional
Writings were published at Philadelphia in 3 vols., 1792.
His son, JOSEPH HOPKINSON (1770-1842), graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1786, studied law, and was a
Federalist member of the national House of Representatives in
1815-1819, Federal judge of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania
from 1828 until his death, and a member of the state con-
stitutional convention of 1837. He is better known, however,
as the author of the patriotic anthem " Hail Columbia " (1798).
HOPKINSON, JOHN (1849-1898), English engineer and
physicist, was born in Manchester on the 27th of July 1849.
Before he was sixteen he attended lectures at Owens College,
and at eighteen he gained a mathematical scholarship at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1871 as senior wrangler
and first Smith's prizeman, having previously taken the degree
of D.Sc. at London University and won a Whitworth scholar-
ship. Although elected a fellow and tutor of his college, he stayed
up at Cambridge only for a very short time, preferring to learn
practical engineering as a pupil in the works in which his father
was a partner. But there his stay was equally short, for in 1872
he undertook the duties of engineering manager in the glass
manufactories of Messrs Chance Brothers and Company at
Birmingham. Six years later he removed to London, and
while continuing to act as scientific adviser to Messrs Chance,
established a most successful practice as a consulting engineer.
His work was mainly, though not exclusively, electrical, and
his services were in great demand as an expert witness in patent
cases. In 1890 he was appointed director of the Siemens labora-
tory at King's College, London, with the title of professor of
electrical engineering. His death occurred prematurely on the
27th of August 1898, when he was killed, together with one son
and two daughters, by an accident the nature of which was
never precisely ascertained, while climbing the Petite Dent
de Veisivi, above Evolena. Dr Hopkinson presented a rare
combination of practical with theoretical ability, and his achieve-
ments in pure scientific research are not less intrinsically notable
than the skill with which he applied their results to the solution
of concrete engineering problems. His original work is contained
in more than sixty papers, all written with a complete mastery
both of style and of subject-matter. His name is best known
in connexion with electricity and magnetism. On the one hand
he worked out the general theory of the magnetic circuit in
the dynamo (in conjunction with his brother Edward), and
the theory of alternating currents, and conducted a long series
of observations on the phenomena attending magnetization in
iron, nickel and the curious alloys of the two which can exist
both in a magnetic and non-magnetic state at the same tempera-
ture. On the other hand, by the application of the principles
he thus elucidated he furthered to an immense extent the em-
ployment of electricity for the purposes of daily life. As regards
the generation of electric energy, by pointing out defects of
design in the dynamo as it existed about 1878, and showing
how important improvements were to be effected in its con-
struction, he was largely instrumental in converting it from
a clumsy and wasteful appliance into one of the most efficient
known to the engineer. Again, as regards the distribution
of the current, he took a leading part in the development of the
three-wire system and the closed-circuit transformer, while
electric traction had to thank him for the series-parallel method
of working motors. During his residence in Birmingham,
Messrs Chance being makers of glass for use in lighthouse lamps,
his attention was naturally turned to problems of lighthouse
illumination, and he was able to devise improvements in both
the catoptric and dioptric methods for concentrating and
directing the beam. He was a strong advocate of the group-
flashing system as a means of differentiating lights, and in-
vented an arrangement for carrying it into effect optically,
his plan being first adopted for the catoptric light of the Royal
Sovereign lightship, in the English Channel off Beachy Head.
Moreover, his association with glass manufacture led him to
study the refractive indices of different kinds of glass ; he
further undertook abstruse researches on electrostatic capacity,
the phenomena of the residual charge, and other problems
arising out of Clerk Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory.
His original papers were collected and published, with a memoir
by his son, in 1901.
HOPKINSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Christian
county, Kentucky, U.S.A., about 150 m. S.W. of Louisville.
Pop. (1890) 5833; (1900) 7280 (3243 negroes); (1910) 9419.
The city is served by the Illinois Central and the Louisville
& Nashville railways. It is the seat of Bethel Female College
(Baptist, founded 1854), of South Kentucky College (Christian;
co-educational; chartered 1849) and of the Western Kentucky
Asylum for the Insane. The city's chief interest is in the tobacco
industry; it has also considerable trade in other agricultural
products and in coal; and its manufactures include carriages
and wagons, bricks, lime, flour and dressed lumber. When
Christian county was formed from Logan county in 1797,.
Hopkinsville, formerly called Elizabethtown, became the county-
seat, and was renamed in honour of Samuel Hopkins (c. 1750-
1819), an officer of the Continental Army in the War of Inde-
pendence, a pioneer settler in Kentucky, and a representative in
Congress from Kentucky in 1813-1815. In 1798 Hopkinsville
was incorporated.
HOPPNER, JOHN (1758-1810), English portrait-painter, was
born, it is said, on the 4th of April 1758 at Whitechapel.
His father was of German extraction, and his mother was one
of the German attendants at the royal palace. Hoppner was
consequently brought early under the notice and received
the patronage of George III., whose regard for him gave rise
to unfounded scandal. As a boy he was a chorister at the royal
chapel, but showing strong inclination for art, he in 1775 entered
as a student at the Royal Academy. In 1778 he took a silver
medal for drawing from the life, and in 1782 the Academy's
highest award, the gold medal for historical painting, his subject
HOP-SCOTCHHORACE
687
being King Lear. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy
in 1780. His earliest love was for landscape, but necessity
obliged him to turn to the more lucrative business of portrait-
painting. At once successful, he had, throughout life, the most
fashionable and wealthy sitters, and was the greatest rival of the
growing attraction of Lawrence. Ideal subjects were very rarely
attempted by Hoppner, though a " Sleeping Venus," " Belisarius,"
" Jupiter and lo," a " Bacchante " and " Cupid and Psyche " are
mentioned among his works. The prince of Wales especially
patronized him, and many of his finest portraits are in the state
apartments at St James's Palace, the best perhaps being those of
the prince, the duke and duchess of York, of Lord Rodney and
of Lord Nelson. Among his other sitters were Sir Walter Scott,
Wellington, Frere and Sir George Beaumont. Competent judges
have deemed his most successful works to be his portraits of
women and children. A Series of Portraits of Ladies was published
by him in 1803, and a volume of translations of Eastern tales into
English verse in 1805. The verse is of but mediocre quality.
In his later years Hoppner suffered from a chronic disease of
the liver; he died on the 23rd of January 1810. He was con-
fessedly an imitator of Reynolds. When first painted, his
works were much admired for the brilliancy and harmony of
their colouring, but the injury due to destructive mediums
and lapse of time which many of them suffered caused a great
depreciation in his reputation. The appearance, however,
of some of his pictures in good condition has shown that his
fame as a brilliant colourist was well founded. His drawing
is faulty, but his touch has qualities of breadth and freedom
that give to his paintings a faint reflection of the charm of
Reynolds. Hoppner was a man of great social power, and had
the knowledge and accomplishments of a man of the world.
The best account of Hoppner's life and paintings is the exhaustive
work by William McKay and W. Roberts (1909).
HOP-SCOTCH (" scotch," to score), an old English children's
game in which a small object, like a flat stone, is kicked by the
player, while hopping, from one division to another of an oblong
space marked upon the ground and divided into a number of
divisions, usually 10 or 12. These divisions are numbered, and
the stone must rest successively in each. Should it rest upon
a line or go out of the division aimed for, the player loses. In
order to win a player must drive the stone into each division
and back to the starting-point.
HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON, BARON (1598-1652), Royalist
commander in the English Civil War, was the son of Robert
Hopton of Witham, Somerset. He appears to have been educated
at Lincoln College, Oxford, and to have served in the army
of the Elector Palatine in the early campaigns of the Thirty
Years' War, and in 1624 he was lieutenant-colonel of a regiment
raised in England to serve in Mansfeld's army. Charles I.,
at his coronation, made Hopton a Knight of the Bath. In the
political troubles which preceded the outbreak of the Civil
War, Hopton, as member of parliament successively for Bath,
Somerset and Wells, at first opposed the royal policy, but after
Strafford's attainder (for which he voted) he gradually became
an ardent supporter of Charles, and at the beginning of the
Great Rebellion (q.v.) he was made lieutenant-general under
the marquess of Hertford in the west. His first achievement
was the rallying of Cornwall to the royal cause, his next to
carry the war from that county into Devonshire. In May 1643
he won the brilliant victory of Stratton, in June he overran
Devonshire, and on the 5th of July he inflicted a severe defeat
on Sir William Waller at Lansdown. In the last action he was
severely wounded by the explosion of a powder-wagon and he
was soon after shut up in Devizes by Waller, where he defended
himself until relieved by the victory of Roundway Down on the
i3th of July. He was soon afterwards created Baron Hopton
of Stratton. But his successes in the west were cut short by
the defeat of Cheriton or Alreslord in March 1644. After this
he served in the western campaign under Charles's own com-
mand, and towards the end of the war, after Lord Goring had
left England, he succeeded to the command of the royal army,
which his predecessor had allowed to waste away in indiscipline.
It was no longer possible to stem the tide of the parliament's
victory, and Hopton, defeated in his last stand at Torrington
on the i6th of February 1646, surrendered to Fairfax. Sub-
sequently he accompanied the prince of Wales in his attempts
to prolong the war in the Scilly and Channel Islands. But his
downright loyalty was incompatible with the spirit of con-
cession and compromise which prevailed in the prince's council
in 1640-1650, and he withdrew from active participation in the
cause of royalism. He died, still in exile, at Bruges in September
1652. The peerage became extinct at his death. The king,
Prince Charles and the governing circle appreciated the merits
of their faithful lieutenant less than did his enemies Waller
and Fairfax, the former of whom wrote, " hostility itself cannot
violate my friendship to your person," while the latter spoke
of him as " one whom we honour and esteem above any other of
your party."
HOR, MOUNT (Tin), the scene in the Bible of Aaron's death,
situated " in the edge of the land of Edom " (Num. xxxiii. 37).
Since the time of Josephus it has been identified with the Jebel
Nebi ftarun (" Mountain of the Prophet Aaron "), a twin-peaked
mountain 4780 ft. above the sea-level (6072 ft. above the Dead
Sea) in the Edomite Mountains on the east side of the Jordan-
Arabah valley. On the summit is a shrine said to cover the
grave of Aaron. Some modern investigators dissent from this
identification: H. Clay Trumbull prefers the Jebel Madara,
a peak north-west of "Ain Kadis. Another Mount Hor is men-
tioned in Num. xxxiv. 7, 8, as on the northern boundary of
the prospective conquests of the Israelites. It is perhaps to be
identified with Hermon. It has been doubtfully suggested that
for Hor we should here read Hadrach, the name of a northern
country near Damascus, mentioned only once in the Bible
(Zech.ix. i). (R. A. S. M.)
HORACE [QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.), the
famous Roman poet, was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at
Venusia, on the borders of Lucania and Apulia (Sat. ii. i. 34).
The town, originally a colony of veterans, appears to have long
maintained its military traditions, and Horace was early imbued
with a profound respect for the indomitable valour and industry
of the Italian soldier. It would seem, however, that the poet
was not brought up in the town itself, at least he did not attend
the town school (Sat. i. 6. 72) and was much in the neighbouring
country, of which, though he was but a child when he left it,
he retained always a vivid and affectionate memory. The
mountains near and far, the little villages on the hillsides, the
woods, the roaring Aufidus, the mossy sprirg of Bandusia,
after which he named another spring on his Sabine farm these
scenes were always dear to him and are frequently mentioned
in his poetry (e.g. Carm. iii. 4 and 30, iv. 9). We may thus
trace some of the germs of his poetical inspiration, as well as
of his moral sympathies, to the early years which he spent near
Venusia. But the most important moral influence of his youth
was the training and example of his father, of whose worth,
affectionate solicitude and homely wisdom Horace has given
a most pleasing and life-like picture (Sat. i. 6. 70, &c.). He was
a freedman by position; and it is supposed that he had been
originally a slave of the town of Venusia, and on his emancipation
had received the gentile name of Horatius from the Horatian
tribe in which the inhabitants of Venusia were enrolled. After
his emancipation he acquired by the occupation of " coactor "
(a collector of the payments made at public auctions, or, according
to another interpretation, a collector of taxes) sufficient means
to enable him to buy a small farm, to make sufficient provision
for the future of his son (Sat. i. 4. 108), and to take him to Rome
to give him the advantage of the best education there. To his
care Horace attributes, not only the intellectual training which
enabled him in later life to take his place among the best men of
Rome, but also his immunity from the baser forms of moral
evil (Sat. i. 6. 68. &c.). To his practical teaching he attributes
also his tendency to moralize and to observe character (Sat. i.
4. 105, &c.) the tendency which enabled him to become the
most truthful painter of social life and manners which the ancient
world produced.
688
HORACE
In one of his latest writings (Episi. ii. 2. 42, &c.) Horace gives
a further account of his education; but we hear no more of his
father, nor is there any allusion in his writings to the existence
of any other member of his family or any other relative. After
the ordinary grammatical and literary training at Rome, he
went (45 B.C.) to Athens, the most famous school of philosophy,
as Rhodes was of oratory; and he describes himself while there
as " searching after truth among the groves of Academus " as
well as advancing in literary accomplishment. His pleasant
residence there was interrupted by the breaking out of the civil
war. Following the example of his young associates, he attached
himself to the cause of Brutus, whom he seems to have accom-
panied to Asia, probably as a member of his staff; and he
served at the battle of Philippi in the post of military tribune.
He shared in the rout which followed the battle, and henceforth,
though he was not less firm in his conviction that some causes
were worth fighting for and dying for, he had but a poor opinion
of his own soldierly qualities.
He returned to Rome shortly after the battle, stripped of his
property, which formed part of the land confiscated for the
benefit of the soldiers of Octavianus and Antony. It may have
been at this time that he encountered the danger of shipwreck,
which he mentions among the perils from which his life had been
protected by supernatural aid (Carm. iii. 4. 28). He procured
in some way the post of a clerkship in the quaestor's office, and
about three years after the battle of Philippi, he was introduced
by Virgil and Varius to Maecenas. This was the turning-point
of his fortunes. He owed his friendship with the greatest of
literary patrons to his personal merits rather than to his poetic
fame; for he was on intimate terms with Maecenas before the
first book of the Satires (his first published work) appeared.
He tells us in one of his Satires (i. 10. 31) that his earliest ambition
was to write Greek verses. In giving this direction to his
ambition, he was probably influenced by his admiration of the
old iambic and lyrical poets whom he has made the models
of his own Epod.es and Odes. His common sense as well as his
national feeling fortunately saved him from becoming a second-
rate Greek versifier in an age when poetic inspiration had passed
from Greece to Italy, and the living language of Rome was a
more fitting vehicle for the new feelings and interests of men
than the echoes of the old Ionian or Aeolian melodies. His
earliest Latin compositions were, as he tells us, written under
the instigation of poverty; and they alone betray any trace of
the bitterness of spirit which the defeat of his hopes and the
hardships which he had to encounter on his first return to Rome
may have temporarily produced on him. Some of the Epodes,
of the nature of personal and licentious lampoons, and the second
Satire of book i., in which there is some trace of an angry republi-
can feeling, belong to these early compositions. But by the time
the first book of Satires was completed and published (35 B.C.)
his temper had recovered its natural serenity, and, though he
had not yet attained to the height of his fortunes, his personal
position was one of comfort and security, and his intimate
relation with the leading men in literature and social rank was
firmly established.
About a year after the publication of this first book of Satires
Maecenas presented him with a farm among the Sabine hills,
near the modern Tivoli. This secured him pecuniary independ-
ence; it satisfied the love of nature which had been implanted
in him during the early years spent on the Venusian farm; and
it afforded him a welcome escape from the distractions of city
life and the dangers of a Roman autumn. Many passages in the
Satires, Odes and Epistles express the happiness and pride
with which the thought of his own Valley filled him, and the
interest which he took in the simple and homely ways of his
country neighbours. The inspiration of the Satires came from
the heart of Rome; the feeling of many of the Odes comes direct
from the Sabine hills; and even the meditative spirit of the
later Epistles tells of the leisure and peace of quiet days spent
among books, or in the open air, at a distance from " the smoke,
wealth and tumult " of the great metropolis.
The second book of Satires was published in 29 B.C.; the
Epodes (spoken of by himself as iambi) apparently about a year
earlier, though many of them are, as regards the date of their
composition, to be ranked among the earliest extant writings
of Horace. In one of his Epistles (i. 19. 25) he rests his first
claim to originality on his having introduced into Latium the
metres and spirit of Archilochus of Paros. He may have natural-
ized some special form of metre employed by that poet, and it
may be (as Th. Pltisz has suggested) that we should see in the
Epodes a tone of mockery and parody. But his personal lampoons
are the least successful of his works; while those Epodes which
treat of other subjects in a poetical spirit are inferior in metrical
effect, and in truth and freshness of feeling, both to the lighter
lyrics of Catullus and to his own later and more carefully
meditated Odes. The Epodes, if they are serious at all, are
chiefly interesting as a record of the personal feelings of Horace
during the years which immediately followed his return to Rome,
and as a prelude to the higher art and inspiration of the first
three books of the Odes, which were published together about the
end of 24 or the beginning of 23 B.C. 1 The composition of these
Odes extended over several years, but all the most important
among them belong to the years between the battle of Actium
and 24 B.C. His lyrical poetry is thus, not, like that of Catullus,
the ardent utterance of his youth, but the mature and finished
workmanship of his manhood. The state of public affairs was
more favourable than it had been since the outbreak of the civil
war between Caesar and Pompey for the appearance of lyrical
poetry. Peace, order and national unity had been secured by
the triumph of Augustus, and the enthusiasm in favour of the
new government had not yet been chilled by experience of its
repressing influence. The poet's circumstances were, at the
same time, most favourable for the exercise of his lyrical gift
during these years. He lived partly at Rome, partly at his
Sabine farm, varying his residence occasionally by visits to
Tibur, Praeneste or Baiae. His intimacy with Maecenas was
strengthened and he had become the familiar friend of the great
minister. He was treated with distinction by Augustus, and by
the foremost men in Roman society. He complains occasionally
that the pleasures of his youth are passing from him, but he
does so in the spirit of a temperate Epicurean, who found new
enjoyments in life as the zest for the old enjoyments decayed,
and who considered the wisdom and meditative spirit " the
philosophic mind that years had brought " an ample compensa-
tion for the extinct fires of his youth.
About four years after the publication of the three books
of Odes, the first book of the Epistles appeared, introduced,
as his Epodes, Satires and Odes had been, by a special address
to Maecenas. From these Epistles, as compared with the Satires,
we gather that he had gradually adopted a more retired and
meditative life, and had become fonder of the country and of
study, and that, while owing allegiance to no school or sect of
philosophy, he was framing for himself a scheme of life, was
endeavouring to conform to it, and was bent on inculcating it on
others. He maintained his old friendships, and continued to
form new intimacies, especially with younger men engaged
in public affairs or animated by literary ambition. After the
death of Virgil he was recognized as pre-eminently the greatest
living poet, and was accordingly called upon by Augustus to
compose the sacred hymn for the celebration of the secular
games in 17 B.C. About four years later he published the fourth
book of Odes (about 13 B.C.) having been called upon to do so
by the emperor, in order that the victories of his stepsons
Drusus and Tiberius over the Rhaeti and Vindelici might be
worthily celebrated. He lived about five years longer, and
during these years published the second book of Epistles, and the
Epistle to the Pisos, more generally known as the " Ars poetica."
These later Epistles are mainly devoted to literary criticism,
with the especial object of vindicating the poetic claims of his
own age over those of the age of Ennius and the other early
1 The date is determined by the poem on the death of Quintilius
Varus (who died 24 B.C.), and by the reference in Ode i. 12 to the
young Marcellus (died in autumn 23 B.C.) as still alive. Cf . Wickham's-
Introduction to the Odes.
HORACE
689
poets of Rome. He might have been expected, as a great critic
and lawgiver on literature, to have exercised a beneficial influence
on the future poetry of his country, and to have applied as much
wisdom to the theory of his own art as to that of a right life.
But his critical Epistles are chiefly devoted to a controversial
attack on the older writers and to the exposition of the laws of
dramatic poetry, on which his own powers had never been
exercised, and for which either the genius or circumstances
of the Romans were unsuited. The same subordination of
imagination and enthusiasm to good sense and sober judgment
characterizes his opinions on poetry as on morals.
He died somewhat suddenly on the 1 7th of November of the
year 8 B.C. He left Augustus to see after his affairs, and was
buried on the Esquiline Hill, near Maecenas.
Horace is one of the few writers, ancient or modern, who
have written a great deal about themselves without laying
themselves open to the charge of weakness or egotism. His
chief claim to literary originality is not that on which he himself
rested his hopes of immortality that of being the first to adapt
certain lyrical metres to the Latin tongue but rather that of
being the first of those whose works have reached us who
establishes a personal relation with his reader, speaks to him
as a familiar friend, gives him good advice, tells him the story
of his life, and shares with him his private tastes and pleasures
and all this without any loss of self-respect, any want of modesty
or breach of good manners, and in a style so lively and natural
that each new generation of readers might fancy that he was
addressing them personally and speaking to them on subjects
of every day modern interest. In his self-portraiture, far from
wishing to make himself out better or greater than he was, he
seems to write under the influence of an ironical restraint which
checks him in the utterance of his highest moral teaching and of
his poetical enthusiasm. He affords us some indications of his
personal appearance, as where he speaks of the "nigros angusta
fronte capillos " of his youth, and describes himself after
he had completed his forty-fourth December as of small
stature, prematurely grey and fond of basking in the sun
(Epist. i. 20. 24).
In his later years his health became weaker or more uncertain,
and this caused a considerable change in his habits, tastes and
places of residence. It inclined him more to a life of retirement
and simplicity, and also it stimulated his tendency to self-
introspection and self-culture. In his more vigorous years, when
he lived much in Roman society, he claims to have acted in all
his relations to others in accordance with the standard recognized
among men of honour in every age, to have been charitably
'indulgent to the weakness of his friends, and to have been
exempt from petty jealousies and the spirit of detraction.
If ever he deviates from his ordinary vein of irony and quiet
sense into earnest indignation, it is in denouncing conduct
involving treachery or malice in the relations of friends (Sat.
i. 4. 81, &c.).
He claims to be and evidently aims at being independent
of fortune, superior to luxury, exempt both from the sordid
cares of avarice and the coarser forms of profligacy. At the
same time he makes a frank confession of indolence and of
occasional failure in the pursuit of his ideal self-mastery. He
admits his irascibility, his love of pleasure, his sensitiveness
to opinion, and some touch of vanity or at least of gratified
ambition arising out of the favour which through all his life
he had enjoyed from those much above him in social station
(Epist. i. 20. 23). Yet there appears no trace of any unworthy
deference in Horace's feelings towards the great. Even towards
Augustus he maintained his attitude of independence, by
declining the office of private secretary which the emperor
wished to force upon him; and he did so with such tact as
neither to give offence nor to forfeit the regard of his superior.
His feeling towards Maecenas is more like that of Pope towards
Bolingbroke than that which a client in ancient or modern
times entertains towards his patron. He felt pride in his protec-
tion and in the intellectual sympathy which united him with one
whose personal qualities had enabled him to play so prominent
and beneficent a part in public affairs. Their friendship was
slowly formed, but when once established continued unshaken
through their lives.
There is indeed nothing more remarkable in Horace than
the independence, or rather the self-dependence, of his character.
The enjoyment which he drew from his Sabine farm consisted
partly in the refreshment to his spirit from the familiar beauty
of the place, partly in the " otia liberrima " from the claims
of business and society which it afforded him. His love poems,
when compared with those of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius,
show that he never, in his mature years at least, allowed his
peace of mind to be at the mercy of any one. They are the
expressions of a fine and subtle and often a humorous observation
rather than of ardent feeling. There is perhaps a touch of
pathos in his reference in the Odes to the early death of Cinara,
but the epithet he applies to her in the Epistles,
"Quern scis immunem Cinarae placuisse rapaci,"
shows that the pain of thinking of her could not have been very
heartfelt. Even when the Odes addressed to real or imaginary
beauties are most genuine in feeling, they are more the artistic
rekindling of extinct fires than the utterance of recent passion.
In his friendships he had not the self-forgetful devotion which
is the most attractive side of the character of Catullus; but he
studied how to gain and keep the regard of those whose society
he valued, and he repaid this regard by a fine courtesy and by a
delicate appreciation of their higher gifts and qualities, whether
proved in literature, or war, or affairs of state or the ordinary
dealings of men. He enjoyed the great world, and it treated
him well; but he resolutely maintained his personal independence
and the equipoise of his feelings and judgment. If it is thought
that in attributing a divine function to Augustus he has gone
beyond the bounds of a sincere and temperate admiration,
a comparison of the Odes in which this occurs with the first
Epistle of the second book shows that he certainly recognized in
the emperor a great and successful administrator and that his
language is to be regarded rather as the artistic expression of
the prevailing national sentiment than as the tribute of an
insincere adulation.
The aim of Horace's philosophy was to " be master of oneself,"
to retain the " mens aequa " in all circumstances, to use the
gifts of fortune while they remained, and to be prepared to part
with them with equanimity; to make the most of life, and to
contemplate its inevitable end without anxiety. Self-reliance
and resignation are the lessons which he constantly inculcates.
His philosophy is thus a mode of practical Epicureanism combined
with other elements which have more affinity with Stoicism.
In his early life he professed his adherence to the former system,
and several expressions in his first published work show the
influences of the study of Lucretius. At the time when the first
book of the Epistles was published he professes to assume the
position of an eclectic rather than that of an adherent of either
school (Epist. i. i. 13-19). We note in the passage here referred
to, as in other passages, that he mentions Aristippus of Cyrene,
rather than Epicurus himself, as the master under whose influence
he from time to time insensibly lapsed. Yet the dominant tone
of his teaching is that of a refined Epicureanism, not so elevated
or purely contemplative as that preached by Lucretius, but yet
more within the reach of a society which, though luxurious
and pleasure-loving, had not yet become thoroughly frivolous
and enervated. His advice is to subdue all violent emotion of
fear or desire; to estimate all things calmly "nil admirari";
to choose the mean between a high and low estate; and to find
one's happiness in plain living rather than in luxurious indulgence.
Still there was in Horace a robuster fibre, inherited from the
old Italian race, which moved him to value the dignity and
nobleness of life more highly than its ease and enjoyment.
In some of the stronger utterances of his Odes, where he expresses
sympathy with the manlier qualities of character, we recognize
the resistent attitude of Stoicism rather than the passive acquiesc-
ence of Epicureanism. The concluding stanzas of the address
to Lollius (Ode iv. 9) exhibit the Epicurean and Stoical view
of life so combined as to be more worthy of human dignity than
690
HORACE
the genial worldly wisdom of the former school, more in har-
mony with human experience than the formal precepts of the
latter.
It is interesting to trace the growth of Horace in elevation
of sentiment and serious conviction from his first ridicule of
the paradoxes of Stoicism in the two books of the Satires to the
appeal which he makes in some of the Odes of the third book
to the strongest Roman instincts of fortitude and self-sacrifice.
A similar modification of his religious and political attitude
may be noticed between his early declaration of Epicurean
unbelief and the sympathy which he shows with the religious
reaction fostered by Augustus; and again between the Epicurean
indifference to national affairs and the strong support which
he gives to the national policy of the emperor in the first six Odes
of the third book, and in the fifth and fifteenth of the fourth
book. In his whole religious attitude he seems to stand midway
between the consistent denial of Lucretius and Virgil's pious
endeavour to reconcile ancient faith with the conclusions of
philosophy. His introduction into some of his Odes of the gods
of mythology must be regarded as merely artistic or symbolical.
Yet in some cases we recognize the expression of a natural piety,
thankful for the blessing bestowed on purity and simplicity
of life, and acknowledging a higher and more majestic law
governing nations through their voluntary obedience. On the
other hand, his allusions to a future life, as in the " domus exilis
Plutonia," and the " furvae regna Proserpinae," are shadowy
and artificial. The image of death is constantly obtruded in his
poems to enhance the sense of present enjoyment. In the true
spirit of paganism he associates all thoughts of love and wine,
of the meeting of friends, or of the changes of the seasons with
the recollection of the transitoriness of our pleasures
" Nos, ubi decidimus
Quo pius Aeneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus,
Pulvis et umbra sumus."
Horace is so much of a moralist in all his writings that, in order to
enter into the spirit both of his familiar and of his lyrical poetry, it is
essential to realize what were his views of life and the influences under
which they were formed. He is, though in a different sense from
Lucretius, eminently a philosophical and reflective poet. He is also,
like all the other poets of the Augustan age, a poet in whose com-
position culture and criticism were as conspicuous elements as
spontaneous inspiration. In the judgment he passes on the older
poetry of Rome and on that of his contemporaries, he seems to
attach more importance to the critical and artistic than to the
creative and inventive functions of genius. It is on the labour and
judgment with which he has cultivated his gift that he rests his hopes
of fame. The whole poetry of the Augustan age was based on the
works of older poets, Roman as well as Greek. Its aim was to
perfect the more immature workmanship of the former, and to adapt
the forms, manners and metres of the latter to subjects of immediate
and national interest. As Virgil performed for his generation the
same kind of office which Ennius performed for an older generation,
so Horace in his Satires, and to a more limited extent in his Epistles,
brought to perfection for the amusement and instruction of his
contemporaries the rude but vigorous designs of Lucilius.
It was the example of Lucilius which induced Horace to commit
all his private thoughts, feelings and experience " to his books as to
trusty companions," and also to comment freely on the characters
and lives of other men. Many of the subjects of particular satires of
Horace were immediately suggested by those treated by Lucilius.
Thus the " Journey to Brundusium " (Sat. i. 5) reproduced the
outlines of Lucilius's " Journey to the Sicilian Straits." The dis-
course of Ofella on luxury (Sat. ii. 2) was founded on a similar dis-
course of Laelius on gluttony, and the " Banquet of Nasidienus "
(Sat. ii. 8) may have been suggested by the description by the older
poet of a rustic entertainment. There was more of moral censure and
personal aggressiveness in the satire of the older poet. The ironical
temper of Horace induced him to treat the follies of society in the
spirit of a humorist and man of the world, rather than to assail vice
with the severity of a censor; and the greater urbanity of his age or
of his disposition restrained in him the direct personality of satire.
The names introduced by him to mark types of character such as
Nomentanus, Maenius, Pantolabus, &c., are reproduced from the
writings of the older poet. Horace also followed Lucilius in the
variety of forms which his satire assumes, and especially in the
frequent adoption of the form of dialogue, derived from the
" dramatic medley " which was the original character of the Roman
Satura. This form suited the spirit in which Horace regarded the
world, and also the dramatic quality of his genius, just as the direct
denunciation and elaborate painting of character suited the " saeva
indignatio " and the oratorical genius of Juvenal.
Horace's satire is accordingly to a great extent a reproduction in
form, manner, substance and tone of the satire of Lucilius; or rather
it is a casting in the mould of Lucilius of his own observation and
experience. But a comparison of the fragments of Lucilius with the
finished compositions of Horace brings out in the strongest light the
artistic originality and skill of the latter poet in his management of
metre and style. Nothing can be rougher and harsher than the
hexameters of Lucilius, or cruder than his expression. In his
management of the more natural trochaic metre, he has shown much
greater ease and simplicity. It is one great triumph of Horace's
genius that he was the first and indeed the only Latin writer who
could bend the stately hexameter to the uses of natural and easy,
and at the same time terse and happy, conversational style.
Catullus, in his hendecasyllabics, had shown the vivacity with which
that light and graceful metre could be employed in telling some short
story or describing some trivial situation dramatically. But no one
before Horace had succeeded in applying the metre of heroic verse
to the uses of common life. But he had one great native model in the
mastery of a terse, refined, ironical and natural conversational style,
Terence; and the Satires show, not only in allusions to incidents and
personages, but in many happy turns of expression very frequent
traces of Horace's familiarity with the works of the Roman Menander.
The Epistles are more original in form, more philosophic in spirit,
more finished and charming in style than the Satires. The form of
composition may have been suggested by that of some of the satires
of Lucilius, which were composed as letters to his personal friends.
But letter-writing in prose, and occasionally also in verse, had been
common among the Romans from the time of the siege of Corinth;
and a practice originating in the wants and covenience of friends
temporarily separated from one another by the public service was
ultimately cultivated as a literary accomplishment. It was a happy
idea of Horace to adopt this form for his didactic writings on life and
literature. It suited him as an eclectic and not a systematic thinker,
and as a friendly counsellor rather than a formal teacher of his age.
It suited his circumstances in the latter years of his life, when his
tastes inclined him more to retirement and study, while he yet
wished to retain his hold on society and to extend his relations with
younger men who were rising into eminence. It suited the class who
cared for literature a limited circle of educated men, intimate with
one another, and sharing the same tastes and pursuits. While giving
expression to lessons applicable to all men, he in this way seems to
address each reader individually, with the urbanity of a friend rather
than the solemnity of a preacher. In spirit the Epistles are more
ethical and meditative than the Satires. Like the Odes they exhibit
the twofold aspects of his philosophy, that of temperate Epicurean-
ism and that of more serious and elevated conviction. In the actual
maxims which he lays down, in his apparent belief in the efficacy of
addressing philosophical texts to the mind, he exemplifies the trite-
ness and limitation of all Roman thought. But the, spirit and senti-
ment of his practical philosophy is quite genuine and original. The
individuality of the great Roman moralists, such as Lucretius and
Horace, appears not in any difference in the results at which they
have arrived, but in the difference of spirit with which they regard
the spectacle of human life. In reading Lucretius we are impressed
by his earnestness, his pathos, his elevation of feeling; in Horace we
are charmed by the serenity of his temper and the flavour of a delicate
and subtle wisdom. We note also in the Epistles the presence of a
more philosophic spirit, not only in the expression of his personal
convictions and aims, but also in his comments on society. In the
Satires he paints the outward effects of the passions of the age. He
shows us prominent types of character the miser, the parasite, the
legacy-hunter, the parvenu, &c., but he does not try to trace these
different manifestations of life to their source. In the Epistles he
finds the secret spring of the social vices of the age in the desire, as
marked in other times as in those of Horace, to become rich too fast,
and in the tendency to value men according to their wealth, and to
sacrifice the ends of life to a superfluous care for the means of living.
The cause of all this aimless restlessness and unreasonable desire is
summed up in the words " Strenua nos exercet inertia."
In his Satiresand Epistles Horace shows himself a genuine moralist,
a subtle observer and true painter of life, and an admirable writer.
But for both of these works he himself disclaims the title of poetry.
He rests his claims as a poet on his Odes. They reveal an entirely
different aspect of his genius, his spirit and his culture. He is one
among the few great writers of the world who have attained high
excellence in two widely separated provinces of literature. Through
all his life he was probably conscious of the " ingeni benigna vena,"
which in his youth made him the sympathetic student and imitator of
the older lyrical poetry of Greece, and directed his latest efforts to
poetic criticism. But it was in the years that intervened between
the publication of his Satires and Epistles that his lyrical genius
asserted itself as his predominant faculty. At that time he had
outlived the coarser pleasures and risen bove the harassing cares of
his earlier career; a fresh source of happiness and inspiration had
been opened up to him in his beautiful Sabine retreat ; he had
become not only reconciled to the rule of Augustus, but a thoroughly
convinced and, so far as his temperament admitted to enthusiasm,
an enthusiastic believer in its beneficence. But it was only after
much labour that his original vein of genius obtained a free and
abundant outlet. He lays no claim to the " profuse strains of un-
premeditated art," with which other great lyrical poets of ancient
HORAE HORAPOLLON
691
and modern times have charmed the world. His first efforts were
apparently imitative, and were directed to the attainment of perfect
mastery over form, metre and rhythm. The first nine Odes of the
first book are experiments in different kinds of metre. They and all
the other metres employed by him are based on those employed by
the older poets of Greece Alcaeus, Sappho, Archilochus, Alcman,
&c. He has built the structure of his lighter Odes also on their model,
while in some of those in which the matter is more weighty, as in
that in which he calls on Calliope " to dictate a long continuous
strain," he has endeavoured to reproduce something of the intricate
movement, the abrupt transitions, the interpenetration of narrative
and reflection, which characterize the art of Pindar. He frequently
reproduces the language and some of the thoughts of his masters, but
he gives them new application, or stamps them with the impress of
his own experience. He brought the metres which he has employed
to such perfection that the art perished with him. A great proof of
his mastery over rhythm is the skill with which he has varied his
metres according to the sentiment which he wishes to express.
Thus his great metre, the Alcaic, has a character of stateliness and
majesty in addition to the energy and impetus originally imparted
to it by Alcaeus. The Sapphic metre he employs with a peculiar
tightness and vivacity which harmonize admirably with his gayer
moods
Again in regard to his diction, if Horace has learned his subtlety
and moderation from his Greek masters, he has tempered those
qualities with the masculine characteristics of his race. No writer is
more Roman in the stateliness and dignity, the terseness, occasionally
even in the sobriety and bare literalness, of his diction.
While it is mainly owing to the extreme care which Horace gave
to form, rhythm and diction that his own prophecy
" Usque ego postera
Crescam laude recens "
has been so amply fulfilled, yet no greater injustice could be done to
him than to rank him either as poet or critic with those who consider
form everything in literature. With Horace the mastery over the
vehicle of expression was merely an essential preliminary to making
a worthy and serious use of that vehicle. The poet, from Horace's
point of view, was intended not merely to give refined pleasure to a
few, but above all things, to be " utilis urbi." Yet he is saved, in his
practice, from the abuse of this theory by his admirable sense, his
ironical humour, his intolerance of pretension and pedantry.
Opinions will differ as to whether he or Catullus is to be regarded as
the greater lyrical poet. Those who assign the palm to Horace will
do so, certainly not because they recognize in him richer or equally
rich gifts of feeling, conception and expression, but because the
subjects to which his art has been devoted have a fuller, more varied,
more mature and permanent interest for the world.
AUTHORITIES. For the life of Horace the chief authorities are his
own works and a short ancient biography which is attributed to
Suetonius. The apparatus criticus is most fully described in O.
Keller's preface to voi. i. of the 2nd ed. (1899) of Keller and Holder's
recension of Horace's works. This edition also gives by far the largest
collection of variants and emendations to the text and of the testi-
monia of ancient writers.
What might have proved the most important manuscript of
Horace, the so-called vetustissimus Blandinius, is now lost, and we
know it only from the account of J. Cruquius who saw it in 1565.
The relations of the extant MSS. to each other and the presumed
archetype present an intricate problem; and Keller's solution has
not proved generally acceptable. See a resume of the controversy
Horazkritik seit 1880 by J. Bick (Leipzig, 1906) and F. Vollmer in
Philologus. Supp. x. 2, pp. 261-322. Many MSS. of Horace contain
ancient scholia which are copied or taken with abridgment from the
commentaries of Porphyrio, who lived about A.D. 200, and Helenius
Aero, a still earlier grammarian. These scholia also have been
collected and edited the Porphyrio scholia by A. Holder (1902)
and the " Acronian " (or pseudo-Acronian) by O. Keller (1902-1904).
R. Bentley's epoch-making edition (1711) has been reprinted with an
index by Zangemeister (1869). Of the modern commentaries the
most useful are those of J. C. Orelli (4th ed., revised by O. Hirsch-
felder and J. Mewes, 1886-1890, with index verborum), and of A.
Kiessling (revised by R. Heinze, Odes, 1901, 1908, Satires, 1906,
Epistle:, 1898). The best complete English commentary is that of
E. C. Wickham (2 vols., 1874-1896). Other editions with English
notes are those of T. E. Page (Odes, 1883), A. Palmer (Satires, 1883),
A. S. Wilkins (Epistles, 1885), J. Gow (Odes and Epodes, 1896,
Satires, i., 1901), P. Shorey (Odes and Epodes, 1898, Boston, U.S.A.).
L. Muller's elaborate edition of the Odes and Epodes was published
posthumously (1900). Of the critical editions Keller and Holder's
still holds the field: to this Keller's Epilegomena zu Horaz (1879)
is a necessary adjunct. F. Vollmer's text (1907) uses Keller's
materials on a new principle. Of illustrated editions H. H. Milman's
(1867) and C. W. King's (1869, with text revised by H. A. J. Munro)
deserve mention. The best verse translation is that of J. Conington
lately reprinted with the Latin text from the recension in Postgatejs
new Corpus poetarunt. For further information see Teuffel's
Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (Eng. trans, by G. C. Warr),
234-240, and M. Schanz's excellent account in his Geschichte der
romischen Litteratur, vol. ii. 251-266. (W. Y. S.; J. G*.)
HORAE (Lat. hora, hour), the Hours, in Greek mythology
'fipai, originally the personification of a series of natural pheno-
mena. In the Iliad (v. 749) they are the custodians of the gates
of Olympus, which they open or shut by scattering or condensing
the clouds; that is, they are weather goddesses, who send down
or withhold the fertilizing dews and rain. In the Odyssey,
where they are represented as bringing round the seasons in
regular order, they are an abstraction rather than a concrete
personification. The brief notice in Hesiod (Theog. 901),
where they are called the children of Zeus and Themis, who
superintend the operations of agriculture, indicates by the
names assigned to them (Eunomia, Dike, Eirene, i.e. Good
Order, Justice, Peace) the extension of their functions as goddesses
of order from nature to the events of human life, and at the same
time invests them with moral attributes. Like the Moerae
(Fates), they regulate the destinies of man, watch over the newly
born, secure good laws and the administration of justice. The
selection of three as their number has been supposed to refer
to the most ancient division of the year into spring, summer and
winter, but it is probably only another instance of the Greek
liking for that particular number or its multiples in such
connexions (three Moerae, Charites, Gorgons, nine Muses).
Order and regularity being indispensable conditions of beauty,
it was easy to conceive of the Horae as the goddesses of youthful
bloom and grace, inseparably associated with the idea of spring-
time. As such they are companions of the Nymphs and Graces,
with whom they are often confounded, and of other superior
deities connected with the spring growth of vegetation (Demeter,
Dionysus). At Athens they were two (or three) in number:.
Thallo and Carpo, the goddesses of the flowers of spring and of
the fruits of summer, to whom Auxo, the goddess of the growth
of plants, may be added, although some authorities make her
only one of the Graces. In honour of the Horae a yearly festival
(Horaea) was celebrated, at which protection was sought against
the scorching heat and drought, and offerings were made of
boiled meat as less insipid and more nutritious than roast.
In later mythology, under Alexandrian influence, the Horae
become the four seasons, daughters of Helios and Selene, each
represented with the conventional attributes. Subsequently,
when the day was divided into twelve equal parts, each of them
took the name of Hora. Ovid (Melam. ii. 26) describes them as
placed at equal intervals on the throne of Phoebus, with whom
are also associated the four seasons. Nonnus ($th century A.D.)
in the Dionysiaca also unites the twelve Horae as representing
the day and the four Horae as the seasons in the palace of Helios.
See C. Lehrs, Populare Aufsatze (1856); J. H. Krause, Die Musen,
Grazien, Horen, und Nymphen (1871) ; and the articles in Daremberg
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, J. A. Hild; and in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie, W. Rapp.
HORAPOLLON, of Phaenebythis in the nome of Panopolis
in Egypt, Greek grammarian, flourished in the 4th century A.D.
during the reign of Theodosius I. According to Suidas, he
wrote commentaries on Sophocles, Alcaeus and Homer, and a
work (TtneviKa) on places consecrated to the gods. Photius
(cod. 279), who calls him a dramatist as well as a grammarian,
ascribes to him a history of the foundation and antiquities of
Alexandria (unless this is by an Egyptian of the same name,
who lived in the reign of Zeno, 474-491). Under the name of
Horapollon two books on Hieroglyphics are extant, which profess
to be a translation from an Egyptian original into Greek by
a certain Philippus, of whom nothing is known. The inferior
Greek of the translation, and the character of the additions in
the second book point to its being of late date; some have
even assigned it to the isth century. Though a very large
proportion of the statements seem absurd and cannot be
accounted for by anything known in the latest and most fanciful
usage, yet there is ample evidence in both the books, in individual
cases, that the tradition of the values of the hieroglyphic signs
was not yet extinct in the days of their author.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editions by C. Leemans (1835) and A. T. Cory
(1840) with English translation and notes; see also G. Rathgeber in
Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopddie; H. Schafer, Zeitschrift
fur agyptische Sprache (1905), p. 72.
692
HORATII AND CURIATII HORIZON
HORATII and CURIATIL in Roman legend, two sets of three
brothers born at one birth on the same day the former Roman,
the latter Alban the mothers being twin sisters. During the
war between Rome and Alba Longa it was agreed that the issue
should depend on a combat between the two families. Two of
the Horatii were soon slain; the third brother feigned flight,
and when the Curiatii, who were all wounded, pursued him
without concert he slew them one by one. When he entered
Rome in triumph, his sister recognized a cloak which he was
wearing as a trophy as one she had herself made for her lover,
one of the Curiatii. She thereupon invoked a curse upon her
brother, who slew her on the spot. Horatius was condemned
to be scourged to death, but on his appealing to the people
his life was spared (Livy i. 25, 26; Dion. Halic. iii. 13-22).
Monuments of the tragic story were shown by the Romans
in the time of Livy (the altar of Janus Curiatius near the sororium
tigillum, the " sister's beam," or yoke under which Horatius had
to pass; and the altar of Juno Sororia). The legend was
probably invented to account for the origin of the provocatio
(right of appeal to the people), while at the same time it points
to the close connexion and final struggle for supremacy between
the older city on the mountain and the younger city on the
plain. Their relationship and origin from three tribes are
symbolically represented by the twin sisters and the two sets of
three brothers.
For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, Romische
Geschichte, bk. xii. II. 14; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of
Early Roman History, ch. xi. 15; W. Ihne, Hist, of Rome, i. ; E. Pais,
Storia di Roma, i. ch. 3 (1898), and Ancient Legends of Roman
History (Eng. trans., 1906), where the story is connected with the
ceremonies performed in honour of Jupiter Tigillus and Juno
Sororia; C. Pascal, Fatti e legende di Roma antica (Florence, 1903);
O. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographic der Stadt Rom im Altertum
(1883-1885).
HORATIUS COCLES, a legendary hero of ancient Rome.
With two companions he defended the Sublician bridge against
Lars Porsena and the whole army of the Etruscans, while the
Romans cut down the bridge behind. Then Horatius threw
himself into the Tiber and swam in safety to the shore. A
statue was erected in his honour in the temple of Vulcan, and
he received as much land as he could plough round in a single
day. According to another version, Horatius alone defended
the bridge, and was drowned in the Tiber.
There is an obvious resemblance between the legend of Horatius
Codes and that of the Horatii and Curiatii. In both cases
three Romans come forward as the champions of Rome at a
critical moment of her fortunes, and only one successfully holds
his ground. In the one case, the locality is the land frontier,
in the other, the boundary stream of Roman territory. E. Pais
finds the origin of the story in the worship of Vulcan, and
identifies Codes (the " one-eyed ") with one of the Cyclopes,
who in mythology were connected with Hephaestus, and later
with Vulcan. He concludes that the supposed statue of Codes
was really that of Vulcan, who, as one of the most ancient
Roman divinities and, in fact, the protecting deity of the state,
would naturally be confounded with the hero who saved it by
holding the bridge against the invaders. He suggests that the
legend arose from some religious ceremony, possibly the practice
of throwing the stuffed figures called Argei into the Tiber from
the Pons Sublicius on the ides of May. The conspicuous part
played in Roman history by members of the Horatian family,
who were connected with the worship of Jupiter Vulcanus, will
explain the attribution of the name Horatius to Vulcan-Cocles.
See Livy ii. 10; Dion. Halic. v. 23-25; Polybius vi. 55; Plutarch,
Poplicola, 1 6. For a critical examination of the legend, see Schwegler,
Romische Geschichte, bk. xxi. 18; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i. ;
E. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. ch. 4 (1898), and Ancient Legends of
Roman History (Eng. trans., 1906).
HORDE, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Westphalia, is 2 m. S.E. from Dortmund on the
railway to Soest. Pop. (1905) 28,461. It has a Roman Catholic
and an Evangelical church, a synagogue and an old castle dating
from about 1300. There are large smelting-works, foundries,
puddling-works, rolling-mills and manufactures of iron and
plated wares. In the neighbourhood there are large iron and
coal mines. A tramway connects the town with Dortmund.
HOREB, the ancient seat of Yahweh, the tribal god of the
Kenites, adopted by His covenant by Israel. This is the name
preferred by the Elohistic writer (E) whose work is interwoven
into the Old Testament narrative, and he is followed by the
Deuteronomist school (D). -The Yahwistic writer (J), on the
other hand, prefers to call the mountain Sinai (q.v.), and so
do the priestly writers (P). This latter form became the more
usual. There is no ground for distinguishing between Horeb
as the range and Sinai as the single mountain, or between Horeb
and Sinai as respectively the N. and S. parts of the range.
HOREHOUND (O. Eng. harhune, Ger. Andorn, Fr. marrube).
Common or white horehound, Marrubium vulgare, of the natural
order Labiatae, is a perennial herb with a short stout rootstock,
and thick stems, about i ft. in height, which, as well as their
numerous branches, are coated with a white or hoary felt whence
the popular name of the plant. The leaves have long petioles,
and are roundish or rhombic-ovate, with a bluntly toothed
margin, much wrinkled, white and woolly below and pale green
and downy above; the flowers
are sessile, in dense whorls or
clusters, small and dull-white,
with a lo-toothed calyx and the
upper lobe of the corolla long
and bifid. The plant occurs in
Europe, North Africa and West
Asia to North-West India, and
has been naturalized in parts
of America. In Britain, where
it is found generally on sandy
or dry chalky ground, it is far
from common. White horehound
contains a volatile oil, resin, a
crystallizable bitter principle
termed marrubiin and other
substances, and has a net un-
pleasant aromatic odour, and
a persistent bitter taste. For-
merly it was official in British
pharmacopoeias; and the infusion, syrup or confection of
horehound has long been in popular repute for the treatment
of a host of dissimilar affections. Black horehound, Ballota
nigra, is a hairy perennial herb, belonging to the same order, of
foetid odour, is 2 to 3 ft. in height, and has stalked, roundish-
ovate, toothed leaves and numerous flowers, in dense axillary
clusters, with a green or purplish calyx, and a pale red-purple
corolla. It occurs in Europe, North Africa and West Asia, and
in Britain south of the Forth and Clyde, and has been introduced
into North America.
HORGEN, a small town in the Swiss canton of Zurich, situated
on the left or west shore of the Lake of Zurich, and by rail
io| m. S.E. of the town of Zurich. Pop. (1900) 6883, mostly
German-speaking and Protestants. It possesses many industrial
establishments of various kinds, and is a centre of the Zurich
silk manufacture. It came in 1406 into the possession of
Zurich, with which it communicates by means of steamers on
the lake, as well as by rail.
HORIZON (Gr. opifav, dividing), the apparent circle around
which the sky and earth seem to meet. At sea this circle is
well defined, the line being called the sea horizon, which divides
the visible surface of the ocean from the sky. In astronomy
the horizon is that great circle of the sphere the plane of which
is at right angles to the direction of the plumb line. Sometimes
a distinction is made between the rational and the apparent
horizon, the former being the horizon as determined by a plane
through the centre of the earth, parallel to that through the
station of an observer. But on the celestial sphere the great
circles of these two planes are coincident, so that this distinction
is not necessary (see ASTRONOMY: Spherical). The Dip of the
horizon at sea is the angular depression of the apparent sea
Horehound.
HORMAYR HORMIZD
693
horizon, or circle bounding the visible ocean, below the apparent
celestial horizon as above defined. It is due to the rotundity
of the earth, and the height of the observer's eye above the water
The dip of the horizon and its distance in sea-miles when the
height of the observer's eye above the sea-level is Jt feet, are
approximately given by the formulae: Dip = o'-97 ijh; Distance
= i m -i7 VA. The difference between the coefficients 0-97 and
1-17 arises from the refraction of the ray, but for which they
would be equal.
HORMAYR, JOSEPH, BARON VON (1782-1848), German
statesman and historian, was born at Innsbruck on the zoth
of January 1782. After studying law in his native town, and
attaining the rank of captain in the Tirolese Landwehr, the
young man, who had the advantage of being the grandson of
Joseph von Hormayr (1705-1778), chancellor of Tirol, obtained
a post in the foreign office at Vienna (1801), from which he rose
in 1803 to be court secretary and, being a near friend of the
Archduke John, director of the secret archives of the state and
court for thirteen months. In 1803 he married Therese Anderler
von Hohenwald. During the insurrection of 1809, by which
the Tirolese sought to throw off the Bavarian supremacy con-
firmed by the treaty of Pressburg, Hormayr was the mainstay
of the Austrian party, and assumed the administration of
everything (especially the composition of proclamations and
pamphlets) ; but, returning home without the prestige of success,
he fell, in spite of the help of the Archduke John, into disfavour
both with the emperor Francis I. and with Prince Metternich,
and at length, when in 1813 he tried to stir up a new insurrection
in Tirol, he was arrested and imprisoned at Munkatt. In 1816
some amends were made to him by his appointment as imperial
historiographer; but so little was he satisfied with the general
policy and conduct of the Austrian court that in 1828 he accepted
an invitation of King Louis I. to the Bavarian capital, where he
became ministerial councillor in the department of foreign
affairs. In 1832 he was appointed Bavarian minister-resident at
Hanover, and from 1837 to 1846 he held the same position at
Bremen. Together with Count Johann Friedrich von der
Decken (1769-1840) he founded the Historical Society of Lower
Saxony (Historischer Verein fur Niedersachsen). The last two
years of his life were spent at Munich as superintendent of the
national archives. He died on the 5th of October 1848.
Hormayr's literary activity was closely conditioned by the
circumstances of his political career and by the fact that Johannes
von Miiller (d. 1611) was his teacher: while his access to original
documents gave value to his treatment of the past, his record
or criticism of contemporary events received authority and
interest from his personal experience. But his history of the
Tirolese rebellion is far from being impartial; for he always
liked to put himself into the first place, and the merits of Andreas
Hofer and of other leaders are not sufficiently acknowledged.
In his later writings he appears as a keen opponent of the policy
of the court of Vienna.
The following are among Hormayr's more important works:
Geschichte des Graf en von Andechs (1796); Lexikon fur Reisenden in
Tirol (1796); Kritisch-diplomatische Beitrdge zur Geschichte Tirols im
Miltelalter (2vols., Innsbruck, 1802-1803, newed., 1805); Gesch. der
gefurst. Grafschaft Tirol (2 vols., Tubingen, 1806-1808); Oster-
reichischer Plutarch, 20 vols., collection of portraits and biographies
of the most celebrated administrators, commanders and statesmen of
Austria (Vienna, 1807); an edition of Beauchamp's Histoire de la
guerre en Vendee (1809); Geschichte Hofers (1817, 2nd ed., 2 vols.,
1845) and other pamphlets; Archill fur Gesch., Slat., Lit. und
Kunst (20 vols., 1809-1828); Allgemeine Geschichte. der neuesten Zeit
vom Tod Friedrichs des Grossen bis zum zweiten Pariser Frieden (3
vols., Vienna, 1814-1819, 2nd ed., 1891); Wien, seine Gesch. und
Denkwiirdigkeiten (5 vols., Vienna, 1823-1824); together with
Fragmente uber Deutschland, in Sondetheil Bayerns Welthandel;
Lebensbilder aus dem Befreiungskriege (3 vols., Jena, 1841-1844, 2nd
ed., 1845) ; Die goldene Chronik von Hohenschwangau (Munich, 1842) ;
Anemonen aus dem Tagebuch eines alien Pilgersmanns (4 vols., Jena,
1845-1847). Together with Mednyanski (1784-1844) he founded the
Taschenbuch fur die vaterland. Gesch. (Vienna, 1811-1848).
See T. H. Merdau, Biographische Ziige aus dem Leben deutscher
Manner (Leipzig, 1815); Graffer, Osterreichische National-Encyclo-
padie, ii. (1835); Taschenbuch fur vaterlandische Geschichte (1836 and
1847); Neuer Nekrologder Deutschen (1848); Blatter fur literarische
Unterhaltung (1849); Wurzbach, Osterreichisches biographisches
Lexikon, ix. (1863); K. Th. von Heigel in the Allgemeine deutsche
Biographic (1881) and F. X. Wegele, Geschichte der deutschen Historio-
graphie (Munich and Leipzig, 1885); F. v. Krones, Aus Osterreichs
stillen und bewegten Jahren 1810-1815 ; Biographie und Brief e an Erzhz
Johann (Innsbruck, 1892) ; Him, Tiroler Auj "stand (1909). (J. HN.)
HORMISDAS, pope from 514 to 523 in succession to
Symmachus, was a native of Campania. He is known as having
succeeded in obtaining the reunion of the Eastern and Western
Churches, which had been separated since the excommunication
of Acacius in 484. After two unsuccessful attempts under the
emperor Anastasius I., Hormisdas had no difficulty in coming
to an understanding in 518 with his successor Justin. Legates
were despatched to Constantinople; the memorial of the
schismatic patriarchs was condemned; and union was resumed
with the Holy See.
Details of this transaction have come down to us in the Collectio
Avellana (Corpus script, eccl. Vindobon., vol. xxv., Nos 105-203-
cf. Andreas Thiel, Epp. Rom. Pont. i. 741 seq.).
HORMIZD, or HORMIZDAS, the name of five kings of the
Sassanid dynasty (see PERSIA: Ancient History). The name
is another form of Ahuramazda or Ormuzd (Ormazd), which
under the Sassanids became a common personal name and was
borne not only by many generals and officials of their time (it
therefore occurs very often on Persian seals), but even by the
pope of Rome noticed above. It is strictly an abbreviation of
Hormuzd-dad, "given by Ormuzd," which form is preserved
by Agathias iv. 24-25 as name of King Hormizd I. and II.
1. HORMIZD I. (272-273) was the son of Shapur I., under
whom he was governor of Khorasan, and appears in his wars
against Rome (Trebellius Pollio, Trig. Tyr. 2, where Noldeke has
corrected the name Odomastes into Oromastes, i.e. Hormizd).
In the Persian tradition of the history of Ardashir I., preserved
in a Pahlavi text (Noldeke, Geschichte des Artachsir I. Papakan),
he is made the son of a daughter of Mithrak, a Persian dynast,
whose family Ardashir had extirpated because the magians had
predicted that from his blood would come the restorer of the
empire of Iran. Only this daughter is preserved by a peasant;
Shapur sees her and makes her his wife, and her son Hormizd
is afterwards recognized and acknowledged by Ardashir. In this
legend, which has been partially preserved also in Tabari, the
great conquests of Shapur are transferred to Hormizd. In
reality he reigned only one year and ten days.
2. HORMIZD II., son of Narseh, reigned for seven years five
months, 302-309. Of his reign nothing is known. After his
death his son Adarnases was killed by the grandees after a very
short reign, as he showed a cruel disposition; another son,
Hormizd, was kept a prisoner, and the throne reserved for the
child with which a concubine of Hormizd II. was pregnant and
which received the name Shapur II. Hormizd escaped from
prison by the help of his wife in 323, and found refuge at the
court of Constantine the Great (Zosim. ii. 27; John of Antioch,
fr. 178; Zonar. 13-5). In 363 Hormizd served in the army of
Julian against Persia; his son, with the same name, became
consul in 366 (Ammian. Marc. 26. 8. 12).
3. HORMIZD III., son of Yazdegerd I., succeeded his father in.
457. He had continually to fight with his brothers and with the
Ephthalites in Bactria, and was killed by Peroz in 459.
4. HORMIZD IV., son of Chosroes I., reigned 578-590. He
seems to have been imperious and violent, but not without some
iindness of heart. Some very characteristic stories are told
of him by Tabari (Noldeke, Geschichte d. Perser und Araber unler
den Sasaniden, 264 ff.). His father's sympathies had been with
the nobles and the priests. Hormizd protected the common
seople and introduced a severe discipline in his army and court.
When the priests demanded a persecution of the Christians, he
declined on the ground that the throne and the government
could only be safe if it gained the goodwill of both concurring
religions. The consequence was that he raised a strong opposi-
tion in the ruling classes, which led to many executions and
confiscations. When he came to the throne he killed his brothers,
694
HORMUZ
according to the oriental fashion. From his father he had
inherited a war against the Byzantine empire and against the
Turks in the east, and negotiations of peace had just begun
with the emperor Tiberius, but Hormizd haughtily declined
to cede anything of the conquests of his father. Therefore the
accounts given of him by the Byzantine authors, Theophylact,
Simocatta (iii. 16 ff.), Menander Protector and John of Ephesus
(vi. 22), who give a full account of these negotiations, are far
from favourable. In 588 his general, Bahram Chobin, defeated
the Turks, but in the next year was beaten by the Romans;
and when the king superseded him he rebelled with his army.
This was the signal for a general insurrection. The magnates
deposed and blinded Hormizd and proclaimed his son Chosroes II.
king. In the war which now followed between Bahram Chobin
and Chosroes II. Hormizd was killed by some partisans of his
son (590).
5. HORMIZD V. was one of the many pretenders who rose
after the murder of Chosroes II. (628). He maintained himself
about two years (631, 632) in the district of Nisibis. (Eo. M.)
HORMUZ (Hurmuz, Ormuz, Ormus), a famous city on the
shores of the Persian Gulf, which occupied more than one position
in the course of history, and has now long practically ceased to
exist. The earliest mention of the name occurs in the voyage
of Nearchus (325 B.C.). When that admiral beached his fleet
at the mouth of the river Anamis on the shore of Harmozia, a
coast district of Carmania, he found the country to be kindly,
rich in every product except the olive. The Anamis appears
to be the river now known as the Minab, discharging into the
Persian Gulf near the entrance of the latter. The name Hormuz
is derived by some from that of the Persian god Hormuzd
(Ormazd), but it is more likely that the original etymology was
connected with khurma, " a date "; for the meaning of Moghistan
the modern name of the territory Harmozia is " the region of
date-palms." The foundation of the city of Hormuz in this
territory is ascribed by one Persian writer to the Sassanian
Ardashir Babegan (c. 230 A.D.). But it must have existed
at an earlier date, for Ptolemy takes note of "Kpnov^a, TroXts
(vi. 8).
Hormuz is mentioned by Idrisi, who wrote c. 1150, under
the title of Hormuz-al-sahillah, " Hormuz of the shore " (to
distinguish it from inland cities of the same name then existing),
as a large and well-built city, the chief mart of Kirman. Siraf
and Kish (Kais), farther up the gulf, had preceded it as ports of
trade with India, but in the i3th century Hormuz had become
the chief seat of this traffic. It was at this time the seat also of
a petty dynasty of kings, of which there is a history by one of
their number (Turan Shah); an abstract of it is given by the
Jesuit Teixeira. According to this history the founder of the
dynasty was Shah Mohammed Dirhem-Kub (" the Drachma-
coiner "), an Arab chief who crossed the gulf and established
himself here. The date is not given, but it must have been
before noo A.D., as Ruknuddin Mahmud, who succeeded in 1246,
was the twelfth of the line. These princes appear to have been
at times in dependence necessarily on the atabegs of Fars and
on the princes of Kirman. About the year 1300 Hormuz was so
severely and repeatedly harassed by raids of Tatar horsemen
that the king and his people abandoned their city on the mainland
and transferred themselves to the island of Jerun (Organa of
Nearchus), about 12 m. westward and 4 m. from the nearest
shore.
The site of the continental or ancient Hormuz was first traced
in modern times by Colonel (Sir Lewis) Pelly when resident at
Bushire. It stands in the present district of Minab, several miles
from the sea, and on a creek which communicates with the
Minab river, but is partially silted up and not now accessible
for vessels. There remain traces of a long wharf and extensive
ruins. The new city occupied a triangular plain forming the
northern part of the island, the southern wall, as its remains
still show, being about 2 m. in extent from east to west. A
suburb with a wharf or pier, called Turan Bagh (garden of Turan)
after one of the kings, a name now corrupted to Trumpak, stood
about 3 m. from the town to the south-east.
Odoric gives the earliest notice we have of the new city
(c. 1320). He calls it Ormes, a city strongly fortified and abound-
ing in costly wares, situated on an island 5 m. distant from the
main, having no trees and no fresh water, unhealthy and (as
all evidence confirms) incredibly hot. Some years later it was
visited more than once by Ibn Batuta, who seems to speak of
the old city as likewise still standing. The new Hormuz, called
also Jerun (i.e. still retaining the original name of the island),
was a great and fine city rising out of the sea, and serving as a
mart for all the products of India, which were distributed hence
over all Persia. The hills on the island were of rock-salt, from
which vases and pedestals for lamps were carved. Near the gate
of the chief mosque stood an enormous skull, apparently that of a
sperm-whale. The king at this time was Kutbuddin Tahamtan,
and the traveller gives a curious description of him, seated on
the throne, in patched and dirty raiment, holding a rosary of
enormous pearls, procured from the Bahrein fisheries, which
at one time or another belonged, with other islands in the gulf
and on the Oman shores from Ras-el-had (C. Rosalgat of the
Portuguese) on the ocean round to Julfar on the gulf, to the
princes of Hormuz. Abdurazzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh on
his way to the Hindu court of Vijayanagar, was in Hormuz in
1442, and speaks of it as a mart which had no equal, frequented
by the merchants of all the countries of Asia, among which
he enumerates Chin^, Java, Bengal, Tenasserim, Shahr-I-nao
(i.e. Siam) and the Maldives. Nikitiu, the Russian (c. 1470),
gives a similar account; he calls it " a vast emporium of all the
world."
In September 1507 the king of Hormuz, after for some time
hearing of the terrible foe who was carrying fire and sword along
the shores of Arabia, saw the squadron of Alphonso d' Albuquerque
appear before his city, an appearance speedily followed by
extravagant demands, by refusal of these from the ministers
of the young king, and by deeds of matchless daring and cruelty
on the part of the Portuguese, which speedily broke down
resistance. The king acknowledged himself tributary to Portugal,
and gave leave to the Portuguese to build a castle, which was at
once commenced on the northern part of the island, commanding
the city and the anchorage on both sides. But the mutinous
conduct and desertion of several of Albuquerque's captains
compelled him suddenly to abandon the enterprise; and it was
not till 1514, after the great leader had captured Goa and
Malacca, and had for five years been viceroy, that he returned
to Hormuz (or Ormuz, as the Portuguese called it), and without
encountering resistance to a name now so terrible, laid his grasp
again on the island and completed his castle. For more than a
century Hormuz remained practically in the dominions of
Portugal, though the hereditary prince, paying from his revenues
a tribute to Portugal (in lieu of which eventually the latter took
the whole of the customs collections), continued to be the
instrument of government. The position of things during the
Portuguese rule may be understood from the description of
Cesare de' Federici, a Venetian merchant who was at Hormuz
about 1565. After speaking of the great trade in spices, drugs,
silk and silk stuffs, and pearls of Bahrein, and in horses for export
to India, he says the king was a Moor (i.e. Mahommedan), chosen
by and subordinate to the Portuguese. " At the election of the
king I was there and saw the ceremonies that they use . . . The
old king being dead, the captain of the Portugals chooseth
another of the blood-royal, and makes this election in the castle
with great ceremony. And when he is elected the captain
sweareth him to be true ... to the K. of Portugal as his lord and
governor, and then he giveth him the sceptre regal. After this
. . . with great pomp ... he is brought into the royal palace in the
city. The king keeps a good train and hath sufficient revenues,
. . . because the captain of the castle doth maintain and defend
his right ... he is honoured as a king, yet he cannot ride abroad
with his train, without the consent of the captain first had "
(in Hakluyt). 1
1 In Barros, Dec. II. book x. c. 7, there is a curious detail of
the revenue and expenditure of the kingdom of Ormuz, which would
seem to exhibit the former as not more than 100,000.
HORN, A. B.
6 95
The rise of the English trade and factories in the Indian
seas in the beginning of the lyth century led to constant jealousies
and broils with the Portuguese, and the successful efforts of the
English company to open traffic with Persia especially embittered
their rivals, to whom the possession of Hormuz had long given
a monopoly of that trade. The officers of Shah Abbas, who
looked with a covetous and resentful eye on the Portuguese
occupation of such a position, were strongly desirous of the aid
of English ships in attacking Hormuz. During 1620 and 1621
the ships of Portugal and of the English company had more than
once come to action in the Indian seas, and in November of the
latter year the council at Surat had resolved on what was
practically maritime war with the Portuguese flag. There was
hardly a step between this and the decision come to in the
following month to join with " the duke of Shiraz " (Imam Kull
Khan, the governor of Pars) in the desired expedition against
Hormuz. There was some pretext of being forced into the
alliance by a Persian threat to lay embargo on the English goods
at Jashk; but this seems to have been only brought forward
by the English agents when, at a later date, their proceedings
were called in question. The English crews were at first unwilling
to take part in what they justly said was " no merchandizing
business, nor were they engaged for the like," but they were
persuaded, and five English vessels aided, first, in the attack
of Kishm, where (at the east end of the large island so called)
the Portuguese had lately built a fort, 1 and afterwards in that
of Hormuz itself. The latter siege was opened on the i8th of
February 1622, and continued to the ist of May, when the
Portuguese, after a gallant defence of ten weeks, surrendered.
It is to be recollected that Portugal was at this time subject to
the crown of Spain, with which England was at peace; indeed, it
was but a year later that the prince of Wales went on his wooing
adventure to the Spanish court. The irritation there was
naturally great, though it is surprising how little came of it.
The company were supposed (apparently without foundation)
to have profited largely by the Hormuz booty; and both the
duke of Buckingham and the king claimed to be " sweetened,"
as the record phrases it; from this supposed treasure. The
former certainly received a large bribe (10,000) . The conclusion
of the transaction with the king was formerly considered doubtful;
but entries in the calendar of East India papers seem to show
that James received an equal sum. 2
Hormuz never recovered from this blow. The Persians
transferred their establishments to Gombroon on the mainland,
about 12 m. to the north-west, which the king had lately set up
as a royal port under the name of Bander Abbasi. The English
stipulations for aid had embraced an equal division of the
customs duties. This division was apparently recognized by the
Persians as applying to the new Bander, and, though the trade
with Persia was constantly decaying and precarious, the company
held to their factory at Gombroon for the sake of this claim to
revenue, which of course was most irregularly paid. In 1683-
1684 the amount of debt due to the company in Persia, including
their proportion of customs duties, was reckoned at a million
sterling. As late as 1690-1691 their right seems to have been
admitted, and a payment of 3495 sequins was received by them
on this account. The factory at Gombroon lingered on till 1759,
when it was seized by two French ships of war under Comte
d'Estaing. It was re-established, but at the time of Niebuhr's
visit to the gulf a few years later no European remained. Niebuhr
mentions that in his time (c. 1765) Mulla 'Ah' Shah, formerly
admiral of Nadir Shah, was established on the island of Hormuz
and part of Kishm as an independent chief.
See also Barrps, Asia; Commentaries of Albuquerque, trans, by
Birch (Hak. Society) ; Relaciones de Pedro Teixeira (Antwerp, 1610) ;
Narratives in Hakluyt's Collection (reprint in 1809, vol. ii.) and in
Purchas's Pilgrims, vol. ii. ; Pietro della Valle, Persia, lett. xii.-
xvii. ; Calendar of E. I. Papers, by Sainsbury, vol. iii. ; Ritter,
Erdkunde, xii. ; Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc., Kempthorne in vol. v., White-
1 The attack on Kishm was notable in that one of the two English-
men killed there was the great navigator Baffin.
1 Colonial Series, E. Indies, by Sainsbury, vol. iii. passim, especi-
ally see pp. 296 and 329.
locke in vol. viii., Pelly in vol. xxxiv. ; Eraser, Narrative of a Journey
into Khorasan (1825) ; Constable and Stiffe, Persian Gulf Pilot
(1864) ; Bruce, Annals of the E. I. Company, &c. (1810). (H. Y.)
The island has a circumference of 16 m. and its longest axis
measures 4^ m. The village is in 27 6' N., 56 29' E. The
Portuguese fort still stands, but is sadly out of repair and much
of its western wall has been undermined and washed away by
the action of the sea. It is a bastioned fort with orillons and
loopholed casemates under the ramparts and was separated
from the town by a deep moat, now silted up, cut E.-W. across
the isthmus and crossed by a bridge. It has three cisterns for
collecting rainwater; two are 17-18 ft. deep, have a capacity
of about 60,000 gallons and are covered by arched roofs supported
on six stone pillars. The third cistern is smaller and has no
roof. Five rusty old iron guns are lying prone on the roof;
six others on the strand before the village are used for fastening
boats, another serves as a socket for a flagstaff before the repre-
sentative of the government. The island is under the jurisdiction
of the governor of the Persian Gulf ports who resides at Bushire.
Of the old city hardly anything stands except a minaret, 70 ft.
high, with a winding staircase inside and much worn away at the
base, part of a former mosque used by the Portuguese as a
lighthouse, but the traces of buildings, massive foundations
constructed of stone quarried in the hills on the island, of many
cisterns (some say 300), &c., are numerous and extensive. The
modern settlement, situated south of the fort on the eastern shore,
has a population of about 1000 during the cool season, but less
in the hot season, when many people go over to Minab on the
mainland to the east. Most of the people live in huts constructed
of the branches and leaves of the date palm. They own about
sixty small sailing vessels trading to Muscat and other ports and
also do some pearl-fishing. At Turan Bagh on the east coast
45 m. S.E. of the fort are some considerable ruins, irrigation
canals, an extensive burial ground and some huts occupied by
a few families who cultivate a small garden on a terrace supported
by old retaining walls. On a hill near the shore ij m. S.E. of
the fort is the ruin of a small chapel called " Santa Lucia"
on an old map in Astley's Collection of Voyages, and on the
summit of a salt hill 15 m. south of the fort are the remains of
another chapel called " N.S. de la Pena " on the same map,
and a " Monastery " in a sketch of Hormuz made by David
Davies, a mate on board the East India Company's ship
"Discovery" in 1627. With the exception of the northern
part, where the old city stood, and the little patch at Turan
Bagh, the island is covered with reddish brown hills with sharp
serrated ridges composed of gypsum, rock-salt and clay. These
hills, which do not exceed 300 ft. in height, are broken through
in four places by conical, whitish peaks of volcanic rocks (green-
stone, trachyte); the highest of these peaks with an altitude of
690 ft. is situated almost in the centre of the island.
The island has extensive beds of red ochre in which nodules
of very pure hematite are often found. The ochre, here called
gllek, has been an important article of export for centuries 3
and great quantities of it are exported at the present time to
England (in 1906-1907, 10,000 tons; local price 273. the ton).
The climate of Hormuz, although hot, is, according to medical
experts, the best in the Persian Gulf. Rain falls in January,
February and March, and the annual rainfall is said to be about
the same as that of Bushire, 12 to 13 in.
Capt. A. W. Stiffe in Geogr. Mag. (April 1874); William Foster in
Geogr. Journal (Aug. 1894); writer's notes taken on island. (A.H.-S.)
HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742), Swedish
statesman, was born at Vuorentaka in Finland on the 6th of
April 1664, of a noble but indigent family. After completing
his studies at Abo, he entered the army and served for several
years in the Netherlands, in Hungary under Prince Eugene,
and in Flanders under Waldeck (1690-1695). He stood high
* " Reddle or Red Ochre from the Forest of Dean in Gloucester-
shire is very little inferior to the Sort brought from the Island of
Ormuz in the Persian Gulph and so much valued and used by our
Painters under the name of Indian Red " (Sir John Hill, Theo-
phrastus's History of Stones, London, 1774).
6 9 6
HORN, COUNT OF HORN (KING)
in the favour of the young Charles XII. and was one of his fore-
most generals in the earlier part of the great Northern War.
In 1704 he was entrusted with his first diplomatic mission,
the deposition of Augustus II. of Poland and the election of
Stanislaus I., a mission which he accomplished with distinguished
ability but absolute unscrupulousness. Shortly afterwards he
was besieged by Augustus in Warsaw and compelled to surrender.
In 1705 he was made a senator, in 1706 a count and in 1707
governor of Charles XII. 's nephew, the young duke Charles
Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp. In 1710 he succeeded Nils
Gyldenstolpe as prime minister. Transferred to the central
point of the administration, he had ample opportunity of
regarding with other eyes the situation of the kingdom, and in
consequence of his remonstrances he fell rapidly in the favour
of Charles XII. Both in 1710 and 1713 Horn was in favour
of summoning the estates, but when in 1714 the diet adopted
an anti-monarchical attitude, he gravely warned and ultimately
dissolved it. In Charles XII. 's later years Horn had little to do
with the administration. After the death of Charles XII. (1718)
it was Horn who persuaded the princess Ulrica Leonora to
relinquish her hereditary claims and submit to be elected queen
of Sweden. He protested against the queen's autocratic
behaviour, and resigned both the premiership and his senatorship.
He was elected landtmarskalk at the diet of 1720, and contributed,
on the resignation of Ulrica Leonora, to the election of Frederick
of Hesse as king of Sweden, whose first act was to restore to him
the office of prime minister. For the next eighteen years he so
absolutely controlled both the foreign and the domestic affairs
of Sweden that the period between 1720 and 1738 has well been
called the Horn period. His services to his country were indeed
inestimable. His strong hand kept the inevitable strife of the
parliamentary factions within due limits, and it was entirely
owing to his provident care that Sweden so rapidly recovered
from the wretched condition in which the wars of Charles XII.
had plunged her. In his foreign policy Horn was extremely wary
and cautious, yet without compromising either the independence
or the self-respect of his country. He was, however, the promoter
of a new principle of administration which in later days proved
very dangerous to Sweden under ministers less capable than he
was. This was to increase the influence of the diet and its
secret committees in the solution of purely diplomatic questions,
which should have been left entirely to the executive, thus
weakening the central government and at the same time facilitat-
ing the interference of foreign Powers in Sweden's domestic
affairs. Not till 1731 was there any appearance of opposition
in the diet to Horn's "system"; but Horn, piqued by the
growing coolness of the king, the same year offered his resignation,
which was not accepted. In 1734, however, the opposition was
bold enough to denounce his neutrality on the occasion of the
war of the Polish Succession, when Stanislaus I. again appeared
upon the scene as a candidate for the Polish throne; but Horn
was still strong enough to prevent a rupture with Russia. Hence-
forth he was bitterly but unjustly accused of want of patriotism,
and in 1738 was compelled at last to retire before the impetuous
onslaught of the triumphant young Hat party. For the rest
of his life he lived in retirement at his estate at Ekebyholm, where
he died on the i7th of April 1742. Horn in many respects
greatly resembled his contemporary Walpole. The peculiar
situation of Sweden, and the circumstances of his time, made
his policy necessarily opportunist, but it was an opportunism
based on excellent common sense.
See V. E. Svedelius, Aryid Bernard Horn (Stockholm, 1879) ; R. N.
Bain, Gustavus III., vol. i. (London, 1894), and Charles XII. (1895) ;
C. F. Horn, A. B. Horn-.hans lefnad (Stockholm, 1852). (R. N. B.)
HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT OF (1518-1568),
a man of illustrious descent and great possessions in the Nether-
lands, became in succession under Charles V. and Philip II.
stadtholder of Gelderland, admiral of Flanders and knight of
the Golden Fleece. In 1559 he commanded the stately fleet
which conveyed Philip II. from the Netherlands to Spain, and
he remained at the Spanish court till 1563. On his return he
placed himself with the prince of Orange and Count Egmont
at the head of the party which opposed the policy of Cardinal
Granvella. When Granvella retired the three great nobles
continued to resist the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition
and of Spanish despotic rule into the Netherlands. But though
Philip appeared for a time to give way, he had made up his mind
to visit the opponents of his policy with ruthless punishment.
The regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, was replaced by the
duke of Alva, who entered the Netherlands at the head of a
veteran army and at once began to crush all opposition with a
merciless hand. Orange fled from the country, but Egmont
and Horn, despite his warning, decided to remain and face the
storm. They were both seized, tried and condemned as traitors,
and were executed on the sth of June 1568 in the great square
before the town hall at Brussels.
See biographical notices in A. J. van der Aa, Biographisch Woorden-
boek der Nederlanden (Haarlem, 1851-1879); J. Kok, Vaderlandsch
Woordenboek (Amsterdam, 1785-1799); also bibliography to chaps,
vi. vii. and xix. in Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii. pp. 798-809
(1904).
HORN, English hero of romance. King Horn is a heroic
poem or gest of 1546 lines dating from the i3th century. Murry
(or Allof), king of Sudenne 1 (Surrey and Sussex?) is slain by
Saracen pirates who turn his son Horn adrift with twelve other
children. The boat drifts to Westernesse 2 (Cornwall?), where
the children are received by King Aylmer (Aethelmaer).
Presently Horn is denounced by one of his companions as the
lover of the king's daughter Rymenhild (Rimel) and is banished,
taking with him a ring, the gift of his bride and a talisman against
danger. In Ireland, under the name of Godtnod, he serves
for seven years, and slays in battle the Saracens who had killed
his father. Learning that Rymenhild is to be married against
her will to King Mody, he returns to Westernesse disguised
as a palmer, and makes himself known to the bride by dropping
the ring into the cup she offers him, with the words " Drink to
Horn of Horn." He then reconquers his father's kingdom and
marries Rymenhild.
The other versions of the story, which are founded on a common
tradition, but are not immediately dependent on one another, are:
(i) the longer French romance of Horn et Rimenhild by "mestre
Thomas," describing more complex social conditions than those of
the English poem; (2) a slightly shorter Middle English poem,
Horn Childe and Maiden Rimnild; (3) the Scottish ballad of " Hind
Horn; " (4) a prose romance founded on the French Horn, entitled
Pontus et Sidoine (Lyons, 1480, Eng. trans, pr. by Wynkyn de Worde,
1511 ; German trans. Augsburg, 1483).
There is a marked resemblance between the story of Horn
and the legend of Havelok the Dane, and it is interesting to
note how closely Richard of Ely followed the Horn tradition
in the I2th century De gestis Herewardi Saxonis. Hereward
also loves an Irish princess, flees to Ireland, and returns in time
for the bridal feast, where he is presented with a cup by the
princess. The orphaned prince who recovers his father's kingdom
and avenges his murder, and the maid or wife who waits years for
an absent lover or husband, and is rescued on the eve of a
forced marriage, are common characters in romance. The
second of these motives, with almost identical incidents, occurs
in the legend of Henry the Lion, duke of Brunswick; it is
the subject of ballads in Swedish, Danish, German, Bohemian,
&c., and of a Hisloria by Hans Sachs, though some magic
elements are added; it also occurs in the ballad of Der edle
Moringer (i4th century), well known in Sir Walter Scott's
translation; in the story of Torello in the Decameron of Boccaccio
(loth day, Qth tale); and with some variation in the Russian
tale of Dobrynya and Nastasya.
King Horn was re-edited for the Early English Text Soc. by
G. H. McKnight in 1901 ; Horn et Rimenhild was edited with the
English versions for the Bannatyne Club by F. Michel (Paris, 1845) ;
Horn Childe and Maiden Rimnild in J. Ritson's Metrical Romances,
vol. iii.; and " Hind Horn " in F. J. Child's English and Scottish
1 There was a barrow in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, called
Hornesbeorh; and there are other indications which point to a
possible connexion between Horn and Dorset (see H. L. Ward, Cat.
of Romances, i. 451).
2 Sudenne and Westernesse are tentatively identified also with
Isle of Man and Wirral (Cambridge Hist, of Eng Lit., i. 304).
HORN
697
Popular Ballads (vol. i., 1882), with an introductory note on similar
legends. See also H. L. Ward, Catalogue of Romances, vol. i., where
the relation between Havelok and Horn is discussed ; Hist. litt. de la
France (vol. xxii., 1852) ; W. Soderhjelm, Sur I'identite du Thomas
auteur de Tristan et du Thomas auteur de Horn (Romania, xv., 1886) ;
T. Wissmann, " King Horn " (1876) and " Das Lied von King Horn "
(1881) in Nos. 16 and 45 of Quellen und Forschungen zur Spr. und
Cvllurgesch. d. german. V biker (Strassburg and London); Reinfrid
von Braunschweig, a version of the legend of Henry the Lion, edited
by K. Bartsch (Stuttgart, 1871); and a further bibliography in
O. Hartenstein, Studien zur Hornsage (Heidelberg, 1902).
HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu;
cf. Gr. Ktpas). The weapons which project from the heads of
various species of animals, constituting what are known as horns,
embrace substances which are, in their anatomical structure
and chemical composition, quite distinct from each other; and
although in commerce also they are known indiscriminately as
horn, their uses are altogether dissimilar. These differences in
structure and properties were thus indicated by Sir R. Owen:
" The weapons to which the term horn is properly or technically
applied consist of very different substances, and belong to two
organic systems, as distinct from each other as both are from the
teeth. Thus the horns of deer consist of bone, and are processes
of the frontal bone; those of the giraffe are independent bones
or ' epiphyses ' covered by hairy skin; those of oxen, sheep
and antelopes are ' apophyses ' of the frontal bone, covered
by the corium and by a sheath of true horny material; those
of the prong-horned antelope consist at their basis of bony
processes covered by hairy skin, and are covered by horny
sheaths in the rest of their extent. They thus combine the
character of those of the giraffe and ordinary antelope, together
with the expanded and branched form of the antlers of deer.
Only the horns of the rhinoceros are composed wholly of horny
matter, and this is disposed in longitudinal fibres, so that the
horns seem rather to consist of coarse bristles compactly matted
together in the form of a more or less elongated sub-compressed
cone." True horny matter is really a modified form of epidermic
tissue, and consists of the albuminoid " keratin." It forms, not
only the horns of the ox tribe, but also the hoofs, claws or nails
of animals generally, the carapace of the tortoises and the
armadilloes, the scales of the pangolin, porcupine quills, and
birds' feathers, &c.
Horn is employed in the manufacture of combs, buttons, the
handles of walking-sticks, umbrellas, and knives, drinking-cups,
spoons of various kinds, snuff-boxes, &c. In former times it was
applied to several uses for which it is no longer required, although
such applications have left their traces in the language. Thus
the musical instruments and fog signals known as horns indicate
their descent from earlier and simpler forms of apparatus made
from horn. In the same way powder-horns were spoken of long
after they ceased to be made of that substance; to a small
extent lanterns still continue to be " glazed " with thin trans-
parent plates of horn.
HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor,
trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno), a class of wind instruments
primarily derived from natural animal horns (see above), and
having the common characteristics of a conical bore and the
absence of lateral holes. The word '" horn " when used by
modern English musicians always refers to the French horn.
Modern horns may be divided into three classes: (i) the
short horns with wide bore, such as the bugles (q.v.) and the
post-horn. (2) The saxhorns (q.v.), a family of hybrid instru-
ments designed by Adolphe Sax, and resulting from the adapta-
tion of valves and of a cup-shaped mouthpiece to instruments
of the calibre of the bugle. The Flugelhorn family is the German
equivalent of the saxhorns. The natural scale of instiuments
of this class comprises the harmonics from the second to the
eighth only. (3) The French horn (Fr. cor de chasse or trompe
de chasse, cor A pistons; Ger. Waldhorn, Ventilhorn; Ital.
forno or corno di caccia), one of the most valuable and diffi-
cult wind instruments of the orchestra, having a very slender
conical tube wound round in coils upon itself. It consists of
four principal parts the body, the crooks, the slide and the
mouthpiece.
(a) The body is the main tube, having a bore of the form known as
trunco-conical, measuring approximately 7 ft. 4 in. in length, in which
the increase in the diameter of the bore is very gradual in proportion
to the length, the cone becoming accentuated only near the bell.
In the valve horn the bore is only theoretically conical, the extra
lengths of tubing attached to the valves being practically cylindrical.
The body is coiled spirally, and has at one end a wide-mouthed bell
from II to 12 in. in diameter having a parabolic curve, and at the
other a conical ferrule into which fit the crooks.
(ft) The crooks (Fr. corps or tons de rechange; Ger. Krummbogen,
Stimmbogen, Einsetzbogen) are interchangeable, spiral tubes, tapering
to a diameter of a quarter of an inch at the mouthpiece end and vary-
ing in length from 16 in. for the Bt alto crook to 125 in. for the B|>
basso. Each crook is named according to the fundamental tone
which it produces on being added to the body. By lengthening the
tube at will the crook lowers the pitch of the instrument, and conse-
quently changes the key in which it stands. Although the harmonic
series remains the same for all the crooks, the actual sounds produced
by overblowing are lower, the tube being longer, and they now
belong to the key of the crook. The principle of the crook was
known early in the 1 7th century; it had been applied to the trumpet,
trombone and Jagertrummet ' before being adapted to the horn.
Crooks are merely transposing agents; they are powerless to fill up
the gaps in the scale of the horn in order to make it a chromatic or
even a diatonic instrument, for they require time for adjustment.
The principle of the crook doubtless suggested to Stolzel the system
of valves, which is but an instantaneous application of the general
principle to the individual notes of the harmonic series, each of which
is thereby lowered a semitone, a tone or a tone and a half, as long
as the valve remains in operation. The body of the horn without
crooks is of the length to produce 8 ft. C., and forms the standard,
being, known as the alto horn in C, which is the highest key in which
the horn is pitched. The notes are sounded as written.
(c) The mouthpiece of the horn differs substantially from that of
the trumpet. 2 There is, strictly speaking, no cup, the inside of the
mouthpiece .being, like the bore of the instrument itself, in the form
of a truncated cone or funnel. Like the other parts of this difficult
and complex instrument, the proportions of the mouthpiece must bear
a certain undefined relation to the length and diameter of the column
of air. The choice of a suitable mouthpiece is in fact a test of skill ;
the shape of the lip of the performer and the more special use he may
wish to make of either the higher or the lower harmonics have to be
taken into consideration. In orchestral music the part for first horns
naturally calls for the use of the higher harmonics, which are more
easily obtained by means of a somewhat smaller and shallower
mouthpiece 3 than that used upon the second horn, which is called
upon to dwell more on the lower harmonics.
(d) The tuning slides (Fr. coulisses ; Ger. Stimmbogen) consist of a
pair of sliding LJ-shaped tubes fitting tightly into each other, by
means of which the instrument can be brought strictly into tune, and
which also act as compensators with the crooks. On these tuning
slides, placed across the ring formed by the coils of the valve-horn,
are fixed the pistons with their extra lengths of tubing; as the con-
nexion of the pistons with the body of the horn is made through the
slides, the value of the latter as compensators will be readily under-
stood. Those accustomed to deal with instruments having fixed
notes, such as the piano and harp, hardly realize the extreme diffi-
culties which confront both maker and performer in intricate wind
instruments such as the horn, on which no sounds can be produced
without conscious adjustment of lips and breath, and but few without
the additional use of some such contrivance as slide, crook, piston or
of the hand in the bell, in the case of the natural or hand horn.
The production of sound in wind instruments has a fourfold
object: (i) pitch; (2) range or scale of available notes; (3)
quality of tone or timbre; (4) dynamic variation, or Ac
crescendo and diminuendo. The pitch of the horn,
as of other wind instruments, depends almost exclusively on
the length of the air-column set in vibration, and remains
practically uninfluenced by the diameter of the bore. In the
case of conical tubes in which the difference in diameter at the
two extremities, mouthpiece and bell, is very great, as in the
horn, the pitch of the tube will be slightly higher than its theo-
retical length would warrant. 4 When, for instance, three tubes
of the same length are sounded No. i, conical diverging; No. 2,
'See Michael Praetorius, De organographia (Wolfenbuttel, 1618"),
tab. viii., where crooks for lowering the key by one tone on trumpet
and trombone are pictured.
8 See Victor Mahillon, Les Elements d'acoustique^ musicale et instru-
mental (Brussels, 1874), pp. 96, 97, &c. ; Friedrich Zamminer, Die
Musik und die musikalischen Instrumente (Giessen, 1855), p. 310,
where diagrams of the mouthpieces are given.
3 See Joseph Frohlich, Vollstandige theoretisch-praktische Musik-
schule (Bonn, 1811), iii. 7, where diagrams of the two mouth-
pieces for first and second horn are given.
4 See Gottfried Weber, " Zur Akustik der Blasinstrumente," in
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1816), p. 38.
6 9 8
HORN
conical converging in the direction from mouthpiece to bell
No. 3, cylindrical No. i gives a fundamental tone somewhat
higher, No. 2 somewhat lower, than No. 3. Victor Mahillon 1
adds that the rate of vibration in such conical tubes as the horn
is slightly less than the rate of vibration in ambient air; therefore,
as the rate of vibration (i.e. the number of vibrations per second)
varies in the inverse ratio with the length of the tube, it follows
that the practical length of the horn is slightly less than the
theoretical, the difference for the horn in Bt normal pitch
amounting to 13-9 cm. (approximately 55 in.).
The tube of the horn behaves as an open pipe. E. F. F.
Chladni 2 states that the mouthpiece end is to be considered
as open in all wind instruments (excepting reed instruments),
even when, as in horns and trumpets, it would seem to be closed
by the lips. Victor Mahillon, although apparently holding the
opposite view, and considering as closed the tubes of all wind
instruments played by means of reeds, whether single or double,
or by the lips acting as reeds, gives a new and practical explana-
tion of the phenomenon. 3 The result is the same in both cases,
for the closed pipe of trunco-conical bore, whose diameter at the
bell is at least four times greater than the diameter at the
mouthpiece, behaves in the same manner, when set in vibration
by a reed, as an open pipe, and gives the consecutive scale of
harmonics. 4
In order to produce sound from the horn, the performer, stretching
his lips across the funnel-shaped mouthpiece from rim to rim, blows
into the cavity. The lips, vibrating as the breath passes through the
aperture between them, communicate pulsations or series of inter-
mittent shocks to the thin stream of air, known as the exciting
current, which, issuing from them, strikes the column of air in the
tube, already in a state of stationary vibration. 6 The effect of this
series of shocks, without which there can be no sound, upon the
column of air confined within the walls of the tube is to produce
sound-waves, travelling longitudinally through the tube. Each
sound-wave consists of two half-lengths, one in which the air has been
compressed or condensed by the impulse or push, the second in
which, the push being spent, the air again dilates or becomes rare-
fied. In an open pipe, the wave-length is theoretically equal to the
length of the tube. The pitch of the note depends on the frequency
per second with which each vibration or complete sound-wave
reaches the drum of the ear. The longer the wave the lower the
frequency. The velocity of the wave is independent of its length,
being solely conditioned by the rate of vibration of the particles
composing the conveying medium: while one individual particle
performs one complete vibration, the wave advances one wave-
length. 6 The rate of particle vibration or frequency is therefore
inversely proportional to the corresponding wave-length. 7 Sound-
waves generated by the same exciting current travel with the same
velocity whatever their length, the difference being the frequency
number and therefore the pitch of the note. As long as the per-
former blows with normal force, the same length of tube produces the
same wave-length and therefore the same frequency and pitch. By
" blowing with normal force " is understood the proper relative
proportions to be maintained between the wind-pressure and the
lip-tension a ratio which is found instinctively by the performer
but was only suspected by the older writers. 8 If the shocks or
vibrations initiated by the lips through the medium of the exciting
current be sharper owing to the increased tension of the lips, and at
the same time succeed each other with greater velocity, the wave-
length breaks up, and two, three or more proportionally shorter
1 Les Instruments de musique au musee du Conservatoire royal de
musique de Bruxelles, " Instruments a vent," ii.," Le Cor, son histoire,
sa thdorie, sa construction " (Brussels and London, 1907), p. 28.
2 Die Akustik (Leipzig, 1802), p. 86, 72.
3 Op. cit. p. 13, 20, and p. 15, 24 and 25. This apparent dis-
crepancy between an early and a modern authority on the acoustics
of wind instruments is easily explained. Chladni, when speaking of
open and closed pipes, refers to the standard cylindrical and rect-
angular organ-pipes. Mahillon, on the other hand, draws a distinc-
tion in favour of the conical pipe, demonstrating in a practical manner
how, given a certain calibre, the conical pipe must overblow the
harmonics of the open pipe, whatever the method of producing the
sound.
* See Gottfried Weber, loc. cit.
6 See Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, Wellenlehre (Leipzig,
1825), p. 519, 281, and A Text-Book of Physics, part, ii., " Sound,"
by J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson (London, 1906), pp. 104
and 105.
6 See Sedley Taylor, Sound and Music (1896), p. 21.
7 Id. pp. 23-25.
8 See Gottfried Weber, op. cit., pp. 39-41, and Ernst H. and
Wilhelm Weber, op. cit. p. 522, end of 285.
complete waves form instead of one, and traverse the pipe within the
same space of time, producing sounds proportionally higher by an
octave, a twelfth, &c., according to the character of the initiatory
disturbance. We may therefore add this proposition: the rate of
vibration of a tube varies as the number of segments into which the
vibrating column of air within it is divided. In order to obtain the
fundamental, the performer's lips must be loose and the wind-
pressure gentle but steady, so that the exciting current may issue
forth in a broad, slow stream. To set in vibration a column of air
some 1 6 or 17 ft. long is a.feat of extreme difficulty ; that is why it is
quite exceptional to find a horn-player who can sound the funda-
mental on the low C or Bb basso horns. In the organ, where even a
32 ft. tone is obtained, the wind-pressure and the lip-opening con-
trolling the exciting current are mechanically regulated for each
length of pipe only one note being required from each. In order,
therefore, to induce the column of air within the tube to break up
and vibrate in aliquot parts, the exciting current must be compressed
into an ever finer, tenser and more incisive stream. There is in fact
a certain minimum pressure for each degree of tension of the lips
below which no harmonic can be produced.
It is often stated that the harmonics are obtained by increasing the
tension of the lips and a crescendo by increasing the pressure of the
breath.' Victor Mahillon 10 accounts for the harmonics by increased
wind-pressure only. It is evident that the greater the tension of the
lips, the greater the force of wind required to set them vibrating;
therefore the force and velocity of the air must vary with the tension
of the lips in order to produce a steady or musical sound. D. J.
Blaikley considers that the ratio of increase in lips and breath follows
that of the harmonic series. The tension of the lips has the effect
of reducing the width of the slit or aperture between them and the
width of the exciting current. While increasing its density the
energy of the wind must, therefore, either expend itself in increasing
the rate of vibration, or frequency of the pulses, which influences the
pitch of the note; or else in increasing the extent of excursion or
amplitude of the vibrations, which influences the dynamic force of
the sound or loudness. 11 If the aperture be narrowed without pro-
viding a proportional increase of wind-pressure, the harmonic over-
tone may be heard, but either the intonation will suffer or the in-
tensity of the tone will be reduced, because the force required to set
the tenser membrane in vibration is insufficient to give the vibrations
the requisite amplitude as well as the frequency. If the force ex-
pended be excessive, i.e. more than the maximum required to ensure
the increased frequency proportional to the increased tension, the
superfluous energy must expend itself in increasing the amplitude of
the vibrations so that a note of a greater degree of loudness as well as
of higher pitch will be produced. The converse is equally true; the
lower the pitch of the note the slower the pulses or vibrations and
therefore the looser the lip and the gentler the force of current
required to set them vibrating. To draw a parallel from organ-
pipes: as long as even wind-pressure is maintained, the mouthpiece
being fixed proportional to the length of tube, the pipe gives out
one note of unvarying dynamic intensity; increase the pressure of
the wind and harmonics are heard, but it is impossible to obtain a
crescendo unless the mouthpiece be dispensed with and a free reed
(q.v.) adapted.
Reference has already been made above to the difficulty of obtain-
ing the fundamental on tubes of great length and narrow bore like
the horn. The useful compass of the horn, therefore, begins with the
note that an open pipe half its length would give ; the Germans term
instruments of such small calibre half instruments, and those of wide
calibre, such as bugles and tubas, whole instruments, 1 - since in them
the whole of the length of the tube is available in practice.
The harmonic series of the horn, or the open notes obtainable
without using valves or crooks, is written as for the alto horn in C
of 8 ft. tone, which forms the standard of notation. Notes written
in the bass clef are generally, for some unexplained reason, placed an
octave lower than the real sounds.
Written.
Sounded.
Written and sounded.
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16
Very
difficult.
9 See A. Ganot, Elementary Treatise on Physics, translated by
E. Atkinson (l6th ed., London, 1902), p. 266, 282, " In the horn
different notes are produced by altering the distance of the lips."
iuch a vague and misleading statement is worse than useless.
See also Poynting and Thomson, op. cit. p. 113.
" Le Cor," p. 22; p. ii, 18; pp. 6 and 7, 8.
11 The phraseology alone is here borrowed from Sedley Taylor,
(op. cit. p. 55), who does not enter into the practical application of
the theory he expounds so clearly.
12 See Dr Emil Schafhautl's article on musical instruments,
iv. of Bericht der Beurtheilungs Commission bei der Allg. Deutschen
Industrie Ausstellung, 1854 (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170; also F.
Zamminer, op. cit.
HORN
699
All the crooks, a list of the principal of which is appended, therefore
necessarily give real sounds lower than the above series according to
their individual length.
Table of Principal Crooks now in Use. 1
French horns are made with either two or three valves. To the
first valve is attached sufficient length of tubing to lower the pitch
of the instrument a tone, so that any note played upon the horn in F
Key of
Crook.
Actual Sounds of Range of Useful Harmonics.
Length of
Crook in
Inches.
Transposes to
_
B|> alto
fel^j-p fa ,-j- : 3^^~r~r~
2nd to toth
16
major 2nd lower
AH
2nd to loth
22j
minor 3rd
234 56789 io
Ab
SEEjE^EiErgjjEEpjEEj^EiiJl^EfEEE
2nd to loth
29i
major 3rd
234 56789 io
G
^~^-=^=&=^^d-^ =P=F=
2nd to 1 2th
361
perfect 4th
234 5 6 7 8 9 io ii 12
F
^ IF* 1* CTEj -i k- 1 J ^ J-fcB r~* L'TEr
2nd to l6th
52*
perfect 5th
^3 * '
E
SEE
2nd to i6th
61
minor 6th
-- */ -J- B w
2345 6 7 8 9 io ii 12 13 14 15 16
E!
2nd to 1 6th
70}
major 6th ,,
i>. rp u
D
S i^ y ~* ^5 1 I -1=^~3~* -^g- "i"~f
2nd to 1 6th
80
minor 7th
23456 7 8 9 io ii 12 13 14 15 16
C basso
l_ -pd-^f r- ^K- . | j z j-~j- J j-fe^ ijg p
3rd to 1 6th
IOI
8
Bl? basso
si- zi pj 4 !l_ pj , i i ^H J sJwn* "*
3rd to 1 6th
125
major gth
3456 7 8 9 io ii 12 13 14 15 16
The practical aggregate compass of the natural horns from Bb
basso at the service of composers therefore ranges (actual sounds)
from
or with 3 valves
from
By means of hand-stopping, i.e. the practice of thrusting the hand
into the bell in order to lower the sound by a tone or a semitone, or
by the adaptation of valves to the horn, this compass may be
rendered chromatic almost throughout the range.
The principle of the valve as applied to wind instruments differs
entirely from that of keys. The latter necessitate lateral holes bored
through the tube, and when the keys are raised the vibrating column
of air within the tube and the ambient air without are set in com-
munication, with the result that the vibrating column is shortened
and the pitch of the note raised. The valve system consists of valves
or pistons attached to additional lengths of tubing, the effect of
which is invariably to lower the pitch, except in the case of valve
systems specified as " ascending " tried by John Shaw and Adolphe
Sax. Insuperable practical difficulties led to the abandonment of
these systems, which in any case were the exception and not the rule.
The valves, placed upon the U-shapcd slides in the centre of the horn,
are worked by means of pistons or levers, opening or closing the wind-
ways at will, so that when they are in operation the vibrating
column of air no longer takes its normal course along the main tube
and directly through the slides, but makes a devour through the extra
length of tubing before completing its course. Thus the valves,
unlike the keys, dp not open any communication with the ambient
air. Even authoritative writers 2 have confused the two principles,
believing them to be one and the same.
1 The measurements are for the high philharmonic pitch = 452-4.
V. Mahillon, " Le cor " (p. 32), gives a table of the lengths of crooks
in metres.
1 Robert Eitner, editor of the Monatshefte fur Musikmssenschaft,
published therein an article in 1881, p. 41 seq., " Wer hat die Ventil-
while the first valve is depressed takes effect a tone lower, or as
though the horn were in E[>. The second valve opens a passage into
a shorter length of tubing sufficient to lower the pitch of the instru-
ment a semitone, as though the instrument were for the time being
in E. The third valve similarly lowers the pitch a tone and a half.
It will thus be seen that the principle applied in the crook and the
valve is in the main the same, but the practical value of the valve is
immeasurably superior. Thanks to the valve sj'stem the performer
is able to have the extra lengths of tubing necessary to give the horn
a chromatic compass permanently incorporated with the instrument,
and at will to connect one or a combination of these lengths with the
main tube of the instrument during any interval of time, however
short. The three devices, crooks, valves and slides, are in fact all
based upon the same principle, that of providing additional length
of tubing in order to deepen the pitch of the whole instrument at
will and to transpose it into a ditterent key. Valves and slides, being
instantaneous in operation, give to the instrument a chromatic
compass, whereas crooks merely enable the performer to play in
many keys upon one instrument instead of requiring a different
instrument for each key. The slide is the oldest of these devices, and
probably suggested the crook as a substitute on instruments of
conical bore such as the horn.
The invention of the valve, although a substantial improvement,
trompete erfunden," in which, after referring to the Klappenwald-
horn and Trompete (keyed horn and trumpet) made by Weidinger
and played in public in 1802 and 1813 respectively, he goes on to
state that Schilling in his Lexicon makes the comical mistake of
looking upon the Klappentrompete (keyed trumpet) and Ventil-
trompete (valve trumpet) as different instruments. He accordingly
sets matters right, as he thinks, by according to Weidinger the
honour of the invention of valves, hitherto wrongfully attributed to
Stolzel; and in the Quellenlexikon (1904) he leaves out Stolzel's
name, and names Weidinger as the inventor of the Klappen or
Ventil, referring readers for further particulars to his article, just
quoted, in the Monatshefte.
yoo
HORN
was found to fall short of perfection in its operation on the tubes of
wind instruments so soon as the possibility of using the three valves
in combination to produce six different positions or series of
harmonics was realized, and for the following reason. In order to
deepen the pitch one tone by means of valve I, a length of tubing
exactly proportional to the length of the main tube must be thrown
into communication with the latter. If, in addition to valve I,
valve 3 be depressed, a further drop in pitch of l| tone should be
effected ; but as the length of tubing added by depressing valve 3
is calculated in proportion to the main tube, and the latter has
already been lengthened by depressing valve I, therefore the addi-
tional length supplied by opening valve 3 is now too short to produce
a drop of a minor third strictly in tune, and all notes played while
valves I and 3 are depressed will be too sharp. Means of compensat-
ing slight errors in intonation are provided in the U-shaped slides
mentioned above.
The timbre of the natural horn is mellow, sonorous and rich in
harmonics ; it is quite distinctive and bears but little resemblance to
that of the other members of the brass wind. In listening to its
sustained notes one receives the impression of the tone being breathed
out as by a voice, whereas the trumpet and trombone produce the
effect of a rapid series of concussions, and in the tuba and cornet the
concussions, although still striking, are softened as by padding.
The timbre of the hand-stopped notes is veiled and suggestive of
mystery; so characteristic is the timbre that passages in the Rhein-
gold heard when the magic power of the Tarnhelm reveals itself
sound meaningless if the weird chords are played by means of the
valves instead of by hand-stopping. The timbre of the piston
notes is more resonant than that of the open notes, partaking
a little of the character of the trombone, which is probably due to
the fact that the strictly conical bore of the natural horn has
been replaced by a mixed cylindrical and conical as in trumpet and
trombone.
The form of the mouthpiece (q.v.) at the point where it joins the
main bore of the tube must also exercise a certain influence on the
form of vibration, which it helps to modify in conjunction with the
conformation of each individual horn-player's lip. In the horn the
cup of the mouthpiece is shaped like a funnel, the bore converging
insensibly into the narrow end of the main conical bore without
break or sharp edges as in the mouthpieces, more properly known as
cup-shaped, of trumpet and bombardon.
The brilliant sonorousness and roundness of the timbre of the horn
are due to the strength and predominance of the partial tones up to
the 7th or 8th. The prevalence of the higher harmonics from the
loth to the i6th, in which the partial tones lie very close together,
determines the harsh quality of the trumpet timbre, which may be
easily imitated on the horn by forcing the sound production and
using a trumpet mouthpiece, and by raising the bell, an effect which
is indicated by composers by the words " Raise the Bells." *
The origin of the horn must be sought in remote prehistoric
times, when, by breaking off the tip of a short animal horn, one
or at best two notes, powerful, rough, unsteady, only
barely approximating to definite musical sounds,
were obtained. This was undoubtedly the archetype of the
modern families of brass wind instruments, and from it evolved
the trumpet, the bugle and the tuba no less than the horn.
The common characteristics which link together these widely
different modern families of instruments are: (i) the more
or less pronounced conical bore, and (2) the property possessed
in a greater or lesser degree of producing the natural sounds by
what has been termed overblowing the harmonic overtones.
If we follow the evolution of the animal horn throughout the
centuries, the ultimate development leads us not to the French
horn but to the bugle and tuba.
Before civilization had dawned in classic Greece, Egypt, Assyria
and the Semitic races were using wind instruments of wood and metal
which had left the primitive ram or bugle horn far behind. Even in
northern Europe, during the Bronze age (c. 1000 B.C.), prehistoric
man had evolved for himself the prototype of the Roman cornu, a.
bronze horn of wide conical bore, bent in the shape of a G. One of
these instruments, known among the modern Scandinavian races as
luurs or lurs, found in the peat beds of Denmark and now preserved
in the Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, has a length
of 1-91 m. (about 6 ft. 4 in.). The U-shaped mouthpiece joint is
neatly joined to the remainder of the crescent-tube by means of a
bronze ring; the bell, which must have rested on the shoulder,
consists merely of a flat rim set round the end of the tube. There
is therefore no graceful curve in the bell as in the French horn. An
exact facsimile of this prehistoric horn has been made by Victor
Mahillon of Brussels, who finds that it was in the key of Eb and easily
produces the first eight harmonics of that key. It stands, therefore,
1 See Hector Berlioz, A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and
Orchestration, translated by Mary Cowden Clarke, new edition re-
vised by Joseph Bennett (1882), p. 141.
an octave higher than the modern horn in Eb (which measures some
13 ft.), but on the lur the fundamental E\> can be reached owing to
the wider calibre of the bore. 2
Among the Romans the wind instruments derived from the horn
were well represented, and included well-developed types which do
not differ materially from the natural instruments of modern times.
The buccina developed directly into the trumpet and trombone
during the middle ages, losing no characteristic of importance but the
bent form, which was perforce abandoned when the art of bending
hollow tubes was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire. The name
clung through all the changes in form and locality to the one type,
and still remains at the present day in the German Posaune (trom-
bone). There were four instruments known by the name of cornu
among the Romans: (i) the short animal horn used by shepherds;
(2) the longer, semicircular horn, used for signals; and (3) the still
longer cornu, bent and carried like the buccina, which had the wide
bore of the modern tuba. But whereas on the buccina the higher
harmonics were easily obtained, on the cornu the natural scale con-
sisted of the first eight harmonics only. The cornu, although shorter
than the buccina, had a deeper pitch and more sonorous tone, for,
owing to the wider calibre of the bore, the fundamental was easily
reached. In the reliefs on Trajan's Column, where the two instru-
ments may be compared, the wider curve of the buccina forms a
ready means of identification. In addition to these was (4) the small
instrument like the medieval hunting-horn or post-horn, with the
single spiral turn similar to one which figures as service badge in
many British infantry regiments, 3 such as the first battalion of the
King's Own Light Infantry. A terra-cotta model, slightly broken,
but with the spiral intact, was excavated at Ventoux in France and
is at present preserved in the department of Greek and Roman
antiquities at the British Museum, having been acquired from the
collection of M. Morel.
The lituus, or cavalry trumpet of the Romans, consisted of a
cylindrical tube, to which was attached a bent horn or conical bell,
the whole in the shape of a J. The long, straight Roman tuba was
similar to the large, bent cornu so far as bore and capabilities were
concerned, but more unwieldy. All these wind instruments seem to
have been used during the classic Greek and Roman periods merely
to sound fanfares, and therefore, in spite of the high degree of
perfection to which they attained as instruments, they scarcely
possess any claim to be considered within the domain of music.
They were signalling instruments, mainly used in war, in hunting
and in state or civic ceremonial. Vegetius (A.D. 386) describes these
instruments, and gives detailed instructions for the special traditional
uses of tuba, buccina and cornu in the military camp: " Semivocalia
sunt, quae per tubam, aut cornua, aut buccinam dantur. Tuba quae
directa est appellatur buccina, quae in semet ipsam aereo circulo
flectitur. Cornu quod ex uris agrestibus, argento nexum, temperatum
arte, et spiritu, quem canentis flatus emittit auditur. 4 It will be
seen that Vegetius demands a skilled horn-player. These service
instruments may all be identified in the celebrated bas-reliefs of
Trajan's Column 6 (fig. i) and of the Triumphal arch of Augustus at
Susa. 6
Interesting evidence of a collegium cornicinum (gild of horn-
players) is furnished by an altar stone in the Roman catacombs,
erected to the memory of one " M. Julius victor ex Collegio Liticinum
Cornicinum," on which are carved a lituus, a cornu and a pan's pipe,
the cornu being similar to those on Trajan's Column.
All three Roman instruments, the tuba, the buccina and the
cornu, had well-formed mouthpieces, differing but little from the
modern cup-shaped form in use on the trumpet, the trombone, the
tubas, &c. 7 It would seem that even, the short horn in the 4th
2 See Victor Mahillon, Catal. descriptif des instruments de musique,
&c., vol. ii. p. 388, No. 1156, where an illustration is given. See also
Dr August Hammerich (French translation by E. Beauvais), " t)ber
altnordische Luren " in Vierteljahrschrift fur Musik-Wissenschaft
x. (1894).
3 See Major J. H. L. Archer, The British Army Records (London,
1888), pp. 402, &c.
4 De re militari, iii. 5 (Basel, 1532). The successive editions and
translations of this classic, both manuscript and printed, throughout
the middle ages afford useful evidence of the evolution of these three
wind instruments.
6 See Wilhelm Froehner, La Colonne Trajane d'apres le sur-
moulage execute a Rome en 1861-1862 (Paris, 1872-1874). On pi.
51 is a cornu framing the head of a cornicen or horn-player. See also
the fine plates in Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traiansfiule
(Berlin, 1896, &c.).
6 Ermanno Ferrero, L'Arc d'Auguste d, Suse (Segusio, 9-8 B.C.)
(Turin, 1901).
7 See the mouthpiece on the Pompeian buccinas preserved in the
museum at Naples, reproduced in the article BUCCINA. The museums
of the conservatoires of Paris and Brussels and the Collection Kraus
in Florence possess facsimiles of these instruments; see Victor
Mahillon, Catalogue, vol. ii. p. 30. Cf. also the pair of bronze
Etruscan cornua, No. 2734 in the department of Greek and Roman
antiquities at the British Museum, which possess well-preserved
cup-shaped mouthpieces.
HORN
701
century was provided with a mouthpiece, 1 judging from a carved
specimen on an ivory capsa or pyxis dating from the period im-
mediately preceding the fall of the Roman Empire, preserved among
the precious relics at Xanten.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, when instrumental music had
fallen into disrepute and had been placed under a ban by the church,
From Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliejs der Traiamiitde, by permission of Georg Reimer.
FIG. i. Roman Cornua and Buccina.
the art of playing upon such highly-developed instruments gradually
died out in western Europe. With the disappearance of the civiliza-
tion and culture of the Romans, the skilled crafts also gradually
vanished, and the art of making metal pipes of delicate calibre and
of bending them was completely forgotten, and had to be reacquired
step by step during the middle ages from the more enlightened East.
The names of the instruments and representations of them survived
in MSS. and monuments of art, and as long as the West was content
to turn to late Roman and Romano-Christian art for its models, no
difficulties were created for the future archaeologist. By the time
the Western races had begun to express themselves and to develop
their own characteristics, in the nth century, the arts of Persia,
Arabia and the Byzantine Empire had laid their mark upon the
West, and confusion of models, and more especially of names,
ensued. The greatest confusion of all was created by the numerous
translations and glosses of the Bible and by the attempts of minia-
turists to illustrate the principal scenes. In Revelation, for instance
(ch. viii.), the seven angels with their trumpets are diversely repre-
sented with long tubas, with curved horns of various lengths, and
with the buisine, busaun or posaunc, the descendant of the buccina.
We know from the colouring used in illuminated MSS., gold and
pale blue, that horns were made of metal early in the middle ages.
The metal was not cast in moulds but hammered into shape.
Viollet-le-Duc 2 reproduces a miniature from a MS. of the end of
the I3th century (Paris, Bibliothequc du corps legislatif), in which
two metal-workers are shown hammering two large horns.
The early medieval horns had no mouthpieces, the narrow end
being merely finished with a rim on which the lips rested. The tone
suffered in conse-
quence, being un-
certain, rough and
tremulous, where
fore it was indic-
ated by the neume
known as quilisma :
" Est vox tremula;
sicut est sonus
flatus tubae vel
cornu et designatur
per neumam, quae
vocatur quilisma." 3
During the
middle ages the
bugle-horn or bull's
horn was exten-
FIG. 2. Medieval Hunting-Horn with the sively used as a
Tablature in use in the I4th Century. s j gna l instrument
on land and sea (see BUGLE), by the night-watchmen in cities,
in the watch tower of the feudal castle and by foresters and
1 See Bock, " Gebrauch der Homer im Mittelalter," in Gustav
Heider's Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmaler Osterreichs (Stuttgart, 1858-
1860).
1 Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier frangais (Paris, 1889), ii. p. 246.
1 Engelbertus Admontensis in De Musica Scriptores, by Martin
Gerbert, Bd. ii. lib. ii. cap. 29; and Edward Buhlc, Die Musika-
lischen Instruments in den Miniaturen des friihen Miltelalters, pt. i.,
" Die Blasinstrumente " (Leipzig, 1903), p. 16.
huntsmen. The hunting-horn was generally represented as small
in the hunting scenes which abound in illuminated MSS. and
early printed books; it was crescent-shaped and was worn
slung by a leather strap over one shoulder and resting on the
opposite hip. When played it was held with the wide end
curving upwards in front of the huntsman's head. A kind of
tablature for the horn was in use in France in the I4th century;
an example of it is here reproduced (fig 2) from a 14th-century
French MS. treatise on venery. 4 Only one note is indicated, the
various calls and signals being based chiefly on rhythm, and the
notes being left to the taste and skill of the huntsman. The inter-
pretation 6 of the Cornure de chasse de veue seen in the figure is as
follows :
First line-
JJJJJ
J J J
Second line- J J
Third line- J . J Jj J
J J3
In the first poem is given a list of these signs with the names by
which they were known in venery.
In the l6th century in England the hunting-horn sometimes had
a spiral turn in the centre, half-way between mouthpiece and bell
end; the extra length was apparently added solely in order to
lower the pitch, the higher harmonics not being used for the hunting
calls. In George Turbevile's Noble Arte of Venerie (1576, facsimile
reprint, Oxford, 1908) the " measures of blowing according to the
order which is observed at these dayes in this Realme of Englandc "
are given for the horn in D. One of these, given in fig. 3, is the
English 16th-century hunting call, corresponding to the 14th-century
French Cornure de chasse de veue given above.
85lbmf5f OPantf both intake doimt, 3K>ift lourt minots.
From Turbevile's Ncble Arte of Venerie (1576), by permission of the Clarendon Press.
FlG. 3. Hunting Call.
The hunting-horn, whether in its simplest form or with the
one spiral, was held with the bell upwards on a level with the hunts-
man's head or just above it. 8
A horn of the same fine calibre as the French horn, 3 or 4 ft. in
length, slightly bent to take the curve of the body, was in use in
Italy, it would seem, in the I5th century. 7 It was held slanting
across the body with the bell already slightly parabolic, at arm's
length to the left side.
The hunting- and post-horns were favourite emblems on medieval
coats of arms, more especially in Germany 8 and Bohemia.
It is necessary at this point to draw attention to the fact that
the French horn is a hybrid having affinities with both trumpet
and primitive animal horn, or with buccina and cornu, and that
both types, although frequently misnamed and confused by medieval
writers and miniaturists, subsisted side by side.evolving independently
until they merged in the so-called French horn. Both buccina and
cornu after the fall of the Roman Empire, while Western arts and
1 Le Tresor de venerie par liardouin, seigneur de Fontaines-Guerin
(edited by H. Michelant, Metz, 1856) ; the first part was edited by
Jerome Pichon (Paris, 1855), with an historical introduction by
Bottde de Toulmon.
6 As worked out by Edward Buhle, op. cit., p. 23.
8 See Turbevile, op. cit., also J. du Fouilloux, LaV&nerie (Paris,
1628), p. 70; cf. also editions of 1650 and of 1562, where the horn
is called trompe, used with the verb corner; Juliana Bernes, Boke
of St Albans (1496), the frontispiece of which is a hunting scene
showing a horn of very wide bore, without bell. Only half the
instrument is visible.
7 See " Reliure italienne du xy siecle en argent niel!6. Collection
du Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild, Vienne," in Gazette archedogique
(Paris, 1880), xiii. p. 295, pi. 38, where other instruments are also
represented.
8 See Jost Amman, Wappen und Stammbuck (1589). A reprint in
facsimile has been published by Georg Hirth as vol. iii. of Liebhaber
Bibliothek (Munich, 1881). See arms of Sultzberger aus Tirol
(p. 52), " Ein Jagerhornlin," and of the Herzog von Wirtenberg;
cf. the latter with the arms of Wurthemberch in pi. xxii. vol. ii.
of Gelre's Wappenboek ou armorial de 1334 d, 1372 (miniatures of
coats of arms in facsimile), edited by Victor Bouton (Paris, 1883).
702
HORN
crafts were in their infancy, were made straight, being then known
as the busine or straight trumpet (busaun or posaun in Germany),
and the long horn, Herhorn, slightly curved. 1
From two medieval representations of instruments like the
Roman cornu one might be led to conclude that the instrument
had been revived and was in use from the I4th century. A wooden
bas-relief on the under part of the seats of the choir of Worcester
cathedral, 2 said to date from the I4th century, shows a musician in
a robe with long sleeves of fur playing the horn (fig. 4). The tube
winds from the mouth
in a circle reaching
to his waist, passes
under the right arm
across the shoulders
with the bell stretch-
ing out horizontally
over his left shoulder.
The tube, of strictly
conical bore, is made
in three pieces, the
joints being strength-
ened by means of
FIG. 4. Medieval FIG. 5. Medieval two rings. The other
Circular Horn. Circular Horn, 1589. example is German,
and figures in the
arms of the city of Frankfort-on-Main. 3 Here in the two opposite
corners are two cherubs playing immense cornua. The bore of the
instruments (fig. 5) is of a calibre suggestive of the contrabass tuba ;
the circle formed is of a diameter sufficiently large to accommodate
the youthful performer in a sitting posture; the bell is the fore-
runner of that of the modern saxophone, shaped like a gloxinea;
the mouthpiece is cup-shaped. It is possible, of course, that these
two examples are attempts to reproduce the classic instrument,
but the figures of the musicians and the feeling of the whole scheme
of ornamentation seem to render such an explanation improbable.
Moreover, Sebastian Virdung, 4 writing on musical instruments at
the beginning of the i6th century, gives a drawing of a cornu coiled
round tightly, the tubing being probably soldered together at certain
points. Virdung calls this instrument a Jegerhorn, and the short
hunting-horn Acherhorn (Ackerhorn the synonym of the
modern Waldhorn). The scale of the former could have con-
sisted only of the first eight harmonics, including the fundamental,
which would be easily obtained on an instrument of such a large
calibre. Mersenne, 6 a century and a quarter later, gives a drawing
of the same kind of horn among his cars de chasse, but does not in
his description display his customary intimate knowledge of his
subject; it may be that he was dealing at second-hand with an
instrument of which he had had little practical experience.
Praetorius 6 gives as Jagerhorn only the simple forms of crescent-
shaped horns with a single spiral; the spirally-wound horn of
Virdung is replaced by a new instrument the J dgertrummet (hunts-
man's trumpet)-^-of the same form, but less cumbersome, of cylindri-
cal bore excepting at the bell end and having a crook inserted
between the mouthpiece and the main coils. The tube, which could
not have been less than 8 ft. long, produced the harmonic series "of
the cavalry trumpet from the 3rd. to the I2th. The restrictions
placed upon the use of the cavalry trumpet would have rendered
it unavailable for use in the hunting-field, but the snake-shaped
model, as Praetorius describes it, was a decided improvement on
the horn, although interior in resonance to the cavalry model.
Here then are the materials for the fusion of the trumpet and hunting-
horn into the natural or hand-horn of the iyth and i8th centuries.
There is evidence, however, that a century earlier, i.e. at the end
of the 1 5th century, the art of bending a brass tube of the delicate
proportions of the French horn, which is still a test of fine work-
manship, had been successfully practised. In an illustrated edition
of Virgil's works published in Strassburg in 1502 and emanating
from Griininger's office, Brant being responsible for the illustrations,
the lines (Aen. viii. 1-2) " Ut belli signum Laurenti Turnus ab arce
Extulit: et rauco strepuerunt cornua cantu " are illustrated by two
soldiers, one with the sackbut (posaune, the descendant of the
buccina), the other with a horn wound spirally round his body in
three coils, which appear to have a conical bore from the funnel-
shaped mouthpiece to the bell which extends at the back of the head
1 For illustrations see autotype facsimile of Utrecht Psalter,
9th century; British Museum, Add. MS. 10,546, Ps. 150, gth century ;
Add. MS. 24, 199, loth century; Eadwine Psalter, Trin. Coll. Camb.,
nth century, and Cotton MS., Nero, D.IV., 8th century; also Edward
Buhle, op. cit., pi. ii. and pp. 12-24.
2 See John Carter, Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Paintings
(London, 1780-1794), i. p. 53 (plates unnumbered); also reproduced
in H. Lavoix, Histoire de la musique (Paris, 1884).
3 See Jost Amman, op. cit.
4 Musica getutscht und ausgezogen (Basel, 1511), p. 30. The
names are not given under the drawings, but the above is the order
in which they occur, which is probably reversed.
6 Harmonic universelle (Paris, 1636), p. 245.
Syntagma Musicum (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), pi. vii. No. 11, p. 39.
FIG. 6. Spirally
horizontally over the left shoulder (fig. 6). There is ample room for
the performer's head and shoulders to pass through the circle:
the length of the tube could not therefore have been much less
than 16 ft. long, equivalent to the horn in C or
Bt> basso. In the same book (pi. ccci.) is
another horn, smaller, differing slightly in tha
disposition of the coils and held like the modern
horn in front.
These horns were not used for hunting but
for war in conjunction with the draw-trumpet.
Brant could not have imagined these instru-
ments, and must have seen the originals or at
least drawings of them; the instruments prob-
ably emanated from the famed workshops of
Nuremberg, being intended mainly for use in
Italy, and had not been generally adopted in
Germany. The significance of these drawings
of natural horns in a German work of the dawn
of the l6th century will not be lost. It dis-
poses once and for all of the oft-repeated fable
that the hunting-horn first assumed its present
form in France about 1680, a statement ac-
cepted without question by authorities of all
countries, but without reference to any piece
justificative other than the story of the Bohemian
Count Sporken first quoted by Gerber, ' and Coiled Horn from
repeated in most musical works without the Virgil's Works
context. The account which gave rise to (1502), folio cccviii.
this statement had been published in 1782 versa,
in a book by Faustinus Prochaska: 8 " Vix
Parisiis inflandi cornua venatoria inventa ars quum delectatus
suavitate cantus duos ex hominibus sibi obnoxiis ea instituendos
curavit. Id principium apud nos artis, qua hodie Bohemi excellere
putantur." In a preceding passage after the count's name, Franz
Anton, Graf von Sporken, are the words " anno saeculi superioris
octogesimo quum iter in externas provincias suscepisset," &c.
There is no reference here to the invention of the horn in Paris or
to the folding of the tube spirally, but only to the manner of eliciting
sound from the instrument. Count Sporken, accustomed to the
medieval hunting fanfares in which the tone of the horn approxi-
mated to the blare of the trumpet, was merely struck by the musical
quality of the true horn tone elicited in Paris, and gave France
the credit of the so-called invention, which probably more properly
belonged to Italy. The account published by Prochaska a hundred
years after, without reference to the source from which it was
obtained, finds no corroboration from French sources. Had the
French really made any substantial improvement in the hunting-
horn at the end of the 1 7th century, transforming it from the primi-
tive instrument into an orchestral instrument, it would only be
reasonable to expect to find some evidence of this, considering the
importance attached to the art of music at the court of Louis XIV.,
whose musical establishments, la Chapelle Musique,, 9 la Musique de
la Chambre du Roi and la Musique de la Grande Ecurie, included
the most brilliant French artists. One would expect to find horns of
that period by French makers among the relics of musical instruments
in the museums of Europe. This does not seem to be the case.
Moreover, in Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopedia (1767) the
information given under the heading trompe ou cor de chasse grand
et petit is very vague, and contains no hint of any special merit due
to France for any improvement in construction. Among the plates
(vol. v., pi. vii.) is given an illustration of a horn very similar to the
instruments made in England and Germany nearly a century
earlier, but with a funnel-shaped mouthpiece. Dr Julius Riihlmann
states that there are two horns by Raoux, bearing the date I7O3, 10
in the Bavarian National Museum in Munich, 11 but although fine
examples, one in silver, the other in brass (fig. 6) by Raoux, they
turn out on inquiry u to bear no date whatever. Riihlmann's
statement in the same article, that in the arms of the family of
Wartenberg-Kolb (now extinct), which goes back to 1169, there is
a hunting-horn coiled round in a complete circle is also misleading.
7 Hislorisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkunslter (Leipzig, 1790
1792 and 1812-1814).
8 De saecularibus Liberalium Artium in Bohemia et Moravia fatis
commentarius (Prague, 1784), p. 401.
9 See Ernest Thoinan, Les Origines de la chapelle musique des
souverains de France (Paris, 1864); F. J. Ftis, " Recherches sur la
musique des rois de France, et de quelques princes depuis Philippe
le Bel jusqu'a la fin du regne de Louis XIV., Revue musicale (Pans,
1832), xii. pp. 193, 217, 233, 241, 257; Castil-Blaze, La Chapelle
musique des rois de France (Paris, 1882); Michel Brenet, " Deux
comptes de la chapelle musique des rois de France," Intern. Mus.
Ges., Smbd. vi., i. pp. 1-32; J. Ecorcheville, " Quelques documents
sur la musique de la grande 6curie du roi," Intern. Mus. Ges.,
Smbd. ii. 4 (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 608-642.
10 Neue Zeitschrift f. Musik (Leipzig, 1870), p. 309.
11 See Die Sammlung der Musikinstrumente des baierischen Nat.
Museum by K. A. Bierdimpfl (Munich, 1883), Nos. 105 and 106.
12 Communication from Dr Georg Hagen, assistant director.
HORN
703
The horn (a post-horn) did not appear in the arms of the family
in question until 1699, when the first peer Casimir Johann Friedrich
was created hereditary Post-Master. The influence of such erroneous
statements in the work of noted writers is far-reaching. Inquiries
at the department of
National Archives in
Paris concerning Raoux,
the founder of the after-
wards famous firm of
horn-makers whose model
with pistons is used in
the British military bands
and at Kneller Hall,
proved fruitless. Fetis
states that he worked
during the second half of
the 1 8th century. Albert
Chouquet l states that
he has seen a trumpet by
Raoux, " seul ordinaire
du Roy, Place du Louvre"
dated 1695. The inscrip-
tions on the horns in ques-
tion are: For No. 105, a
silver horn of the simplest
form of construction in D,
" Fait a Paris par Raoux " ;
for No. 1 06, a brass horn
engraved with a crown on
an ermine mantle with
the initials C. A. (Carl
From a Photo by K. Tcufcl. Albert), "Fait a Paris
FIG. 7. Early Raoux Horn (Munich), par Raoux, seul ordinaire
du Roy, Place du Louvre."
Both horns measure across the coils 56 cm. and across the bell
273. They are practically the same as the cars de chasse now in
use in French and Belgian military bands, the large diameter of
the coil enabling the performer to carry it over his shoulder. The
orchestral horn was given a narrower diameter in order to facilitate
its being held in front of the performer in a convenient position for
stopping the bell with the right hand. No. 107 in the same collection,
a horn of German construction, bears the inscription " Macht Jacob
Schmid in Nurnberg " and the trademark " J. S.'' with a bird.
A horn in Eb of French make, having fleur-de-lys stamped on the
rim of the bell, and measuring only 15 in. across the coils to the
exterior edge of the bell therefore a very small horn is preserved
in the Grand Ducal Museum at Darmstadt. 2 A horn in F$ (probably
F in modern high pitch), having the rim ornamented as above and
the inscription " Fait a Paris, Carlin, ordinaire du Roy," readily
gives the harmonics from the 3rd to the I2th. 3 The extreme width
is 20 in. 4 Carlin, who lived at rue Croix des Petits Champs, died
about 1780. The earliest dated horn extant is believed to be the
one preserved in the Hohenzollern Museum in Sigmaringcn, " Machts
Wilhelm Haas, Nurnberg, 1688." ' Another early German horn
engraved " Machts Heinr. Rich. Pfeiffer in Leipzig, 1697," 6 formerly
in Paul de Wit's museum in Leipzig and now transferred with the
rest of the collection to Cologne, is of similar construction.
The horn must have been well known at this time in England,
for there are 17th-century horns of English manufacture still extant,
one, for instance, in the collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin by
William Bull, dated 1699.' In 1701 Clagget 8 invented a contrivance
by means of which two horns in different keys could be coupled and
played bv means of one mouthpiece, a valve or key opening the
passage into the airways of one or the other of these horns at the
will of the performer. Another horn of English manufacture about
1700 was exhibited at the South Kensington Museum in 1872,
bearing No. 337 in the catalogue, in which unfortunately no details
are given. Enough examples have been quoted to show that,
judging from the specimens extant, Germany was not behind
France, if not actually ahead, in the manufacture of early natural
horns. Data are wanting concerning the instruments of Italy;
'See Musee du Conservatoire National de Musique. Catalogue
des instruments de musique (Paris, 1884), p. 147.
2 See Captain C. R. Day, Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical
Instruments exhibited at the Military Exhibition (London, 1890),
p. 147, No. 307.
3 See V. Mahillon, Catal. vol. i. No. 468.
4 See Captain C. R. Day, Catal. No. 309, p. 148.
5 For an illustration see Catalogue of- the Special Exhibition of
Ancient Musical Instruments at South Kensington Museum 1872
(London, 1873), p. 25, No. 332.
6 See Katalog des musikhistorischen Museums von Paid de Wit
(Leipzig, 1904), p. 142, No. 564, where it is classified as a Jagertrom-
pete after Praetorius; it has a trumpet mouthpiece.
7 For an illustration see F. J. Crowest. English Music, p. 449,
No. 12.
8 See Ignatz and Anton Bock in Baierisches Musik-Lexikun by
Felix J. Lipowski (Munich, 1811), p. 26, note.
they would probably prove to be the earliest of all, and as brass
wind instruments are perishable are perhaps for that very reason
unrepresented at the present day.
The horn at the present stage in its evolution was also well
represented among the illustrations of the musical literature in
Germany 9 during the first half of the i8th century, and references
to it are frequent.
The earliest orchestral music for the horn occurs in the operas
of Cavalli and Cesti, leaders of the Venetian Opera in the
century. Already in 1639 Cavalli in his opera Le Nozze
de Tito e Pelei (act i. sc. l) introduced a short scena,
" Chiamata alia Caccia " 10 in C major for four horns on a basso
continue. An examination of the scoring in C clefs on the first,
second, third and fourth lines shows, by the use of the note
~ in the bass part and in the second tenor of
M^ ESzz r the 5th harmonic of the series, that the funda-
mental could have been no other than the i6-ft. C; the highest
note in the treble part is
~ , the 12th harmonic of the 8-ft.
alto horn in C, now obsolete. It is clear therefore that horns with
tubing respectively 8 ft. and 16 ft. long, which must have been
disposed in coils as in the present day, were in use in Italy before
the middle of the I7th century, fifty years before the date of their
reputed invention in Paris.
In the same opera, act i. sc. 4, " Coro di Cavalieri " is a stirring
call to arms of elemental grandeur, in which occur the words:
" all' armi, 6 la guerrieri corni e tamburi e trombe, ogni campo
ogni canto, armi rimbombe." There are above the voice parts four
staves with treble and C clef signatures above the bass, and, al-
though no instruments' are indicated, the music written thereon,
which alternates with the voices but does not accompany them,
can have been intended for no instruments but trumpets and horns,
thus carrying out the indications in the text. The horn is here once
again put to the same use as the Roman cornu, and associated in
like manner with the descendant of the buccina in a call to arms.
It may be purely a coincidence that the early illustration of a horn
with the tubing wound in coils round the body in the Strassburg
Virgil mentioned above was put to the same use and associated
with the same instrument.
Cesti's operas likewise contain many passages evidently intended
for the horn, although the instruments are not specified in the
score, which was nothing unusual at the time. Lulli composed the
incidental music for a ballet, La Princesse d'Elide, which formed
part of Moliere's divertissement, " Les plaisirs de File enchantee,"
written for a great festival at Versailles on the 7th of May 1664.
A copy of the music for this ballet, made about 1680, is preserved in
the library of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The music
contains a piece entitled " Les violons et les cors de chasse," written
in the same style as Cavalli's scena; there are but two staves,
and on both the music is characteristic of the horn, with which the
it-;. .
violins would play in unison. The piece finishes on Bl> SEE
fi?
and to play this note as the second of the harmonic series, the
fundamental not being obtainable, the tube of the horn must have
been over 17 ft. long. Among Philidor's copies of Lulli's ballets
preserved in the library of the Paris 'Conservatoire of Music (vol.
xlvii., p. 61) is a more complete copy of the above. The second
number is an " Air des valets de chiens et des chasseurs avec les
cors de chasse," which is substantially the same as the one in the
Fitzwilliam Museum, but set for five horns in Bb- Here again the
use of D, the fifth note of the harmonic series, indicates that the
fundamental was
a tone lower than the C horn
scored for by Cavalli, and known as Bb basso. Victor Mahillon ll
considers that the music reveals the fact that it was written for
horns in Bb, 35 degrees (chromatic semitones) above 32-ft. C, or
( ~gg ' having a wave-length of 1-475 m - To this statement
it is not possible to subscribe. The quintette required four horns in
Bb over 8 ft. long and one Bb basso about 17 ft. long. It is obvious
that the present custom of placing the bass notes of the horn on the
' See, for instance, frontispiece of Walther's Musikalisches Lexikon
(Leipzig, 1732); J. F. B. C. Majer's Musik-Saal (Nuremberg, 1741,
2nd ed.), p. 54; Joh. Christ. Kolb, Pinacotheca Davidica (Augsburg,
1711); Ps. xci. ; " Componimenti Musicali per il cembalo Dr Theofilo
Muffat, organista di sua Sacra Maesta Carlo VI. Imp." (1690),
title-page in Denkmdler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich, Bd. iii.
10 See Hugo Goldschmidt, " Das Orchester der italienischen Oper
im 17 Jahrhundert," Intern. Mus, Ges., Smbd. ii. I, p. 73.
11 See " Le Cor," pp. 23 and 24, and Dictionnaire de I'acad. des
beaux arts, vol. iv., art. ' Cor."
704
HORN
F clef an octave too low, as is now customary, had not yet been
adopted, for in that case the bass horn would in several bars be
playing above the tenor.
In 1647 Cardinal Mazarin, wishing to create in France a taste
for Italian opera, had procured from Italy an orchestra, singers and
mise-en-scene. That he was not entirely successful in making
Paris appreciate Italian music is beside the mark; he developed
instead a demand for French opera, to which Lulli proved equal.
The great similarity in the style of the horn scene by Cavalli and
Lulli may perhaps provide a clue to the mysterious and sudden
apparition of the natural horn in France, where nothing was known
of the hybrid instrument thirty years before, when Mersenne 1
wrote his careful treatise on musical instruments.
The orchestral horn had been introduced from Italy. It is not
difficult to understand how the horn came to be called the French
horn in England; the term only appears after Gerber and other
writers had repeated the story of Count Sporken introducing the
musical horn into Bohemia. 2 By this time the firm of Raoux,
established in Paris a hundred years, had won for itself full recog-
nition of its high standard of workmanship in the making of horns.
This use of the horn by Lulli in the one ballet seems to be an
isolated instance; no other has yet been quoted. The introduction
of the natural horn into the orchestra of the French opera did
not occur until much later in 1735 in Andr6 Campra's Achille et
Deidamie, and then only in a fanfare. In the meantime the horn
had already won a place in most of the rising opera houses and ducal
orchestras 3 of Germany, and had been introduced by Handel into
the orchestra in London in his Water-music composed in honour
of George I.
Although the Italians were undoubtedly the first to introduce
the horn into the orchestra, it figured at first only as the characteristic
instrument of the chase, suggesting and accompanying hunting
scenes or calls to arms. For a more independent use of the horn in
the orchestra we must turn to Germany. Reinhard Keiser, the
founder of German opera, at the end of the 1 7th century in Hamburg,
introduced two horns in C into the opening chorus of his opera
Octavia in 1705, where the horns are added to the string quartette
and the oboes; they play again in act i. sc. 3, and in act ii. sc. 6
and 9. The compass used by the composer for the horns in C
alto is the following :
4 5 6 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 16
Wilhelm Kleefeld draws attention to the characterization, which
differed in the three acts. In Henrico (1711), in Diana (1712) and
in L'Inganno Fedele (1714) F horns were used. This called forth
from Mattheson 4 his much-quoted eulogium, the earliest description
of the orchestral horn: " Die lieblich pompeusen Waldhorner sind
bei itziger Zeit sehr en vogue kommen, weil sie theils nicht so rude
von Natur sind als die Trompeten, teils auch weil sie mit mehr
Facilite konnen tractiret werden. Die brauchbarsten haben F
und mit den Trompeten aus dem C gleichen Ambitum. Sie klingen
auch dicker und fullen besser aus als die iibertaubende und schrey-
ende Clarinen, weil sie urn eine ganze quinte tiefer stehen."
Lotti in his Giove in Argo, given in Dresden, 1717, scored for
two horns in C, writing for them soli in the aria for tenor* (act iii.
sc. i). Examples of C. H. Graun's 6 scoring for horns in F and G
respectively in Polydorus (1728-1729) and in Iphigenia (1731) show
the complete emancipation of the instrument from its original
limitations; it serves not only as melody instrument but also to
enrich the harmony and emphasize the rhythm. A comparison of
the early scores of Cavalli and Lulli with those of Handel s Wasser-
fahrtmusik 1 (1717) and of Radamisto, performed in London in 1720,
1 Mersenne's drawings of cars de chasse are very crude ; they
have no bell and are all of the large calibre suggestive of the primitive
animal horn. He mentions nevertheless that they were not only
used for signals and fanfares but also for little concerted pieces in
four parts for horns alone, or with oboes, at the conclusion of the
hunt.
s See William Tans'ur Senior, The Elements of Musick (London,
1772) ; Br. V. Dictionary under " Horn." Also Scale of Horn
in the hand of Samuel Wesley; in Add. MS. 35011, fol. 166, Brit.
Mus.
' A horn-player, Johann Theodor Zeddelmayer, was engaged in
1706 at the Saxon court at Weissenfels ; see Neue- Mitteilungen
aus dem Gebiete histor. antiqu. Forschungen, Bd. xv. (2) (Halle,
1882), p. 503; also Wilhelm Kleefeld, " Das Orchester der Ham-
burger Oper, 1678-1738," Intern. Mus. Ges., Smbd. i. 2, p. 280,
where the appearance of the horn in the orchestras of Germany is
traced.
4 Das neu-eroffnete Orchester, i. 267.
6 See Moritz Ftirstenau, Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters
zu Dresden (Dresden, 1861-1862), vol. ii. p. 60.
6 See " Carl Heinrich Graun als Opernkomponist," by Albert
Mayer-Reinach, Intern. Mus. Ges., Smbd. i. 3 (Leipzig, 1900),
pp. 516-517 and 523-524, where musical examples are given.
7 Cf. Chrysander, Haendel, ii. 146.
shows the rapid progress made by the horn, even at a time when its
technique was still necessarily imperfect.
While Bach was conductor of the prince of Anhalt-Cothen's
orchestra (1717-1723), it is probable that horns in several keys
were used. In Dresden two Bohemian horn-players, Johann
Adalbert Fischer and Franz Adam Samm, were added to the court
orchestra in 1711.* In Vienna the addition is stated to have taken
place in 1712 at the opera. 9 It is probable that as in Paris so in
Vienna there were solitary instances in which the horn was heard
in opera without attracting the attention of musicians long before
1712, for instance in Cesti's // Porno d'Oro, printed in Vienna in
1667 and 1668 and performed for the wedding ceremonies of Kaiser
Leopold and Margareta, infanta of Spain. A horn in E (former F
pitch) in the museum of the Brussels conservatoire bears the in-
scription " Machts Michael Leicham Schneider in Wien, 1713. " 10
Fiirstenau 11 gives a further list of operas in Vienna during the first
two decades of the i8th century.
It will be well before the next stage in the evolution is approached
to consider the compass of the natural horn. The pedal octave
from the fundamental to the 2nd harmonic was altogether wanting;
the next octave contained only the 2nd and 3rd harmonics or the
octave and its fifth; in the third octave, the 8ye, its major 3rd,
5th and minor 7th ; in the fourth octave, a diatonic scale with a few
accidentals was possible. It will be seen that the compass was very
limited on any individual horn, but by grouping horns in different
keys, or by changing the crooks, command was gained by the
composer over a larger number of open notes.
An important period in the development of the horn has now
been reached. Anton Joseph Hampel is generally credited 12 with
the innovation of adapting the crooks to the middle of the body of
the horn instead of near the mouthpiece, which greatly improved
the quality of the notes obtained by means of the crooks. The
crooks fitted into the two branches of U-shaped tubes, thus forming
slides which acted as compensators. Hampel's Inventionshorn, as
it is called in Germany (Fr. cor harmonique), is said to date from
'753. 13 the first instrument having been made for him by Johann
Werner, a brass instrument-maker of Dresden. The same invention
is also attributed to Haltenhof of Hanau. 14 Others again mention
Michael Wogel 15 of Carlsruhe and Rastadt, probably confusing his
adaptation of the Invention or Maschine, as the slide contrivance
was called in Germany, to the trumpet in 1780. The Inventions-
horn, although embodying an important principle which has also
found its application in all brass wind instruments with valves as
a means of . correcting defective intonation, did not add to the
compass of the horn. At some date before 1762 it 'would seem that
Hampel 18 also discovered the principle on which hand-stopping is
founded.
By hand-stopping (Fr. sons bouches, Ger. gestopfte Tone) is under-
stood the practice of inserting the hand with palm outstretched and
8 See Moritz Fiirstenau, op. cit. ii. 58.
9 See Ludwig von Kochel, Die kaiserliche Hofkappelle in Wien
(Vienna, 1869), p. 80.
10 See Victor Mahillon, Catalogue descriptif, vol. ii. No. 1160,
p. 389. Op. cit. ii. 60.
12 The Department of State Archives for Saxony in Dresden
possesses no documents which can throw any light upon this point,
but, through the courtesy of the director, the following facts have
been communicated. Two documents concerning Anton Joseph
Hampel are extant: (i) An application by his son, Johann Michael
Hampel, to the elector Friedrich August III. of Saxony, dated
Dresden, April 3, 1771, in which he prays that the post of his father
as horn-player in the court orchestra in which he had already
served as deputy for his invalid father may be awarded to him.
(2) A petition from the widow, Aloisia Ludevica Hampelin, to the
elector, bearing the same date (April 3, 1771), wherein she announces
the death of her husband on the 3Oth of March 1771, who had been
in the service of the house of Saxony thirty-four years as horn-
C layer, and prays for the grant of a monthly pension for herself and
er three delicate daughters, as she finds herself in the most un-
fortunate circumstances. There is no allusion in either letter to any
musical merit of the deceased.
ls There is an instrument of this early type, supposed to date
from the middle of the 1 8th century, in Paul de Wit's fine collection
of musical instruments formerly in Leipzig and now transferred to
Cologne; see Katalog, No. 645, p. 148.
14 See Diclionnaire de I'acad. des beaux arts, vol. iv. (Paris), article
" Cor."
15 See Dr Gustav Schilling, Universal Lexikon der Tonkunst
(Stuttgart, 1840), Bd. vi., "Trompete"; also Capt. C. R. Day,
pp. 139 and 151 1 where the term Invention is quite misunderstood
and misapplied. See Gottfried Weber in Caecilia (Mainz, 1835),
Bd. xvii.
15 Gerber in the first edition of his Lexikon does not mention
Hampel or award him a separate biographical article; we may
therefore conclude that he was not personally acquainted with him,
although Hampel was still a member of the electoral orchestra in
Dresden during Gerber's short career in Leipzig. In the edition of
1812 Gerber renders him full justice.
HORN
705
fingers drawn together, forming a long, shallow cup, into the bell of
the horn; the effect is similar to that produced in wood wind
instruments, termed d'amore, by the pear-shaped bell with a narrow
opening, i.e. a veiled mysterious quality, and, according to the
arrangement of the hand and fingers (which cannot be taught
theoretically, being inter-dependent on other acoustic conditions),
a drop in pitch which enables the performer merely to correct the
faulty intonation of difficult harmonics or to lower the pitch exactly
a semitone or even a full tone by inserting the hand well up the
bore of the bell. J. Frohlich 1 gives drawings of the two principal
positions of the hand in the horn. The same phenomenon may be
observed in the flute by closing all the holes, so that the fundamental
note of the pipe speaks, and then gradually bringing the palm of
the hand nearer the open end of the flute. As a probable explanation
may be offered the following suggestion. The partial closing of the
opening of the bell removes the boundary of ambient air, which
determines the ventral segment of the half wave-length some
distance beyond the normal length; this boundary always lies
beyond the end of the tube, thus accounting for the discrepancy
between the theoretical length of the air-column and the practical
length actually given to the tube. 2 Hampel is also said to have
been the first to apply the sordini 3 (Fr. sourdine) or mute, already
in use in the lyth century for the trumpet, 4 to the horn. The
original mute did not affect the pitch of the instrument, but only
the tone, and when properly constructed may be used with the valve
horn to produce the mysterious veiled quality of the hand-stopped
notes. No satisfactory scientific explanation of the modifications
in the pitch effected by the partial obstruction of the bell, whether
by the hand or by means of certain mechanical devices, has as yet
been offered. D. J. Blaikley suggests that in cases when the effect
of hand-stopping appears to be to raise the pitch of the notes of
the harmonic series, the real result of any contraction of the bell
mouth (as by the insertion of the hand) is always a flattening of
pitch accompanied by the introduction of a distorted or inharmonic
scale, of such a character that for instance, the c, d, e, or 8th, gth
and loth notes of the original harmonic scale become not the c%
d% e% of a fundamental raised a semitone, but D!>, El>, and / due
to the 9th, loth and nth notes of a disturbed or distorted scale
having a fundamental lower than that of the normal horn.
With regard to the discovery of this method of obtaining a
chromatic compass for the horn, which rendered the instrument
very popular with composers, instrumentalists and the public, and
procured for it a generally accredited position in the orchestra, the
following is the sum of evidence at present available. In the Kgl.
offentliche Bibliothek, Dresden, is preserved, amongst the musical
MSS., an autograph volume of 152 pages, entitled Lection pro
Cornui, bearing the signature A. J. H[ampel], the name being filled
in in pencil by a different hand. There is no introduction, no letter-
press of any description belonging to the MS. method for the horn,
nor is any book or pamphlet explaining the Inventionshorn or the
method of hand-stopping by Hampel extant or known to have
existed. He has apparently left no record of his accomplishment.
A few typical extracts copied and selected from the original MS.,
courteously communicated by the director of the Royal Library,
Hofrath, P. E. Richter (a practical musician and performer on horn
and trumpet), do not prove conclusively that they were intended
to be played on hand-stopped horns, with the exception, perhaps,
p. 133, No. 21.
p. 133, No. 22.
of the A, 1 3th harmonic from C, which could not easily be obtained
except by hand-stopping on the hand-horn. On the blank sheet
preceding the exercises is an inscription in the hand of Moritz
Furstenau, former custodian of the Royal Private Musical Collection
(incorporated with the public library in 1896): "Anton Joseph
Hampel, by whom these exercises for the horn were written, was a
celebrated horn-player, a member of the Orchestra of the Electoral
Prince of Saxony. He invented the so-called Inventionshorn.
Cf. Neues biog.-hist. Lexicon der Tonkunstler by Gerber, pt. i. col.
493 ; also Zur Gesch. der Musik u. des Theaters ant Hofe zu Dresden,
by M. Furstenau, Bd. ii." It will be seen that Furstenau gives
Gerber as his authority for the attribution of the invention to Hampel,
although he searched the archives, to which he had free access, for
material for his book.
1 Vollslandige theoretisch-praktische Musikschule (Bonn, 1811),
pt. iii. p. 7.
* See Victor Mahillon, " Le Cor," p. 28; Chladni, op. tit. p. 87.
3 See Frohlich, op. cit. 7; and Gerber, Lexikon (ed. 1812), p. 493;
" Le Cor," pp. 34 and 53.
4 See Praetorius and Mersenne, op. cit. ; the latter gives an
illustration of the trumpet mute.
XIII. 23
The first possessor of the MS., Franz Schubert (1768-1824),
musical director of the Italian opera in Dresden, wrote the following
note in pencil on the last page of the cover: " Franz Schubert.
The complete school of horn-playing by the Kgl. Polnischen u.
Kursachs. Cammermusicus Anton Joseph Hampel, a celebrated
virtuoso, invented by himself in 1762. ' Judging from the standard
of modern technique, there are many passages in the " Lection "
which could not be played without artificially humouring the pro-
duction of harmonics with the lips, and it is an open question to
what extent this method of correcting intonation and of altering the
pitch was practised in the i8th century. When, therefore, Franz
Schubert states that the method was invented by Hampel, we may
take this as indirectly confirming Gerber's statements. Further
confirmation is obtained from the text of a work on the horn written
by Heinrich Domnich 6 (b. 1760), the son of a celebrated horn-player
of Wurtzburg contemporary with Hampel. Domnich junior settled
eventually in Paris, where he was appointed first professor of the
horn at the Conservatoire. According to him the mute (sourdine)
of metal, wood or cardboard in the form of a hollow cone, having
a hole in the base, was used to soften the tone of the horn without
altering the pitch. But Hampel, substituting for this the pad of
cotton wool used for a similar purpose with the oboe, found with
surprise that its effect in the bell of the horn was to raise the pitch
a semitone (see D. J. Blaikley's explanation above). By this means,
says Domnich, a diatonic and chromatic scale was obtained. Later
Hampel substituted the hand for the pad. Domnich duly ascribes
to Hampel the credit of the Inventionshorn, but erroneously states
that it was Haltenhoff of Hanau who made the first instrument.
Domnich further explains that Hampel, who had not practised the
bouche notes in his youth, only made use of them in slow music, and
that the credit of making practical use of the discovery was due to
his pupil Giovanni Punto (Jh- Stich) the celebrated horn virtuoso,
who was a friend of Domnich's.
It may be well to draw attention to the fact that hand-stopping
was not possible so long as the tube of horn was folded in a circle
wide enough to be worn round the body. The reduction of the
diameter of the orchestral horn in order to allow the performer to
hold the instrument in front of him, thus bringing the bell in front
of the right arm in a convenient position for hand-stopping, must
have preceded the discovery of hand-stopping. In the absence of
contrary evidence we may suppose that the change was effected for
the more convenient arrangement and manipulation of the slides or
Inventions. So radical a change in the compass of the horn could not
occur and be adopted generally without leaving its mark on the
horn music of the period ; this change does not occur, as far as we
know, before the last decades of the 1 8th century. The rapid
acceptance in other countries of Hampel's discovery of hand-stopping
is evidenced by a passage from a little English work on music,
published in London in 1772 but bearing at the end of the preface
the date June 1766:' " Some eminent Proficients have been so
dexterous as very nearly to perform all the defective notes of the
scale on the Horn by management of Breath and by a little stopping
the bell with their hands."
Hampel's success gave a general impetus to the inventive faculty
of musical instrument makers in Europe. At first the result was
negative. Kolbel's attempt must, however, be mentioned, if only
to correct a misconception. Kolbel, a Bohemian horn virtuoso at
the imperial Russian court from 1754, spent many years in vain
endeavours to improve his instrument. At last, in 1760, he applied
keys to the horn or the bugle, calling it Klappenhorn (the bugle is
known in Germany as Signal or Buglehorn), Kolbel's experiment
did not become widely known or adopted during his lifetime, but
Anton Weidinger, court trumpeter at Vienna, made a keyed trumpet 7
in 1801, which attracted attention in musical circles and gave a
fresh impetus in experimenting with keys upon brass instruments.
In 1813 Joseph Weidinger, the twelve-year-old son of the above,
gave a concert in Vienna on the Klappenwaldhorn 8 (or keyed French
horn), about which little seems to be known. Victor Mahillon'
describes such an instrument, but ascribes the invention to Kolbel ;
there was but one key placed on the bell, which on being opened
had the effect of raising the pitch of the instrument a whole tone.
By alternately using the harmonic open notes on the normal length
of the tube, and then by the action of the key shortening the air
column, the following diatonic scale was obtained in the third
octave :
' Methods de premier et de second cor (Paris, c. 1807). The passage
in question was discovered and courteously communicated by Hofrat
P. E. Richter of the Royal Library, Dresden. There is no copy of
Domnich's work in the British Museum.
6 See William Tans' ur Senior, op. et loc. cit.
'See Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (Leipzig), Nov. 1802, p.
158, and Jan. 1803, p. 245; and E. Hanslick, Geschichte des Con-
certwesens in Wien (Vienna, 1869), p. 119.
8 See Allgem. mus. Ztg., 1815, p. 844.
" Le Cor," pp. 34-35.
yo6
HORNBEAM HORNBILL
In 1812 Dikhuth, 1 horn-player in the orchestra of the grand-duke
of Baden at Mannheim, constructed a horn in which a slide on the
principle of that of the trom-
bone was intended to replace
hand-stopping and to lower
the pitch at will a semitone,.
The most felicitous, far-
reaching and important of all
improvements was the inven-
tion of valves (g..) pistons
or cylinders (the principle of
which has already been ex-
plained), by Heinrich Stolzel, 2
who applied them first of all
to the horn, the trumpet
and the trombone, 3 thus
endowing the brass wind with
a chromatic compass obtained
with perfect ease throughout
the compass. The inherent
defect of valve instruments
already explained, which
causes faulty intonation need-
ing correction when the pis-
tons are used in combination,
has now been practically
overcome. The numerous
FIG. 8. Modern Horn (Boosey& Co.) attempts to solve the diffi-
culty, made with varying suc-
cess by makers of brass instruments, are described under VALVE,
BOMBARDON and CORNET. 4 (K. S.)
HORNBEAM (Carpinus belulus), a member of a small genus of
trees of the natural order Corylaceae. The Latin name Carpinus
has been thought to be derived from the Celtic car, wood, and
pin or pen, head, the wood of hornbeams having been used for
yokes of cattle (see Loudon, Ency. of PI. p. 792, new ed. 1855,
and Littre, Diet. ii. 556). The common hornbeam, or yoke-elm,
Carpinus belulus (Ger. Hornbaum and Hornbuche, Fr. charme),
is indigenous in the temperate parts of western Asia and of
Asia Minor, and in Europe, where it ranges as high as 55 and
56 N. lat. It is common in woods and hedges in parts of Wales
and of the south of England. The trunk is usually flattened,
and twisted as though composed of several stems united; the
bark is smooth and light grey; and the leaves are in two rows,
2 to 3 in. long, elliptic-ovate, doubly toothed, pointed, numerously
ribbed, hairy below and opaque, and not glossy as in the beech,
have short stalks and when young are plaited. The stipules
of the leaves act as protecting scale-leaves in the winter-bud
and fall when the bud opens in spring. The flowers appear with
the leaves in April and May. The male catkins are about 15 in.
long, and have pale-yellow anthers, bearing tufts of hairs at
the apex; the female attain a length in the fruiting stage of 2 to
4 in., with bracts I to 15 in. long. The green and angular fruit
or " nut " ripens in October; it is about j in. in length, is in
shape like a small chestnut, and is enclosed in leafy, 3-lobed
bracts. The hornbeam thrives well on stiff, clayey, moist soils,
into which its roots penetrate deeply; on chalk or gravel it
does not flourish. Raised from seed it may become a tree 40 to
as much as 70 ft. in height, greatly resembling the beech, except
1 See the description of the instrument and of other attempts
to obtain the same result by Gottfried Weber, " Wichtige Ver-
besserung des Horns " in Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig, 1812), pp. 758,
&c.; also 1815, pp. 637 and 638 (the regent or keyed bugle).
2 See Allg. musik. Ztg., 1815, May, p. 309, the first announcement
of the invention in a paragraph by Captain G. B. Bierey.
3 Ibid., 1817, p. 814, by F. Schneider, and Dec. p. 558; 1818,
p. 531. An announcement of the invention and of a patent granted
for the same for ten years, in which Bliimel is for the first time
associated with Stolzel as co-inventor. See also Caecilia (Mainz,
1835), Bd. xvii. pp. 73 seq., with illustrations, an excellent article
by Gottfried Weber on the valve horn and valve trumpet.
4 For a very complete exposition of the operation of valves in
the horn, and of the mathematical proportions to be observed in
construction, see Victor Mahillon's " Le Cor," also the article by
Gottfried Weber in Caecilia (1835), to which reference was made
above. A list of horn-players of note during the l8th century is
given by C. Gottlieb Murr in Journal f. Kunstgeschichte (Nuremberg,
1776), vol. ii. p. 27. See also a good description of the style of
playing of the virtuoso J. Nisle in 1767 in Schubart, Aesthetik d.
Tonkunst, p. 161, and Leben u. Gesinnungen (1791), Bd. ii. p. 92;
or in L. Schiedermair, " Die Bliitezeit d. Ottingen-Wallensteinschen
Hofkapelle," Intern. Mas. Ges. Smbd. ix. (i), 1907, pp. 83-130.
in its rounder and closer head. It is, however, rarely grown
as a timber-tree, its chief employment being for hedges. " In
the single row," says Evelyn (Sylva, p. 29, 1664), " it makes the
noblest and the stateliest hedges for long Walks in Gardens or
Parks, of any Tree whatsoever whose leaves are deciduous."
As it bears clipping well, it was formerly much used in geometric
gardening. The branches should not be lopped in spring, on
account of their tendency to bleed at that season. The wood
of the hornbeam is white and close-grained, and polishes ill,
is of considerable tenacity and little flexibility, and is extremely
tough and hard to work whence, according to Gerard, the name
of the tree. It has been found to lose about 8% of its weight
by drying. As a fuel it is excellent; and its charcoal is much
esteemed for making gunpowder. The inner part of the bark
of the hornbeam is stated by Linnaeus to afford a yellow dye.
In France the leaves serve as fodder. The tree is a favourite
with hares and rabbits, and the seedlings are apt to be destroyed
by mice. Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxvi. 26), who describes its wood as
red and easily split, classes the hornbeam with maples.
The American hornbeam, blue or water beech, is Carpinus
americana (also known as C. carol iniana) ; the common hop-
hornbeam, a native of the south of Europe, is a member of a
closely allied genus, Ostrya vulgaris, the allied American species,
O. virginiana, is also known as iron wood from its very hard,
tight, close-grained wood.
HORNBILL, the English name long generally given to all the
birds of the family Buccrolidae of modern ornithologists, from
the extraordinary horn-like excrescence (epithema) developed
on the bill of most of the species, though to which of them it
was first applied seems doubtful. Among classical authors
Pliny had heard of such animals, and mentions them (Hist.
Nat. lib. x. cap. Ixx.) under the name of Tragopan; but he
deemed their existence fabulous, comparing them with Pegasi
and Gryphones in the words of Holland, his translator (vol. i.
p. 296) " I thinke the same of the Tragopanades, which many
men affirme to bee greater than the ^Egle; having crooked
homes like a Ram on either side of the head, of the colour of
yron, and the head onely red." Yet this is but an exaggerated
description of some of the species with which doubtless his
informants had an imperfect acquaintance. Medieval -writers
found Pliny's bird to be no fable, for specimens of the beak
of one species or another seem occasionally to have been brought
to Europe, where they were preserved in the cabinets of the
curious, and thus Aldrovandus was able to describe pretty
fairly and to figure (Ornilhologia, h'b. xii. cap. xx. tab. x. fig. 7)
one of them under the name of " Rhinoceros Avis," though the
rest of the bird was wholly unknown to him. When the explora-
tion of the East Indies had extended farther, more examples
reached Europe, and the " Corvus Indicus cornutus " of Bontius
became fully recognized by Willughby and Ray, under the
title of the " Horned Indian Raven or Topau called the Rhino-
cerot Bird." Since the time of those excellent ornithologists
our knowledge of the hornbills has been steadily increasing, but
up to the third quarter of the igth century there was a great
lack of precise information, and the publication of D. G. Elliot's
" Monograph of the Bucerotidae," then supplied a great want.
He divides the family into two sections, the Bucerotinae and the
Bucorvinae. The former group contains most of the species,
which are divided into many genera. Of these, the most remark-
able is Rhinoplax, which seems properly to contain but one
species, the Buceros vigil, B. scutatus or B. geleatus of authors,
commonly known as the helmet-hornbill, a native of Sumatra
and Borneo. This is easily distinguished by having the front
of its nearly vertical and slightly convex epithema composed
of a solid mass of horn 6 instead of a thin coating of the light
6 Apparently correlated with this structure is the curious thicken-
ing of the " prosencephalic median septum " of the cranium as also of
that which divides the " prosencephalic " from the " mesencephalic
chamber," noticed by Sir R. Owen (Cat. Osteal. Ser. Mus. Roy. Coll.
Surg. England, i. 287) ; while the solid horny mass is further strength-
ened by a backing of bony props, directed forwards and meeting its
base at right angles. This last singular arrangement is not perceptible
in the skull of any other species examined by the present writer.
HORNBLENDE
707
and cellular structure found in the others. So dense and hard
is this portion of the " helmet " that Chinese and Malay artists
carve figures on its surface, or cut it transversely into plates,
which from their agreeable colouring, bright yellow with a scarlet
rim, are worn as brooches or other ornaments. This bird, which
is larger than a raven, is also remarkable for its long graduated
tail, having the middle two feathers nearly twice the length
of the rest. Nothing is known of its habits. Its head was
figured by George Edwards in the i8th century, but little else
had been seen of it until 1801, when John Latham described
the plumage from a specimen in the British Museum, and the
first figure of the whole bird, from an example in the Museum
at Calcutta, was published by General Hardwicke in 1823
(Trans. Linn. Society, xiv. pi. 23). Yet more than twenty
years elapsed before French naturalists became acquainted
with it.
In the Bucoreinae we have only the genus Bucorvus, or
Bucorax as some call it, confined to Africa, and containing at
Great Indian Hornbill (B. bicornis). (After Tickell's drawing in
the Zoological Society's library.)
least two and perhaps more species, distinguishable by their
longer legs and shorter toes, the ground-hornbills of English
writers, in contrast to the Bucerotinae which are chiefly arboreal
in their habits, and when not flying move by short leaps or hops,
while the members of this group walk and run with facility.
From the days of James Bruce at least there are few African
travellers who have not met with and in their narratives
more or less fully described one or other of these birds,
whose large size and fearless habits render them conspicuous
objects.
As a whole the hornbills, of which more than 50 species have
been described, form a very natural and in some respects an
isolated group, placed by Huxley among his Coccygomorphae.
It has been suggested that they have some affinity with the
hoopoes (Upupidae), and this view is now generally accepted.
Their supposed alliance to the toucans (Rhamphastidae) rests
only on the apparent similarity presented by the enormous
beak, and is contradicted by important structural characters.
In many of their habits, so far as these are known, all hornbills
seem to be much alike, and though the modification in the form
of the beak, and the presence or absence of the extraordinary
excrescence, 1 whence their name is derived, causes great diversity
of aspect among them, the possession of prominent eyelashes
(not a common feature in birds) produces a uniformity of expres-
sion which makes it impossible to mistake any member of the
family. Hornbills are social birds, keeping in companies, not to
say flocks, and living chiefly on fruits and seeds; but the bigger
species also capture and devour a large number of snakes, while
the smaller are great destroyers of insects. The older writers
say that they eat carrion, but further evidence to that effect
is required before the statement can be believed. Almost every
morsel of food that is picked up is tossed into the air, and then
caught in the bill before it is swallowed. They breed in holes
of trees, laying large white eggs, and when the hen begins to
sit the cock plasters up the entrance with mud or clay, leaving
only a small window through which she receives the food he
brings her during her incarceration.
This remarkable habit, almost simultaneously noticed by
Dr Mason in Burma, S. R. Tickell in India, and Livingstone in
Africa, and since confirmed by other observers, especially
A. R. Wallace 2 in the Malay Archipelago, has been connected
by A. D. Bartlett (Proc. Zool. Society, 1869, p. 142) with a
peculiarity as remarkable, which he was the first to notice.
This is the fact that hornbills at intervals of time, whether
periodical or irregular is not yet known, cast the epithelial
layer of their gizzard, that layer being formed by a secretion
derived from the glands of the proventriculus or some other
upper part of the alimentary canal. The epithelium is ejected
in the form of a sack or bag, the mouth of which is closely folded,
and is filled with the fruit that the bird has been eating. The
announcement of a circumstance so extraordinary naturally
caused some hesitation in its acceptance, but the essential
truth of Bartlett's observations was abundantly confirmed by
Sir W. H. Flower and especially by Dr J. Murie. These castings
form the hen bird's food during her confinement. (A. N.)
HORNBLENDE, an important member of the amphibole
group of rock-forming minerals. The name is an old one of
German origin, and was used for any dark-coloured prismatic
crystals from which metals could not be extracted. It is now
applied to the dark-coloured aluminous members of the mono-
clinic amphiboles, occupying in this group the same position
that augite occupies in the pyroxene group. The monoclinic
crystals are prismatic in habit with a six-sided
cross-section; the angle between the prism-
faces (M), parallel to which there are perfect
cleavages, is 5 5 49'. The colour (green, brown
or black) and the specific gravity (3-0-3-3) vary
with the amount of iron present. The pleo-
chroism is always strong, and the angle of
optical extinction on the plane of symmetry
(x in the figure) varies from o to 37. The
chemical composition is expressed by mix-
tures in varying proportions of the molecules
Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 (SiO3)4, (Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe) 2 Si06 and
NaAl(SiOs)2. Numerous varieties have been
distinguished by special names: edenite, from Edenville in New
York, is a pale-coloured aluminous amphibole containing little
iron; pargasite, from Pargas near Abo in Finland, a green
or bluish-green variety; common hornblende includes the
greenish-black and black kinds containing more iron. The
dark-coloured porphyritic crystals of basalts are known as
basaltic hornblende.
Hornblende occurs as an essential constituent of many kinds
1 Buffon, as was his manner, enlarges on the cruel injustice done to
these birds by Nature in encumbering them with this deformity,
which he declares must hinder them from getting their food with
ease. The only corroboration his perverted view receives is afforded
by the observed fact that hornbills, in captivity at any rate, never
have any fat about them.
2 In The Malay Archipelago (i. 213), Wallace describes a nestling
hornbill (B. bicornis) which he obtained as " a most curious object,
as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part of
it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a semi-transparent
skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet
stuck on, than like a real bird. '
708
HORN-BOOK HORNE, G.
of igneous rocks, such as hornblende-granite, syenite, diorite,
hornblende-andesite, basalt, &c.; and in many crystalline
schists, for example, amphibolite and hornblende-schist which
are composed almost entirely of this mineral. Well-crystallized
specimens are met with at many localities, for example: brilliant
black crystals (syntagmatite) with augite and mica in the sanidine
bombs of Monte Somma, Vesuvius; large crystals at Arendal
in Norway, and at several places in the state of New York;
isolated crystals from the basalts of Bohemia. (L. J. S.)
HORN-BOOK, a name originally applied to a sheet containing
the letters of the alphabet, which formed a primer for the use
of children. It was mounted on wood and protected with
transparent horn. Sometimes the leaf was simply pasted against
the slice of horn. The wooden frame had a handle, and it was
usually hung at the child's girdle. The sheet, which in ancient
times was of vellum and latterly of paper, contained first a large
cross the criss-crosse from which the horn-book was called
the Christ Cross Row, or criss-cross-row. The alphabet in
large and small letters followed. The vowels then formed a line,
and their combinations with the consonants were given in a
tabular form. The usual exorcism " in the name of the Father
and of the Sonne and of the Holy Ghost, Amen " followed, then
the Lord's Prayer, the whole concluding with the Roman
numerals. The horn-book is mentioned in Shakespeare's
Love's Labour's Lost, v. i, where the ba, the a, e, i, o, u, and the
horn, are alluded to by Moth. It is also described by Ben
Jonson
" The letters may be read, through the horn,
That make the story perfect."
HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS (1823-1895),
British admiral of the fleet, son of Admiral Sir Phipps Hornby,
the first cousin and brother-in-law of the I3th earl of Derby,
by a daughter of Lieut.-General Burgoyne, commonly
distinguished as " Saratoga " Burgoyne, was born on the 2oth
of February 1825. At the age of twelve he was sent to sea in the
flagship of Sir Robert Stopford, with whom he saw the capture
of Acre in November 1840. He afterwards served in the flagship
of Rear-Admiral Josceline Percy at the Cape of Good Hope,
was flag-lieutenant to his father in the Pacific, and came home
as a commander. When the Derby ministry fell in December
1852 young Hornby was promoted to be captain. Early in
1853 he married, and as the Derby connexion put him out of
favour with the Aberdeen ministry, and especially with Sir
James Graham, the first lord of the Admiralty, he settled down
in Sussex as manager of his father's property. He had no
appointment in the navy till 1858, when he was sent out to
China to take command of the " Tribune " frigate and convey
a body of marines to Vancouver Island, where the dispute with
the United States about the island of San Juan was threatening
to become very bitter. As senior naval officer there Hornby's
moderation, temper and tact did much to smooth over matters,
and a temporary arrangement for joint occupation of the island
was concluded. He afterwards commanded the " Neptune "
in the Mediterranean under Sir William Fanshawe Martin, was
flag-captain to Rear-Admiral Dacres in the Channel, was com-
modore of the squadron on the west coast of Africa, and, being
promoted to rear-admiral in January 1869, commanded the
training squadron for a couple of years. He then commanded
the Channel Fleet, and was for two years a junior lord of the
Admiralty. It was early in 1877 that he went out as commander-
in-chief in the Mediterraean, where his skill in manoeuvring
the fleet, his power as a disciplinarian, and the tact and deter-
mination with which he conducted the foreign relations at the
time of the Russian advance on Constantinople, won for him
the K.C.B. He returned home in 1880 with the character of
being perhaps the most able commander on the active list of the
navy. His later appoint ments were to the Royal Naval College
as president, and afterwards to Portsmouth as commander-
in-chief. On hauling down his flag he was appointed G.C.B.,
and in May 1888 was promoted to be admiral of the fleet. From
1886 he was principal naval aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria,
and in that capacity, and as an admiral of the fleet, was appointed
on the staff of the German emperor during his visits to England
in 1889 and 1890. He died, after a short illness, on the 3rd of
March 1895. By his wife, who predeceased him, he left several
children, daughters and sons, one of whom, a major in the
artillery, won the Victoria Cross in South Africa in 1900.
His life was written by his daughter, Mrs Fred. Egerton, (1896).
HORNCASTLE, a market-town in the S. Lindsey or Horncastle
parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, at the foot of a
line of low hills called the Wolds, at the confluence of the Bain
and Waring streams; the terminus of a branch line of the Great
Northern railway, 130 m. N. from London. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 4038. The church of St Mary is principally
Decorated and Perpendicular, with some Early English remains
and an embattled western tower. Queen Elizabeth's grammar
school was founded in 1562. Other buildings are an exchange,
a court-house and a dispensary founded in 1789. The prosperity
of the town is chiefly dependent on agriculture and its well-known
horse fairs. Brewing and malting are carried on, and there is
some trade in coal and iron.
Remains have been found here which may indicate the exist-
ence of a Roman village. The manor of Horncastle (Hornecastre)
belonged to Queen Edith in Saxon times and was royal demesne
in 1086 and the head of a large soke. In the reign of Stephen
it apparently belonged to Alice de Cundi, a partisan of the
empress Maud, and passing to the crown on her death it was
granted by Henry III. to Gerbald de Escald, from whom it
descended to Ralph de Rhodes, who sold it to Walter Mauclerc,
bishop of Carlisle in 1230. The see of Carlisle retained it till the
reign of Edward VI. when it was granted to Edward, Lord Clinton,
but was recovered in the following reign. In 1230 Henry III.
directed the men of Horncastle to render a reasonable aid to
the bishop, who obtained the right to try felons, hold a court
leet and have free warren. An inquisition of 1275 shows that
the bishop had then, besides the return of writs, the assize of
bread and ale and waifs and strays in the soke. Horncastle was
a centre of the Lincolnshire rebellion of 1536. Royalist troops
occupied the town in 1643, ar) d were pursued through its streets
after the battle fought at Winceby. It was never a municipal
or parliamentary borough, but during the middle ages it was
frequently the residence of the bishops of Carlisle. Its prosperity
has always depended largely on its fairs, the great horse fair
described by George Borrow in Romany Rye being granted
to the bishop in 1230 for the octave of St Lawrence, together
with the fair on the feast of St Barnabas. The three other fairs
are apparently of later date.
See George Weir, Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Town
and Soke of Horncastle in the County of Lincoln and of Several Places
adjacent (London, 1820).
HORN DANCE, a medieval dance, still celebrated during the
September " wakes " at Abbots Bromley, a village on the borders
of Needwood Forest, Staffordshire. Six or seven men, each
wearing a deer's skull with antlers, dance through the streets,
pursued by a comrade who bestrides a mimic horse, and whips
the dancers to keep them on the move. The horn-dance usually
takes place on the Monday after Wakes Sunday, which is the
Sunday next after the 4th of September. Originally the dance
took place on a Sunday.
See Strand Magazine for November 1896; also Folk-lore, vol. vii.
(1896), p. 381.
HORNE, GEORGE (1730-1792), English divine, was born on
the ist of November 1730, at Otham near Maidstone, and
received his education at Maidstone school and University
College, Oxford. In 1749 he became a fellow of Magdalen,
of which college he was elected president in 1 768. As a preacher
he early attained great popularity, and was, albeit unjustly,
accused of Methodism. His reputation was helped by several
clever if somewhat wrong-headed publications, including a
satirical pamphlet entitled The Theology and Philosophy of
Cicero's Somnium Scipionis (1751), a defence of the Hutchin-
sonians in A Fair, Candid and Impartial State of the Case
between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr Hutchinson (1753), and critiques
upon William Law (1758) and Benjamin Kennicott (1760).
In 1771 he published his well-known Commentary on the Psalms,
HORNE, R. H. HORNER, F.
709
r
a series of expositions based on the Messianic idea. In 1776 he
was chosen vice-chancellor of his university; in 1781 he was
made dean of Canterbury, and in 1790 was raised to the see of
Norwich. He died at Bath on the i7th of January 1792.
His collected Works were published with a Memoir by William
Jones in 1799.
HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST (1803-1884),
English poet and critic, was born in London on New Year's
Day 1803. He was intended for the army, and entered at
Sandhurst, but receiving no commission, he left his country
and joined the Mexican navy. He served in the war against
Spain, and underwent many adventures. Returning to England,
he became a journalist, and in 1836-1837 edited The Monthly
Repository. In 1837 he published two tragedies, Cosmo de
Medici and The Death of Marlowe, and in 1841 a History of
Napoleon. The book, however, by which he lives is his epic of
Orion, which appeared in 1843. It was published originally at
a farthing, was widely read, and passed through many editions.
In the next year he set forth a volume of critical essays called
A New Spirit of the Age, in which he was assisted by Elizabeth
Barrett (Mrs Browning), with whom, from 1839 to her marriage
in 1846, he conducted a voluminous correspondence. In 1852
he went to Australia in company with William Howitt, and
did not return to England until 1869. He received a Civil List
pension in 1874, and died at Margate on the i3th of March 1884.
Home possessed extraordinary versatility, but, except in the
case of Orion, he never attained to a very high degree of distinc-
tion. That poem, indeed, has much of the quality of fine poetry;
it is earnest, vivid and alive with spirit. But Home early
drove his talent too hard, and continued to write when he had
little left to say. In criticism he had insight and quickness.
He was one of the first to appreciate Keats and Tennyson, and
he gave valuable encouragement to Mrs Browning when she was
still Miss Elizabeth Barrett.
HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL (1780-1862), English theo-
logian and bibliographer, was born in London on. the 2oth of
October 1780, and was educated at Christ's Hospital, with
S. T. Coleridge as an elder contemporary. On leaving school he
became clerk to a barrister, but showed a keen taste for author-
ship. As early as 1800 he published A Brief View of the Necessity
and Truth of the Christian Revelation, which was followed by
several minor works on very varied subjects. In 1814, having
been appointed librarian of the Surrey Institution, he issued
his Introduction to the Study of Bibliography. This was followed
in 1818 by his long matured work, the Introduction to the Critical
Study of the Holy Scriptures, which rapidly attained popularity,
and secured for its author widespread fame and an honorary M.A.
degree from Aberdeen. In 1819 he received ordination from
William Howley, bishop of London, and after holding two
smaller livings was appointed rector of the united parishes
of St Edmund the King and Martyr, and St Nicolas Aeons in
London. On the breaking up of the Surrey Institution in 1823,
he was appointed (1824) senior assistant librarian in the depart-
ment of printed books in the British Museum. After the project
of making a classified catalogue had been abandoned, he took
part in the preparation of the alphabetical one, and his connexion
with the museum continued until within a few months of his
death on the 27th of January 1862.
Home's works exceed forty in number. The Introduction, edited
by John Ayre and S. P. Tregelles, reached a I2th edition in 1869;
but, owing to subsequent advances in biblical scholarship, it fell into
disuse.
HORNELL, a city of Steuben county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the Canisteo river, 90 m. S.E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) 10,996;
(1900) 11,918, of whom 1230 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
13,61 7. Hornell is served by the Erie and the Pittsburg, Shawmut
& Northern railways; the latter connects at Wayland (20 m.
distant by rail) with the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
railroad. In the city are St Ann's Academy, the St James
Mercy Hospital, the Steuben Sanitarium, a public library, and
a county court-house terms of the county court being held here
as well as in Bath (pop. in 1905, 3695), the county-seat, and in
Corning. Hornell has extensive car shops of the Erie railroad,
and among its manufactures are silk goods (silk gloves being a
specially important product), sash, doors and blinds, leather,
furniture, shoes, white-goods, wire-fences, foundry and machine
shop products, electric motors, and brick and tile. The value
of the factory product in 1905 was $3,162,677, an increase of
30-1 % since 1900. The first settlement here was made in 1790,
within the district of Erwin (then in Ontario county); after
1796 it was a part of Canisteo township, and the settlement itself
was known as Upper Canisteo until 1820, when a new township
was formed and named Hornellsville in honour of Judge George
Hornell (d. 1813). The village of Hornellsville was incorporated
in 1852, and in 1888 was chartered as a city; and by act of the
state legislature the name was changed to Hornell in 1906.
See G. H. McMaster, History of the Settlement of Steuben County
(Bath, New York, 1849).
HORNEMANN, FREDERICK (fl. 1796-1800), German traveller
in Africa, was born at Hildesheim. He was a young man when,
early in 1796, he offered his services to the African Association
of London as an explorer in Africa. By the association he was
sent to Gottingen University to study Arabic and otherwise
prepare for an expedition into the unknown regions of North
Africa from the east. In September 1797 he arrived in Egypt,
where he continued his studies. On the invasion of the country
by the French he was confined in the citadel of Cairo, to preserve
him from the fanaticism of the populace. Liberated by the
French, he received the patronage of Bonaparte. On the $th
of September 1798 he joined a caravan returning to the Maghrib
from Mecca, attaching himself to a party of Fezzan merchants
who accompanied the pilgrims. As an avowed Christian would
not have been permitted to join the caravan Hornemann assumed
the character of a young mameluke trading to Fezzan. He then
spoke, but indifferently, both Arabic and Turkish, and he was
accompanied as servant and interpreter by Joseph Freudenburg,
a German convert to Islam, who had thrice made the pilgrimage
to Mecca. Travelling by way of the oases of Siwa and Aujila,
a " black rocky desert " was traversed to Temissa in Fezzan.
Murzuk was reached on the i7th of November 1798. Here
Hornemann lived till June 1799, going thence to the city of
Tripoli, whence in August of the same year he despatched his
journals to London. He then returned to Murzuk. Nothing
further is known with certainty concerning him or his companion.
In Murzuk Hornemann had collected a great deal of trustworthy
information concerning the peoples and countries of the western
Sahara and central Sudan, and when he left Tripoli it was his
intention to go direct to the Hausa country, which region he
was the first European definitely to locate. " If I do not perish
in my undertaking," he wrote in his journal, " I hope in five
years I shall be able to make the Society better acquainted with
the people of whom I have given this short description." The
British consul at Tripoli heard from a source believed to be
trustworthy that about June 1803 Jusef (Hornemann's Mahom-
medan name) was at Casna, i.e. Katsena, in Northern Nigeria,
" in good health and highly respected as a marabout." A report
reached Murzuk in 1819 that the traveller had gone to " Noofy "
(Nupe), and had died there. Hornemann was the first European
in modern times to traverse the north-eastern Sahara, and up to
1910 no other explorer had followed his route across the Jebel-es-
Suda from Aujila to Temissa.
The original text of Hornemann's journal, which was written in
German, was printed at Weimar in 1801 ; an English translation,
Travels from Cairo to Mourzouk, &c., with maps and dissertations
by Major James Rennell, appeared in London in 1802. A French
translation of the English work, made by order of the First Consul,
and augmented with notes and a memoir on the Egyptian oases by
L. Langles, was published in Paris in the following year. The French
version is the most valuable of the three. Consult also the Proceedings
of the African Association (1810), and the Geog. Jnl. Nov. 1906.
HORNER, FRANCIS (1778-1817), British economist, was
born at Edinburgh on the i2th of August 1778. After passing
through the usual courses at the high school and university
of his native city, he devoted five years, the first two in England,
to comprehensive but desultory study, and in 1800 was called
to the Scottish bar. Desirous, however, of a wider sphere,
Horner removed to London in 1802, and occupied the interval
HORNER, L. HORNFELS
that elapsed before his admission to the English bar in 1807
with researches in law, philosophy and political economy.
In February 1806 he became one of the commissioners for
adjusting the claims against the nawab of Arcot, and in November
entered parliament as member for St Ives. Next year he sat
for Wendover, and in 1812 for St Mawes, in the patronage
of the marquis of Buckingham. In 1811, when Lord Grenville
was organizing a prospective ministry, Horner had the offer,
which he refused, of a treasury secretaryship. He had resolved
not to accept office till he could afford to live out of office; and
his professional income, on which he depended, was at no time
proportionate to his abilities. His labours at last began to tell
upon a constitution never robust, and in October 1816 his
physicians ordered him to Italy, where, however, he sank under
his malady. He died at Pisa, on the 8th of February 1817.
He was buried at Leghorn, and a marble statue by Chantrcy
was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
Without the advantages of rank, or wealth, or even of genius,
Francis Horner rose to a high position of public influence and
private esteem. His special field was political economy. Master
of that subject, and exercising a sort of moral as well as intellectual
influence over the House of Commons he, by his nervous and
earnest rather than eloquent style of speaking, could fix its
attention for hours on such dry topics as finance, and coinage,
and currency. As chairman of the parliamentary committee
for investigating the depreciation of bank-notes, for which he
moved in 1810, he extended and confirmed his fame as a political
economist by his share in the famous Bullion Report. It was
chiefly through his efforts that the paper-issue of the English
banks was checked, and gold and silver reinstated in their true
position as circulating media; and his views on free trade and
commerce have been generally accepted at their really high
value. Horner was one of the promoters of the Edinburgh
Review in 1802. His articles in the early numbers of that
publication, chiefly on political economy, form his only literary
legacy.
See Memoirs and Correspondence of Francis Horner, M.P., pub-
lished by his brother (see below) in 1843. Also the Edinburgh and
Quarterly Reviews for the same year; and Blackwood's Magazine,
vol. i.
HORNER, LEONARD (1785-1864), Scottish geologist, brother
of Francis Horner (above), was born in Edinburgh on the I7th
of January 1785. His father, John Horner, was a linen merchant
in Edinburgh, and Leonard, the third and youngest son, entered
the university of Edinburgh in 1799. There in the course of the
next four years he studied chemistry and mineralogy, and
gained a love of geology from Playfair's Illustrations of the
Huttonian Theory. At the age of nineteen he became a partner
in a branch of his father's business, and went to London. In
1808 he joined the newly formed Geological Society and two
years later was elected one of the secretaries. Throughout his
long life he was ardently devoted to the welfare of the society;
he was elected president in 1846 and again in 1860. In 1811
he read his first paper " On the Mineralogy of the Malvern Hills "
(Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. i.) and subsequently communicated other
papers on the " Brine-springs at Droitwich," and the " Geology
of the S.W. part of Somersetshire." He was elected F.R.S.
in 1813. In 1815 he returned to Edinburgh to take personal
superintendence of his business, and while there (1821) he was
instrumental in founding the Edinburgh School of Arts for
the instruction of mechanics, and he was one of the founders
of the Edinburgh Academy. In 1827 he was invited to London
to become warden of the London University, an office which he
held for four years; he then resided at Bonn for two years and
pursued the study of minerals and rocks, communicating to the
Geological Society on his return a paper on the " Geology of the
Environs of Bonn," and another " On the Quantity of Solid
Matter suspended in the Water of the Rhine." Tn 1833 he was
appointed one of the commissioners to inquire into the employ-
ment of children in the factories of Great Britain, and he was
subsequently selected as one of the inspectors. In later years-
he devoted much attention to the geological history of the
alluvial lands of Egypt; and in 1843 he published his Life of
his brother Francis. He died in London on the 5th of March
1864.
See Memoir of Leonard Horner, by Katherine M. Lyell (1890)
(privately printed).
HORNES, MORITZ (1815-1868), Austrian palaeontologist,
was born in Vienna on the i4th of July 1815. He was educated
in the university and graduated Ph.D. He then became assistant
in the Vienna mineralogical museum. He was distinguished
for his researches on the Tertiary mollusca of the Vienna Basin,
and on the Triassic mollusca of Alpine regions. Most of his
memoirs were published in the Jahrbuch der K. K. geol. Reichsan-
stalt. In 1864 he introduced the term Neogene to include
Miocene and Pliocene, as these formations are not always to
be clearly separated: the fauna of the lower division being
subtropical and gradually giving place in the upper division to
Mediterranean forms. He died in Vienna on the 4th of November
1868. His son Dr Rudolf Homes (b. 1850), professor of geology
and palaeontology in the university of Graz, has also carried on
researches among the Tertiary mollusca, and is author of Elemente
der Palaeontologie (1884).
HORNFELS (a German word meaning hornstone), the group
designation for a series of rocks which have been baked and
indurated by the heat of intrusive granitic masses and have
been rendered massive, hard, splintery, and in some cases
exceedingly tough and durable. Most hornfelses are fine-grained,
and while the original rocks (such as sandstone, shale and slate,
limestone and diabase) may have been more or less fissile owing
to the presence of bedding or cleavage planes, this structure is
effaced or rendered inoperative in the hornfels. Though they
may show banding, due to bedding, &c., they break across this
as readily as along it; in fact they tend to separate into cubical
fragments rather than into thin plates. The commonest hornfelses
(the " biotite hornfelses ") are dark-brown to black with a
somewhat velvety lustre owing to the abundance of small crystals
of shining black mica. The " lime hornfelses " are often white,
yellow, pale-green, brown and other colours. Green and dark-
green are the prevalent tints of the hornfelses produced by the
alteration of igneous rocks. Although for the most part the
constituent grains are too small to be determined by the unaided
eye, there are often larger crystals of garnet or andalusite
scattered through the fine matrix, and these may become very
prominent on the weathered faces of the rock.
The structure of the hornfelses is very characteristic. Very
rarely do any of the minerals show crystalline form, but the
small grains fit closely together like the fragments of a mosaic;
they are usually of nearly equal dimensions and from the resem-
blance to rough pavement work this has been called pflasler
structure or pavement structure. Each mineral may also
enclose particles of the others; in the quartz, for example,
small crystals of graphite, biotite, iron oxides, sillimanite or
felspar may appear in great numbers. Often the whole of the
grains are rendered semi-opaque in this way. The minutest
crystals may show traces of crystalline outlines; undoubtedly
they are of new formation and have originated in situ. This
leads us to believe that the whole rock has been recrystallized
at a high temperature and in the solid state, so that there was
little freedom for the mineral molecules to build up well-
individualized crystals. The regeneration of the rock has been
sufficient to efface most of the original structures and to replace
the former minerals more or less completely by new ones. But
crystallization has been hampered by the solid condition of the
mass and the new minerals are formless and have been unable
to reject impurities, but have grown around them.
Slates, shales and clays yield biotite hornfelses in which
the most conspicuous mineral is black mica, in small scales which
under the microscope are transparent and have a dark reddish-
brown colour and strong dichroism. There is also quartz, and
often a considerable amount of felspar, while graphite, tourmaline
and iron oxides frequently occur in lesser quantity. In these
biotite hornfelses the minerals, which consist of aluminium
silicates, are commonly found; they are usually andalusite and
HORNING HORROCKS, JEREMIAH
ii
sillimanite, but kyanite appears also in hornfelses, especially in
those which have a schistose character. The andalusite may be
pink and is then often pleochroic in thin sections, or it may
be white with the cross-shaped dark enclosures of the matrix
which are characteristic of chiastolite. Sillimanite usually forms
exceedingly minute needles embedded in quartz. In the rocks
of this group cordierite also occurs, not rarely, and may have
the outlines of imperfect hexagonal prisms which are divided
up into six sectors when seen in polarized light. In biotite
hornfelses a faint striping may indicate the original bedding
of the unaltered rock and corresponds to small changes in the
nature of the sediment deposited. More commonly there is a
distinct spotting, visible on the surfaces of the hand specimens.
The spots are round or elliptical, and may be paler or darker
than the rest of the rock. In some cases they are rich in graphite
or carbonaceous matters; in others they are full of brown mica;
some spots consist of rather coarser grains of quartz than occur
in the matrix. The frequency with which this feature reappears
in the less altered slates and hornfelses is rather remarkable,
especially as it seems certain that the spots are not always of
the same nature or origin. " Tourmaline hornfelses " are found
sometimes near the margins of tourmaline granites; they are
black with small needles of schorl which under the microscope
are dark brown and richly pleochroic. As the tourmaline con-
tains boron there must have been some permeation of vapours
from the granite into the sediments. Rocks of this group are
often seen in the Cornish tin-mining districts, especially near
the lodes.
A second great group of hornfelses are the calc-silicate-horn-
felses which arise from the thermal alteration of impure lime-
stones. The purer beds recrystallize as marbles, but where there
has been originally an admixture of sand or clay lime-bearing
silicates are formed, such as diopside, epidote, garnet, sphene,
vesuvianite, scapolite; with these phlogopite, various felspars,
pyrites, quartz and actinolite often occur. These rocks are fine-
grained, and though often banded are tough and much harder
than the original limestones. They are excessively variable
in their mineralogical composition, and very often alternate
in thin seams with biotite hornfels and indurated quartzites.
When perfused with boric and fluoric vapours from the granite
they may contain much axinite, fluorite and datolite, but the
aluminous silicates (andalusite, &c.) are absent from these rocks.
From diabases, basalts, andesites and other igneous rocks
a third type of hornfels is produced. They consist essentially
of felspar with hornblende (generally of brown colour) and
pale pyroxene. Sphene, biotite and iron oxides are the other
common constituents, but these rocks show much variety of
composition and structure. Where the original mass was decom-
posed and contained calcite, zeolites, chlorite and other secondary
minerals either in veins or in cavities, there are usually rounded
areas or irregular streaks containing a suite of new minerals,
which may resemble those of the calc silicate hornfelses above
described. The original porphyritic, fluidal, vesicular or frag-
mental structures of the igneous rock are clearly visible in the
less advanced stages of hornfelsing, but become less evident
as the alteration progresses.
In some districts hornfelsed rocks occur which have acquired
a schistose structure through shearing, and these form transitions
to schists and gneisses which contain the same minerals as the
hornfelses, but have a schistose instead of a hornfels structure.
Among these may be mentioned cordierite and sillimanite
gneisses, andalusite and kyanite mica schists, and those schistose
calc silicate rocks which are known as cipolins. That these are
sediments which have undergone thermal alteration is generally
admitted, but the exact conditions under which they were formed
is not always clear. The essential features of hornfelsing are
ascribed to the action of heat, pressure and permeating vapours,
regenerating a rock mass without the production of fusion (at
least on a large scale). It has been argued, however, that often
there is extensive chemical change owing to the introduction
of matter from the granite into the rocks surrounding it. The
formation of new felspar in the hornfelses is pointed out as
evidence of this. While this "felspathization" may have occurred
in a few localities, it seems conspicuously absent from others.
Most authorities at the present time regard the changes as being
purely of a physical and not of a chemical nature, (j. S. F.)
HORNING, LETTERS OF, a term in Scots law. Originally
in Scotland imprisonment for debt was enforceable only in
certain cases, but a custom gradually grew up of taking the
debtor's oath to pay. If the debtor broke his oath, he became
liable to the discipline of the Church. The civil power, further,
stepped in to aid the ecclesiastical, and denounced him as a
rebel, imprisoning his person and confiscating his goods. The
method declaring a person a rebel was by giving three blasts
on a horn and publicly proclaiming the fact; hence the expres-
sion, "put to the horn." The subsequent process, the warrant
directing a messenger-at-arms to charge the debtor to pay or
perform in terms of the letters, was called " letters of horning."
This system of execution was simplified by an act of 1837
(Personal Diligence Act), and execution is now usually by
diligence (see EXECUTION).
HORNPIPE, originally the name of an instrument no longer
in existence, and now the name of an English national dance.
The sailors' hornpipe, although the most common, is by no
means the only form of the dance, for there is a pretty tune
known as the " College Hornpipe," and other specimens of a
similar kind might be cited. The composition of hornpipes
flourished chiefly in the i8th century, and even Handel did not
disdain to use the characteristic rhythm. The hornpipe may
be written in $ or in common time, and is always of a lively
nature.
HORNSEY, a municipal borough in the Hornsey parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 6 m. N.
of St Paul's Cathedral, on the Great Northern railway. Pop.
(1891) 44,523; (1901) 72,056. It is chiefly occupied by small
residences of the working classes. The manor, called in the
1 3th century Haringee (a name which survives as Harringay),
belonged from an early date to the see of London, the bishops
having a seat here. In 1387 the duke of Gloucester, uncle of
Richard II., assembled in Hornsey Park the forces by the
display of which he compelled the king to dismiss his minister
de la Pole, earl of Suffolk; and in 1483 the park was the scene of
the ceremonious reception of Edward V., under the charge of
Richard, duke of Gloucester, by Edmund Shaw, lord mayor of
London. The parish church of St Mary, Hornsey, retains its
Perpendicular tower (c. 1500) and a number of interesting
monuments. Finsbury Park, of 120 acres, and other smaller
public grounds, are within the borough. Hornsey was incorpor-
ated in 1903 under a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors.
Area, 2875 acres.
HOROWITZ, ISAIAH (c. i555-c. 1630), Jewish rabbi and
mystic, was born at Prague, and died at Safed, then the home
of Jewish Kabbala. His largest work is called Shelah (abbrevi-
ated from the initials of the full title Shene luhoth ha-berit,
" Two Tables of the Covenant "). This is a compilation of
ritual, ethics and mysticism, and had a profound influence
on Jewish life. It has been often reprinted, especially in an
abbreviated form.
For an account of the Jewish mystics at Safed see S. Schecter,
Studies in Judaism, series ii. (1908).
HORREUM, the Latin word for a magazine or storehouse for
the storage of grain and other produce of the earth, and occasion-
ally for that of agricultural implements. The storehouses of
Rome were of the most extensive character, there being no
fewer than 290 public horrea at the time of Constantine. They
were used for the storage of food and merchandize of all kinds,
being part of the great Roman system of providing food for the
population, and they were supplied constantly with corn and
other provisions from Africa, Spain and elsewhere.
HORROCKS, JEREMIAH (1610-1641), English astronomer,
was born in 1619 at Toxteth Park, near Liverpool. His family
was poor, and the register of Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
testifies to his entry as sizar on the i8th of May 1632. Isolated
in his scientific tastes, and painfully straitened in means, he
712
HORROCKS, JOHN HORSE
pursued amid innumerable difficulties his purpose of self-educa-
tion. His university career lasted three years, and on its
termination he became a tutor at Toxteth, devoting to astrono-
mical observations his brief intervals of leisure. In 1636 he met
with a congenial spirit in William Crabtree, a draper of Broughton,
near Manchester; and encouraged by his advice he exchanged
the guidance of Philipp von Lansberg, a pretentious but in-
accurate Belgian astronomer, for that of Kepler. He now set
himself to the revision of the Rudolphine Tables (published by
Kepler in 1627), and in the progress of his task became convinced
that a transit of Venus overlooked by Kepler would nevertheless
occur on the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639. He was at this time
curate of Hoole, near Preston, having recently taken orders
in the Church of England, although, according to the received
accounts, he had not attained the canonical age. The 24th
of November falling on a Sunday, his clerical duties threatened
fatally to clash with his astronomical observations; he was,
however, released just in time to witness the punctual verification
of his forecast, and carefully noted the progress of the phenomenon
during half an hour before sunset (3-15 to 3-45). This transit of
Venus is remarkable as the first ever observed, that of 1631
predicted by Kepler having been invisible in western Europe.
Notwithstanding the rude character of the apparatus at his
disposal, Horrocks was enabled by his observation of it to
introduce some important corrections into the elements of the
planet's orbit, and to reduce to its exact value the received
estimate of its apparent diameter.
After a year spent at Hoole, he returned to Toxteth, and
there, on the eve of a long-promised visit to his friend Crabtree,
he died, on the 3rd of January 1641, when only in his twenty-
second year. To the inventive activity of the discoverer he had
already united the patient skill of the observer and the practical
sagacity of the experimentalist. Before he was twenty he had
afforded a specimen of his powers by an important contribution
to the lunar theory. He first brought the revolutions of our
satellite within the domain of Kepler's laws, pointing out that
her apparent irregularities could be completely accounted for
by supposing her to move in an ellipse with a variable eccen-
tricity and directly rotatory major axis, of which the earth
occupied one focus. These precise conditions were afterwards
demonstrated by Newton to follow necessarily from the law
of gravitation.
In his speculations as to the physical cause of the celestial
motions, his mind, though not wholly emancipated from the
tyranny of gratuitous assumptions, was working steadily towards
the light. He clearly perceived the significant analogy between
terrestrial gravity and the force exerted in the solar system, and
by the ingenious device of a circular pendulum illustrated the
composite character of the planetary movements. He also
reduced the solar parallax to 14" (less than a quarter of Kepler's
estimate), corrected the sun's semi-diameter to 15' 45", recom-
mended decimal notation, and was the first to make tidal
observations.
Only a remnant of the papers left by Horrocks was preserved by
the care of William Crabtree. After his death (which occurred soon
after that of his friend) these were purchased by Dr Worthington,
of Cambridge; and from his hands the treatise Venus in sole visa
passed into those of Hevelius, and was published by him in 1662
with his own observations on a transit of Mercury. The remaining
fragments were, under the directions of the Royal Society, reduced
by Dr Wallis to a compact Iform, with the heading Astronomia
Kepleriana defensa et promota, and published with numerous extracts
from the letters of Horrocks to Crabtree, and a sketch of the author's
life, in a volume entitled Jeremiae Horroccii opera posthuma (London,
1672), A memoir of his life by the Rev. Arundell Blount Whatton,
prefixed to a translation of the Venus in sole visa, appeared at London
in 1859.
For additional particulars, see J. E. Bailey's Palatine Note-Book,
ii. 253, iii. 17; Bailey's "Writings of Horrocks and Crabtree"
(from Notes and Queries, Dec. 2, 1882); Notes and Queries,
3rd series, vol. v., 5th series, vols. ii., iv. ; Martin's Biographia
philosophica, p. 271 (1764.); R. Brickel, Transits of Venus, 1639-
1874 (Preston, 1874); Astronomical Register, xii. 293; Hevelii,
Mercurius in sole visus, pp. 116-140; S. Rigaud's Correspondence
of Scientific Men; Th. Birch, History of the Royal Society, i. 386,
395. 47; Sir E. Sherburne's Sphere of M. Manilius, p. 92 (1675);
Sir J. A. Pictqn's Memorials of Liverpool, ii. 561 ; M. Gregson's
Fragments relative to the Duchy of Lancaster, p. 166 (1817)- Liverpool
Repository, i. 570 (1826); Phil. Trans. Abridged, ii. 12 (1809)-
C. Button's Ph^l. and Math. Dictionary (1815); Penny Cyclopaedia
(De Morgan); Nature, viii. 117, 137; J. B. J. Delambre, Hist, de
I astronomte moderne, ii. 495 ; Hist, de I'astronomie au X VIII' siecle
pp. 28, 61, 74; W. Whewell, Hist, of the Inductive Sciences, i. 331;
R. Grant, Hist, of Physical Astronomy, pp. 420, 545; J Madler
Geschichte der Himmelskunde, i. 275; M. Marie, Hist, des Sciences',
iv. 168, vi. 90; J. C. Houzeau, Bibl. Astr. ii. 167. (A. M. C.)
HORROCKS, JOHN (1768-1804), British cotton manufacturer,
was born at Edgeworth, near Bolton, in 1768. His father was
the owner of a small quarry, and John Horrocks spent his
early days in dressing and polishing millstones. The Lancashire
cotton industry was then in its infancy, but Horrocks was
greatly impressed with its future possibilities, and he managed
to obtain a few spinning-frames which he erected in a corner
of his father's offices. For a time he combined cotton-spinning
on a very small scale with stone-working, but finally devoted
himself entirely to cotton-spinning, working the frames with his
own hands, and travelling through the Lancashire manufactur-
ing districts to sell the yarn. His goods obtained a reputation
for quality, and his customers increased so rapidly that in 1791
he removed to Preston, where he began to manufacture cotton
shirtings and long-cloths in addition to spinning the cotton yarn.
By taking full advantage of the machinery invented for manu-
facturing textiles, and by rigidly maintaining the quality of his
goods, Horrocks rapidly developed his business, and with the
aid of the capital of a local banker, whom he took into partnership,
erected within a year of his arrival in Preston his first large mill,
securing shortly afterwards from the East India Company a
monopoly of the manufacture of cottons and muslins for the
Indian market. The demand for Horrocks's goods continued to
increase, and to cope with the additional work he took first
an elder brother and in 1801 a Mr Whitehead and a Mr Miller
into partnership, the title of the firm being altered to Horrockses,
Miller & Co. In 1802 he entered parliament as tory member
for Preston. He died in London in 1804 of brain-fever resulting
from over-work.
HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms
as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross), a name properly restricted
to the domesticated horse (Equus caballus) and its wild or half-
wild representatives, but in a zoological sense used as a general
term for all the members of the family Equfdae.
SPECIES
The distinctive characteristics of the family, and its position
in the zoological system, are given in the articles EQUIDAE and
PERISSODACTYLA. Here attention is concentrated on the lead-
ing features of the horse as contrasted with the other members
of the same family, and subsequently on the anatomical structure
of the former animal. The evolution of the existing representa-
tives of the family from primitive extinct animals is summarized
in the article EQUIDAE.
Horse, Wild Horse, Pony. The horse (Equus caballus) is
distinguished from the others by the long hairs of the tail being
more abundant and growing quite or nearly from the base as
well as the end and sides, and also by possessing a small bare
callosity on the inner side of the hind leg, just below the " hock "
or heel joint, in addition to the one on the inner side of the
fore-arm above the carpus or " knee," common to all the genus.
The mane is also longer and more flowing, and the ears are shorter,
the limbs longer, and the head smaller.
Though existing horses are usually not marked in any definite
manner, or only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light
surrounded by a darker ring, many examples are met with
showing a dark median dorsal streak like that found in all the
other members of the genus, and even with dark stripes on the
shoulders and legs.
Two distinct types of horse, in many instances largely modified
by interbreeding, appear to exist, (i) The northern, or dun type,
represented by the dun ponies of Norway (Equus caballus
typicus), the closely allied Celtic pony (E. c.celticus) of Iceland, the
SPECIES]
HORSE
7*3
Hebrides, &c., and the wild pony of Mongolia (E. c. pnewalskii),
with which the now extinct tarpan of the Russian steppes
appears to have been identical. The prevalent colour is yellow-
dun, with dark brown or black mane, tail and legs; in the wild
forms the muzzle is often white and the root of the tail short-
haired; while the head is relatively large and heavy. No
depression exists in the skull in front of the eye. Most of the
ordinary horses of N.W. Europe are descended from the dun
type, with more or less admixture of Barb blood. (2) The
southern, or Barb type, represented by Barbs, Arabs, thorough-
breds, &c. (E. c. asiaticus or libycus), in which the typical colour
is bay with black " points " and often a white star on the forehead,
and the mane and tail are long and full. The skull generally
shows a slight depression in front of the socket of the eye, which,
although now serving as the attachment for the muscle running
to the nostril, may represent the face-gland of the extinct
Hipparion. Many of the dark-coloured horses of Europe have
Barb or Arab blood in their veins, this being markedly the case
with the Old English black or Shire horse, the skull of which
shows a distinct depression in front of the eye-socket. This
depression is still more marked in the extinct Indian E. sivalensis,
which may have been the ancestral form.
In Europe wild horses were abundant in the prehistoric
Neolithic or polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity
of their remains found associated with those of the men of that
time, the chase of these animals must have been among man's
chief occupations, and horses must have furnished him with
one of his most important food-supplies. The characters of the
bones preserved, and certain rude but graphic representations
carved on bones or reindeers' antlers, enable us to know that
they were rather small in size and heavy in build, with large
heads and rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the
recently extinct tarpans or wild horses of the steppes of the
south of Russia, and the still-surviving Mongolian wild pony
or " Przewalski's horse." These horses were domesticated
by the inhabitants of Europe before the dawn of history. Horses
are now diffused by the agency of man throughout almost the
whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great modifica-
tions they have undergone in consequence of domestication,
crossing, and selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing
such extreme forms as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial
climate, the thoroughbred racer, and the London dray-horse.
In Australia, as in America, horses imported by European
settlers have escaped into unreclaimed lands and multiplied
to a prodigious extent, roaming in vast herds over the wide
and uncultivated plains.
Ass, Zebra, Quagga. The next group is formed by the Asiatic
wild asses, or kiangs and onagers, as they might well be called,
in order to distinguish them from the wild asses of Africa. These
asses have moderate ears, the tail rather long, and the back-stripe
dark brown and running from head to tail. On the neck and
withers this stripe is formed by the mane. There are two
species of Asiatic wild ass, with several varieties. The first and
largest has two races, the chigetai (Equus hemionus) of Mongolia,
and the kiang (E. ft. kiang) of Tibet, which is a redder animal.
The onager (E. onager), of which there are several races, is
smaller, with a broader dorsal stripe, bordered with white;
the colour varying from sandy to greyish. This species ranges
from Baluchistan and N.W. India to Persia, Syria and Arabia.
These asses inhabit desert plains or open table-land; the kiang
dwelling at elevations of about 14,000 ft. They are generally
found in herds of from twenty to forty, although occasionally
in larger numbers. All are fleet, and traverse rough ground
with speed. On the lowlands they feed on dry grasses, and in
Tibet on small woody plants. In India and Persia they are
difficult to approach, although this is not the case in Tibet.
Their sandy or chestnut colouring assimilates them to the horse,
and separates tkem widely from the African wild asses, which
are grey. The kiang has also larger and more horse-like hoofs,
and the tail is haired higher up, thus approximating to Equus
caballus przewalskii.
Among the striped species, or zebras and quaggas of Africa,
the large Gr6vy's zebra (Equus grenyi) of Somaliland and
Abyssinia stands apart from the rest by the number and narrow-
ness of its stripes, which have an altogether peculiar arrangement
on the hind-quarters, the small size of the callosities on the
fore-legs, the mane extending on to the withers and enormous
rounded ears, thickly haired internally. The large size of the
ears and the narrow stripes are in some degree at any rate
adaptations to a life on scrub-clad plains.
Next comes the closely allied species with small pointed ears,
of which the true quagga (E. quagga) of South Africa is now
extinct. This animal has the dark stripes limited to the head,
neck and shoulders, upon a brown ground. In the typical
form, now also extinct, of the bonte-quagga, dauw, or Burchell's
zebra (E. burchelli), the ground-colour is white, and the stripes
cover the body and upper part of the limbs. This was the
commonest species in the great plains of South Africa, where
it roamed in large herds, often in company with the quagga and
numerous antelopes. The species ranges from the Orange river
to the confines of Abyssinia, but its more northern representatives
show a gradual increase in the striping of the legs, culminating
in the north-east African E. burchelli granti, in which the stripes
extend to the hoofs. The markings, too, are alternately black
and white, in place of brown and creamy, with intermediate
" shadow stripes," as in the southern races.
Lastly, there is the true or mountain zebra (E. zebra), typically
from the mountain ranges of Cape Colony, where it is now
specially protected, but represented by E. zebra penned in
south-west Africa. In its relatively long ears and general build
it approaches the African wild asses, from which it chiefly differs
by the striping (which is markedly different from that of the
quagga-group) and the reversal of the direction of the hairs along
the spine.
The African wild ass (E. asinus) is the parent of the domesti-
cated breed, and is a long-eared grey animal, with no forelock,
and either a shoulder-stripe or dark barrings on the legs. There
are two races, of which the Nubian E. a. africanus is the smaller,
and has a continuous dorsal stripe and a shoulder-stripe but no
bars on the legs. The Somali race (E. a somaliensis) , on the other
hand, is a larger and greyer animal, with an interrupted dorsal
and no shoulder-stripe, but distinct leg-barrings.
Hybrids. There are thus eight modifications of the horse-type
at present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species
by most zoologists, and easily recognizable by their external
characters. They are, however, all so closely allied that each
will, at least in a state of domestication or captivity, breed with
any of the others. Cases of fertile union are recorded between
the horse and the quagga, the horse and the bonte-quagga or
Burchell's zebra, the horse and the onager and kiang or Asiatic
wild asses, the common ass and the zebra, the ass and bonte-
quagga, the ass and the onager, the onager and the zebra, and
the onager and the bonte-quagga. The two species which are
farthest removed in structure, the horse and the ass, produce, as
is well known, hybrids or mules, which in certain qualities useful
to man excel both their progenitors, and in some countries and
for certain kinds of work are in greater requisition than either.
Although occasional more or less doubtful instances have been
recorded of female mules breeding with the males of one or other
of the pure species, it is more than doubtful if any case has
occurred of their breeding inter se, although the opportunities
of doing so must have been great, as mules have been reared in
immense numbers for at least several thousands of years. We
may therefore consider it settled that the different species of the
group are now in that degree of physiological differentiation
which enables them to produce offspring with each other, but
does not permit of the progeny continuing the race, at all events
unless reinforced by the aid of one of the pure forms.
The several members of the group show mental differences
quite as striking as those exhibited by their external form, and
more than perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their
brains. The patience of the ass, the high spirit of the horse,
the obstinacy of the mule, have long been proverbial. It is very
remarkable that, out of so many species, two only should have;
HORSE
[ANATOMY
shown any aptitude for domestication, and that these should
have been from time immemorial the universal and most useful
companions and servants of man, while all the others remain in
their native freedom to this day. It is, however, still a question
whether this really arises from a different mental constitution
causing a natural capacity for entering into relations with man,
or whether it may not be owing to their having been brought
gradually into this condition by long-continued and persevering
efforts when the need of their services was felt. It is possible
that one reason why most of the attempts to add new species
to the list of our domestic animals in modern times have ended in
failure is that it does not answer to do so in cases in which existing
species supply all the principal purposes to which the new ones
might be put. It can hardly be expected that zebras and bonte-
quaggas fresh from their native mountains and plains can be
brought into competition as beasts of burden and draught with
horses and asses, whose useful qualities have been augmented
by the training of thousands of generations of progenitors.
Not infrequently instances occur of domestic horses being
produced with a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually
on the inside of the principal toe, and, though far more rarely,
three or more toes may be present. These malformations are
often cited as instances of reversion to the condition of some of
the earlier forms of equine animals previously mentioned. In
some instances, however, the feet of such polydactyle horses
bear little resemblance to those of the extinct Hipparion or
Anchitherium, but look rather as if due to that tendency to
reduplication of parts which occurs so frequently as a monstrous
condition, especially among domesticated animals, and which,
whatever its origin, certainly cannot in many instances, as the
cases of entire limbs superadded, or of six digits in man, be
attributed to reversion.
ANATOMY
The anatomical structure of the horse has been, described
in detail in several works mentioned in the bibliography at the
end of this section, though these have generally been written
from the point of view of the veterinarian rather than of the
comparative anatomist. The limits of the present article
will only admit of the most salient points being indicated,
particularly those in which the horse differs from other Ungulata.
Unless otherwise specified, it must be understood that all that
is stated here, although mostly derived from observation upon
the horse, applies equally well to the other existing members
of the group.
Skeleton. The skull as a whole is greatly elongated, chiefly in
consequence of the immense size of the face as compared with the
hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the cranium from
the lower border of the foramen magnum to the incisor border of the
palate is nearly straight. The orbit, of nearly circular form, though
small in proportion to the size of the whole skull, is distinctly marked,
being completely surrounded by a strong ring of bone with prominent
edges. Behind it, and freely communicating with it beneath the
osseous bridge (the post-orbital process of the frontal) forming the
boundary between them, is the small temporal fossa occupying the
whole of the side of the cranium proper, and in front is the great
flattened expanse of the " cheek," formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving
support to the long row of cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge
running forward from below the orbit for the attachment of the
masseter muscle. The lachrymal occupies a considerable space on the
flat surface of the cheek in front of the orbit, and below it the jugal
does the same. The latter sends a horizontal or slightly ascending
process backwards below the orbit to join the under surface of the
zygomatic process of the squamosal, which is remarkably large, and
instead of ending as usual behind the orbit, runs forwards to join
the greatly developed post-orbital process of the frontal, and even
forms part of the posterior and inferior boundary of the orbit, an
arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure of the
orbit behind distinguishes the skull of the horse from that of its allies
the rhinoceros and tapir, and also from all of the perissodactyles of
the Eocene period. In front of the brain cavity, the great tubular
nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal bones, and
are roofed over by large nasals, broad behind, and ending in front
in a narrow decurved point. The opening of the anterior nostrils
is prolonged backwards on each side of the face between the nasals
and the elongated slender premaxillae. The latter expand in front,
and are curved downwards to form the semicircular alveolar border
which supports the large incisor teeth. The palate is narrow in the
interval between the incisor and molar teeth, in which are situated
the large anterior palatine foramina. Between the molar teeth it is
broader, and it ends posteriorly in a rounded excavated border
opposite the hinder border of the penultimate molar tooth. It is
mainly formed by the maxillae, as the palatines are very narrow
The pterygoids are delicate slender slips of bone attached to the
hinder border of the palatines, and supported externally by, and
generally welded with, the rough pterygoid plates of the alisphenoid,
with no pterygoid fossa between. They slope obliquely forwards, and
end in curved, compressed, hamular processes. There is a distinct
alisphenoid canal for the passage of the internal maxillary artery.
The base of the cranium is long and narrow; the alisphenoid is very
obliquely perforated by the foramen rotundum, but tlie foramen
ovale is confluent with the large foramen lacerum medium behind.
The glenoid surface for the articulation of the mandible is greatly
extended transversely, concave from side to side, convex from
before backwards in front, and hollow behind, and is bounded
posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent post-glenoid process.
The squamosal enters considerably into the formation of the temporal
fossa, and, besides sending the zygomatic process forwards, it sends
down behind the meatus auditorius a post-tympanic process which
aids to hold in place the otherwise loose tympano-periotic bone.
Behind this the exoccipital gives off a long paroccipital process.
FIG. i. Side view of Skull of Horse, with the bone removed
so as to expose the whole of the teeth.
PMx, Premaxilla.
MX, Maxilla.
Mi, Nasal bone.
Jugal or malar bone.
Lacrymal bone.
Frontal bone.
Squamosal bone.
Parietal bone.
Occipital condyle.
Paroccipital process.
Ma,
L,
Fr,
Sq,
Pa,
oc,
PP<
c, The canine tooth.
pm l , The situation of the rudi-
mentary first premolar,
which has been lost in
the lower, but is present
in the upper jaw.
pm*, pm', and pm*. The three
fully developed pre-
molar teeth.
m l , nf, and >', The three true
i l ,f, andi 3 , The three incisor teeth. molar teeth.
The periotic and tympanic are welded together, but not with the
squamosal. The former has a wide but shallow floccular fossa on
its inner side, and sends backwards a considerable " pars mastoidea,"
which appears on the outer surface of the skull between the post-
tympanic process of the squamosal and the exoccipital. The
tympanic forms a tubular meatus auditorius externus directed out-
wards and slightly backwards. It is not dilated into a distinct bulla,
but ends in front in a pointed rod-like process. It completely
embraces the truncated cylindrical tympanohyal, which is of great
size, corresponding with the large development of the whole anterior
arch of the hyoid. This consists mainly of a long and compressed
stylohyal, expanded at the upper end, where it sends off a triangular
posterior process. The basi-hyal is remarkable for the long, median,
pointed, compressed " glossohyal " process, which it sends forward
from its anterior border into the base of the tongue. A similar but
less developed process is found in the rhinoceros and tapir. The
lower jaw is large, especially the region of the angle, which is ex-
panded and flattened, giving great surface for the attachment of
the masseter muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated above the
alveolar border; its articular surface is very wide transversely, and
narrow and convex from before backwards. The coronoid process
is slender, straight, and inclined backwards. The horizontal ramus,
long, straight, and compressed, gradually narrows towards the sym-
physis, where it expands laterally to form with the ankylosed
opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow alveolar border for
the incisor teeth.
The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal,
six lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebrae.
ANATOMY]
HORSE
There may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebrae, in which case five
only will be reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The
odontoid process of the axis is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as in the
ruminants. The bodies of the cervical vertebrae are elongated,
strongly keeled, and markedly opisthocoelous, or concave behind
and convex in front. The neural laminae are broad, the spines
almost obsolete, except in the seventh, and the transverse processes
not largely developed. In the trunk vertebrae the opisthocoelous
character of the centrum gradually diminishes. The spinous pro-
cesses of the anterior thoracic region are high and compressed. To
these is attached the powerful elastic ligament (Ugamenlum nuchae,
or " paxwax ") which, passing forwards in the middle line of the
neck above the neural arches of the cervical vertebrae to which it
is also connected is attached to the occiput and supports the weight
of the head. The transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae are
long, flattened, and project horizontally outwards or slightly forward
from the arch. The metapophyses are moderately developed, and
there are no anapophyses. The caudal vertebrae, except those
quite at the base, are slender and cylindrical, without processes and
without chevron bones beneath. The ribs are eighteen or nineteen
in number on each side, flattened, and united to the sternum by
short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal ribs. The sternum con-
sists of six pieces; the anterior or presternum is compressed and
projects forwards like the prow of a boat. The segments which
follow gradually widen, and the hinder part of the sternum is broad
and flat.
As in all other ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula is
long and slender, the supra-scapular border being rounded, and
slowly and imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed ;
rather above the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat turned
backwards, but it gradually subsides at the lower extremity without
forming any acromial process. The coracoid is a prominent rounded
nodule. The humerus is stout and rathe>- short. The ulna is rudi-
mentary, being represented by little more than the olecranon.
The shaft gradually tapers below and is firmly welded to the radius.
The latter bone is of nearly equal width throughout. The three
bones of the first row of the carpus (scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform)
are subequal in size. The second row consists of a broad and flat
magnum, supporting the great third metacarpal, having to its
radial side the trapezoid, and to its ulnar side the unciform, which
are both small, and articulate inferiorally with the rudimentary
second and fourth metacarpals. The pisiform is large and prominent,
flattened and curved; it articulates partly with the cuneiform and
partly with the lower end of the radius. The large metacarpal is
called in veterinary anatomy "cannon bone"; the small lateral
metacarpals, which gradually taper towards their lower extremities,
and lie in close contact with the large one, are called " splint bones."
The single digit consists of a moderate-sized proximal (os suffraginis,
or large pastern), a short middle (os coronae, or small pastern), and
a wide, semi-lunar, ungual phalanx (os pedis, or coffin bone). There
is a pair of large nodular sesamoids behind the metacarpo-phalangeal
articulation, and a single large transversely-extended sesamoid
behind the joint between the second and third phalanx, called the
" navicular bone."
The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly
called the " knee " of the horse, the joint between the metacarpal
and the first phalanx the " fetlock, that between the first and
second phalanges the " pastern," and that between the second and
third phalanges the " coffin joint."
In the hinder limb the femur is marked, as in other perissodactyles,
by the presence of a " third trochanter," a flattened process, curving
forwards and arising from the outer side of the bone, about one-third
of the distance from the upper end. The fibula is reduced to a
mere rod-like rudiment of the upper end. The lower part is absent
or completely fused with the tibia. The calcaneum has a long and
compressed calcaneal process. The astragalus has a large flat
articular surface in front for the navicular, and a small one for the
cuboid. The navicular and the external cuneiform bones are broad
and flat. The cuboid is small, and the internal and middle cuneiform
bones are small and united together. The metapodals and phalanges
resemble very closely those of the fore limb, but the principal
metatarsal is more laterally compressed at its upper end than is the
corresponding metacarpal. The joint between the femur and tibia,
corresponding to the knee of man, is called the " stifle-joint "; that
between the tibia and tarsus, corresponding to the ankle of man,
the " hock." The bones and joints of the foot have the same names
as in the fore limb. The horse is eminently " digitigrade," standing
on the extremity of the single digit of each foot, which is kept habitu-
ally in a position approaching to vertical.
The muscles of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary
mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of the
bones and the simple requirements of flexion and extension of the
joints, no such actions as pronation and supination, or opposition of
digits, being possible or needed. The muscles therefore which per-
form these functions in other quadrupeds are absent or rudimentary.
Below the carpal and tarsal joints, the fore and hind limbs corre-
spond almost exactly in structure as well as function. On the
anterior or extensor surface of the limb a powerful tendon (7 in fig. 2),
that of the anterior extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the
extensor communis digitorum of the arm and extensor longus digitorum
of the foot of man) passes down over the metacarpal bone and
phalanges, to be inserted mainly into the upper edge of the anterior
surface of the last phalanx or pedal bone. There is also a much
smaller second extensor on the outer side of this in each limb, the
lateral extensor of the phalanges. In the fore-leg the tendon of this
muscle (which corresponds with the extensor minimi digiti of man)
receives a slip from that of the principal extensor, and is inserted
into the first phalanx. In the hind-leg (where it is the homologue
apparently of the peroneus brevis of man) the tendon becomes
blended with that of the large extensor.
A strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium, arising from
near the upper extremity of its posterior surface, divides into two
at its lower end, and each division, being first connected with one
of the paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by the side of the first
phalanx to join the extensor tendon of the phalanges. This is
called in veterinary anatomy the " suspensory ligament of the
sesamoids," or of the " fetlock " (10 in fig. 2) ; but its attachments
and relations, as well as the occasional presence of muscular fibres
in its substance, show that it is the hcmologua of the interosseous
muscles of other mammals, modified in structure and function, to
FIG. 2. Section of Foot of Horse.
1, Metacarpal bone. 10,
2, First phalanx (os suffraginis).
3, Second phalanx (os coronae). II,
4, Third or ungual phalanx (os
pedis, or coffin bone). 12,
5, One of the upper sesamoid
bones.
6, Lower sesamoid or navicular 13,
bone. 14,
7, Tendon of anterior extensor
of the phalanges. 15,
8, Tendon of superficial flexor
(fl. perforates). 1 6.
9, Tendon of deep flexor (fl. 17,
perforans). 18,
Suspensory ligament of fet-
lock.
Inferior or short sesamoid
ligament.
Derma or skin of the foot,
covered with hair, and
continued into
The coronary cushion,
The podophyllous or laminar
membrane, and
The keratogenous membrane
of the sole.
Plantar cushion.
Hoof.
Fatty cushion of fetlock.
suit the requirements of the horse's foot. Behind or superficial tc
this are placed the two strong tendons of the flexor muscles, the
most superficial, or flexor perforates (8) dividing to allow the other
to pass through, and then inserted into the middle phalanx. The
flexor perforans (9) is as usual inserted into the terminal phalange.
In the fore-leg these muscles correspond with those similarly named
in man. In the hind-leg, the perforated tendon is a continuation of
that of the plantaris, passing pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the
calcaneum. The perforating tendon is derived from the muscle
corresponding with the long flexor of man, and the smaller tendon
of the oblique flexor (tibialis porticus of man) is united with it.
The hoof of the horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other
mammals, but is so constructed as to form a complete and solid
case to the expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm basis of
support formed of a non-sensitive substance, which is continually
renewed by the addition of material from within, as its surface
wears away by friction. The terminal phalange of the toe is greatly
enlarged and modified in form to support this hoof, and the size of
the internal framework of the foot is increased by a pair of lateral
fibro-cartilaginous masses attached on each side to the hinder edges
of the bone, and by a fibro-cellular and fatty plantar cushion in the
median part. These structures are all enclosed in the middle sub-
corneous integument, a continuation of the ordinary skin of the
limb, but extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent
greatly increased by being developed into papillae or laminae.
From this the horny material which constitutes the hoof is exuded.
A thickened ring encircling the upper part, called coronary cushion
(13) and the sole (15), are covered with numerous thickly-set
716
HORSE
[ANATOMY
papillae or villi, and take the greatest share in the formation of the
hoof; the intermediate part constituting the front and side of the
foot (14), corresponding with the wall of the hoof, is covered with
parallel, fine longitudinal laminae, which fit into corresponding
depressions in the inner side of the horny hoof.
The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the
front and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the frog, a
triangular median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex
turned forwards, situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is formed
of pavement epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric manner
around the vascular papillae of the subcorneous integument, so that
a section near the base of the hoof, cut transversely to the long axis
of these papillae, shows a number of small circular or oval orifices,
with cells arranged concentrically round them. The nearer the
surface of the hoof, or farther removed from the seat of growth, the
more indistinct the structure becomes.
Small round or oval plates of horny epithelium called " chestnuts,"
callosities growing like the hoof from enlarged papillae of the skin,
are found on the inner face of the fore-arm, above the carpal joint
in all species of Equidae, and in the horse (E. caballus) similar
structures occur near the upper extremity of the inner face of the
metatarsus. They are evidently rudimentary structures which it
is suggested may represent glands (Lydekker, Proc. Zoo/. Soc.
London, 1903, vol. i.).
Dentition. The dentition of the horse, when all the teeth are in
place, is expressed by the formula ."|, c. J, p. $, m. 1=44. The
incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact, forming a semi-
circle. The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped, and of nearly
equal size. They have all the great peculiarity, not found in the
teeth of any other mammal, and only in the Equidae of comparatively
recent geological periods (see also PALAEONTOLOGY), of an involution
of the external surface of the tooth (see fig. 3), by which what should
properly be the apex
is carried deeply into
the interior of the
crown, forming a pit,
the bottom of which
becomes partially
filled with cement.
As the tooth wears,
the surface, besides
the external enamel
layer as in an ordinary
simple tooth, shows
in addition a second
inner ring of the same
hard substance sur-
rounding the pit,
which adds greatly to
the efficiency of the
tooth as an organ for
biting tough, fibrous
substances. This pit,
generally filled in the
living animal with
particles of food, is
conspicuous from its
FIG. 3 Longitudinal and Transverse Section dark colour, and con-
of Upper Incisor of Horse. stitutes the " mark "
p, Pulp cavity. by which the age of
d, Dentine or ivory. the horse is judged,
e, Enamel. as in consequence of
c. Outer layer of cementum or crusta petrosa. ;t s on iy extending to
e, Inner layer of cementum, lining a, the pit a certain depth in
or cavity of the crown of the tooth. the crown it becomes
obliterated as the latter wears away, and then the tooth assumes
the character of that of an ordinary incisor, consisting only of
a core of dentine, surrounded by the external enamel layer.
It is not quite so deep in the lower as in the upper teeth.
The canines are either rudimentary or absent in the female.
In the male they are compressed, pointed, and smaller than the
incisors, from which they are separated by a slight interval. The
teeth of the cheek series are all in contact with each other, but
separated from the canines by a considerable toothless space. The
anterior premolars are quite rudimentary, sometimes not developed
at all, and generally fall by the time the animal attains maturity,
so that there are but six functional cheek teeth, three that have
predecessors in the milk-dentition, and hence are considered as
premolars, and three molars, but otherwise, except the first and last
of the series, not distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth
in both upper and lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypso-
dont, successive portions being pushed out as the surface wears
away, a process which continues until the animal becomes advanced
in age. The enamelled surface is infolded in a complex manner (a
modification of that found in other perissodacty les) , the folds ex-
tending quite to the base of the crown, and the interstices being
filled and the surface covered with a considerable mass of cement,
which binds together and strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth
wear, the folded enamel, being harder than the other constituents,
the dentine and cement, forms projecting ridges on the surface
arranged in a definite pattern, which give it great efficiency as a
grinding instrument (see fig. 2, in article EQUIDAE). The free
surfaces of the upper teeth are quadrate, except the first and last,
which are nearly triangular. The lower teeth are much narrower
than the upper.
The milk-dentition consists of i. }, c. 8, m. 1=24, the canines
and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no prede-
cessors. In form and structure the milk-teeth much resemble the
permanent ones, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings.
Their eruption commences a few days after birth, and is complete
before the end of the first year, the upper teeth usually appearing
somewhat earlier than the lower. The first teeth which appear are
the first and second milk-molars (about five days), then the central
incisor (from seven to ten days) ; this is followed by the second
incisor (at one month), then the third molar, and finally the third
incisor. Of the permanent teeth the first molar appears a little
after the end of the first year, followed by the second molar before
the end of the second year. At about two and a half years the first
premolar replaces its predecessor. Between two and a half and
three years the first incisor appears. At three years the second and
third premolars, and the third molar have appeared, at from three
and a half to four years the second incisor, at four to four and a
half years the canine, and, finally, at five years, the third incisor,
completing the permanent dentition. Up to this period the age of
the horse is clearly shown by the condition of dentition, and for
some time longer indications can be obtained from the wear of the
incisors, though this depends to a certain extent upon the hardness
of the food or other circumstances. As a general rule, the depression
caused by the infolding of the surface of the incisor (the " mark ")
is obliterated in the first or central incisor at six years, in the second
at seven years, and in the third at eight years. In the upper teeth,
as the depressions are deeper, this obliteration does not take place
until about two years later. After this period no certain indications
can be obtained of the age of the horse from the teeth.
Digestive Organs. The lips are flexible and prehensile; and the
membrane that lines them and the cheeks smooth. The palate is
long and narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs of not very
sharply defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as the last
molar tooth, beyond which the velum palati extends for about 3 in.,
having a soft corrugated surface, and ending posteriorly in an arched
border without a uvula. This embraces the base of the epiglottis,
and, except while swallowing food, shuts off all communication
between the cavity of the mouth and the pharynx, respiration being,
under ordinary circumstances, exclusively through the nostrils.
Between the mucous membrane and the bone of the hard palate is
a dense vascular and nervous plexus. The membrane lining the
jaws is soft and corrugated. An elongated raised glandular mass,
3 in. long and I in. from above downwards, extending backwards
from the root of the tongue along the side of the jaws, with openings
on the surface leading into crypts with glandular walls, represents
the tonsil. The tongue, corresponding to the form of the mouth,
is long and narrow. It consists of a compressed intermolar portion
with a flat upper surface, broad behind and becoming narrower in
front, and of a depressed anterior part rather shorter than the
former, which is narrow behind and widens towards the evenly
rounded apex. The dorsal surface generally is soft and smooth.
There are two large circumvallate papillae near the base, rather
irregular in form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter and half an
inch apart. The conical papillae are small and close set, though
longer and more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There are
no fungiform papillae on the dorsum, but a few inconspicuous ones
scattered along the sides of the organ.
Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest, elongated
in the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either
end. Its upper extremity embraces the lower surface of the cartila-
ginous ear-conch; its lower end reaches the level of the inferior
margin of the mandible, along the posterior margin of which it is
placed. Its duct leaves the inferior anterior angle, at first descends
a little, and runs forward under cover of the rounded inferior border
of the lower jaw, then curves up along the anterior margin of the
masseter muscle, becoming superficial, pierces the buccinator, and
enters the mouth by a simple aperture opposite the middle of the
crown of the third premolar tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-
quill when distended, and nearly a foot in length.
The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last,
but much smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis
horizontal. It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within
outwards. Its posterior end rests against the anterior surface of
the transverse process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards
and downwards, slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw.
The duct which runs along its upper and internal border passes
forwards in the usual course, lying in the inner side of the sublingual
gland, to open on the outer surface of a distinct papilla, situated on
the floor of the mouth, half an inch from the middle line, and midway
between the lower incisor teeth and the attachment of the fraenum
linguae. The sublingual is represented by a mass of glands lying
just beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth on
the side of the tongue, causing a distinct ridge, extending from the
fraenum backwards, the numerous ducts opening separately along
the summit of the ridge. The buccal glands are arranged in two
HISTORY]
HORSE
717
rows parallel with the molar teeth. The upper ones are the largest,
and are continuous anteriorly with the labial glands, the ducts of
which open on the mucous membrane of the upper lip.
The stomach of the horse is simple in its external form, with a
largely developed right cul de sac, and is a good deal curved on
itself, so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near
together. The antrum pyloricum is small and not very distinctly
marked. The interior is divided by the character of the lining
membrane into two distinct portions, right and left. Over the
latter the dense white smooth epithelial lining of the oesophagus is
continued, terminating abruptly by a raised crenulated border.
Over the right part the mucous membrane has a greyish-red colour
and a velvety appearance, and contains numerous peptic glands,
which are wanting in the cardiac portion. The oesophageal orifice
is small, and guarded by a strong crescentic or horseshoe-like band
of muscular fibres, supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of
vomiting in the horse. The small intestine is of great length (80 to
90 ft.), its mucous membrane being covered with numerous fine
villi. The caecum is of conical form, about 2 ft. long and nearly
a foot in diameter; its walls are sacculated, especially near the base,
having four longitudinal muscular bands; and its capacity is about
twice that of the stomach. It lies with its base near the lower part
of the abdomen, and its apex directed towards the thorax. The
colon is about one-third the length of the small intestine, and very
capacious in the greater part of its course. As usual it may be
divided into an ascending, transverse, and descending portion; but
the middle or transverse portion is folded into a great loop, which
descends as low as the pubis; so that the colon forms altogether-
four folds, generally parallel to the long axis of the body. The
descending colon is much narrower than the rest, and not sacculated,
and, being considerably longer than the distance it has to traverse,
is thrown into numerous folds.
The liver is tolerably symmetrical in general arrangement, being
divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked umbilical
fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral fissures, which
do not extend quite to the posterior border of the organ; of the
central lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger, and has two
fissures in its free border dividing it into lobules. The extent of these
varies, however, in different individuals. The two lateral lobes are
subtriangular in form. The Spigelian lobe is represented by a flat
surface between the postal fissure and the posterior border, not
distinctly marked off from the left lateral by a fissure of the ductus
venosus, as this vessel is buried deep in the hepatic substance, but
the caudate lobe is distinct and tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching
nearly to the border of the right lateral lobe. There is no gall-
bladder, and the biliary duct enters the duodenum about 6 in.
from the pylorus. The pancreas has two lobes or branches, a
long one passing to the left and reaching the spleen, and a shorter
right lobe. The principal duct enters the duodenum with the bile-
duct, and there is often a second small duct opening separately.
Circulatory and Respiratory Organs. The heart has the form of a
rather elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava,
formed by the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins. The
aorta gives off a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its
origin, from which arise first, the left axillary, and afterwards the
right axillary and the two carotid arteries.
Under ordinary circumstances the horse breathes entirely by the
nasal passages, the communication between the larynx and the
mouth being closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed
laterally, near the termination of the muzzle, and are large and
dilatable, being bordered by cartilages upon which several muscles
act. Immediately within the opening of the nostril, the respiratory
canal sends off on its upper and outer side a blind pouch (" false
nostril ") of conical form, and curved, 2 to 3 in. in depth, lying in
the notch formed between the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is
lined by mucous membrane continuous with that of the nasal
passage; its use is not apparent. It is longer in the ass than in the
horse. Here may be mentioned the guttural pouches, large air-
sacs from the Eustachian tubes, and lying behind the upper part
of the pharynx, the function of which is also not understood. The
larynx has the lateral sacculi well developed, though entirely con-
cealed within the alae of the thyroid cartilage. The trachea divides
into two bronchi.
Nervous System. The brain differs little, except in details of
arrangement of convolutions, from that of other ungulates. The
hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the olfactory
lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres, and
the greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The eye is provided
with a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the base of which
open the ducts of the Harderian gland.
Reproductive System. The testes are situated in a distinct sessile
or slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the
sixth to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative
glands are the two vesiculae seminales, with the median third
vesicle, or uterus masculinus, lying between them, the single bilobed
prostate, and a pair of globular Cowper's glands. The penis is very
large, cylindrical, with a truncated, expanded, flattened termination.
When in a state of repose it is retracted, by a muscle arising from
the sacrum, within the prepuce, a cutaneous fold attached below
the symphysis pubis.
The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided
by a membraneous septum or hymen. The teats are two, inguinally
placed. The surface of the chorion is covered evenly with minute
villi, constituting a diffuse non-deciduate placenta. The period of
gestation is eleven months.
AUTHORITIES. R. I. Pocock, " The Species and Subspecies of
Zebras," A nn. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 6, vol. xx., 1897, and A New
Arrangement of the Existing Species of Equidae," Op. cit. ser. 7,
vol. x., 1902; R. Lydekker, "Notes on the specimens of Wild
Asses in English Collections," Novitates Zoologicae, vol. xi., 1904;
B. Salensky, " On Equus przewalskii," Mem. Acad. St Petersburg,
1902; M. S. Arloing, "Organisation du pied chez le cheval,
Ann. Sci. Nat., 1867, viii. 55-81; H. Burmeister, Los caballos
fosiles de la Pampa Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1875); Chauveau and
Arloing, Traite a'anatomie compares des animaux domestiques (Paris,
1871), and English edition by G. Fleming (1873); Al Ecker, " Das
Europaische Wildpferd und dessen Beziehungen zum domesticirten
Pferd," Globus, Bd. xxxiv. (Brunswick, 1878); Major Forsyth,
" Beitrage zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde besonders Italiens,"
Abh. Schw. Pal. Ces. iv. 1-16, pt. iv. ; George, "Etudes zool. sur
les H6miones et quelques autres especeschevaTines," Ann. Sci. Nat.,
1869, xii. 5; E. F. Gurlt, Anatomische Abbildungen der Haussau-
eethiere (1824), and Hand, der vergleich. Anal, der Haussaugethiere
(2 vols., 1822); Huet, " Croisement des diverses esp&ces du genre
cheval," Nouv. Archives du Museum, 2nd ser., torn. li. p. 46, 1879;
Leisering, Atlas der Anatomic des Pferdes (Leipzig, 1861); O. C.
Marsh, " Notice of New Equine Mammals from the Tertiary Forma-
tion," Am. Journ. of Science and Arts, vol. vii., March 1874; Id.,
" Fossil Horses in America," Amer. Naturalist, vol. viii., May 1874;
Id., " Polydactyle Horses," Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. xvii.,
June 1879; Franz Muller, Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Pferdes
(Vienna, 1853); R. Owen, " Equine Remains in Cavern of Bruni-
quel," Phil. Trans, vol. clix., 1870. p. 535; W. Percivall, The
Anatomy of the Horse (1832); G. Stubbs, Anatomy of the Horse
(1766); W. H. Flower, The Horse (London, 1891); Ridgeway,
Origin of the Thoroughbred Horse (1905). (W. H. F; R. L.*)
HISTORY
From the evidence of philology it appears that the horse was
already known to the Aryans before the period of their dispersion. 1
The first mention of the British horse occurs in the well-known
passages in Caesar (B.C. iv. 24. 33, v. 15. 16; cf. Pomp. Mela
iii. 6), in which he mentions the native " essedarii " and the skill
with which they handled their war chariots. We are left quite
in the dark as to the character of the animal thus employed;
but there would appear to be much probability in the surmise of
W. Youatt, who conjectures the horse to have been, " then as
ever, the creature of the country in which he lived. With short
1 Compare Sans, afua, Zendish and Old Persian ac,pa, Lithuanian
aszva (mare), Prussian asvinan (mare's milk), O.K. Ger. ehu,
A.S. eoh, Icel. ior, Gothic aihos, aihous (?), Old Irish ech, Old
Cambrian and Gaelic ep (as in Epona, the horse goddess), Lat.
equus, Gr. tjnros or ZKKOS. The word seems, however, to have
disappeared from the Slavonic languages. The root is probably
ak, with the idea of sharpness or swiftness (oxpos, ci/tis, acus,
odor). See Pott, Etym. Fprsch. ii. 256, and Hehn, Kultur-
pflanzen u. Hausthiere in ihrem Uebergang aus Asien nach
Griechenland u. Italien sowie in das librige Europa (3rd ed., 1877),
p. 38. The last-named author, who points out the absence of
the horse from the Egyptian monuments prior to the beginning
of the i8th century B.C., and the fact that the earliest references
to this animal in Hebrew literature (Judges v. 22, 28; cf. Josh,
xi. 4) do not carry us any farther back, is of opinion that the
Semitic peoples as a whole were indebted for the horse to the
lands of Iran. He also shows that literature affords no trace of the
horse as indigenous to Arabia prior to about the beginning of the
5th century A.D., although references abound in the pre-Islamitic
poetry. Horses were not numerous even in Mahomet's time
(Sprenger, Leb. Moh. iii. 139, 140). Compare Ignazio Guidi's paper
" Delia sede primitiva dei popoli Semitici ' in the Transactions of the
Accademia dei Lincei (1878-1879). Professor W. Ridgeway, in his
Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse (1905), reinvestigated
the historical mystery as to the Arab breed, and its connexion with
the English thoroughbred stock, but his conclusions have been hotly
controverted; archaeology and biology are in fact still in the dark
on the subject, but see the section on " Species " above. According
to Ridgeway, the original source of the finest equine blood is Africa,
still the home of the largest variety of wild Equidae; he concludes
that thence it passed into Europe at an early time, to be blended with
that of the indigenous Celtic species, and thence into western Asia
into the veins oj an indigenous Mongolian species, still represented
by " Przewalski's horse ; not till a comparatively late period did
it reach Arabia, though the " Arab " now represents the purest form
of the Libyan blood. The controversy depends upon the considera-
tion of a wealth of detail, which should be studied in Ridgeway's
book; but zoological authorities are sceptical as to the suggested
species, Equus caballus libycus.
7 i8
HORSE
[HISTORY
fare, and exposed to the rigour of the seasons, he was probably
the little hardy thing we yet see him; but in the marshes of
the Nen and the Witham, and on the borders of the Tees and the
Clyde, there would be as much proportionate development of
frame and strength as we find at the present day." After the
occupation of the country by the Romans, it appears that the
horses of their cavalry were crossed with the native mares, and
thus there was infused into the breed new blood, consisting
probably of strains from very quarter from which Roman
remounts were procured. As to the effect of this cross we are
not, however, in a position to judge. We are also quite uncertain
as to the extent to which the Jutes and Saxons may in their
turn have again introduced a new breed of horses into England;
and even to the close of the Anglo-Saxon period of English
history allusions to the horse are still very infrequent. The
horsthegn we know, however, was from an early period a high
court official; and from such a law as that of Athelstan pro-
hibiting the exportation of horses except as presents, it may be
inferred that the English breed was not only much valued at
home but also in great request abroad. 1
The period of the Norman Conquest marks an important
stage in the history of the British horse. William the Conqueror's
own horse was of the Spanish breed, and others of the same kind
were introduced by the barons on their estates. But the Norman
horses included many varieties, and there is no doubt that to the
Conquest the inhabitants of Britain were indebted for a decided
improvement in the native horse, as well as for the introduction
of several varieties previously unknown. According to Giraldus
Cambrensis, Roger de Bellesme, a follower of William I., after-
wards created earl of Shrewsbury, imported some stallions from
Spain into England; their produce was celebrated by Dray ton
the poet. It is curious to notice that agriculture seems to be the
last use to which the horse has been put. The earliest suggestion
that horses were used in agriculture is derived from a piece of
the Bayeux tapestry, where a horse is represented as drawing
a harrow. This, however, must have been an exceptional case,
for we know that oxen were used until a comparatively late time,
and that in Wales a law existed forbidding horses to be used for
ploughing.
In ii2i two Eastern horses are said to have been imported,
one of them remaining in England, and the other being sent as a
present by King Alexander I. to the church of St Andrews, in
Scotland. It has been alleged that these horses were Barbs
from Morocco, but a still more likely theory is that they existed
only in name, and never reached either England or Scotland.
The crusades were probably the means of introducing fresh
strains of blood into England, and of giving opportunity for
fresh crossings. The Spanish jennet was brought over about
1182. King John gave great encouragement to horse-breeding:
one of his earliest efforts was to import a hundred Flemish
stallions, and, having thus paved the way for improving the
breed of agricultural horses, he set about acquiring a valuable
Stud for his own use.
Edward III. was likewise an admirer of the horse; he procured
fifty Spanish horses, probably jennets. At this time there was
evidently a tendency to breed a somewhat lighter and speedier
horse; but, while the introduction of a more active animal
would soon have led to the displacement of the ponderous but
powerful cavalry horse then in use, the substituted variety
would have been unable to carry the weight of armour with
which horse and rider were alike protected; and so in the end
the old breed was kept up for a time. With the object of pre-
serving to England whatever advantages might accrue from
her care and skill in breeding an improved stamp of horses,
Edward III. forbade their exportation; they consequently
improved so rapidly in value that Richard II. compelled dealers
to limit their prices to a fixed maximum. In the ninth year of
his reign, Edward received from the king of Navarre a present
1 Some fragments of legislation relating to the horse about this
period may be gleaned from Ancient Laws and Institutes of England
(fol., London, 18401, and Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales
(fol., London, 1841).
of two running horses, supposed to have been valuable. The
wars of 1346 checked the improvement of horses, and undid
much of what had been previously accomplished, for we read that
the cavalry taken into France by Edward III. were but in-
differently mounted, and that in consequence he had to purchase
large numbers of foreign horses from Hainault and elsewhere
for remounts. The reign of Richard III. does not seem to have
been remarkable for the furtherance of horse-breeding; but it
was then that post-horses and stages were introduced.
Our information on the whole subject is but scanty down to
the reign of Henry VII., who continued the enactment against
the exportation of stallions, but relaxed it in the case- of mares
above two years old. His object was to retain the best horses
in the country, and to keep the price of them down by limiting
the demand and encouraging the supply. In his reign gelding is
believed to have had its origin, on account of numerous herds
of horses belonging to different proprietors grazing together,
especially in time of harvest. Henry VIII. was particularly
careful that horse-breeding should be conducted on right prin-
ciples, and his enactments, if somewhat arbitrary, were singularly
to the point. In the thirty-second year of this reign, the " bill
for the breed of horses " was passed, the preamble of which runs
thus: " Forasmuch as the generation and breed of good and
strong horses within this realm extendeth not only to a great
help and defence of the same, but also is a great commodity
and profit to the inhabitants thereof, which is now much decayed
and diminished, by reason that, in forests, chases, moors and
waste grounds within this realm, little stoned horses and nags
of small stature and of little value be not only suffered to pasture
thereupon, but also to cover mares feeding there, whereof
cometh in manner no profit or commodity." Section 2 of the
act provides that no entire horse being above the age of two
years, and not being of the height of 15 " handfulls," shall be
put to graze on any common or waste land in certain counties;
any one was to be at liberty to seize a horse of unlawful
height, and those whose duty it was to measure horses, but who
refused to do so, were to be fined 403. By section 6 all forests,
chases, commons, &c., were to be " driven " within fifteen days of
Michaelmas day, and all horses, mares and colts not giving
promise of growing into serviceable animals, or of producing
them, were to be killed. The aim of the act was to prevent
breeding from animals not calculated to produce the class of
horse suited to the needs of the country. By another act
(27 Henry VIII. chapter 6), after stating that the " breed of good
strong horses " was likely to diminish, it was ordered that the
owners of all parks and enclosed grounds of the extent of one
mile should keep two mares 13 hands high for breeding purposes,
or, if the extent of the ground was 4 m., four mares. The
statute was not to extend to the counties of Westmorland,
Cumberland, Northumberland or the bishopric of Durham.
Henry took great pains to improve the royal stud: according
to Sir Thomas Chaloner a writer in the reign of Elizabeth
he imported horses from Turkey, Naples and Spain.
Queen Elizabeth is reputed to have been an accomplished
horsewoman, and to have indulged in riding late in life. In the
first year of her reign she revived an act passed by Henry VIII.
making it felony " to sell, exchange or deliver within Scotland,
or to the use of any Scottishman, any horse " ; this, however,
was very naturally repealed by James I. Carriages were soon
after introduced, and the use of them speedily became so fashion-
able that a bill was brought in " to restrain the excessive and
superfluous use of coaches." Prior to the introduction of carriages
horseback was the means of locomotion, and Queen Elizabeth
rode in state to St Paul's on a pillion; but even after carriages
were used, horseback was held to be more dignified, for James I.
and his judges rode on horseback to Westminster Hall. One
advantage of the introduction of carriages was that it created
a demand for a lighter and quicker sort of horse, instead of the
ponderous animal which, despite all attempts to banish him,
was still the horse of England the age of chivalry having been
the first epoch of the British horse.
Gunpowder, too, was invented; and now that the weight
HISTORY]
HORSE
719
of the cavalry soldier was diminished by the substitution of
lighter armour, a quicker and better bred horse was thought
desirable for military service. The introduction of carriages
and the invention of gunpowder thus opened out a new industry
in breeding; and a decided change was gradually creeping
on by the time that James I. came to the throne (1603), which
commences the second epoch. James was a thorough sportsman,
and his taste for racing, in which he freely indulged, caused
him to think but little of the speed of even the best English
horses. With the laudable motive, therefore, of effecting improve-
ment in horses, he gave the then large sum of 500 guineas for
an Arab stallion which had been procured from Constantinople
by a Mr Markham, since known as the " Markham Arabian."
This is the first authentic account we have of the importation
of Arab blood, and the Stud- Book says he was the first of that
breed ever seen in England. The people having to do with
horses at that time were as conservative in their notions as most
of the grooms are now, and the " Markham Arabian " was not
at all approved of. The duke of Newcastle, in his treatise on
horsemanship, said that he had seen the above Arabian, and
described him as a small bay horse and not of very excellent
shape. In this instance, however, prejudice (and it is difficult
to believe that it was anything else) was right, for King James's
first venture does not appear to have been a success either as a
race-horse or as a sire, and thus Arabian blood was brought
into disrepute. The king, however, resolved to give Eastern
blood another trial, and bought a horse known as Place's White
Turk from a Mr Place, who subsequently held some office in
connexion with the stable under Cromwell. Charles I. followed
in the footseps of James, and lent such patronage to the breeding
of a better kind of horse that a memorial was presented to him,
asking that some measures might be taken to prevent the old
stamp of horse " fit for the defence of the country" from dying
out.
We now come to a very important period in the history
of the British horse, for Charles II. warmly espoused the introduc-
tion of Eastern blood into England. He sent his master of the
horse abroad to purchase a number of foreign horses and mares
for breeding, and the mares brought over by him (as also many
of their produce) were called " royal mares "; they form a
conspicuous feature in the annals of breeding. The Stud-Book
shows of what breed the royal mares really were: one of them,
the dam of Dodsworth (who, though foaled in England, was a
natural Barb), was a Barb mare; she was sold by the stud-master,
after Charles II. 's death, for forty guineas, at twenty years old,
when in foal by the Helmsley Turk.
James II. was a good horseman, and had circumstances
been more propitious he might have left his mark in the sporting
annals of the country. In his reign, according to the Stud-Book,
the Stradling or Lister Turk was brought into England by the
duke of Berwick from the siege of Buda.
The reign of William III. is noteworthy as the era in which,
among other importations, there appeared the first of three
Eastern horses to which the modern thoroughbred race-horse
traces back as the founders of his lineage. This was the Byerly
Turk, of whom nothing more is known than that to use the
words of the first volume of the Stud-Book he was Captain
Byerly's charger in Ireland in King William's wars. The second
of the three horses above alluded to was the Darley Arabian,
who was a genuine Arab, and was imported from Aleppo by a
brother of Mr Darley of Aldby Park, Yorkshire, about the end
of the reign of William III. or the beginning of that of Anne.
The third horse of the famous trio, the Godolphin Arabian
or Barb, brought to England about five-and-twenty years after
the Darley Arabian, will be more particularly referred to further
on. All the horses now on the turf or at the stud trace their
ancestry in the direct male line to one or other of these three
the Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin Arabian
or Barb. In the female line their pedigrees can be traced to
other sources, but for all practical purposes it suffices to regard
one or other of these three animals as the ultima Thule of racing
pedigree. Of course there is a large interfusion of the blood of
each of the trio through the dams of horses of the present day;
indeed, it is impossible to find an English race-horse which does
not combine the blood of all three.
The Race-horse. The third and last epoch of the British
horse, viz. that of the thoroughbred racer, may be taken to date
from the beginning of the i8th century. By thoroughbred is
meant a horse or mare whose pedigree is registered in the Stud-
Book kept by Messrs Weatherby, the official agents of the
Jockey Club originally termed the keepers of the match-book
as well as publishers of the Racing Calendar. The first attempt
to evolve order out of the chaos which had long reigned supreme
was made in 1791, for we find in the preface of the first volume of
the Stud-Book, published in 1808, that " with a view to correct
the then increasing evil of false and inaccurate pedigrees, the
author was in the year 1791 prevailed upon to publish an Intro-
duction to a General Stud-Book, consisting of a small collection
of pedigrees which he had extracted from racing calendars and
sale papers and arranged on a new plan." It will be seen that
the compiler of the volume on which so much depends had to
go back fully a century, with little else to guide him but odds
and ends in the way of publications and tradition. Mistakes
under such circumstances are pardonable. The Stud-Book then
(vol. L), which is the oldest authority we have, contains the names
and in most cases the pedigrees, obscure though they may be,
of a very large number of horses and mares of note from the
earliest accounts, but with two exceptions no dates prior to the
1 8th century are specified in it. These exceptions are the
Byerly Turk, who was " Captain Byerly's charger in Ireland
in King William's wars (1689, &c.),"and ahorse called Counsellor,
bred by Mr Egerton in 1694, by Lord D'Arcy's Counsellor by
Lord Lonsdale's Counsellor by the Shaftesbury Turk out of
sister to Spanker all the dams in Counsellor's pedigree tracing
back to Eastern mares. There is not the least doubt that many
of the animals named in the Stud-Book were foaled much earlier
than the above dates, but we have no particulars as to time;
and after all it is not of much consequence.
The Stud-Book goes on to say of the Byerly Turk that he did
not cover many bred mares, but was the sire of the duke of
Devonshire's Basto, Halloway's Jigg, and others. Jigg, or Jig,
is a very important factor, as will be seen hereafter. The Stud-
Book, although silent as to the date of his birth, says he was a
common country stallion in Lincolnshire until Partner was six
years old and we know from the same authority that Partner
was foaled in 1718; we may therefore conclude that Jigg was
a later foal than Basto, who, according to Whyte's History of
the Turf, was a brown horse foaled in 1703.
The reign of Queen Anne, however (1702-1714), is that
which will ever be inseparably connected with the thoroughbred
race-horse on account of the fame during that period of the
Darley Arabian, a bay stallion, from whom our very best horses
are descended. According to the Stud-Book, " Darley's Arabian
was brought over by a brother of Mr Darley of Yorkshire, who,
being an agent in merchandise abroad, became member of a
hunting club, by which means he acquired interest to procure
this horse." The Stud-Book is silent, and other authorities
differ, as to the date of the importation of this celebrated Arab,
some saying he came over in the year 1700, others that he
arrived somewhat later; but we know from the Stud-Book
that Manica (foaled in 1707), Aleppo (1711), Almanzor (1713),
and Flying Childers (1715) were got by him, as also was Bartlett's
Childers, a younger brother of Flying Childers. It is generally
believed that he was imported in Anne's reign, but the exact
date is immaterial, for, assuming that he was brought over as
early as 1700 from Aleppo, he could scarcely have had a foal
living before 1701, the first year of the i8th century. The
Darley Arabian did much to remove the prejudice against
Eastern blood which had been instilled into the public mind
by the duke of Newcastle's denunciation of the Markham
Arabian. Prince George of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne,
was himself a large horse-owner; and it was in a great measure
owing to his intervention that so many valuable stallions were
imported during her reign.
720
HORSE
[HISTORY
At this period we find, among a mass of horses and mares
in the Stud-Book without any dates against their names, many
animals of note with the earliest chronology extant, from Grey
Ramsden (1704) and Bay Bolton (1705) down to a mare who
exercised a most important influence on the English blood-horse.
This was Roxana (1718) by the Bald Galloway, her dam sister
to Chanter by the Akaster Turk, from a daughter of Leedes's
Arabian and a mare by Spanker. Roxana threw in 1732 the
bay colt Lath by the Godolphin Arabian, the sorrel colt Round-
head by Childers in 1733, and the bay colt Cade by the Godolphin
Arabian in 1734, in which year she died within a fortnight after
foaling, the produce Cade being reared on cow's milk. The
Godolphin Barb or Arabian, as he was commonly called, was a
brown bay about 15 hands in stature, with an unnaturally high
crest, and with some white on his off hind heel. He is said to
have been imported into England from France by Mr Coke,
where, as the editor of the Stud-Book was informed by a French
gentlemen, he was so little thought of that he had actually
drawn a cart in the streets of Paris. Mr Coke gave him to a
Mr. Williams, who in his turn presented him to the earl of
Godolphin. Although called an Arabian, there is little doubt
he was a Barb pure and simple. In 1 73 1 , being then the property
of Mr. Coke, he was teazer to Hobgoblin, and on the latter
refusing his services to Roxana, the mare was put to the
Godolphin, and the produce was Lath (1732), the first of his get,
and the most celebrated race-horse of his day after Flying
Childers. He was also the sire of Cade, own brother to Lath,
and of Regulus the maternal giandsire of Eclipse. He died
at Gogmagog in Cambridgeshire, in the possession of Lord
Godolphin, in 1753, being then, as is supposed, in his twenty-
ninth year. He is believed to have been foaled in Barbary
about 1724, and to have been imported during the reign of
George II.
In regard to the mares generally, we have a record of the royal
mares already alluded to, and likewise of three Turk mares
brought over from the siege of Vienna in 1684, as well as of other
importations; but it is unquestionable that there was a very
large number of native mares in England, improved probably
from time to time by racing, however much they may have been
crossed at various periods with foreign horses, and that from
this original stock were to some extent derived the size and
stride which characterized the English race-horse, while his
powers of endurance and elegant shape were no doubt inherited
from the Eastern horses, most of which were of a low stature,
14 hands or thereabouts. It is only necessary to trace carefully
back the pedigree of most of the famous horses of early times
to discover faults on the side of the dam that is to say, the
expression " dam's pedigree unknown," which evidently means
of original or native blood. Whatever therefore may be owing
to Eastern blood, of which from the middle of the i7th to the
beginning of the i8th century a complete wave swept over the
British Isles, some credit is unquestionably due to the native
mares (which Blaine says were mostly Cleveland bays) upon
which the Arabian, Barb, or Turk blood was grafted, and which
laid the foundation of the modern thoroughbred. Other nations
may have furnished the blood, but England has made the
race-horse.
Without prosecuting this subject further, it may be enough
here to follow out the lines of the Darley Arabian, the Byerly
Turk, and the Godolphin Arabian or Barb, the main ancestors
of the British thoroughbred of the i8th and igth centuries,
through several famous race-horses, each and all brilliant
winners, Flying Childers, Eclipse, Herod and Matchem, to
whom it is considered sufficient to look as the great progenitors
of the race-horse of to-day.
i. The Darley Arabian's line is represented in a twofold degree
first, through his son Flying Childers, his grandsons Blaze and
Snip, and his great-grandson Snap, and, secondly, through his
other son Bartlett's Childers and his great-great-grandson Eclipse.
Flying or Devonshire Childers, so called to distinguish him from
other horses of the same name, was a bay horse of entirely Eastern
blood, with a blaze in his face and four white feet, foaled in 1715.
He was bred by Mr Leonard Childers of Carr House near Doncaster,
and was purchased when young by the duke of Devonshire. He
was got by the Darley Arabian from Betty Leedes, by Careless from
sister to Leedes, by Leedes's Arabian from a mare by Spanker out
of a Barb mare, who was Spanker's own mother. Spanker himself
was by D'Arcy's Yellow Turk from a daughter of the Morocco Barb
and Old Bald Peg, by an Arab horse from a Barb mare. Careless
was by Spanker from a Barb mare, so that Childers's dam was closely
in-bred to Spanker. Flying Childers the wonder of his time
was never beaten, and died in the duke of Devonshire's stud in
1741, aged twenty-six years. He was the sire of, among other
horses, Blaze (1733) and Snip (1736). Snip too had a celebrated son
called Snap (1750), and it is chiefly in the female line through the
maies by these horses, of which there are fully thirty in the Stud-
Book, that the blood of Flying Childers is handed down to us.
The other representative line of the Darley Arabian is through
Bartlett's Childers, also bred by Mr Leonard Childers, and sold to
Mr Bartlett of Masham, in Yorkshire. He was for several years
called Young Childers, it being generally supposed that he was a
younger brother of his Flying namesake, but his date of birth is not
on record, and subsequently Bartlett's Childers. This horse, who
was never trained, was the sire of Squirt (1732), whose son Marske
(1750) begat Eclipse and Young Marske (1762), sire of Shuttle (1793).
This at least is the generally accepted theory, although Eclipse's
dam is said to have been covered by Shakespeare as well as by
Marske. Shakespeare was the son of Hobgoblin by Aleppo, and
consequently the male line of the Darley Arabian would come
through these horses instead of through Bartlett's Childers, Squirt,
and Marske; the Stud-Book, however, says that Marske was the sire
of Eclipse. This last-named celebrated horse perhaps the most
celebrated in the annals of the turf was foaled on the 1st of April
1764, the day on which a remarkable eclipse of the sun occurred,
and he was named after it. He was bred by the duke of Cumberland,
after whose decease he was purchased by a Mr Wildman, and subse-
quently sold to Mr D. O'Kelly, with whom he will ever be identified.
His dam Spiletta was by Regulus, son of the Godolphin Barb, from
Mother Western, by a son of Snake from a mare by Old Montague
out of a mare by Hautboy, from a daughter of Brimmer and a mare
whose pedigree was unknown. In Eclipse's pedigree there are up-
wards of a dozen mares whose pedigrees are not known, but who are
supposed to be of native blood. Eclipse was a chestnut horse with
a white blaze down his face; his off hind leg was white from the
hock downwards, and he had blacjc spots upon his rump this
peculiarity coming down to the present day in direct male descent.
His racing career commenced at five years of age, viz. on the 3rd
May 1769, at Epsom, and terminated on the 4th October 1770, at
Newmarket. He ran or walked over for eighteen races, and was
never beaten. It was in his first race that Mr O'Kelly took the
odds to a large amount before the start for the second heat, that he
would place the horses. When called upon to declare, he uttered
the exclamation, which the event justified, " Eclipse first, and the
rest nowhere."
Eclipse commenced his stud career in 1771, and had an enormous
number of foals, of which four only in the direct male line have
come down to us, viz. Potoooooooo, or, as he is commonly called,
Pot-8-os (1773), his most celebrated son, King Fergus (1775), Joe
Andrews (1778), and Mercury (1778), though several others are
represented in the female line. Pot-8-os was the sire of Waxy
(1790) out of Maria (1777) by Herod out of Lisette (1772) by Snap.
Waxy, who has been not inaptly termed the ace of trumps in the
Stud-Book, begat Whalebone (1807), Web (1808), Woful (1809),
Wire (1811), Whisker (1812), and Waxy Pope (1806), all but the
last being out of Penelope (1798) by Trumpator (1782) from Prunella
(1788) by Highflyer out of Promise by Snap, while Waxy Pope was
out of Prunella, dam of Parasol (1800) by Pot-8-os. Trumpator
was a son of Conductor, who was by Matchem out of a mare by
Snap.
Whalebone's best sons were Camel (1822) and Sir Hercules (1826).
Camel was the sire of Defence (1824) and Touchstone (1831), while
Sir Hercules was the sire of Birdcatcher (1833) and Faugh-a-Ballagh
(1841), own brothers, and of Gemma di Vergy (1854). Touchstone
was the sire of Newminster (1848), who begat Lord Clifden, Adven-
turer, and the Hermit, as well as of Orlando (1841), sire of Tedding-
ton (1848). Whalebone's blood also descends through Waverley
(1817) and his son the Saddler (1828), while Whisker is represented
by the Colonel (1825) and by Economist (1825) and his son Harkaway
(1834), sire of King Tom (1851). Birdcatcher begat, besides Saunterer
(1854), the Baron (1842), sire of Stockwell (1849) and of Rataplan
(1850). Stockwell, who was a chestnut with black spots, was the
sire of Blair Athol (1861), a chestnut, and also of Doncaster (1870),
another chestnut, but with the characteristic black spots of his
grandsire; and Doncaster was the sire of the chestnut Bend Or
(1877)-
To turn to Eclipse's other sons. King Fergus (1775) was the
sire of Beningbrough (1791), whose son was Orville (1799), whence
comes some of the stoutest blood on the turf, including Emilius
(1820) and his son Priam (1827), Plenipotentiary (1831), Muley
(1810), Chesterfield (1834), and the Hero (1843). Joe Andrews
(1778) was the sire of Dick Andrews (1797), and from him descend
Tramp (1810), Lottery (1820), Liverpool (1828), Sheet Anchor
(1832), Lanercost (1835), Weatherbit (1842), Beadsman (1855), and
HISTORY]
HORSE
721
Blue Gown (1865). Mercury was sire of Gohanna (1790), who was
foaled in the same year as Waxy, and the two, who were both
grandsons of Eclipse and both out of Herod mares, had several
contests, Waxy generally getting the better of his cousin. Gohanna's
descendants come down through Golumpus (1802), Catton (1809),
Mulatto (1823), Royal Oak (1823), and Slane (1833).
2. The Byerly Turk's line is represented by Herod, the Turk being
the sire of Jigg, who was the sire of Partner (1718), whose son Tartar
(1743) begat King Herod, or Herod as he was commonly called,
foaled in 1758. Herod's dam was Cypron (1750) by Blaze (1733),
son of Flying Childers. Cypron's dam was Selima by Bethel's
Arabian from a mare by Graham's Champion from a daughter of
the Darley Arabian and a mare who claims Merlin for her sire, but
whose mother's pedigree is unknown. In Herod's pedigree there
are fully a dozen dams whose pedigree is unknown. Herod was
a bay horse about 15 hands 3 inches high, possessed both of substance
and length, those grand requisites in a race-horse, combined
with uncommon power and stamina or lasting qualities. He was
bred by William, duke of Cumberland, uncle of King George III.
He commenced his racing career in October 1763, when he was
five years old, and ended it on the i6th of May 1767. He ran ten
times, winning six and losing four races. He died in 1780, and
among other progeny left two famous sons, Woodpecker (1773),
whose dam was Miss Ramsden (1760) by Cade, son of the Godolphin
Barb, but descended also on the dam's side from the Darley Arabian
and the Byerly Turk, and Highflyer (1774), whose dam was Rachel
(1763) by Blank, son of the Godolphin Barb from a daughter of
Regulus, also son of the Godolphin. These two horses have trans-
mitted Herod's qualities down to the present day in the direct
male line, although in the female line he is represented through some
of his other sons and his daughters as well. Woodpecker was the
sire of Buzzard (1787), who in his turn became the father of three
celebrated sons, Castrel (1801), Selim (1802), and Rubens (1803),
all three chestnuts, and all out of an Alexander mare (1790), who
thereby became famous. This mare was by Eclipse's son Alexander
(1782) out of a mare by Highflyer (son of Herod) out of a daughter
of Alfred, by Matchem out of a daughter of Snap. Bustard (1813),
whose dam was a daughter of Shuttle, and his son Heron (1833),
Sultan (1816) and his sons Glencoe (1831) and Bay Middleton (1833)
and Middleton's sons Cowl (1842) and the Flying Dutchman (1846),
Pantaloon (1824) and his son Windhound (1847), Langar (1817)
and his son Epirus (1834) and grandson Pyrrhus the First (1843),
are representatives of Castrel and Selim.
Highflyer is represented through his greatly esteemed son Sir
Peter Teazle, commonly called Sir Peter (1784), whose dam was
Papillon by Snap. Sir Peter had five sons at the stud, Walton
(1790), Stamford (1794), and Sir Paul (1802) being the chief.
Paulowitz (1813), Cain (1822), Ion (1835), Wild Dayrell (1852),
and his son Buccaneer (1857) bring down Sir Paul's blood; whilst
Walton is represented through Phantom (1806), Partisan (1811)
and his sons Glaucus (1829) and Venison (1833) and Gladiator (1833),
Venison's sons Alarm (1842) and Kingston (1849), Gladiator's son
Sweetmeat (1842), Sweetmeat's sons Macaroni (1860) and Parmesan
(1857), and Parmesan's sons Favonius (1868) and Cremorne (1869).
It may be added that in the first volume of the Stud-Book there are
nearly a hundred Herod and Highflyer mares registered.
3. The Godolphin Barb is represented by Matqhem, as the former
was the sire of Cade (1734), and Cade begat Matchem, who was
foaled in 1748. He was thus ten years the senior of Herod, repre-
senting the Byerly Turk, and sixteen years before Eclipse, though
long subsequent to Flying Childers, who represent the Darley
Arabian. Matchem was a brown bay horse with some white on his
off hind heel, about IS hands high, bred by Sir John Holme of
Carlisle, and sold to Mr W. Fenwick of Bywell, Northumberland.
His dam was sister to Miss Partner (1735) by Partner out of Brown
Farewell by Makeless (son of the Oglethorpe Arabian) from a
daughter of Brimmer out of Trumpet's dam, by Place's White Turk
from a daughter of the Barb Dodsworth and a Layton Barb mare;
while Brimmer was by D'Arcy's Yellow Turk from a royal mare.
Matchem commenced his racing career on the 2nd of August I753>
and terminated it on 1st September 1758. Out of thirteen engage-
ments he won eleven and lost two. He died in 1781, aged thirty-
three years. His best son was Conductor (1767) out of a mare by
Snap; Conductor was the sire of Trumpator (1782), whose two sons,
Sorcerer (1790) and Paynator (1791), transmit the blood of the
Godolphin down to modern times. Sorcerer was the sire of Sooth-
sayer (1808), Comus (1809), and Smolensko (1810). Comus was
the sire of Humphrey Clinker (1822), whose son was Melbourne
(1834), sire of West Australian (1850) and of many valuable mares,
including Canezou (1845) and Blink Bonny (1854), dam of Blair
Athol. Paynator was the sire of Dr Syntax (1811), who had a
celebrated daughter called Beeswing (1833), dam of Newminster by
Touchstone.
The gems of the three lines may be briefly enumerated thus:
(l) of the Darley Arab's line Snap, Shuttle, Waxy, and Orville
the stoutest blood on the turf; (2) of the Byerly Turk's line
Buzzard and Sir Peter speedy blood, the latter the stouter of the
two; (3) of the Godolphin Barb's line Sorcerer often producing
large-sized animals, but showing a tendency to die out, and becoming
On the principle that as a rule like begets like, it has been the
practice to select as sires the best public performers on the turf,
and of two horses of like blood it is sound sense to choose the
better as against the inferior public performer. But there can
be little doubt that the mating of mares with horses has been
often pursued on a haphazard plan, or on no system at all;
to this the Stud-Book testifies too plainly. In the article HORSE-
RACING mention is made of some of the great horses of recent
years; but the following list of the principal sires of earlier
days indicates also how their progeny found a place among the
winners of the three great races, the Derby (D), Oaks (O), and
St Leger (L) :
Eclipse: Young Eclipse (D), Saltram (D), Sergeant (D), Annette
(O).
Herod: Bridget (O), Faith (O), Maid of the Oaks (O), Phenomenon
(L).
Matchem: Teetotum (O), Hollandaise (L).
Florizel (son of Herod) : Diomed (D), Eager (D), Tartar (L), Ninety-
three (L).
Highflyer : Noble (D), Sir Peter Teazle (D), Skyscraper (D), Violante
(O), Omphale (L), Cowslip (L), Spadille (L), Young Flora (L).
Pol-8-os: Waxy (D), Champion (D, L), Tyrant (D), Nightshade (O).
Sir Peter (D): Sir Harry (D), Archduke (D), Ditto (D), Paris (D),
Hermione (O), Parasite (O), Ambrosio (L), Fyldener (L),
Paulina (L), Petronius (L).
Waxy (D): Pope (D), Whalebone (D), Blucher (D), Whisker (D),
Music (O), Minuet (O), Corinne (O).
Whalebone (D) : Moses (D), Lapdog (D), Spaniel (D), Caroline (O).
Woful: Augusta (O), Zinc (O), Theodore (L).
Whisker (D) : Memnon (L), The Colonel (L).
Phantom: Cedric (D), Middleton (D), Cobweb (O).
Orville (L): Octavius (D), Emilius (D), Ebor (L).
Tramp: St Giles (D), Dangerous (D), Barefoot (L).
Emilius (D) : Priam (D), Plenipotentiary (D), Oxygen (O), Mango
(L).
Priam (D): Miss Seltz (O), Industry (O), Crucifix (O).
Sir Hercules : Coronation (D), Faugh-a-Ballagh (L), Birdcatcher (L).
Touchstone (L) : Cotherstone (D), Orlando (D), Surplice (D, L),
Mendicant (O), Blue Bonnet (L), Newminster (L).
Birdcatcher (L) : Daniel O'Rourke (D), Songstress (O), Knight of
St George (L), Warlock (L), The Baron (L).
The Baron (L) : Stockwell (L).
Melbourne: West Australian (D, L), Blink Bonny (D, O), Sir Tatton
Sykes (L).
Newminster (L) : Musjid (D), Hermit (D), Lord Clifden (L).
Sweetmeat: Macaroni (D), Mincemeat (O), Mincepie (O).
Stockwell (L) : Blair Athol (D, L), Lord Lyon (D, L), Doncaster (D),
Regalia (O), St Albans (L), Caller Ou (L), The Marquis (L),
Achievement (L).
King Tom: Kingcraft (D), Tormentor (O), Hippia (O), Hannah
(O, L).
Rataplan (son of the Baron) : Kettledrum (D).
Monarque: Gladiateur (D, L).
Parmesan (son of Sweetmeat) : Favonius (D), Cremorne (D).
Buccaneer: Kisber (D), Formosa (O, L), Brigantine (O).
Lord Clifden (L) : Jannette (O, L), Hawthornden (L), Wenlock (L),
Petrarch (L).
Adventurer: Pretender (D), Apology (O, L), Wheel of Fortune (O).
Blair Athol (D, L) : Silvio (D, L), Craig Millar (L).
In regard to mares it has very frequently turned out that
animals which were brilliant public performers have been far
less successful as dams than others which were comparatively
valueless as runners. Beeswing, a brilliant public performer,
gave birth to a good horse in Newminster; the same may be said
of Alice Hawthorn, dam of Thormanby, of Canezou, dam of
Fazzoletto, of Crucifix, dam of Surplice, and of Blink Bonny,
dam of Blair Athol; but many of the greatest winners have
dropped nothing worth training. On the other hand, there are
mares of little or no value as racers who have become the mothers
of some of the most celebrated horses on the turf ; among them
we may cite Queen Mary, Pocahontas and Paradigm. Queen
Mary, who was by Gladiator out of a daughter of Plenipotentiary
and Myrrha by Whalebone, when mated with Melbourne pro-
duced Blink Bonny (winner of the Derby and Oaks); when
mated with Mango and Lanercost she produced Haricot, dam
of Caller Ou (winner of the St Leger). Pocahontas, perhaps the
most remarkable mare in the Stud- Book, never won a race on
the turf, but threw Stockwell and Rataplan to the Baron, son of
Birdcatcher, King Tom to Harkaway, Knight of St Patrick to
Knight of St George, and Knight of Kars to Nutwith all these
horses being 16 hands high and upwards, while Pocahontas was
722
HORSE
[HISTORY
a long low mare of about 15 hands or a trifle more. She also
gave birth to Ayacanora by Birdcatcher, and to Araucaria by
Ambrose, both very valuable brood mares, Araucaria being the
dam of Chamant by Mortemer, and of Rayon d'Or by Flageolet,
son of Plutus by Touchstone. Paradigm again produced, among
several winners of more or less celebrity, Lord Lyon (winner of
the Two Thousand Guineas, Derby and St Leger) and Achieve-
ment (winner of the St Leger), both being by Stockwell. Another
famous mare was Manganese (1853) by Birdcatcher from Moon-
beam by Tomboy from Lunatic by the Prime Minister from
Maniac by Shuttle. Manganese when mated with Rataplan
threw Mandragora, dam of Apology, winner of the Oaks and St
Leger, whose sire was Adventurer, son of Newminster. She
also threw Mineral, who, when mated with Lord Clifden, pro-
duced Wenlock, winner of the St Leger, and after being sold to
go to Hungary, was there mated with Buccaneer, ^he produce
being Kisber, winner of the Derby.
We append the pedigree of Blair Athol, winner of the Derby
and St Leger in 1864, who, when subsequently sold by auction,
fetched the then unprecedented sum of 12,000 guineas, as it
contains, not only Stockwell (the emperor of stallions, as he has
been .termed), but Blink Bonny and Eleanor in which latter
animal are combined the blood of Eclipse, Herod, Matchem and
Snap, the mares that won the Derby in 1801 and 1857 respec-
tively, as well as those queens of the stud, Eleanor's great-
granddaughter Pocahontas and Blink Bonny's dam Queen Mary.
Both Eleanor and Blink Bonny won the Oaks as well as the
Derby.
The Baron}
' (1842)
Blair Athol*t
(i860
Stockwellt
(1849)
fSir Hercules
(1826)
BirdcatcherJ(i833)J
Pocahontas
(1837)
.Echidna (1838)
Glencoe (1831)
.Marpessa (1830)
J" Whalebone* (1807)
\Peri (1823)
fflob Booty (1804)
I Flight (1809)
f Whisker* (1812)
I Floranthe (1818)
fBlacklock(i8i4)
Miss Pratt (1825) 1 _.
I Gadabout (1812)
Selim (1802)
Bacchante (1809)
TTramp (1810)
[Trampoline (,82 S ){ Web(i8og)
799)
798)
rmion (1806)
palice (1814)
("Sorcerer (1796)
iGuiccioli (1823)
fEconomist (1825)
fSultan (1816)
'Mulcy (1810)
I Clare (1824)
Blink Bonny't
(1854)
Melbourne
(1834)
Humphrey Clinker-J
(1822)
f Cervantes (1806)
Daughter of (1825)-
Gladiator (1833)
Queen Mary
* (1843)
Daughter of
. (1818)
f Partisan (1811)
|_ Pauline (1826)
Daughter of (i84oK
r Plenipotentiary*
(1831)
LMyrrha (1830)
Winner of the Derby.
f Winner of the Oaks.
The shape of a race-horse is of considerable importance,
although it is said with some degree of truth that they win in
all shapes. There are the neat and elegant animals, like the
descendants of Saunterer and Sweetmeat; the large-framed,
plain-looking, and heavy-headed Melbournes, often with lop
ears; the descendants of Birdcatcher, full of quality, and of
more than average stature, though sometimes disfigured with
curby hocks; and the medium-sized but withal speedy descend-
ants of Touchstone, though in some cases characterized by
somewhat loaded shoulders. In height it will be found that the
most successful racers average from 15 to i6| hands, the former
being considered somewhat small, while the latter is unquestion-
ably very large; the mean may be taken as between 15! and 16
hands (the hand = 4 in.). The head should be light and lean,
and well set on; the ears small and pricked, but not too short;
the eyes full; the forehead broad and flat; the nostrils large and
dilating; the muzzle fine; the neck moderate in length, wide,
muscular, and yet light; the throat clean; the windpipe
spacious and loosely attached to the neck; the crest thin, not
coarse and arched. The withers may be moderately high and
thin; the chest well developed, but not too wide or deep; the
shoulder should lie well on the chest, and be oblique and well
covered with muscle, so as to reduce concussion in galloping;
the upper and lower arms should be long and muscular; the
knees broad and strong; legs short, flat and broad; fetlock
joints large; pasterns strong and of moderate length; the feet
should be moderately large, with the heels open and frogs sound
with no signs of contraction. The body or barrel should be
moderately deep, long and straight, the length being really in
the shoulders and in the quarters; the back should be strong
and muscular, with
the shoulders and
loins running well
in at each end;
the loins them-
selves should have
great breadth and
substance, this
being a vital neces-
sity for weight-
carrying and pro-
pelling p ower
uphill. The hips
should be long and
wide, with the stifle
and thigh strong,
long and propor-
tionately de-
veloped, and the
hind quarters well
let down. The
hock should have
plenty of bone, and
be strongly affixed
to the leg, and
show no signs of
curb; the bones
below the hock
should be flat, and
free from adhe-
sions; the liga-
ments and tendons
well developed, and
standing out from
the bone; the joints
well formed and
wide, yet without
undue enlarge-
ment; the pasterns
and feet similar to
those of the fore-
hand. The tail
should be high set on, the croup being continued in a
straight line to the tail, and not falling away and drooping
rOrvillei (179
\Eleanor*t (17
[Marr
\Harp
( Clinker (1805)
Clinkerina (1812) }
LPewet (1786)
("Don Quixote (1784)
lEvelina (1791)
impus (1802)
ighter of (1810)
f Walton (1709)
I Parasol (1800)
f Moses* (1819)
I Quadrille (1815)
jGolun
iDaugl:
fEmilius* (1820)
I Harriett (1819)
J Whalebone* (1807)
\Gift (1818)
Waxy* (1790)
Penelope (1798)
Wanderer (1790)
Thalestris (1809)
Chanticleer (1787)
lerne (1790)
Escape (1802)
Young Heroine
Waxy* (1790)
Penelope (1798)
Octayian (1807)
Caprice (1797)
Whitelock (1803)
Coriander mare (1799)
Orvillet (1700)
Minstrel (1803)
Buzzard (1787)
Alexander mare (1700)
Williamson's Ditto (1800)
Sister to Calomel (1791)
Dick Andrews (1797)
Gohanna mare
Waxy* (1790)
Penelope (1798)
Beningbrough (1791)
Evelina (1791)
Whiskey (1789)
Young Giantess (1790)
! Whiskey (1789)
( Young Noisette (1789)
Gohanna (1790)
Amazon (1799)
Trumpator (1782)
Young Giantess (1790)
Sir Peter* (1784)
Alexina (1788)
Sir Peter* (1784)
Hyale(i797)
Tandem (1773)
Termagant
Eclipse (1764)
Grecian Princess (1770)
Highflyer (1774)
1 ermagant
Gohanna (1790)
Catherine (1795)
Paynator (1791)
Sister to Zodiac
Sir Peter* (1784)
Arethusa (1792)
Pot-8-os (1773)
Prunella (1788)
Whalebone* by Waxy* (1807)
Gohanna mare
Selim (1802)
Canary Bird (1806)
Orvillet (1799)
Emily (1810)
Pericles (1809)
Selim mare (1812)
Waxy* (1790)
Penelope (1798)
Young Gohanna (1810)
Sister to Grazier by Sir Peter* (1808)
t Winner of the St Leger.
HORSE
PLATE I.
st
s
"0
fe
w
cs!
i
XIII.
PLATE II.
HORSE
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CH
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6
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BREEDS]
HORSE
723
to a low-set tail. Fine action is the best criterion of every-
thing fitting properly, and all a horse's points ought to
harmonize or be in proportion to one another, no one point
being more prominent than another, such as good shoulders,
fine, loins or excellent quarters. If the observer is struck
with the remarkable prominence of any one feature, it is
probable that the remaining parts are deficient. A well-made
horse wants dissecting in detail, and then if a good judge can
discover no fault with any part, but finds each of good propor-
tions, and the whole to harmonize without defect, deformity
or deficiency, he has before him a well-shaped horse; and of two
equally well-made and equitably proportioned horses the best
bred one will be the best. As regards hue, the favourite colour
of the ancients, according to Xenophon, was bay, and for a long
time it was the fashionable colour in England; but for some
time chestnut thoroughbreds have been the most conspicuous
figure on English race-courses, so far as the more important
events are concerned. Eclipse was a chestnut; Castrel, Selim
and Rubens were chestnuts; so also were Glencoe and Pantaloon,
of whom the latter had black spots on his hind quarters like
Eclipse; and also Stock well and Doncaster. Birdcatcher was
a chestnut, so also were Stockwell and his brother Rataplan,
Manganese, Mandragora, Thormanby, Kettledrum, St Albans,
Blair Athol, Regalia, Formosa, Hermit, Marie Stuart, Doncaster,
George Frederick, Apology, Craig Millar, Prince Charlie, Rayon
d'Or and Bend Or. The dark browns or black browns, such as
the Sweetmeat tribe, are not so common as the bays, and black
or grey horses are almost as unusual as roans. The skin and
hair of the throughbred are finer, and the veins which underlie
the skin are larger and more prominent than in other horses.
The mane and tail should be silky and devoid of curl, which is a
sign of impurity.
Whether the race-horse of to-day is as good as the stock to
which he traces back has often been disputed, chiefly no doubt
because he is brought to more early maturity, commencing to
win races at two years instead of at five years of age, as in the
days of Childers and Eclipse; but the highest authorities, and
none more emphatically than the late Admiral Rous, have
insisted that he can not only stay quite as long as his ancestors,
but also go a good deal faster. In size and shape the modern
race-horse is unquestionably superior, being on an average fully
a hand higher than the Eastern horses from which he is descended;
and in elegance of shape and beauty of outline he has certainly
never been surpassed. That experiments, founded on the study
of his nature and properties, which have from time to time been
made to improve the breed, and bring the different varieties
to the perfection in which we now find them, have succeeded,
is best confirmed by the high estimation in which the horses of
Great Britain are held in all parts of the civilized world; and it is
not too much to assert that, although the cold, humid and
variable nature of their climate is by no means favourable to
the production of these animals in their very best form, English-
men have by great care, and by sedulous attention to breeding,
high feeding and good grooming, with consequent development
of muscle, brought them to' the highest state of perfection of
which their nature is capable. (E. D. B.)
BREEDS OF HORSES
The British breeds of light horses include the Thoroughbred,
the Yorkshire Coach-horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Hackney and
the Pony; of heavy horses, the Shire, the Clydesdale and the
Suffolk.
The Thoroughbred is probably the oldest of the breeds, and
it is known as the " blood-horse " on account of the length of
time through which its purity of descent can be traced. The
frame is light, slender and graceful. The points of chief import-
ance are a fine, clean, lean head, set on free from collar heaviness;
a long and strongly muscular neck, shoulders oblique and covered
with muscle; high, long withers, chest of good depth and narrow
but not extremely so; body round in type; back rib well down;
depth at withers a little under half the height; length equal
to the height at withers and croup; loins level and muscular;
croup long, rather level; tail set on high and carried gracefully;
the hind quarters long, strongly developed, and full of muscle
and driving power; the limbs clean-cut and sinewy, possessing
abundance of good bone, especially desired in the cannons, which
are short, broad and flat; comparatively little space between
the fore legs; pastern joints smooth and true; pasterns strong,
clean and springy, sloping when at rest at an angle of 45;
feet medium size, wide and high at the heels, concave below and
set on straight. The action in trotting is generally low, but the
bending of the knee and the flexing of the hock is smooth, free
and true. The thoroughbred is apt to be nervous and excitable,
and impatient of common work, but its speed, resolution and
endurance, as tested on the race-course, are beyond praise.
Many of the best hunters in the United Kingdom are thorough-
breds, but of the substantial weight-carrying type. The Hunters
Improvement Society, established in 1885, did not restrict
entries to the Hunters' Slud-Book to entirely clean-bred animals,
but admitted those with breeding enough to pass strict inspec-
tion. This society acts in consort with two other powerful
organizations (the Royal Commission on Horse-breeding,
which began its work in 1888, and the Brood Mare Society,
established in 1903), with the desirable object of improving the
standard of light horse breeding. The initial efforts began by
securing the services of thoroughbred stallions for specified
districts, by offering a limited number of " Queen's Premiums,"
of 200 each, to selected animals of four years old and upwards.
Since the formation of the Brood Mare Society mares have
come within the sphere of influence of the three bodies, and
well-conceived inducements are offered to breeders to retain
their young mares at home. The efforts have met with gratifying
success, and they were much needed, for while in 1904 the Dutch
government took away 350 of the best young Irish mares, Great
Britain was paying the foreigner over 2,000,000 a year for
horses which the old system of management did not supply at
home. The Royal Dublin Society also keeps a Register of
Thoroughbred Stallions under the horse-breeding scheme of 1892,
which, like the British efforts, is now bearing fruit.
The Yorkshire Coach-horse is extensively bred in the North
and East Ridings of Yorkshire, and the thoroughbred has taken
a share in its development. The colour is usually bay, with
black or brown points. A fine head, sloping shoulders, strong
loins, lengthy quarters, high-stepping action, flat bon^ and
sound feet are characteristic. The height varies from 16 hands
to 1 6 hands 2 in.
The Cleveland Bay is an ancestor of the Yorkshire Coach-horse
and is bred in parts of Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland.
He is adapted alike for the plough, for heavy draught, and for
slow saddle work. Some specimens make imposing-looking
carriage horses, but they have low action and are lacking in
quality. The colour is light or dark bay, with black legs. Though
rather coarse-headed, the Cleveland Bay has a well-set shoulder
and neck, a deep chest and round barrel. The height is from
1 6 to 17 hands.
The Hackney has come prominently to the front in recent
years. The term Nag, applied to the active riding or trotting
horse, is derived from the A.S. hnegan, to neigh. The
Normans brought with them their own word haquenee, or
hacquenee, a French derivative from the Latin equus, a horse,
whence the name hackney. Both nag and hackney continue
to be used as synonymous terms. Frequent mention is made of
hackneys and trotters in old farm accounts of the i4th century.
The first noteworthy trotting hackney stallion, of the modern
type, was a horse foaled about 1753, and known as the Schales,
Shields or Shales horse, and most of the recognized hackneys
of to-day trace back to him. The breeding of hackneys is
extensively pursued in the counties of Norfolk, Cambridge,
Huntingdon, Lincoln and York, and in the showyard competi-
tions a keen but friendly rivalry is usually to be noticed between
the hackney-breeding farmers of Norfolk and Yorkshire. The
high hackney action is uncomfortable in a riding horse. Excel-
lent results have sometimes followed the use of hackney sires
upon half-bred mares, i.e. by thoroughbred stallions and trotting
724
HORSE
[MANAGEMENT
mares, but it is not always so. As regards the movement, or
" action," of the hackney, he should go light in hand, and the
knee should be well elevated and advanced during the trot, and,
before the foot is put down, the leg should be well extended.
The hackney should also possess good hock action, as distin-
guished from mere fetlock action, the propelling power
depending upon the efficiency of the former. The hackney
type of the day is " a powerfully built, short-legged, big horse,
with an intelligent head, neat neck, strong, level back, powerful
loins, and as perfect shoulders as can be obtained, good feet,
flat-boned legs, and a height of from 15 hands 2 in. to 15 hands
3j in. Carriage-horses hackney-bred have been produced over
17 hands high.
The Pony differs essentially from the hackney in height, the
former not exceeding 14 hands. There is one exception, which
is made clear in the following extract from Sir Walter Gilbey's
Ponies Past and Present (1900):
Before the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883
the dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was
vague and undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish
clearly between horses and ponies, and, accordingly, all animals
measuring 14 hands or under were designated " ponies," and re-
gistered in a separate part of the (Hackney) Stud-Book. This record
of height, with other particulars as to breeding, &c., serves to direct
breeders in their choice of sires and dams. The standard of height
established by the Hackney Horse Society was accepted and officially
recognized by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1889, when the
prize-list for the Windsor show contained pony classes for animals
not exceeding 14 hands. The altered polo-rule, which fixes the
limit of height at 14 hands 2 in., may be productive of some little
confusion; but for all other purposes 14 hands is the recognized
maximum height of a pony. Prior to 1883 small horses were called
indifferently Galloways, hobbies, cobs or ponies, irrespective of
their height.
Native ponies include those variously known as Welsh, New
Forest, Exmoor, Dartmoor, Cumberland and Westmorland,
Fell, Highland, Highland Garron, Celtic, Shetland and Conne-
mara. Ponies range in height from 14 hands down to 8 hands,
Shetland ponies eligible for the Stud-Book not exceeding the
latter. As in the case of the hackney, so with the pony,
thoroughbred blood has been used, and with good results,
except in the case of those animals which have to remain to breed
in their native haunts on the hills and moorlands. There the
only possible way of improvement is by selecting the best native
specimens, especially the sires, to breed from. The thin-skinned
progeny of thoroughbred or Arab stock is too delicate to live
unless when hand-fed and hand-feeding is not according to
custom. Excellent polo ponies are bred as first or second crosses
by thoroughbred stallions on the mares of nearly all the varieties
of ponies named. The defective formation of the pony, the
perpendicular shoulder and the drooping hind quarters, are
modified; but neither the latter, nor bent hocks, which place
the hind legs under the body as in the zebra, are objected to,
as the conformation is favourable to rapid turning. One object
of the pony breeder, while maintaining hardiness of constitu-
tion, is to control size to compress the most valuable qualities
into small compass. He endeavours to breed an animal
possessing a small head, good shoulders, true action and perfect
manners. A combination of the best points of the hunter with
the style and finish of the hackney produces a class of weight-
carrying pony which is always saleable.
The Shire horse owes its happily-chosen name to Arthur
Young's remarks, in the description of his agricultural tours
during the closing years of the i8th century, concerning the
large Old English Black Horse, " the produce principally of the
Shire counties in the heart of England." Long previous to this,
however, the word Shire, in connexion with horses, was used in
the statutes of Henry VIII. Under the various names of the War
Horse, the Great Horse, the Old English Black Horse and the
Shire Horse, the breed has for centuries been cultivated in the
rich fen-lands of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and in many
counties to the west. The Shire is the largest of draught horses,
the stallion commonly attaining a height of 17 to 17-3 hands.
Though the black colour is still frequently met with, bay and
brown are more usually seen. With their immense size and
weight 1800 Ib to 2200 ft the Shires combine great strength,
and they are withal docile and intelligent. They stand on short
stout legs, with a plentiful covering sometimes too abundant
of long hair extending chiefly down the back but also round the
front of the limbs from knees and hocks, and when in full feather
obscuring nearly the whole of the hoofs. The head is a good
size, and broad between the eyes; the neck fairly long, with the
crest well arched on to the shoulders, which are deep and strong,
and moderately oblique. The chest is wide, full and deep, the
back short and straight, the ribs are round and deep, the hind
quarters long, level and well let down into the muscular thighs.
The cannon-bones should be flat, heavy and clean, and the feet
wide, tough, and prominent at the heels. A good type of Shire
horse combines symmetrical outlines and bold, free action.
There is a good and remunerative demand for Shire geldings
for use as draught horses in towns.
The Clydesdale, the Scottish breed named from the valley of
the Clyde, is not quite so large as the Shire, the average height
of stallions being about 16 hands 2 in. The popular colour is
bay, particularly if of a dark shade, or dappled. Black is not
uncommon, but grey is not encouraged. White markings on
one or more of the legs, with a white star or stripe on the face,
are characteristic. The long hair on the legs is not so abundant
as in the Shires, and it is finer in texture. It is regarded as an
indication of good bone. The bones of the legs should be short,
flat, clean and hard; the feet large, with hoofs deep and concave
below. With its symmetry, activity, strength and endurance
the Clydesdale is easily broken to harness, and makes an excellent
draught horse. This breed is growing rapidly in favpur in
Canada, but in the United States the Percheron, with its round
bone and short pasterns, holds the field. A blend of the Shire
and Clydesdale strains of the British rough-legged draught horse
(virtually sections of the same breed) is a better animal than
either of the parents. It is an improvement upon the Shire due
to the quality contributed by the Clydesdale, and it surpasses
the Clydesdale in strength and substance, as a result of the Shire
connexion. To secure success the two Stud-Books will require
to be opened to animals eligible to be entered in either record.
The blend is being established in U.S.A. as a National breed.
The Suffolk is a horse quite distinct from the Shire and the
Clydesdale. Its body looks too heavy for its limbs, which are
free from the " feather " so much admired in the two other
heavy breeds; it possesses a characteristic chestnut colour.
How long the Suffolks have been associated with the county
after which they are named is unknown, but they are mentioned
in 1 586 in Camden's Britannia. With an average height of about
1 6 hands they often have a weight of as much as 2000 Ib., and
this may explain the appearance which has given rise to the name
of the Suffolk Punch, by which the breed is known. The Suffolk
is a resolute and unwearying worker, and is richly endowed with
many of the best qualities of a horse. The Suffolk Stud-Book
and History of the Breed, published in 1880, is the most exhaustive
record of its kind in England. (W. FR.; R. W.)
MANAGEMENT
Breeding. Animals to breed from should be of good blood,
sound and compactly built, with good pluck and free from
nervous excitability and vicious tendency. A mare used to be
put to the horse at three years old, but latterly two has become
the common age. Young sires begin to serve in moderation at
two. May is considered the best month for a mare to foal, as
there is abundance of natural food and the weather is mild enough
for the mare to lie out. Show specimens generally profit by
being born earlier. The period of gestation in the mare is about
eleven months. No nursing mare should go to work, if this can
possibly be avoided. A brood mare requires plenty of exercise
at a slow pace and may work, except between shafts or on a road,
till the day of foaling.
To avoid colic an animal has to be gradually prepared by
giving small quantities of green food for a few days before going
to grass. Shelter against severe storms is needed. Succulent
food encourages the flow of milk, and the success of the foal
HORSE LATITUDES HORSE-MACKEREL
725
greatly depends on its milk supply. Mares most readily conceive
when served at the " foal heat " eleven days after foaling. A
mature stallion can serve from eighty to one hundred mares per
annum.
Foals are weaned when five or six months old, often in October,
and require to be housed to save the foal-flesh, and liberally but
not overfed; but from the time they aie a month old they
require to be " gentled " by handling and kindly treatment,
and the elementary training of leading from time to time by
a halter adjusted permanently to the head. When they are hand-
reared on cow's milk foals require firm treatment and must have
no fooling to teach them tricks. Young horses that are too highly
fed are apt to become weak-limbed and top-heavy.
Breaking. Systematic breaking begins at about the age of two
years, and the method of subduing a colt by " galvayning " is as
good as any. It is a more humane system than " rareying,"
which overcame by exhaustion under circumstances which were
not fruitful of permanent results. Galvayning is accomplished
by bending the horse's neck round at an angle of thirty-five to
forty degrees and tieing the halter to the tail, so that when he
attempts to walk forward he holds himself and turns " round and
round, almost upon his own ground." The more strenuous his
resistance the sooner he yields to the inevitable force applied
by himself. A wooden pole, the " third hand, " is then gently
applied to all parts of the body until kicking or any form of
resistance ceases. " Bitting " or " mouthing," or the familiariz-
ing of an animal to the bit in his mouth, and to answer to the
rein without bending his neck, is still a necessity with the
galvayning method of breaking. Experience can only be gained
by a horse continuing during a considerable time to practise
what he has been taught.
Three main characteristics of a successful horse-breaker are
firmness, good temper and incessant vigilance. Carelessness in
trusting too much to a young colt that begins its training by
being docile is a fruitful source of untrustworthy habits which
need never have developed. Driving with long reins in the field
should precede the fastening of ropes to the collar, as it accustoms
the animal to the pressure on the shoulders of the draught, later
to be experienced in the yoke. If a young horse be well handled
and accustomed to the dummy jockey, mounting it is not
attended with much risk of resistance, although this should
invariably be anticipated. An animal ought to be in good con-
dition when being broken in, else it is liable to break out in
unpleasant ways when it becomes high-spirited as a result of
improved condition. It should be well but not overfed, and
while young not overworked, as an overtired animal is liable to
refuse to pull, and thus contract a bad habit. Most bad habits
and stable tricks are the result of defefctive management and
avoidable accidents.
Feeding. Horses have small stomachs relatively to ruminating
animals, and require small quantities of food frequently. While
grazing they feed almost continually, preferring short pasture.
No stable food for quick work surpasses a superior sample of
fine-hulled whole oats like " Carton's Abundance " (120 ft per
week), and Timothy hay harvested in dry weather. The un-
bruised oats develop a spirit and courage in either a saddle or
harness horse that no other food can. A double handful of
clean chaff, or of bran mixed with the oats in the manger, prevents
a greedy horse from swallowing a considerable proportion whole.
Unchewed oats pass out in the faeces uninjured, so that they
are capable of germination, and are of less than no value to a
horse. Horses doing slow or other than " upper ten " work
may have oats crushed, not ground, and a variety of additions
made to the oats which are usually the basis of the feed for
example, a few old crushed beans, a little linseed meal, ground
linseed cake or about a wine-glassful of unboiled linseed oil.
Indian pulses are to be avoided on account of the danger of
Lathyrus poisoning. A seasoning of ground fenugreek or spice is
sometimes given to shy feeders to encourage them to eat. A
little sugar or molascuit added to the food will sometimes serve
the same purpose. Newly crushed barley or cracked maize,
even in considerable proportion to the rest of the food, gives good
results with draught, coach, 'bus and light harness horses gener-
ally. Boiled food of any kind is unnatural to a horse, and is
risky to give, being liable to produce colic, especially if the
animal bolts its food when hungry, although it generally pro-
duces a glossy coat. Too much linseed, often used in preparing
horses for market, gives a similar appearance, but is liable to
induce fatty degeneration of the liver; given in moderation it
regulates the bowels and stimulates the more perfect digestion
of other foods. In England red-clover hay, or, better still,
crimson-clover or lucerne hay, is liberally fed to farm horses
with about 10 ft per day of oats, while they usually run in open
yards with shelter sheds. Bean straw is sometimes given as part
of the roughage in Scotland, but not in England. In England
hunters and carriage horses are generally fed on natural hay, in
Scotland on Timothy, largely imported from Canada, or ryegrass
hay that has not been grown with nitrate of soda. Heavily
nitrated hay is reputed to produce excessive urination and
irritation of the bladder. Pease straw, if not sandy, and good
bright oat straw are good fodder for horses; but with barley
and wheat straw, in the case of a horse, more energy is consumed
during its passage through the alimentary canal than the digested
straw yields. Three or four Swedish turnips or an equivalent
of carrots is an excellent cooling food for a horse at hard work.
The greater number of horses in the country should have green
forage given them during summer, when the work they do will
permit of it, as it is their natural food, and they thrive better
on it than on any dry food.
When a horse has been overstrained by work the best reme'dy
is a long rest at pasture, and, if it be lame or weak in the limbs,
the winter season is most conducive to recovery. The horse
becomes low in condition and moves about quietly, and the frost
tends to brace up the limbs. In autumn all horses that have
been grazing should be dosed with some vermifuge to destroy
the worms that are invariably present, and thus prevent colic
or an unthrifty or anaemic state. On a long journey a horse
should have occasional short drinks, and near the end a long
drink with a slower rate of progression with the object of cooling
off. In the stable a horse should always be provided with rock
salt, and water to drink at will by means of some such stall
fixture as the Mundt hygienic water-supply fittings. Overhead
hay-racks are unnatural and are liable to drop seeds into a
horse's eye.
LITERATURE. For riding, &c. see RIDING, DRIVING, HORSEMAN-
SHIP, and HORSE-RACING. For diseases of the horse see VETERINARY
SCIENCE. The literature about the horse and its history and uses
is voluminous, and is collected up to 1887 in Huth's Works on
Horses, &c., a bibliographical record of hippology. See also, besides
the works already mentioned, various books by Cant. M. Horace
Hayes, Points of the Horse (1893, 2nd ed., 1897); Stable Manage-
ment and Exercise (1900); Illustrated Horse-breaking (1889, 2nd ed.,
1896); and The Horsewoman (1893) (with Mrs Hayes); E. L.
Anderson, Modern Horsemanship (1884); W. Day, The Horse:
How to Breed and Rear Him (1888); W. Ridgeway, Origin and
Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse (1905) ; Major-General Tweedie,
The Arab Horse (1894); J. Wortley Axe, The Horse; its Treatment
in Health and Disease (1906) ; R. Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great
Britain (1885, 4th ed., 1907); Sydney Galvayne, The Twentieth
Century Book of the Horse (1905); C. Bruce Low, Breeding Race-
horses by the Figure System (1895); J. H. Wallace, The Horse of
America in his Derivation, &c. (1897); Weatherly's Celebrated Race-
horses (1887); Ruff's Guide to the Turf; T. A. Cook, History of the
English Turf (1903) ; The General Stud-Book (issued quinquennially) ;
and the Stud-Books of the various breed societies. (R. W.)
HORSE LATITUDES, the belts of calms and variable breezes
at the polar edge of the N.E. and S.E. trades. According to the
New English Dictionary two explanations have been given of
the origin of the name: one that the calm kills horses on a
sailing ship, the other that the name signifies the unruly and
boisterous nature of these winds compared with the pleasant
trades. The name is commonly applied to the permanent belt
of high atmospheric pressure which encircles the globe in 30 to
35 from the equator.
HORSE-MACKEREL, the name applied to a genus of fishes
(Caranx) found in abundance in almost all temperate and
especially in tropical seas. The designation " cavalli," given to
them by the early Portuguese navigators, and often met with
726
HORSEMANSHIP HORSE-RACING
in the accounts of the adventures of the buccaneers, is still in
frequent use among the sailors of all nations. Some ninety
different kinds are known the majority being wholesome food,
and some of the species attaining a length of 3 ft. and more.
The fish to which the name horse-mackerel is applied in Great
Britain is Caranx trachurus, distinguished by having the lateral
line in its whole length armed with large but narrow bony plates.
Horse-mackerel are found singly on the coast all the year round,
but sometimes they congregate in shoals of many thousands.
Although well-flavoured, they are much more frequently used
for bait than for food. This species has a most extraordinary
range, being found almost everywhere within the temperate and
tropical zones of the northern and southern hemispheres.
HORSEMANSHIP, the art of managing the horse from his
back and controlling his paces and the direction and speed of
his movement. The ordinary procedure is dealt with in the
articles on RIDING and cognate subjects (see also HORSE: section
Management). A special kind of skill is, however, needed in
breaking, training, bitting and schooling horses for a game like
polo, or for the evolutions of what is known as the haute ecole.
It is with the latter, or " school " riding, that we deal here. The
middle ages had seen chivalry developed into a social distinction,
and horsemanship into a form of knightly prowess. The Re-
naissance introduced the cultivation of horsemanship as an art,
with regular conditions and rules, instead of merely its skilful
practice for utility and exercise. In Italy in the i6th century
schools of horsemanship were established at Naples, Rome and
other chief cities; thither flocked the nobility of France, Spain
and Germany; and Henry VIII. of England and other monarchs
of his time had Italians for their masters of the horse. The
academy of Pignatelli at Naples was the most famous of the
schools in the middle of the i6th century, but a score of other
less renowned masters devoted themselves to teaching the
riders and training the horses. Trappings of all sorts multiplied ;
the prescribed tricks, feats and postures involved considerable
dexterity; they were fatiguing to both man and beast, and
were really useless except for show. This elaborate art, en-
thusiastically followed among the Romance nations, was the
parent of later developments of the haute ecole, and of the circus-
performances of modern days. In England, however, the
continental style did not find favour for long. The duke of
Newcastle's Mithode nowielle de dresser ks chevaux (1648) was
the leading text-book of the day, and in 1761 the earl of Pem-
broke published his Manual of Cavalry Horsemanship. In France
a simplification was introduced in the early part of the i8th
century by La Gueriniere (cole de cavalerie) and others. The
French military school thus became the model for Europe,
though the English style remained in opposition, forming a
sort of compromise with the ordinary method of riding across
country. In more modern times France again came to the front
in regard to the haute ecole, through the innovations of the
vicomte d'Aure (1798-1863) and Francois Baucher (1796-1873).
Baucher was a circus-rider who became the greatest master of
his art, and who had an elaborate theory of the principles in-
volved in training a horse. His system was carried on, with
modifications, by masters and theorists like Captain Raabe,
M. Barroil and M. Fillis. In more recent times the style of the
haute, ecole has also been cultivated by various masters in the
United States, such as H. L. de Bussigny at Boston.
See d'Aure, Traite d'equitation (1847); Hundersdorf, Equitation
allemande (Bruxelles, 1843); Baucher, Passe-temps equestres (1840),
Methode d'equitation (1867); Raabe, Methode de haute ecole d' equitation
(1863); Barroil, Art equestre; Fillis, Principes de dressage; Hayes,
Riding on the flat, &c. (1882).
HORSENS, a market town of Denmark, at the head of Horsens
Fjord, on the east side of Jutland, 32 m. by rail S.W. of Aarhus,
in the ami (county) of that name. Pop. (1901) 22,243- It is tne
junction of branch railways to Bryrup and to Torring inland,
and to Juelsminde on the coast. The exports are chiefly bacon
and butter; the imports, iron, yarn, coal and timber. The
town is ancient; there is a disused convent church with tombs
of the 1 7th century, and the Vor-Frelsers-Kirke has a carved
pulpit of the same period. Horsens is the birthplace of the
navigator Vitus Bering or Behring (1680), the Arctic explorer.
To the north lies the picturesque lake district between Skander-
borg and Silkeborg (see AARHUS)
HORSE-POWER. The device, frequently seen in farmyards,
by which the power of a horse is utilized to drive threshing or
other machinery, is sometimes described as a " horse-power,"
but this term usually denotes the unit in which the performance
of steam and other engines is expressed, and which is defined as
the rate at which work is done when 33,000 Ib are raised one
foot in one minute. This value was adopted by James Watt
as the result of experiments with strong dray-horses, but, as he
was aware, it is in excess of what can be done by an average
horse over a full day's work. It is equal to 746 watts. On the
metric system it is reckoned as 4500 kilogram-metres a minute,
and the French cheval-vapeur is thus equal to 32,549 foot-pounds
a minute, or 0-9863 of an English horse-power, or 736 watts.
The " nominal horse-power " by which engines are sometimes
rated is an arbitrary and obsolescent term of indefinite significance.
An ordinary formula for obtaining it is \ j.gD'-v 1 S for high-
pressure engines, and -j^D 2 ^ S for condensing engines, where
D is the diameter of the piston in inches and S the length of the
stroke in feet, though varying numbers are used for the divisor.
The " indicated horse-power " of a reciprocating engine is
given by ASPN/ 33,000, where A is the area of the piston in
square inches, S the length of the stroke in feet, P the mean
pressure on the piston in Ib per sq. in., and N the number of
effective strokes per minute, namely, one for each revolution of
the crank shaft if the engine is single-acting, but twice as many
if it is double-acting. The mean pressure P is ascertained from
the diagram or " card " given by an indicator (see STEAM-
ENGINE). In turbine engines this method is inapplicable.
A statement of indicated horse-power supplies a measure of the
force acting in the cylinder of an engine, but the power available
for doing external work off the crank-shaft is Jess than this by
the amount absorbed in driving the engine itself. The useful
residue, known as the " actual," " effective " or " brake "
horse-power, can be directly measured by a dynamometer (q.v.) ;
it amounts to about 80% of the indicated horse-power for good
condensing engines and about 85% for non-condensing engines,
or perhaps a little more when the engines are of the largest sizes.
When turbines, as often happens in land practice, are directly
coupled to electrical generators, their horse-power can be
deduced' from the electrical output. When they are used for the
propulsion of ships recourse is had to " torsion meters " which
measure the amount of twist undergone by the propeller shafts
while transmitting power. Two points are selected on the surface
of the shaft at different positions along it, and the relative dis-
placement which occur? between them round the shaft when
power is being transmitted is determined either by electrical
means, as in the Denny-Johnson torsion-meter, or optically,
as in the Hopkinson-Thring and Bevis-Gibson instruments.
The twist or surface-shear being proportional to the torque, the
horse-power can be calculated if the modulus of rigidity of the
steel employed is known or if the amount of twist correspond-
ing to a given power has previously been ascertained by direct
experiment on the shaft before it has been put in place.
HORSE-RACING. Probably the earliest instance of the use
of horses in racing recorded in literature occurs in //. xxiii.
212-650, where the various incidents of the chariot -race at the
funeral games held in honour of Patroclus are detailed with
much vividness. According to the ancient authorities the
four-horse chariot-race was introduced into the Olympic games
as early as the 23rd Olympiad; to this the race with mounted
horses was added in the 33rd; while other variations (such
as two-horse chariot-races, mule races, loose-horse races, special
races for under-aged horses) were admitted at a still later period.
Of the training and management of the Olympic race-horse we
are left in ignorance; but it .is known that the equestrian
candidates were required to enter their names and send their
horses to Elis at least thirty days before the celebration of the
games commenced, and that the charioteers and riders, whether
owners or proxies, went through a prescribed course of exercise
GREAT BRITAIN]
HORSE-RACING
727
during the intervening month. At all the other national games
of Greece (Pythian, Isthmian, Nemean), as well as at many of
the local festivals (the Athenian Olympia and Panathenaea) ,
similar contests had a prominent place. Some indication of
the extent to which the passion for horse-racing was indulged
in at Athens, for example, about the time of Aristophanes may
be obtained from the scene with which The Clouds opens;
while it is a significant fact that the Boeotians termed one of the
months of their year, corresponding to the Athenian Hecatom-
baeon, Hippodromius ("Horse-race month"; see Plutarch,
Cam. 15). For the chariot-races and horse-races of the Greeks
and Romans, see CIRCUS and GAMES.
GREAT BRITAIN
There is no direct historical evidence to show that the ancient
Britons addicted themselves to any form of this amusement; but
there are indications that among some at least of the Germanic
tribes, from a very early period, horse-racing was an accompani-
ment of their religious cultus. There can be no doubt that the
Romans encouraged the pursuit in Britain, if they did not intro-
duce it; traces of race-courses belonging to the period of their
occupation have been frequently discovered. The influence of the
Christian Church was everywhere at first strongly against the
practice. The opinion of Augustine and other fathers of the
church with regard to attendance at the spectacles, whether of
theatre or of circus, is well known; those who performed in
them were rigidly excluded from church fellowship, and some-
times even those who merely frequented them. Thus the first
council of Aries, in its fourth canon, declared that those members
of the church who drove chariots at the public games should,
so long as they continued in that employment, be denied com-
munion. (Compare the rule in the Ap. Const, viii. 32 ; ap.
Bingham, Ant. Chr. Church, xvi. 4, 10.) In many cases, however,
the weight of ecclesiastical authority proved insufficient to cope
with the force of old custom, or with the fascination of a sport
the unchristian character of which was not very easily demon-
strable; and ultimately in Germany and elsewhere the old local
races appear to have been admitted to a recognized place among
the ceremonies peculiar to certain Christian festivals.
The first distinct indication which contemporary history
affords of horse-racing as a sport occurs in the Description of
the City of London of William Fitzstephen (c. 1174). He says
that in a certain " plane field without one of the gates (quidam
planus campus re et nomine Smithfidd, quasi Smoothfield)
every Friday, unless it be one of the more solemn festivals, is a
noted show of well-bred (nobilium) horses exposed for sale.
The earls, barons and knights who are resident in the city, as
well as a multitude of citizens, flock thither either to look on
or buy k " After describing the different varieties of horses
brought into the market, especially the more valuable chargers
(dextrarios preciosos), he says: " When a race is to be run by
such horses as these, and perhaps by others which, in like manner,
according to their breed are strong for carriage and vigorous for
the course, the people raise a shout and order the common horses
to be withdrawn to another part of the field. The jockeys, who
are boys expert in the management of horses, which they regulate
by means of curb bridles, sometimes by threes and sometimes
by twos, as the match is made, prepare themselves for the con-
test. Their chief aim is to prevent a competitor from getting
before them. The horses too, after their manner, are eager for
the race; their limbs tremble, and impatient of delay they
cannot stand still; upon the signal being given they stretch out
their limbs, hurry on the course, and are borne along with un-
remitting speed. The riders, inspired with the love of praise and
the hope of victory, clap spurs to their flying horses, lashing them
with whips, and inciting them by their shouts " (see Stow's
Translation).
In the reign of Richard I. knights rode at Whitsuntide on
steeds and palfreys over a three-mile course for " forty pounds
of ready gold," according to the old romance of Sir Bevys of
Hampton. The feats of the tilt-yard, however, seem to have
surpassed horse-racing in popular estimation at the period of the
crusades. That the sport was to some extent indulged in by
King John is quite possible, as running horses are frequently
mentioned in the register of royal expenditure; and we know
that Edward III. had a number of running horses, but it is prob-
able they were chiefly used for field sports.
An evidence of the growing favour in which horse-racing was
held as a popular amusement is furnished by the fact that public
races were established at Chester in 1 5 1 2 . Randle Holme of that
city tells us that towards the latter part of Henry VIII.'s reign,
on Shrove Tuesday, the company of saddlers of Chester presented
to " the drapers a wooden ball embellished with flowers, and
placed upon the point of a lance. This ceremony was performed
in the presence of the mayor at the cross of the Roody or Roodee,
an open place near the city; but this year (1540) the ball was
changed into a silver bell, valued at three shillings and sixpence
or more, to be given to him who shall run best and furthest on
horseback before them on the same day, Shrove Tuesday; these
bells were denominated St George's bells." In the reign of
Elizabeth there is evidence from the poems of Bishop Hall
(1597) that racing was in vogue, though apparently not patronized
by the queen, or it would no doubt have formed part of the
pastimes at Kenilworth; indeed, it seems then to have gone
much out of fashion.
The accession of the Stuarts opened up an era of prosperity
for the sport, for James I., who, according to Youatt, had
encouraged if not established horse-racing in Scotland, greatly
patronized it in England when he came to the throne. Not only
did he run races at Croydon and Enfield, but he endeavoured to
improve the breed of horses by the purchase for a high figure of
the Arab stallion known as Markham's Arabian, which little
horse, however, was beaten in every race he ran.
In 1607, according to Camden's Britannia, races were run near
York, the prize being a little golden bell. Camden also mentions
as the prize for running horses in Gatherley Forest a little golden
ball, which was apparently anterior to the bell. In 1609 Mr
Robert Ambrye, sometime sheriff of the city of Chester, caused
three silver bells to be made of good value, which bells he
appointed to be run for with horses on St George's day upon the
Roodee, the first horse to have the best bell and the money put
in by the horses that ran in other words, a sweepstake the
bells to be returned that day twelvemonth as challenge cups
are now; towards the expenses he had an allowance from the
city. In 1613 subscription purses are first mentioned. Nicholls,
in his Progress of James I., makes mention of racing in the years
1617 and 1619. Challenge bells appear to have continued to
be the prizes at Chester, according to Randle Holme the younger,
and Ormerod's History of Chester, until 1623 or 1624, when Mr
John Brereton, mayor of Chester, altered the course and caused
the horses to run five times round the Roodee, the bell to be of
good value, 8 or 10, and to be a free bell to be held for ever
in other words, a presentation and not a challenge prize.
During James's reign public race meetings were established at
Gatherley or Garterley, near Richmond in Yorkshire, at Croydon
in Surrey, and at Enfield Chase, the last two being patronized
by the king, who not only had races at Epsom during his residence
at Nonsuch, but also built a house at Newmarket for the purpose
of enjoying hunting, and no doubt racing too, as we find a note
of there having been horse-races at this place as early as 1605.
Races are also recorded as having taken place at Linton near
Cambridge, but they were probably merely casual meetings.
The prizes were for the most part silver or gold bells, whence
the phrase " bearing away the bell." The turf indeed appears
to have attracted a great deal of notice, and the systematic
preparation of running horses was studied, attention being
paid to their feeding and training, to the instruction of jockeys
although private matches between gentlemen who rode their
own horses were very common, and to the adjustment of
weights, which were usually about 10 stone. The sport also
seems to have taken firm hold of the people, and to have become
very popular.
The reign of Charles I., which commenced in 1625, saw still
more marked strides made, for the king not only patronized the
728
HORSE-RACING
[GREAT BRITAIN
racing at Newmarket, which we know was current in 1640, but
thoroughly established it there, and built a stand house in 1667,
since which year the races have been annual. Mention is likewise
made in the comedy of the Merry Beggars, played in 1641, of
races, both horse and foot, in Hyde Park, which were patronized
by Charles I., who gave a silver cup, value 100 guineas, to be
run for instead of bells. Butcher, in his survey of the town of
Stamford (1646), also says that a race was annually run in that
town for a silver and gilt cup and cover, of the value of 7 or 8,
provided by the care of the aldermen for the time being out of
the interest of a stock formerly made by the nobility and gentry
of the neighbourhood.
In 1648 Clarendon tells us that a meeting of Royalists was
held at Banstead Downs, as Epsom Downs were then called,
" under the pretence of a horse-race," so that horse-racing at
Epsom was not unknown early in the i7th century; Pepys,
too, in his Diary of 1663, mentions his having intended to go to
Banstead Downs to see a famous horse-race. Cromwell is said
to have kept running horses in the year 1653, but in 1654 he
appears to have gone so far as to forbid racing for six and
eight months respectively. After the Reformation in 1660, a new
impetus was given to horse-racing, which had languished during
the civil wars, and the races at Newmarket, which had been
suspended, were restored and attended by the king; and as an
additional spur to emulation, according to Youatt, royal plates
were given at each of the principal courses, and royal mares,
as they were called, were imported from abroad. Charles II.
rebuilt the house originally erected at Newmarket by James I.,
which had fallen into decay. The Round course was made in
1666, and racing at the headquarters of the turf was regulated
in the most systematic way, as to the course, weights and other
conditions. Charles II. was the first monarch who entered and
ran horses in his own name; and, besides being a frequent
visitor at the races on Newmarket Heath, and on Burford
Downs, near Stockbridge, where the Bibury Club meeting was
held, he established races at Datchet. In the reign of James II.
nothing specially noteworthy occurred, but William III. con-
tinued former crown donations and even added to them.
Anne was much devoted to horse-racing, and not only gave
royal plates to be competed for, but ran horses for them in her
own name. In 1703 Doncaster races were established, when
4 guineas a year were voted by the corporation towards a plate,
and in 1716 the Town Plate was established by the same authority
to be run on Doncaster Moor. Nearly a century, however,
elapsed before the St Leger was instituted. Matches at New-
market had become common, for we find that Basto, one of the
earliest race-horses of whom we hav: any authentic account,
won several matches there in 1708 and 1709. In the latter
year, according to Camden, York races were established, the
course at first being on Clifton Ings, but it was subsequently
removed to Knavesmire, on which the races are now run. In
1710 the first gold cup said to have been given by the queen,
of 60 guineas value, was run for by six-year-old horses carrying
12 stone each, the best of three 4-mile heats, and was won by
Bay Bolton. In 1711 it was increased to 100 guineas. In 1712
Queen Anne's gelding Pepper ran for the Royal Cup of 100 at
York, and her Mustard, a nutmeg-grey horse, ran for the same
prize in 1713. Again in 1714 her Majesty's bay horse Star won
a sweepstake of 10 guineas added to a plate of 40 at the same
place, in four heats, carrying n stone. In 1716 the Ladies'
Plate at York for five-year-olds was won by Aleppo, son of the
Darley Arabian. Racing and match-making continued to be a
regular sport at Newmarket, and at York and Hambleton, and
we also find a record of a race at Lincoln in August 1717 for
a silver tea-board, won by Brocklesby Betty, as was the Queen's
Plate at Black Hambleton in the year before.
Between 1714 and 1720 there were races at Pontefract in
Yorkshire for plates or money. The best of two out of three
heats was to be the winner, provided the said horse was not
distanced in the third heatthe distance post being i furlong
from the winning post; and this appears to have been a usual
condition. In or about the year 1721 Flying Childers is said to
have run a trial against Almanzor and Brown Betty over the
Round course at Newmarket (3 m. 4 f. 93 y.) in 6 m. 40 s., and
another trial over the Beacon course (4 m. i f. 138 y.) in 7 m. 30 s.
which is fast even for a six-year old; but it is just possible that
in those days the art of time-taking was anything but perfect.
In 1721 George I. gave 100 guineas in specie in lieu of the gold
cup at York presented by Anne, and the king's or queen's
plates have been given in cash ever since. In 1725 a ladies'
plate was run for on the i4th of September by female riders on
Ripon Heath in Yorkshire. In 1 727 Mr John Cheney established
the Racing Calendar an historical list of all the horse matches
run, and of all plates and prizes run for in England and Wales
of the value of 10 or upwards in 1727, &c. No systematic
records had till then been preserved of the running of the race-
horses of the day, and it is only through the performances of
certain celebrated horses and mares that we have any informa-
tion of what actually took place, and even that is more or less
of a fragmentary kind. At this time racing was thoroughly
established as a national and popular sport, for there were
upwards of a hundred meetings in England and Wales; but the
plates or sweepstakes run for were for the most part of small
value, as 10, 20, 30, 40, and sometimes 50. In 1727,
according to Whyte, there were only a dozen royal plates run for
in England: one at Newmarket in April for six-year-old horses
at 12 stone each, in heats over the Round course first called
the King's Plate course; one for five-year-old mares at 10 stone
each, in one heat, and another in October for six-year-old horses
at 12 stone, in heats over the same course; one at York (which
commenced in 1711) for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each,
4-m. heats; one at Black Hambleton, Yorkshire (of which no
regular account was kept until 1715), for five-year-old mares,
10 stone, 4 m.; one at each of the following places, Nottingham,
Lincoln, Guildford, Winchester, Salisbury and Lewes, for six-
year-old horses, 12 stone each, 4-m. heats; and one at Ipswich
for five-year-old horses, 10 stone each. A royal plate was also
run for at Edinburgh in 1728 or 1729, and one at the Curragh
of Kildare in 1741.
In 1739 an act was passed to prevent racing by ponies and
weak horses, 13 Geo. II. cap. 10, which also prohibited prizes
or plates of less value than 50. At this period the best horses
seldom ran more than five or six times, and some not so often,
there being scarcely any plates of note except royal ones, and
very few sweepstakes or matches of value except at Newmarket
until after 1750; moreover, as the races were run in heats,
best three out of four, over a course of several miles in length, the
task set the horses before winning a plate was very severe, and
by no means commensurate with the value of the prize. In
1751 the great subscription races commenced at York, the city
also giving 50 added money to each day's racing. At New-
market there were only two meetings, one in April and the
other in October, but in 1753 a second spring meeting was
established, and in that year the Jockey Club, which was founded
in 175, established the present racing ground. In 1762 a
second October meeting was added, in 1765 the July meeting,
in 1770 the Houghton meeting, and in 1771 the Craven meeting.
In 1766 Tattersall's was established at Hyde Park Corner by
Richard Tattersall for the sale of horses; it remained the great
emporium of horses, and the rendezvous for betting on horse
races, until 1865, when, the lease of the premises at the Corner
having run out, it was removed to Knightsbridge.
We now come to a very important period that at which the
great three-year-old races were instituted.
The St Leger was established in 1776 by Colonel St Leger, who
resided at Parkhill, near Doncaster. On the 24th of September,
during the Doncaster races, which took place annually
in the autumn, at his suggestion a sweepstake of Leger.
25 guineas each for three-year-old colts and fillies
was run over a 2-m. course; there were six competitors, the
property of as many subscribers, a very small beginning, it
must be owned. The race was won by a filly by Sampson,
belonging to Lord Rockingham, which was afterwards named
AUabaculia. In the following year the same stake had twelve
GREAT BRITAIN]
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729
subscribers and ten starters, and was won by Mr Sotheron's
Bourbon. It was not, however, until the succeeding year, 1778,
that it was named the St Leger, in compliment to the founder,
at the suggestion of the marquis of Rockingham. The stakes
were increased in 1832 to 50 sovs. each, and the weights have
been raised from time to time to keep pace with modern re-
quirements. The Doncaster Cup, a weight for age race for three-
year-olds and upwards, was established in 1801. The course is
nearly flat, of an oval or kite shape, about if m. round the
town-moor.
The Epsom Derby and Oaks were established in 1779 and
1780, the Oaks in the former and the Derby in the latter year.
It is true that in 1730 Epsom races became annual, but
t ' le P r ' zes were nothing more than the usual plates
run for in heats, the money required being raised by
voluntary subscriptions, as well by the owners of booths on
the downs as by the parties more immediately interested,
whence arose the custom of charges being made by the lord of
the manor for permission to erect booths, &c. during the race-
meetings. On the I4th of May 1779 the twelfth earl of Derby
originated the Oaks stakes (named after his seat or hunting-box
" The Oaks " at Woodmansterne), a sweepstake for three-year-
old fillies run on a course i| m. long. The race was won by
Lord Derby's bay filly Bridget, bred by himself her sire
being Herod and her dam Jemima. In the following year the
earl established a sweepstake of 50 sovs. each, half forfeit, for
three-year-old colts. This, the first Derby, was won by Sir C.
Bunbury's chestnut colt Diomed by Florizel, son of Herod, who
beat eight opponents, including the duke of Bolton's Bay
Bolton and Lord Grosvenor's Diadem. These two races have
since been run for regularly every year, the Derby, which before
1839 was run on the Thursday, now taking place on the Wednes-
day, and the Oaks on the Friday, in the same week at the end
of May.
Ascot races, which are held on Ascot Heath, were established
by the duke of Cumberland, uncle of George III., and are
patronized by royalty in state or semi-state. They are
Races. mentioned in the first Racing Calendar, published in
1727, but the races were for the most part plates and
other prizes of small importance, though a royal plate for hunters
appears to have been given in 1 785. The Gold Cup was first given
in 1807, and has been regularly competed for ever since, though
from 1845 to 1853 inclusive it went by the designation of the
Emperor's Plate, the prize being offered by the emperor of Russia.
In 1854, during the Crimean War, the cup was again called the
Ascot Gold Cup, and was given from the race fund. The Queen's
Vase was first given in 1838, and the Royal Hunt Cup in 1843,
while in 1865 a new long-distance race for four-year-olds and
upwards was established, and named the Alexandra Plate, after
the Princess of Wales.
Goodwood races were established by the duke of Richmond
on the downs at the northern edge of Goodwood Park in 1802,
upon the earl of Egremont discontinuing races in his
park at Petworth. The races take place at the end
of July, on the close of the London season. The Goodwood
Cup, the chief prize of the meeting, was first given in 1812;
but from 1815 to 1824 inclusive there was no race for it, with
the single exception of 1816.
During the latter half of the i8th century horse-racing de-
clined very much in England, and numbers of meetings were
discontinued, the wars which took place necessarily
thousand causm g tne change. From the beginning of the igth
Ac. ' century, and especially after the conclusion of the
French war in 1815, racing rapidly revived, and many
new meetings were either founded or renewed after a period of
suspension, and new races were from time to time established.
Among others the Two Thousand Guineas at Newmarket for
three-year-old colts and fillies, and the One Thousand Guineas
for fillies, were established in 1809 and 1814 respectively, the
Goodwood Stakes in 1823, the Chester Cup and Brighton Stakes
in 1824, the Liverpool Summer Cup in 1828, the Northumberland
Plate in 1833, the Manchester Cup in 1834, the Ascot Stakes
Goodwood.
and the Cesarewitch and Cambridgeshire Handicaps at New-
market in 1839, the Stewards' and Chesterfield Cups at Goodwood
in 1840, the Great Ebor Handicap at York in 1843, and, to omit
others, the City and Suburban Handicap at Epsom in 1851,
and the Lincoln Handicap in 1853.
Two-year-old racing was established very shortly after the
great three-year-old races, and on a similar footing, that is to
say, the competitors carried the same weights, with the exception
of a slight allowance for sex, the July Stakes at the Newmarket
Midsummer Meeting having been founded as early as 1 786. The
Woodcote Stakes at Epsom succeeded in 1807, the Champagne
Stakes at Doncaster in 1823, the Criterion Stakes at the Houghton
Meeting in 1829, the Chesterfield Stakes at the Newmarket
July meeting in 1834, the New Stakes at Ascot in 1843, the
Middle Park Plate (or two-year-old Derby, as it is sometimes
called) at the Newmarket Second October Meeting in 1866, the
Dewhurst Plate at the Houghton Meeting in 1875, and the Rich-
mond Stakes at Goodwood in 1877. (E. D. B.)
Present Conditions. Horse-racing, usually described as " the
national sport," has greatly advanced in general popularity
in the British Isles. There is no doubt that the best
specimens of the English thoroughbred horse are the
finest animals of their kind in existence; the value of an England.
infusion of the blood for chargers, hunters, hacks, and
other varieties is scarcely to be overestimated; and the only way
of ascertaining what animals may be most judiciously employed
for breeding purposes is to submit them to the tests of preparation
for and performance on the turf. Racing is therefore a practical
necessity. On some accepted authority, the origin of which is
not to be traced, five races run each season by three-year-olds
are distinguished as " classic." Of these the chief, by universal
consent, is the Derby, which takes place at Epsom during the
week which includes the 3 ist May. The Epsom course, on which
the Derby has been run since its origin in 1780, is by no means
a good one, in consequence of the abrupt turn at Tattenham
Corner; and the severe descent after this turn is made is also
held to be a disadvantage, though a really good horse should be
able to act on ascents, descents and level ground with equal
relative facility. In many respects the St Leger, run at Don-
caster about the middle of September, is a better test, as here
colts and fillies meet when both are presumably able to do
themselves the fullest justice. September, indeed, has been
called " the Mares' Month," for though fillies are eligible to run
in the Derby, they are very frequently out of sorts and always
more or less uncertain in their performances during the summer
only four have been successful in 129 contests for the stake
whereas in the autumn their numerous victories in the St Leger
prove them to be at their best. It was the recognition of this
fact which induced an alteration of the weights in the year 1882,
previously to which fillies had carried 5 Ib less than colts; the
weights, formerly 8 st. 10 Ib and 8 st. 5 Ib, are now 9 st. and
8 st. nib. The Doncaster course is superior for racing purposes
to that at Epsom, where the Oaks, another of the " classic
races," is run on the Friday following the Derby; the other
two contests which come into this category being the Two
Thousand Guineas for colts and fillies, and the One Thousand
Guineas for fillies only. These races take place at Newmarket
during the First Spring Meeting, the former always on a
Wednesday, the latter on Friday. The expression " a Derby
horse " is common, but has no precise significance, as the three-
year-olds vary much in capacity from year to year. It is
generally understood, for instance, that Ormonde, who won
the Derby in 1886, must have been at least 21 ft superior to
Sir Visto or Jeddah, who were successful in 1895 and 1898. By
their ability to carry weight the value of horses is estimated
on the turf. Thus one horse who beats another by a length
over a distance of a mile would be described as a 5-ft better
animal.
The term " handicap horse " once had an adverse significance
which it does not now possess. In handicaps horses carry
weight according to their presumed capacity, as calculated
by handicappers who are licensed by the Jockey Club and
730
HORSE-RACING
[GREAT BRITAIN
employed by the directors of different meetings. The idea of a
handicap is to afford chances of success to animals who would
have no prospect of winning if they met their rivals on
Worse's" 1 * ec l ua l terms; but of late years the value of handicaps
has been so greatly increased that few owners resist
the temptation of taking part in them. Horses nowadays who
do not run in this kind of contest are very rare, though a few,
such as Ormonde, Isinglass, and Persimmon, never condescended
to this class of sport. The duke of Westminster did not hesitate
to put his Derby winner Bend Or into some of the chief handicaps;
and it is, of course, a great test of merit when horses carrying
heavy weights show marked superiority in these contests to
rivals of good reputation more lightly burdened. St Gatien,
who dead-heated with Harvester in the Derby of 1884; Robert
the Devil, who won the St Leger in 1880 and on several occasions
beat the Derby winner Bend Or; and La Fleche, who won the
Oaks and the St Leger in 1892, added to the esteem in which they
were held by their successes under heavy weights, the colts in the
Cesarewitch, the filly in the Cambridgeshire. Of the chief handi-
caps of the year, special mention may be made of the City and
Suburban, run at the Epsom Spring Meeting over ij m.; the
Kempton Park Jubilee, over i m.; the Ascot Stakes, 2 m., and
the Royal Hunt Cup, i m.; the Stewards' Cup at Goodwood,
six furlongs; the Cesarewitch Stakes and the Cambridgeshire
Stakes at Newmarket, the former 2j m., the latter now a mile and
a furlong till lately it was " a mile and a distance " " a
distance " on the Turf being a fixed limit of 240 yds. The cups at
Manchester, Newbury, and Liverpool are also handicaps of some
note, though it may be remarked that the expression " a cup
horse " is understood to imply an animal capable of distinguish-
ing himself over a long distance at even weights against the
best opponents. There are many other valuable stakes of
almost equal importance, diminishing to what are known as
" selling handicaps," the winners of which are always put up for
sale by auction immediately after the race, in the lowest class
of them the condition being that the winner is to be offered for
50. No stake of less than 100 can be run for under Jockey
Club rules, which govern all reputable flat racing in England,
nor is any horse ever entered to be sold for less than 50. As
horses mature they are naturally able to carry heavier weights.
Scale of Weight for Age.
The following scale of weight for age is published under the sanc-
tion of the Stewards of the Jockey Club as a guide to managers
Age.
Mar. and
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct. and
Nov.
Five Furlongs
st. Ib
st. Ib
St. ft
St. ft
St. ft
St. Ib
St. ft
Two years ....
6 o
6 2
6 7
6 9
7 o
7 4
7 7
Three years
8 2
8 3
8 5
8 7
8 9
8 10
8 ii
Four years ....
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9
Five, six and aged
9 i
9 o
9
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
Six Furlongs
Two years ....
6 o
6 4
6 7
6 ii
7 o
7 5
7 7
Three years
8 4
8 6
8 8
8 10
8 12
9 o
9 2
Four years ....
9 7
9 7
9 7
9 7
9 7
9 7
9 7
Five, six and aged
9 9
9 8
9 7
9 7
9 7
9 7
9 7
One Mile
Two years ....
6 5
6 7
Three years
7 9
7 "
7 13
8 2
s" 4
8 5
8 6
Four years ....
9
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
Five, six and aged
9 4
9 3
9 2
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
One Mile and a Half
Two years ....
6 o
6 4
Three years
77
7 9
7 ii
7 13
8 i
8 3
8 5
Four years ....
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
Five, six and aged
9 5
9 4
9 3
9 2
9 i
9 o
9 o
Two Miles
Two years ....
6 o
6 2
Three years
7"
7 ii
7 12
80
8"3
8 4
8 5
Four years ....
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
Five, six and aged
9 10
9 9
9 8
9 7
9 6
9 5
9 4
Three Miles
Three years
7 i
7 4
7 5
7 7
7 9
7 ii
7 13
Four years ....
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9 o
9
Five years ....
9 8
9 7
9 6
9 5
9 5
9 4
9 3
Six and aged
9 10
9 8
9 7
9 6
9 5
9 4
9 3
of race meetings, but is not intended to be imperative, especially
as regards the weights of two- and three-year olds relatively to the
old horses in selling races early in the year. It is founded on the
scale published by Admiral Rous, and revised by him in 1873, but
has been modified in accordance with suggestions from the principal
trainers and practical authorities.
In the year 1884 the managers of Sandown Park formulated
the scheme of a race for a prize of 10,000, to be called the
Eclipse Stakes, and to be run over a distance of ij m.
In order to secure a large entry, horses were to be
nominated soon after their birth; owners who per-
ceived the hopelessness of their nominations could withdraw
at stated intervals by the payment of increasing forfeits; if
their animals finally went to the post a stake amounting in
all to 115 would have to be paid for them; and thus it will be
seen that owners were really running for their own money, though
if there were an insufficient number of entries the funds of the
club might be taxed to supply the deficiency. The scheme was
found to be attractive, and the example was followed at Leicester
and at Manchester, at both of which places, however, it lapsed.
At Newmarket, under the immediate auspices of the Jockey Club,
the 10,000 races succeeded, and there were two of them each
year. The Princess of Wales's Stakes was run for the first time in
1894 at the First July Meeting, and the Jockey Club Stakes at
the First October. The former has, however, now been reduced
to 2000 added to a sweepstake of 30 each with a minor forfeit.
In the year 1900 a fourth race of similar character, the Century
Stakes, was originated at Sandown, but the experiment proved
a failure, and the. contest was discontinued.
The age of the thoroughbred horse is always dated from the
ist January. Foals are generally born in February, March or
April, though not a few good horses have been born in
May; they become yearlings, therefore, on the ist
January following, two-year-olds twelve months later,
and many of them begin to race in the following March, for flat
racing always starts during the week which contains the 25th,
except when Easter falls unusually early. In France no two-
year-olds run until the ist August, and discussion is frequently
raised as to the respective wisdom of the English and French
systems. It happens, however, that some young horses " come
to hand " soon, and deteriorate with equal rapidity. They are,
in fact, able to win races at the beginning of the season, and fail
to hold their own later in the year against bigger and more
powerful animals of their own age who have taken longer to
mature; so that there is some argument in favour of the earlier
date. The first noteworthy two-year-old race is the
Brocklesby Stakes, run at Lincoln during the first
week of the season. Sometimes the winner of the
Brocklesby is really a good animal, as was the case
with The Bard in 1885 and Donovan in 1888, but as
a general rule when the autumn comes he is found to
be far inferior to the winners of subsequent two-year-
old races of good class. It is seldom that a first-class
two-year-old appears before the Ascot Meeting about
the middle of June, though horses of character some-
times run for the Woodcote Stakes at Epsom and in
other contests elsewhere. The names of many of the
most famous horses on the turf are found in the list
of winners of the New Stakes at Ascot, which was first
run in 1843 and maintains its character. In 1890 the
Coventry Stakes was originated, and is regarded as a
race of practically equal importance. The July Stakes
at Newmarket is the oldest of existing two-year-old
races, having been first run in 1786. The list of
winners is a brilliant one. The Chesterfield Stakes
ranks with it. The best two-year-olds are usually
seen out at Goodwood, and as a general rule those
that have chiefly distinguished themselves during the
year, and are to make names for themselves later in
life, are found contesting the Middle Park Plate at
the Newmarket Second October Meeting and the
Dewhurst Plate at the Newmarket Houghton. The
Middle Park Plate is generally worth over 2000, the
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HORSE-RACING
73 1
other races named are between 1000 and 2000 in value;
but these are not the richest two-year-old prizes of the
year, the value of the National Breeders' Produce Stakes at
Sandown, run on the day following the Eclipse, being between
4000 and 5000, and the Imperial Stakes at Kempton Park
falling not very far short of 3000. As a rule, a colt who
has been specially successful as a two-year-old maintains
his capacity later in life, unless it be found that he cannot
" stay " that is to say, is unable to maintain his best speed
over more than five or sLx furlongs; but it is frequently the
case that fillies who have won good races as two-year-olds
entirely lose their form and meet with little or no success
afterwards.
Newmarket is called with reason " the headquarters of the
Turf." There are about forty training establishments in the
town, each trainer being in charge of an average of
thirty to forty horses, irrespective of mares, foals and
yearlings. During the year eight race meetings are
held on the Heath: the Craven; the First and Second Spring;
the First and Second October the First October usually
occurring at the end of September; and the Houghton. These
are contested on "the Flat," the course which includes the Rowley
Mile. It is said that the Rowley Mile is so called from the
fact of its having been a favourite race-ground with Charles II.
The First and Second July Meetings take place on another
course, known as " Behind the Ditch," the Ditch being the
huge embankment which runs through several counties and
has existed from time immemorial. The Craven Stakes for
three-year-olds is an event of some importance at the first meeting
of the year. It used to finish on an ascent at what is called
the " Top of the Town," a course over which the handicap for the
Cambridgeshire was run. This course has now been abandoned
and the stand pulled down. At the First Spring Meeting the
Two Thousand Guineas and the One Thousand Guineas occur,
as already stated, but the names do not represent the values of
the stakes, which are, in fact, usually worth close on 5000 each.
The July Stakes and the Princess of Wales' Stakes are run at
the First July Meeting. The Jockey Club Stakes is the leading
event of the First October; the Cesare witch and the Middle
Park Plates follow in the Second October; the Criterion Stakes,
another of the few races that once finished at the " Top of the
Town," the Cambridgeshire and the Dewhurst Plate take place at
the Houghton Meeting. The majority of races finish at the Rowley
Mile post ; but there are three other winning-posts along the
Rowley Mile. " Behind the Ditch " races finish at two different
posts, one of which enables horses to avoid the necessity of gallop-
ing up the severe ascent of the " Bunbury Mile." Although, as
a rule, there is no better racing to be seen than the best events
at Newmarket, the programmes are often spun out by
o/fter a " d se " m plates and paltry handicaps, and a high level is
meetings, nowhere so consistently maintained as at Ascot.
The Ascot meeting is distinguished by the entire
absence of selling plates, and much more "added money" is
given than on any other course. Added money is the sum sup-
plied by the directors of a race meeting, derived by them from the
amounts paid for entrances to stands and enclosures; for in many
races the Ten Thousand prizes, for instance owners run mainly
or entirely for money which they have themselves provided.
The Ascot Cup is generally spoken of as a race success in which
sets the seal to the fame of a good horse. It is a prize of the highest
distinction, and of late years has been of considerable value, the
winner in 1909 having gained for his owner 3430. That the
number of runners for this race should be invariably small
the average for many years past has been about six is not a
matter of surprise to those who are familiar with the Turf.
There are very few horses possessing sufficient speed and staying
power to make it worth the while of their owners to submit
them to the exceedingly severe test of a preparation for this race,
which is run over 2^ m. of ground at a time of year when the
turf is almost always extremely hard everywhere, and harder at
Ascot than almost anywhere else. There is no course on which
more good horses have hopelessly broken down. All the prizes
Value of
horses.
are handsome, and success at Ascot confers much prestige,
for the reason that the majority of horses that run are good
ones; but annually there is a list of victims that never recover
from the effects of galloping on this ground. Goodwood also
attracts horses of high character, though some unimportant
races fill out the programme. Formerly there were many
meetings around London, which fell into disrepute in consequence
of the manner in which they were conducted. These have been
replaced by well-managed gatherings in enclosed parks, and here
the value of the prizes is often so high that th,e best horses in
training are attracted. These meetings include Sandown,
Kempton, Gatwick, Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park. Liver-
pool, Manchester, Birmingham, Brighton.York and various other
towns have race meetings twice or oftener in the course of each
year. At the various fixtures over half a million of money is
annually given in stakes. The largest sum ever won by a horse
was the 57,185 gained by Isinglass in 1892-1895. Donovan
follows with 54,935- In all probability these large totals would
have been considerably exceeded had not Flying Fox who had
won in his first two seasons 40,090 been disqualified by the
death of his owner, the duke of Westminster, as this colt was
engaged in the four 10,000 races of 1900, in which to all appear-
ance he could not have been beaten, so much was he superior
to his contemporaries. The death of an owner of horses dis-
qualifies the animals he has entered- a necessary regulation, as
otherwise an heir might be burdened with a stable of horses the
possession of which would entail heavy expense and serious
responsibility on a person who perhaps had no knowledge of or
taste for racing.
The value of an unquestionably good horse is enormous.
It has been seen what handsome prizes are offered for competition,
and when withdrawn from the Turf the horse may
secure a large income to his owner at the stud. A
stallion's fee of 600 guineas (as in the case of St
Simon) should mean well over 20,000 a year; and fees of 100
guineas and more are common. Proved merit on the Turf is
considered essential in a sire, though there have been instances
of horses, unsuccessful during their racing career, who have
distinguished themselves at the stud: Wisdom, sire of the Derby
winner Sir Hugo, and several notable examples might be cited.
Mares are much more uncertain in this respect. On the whole,
the famous mares that have won the Oaks, the St Lege r and
other leading races, have been apt to fail in the paddocks; but
there is always a hope of success with them, and the large sum
of 12,600 guineas was paid for La Fleche when she had ceased
from active service on the Turf. For None-the-Wiser 7200
guineas was given; and 4600 guineas for Wedlock when well
advanced in years, on the strength of her having been the dam
of a good horse called Best Man. Well-bred mares that have
shown no capacity for racing are, however, frequently the dams
of good winners. Breeding is a lottery. An Australian enthusiast
some years since published a book the object of which was to
enable breeders to produce good horses by a species of mathe-
matical calculation; but the fallacy of the " Figure System "
was at once proved by the simple circumstance that in very
many cases the own brothers and sisters of good winners, whose
breeding conformed entirely to the system, proved to be utterly
worthless for racing purposes. It is a fact difficult of explanation
that the majority of famous winners have been privately bred
by their owners. Many persons breed for sale, in some cases
sparing no expense or trouble in the endeavour to secure good
results, and yearlings sold by auction have fetched prices of
from 10,000 guineas (paid for Sceptre, a daughter of Persimmon
and Ornament, in 1900) downwards; sums of over 1000 guineas
being frequently given. That so large a proportion of high-
priced yearlings should turn out failures is not at all a matter
for surprise, considering the uncertainties of the Turf, but it
by no means follows that a high-priced yearling is necessarily
an expensive animal; 5500 guineas was, for instance, given for
La Fleche, who won for her owner 34,585 in stakes, and, as
already observed, was subsequently sold for 12,600 guineas.
The principal yearling sales take place during the July meeting
732
HORSE-RACING
[GREAT BRITAIN
at Newmarket and the Doncaster meeting in September. There
are also sales at Ascot and elsewhere. The Royal Stud at Bushey
Park, where Memoir, La Fleche, Best Man and other good
animals were bred, has now been abandoned.
In many cases trainers have graduated from jockeys. The
usual charge to an owner is 503. a week per horse, but, as regards
the cost of a horse in training, to this there are various
additions irrespective of entrances to races, forfeits,
jocteys. travelling, jockey's fees, &c. The recognized sum
paid to a jockey is 3 guineas for a losing mount, 5
guineas for winning. In many cases special terms are made;
the principal owners usually have a claim on a rider's services,
and for this call as much as 5000 per annum, exclusive of the
usual riding fees, has been given.
From time immemorial until within a very recent period
jockeys rode in 'much the same style, though, of course, with
varying degrees of skill. Many hundreds of boys exercise daily
at Newmarket and other training grounds, all of them necessarily
having a firm seat in the saddle, for the thoroughbred horse is,
as a rule, high-couraged and apt to play violent tricks; but
though most of these lads find chances to distinguish themselves
in trials and races for apprentices, probably not 5 % grow
into professional jockeys, increasing weight keeping many from the
business, as a jockey has few chances unless he can ride well
under 9 stone. Knowledge of pace is a rare gift or acquisition
which is essential to successful jockeyship. The rider must
also be quick to perceive how his own horse is going what he
has " left in him "; he must -understand at a glance which of
his rivals are beaten and which are still likely to be dangerous;
must know when the moment comes for the supreme effort to
be made, and how to -balance and prepare the horse for that
critical struggle. At the beginning of the race the jockey used
to stand in his stirrups, with the idea of removing weight from
the horse's back and preserving perfect steadiness; towards the
end of the race, if it were necessary to drive the animal home,
he sat down " to finish."
This method used to be adopted in all countries, but recently
a new system came into practice in America. Instead of putting
the saddle in the middle of the horse's back, where it had always
been placed previously, it was shifted forward on to the animal's
withers. The jockey rode with very short stirrups, leaning
forward over the neck and grasping the reins within a few
inches of the horse's mouth. The appearance of this was un-
gainly in the extreme and an entire departure from ancient ways
(though Fordham and a few other riders of great reputation had
always sat much more forward than their contemporaries),
but it was found to be remarkably effective. From the position
thus adopted there was less resistance to the wind, and though
the saving in this respect was largely exaggerated, in racing,
where success or failure is frequently a matter of a very few inches,
every h'ttle that helps is to be considered. The value of the
discovery lay almost entirely in the fact that the horse carries
weight better and is therefore able to stride out more freely
when it is placed well forward on his shoulders. With char-
acteristic conservatism the English were slow to accept the
new plan. Several American jockeys, however, came to England.
In all the main attributes of horsemanship there was no reason
to believe that they were in the least superior to English jockeys,
but their constant successes required explanation, and the only
way to account for them appeared to be that horses derived a
marked advantage from the new system of saddling. A number
of English riders followed the American lead, and those who
did so met with an unusual degree of success. Race-riding, in-
deed, was in a very great measure revolutionized in the closing
years of the igth century.
Of late years American horses bred, it must always be
remembered, from stock imported from England have won
many races in England. Australian horses have also
Worses. Deen sent to ^e mother country, with results re-
munerative to their owners, and the intermixture of
blood which will necessarily result should have beneficial con-
sequences. French horses i.e. horses bred in France from
Time.
immediate or from more or less remote English parentage
have also on various occasions distinguished themselves on
English racecourses. That coveted trophy, the Ascot Cup, was
won by a French horse, Elf II., in 1898, it having fallen also to
the French-bred Verneuil in 1878, to Boiard in 1874, to Henry in
1872 and to Mortemer in 1871. In the Cesarewitch Plaisanterie
(3 yrs., 7 st. 8 Ib) and Tenebreuse (4 yrs., 8 st. 12 Ib) were suc-
cessful in 1885 and 1888; and Plaisanterie also carried off the
Cambridgeshire as a three-year-old with the heavy weight of
8 st. 12 Ib in a field of 27 runners. In most respects racing
in France is conducted with praiseworthy discrimination. There
are scarcely any of the five- and six-furlong scrambles for horses
over two years old which are such common features of English
programmes.
That the horses who have covered various distances in the
shortest times on record must have been exceptionally speedy
animals is obvious. The times of races, however,
frequently form a most deceptive basis in any attempt
to gauge the relative capacity of horses. A good animal will
often win a race in bad time, for the reason that his opponents
are unable to make him exert himself to the utmost. Not seldom
a race is described as having been " won in a canter," and
this necessarily signifies that if the winner had been harder
pressed he would have completed the course more quickly.
The following figures show the shortest times that had been
occupied in winning over various distances up to the spring
of 1910:
H. S.
( Mirida (2 years), Epsom, 1905 )
Le Buff (aged), Epsom, 1903 [ o 56|
Master Willie (aged), Epsom, 1903 )
Master Willie (5 years), Epsom, 1901 I "]\
Vay (4 years), Epsom, 1907 I 20
Caiman (4 years), Lingfield, 1900 I 33
Housewife (3 years), Brighton, 1904 2 I
Zinfandel (3 years), Manchester, 1903 2 28;
Golden Measure (4 years), York, 1906 2 57
Pradella (aged), Ascot, 1906 3 193
Bachelor's Button, Ascot, 1906 4 23^
Corrie Roy, Ascot, 1884 5 9
Five furlongs
Six furlongs
Seven furlongs
Mile
Mile and a quarter
Mile and a half
Mile and three quarters
Two miles . . . .
Two miles and a half .
Three miles
It may be noted that, as compared with similar records in 1901,
only three of these latter held good in 1910, i.e. the mile, the six fur-
longs and the three miles. The fastest times over a mile and a half
(the Derby and Oaks distance) up to 1901 may be repeated here as
of some interest: Avidity, 2 mm. y>\ sees., in September 1901 at
Doncaster; Santoi, 2 min. 31 sees., in May 1901 at Hurst Park;
King's Courier, 2 min. 31 sees., in 1900 at Hurst Park; Landrail,
2 min. 34 sees., in September 1899 at Doncaster; Carbiston, 2 min.
37! sees., in August 1899 at York; Bend Or, 2 min. 40 sees., in 1881
at Epsom (gold cup): Volodyoyski won the Derby in 1901, and
Memoir the Oaks in 1890, in 2 min. 40 J sees.
As regards time in famous races, Ormonde, perhaps the best
horse of the igth century one, at any rate, that can scarcely
have had a superior occupied 2 minutes 45$ seconds in winning
the Derby; and Lonely, one of the worst mares that have won
the Oaks, galloped the same mile and a half in 2 seconds less.
Ormonde's St Leger time was 3m. 2 if s., and Sir Visto, one of
the poorest specimens of a winner of the great Doncaster race,
took 3 m. i8f s. The regulation of the weight to be carried
serves to " bring the horses together," as the popular sporting
phrase runs that is to say, it equalizes their chances of
winning; hence handicaps, the carrying of penalties by winners
of previous races, and the granting of " maiden allowances."
A horse that has never won a race, and is therefore known as a
" maiden," often has an allowance of as much as 7 Ib made in
its favour.
Sport is carried on under the auspices of the Jockey Club, a self-
elected body of the highest standing, whose powers are absolute
and whose sway is judicious and beneficent. Three
stewards, one of whom retires each year, when a
successor is nominated, govern the active and ex-
tremely arduous work of the club. They grant licences
to trainers and jockeys and all officials, and supervise the
whole business of racing. The stewards of the Jockey Club
are ex officio stewards of Ascot, Epsom, Goodwood and
*
GREAT BRITAIN]
HORSE-RACING
733
Doncaster. All other meetings are controlled by stewards,
usually well-known patrons of the Turf invited to act by
the projectors of the fixture, who settle disputed points, hear
and adjudicate on objections, &c., and, if special difficulties
arise, report to the stewards of the Jockey Club, whose decision
is final.
Steeplechasing has altered entirely since the first introduction
of this essentially British sport. In early days men were
accustomed to match their hunters against each other
chasing. an ^ "de across country to a fixed point near to some
steeple which guided them on. their way; and this is
no doubt, in several respects, a class of sport superior to that now
practised under the name of Steeplechasing; for 'it tested the
capacity of the horse to jump fences of all descriptions, and
provided the rider with opportunities of showing his readiness and
skill in picking the best line of country. But racing of this kind
afforded spectators a very small chance of watching the struggle ;
and made-up steeplechase courses, the whole circuit of which
could be viewed from the enclosures, came into existence.
The steeplechase horse has also changed. The speed of the
thoroughbred is so much greater than that of all other breeds
that if one were in the field, if he only stood up and could jump
a little, his success was certain; consequently, except in " point-
to-point " races, organized by various hunts, where a qualifica-
tion is that all starters must have been regularly ridden with
hounds, few other than thoroughbred horses are nowadays
ever found in races run under the rules of the National Hunt
Committee, the body which governs the sport of Steeplechasing.
A considerable proportion of existing steeplechase horses have
done duty on the flat. Members of certain equine families
display a special aptitude for jumping; thus the descendants
of Hermit, who won the Derby in 1867, are very frequently
successful in steeplechases Hermit's son Ascetic, the sire
of Cloister, Hidden Mystery and other good winners, is a notable
case in point. The sons and daughters of Timothy and of several
pther Hermit horses often jump well. When a flat-race horse
appears to have comparatively poor prospects of winning under
Jockey Club rules, he is frequently, if he " looks like jumping,"
schooled for Steeplechasing, generally in the first place over
hurdles, and subsequently over what is technically called " a
country," beginning with small fences, over which he canters, led
by some steady animal who is to be depended on to show the way.
A great many steeplechase horses also come from Ireland. They
are usually recognizable as thoroughbred, though it is possible
that in some cases the name of an ancestor may be missing from
the Stud Book. Irish horse-masters are for the most part particu-
larly skilful in schooling jumpers^ and the grass and climate of
Ireland appear to have beneficial effects on young stock;
but, as a rule, the imported Irish horse improves consider-
ably in an English training-stable, where he is better fed
and groomed than in most Irish establishments. All steeple-
chase courses must at the present time contain certain regula-
tion jumps, the nature of which is specified in the National
Hunt rules:
44. In all steeplechase courses there shall be at least twelve
fences (exclusive of hurdles) in the first 2 m., and at least six fences
in each succeeding m. There shall be a water jump at least 12 ft.
wide and 2 ft. deep, to be left open, or guarded only by a perpendi-
cular fence not exceeding 2 ft. in height. There shall be in each m.
at least one ditch 6 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep on the taking-off side of
the fence, which ditch may be guarded by a single rail, or left open,
and which fence must be 4 ft. 6 in. in height, and, if of dead brush-
wood or gorse, 2 ft. in width.
45. In all hurdle-race courses there shall be not less than eight
flights of hurdles in the first 2 m., with an additional flight of hurdles
for every quarter of a m. or part of one beyond that distance, the
height of the hurdles being not less than 3 ft. 6 in. from the bottom
bar to the top bar.
Natural fences would no doubt be desirable if they could be
utilized; but it is obvious that fences must be made up, because
when the same hedge is jumped frequently, and for the most
part in the same place as it is the object of riders to go the
shortest way round gaps would necessarily be made. The use of
these made courses naturally renders the sport somewhat
artificial, but under existing conditions this is unavoidable;
and as a matter of fact, by reason of the conformation of the
ground, the arrangement and make of the fences, courses do vary
in no small degree. The steeplechase horse differs from the
hunter in his method of jumping. In riding to hounds a man
usually steadies his horse at a fence, and in almost every case
the animal " dwells " more or less after the leap. In a steeple-
chase, where speed is everything, horses must be taught to dash
resolutely at their jumps without hesitation, and to get away
with no pause on the other side; as a rule, therefore, an old
steeplechase horse who is employed as a hunter is rarely a pleasant
mount for any but a bold rider. It has been remarked that
steeplechase horses are usually in the first place schooled over
hurdles, and many animals remain hurdle racers till the end.
More speed is required for hurdles than for a steeplechase course,
and there is more money to be won over hurdles than over " a
country." No hurdle race is worth so much as the Grand
National or the Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, the two
richest prizes now offered; but, with the exception of these,
hurdle-race stakes are as a rule of greater value. Except as a
spectacle, there is little to be said in defence of this mongrel
business, which is neither one thing nor the other; but hurdle
races are popular and are therefore likely to continue. A few
years ago an attempt was made to discriminate between what
were called " hunters " and handicap steeplechase horses, and
certain races were only open to the former class. It proved,
however, to be a distinction without a difference; thoroughbred
horses crept into the ranks of the so-called hunters, and when
nominal hunters began to be entered for, and in some cases to
win, the Grand National and other important steeplechases,
for which they could be nominated by abandoning their qualifica-
tion of hunter, the meaningless title was relinquished. Still more
absurd were the hunters' flat races of a former day. In order to
compete in these the rule was that an owner must produce a
certificate from a master of hounds to the effect that his horse
had been hunted. Thoroughbreds who lacked speed to win
under Jockey Club rules used to be ridden to a meet, perhaps
cantered across a field or two, and were then supposed to have
become hunters. Animals who were genuinely and regularly
utilized for the pursuit of foxes had of course no chance against
these race-horses in shallow disguise. What are called N?tional
Hunt flat races still exist, the qualification being that a horse
must have been placed first, second or third in a steeplechase
in Great Britain or Ireland, after having jumped all the fences
and completed the whole distance of the race to the satisfac-
tion of at least two of the stewards, to whom previous notice
must have been given in writing. There are no handicaps
for such animals, and none is allowed to carry less than
ii stone. No race under National Hunt rules can be of a
shorter distance than 2 m., except for three-year-olds, who
sometimes run a mile and a half over hurdles; and the
lowest weight carried can never be less than 10 stone except in
a handicap steeplechase of 3^ m. or upwards, when it may be
9 st. 7lb.
Horses are ridden in these races either by gentlemen, or
qualified riders or jockeys. The first of these classes comprises
officers on full pay in the army or navy, persons holding com-
missions under the Crown, bearing titles either in their own
right or by courtesy, or members of certain social and racing
clubs. Qualified riders may be farmers holding at least a
hundred acres of land, their sons if following the same occupation,
and persons elected by members of the National Hunt Com-
mittee, a proviso being that they must never have ridden for
hire; but it is feared that this rule is in not a few cases evaded.
Professional jockeys are paid 5 for each mount or 10 if they
win. The sport is governed by the National Hunt Committee,
a body which receives delegated powers from the Jockey Club,
and six stewards are elected every year to supervise the business
of the various meetings. Steeplechases and hurdle races are
either handicaps or weight-for-age races according to the following
scale :
734
HORSE-RACING
For Steeplechases of 3 miles and upwards.
From the 1st of January to the 3Oth of June, both inclusive:
4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged
10 st. 3 ft ii st. 8 ft 12 st. 3 tb
From the 1st of July to the 3 ist of December, both inclusive:
4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged
ii st. II st. 12 ft 12 st. 3 Ib
For Steeplechases of less than j miles.
From the 1st of January to the 3Oth of June, both inclusive:
4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged
10 st. 10 Ib ii st. 10 Ib 12 st. 3 Ib
From the 1st of July to the 3lst of December, both inclusive:
4 y rs - 5 yrs. 6 and aged
1 1 st. 6 Ib 12 st. 12 st. 3 Ib
For Hurdle Races.
From the 1st of January to the 3lst of August, inclusive:
4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged
II st. 6 Ib list. 10 Ib 12 st o Ib
From the 1st of September to the 3 ist of December, inclusive:
3 yrs- 4 yrs. 5, 6, and aged
lost. 7 Ib list. 12 Ib 12 st. 3 Ib
The great test of merit in a steeplechase horse is success in the
Grand National, which is always run. at Liverpool during the
The Grand ^ ISt Week f the flat ~ racin S season. The course is
National. 4i m -, and includes thirty jumps, the fences being for
the most part larger than are found elsewhere. The
average time occupied is well under ten minutes. The stake ha:
varied in value since the race was originated in 1839; it now
amounts to close on 2500. Only a very small percentage of
steeplechase horses possess the speed and staying power to give
them a chance in this race, and the number of entries year by
year falls considerably short of a hundred, the prospects of
many of these usually appearing hopeless to all but unduly
sanguine owners. The average number of starters during the
period 1860-1901 was rather over twenty. As many as thirty-two
competed in 1909, when the French-bred Latteur III. won; in
1883, when Zoedone, ridden by her owner, Count Kinsky,was suc-
cessful, only ten went to the post. Mishaps are almost invariably
numerous; in most years about one-third complete the course.
So severe is the task that for a long time many good judges of
steeplechasing believed that no horse with more than 12 stone
on his back could possibly win. In 1893, however, Cloister won
in a canter by forty lengths carrying 12 st. 7 Ib, and with the
same weight Manifesto also won in 1899. The race which most
nearly approaches the Grand National in importance is the
Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, run at Manchester over 35 m.
early in April. The stake is worth about 1750. An interesting
steeplechase called the Grand Sefton takes place at Liverpool
about the middle of November; the distance is 3 m. During
the winter, and extending into the spring, steeplechasing and
hurdle racing are carried on at Sandown, Kempton, Gatwick,
Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park; at Ludlow, Newmarket,
Aldershot, Birmingham, Manchester, Windsor and other places.
A race called the National Hunt Steeplechase, under the immedi-
ate patronage of the National Hunt Committee, is run annually
over a 4-mile course, the stake being 1000. Managers of
various courses bid for the privilege of having the race on their
ground, and it is therefore found in different localities. A con-
dition is that no horse who has ever won a race can compete;
and, as few owners are willing to keep their animals with a
view to success in this event, the field consists either of unknown
horses or of those that have been beaten.
AUSTRALIA
Racing in Australia has its headquarters at Sydney, under the
government of the Australian Jockey Club, the principal course being
at Ranwick; and at Melbourne, where the Victoria Jockey Club is
supreme, the principal course being at Flemington. In New Zealand
sport is carried on under the authority of delegates from the chief
racing clubs, who meet in conference. There is a Sydney Derby
and a Victoria Derby, and a notable event at Flemington is the
Champion Race, weight-for-age, for three-year-olds and upwards,
which usually attracts the best horses in training, as the fee at
which a sire stands depends in a great measure on his success in this
contest. This race is over a distance of 3 m., and to ensure a good
pace there is a regulation that the time in which it is run must not
exceed 5 minutes 40 seconds, though the stewards have power to
[UNITED STATES
extend this in case the ground should be made exceptionally heavy
by rainy weather. The Melbourne Cup is regarded as one of the
most important races in the state. This is a handicap, and in com-
parison with English races may perhaps be ranked with the Cesare-
witch. The birth of horses dates from the 1st of August, which
corresponds as nearly as possible to the 1st of February in England,
so that the Australian horses are practically seven months younger
than the English a matter of some importance in the case of those
sent to run in England. There are few races which close long before
the date of decision, and practically all the good animals run in
handicaps. The five- and six-furlong races for other than two-year-
olds, so common in Great Britain, are extremely rare; and it is
asserted by colonial sportsmen that their horses stay better than
those bred in England, a circumstance which is largely attributed
to the fact that mares and foals have much more liberty and exercise
than is the case in the mother country.
UNITED STATES
Horse-racing was indulged in to a limited extent in Maryland
and Virginia as early as the middle of the I7th century, particu-
larly in the latter colony. Most of the inhabitants of both were
either from the British Isles or were descended from parents who
had immigrated from them, and they inherited a taste for the
sport. The animals used for this purpose, however, were not
highly prized at the time, and the pedigree of not even one of
them has been preserved. A horse called Bully Rock by the
Darley Arabian out of a mare by the Byerly Turk, granddam by
the Lister Turk, great-granddam a royal mare, foaled 1718,
is the first recorded importation of a thoroughbred horse into
America. He was imported into Virginia in 1730. In 1723 the
duke of Bolton bred a mare named Bonny Lass by his celebrated
horse Bay Bolton out of a daughter of the Darley Arabian.
She became celebrated in England as a brood mare, and was the
first thoroughbred mare, according to the records, that was
carried to America. This is supposed to have been in or after
1740, as the Stud- Book shows she produced in England after
1 739 a filly by Lord Lonsdale's Arabian, and subsequently became
familiar to the public as the granddam of Zamora. The im-
portations increased very rapidly from this period, and many
valuable shipments were made before the war which resulted in
a separation of the colonies from the mother country. This
acquisition of thoroughbred stock increased the number and
value of racing prizes, and extended the area of operations into
the Carolinas in the South, and New Jersey and New York in
the North. The first race run in South Carolina was in February
1734 for 20. It took place over " the Green," on Charleston
Neck. This shows that the earlier races in America were actually
on the turf, as they have always been in England. The next
year a Jockey Club was organized at Charleston (1735), and a
course was prepared, such as those which came later into general
use throughout the states, the turf being removed and the
~;round made as level as possible.
After 1776, when the United States declared their independence
of Great Britain, the importation of thoroughbred horses from
England became quite common, and selections were made from
the best stocks in the United Kingdom. This continued and
even increased as the country became developed, down to 1840.
The following Derby winners were among those carried into
the states: Diomed, who won the first Derby in 1780; Saltram,
winner in 1783; John Bull, winner in 1792; Spread Eagle,
winner in 1795; Sir Harry, winner in 1798; Archduke, winner
n 1799; and Priam, who won in 1830. The most important and
valuable importations, however, proved to be Jolly Roger,
Fearnought, Medley, Traveller, Diomed, Glencoe, Leviathan,
Tranby, Lexington, Margrave, Yorkshire Buzzard, Albion
and Leamington. The best results were obtained from Diomed
and Glencoe. Diomed sired one horse, Sir Archy, who founded
a family to which nearly all the blood horses of America trace
>ack. He was foaled in 1805, in Virginia, and became celebrated
as a sire. The superiority of his progeny was so generally con-
ceded that they were greatly sought after. From this period, too,
he number and value of races increased; still they were com-
>aratively few in number, and could not compare in value with
hose of Great Britain. Up to 1860 the value of racing prizes
was quite inadequate to develop large breeding establishments.
UNITED STATES]
HORSE-RACING
735
or to sustain extensive training stables. Then the civil war
between the North and the South broke out, which raged for
four years. Breeding establishments were broken up during
that time; the horses were taken by the armies for cavalry
purposes, for which service they were highly prized; and racing
was completely paralysed^ It took some time to regain its
strength; but an era of prosperity set in about 1870, and since
then the progress in interest has been continuous.
In the United States interest in trotting races more than rivals
that felt in the contests of thoroughbred horses. This interest
dates back to the importation to Philadelphia from England,
in 1788, of the thoroughbred horse Messenger, a grey stallion,
by Mambrino, ist dam by Turf, 2nd dam by Regulus, 3rd dam
by Starling, 4th dam by Fox, $th dam Gipsey, by Bay Bolton,
6th dam by duke of Newcastle's Turk, 7th dam by Byerly Turk,
8th dam by Taffolet Barb, pth dam by Place's White Turk.
He was eight years old when imported to the United States.
He was at the stud for twenty years, in the vicinity of Phila-
delphia and New York, serving a number of thoroughbred mares,
but a far greater number of cold-blooded mares, and in the
progeny of the latter the trotting instinct was almost invariably
developed, while his thoroughbred sons, who became scattered
over the country, were also noted for transmitting the trotting
instinct. The first public trotting race of which there is any
account in the United States was in 1818, when the grey gelding
Boston Blue was matched to trot a mile in 3 minutes, a feat
deemed impossible; but he won, though the time of his perform-
ance has not been preserved. From about that date interest in
this gait began to increase; breeders of trotters sprang up, and
horses were trained for trotting contests. The problem of
breeding trotters has been necessarily found to be a much more
complex one than that of breeding the thoroughbred, as in the
latter case pure blood lines of long recognized value could be
relied upon, while in the former the best results were constantly
being obtained from most unexpected sources. Among the
leading families came to be the Hambletonian, of which the
modern head was Rysdyk's Hambletonian, a bay horse foaled
in 1849, got by Abdallah (traced to imp. Messenger on the side
of both sire and dam) out of the Charles Kent mare, by imp.
(i.e. imported) Bellfounder, with two crosses to imp. Messenger
on her dam's side; the Mambrinos, whose modern head was
Mambrino Chief, foaled 1844, by Mambrino Paymaster, a
grandson of imp. Messenger; the Bashaws, founded by Young
Bashaw, foaled 1822, by Grand Bashaw, an Arabian horse,
dam Pearl, by First Consul; the Clays, springing from Henry
Clay, a grandson of Young Bashaw through Andrew Jackson;
the Stars, springing from Stockholm's American Star, by Duroc,
son of imp. Diomed; the Morgans, whose founder was Justin
Morgan, foaled 1703, by a horse called True Briton, or Beautiful
Bay, who was probably thoroughbred; the Black Hawks, a
branch of the Morgan family; the Blue Bulls, descended from
Doyle's Blue Bull, foaled 1855, a pacer, sired by a pacer of the
same name, dam by Blacknose, son of Medoc; the Canadians,
whose best representatives were St Lawrence and pacing Pilot,
horses of unknown pedigree; the Gold Dusts, another branch
of the Morgan family; and the Royal Georges, springing from
Tippoo, a horse who was probably by Ogden's Messenger, son
of imp. Messenger. But trotters of great speed have been pro-
duced which do not trace to any of the sources mentioned. Very
large prices are paid. Steinway, a three-year-old colt, was sold
in 1879, to go to California, for $13,000; and in 1878 $21,000
was paid for the four-year-old filly Maud S., after she had trotted
a mile in public in 2 m. i7$s. Much larger sums have been paid,
however, for matured trotters, such as $40,000 for the stallion
Smuggler, $38,000 for Pocahontas, $35,000 for Dexter, $36,000
for Rarus, and long prices for many others; St Julien, the
trotter with the fastest record at the close of 1879, was held at
$50,000, while Rysdyk's Hambletonian, Messenger Duroc and
Volunteer were valued, in their prime, at $100,000 each.
Compared with the early days of American trotting, the
advance has been rapid and the changes marked. After the
performance of Boston Blue, mentioned above, more attention
was paid to the gait, but for a long time the races were generally
under saddle, and at long distances, 3 m. being rather the
favourite. The best of the old time trotters were Edwin Forrest,
who trotted a mile in 2 m. 315 s. in 1834; Dutchman, who did
3 m. under saddle in 7 m. 3255.; Ripton; Lady Suffolk, who
trotted a mile in 2 m. 26? s. in 1843, and headed the list of
performers; Mac, Tacony, &c. After 1850, however, the taste of
the people settled upon the style of race called " mile heats, best
three out of five, in harness " as the favourite. By " in harness "
is meant that the horse draws a sulky, a light two-wheeled
vehicle in which the driver sits close to the horse, with his legs
on each side of his flanks. These sulkies often weigh less than
40 ft. The driver is required to weigh, with the blanket on
which he sits, 150 Ib, while for saddle races the regulation weight
is 145 Ib, or 10 st. 5 Ib. Each heat of a mile is a separate race;
20 minutes is allowed between heats; and the horse that first
places three heats to his credit wins the race. There are various
penalties imposed upon a horse that breaks into a run in a trotting
race. The driver is required to pull him to a trot as quickly as
possible; if the horse gains by running, the judges set him back
at the finish twice the distance he has gained, in their estimation,
by running; and for repeated " breaks " they can declare him
distanced. The first-class tracks are of oval shape, with long
stretches and easy curves, measuring i m. at 3 ft. distance from
the " pole," as the inner railing of the track is called. The time
in which the leading horse trots each heat is accurately kept,
placed on a blackboard in front of the judges' stand for the
information of the public, and also placed in the book of the
course. The fastest time that any trotter has is thus entered
as his " record." This is one of the distinctive features of
trotting in America.
Prior to 1866 purses for trotters were small; match races were
more in vogue, and the trotting turf was in bad odour. In that
year an association was formed at Buffalo, N.Y., which in-
augurated its efforts by offering the then unprecedented sum
of $10,500 for a trotting meeting of four days' duration. The
experiment was successful; other cities followed the example
of Buffalo; larger and larger purses were given; and at Buffalo
in 1872 the prizes amounted to $70,000. Since then the amount
offered in the United States and Canada, during a single year,
has reached $1,500,000. Individual trotters, in the course of a
long turf career, earn enormous amounts. A remarkable instance
of this was the mare Goldsmith Maid, by Alexander's Abdallah
(a son of Rysdyk's Hambletonian), out of an Abdallah mare.
She began trotting in 1866, and left the turf in 1878, when twenty-
one years old, and her winnings amounted to over $200,000.
In 1869 the National Trotting Association was formed, under
which an elaborate code of rules has been published.
In trotting races, it will be noted, the time test is supreme,
differing from running races, in which time is of comparatively
little consequence. The animal which has the fastest record for
1 mile in harness is, until deposed, the king or queen of the trotting
turf. Lady Suffolk, with her record of 2 m. 265 s., in 1843, held
this honour until 1853, when Tacony trotted in 2 m. 255 s. under
saddle; Flora Temple wrested it from him in 1856 by trotting in
2 m. 245 s. in harness. This latter mare, in 1859, trotted a mile
in 2 m. igj s., a feat which the best horsemen thought would
never be repeated, but since that time forty-two trotters have
beaten 2 m. 20 s. Dexter's record was 2m. 171 s. in 1867, and
Goldsmith Maid's in 1871 was 2m. 17 s., which she reduced, by
successive efforts, to 2 m. i6f s., 2 m. 16 s., 2 m. 15 s., 2 m. 14! s.,
and finally, in 1874, to 2 m. 14 s. In 1878 Rarus trotted a mile
in 2 m. 131 s., and in October 1879 the bay gelding St Julien,
by Volunteer, son of Rysdyk's Hambletonian, dam by Henry
Clay, trotted a mile in California in 2 m. 1 2$ s. Other notable
performances reducing the record were Maud S. in 1881, 2 m.
iOj s.; Maud S. in 1885, 2 m. 8f s.; Sunol in 1891, 2 m. 8J s.;
Nancy Hanks in 1892, 2 m. 4 s.; Alix in 1894, 2 m. 3! s.;
Cresceus in 1901, 2 m. 2j s.; Lou Dillon in 1905, i m. 583 s. Im-
proved times have doubtless been the result of improved methods,
as well as of care in the breeding of the trotter. Some very severe
training rules used to be sedulously observed; about 1870, for
736
HORSE-RACING
[FRANCE
instance, a horse never had water the night before a race, and
the system generally appears to have overtaxed the animal's
strength. A prominent consideration in trotting races is the
adjustment of toe-weights, which are fastened on to the horses'
feet to equalize their action, and it is found that horses improve
their time to the extent of several seconds when properly
shod.
Pacing races are also frequent in the United States. In trotting
the action may be described as diagonal; the pacer moves both
legs on the same side at the same time, and both feet stride as
one. A similar " gait," to employ the American term, was called
in England some centuries ago an " amble." The pacer moves
more easily and with apparently less exertion than the trotter,
and the mile record (made by Prince Alert in 1903) stands at
i m. 57 s.
Owing to the vast size of the country there are various centres
of sport, which can be classified with reasonable accuracy as
follows: the Eastern States, dominated by the Jockey Club,
founded in New York in 1894, and recognized by a state law in
1893; the Middle Western States, under the control of the
Western Jockey Club, whose headquarters are in Chicago;
the Pacific Coast, with San Francisco for its centre; and the
Southern and South- Western States, with Louisville as the most
important centre. The passage of the racing law in New York
State marked the opening of a new era. Supreme even over the
Jockey Club is a State Racing Commission of three, appointed
by the governor of the state. While the Jockey Club is only
recognized by law in its native state, it has assumed and maintains
control of all racing on the eastern seaboard, within certain lines
of latitude and longitude, extending as far north as the Canadian
border and south to Georgia. There is small question that
other states, both east and west, will follow suit and enact
similar laws. The Western Jockey Club, though not recognized
by law, controls practically all the racing through the middle
west, south-west and south; but the racing associations of the
Pacific Coast have maintained a position of independence.
What New York is to the east, Chicago is to the middle west,
and a very large proportion of American racing is conducted
close to these centres. In New York State the Coney Island
Jockey Club, at Sheepshead Bay; the Brooklyn Jockey Club,
at Gravesend; the Westchester Racing Association, at Morris
Park; the Brighton Beach Racing Association, at Brighton
Beach; the Queen's County Jockey Club, at Aqueduct; and
the Saratoga Racing Association, at Saratoga, are the leading
organizations; and all these race-courses, with the exception
of Saratoga, are within a radius of 20 miles of the city. The
Empire City Jockey Club, near Yonkers, and another club with
headquarters near Jamaica, Long Island, have also become
prominent institutions. The Washington Park Club, at Chicago,
is the leading Turf body of the west, and the only one on an
equal footing with the prominent associations of New York
State. With this single exception the most important and valu-
able stakes of the American Turf are given in the east; and
so great has the prosperity of the Turf been since the Jockey
Club came into existence that the list of rich prizes is growing
at a surprising rate. In this respect the principal fault is the
undue encouragement given to the racing of two-year-olds.
At the winter meetings held at New Orleans and San Francisco,
two-year-olds are raced from the very beginning of the year;
and under the rules of the Jockey Club of New York they run
as early as March. The Westchester Racing Association, with
which are closely identified some of the principal members of
the Jockey Club, gives valuable two-year-old stakes in May.
The Futurity Stakes, the richest event of the year on one
occasion it reached a value of $67,675 is for two-year-olds,
and is run at Sheepshead Bay in the autumn. The institution
of races, either absolutely or practically at weight-for-age,
and over long courses, has engaged much attention. The
Coney Island Jockey Club has the leading three-year-old stake
in the Lawrence Realization, over i mile 5 furlongs, with an
average value of about $30,000. The Westchester Racing
Association's two principal three-year-old stakes, the Withers,
over a mile, run in May, and the Belmont, i mile and 3 furlongs,
run later in the same month, are of less value, but are much
older-established and have a species of " classic " prestige,
dating from the old Jerome Park race-course in the 'sixties. The
Coney Island Jockey Club's Century and the Annual Champion
Stakes, both for three-year-olds and upwards, over a mile and
a half and two miles and a quarter respectively, are fair specimens
of the races the associations have founded. At Saratoga a
stake of $50,000 for three-year-olds and upwards, distance
a mile and a quarter, was opened, and run for first in 1904.
The hope is to wean owners from the practice of overtaxing
their two-year-olds, which has resulted practically in a positive
dearth, almost a total absence, of good four-year-olds and
upwards of late years. Handicaps play a more important part
than in England. The principal events of this character, such
as the Brooklyn Handicap at Gravesend and the Suburban at
Sheepshead Bay, have for years drawn the largest attendances
of the racing season.
Practically all flat racing in the United States is held on
" dirt-tracks," i.e. courses with soil specially prepared for
racing, instead of turf courses. At Sheepshead Bay there is
a turf course, but it is only used for a minority of races. Dirt-
tracks, which are, like many other things in American racing,
a legacy from the once hugely popular harness-racing, are
conducive to great speed, but are costly in the extreme strain
on horses' legs. Steeplechases are run on turf. This branch
of the sport in the east is now flourishing under the administra-
tion of the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association, a sister
body of the Jockey Club. Comparatively few races are, however,
run under these rules, as the weather conditions render it im-
possible to have a separate season for cross-country sport and
steeplechases, and hurdle races are incorporated in programmes
of flat racing held through the spring, summer and autumn,
though the ground is frequently so hard as to be unsafe.
Since the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association assumed
control, regulation courses, practically similar in every respect
to those used in England, have been insisted upon in the east,
the " open ditch " figuring under the name of the " Liverpool."
In the west and south there is not the same uniformity, and so
far the sport has not flourished.
FRANCE
Racing in France as conducted on modern lines may be said
to date from the year 1833, when the French Stud-Book was
originated, and a body formed, somewhat after the model of
the English Jockey Club, under the title of the Societe d'En-
couragement pour 1'Amelioration des Races de Chevaux en
France. Races took place in the Champs de Mars, and an
unsuccessful attempt was made in 1834 to arrange for a course,
or " hippodrome," as it is termed in France, at Maisons Laffitte.
Chantilly was, however, fixed upon as the principal racing centre;
on the 22nd April 1836 the first meeting was held there, with
five races on the card, the principal being the Prix d'Orleans,
a stake of 3500 francs, named after the due d'Orleans, one of
the chief promoters of the fixture. Next day the first race
for the Prix du Jockey Club was run, and won by Frank, the
property of Lord Henry Seymour, who was at the time taking a
very active part in French sport. The Prix du Jockey Club was
then worth 5000 francs; the value has since increased to 200,000
francs. This race occupies in France the place of the English
Derby. The Prix de Diane, which corresponds to the English
Oaks, was first run in 1843. Chantilly still continues an important
centre of the French Turf, and a great many horses are trained
in the district. Attempts had been made to popularize racing
at Longchamps prior to the year 1856, when the Societe d' En-
couragement obtained a lease, erected stands, laid out the
course, and held their first meeting on the 27th August 1857.
Next season two meetings were held, one of four days in the
spring and another of three in the autumn; at the present
time the sport is vigorously carried on from March to the end
of October, except during a summer recess. In 1857 meetings
under the auspices of the Societe d'Encouragement began to
HORSERADISH
737
take place at Amiens, Caen, Nantes, Versailles, Moulins and
other towns; and there were stakes for two-year-olds in the
spring, though of late years the appearance of the young horses
has been postponed to the ist of August. Progress was rapid,
and in 1863 two important events were contested for the first
time, the Prix du Prince Imperial, which was designed to balance
the English St Leger, but for obvious reasons faded out of the
programme, and the Grand Prix de Paris, an international
race for three-year-olds, run at Longchamps over a distance
of i mile 7 furlongs, and now the most valuable stake in Europe.
In 1909 the prize was 14,071. The first Grand Prix fell to an
English horse, Mr Savile's The Ranger; two years later it
was won by Gladiateur, winner of the English Derby and the
property of the comte de Lagrange, who raced equally in France
and in England; the duke of Beaufort's Ceylon was successful
in 1866, and the marquis of Hastings' Earl in 1868. Mr
Savile's Cremorne followed up his Derby victory by a victory
at Longchamps in 1872, as did Mr Baltazzi's Kisber four years
later. English horses were also victorious in 1874 (Mr W. R.
Marshall's Trent), in 1878 (Prince Soltykoff's Thurio), in 1880
(Mr C. Brewer's Robert the Devil), in 1881 (Mr Keene's Foxhall,
who, however, should rather rank as an American horse), in 1882
(Mr Rymill's Bruce), in 1885 (Mr Cloete's Paradox), in 1886 (Mr
Vyner's Minting); and in 1906 Major Eustace Loder's Derby
winner Spearmint. During the first 23 years of the Grand
Prix (owing to the war the race did not take place in 1871)
the stake fell to English horses if Kisber and Foxhall
be included on twelve occasions, and generally to English
jockeys. In recent years, however, French owners have held
their own. In not a few respects racing is managed more
judiciously than in England. The courses, for one thing, are
better tended and maintained. The five- and six-furlong races
for others than two-year-olds, which are so common at English
meetings, are comparatively rare in France, and the value of
the prizes in an average day's racing is considerably higher
across the Channel than in England. A very large percentage
of trainers and jockeys are English, and the former are, as
a rule, quite as expert as at Newmarket and elsewhere.
Transatlantic methods have been introduced by American
jockeys since 1899. From the middle of February until the
middle of December a race meeting within easy reach of Paris
takes place almost every day, except during August, when the
sport is carried on in the provinces, notably at Deauville. Near
Paris, the chief centre after Longchamps is Maisons Laffitte.
At Longchamps, early in October, a race called the Prix du
Conseil Municipal, worth 4000, for three-year-olds and upwards,
over a mile and a half, was organized in 1893, and has usually
attracted English hcrses, Mr Wallace Johnstone's Best Man
having been successful in 1894, and Mr Sullivan's Winkfield's
Pride the following year. Except when the Whip is challenged
for and the challenge decided over the Beacon Course at New-
market, no race is run in England over a longer distance than
two miles and 6 furlongs; but in France the Prix Gladiateur, of
1200 and a work of art value 100, 3 miles 7 furlongs, creates
considerable interest at Longchamps in the autumn.
The first recognized steeplechase in France took place
at Croix de Berny, and was won by the comte de Vaublanc's
May-fly, all the horses at that time being ridden
chasing. ^ v gentlemen. Sport does not seem to have been
carried on with much spirit, for it is said that the
death of an animal called Barcha, in 1839, nearly led to the
abandonment of the meeting; and it was not till 1863,
when the Societe des Steeplechases de France was founded,
that the business was resolutely taken in hand. Gravelle and
Vincennes were the principal centres until 1873, when the
Societe obtained possession of the ground at Auteuil, where
the excellent course now in use was laid out. In 1874 twelve
days' racing took place here, the card each day including three
steeplechases and a hurdle race, the " hurdles," however, being
small fences, as they are at present. The Grand Steeplechase
d'Auteuil was then for a stake of 30,000 francs, at the time
the most valuable offered in any country; but, as in racing
XHI. 24
on the flat, the stakes have enormously increased in value, and
in 1901 the Paris Grand Steeplechase, as the chief event is now
called, credited the winner with 6020, the hurdle race being
worth rather more than half as much. In England there is
scarcely any steeplechasing between March and November,
except at hunt meetings, but in Paris cross-country sport is
pursued almost all through the year, the chief races at Auteuil
taking place in June, about the time of the Grand Prix, which is
usually run for"between the English Epsom and Ascot meetings.
The Auteuil course is laid out in the shape of the figure 8, with
varied fences, several of which really test a horse's jumping
capacity; and variety is further obtained by starting the fields
in different places and traversing the course in different ways.
St Ouen, a meeting within half an hour's drive of the Louvre,
is entirely devoted to steeplechasing; and jumping is also
carried on at Vincennes, Colombes, Enghien, and elsewhere
near Paris, as also at Nice in the winter, at Dieppe and other
places in August. As a rule, the stakes run for, especially at
Auteuil, are very much larger than in England. There are none of
the clubs and special enclosures such as at Sandown, Kempton,
Hurst, Lingfield, Gatwick, &c., though portions of the stand
are set apart for privileged persons. A fee of 20 francs is
charged for admission to the chief French race-courses, with
half as much for a lady's voucher, and the tickets give
access everywhere but to the very few reserved portions. At
Vincennes, St Cloud, and some other courses trotting races are
also contested.
Other Countries. Racing in Germany is mainly conducted under
the authority of the Union Club of Berlin, the principal course
being the Hoppegarten. Two-year-olds do not run until the Ist of
June, except in Saxony, where they appear a month earlier. During
the month of August there are several days' racing at Baden-Baden,
steeplechases as well as flat races being run. Some of the more
valuable stakes are usually contested by a proportion of horses
from France and other countries, a few being occasionally sent
from England. For years past blood-stock has been imported from
England. In Austria the two centres of racing are Vienna and
Budapest, each of which has its Jockey Club. Racing in Belgium
derives no little support from the contiguity of the country to
France. The headquarters of the Belgium Jockey Club are in the
Bois de la Cambre at Boisfort, and meetings are held at Ostend,
Antwerp, Spa, Bruges and elsewhere. Steeplechases take place
at Groenenval and on other Belgian courses, but are not of high
class. Racing has not reached a great degree of excellence in Italy,
though attempts have been made to improve competitors by the
purchase of Melton, who won the Derby of 1885, and of other notable
animals. Meetings take place at Florence, Padua, Bologna and
other places, but the stakes are usually small. (A. E. T. W.)
HORSERADISH (Ger. Meerrettig ; Fr. raifort = ratine forte,
cran de Bretagne ; Swed. Peppar-rot ; Russ. chren), known
botanically as Cochlearia Armoracia, a perennial plant of the
natural order Cruciferae, having a stout cylindrical rootstock
from the crown of which spring large radical leaves on long
stalks, 4 to 6 in. broad, and about a foot in length with a deeply
crenate margin, and coarsely veined; the stem-leaves are short-
stalked or sessile, elongated and tapering to their attachment,
the lower ones often deeply toothed. The flowers, which appear
in May and June, are f in. in width, in flat-topped panicles, with
purplish sepals and white petals; the fruit is a small silicula,
which does not ripen in the climate of England. The horse-
radish is indigenous to eastern Europe. Into western Europe
and Great Britain, where it is to be met with on waste ground,
it was probably introduced. It was wild in various parts of
England in Gerard's time.
The root, the armoraciae radix of pharmacy, is 5 to 2 in. or
more in diameter, and commonly i ft., sometimes 3 ft. in
length; the upper part is enlarged into a crown, which is annu-
lated with the scars of fallen leaves; and from the numerous
irregular lateral branches are produced vertical stolons, and
also adventitious buds, which latter render the plant very
difficult of extirpation. From the root of Aconite (q.v.), which
has occasionally been mistaken for it, horseradish root differs
in being more or less cylindrical from a little below the crown,
and in its pale yellowish (or brownish) white hue externally,
acrid and penetrating odour when scraped or bruised, and
5
738
HORSE-SHOESHORSETAIL
pungent and either sweetish or bitter taste. Under the influence
of a ferment which it contains, the fresh root yields on distillation
with water about -05% of a volatile oil, butyl sulphocyanide,
C^sCNS. After drying, the root has been found to afford
11-15% of ash. Horseradish root is an ingredient in the spiritus
armoraciae composites (dose 1-2 drachms) of the British Pharma-
copoeia. It is an agreeable flavouring agent. In common with
other species of Cochlearia, the horseradish was formerly in high
repute as an antiscorbutic. The root was, as well as the leaves,
taken with food by the Germans in the middle ages, whence the
old French name for it, moutarde des Allemands; and Coles,
writing in 1657, mentions its use with meat in England, where it
is still chiefly employed as a condiment with beef.
For the successful cultivation of the horseradish, a light and
friable damp soil is the most suitable; this having been trenched
3 ft. deep in autumn, and the surface turned down with a liberal
supply of farm-yard manure, a second dressing of decomposed
manure should in the ensuing spring be dug in 2 ft. deep, and
pieces of the root 6 in. in length may then be planted a foot apart
in narrow trenches. During summer the ground requires to be
kept free of weeds ; and the application of liquid manure twice or
thrice in sufficient quantity to reach the lowest roots is an
advantage. When dug the root may be long preserved in good
condition by placing it in sand.
See Gerard, Herball, p. 240, ed. Johnson (1636); Fluckigerand
Hanbury, Pharmacographia, p. 71 (2nd ed., 1879); Bentley and
Trimen, Med. PL, i. 21 (1880).
HORSE-SHOES. The horny casing of the foot of the horse
and other Solidungulates, while quite sufficient to protect the
extremity of the limb under natural conditions, is found to wear
away and break, especially in moist climates, when the animal
is subjected to hard work of any kind. This, however, can be
obviated by the simple device of attaching to the hoof a rim of
iron, adjusted to the shape of the hoof. The animal itself has
been in a very marked manner modified by shoeing, for without
this we could have had neither the fleet racers nor the heavy
and powerful cart-horses of the present day. Though the ancients
were sufficiently impressed by the damage done to horses'
hoofs to devise certain forms of covering for them (in the shape
of socks or sandals), the practice of nailing iron plates or rim-shoes
to the hoof does not appear to have been introduced earlier than
the 2nd century B.C., and was not commonly known till the close
of the $th century A.D., or in regular use till the middle ages.
The evidence for the earlier date depends on the doubtful
interpretations of designs on coins, &c. As time went on, how-
ever, the profession of the farrier and the art of the shoesmith
gradually grew in importance. It was only in the igth century
that horse-shoeing was introduced in Japan, where the former
practice was to attach to the horse's feet slippers of straw,
which were renewed when necessary, a custom which may
indicate the usage of early peoples. In modern times much
attention has been devoted to horse-shoeing by veterinary
science, with the result of showing that methods formerly
adopted caused cruel injury to horses and serious loss to their
owners. The evils resulted from (i) paring the sole and frog;
(2) applying shoes too heavy and of faulty shape; (3) employing
too many and too large nails; (4) applying shoes too small and
removing the wall of the hoof to make the feet fit the shoes, and
(5) rasping the front of the hoof. In rural districts, where the
art of the farrier is combined with general blacksmith work,
too little attention is apt to be given to considerations which have
an important bearing on the comfort, usefulness and life of the
horse. According to modern principles (i) shoes should be as light
as compatible with the wear demanded of them; (2) the ground
face of the shoe should be concave, and the face applied to the foot
plain; (3) heavy draught horses alone should have toe and heel
calks on their shoes to increase foothold; (4) the excess growth
of the wall or outer portion of horny matter should only be re-
moved in re-shoeing, care being taken to keep both sides of the
hoof of equal height; (5) the shoe should fit accurately to the
circumference of the hoof, and project slightly beyond the heel;
(6) the shoes should be fixed with as few nails as possible, six or
seven in fore-shoes and eight in hind-shoes, and (7) the nails
should take a short thick hold of the wall, so that old nail-holes
may be removed with the natural growth and paring of the
horny matter. Horse-shoes and nails are now made with great
economy by machinery, and special forms of shoe or plate are
made for race-horses and trotters, or to suit abnormalities of
the hoof.
HORSETAIL (Equisetum), the sole genus of the botanical
natural order Equisetaceae, consisting of a group of vascular
cryptogamous plants (see PTERIDOPHYTA) remarkable for the
vegetative structure which resembles in general appearance
the genera of flowering plants Casuarina and Ephedra. They
are herbaceous plants growing from an underground much-
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
Equisetum arvense,
A, Fertile shoot, springing B, C, Sporophylls bearing sporangia,
from the rhizome, which which in C have opened,
also bears tubers; the D, Spore showing the two spiral
vegetative shoots have bands of the perinium.
not yet unfolded. E, Dry spores showing the ex-
F, Sterile vegetative shoot. paneled spiral bands.
(A, F, J nat. size. B, C, D, E, enlarged.)
branched rootstock from which spring slender aerial shoots
which are green, ribbed, and bear at each node a whorl of leaves
reduced to a toothed sheath. From the nodes spring whorls of
similar but more slender branches. Some shoots are sterile
while others are fertile, bearing at the apex the so-called fructifica-
tion a dense oval, oblong conical or cylindrical spike, consisting
of a number of shortly-stalked peltate scales, each of which has
attached to its under surface a circle of spore-cases (sporangia)
HORSHAM HORSLEY, J. C.
which open by a longitudinal slit on their inner side. The spores
differ from those of ferns in their outer coat (exospore) being
split up into four club-shaped hygroscopic threads (elaters)
which are curled when moist, but become straightened when
dry. In most species the fertile and sterile shoots are alike, both
being green and -leaf -bearing, but in a few species the fertile are
more or less different, e.g. in E. aniense the fertile shoots appear
first, in the spring, and are unbranched and not green. Any
portion of the underground rhizome when broken off is capable
of producing a new plant; hence the difficulty of eradicating
them when once established. There are 24 known species of
the genus which is universally distributed.
The corn horsetail E. arvense, one of the commonest species,
is a troublesome weed in clayey cornfields (see fig.). The
fructification appears in March and April, terminating in short
unbranched stems. It is said to produce diarrhoea in such cattle
as eat it. The bog horsetail, E. palustre, is said to possess similar
properties. It grows in marshes, ditches, pools and drains in
meadows, and sometimes obstructs the flow of water with its dense
matted roots. The fructification in this species is cylindrical,
and in that of E. limosum, which grows in similar situations,
it is ovate in outline. The largest British species, E. maximum,
grows in wet sandy declivities by railway embankments or
streams, &c., and is remarkable for its beauty, due to the abund-
ance of its elegant branches and the alternately green and white
appearance of the stem. In this species the fructification is
conical or lanceolate, and is found in April on short, stout, un-
branched stems which have large loose sheaths. Horses appear
to be fond of this species, and in Sweden it is stored for use
as winter fodder. E. hyemale, commonly known as the Dutch
rush, is much more abundant in Holland than in Britain; it is
used for polishing purposes. E. variegatum grows on wet sandy
ground, and serves by means of its fibrous roots to bind the
sand together. The horsetails are remarkable for the large
quantity of silica they contain in the cuticle (hence their value
in polishing), which often amounts to half the weight of the
ash yielded by burning them; the roots contain a quantity of
starch.
HORSHAM, a market town in the Horsham parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, 38 m. S. by W. from London by
the London, Brighton and South Coast railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 9446. It is pleasantly situated in the
midst of a fertile country near the source of the Arun. A
picturesque avenue leads to the church of St Mary, principally
Early English and Perpendicular, with remains of Norman
work, having a lofty tower surmounted by a spire, and containing
several fine monuments, tombs and brasses. Other buildings
include the grammar school, founded in 1532 and rebuilt in
1893, a town hall and corn exchange, erected in 1866 in Italian
style, with an assembly room. In the vicinity are several fine
mansions. The buildings of Christ's Hospital (q.v.) at West
Horsham were opened in 1902, the school being removed hither
from London. The town has industries of tanning, founding,
carriage-building and flour-milling.
Some neolithic remains have been found at Horsham. The
town is not mentioned in Domesday Book, but the Rape of
Bramber, in which it lies, belonged at that time to William de
Braose. His descendants held the borough and the manor
of Horsham, and through them they passed to the family of
Mowbray, afterwards dukes of Norfolk. There are traces of
burgage tenure at Horsham in 1210, 'and it was called a borough
in 1236. It has no charter of incorporation. Horsham
sent two representatives to parliament from 1295 until 1832,
when the number was reduced to one. In 1885 it was dis-
franchised. In 1233 Henry III. granted William de Braose
a yearly three-days' fair at his manor of Horsham. In the
reign of Edward I. William de Braose claimed to have a free
market on Wednesdays and Saturdays. Fairs are held on
the 5th of April, i8th of July, i7th of November and 27th
of November. Market days are Monday and Wednesday.
" Glovers " of Horsham are mentioned in a patent roll of 1485,
and a brewery existed here in the time of Queen Anne.
739
HORSLEY, JOHN (c. 1685-1732), British archaeologist.
John Hodgson (1779-1845), the historian of Northumberland,
in a short memoir published in 1831, held that he was born in
1685, at Pinkie House, in the parish of Inveresk, Midlothian,
and that his father was a Northumberland Nonconformist, who
had migrated to Scotland, but returned to England soon after
the Revolution of 1688. J. H. Hinde, in the Archaeologia Aeliana
(Feb. 1865), held that he was a native of Newcastle-on-Tyne,
the son of Charles Horsley, a member of the Tailors' Company
of that town. He was educated at Newcastle, and at Edinburgh
University, where he graduated M.A. on the apth of April 1701.
There is evidence that he " was settled in Morpeth as a Presby-
terian minister as early as 1709." Hodgson, however, thought
that up to 1721, at which time he was residing at Widdrington,
" he had not received ordination, but preached as a licentiate."
Even if he was ordained then, his stay at the latter place was
probably prolonged beyond that date; for he communicated
to the Philosophical Transactions (xxxii. 328) notes on the
rainfall there in the years 1722 and 1723. Hinde shows that
during these years " he certainly followed a secular employment
as agent to the York Buildings Company, who had contracted
to purchase and were then in possession of the Widdrington
estates." At Morpeth Horsley opened a private school. Re-
spect for his character and abilities attracted pupils irrespective
of religious connexion, among them Newton Ogle, afterwards
dean of Westminster. He gave lectures on mechanics and
hydrostatics in Morpeth, Alnwick and Newcastle, and was
elected F.R.S. on the 23rd of April 1730. It is as an archae-
ologist that Horsley is now known. His great work, Britannia
Romana, or the Roman Antiquities of Britain (London, 1732),
one of the scarcest and most valuable of its class, contains the
result of patient labour. There is in the British Museum a copy
with notes by John Ward (c. 1679-1758), biographer of the
Gresham professors. Horsley died of apoplexy on the I2th
of January 1732, on the eve of the publication of the Britannia
Romana. He also published two sermons and a handbook to
his lectures on mechanics, &c., and projected a history of
Northumberland and Durham, collections for which were
found among his papers.
J. P. Wood (d. 1838) (Parish of Cramond, 1794, and Anecdotes of
Bowyer, 1782, p. 371) says that his wife was a daughter of William
Hamilton, D.D., minister of Cramond, afterwards professor of
divinity in Edinburgh University, but probably the John Horsley
in question was another, the father of Samuel Horsley
HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT (1817-1903), English painter,
son of William Horsley, the musician, and grand-nephew of Sir
Augustus Callcott, was born in London, on the 2gth of January
1817. He studied painting in the Academy schools, and in 1836
exhibited " The Pride of the Village " (Vernon Gallery) at the
Royal Academy. This was followed by numerous genre pictures
at subsequent exhibitions up to 1893, the best known of these
being " Malvolio," " L' Allegro and il Penseroso " (painted for
the Prince Consort), " Le Jour des Morts," " A Scene from
Don Quixote," &c. In 1843 his cartoon of " St Augustine
Preaching " won a prize in the Westminster Hall competition,
and in 1844 he was selected as one of the six painters commissioned
to execute frescoes for the Houses of Parliament, his " Religion "
(1845) being put in the House of Lords; he also painted the
" Henry V. assuming the Crown " and " Satan surprised at
the Ear of Eve." In 1864 he became R.A., and in 1882 was
elected treasurer, a post which he held till 1897, when he resigned
and became a " retired Academician." Mr Horsley had much
to do with organizing the winter exhibitions of " Old Masters "
at Burlington House after 1870. When, during the 'eighties,
the example of the French Salon began to affect the Academy
exhibitors, and paintings of the nude became the fashion, he
protested against the innovation, and his attitude caused Punch
to give him the punning sobriquet of " Mr J. C (lothes) Horsley."
He died on the i8th of October 1903. His son, Sir Victor
Horsley (b. 1857), became famous as a surgeon and neuropatho-
logist, and a prominent supporter of the cause of experimental.
research.
740
HORSLEY, S. HORT
HORSLEY, SAMUEL (1733-1806), English divine, was born
in London on the isth of September 1733. Entering Trinity
College, Cambridge, he became LL.B. in 1758 without graduating
in arts, and in the following year succeeded his father in the
living of Newington Butts in Surrey. Horsley was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767; and secretary in 1773,
but, in consequence of a difference with the president (Sir Joseph
Banks) he withdrew in 1784. In 1768 he attended the eldest
son of the 4th earl of Aylesford to Oxford as private tutor;
and, after receiving through the earl and Bishop Lowth various
minor preferments, which by dispensations he combined with
his first living, he was installed in 1781 as archdeacon of St
Albans. Horsley now entered in earnest upon his famous
controversy with Joseph Priestley, who denied that the early
Christians held the doctrine of the Trinity. In thir controversy,
conducted on both sides in the fiercest polemical spirit, Horsley
showed the superior learning and ability. His aim was to
lessen the influence which the prestige of Priestley's name
gave to his views, by indicating inaccuracies in his scholarship
and undue haste in his conclusions. For the energy displayed
in the contest Horsley was rewarded by Lord Chancellor Thurlow
with a prebendal stall at Gloucester; and in 1788 the same
patron procured his promotion to the see of St David's. As a
bishop, Horsley was energetic both in his diocese, where he strove
to better the position of his clergy, and in parliament. The
efficient support which he afforded the government was ac-
knowledged by his successive translations to Rochester in 1703,
and to St Asaph in 1802. With the bishopric of Rochester he
held the deanery of Westminster. He died at Brighton on
the 4th of October 1806.
Besides the controversial Tracts, which appeared in 1783-1784-
1786, and were republished in 1789 and 1812, Horsley's more im-
portant works are: Apottonii Pergaei inclinationum libri duo
(1770) ; Remarks on the Observations . . . for determining the accelera-
tion of the Pendulum in Lot. 70 51' (1774); Isaaci Newtoni Opera
quae extant Omnia, with a commentary (5 vols. 4to, 17791785);
On the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Languages (1796); Dis-
quisitions on Isaiah xviii. (1796); Hosea, translated... with
Notes (1801); Elementary Treatises on ... Mathematics (1801);
Euclidis elementorum libri priores XII. (1802); Euclidis datorum
liber (1803); Virgil's Two Seasons of Honey, &c. (1805); and papers
in the Philosophical Transactions from 1767 to 1776. After his
death there appeared Sermons (1810-1812); Speeches in Parlia-
ment (1813); Book of Psalms, translated with Notes (1815); Biblical
Criticism (1820) ; Collected Theological Works (6 vols. 8vo, 1845).
HORSLEY, WILLIAM (1774-1858), English musician, was
born on the isth of November 1774. He became in 1790 the
pupil of Theodore Smith, an indifferent musician of the time,
who, however, taught him sufficient to obtain in 1794 the position
of organist at Ely Chapel, Holborn. This post he resigned in
1798, to become organist at the Asylum for Female Orphans,
as assistant to Dr Callcott, with whom he had long been on terms
of personal and artistic intimacy, and whose eldest daughter
he married. In 1802 he became his friend's successor upon the
latter's resignation. Besides holding this appointment he
became in 1812 organist of Belgrave Chapel, Halkin Street,
and in 1838 of the Charter House. He died on the I2th of June
1858. Horsley's compositions are numerous, and include
amongst other instrumental pieces three symphonies for full
orchestra. Infinitely more important are his glees, of which
he published five books (1801-1807) besides contributing many
detached glees and part songs to various collections. His
glees, " By Celia's arbour," " O nightingale," " Now the storm
begins to lower," and others, are amongst the finest specimens
of this peculiarly English class of compositions. Horsley's
son Charles Edward (1822-1876), also enjoyed a certain reputa-
tion as a musician. He studied in Germany under Hauptmann
and Mendelssohn, and on his return to England composed
several oratorios and other pieces, none of which had permanent
success. In 1868 he emigrated to Australia, and in 1872 went to
America; he died at New York.
HORSMAN, EDWARD (1807-1876), English politician, was
the son of a well-to-do gentleman of Stirling, and connected
on the mother's side with the earls of Stair. He was educated
at Rugby and Cambridge, and was called to the Scotch bar
in 1832, but then took to politics. He was elected to parliament
as a Liberal for Cockermouth in 1836, and represented that
constituency till 1852, when ne was defeated; in 1853 he was
returned for Stroud, and sat there till 1868; and from 1869-
till he died he was member for Liskeard. He was a junior lord
of the treasury in Lord Melbourne's administration for a few
months during 1841, and became prominent for attacking
Lord John Russell's ecclesiastical policy in 1847 and subsequent
years. In 1855, under Lord Palmerston, he was made chief
secretary for Ireland, but resigned in 1857. He gradually took
up a position as an independent Liberal, and was well known for
his attacks on the Church, and his exposures of various " jobs."
But his name is principally connected with his influence over
Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) in 1866 at the time of Mr
Gladstone's Reform Bill, to which he and Lowe were hostile;
and it was in describing the Lowe-Horsman combination that
John Bright spoke of the " Cave of Adullam." Horsman died
at Biarritz on the 3oth of November 1876.
HORST, the term used in physical geography and geology
for a block of the earth's crust that has remained stationary
while the land has sunk on either side of it, or has been crushed
in a mountain range against it. The Vosges and Black Forest
are examples of the former, the Table, Jura and the D61e
of the latter result. The word is also applied to those larger
areas, such as the Russian plain, Arabia, India and Central
South Africa, where the continent remains stable, with horizontal
table-land stratification, in distinction to folded regions such
as the Eurasian chains.
HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY (1828-1892), English
theologian, was born in Dublin on the 23rd of April 1828, the
great-grandson of Josiah Hort, archbishop of Tuam in the i8th
century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby to Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W. Benson,
B. F. Westcott and J. B. Lightfoot. The four men became
lifelong friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his
degree, being third in the classical tripos, and in 1852 he became
fellow of his college. In 1854, in conjunction with J. E. B.
Mayor and Lightfoot, he established the Journal of Classical
and Sacred, Philology, and plunged eagerly into theological
and patristic study. He had been brought up in the strictest
principles of the Evangelical school,. but at Rugby he fell under
the influence of Arnold and Tait, and his acquaintance with
Maurice and Kingsley finally gave his opinions a direction
towards Liberalism. In 1857 he married, and accepted the
college living of St Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire,
where he remained for fifteen years. During his residence
there he took some part in the discussions on university reform,
continued his studies, and wrote essays for various periodicals.
In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee for
revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871
he delivered the Hulsean lectures before the university. Their
title was The Way, the Truth, and the Life, but they were not
prepared for publication until many years after their delivery.
In 1872 he accepted a fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel
College; in 1878 he was made Hulsean professor of divinity,
and in 1887 Lady Margaret reader in divinity. In the meantime
he had published, with his friend Westcott, an edition of the text
of the New Testament. The Revision Committee had very
largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a
basis for their translation of the New Testament. The work
on its appearance created an immense sensation among scholars,
and was vehemently attacked in many quarters, but on the
whole it was received as being much the nearest approximation
yet made to the original text of the New Testament (see BIBLE:
New Testament, " Textual Criticism "). The introduction was
the work of Hort, and its depth and fulness convinced all who
read it that they were under the guidance of a master. Hort
died on the 3oth of November 1892, worn out by intense mental
labour. Next to his Greek Testament his best-known work is
The Christian Ecclesia (1897). Other publications are: Judaistic
Christianity (1894); Village Sermons (two series); Cambridge
HORT A HORTICULTURE
and other Sermons; Prolegomena to ... Romans and Ephesians
(1895); The Anle-Nicene Fathers (1895); and two Dissertations,
on the reading /iovc^ecifc 06s in John i. 18, and on The Con-
stantinopolitan and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth Century.
All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of materials.
His Life and Letters was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart.
(1896).
HORTA, the capital of an administrative district comprising
the islands of Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in the Portuguese
archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900) 6574. Horta is a
seaport on the south-east coast of Fayal. It is defended by
two castles and a wall, but these fortifications are obsolete.
The harbour, a bay 2 m. long and nearly i m. broad, affords
good anchorage in 5 to 20 fathoms of water, but is dangerous
in south-westerly and south-easterly winds. It js the head-
quarters of profitable whale, tunny, bonito and mullet fisheries.
Its exports include sperm-oil, fruit, wine and grain. Between
1897 and 1904 the port annually accommodated about 140 vessels
of 220,000 tons, mostly of British or Portuguese nationality.
HORTEN, a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg-Laurvik amt
(county), beautifully situated on the west bank of the Chris-
tiania Fjord, opposite Moss, 38 m. by water and 66 by rail S.
of Christiania. Pop. (1900) 8460. It is practically united with
Karl-Johansvaern, which is defended by strong fortifications,
is the headquarters of the Norwegian fleet, and possesses an
arsenal and shipbuilding yards. There are also an observatory
and a nautical museum.
HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (114-50 B.C.), surnamed Hortalus,
Roman orator and advocate. At the age of nineteen he made
.his first speech at the bar, and shortly afterwards successfully
defended Nicomedes III. of Bithynia, one of Rome's dependants
in the East, who had been deprived of his throne by his brother.
From that time his reputation as an advocate was established.
As the son-in-law of Q. Lutatius Catulus he was attached to the
aristocratic party. During Sulla's ascendancy the courts of
law were under the control of the senate, the judges being
themselves senators. To this circumstance perhaps, as well as to
his own merits, Hortensius may have been indebted for much of
his success. Many of his clients were the governors of provinces
which they were accused of having plundered. Such men were
sure to find themselves brought before a friendly, not to say
a corrupt, tribunal, and Hortensius, according to Cicero (Div.
in Caecil. 7), was not ashamed to avail himself of this advantage.
Having served during two campaigns (90-89) in the Social War,
he became quaestor in 81, aedile in 75, praetor in 72, and consul
in 69. In the year before his consulship he came into collision
with Cicero in the case of Verres, and from that time his supremacy
at the bar was lost. After 63 Cicero was himself drawn towards
the party to which Hortensius belonged. Consequently, in
political cases, the two men were often engaged on the same
side (e.g. in defence of Rabirius, Murena, Publius Cornelius
Sulla, and Milo). After Pompey's return from the East in 61,
Hortensius withdrew from public life and devoted himself to
his profession. In 50, the year of his death, he successfully
defended Appius Claudius Pulcher when accused of treason
and corrupt practices by P. Cornelius Dolabella, afterwards
Cicero's son-in-law.
Hortensius's speeches are not extant. His oratory, according
to Cicero, was of the Asiatic style, a florid rhetoric, better to
hear than to read. He had a wonderfully tenacious memory
(Cicero, Brutus, 88, 95), and could retain every single point
in his opponent's argument. His action was highly artificial,
and his manner of folding his toga was noted by tragic actors
of the day (Macrobius, Sat. iii. 13. 4). He also possessed a fine
musical voice, which he could skilfully command. The vast
wealth he had accumulated he spent on splendid villas, parks,
fish-ponds and costly entertainments. He was the first to
introduce peacocks as a table delicacy at Rome. He was a great
buyer of wine, pictures and works of art. He wrote a treatise
on general questions of oratory, erotic poems (Ovid, Trislia, ii.
441), and an Annales, which gained him considerable reputation
as an historian (Veil. Pat. ii. 16. 3).
His daughter HORTENSIA was also a successful orator. In
42 she spoke against the imposition of a special tax on wealthy
Roman matrons with such success that part of it was remitted
(Quint. Instil, i. i. 6; Val. Max. viii. 3. 3).
In addition to Cicero (passim), see Dio Cassius xxxviii. 16, xxxix.
37; PHny, Nat. Hist. ix. 81, x. 23, xiv. 17, xxxv. 40; Varro,
R.R. iii. 13. 17.
HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS, dictator of Rome 286 B.C. When
the people, pressed by their patrician creditors, " seceded "
to the Janiculum, he was commissioned to put an end to the
strife. He passed a law whereby the resolutions of the multitude
(plebiscita) were made binding on all the citizens, without
the approval of the senate being necessary. This was not a
mere re-enactment of previous laws. Another law, passed about
the same time, which declared the nundinae (market days)
to be dies fasti (days on which legal business might be transacted),
is also attributed to him. He is said to have died while still
dictator.
Aulus Gellius xy. 27; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xvi. 15; Macrobius,
Saturnalia i. 16; Livy, Epit. ii.
HORTICULTURE (Lat. hortus, a garden), the art and science
of the cultivation of garden plants, whether for utilitarian or
for decorative purposes. The subject naturally divides itself
into two sections, which we here propose to treat separately,
commencing with the science, and passing on to the practice
of the cultivation of flowers, fruits and vegetables as applicable
to the home garden. The point of view taken is necessarily,
as a rule, that of a British gardener.
PART I. PRINCIPLES OR SCIENCE OF HORTICULTURE
Horticulture, apart from the mechanical details connected
with the maintenance of a garden and its appurtenances, may
be considered as the application of the principles of plant physio-
logy to the cultivation of plants from all parts of the globe,
and from various altitudes, soils and situations. The lessons
derived from the abstract principles enunciated by the physio-
logist, the chemist and the physicist require, however, to be
modified to suit the special circumstances of plants under cultiva-
tion. The necessity for this modification arises from the fact
that such plants are subjected to conditions more or less un-
natural to them, and that they are grown for special purposes
which are at variance, in degree at any rate, with their natural
requirements.
The life of the plant (see PLANTS) makes itself manifest in
the processes of growth, development and reproduction. By
growth is here meant mere increase in bulk, and by develop-
ment the series of gradual modifications by which a plant,
originally simple in its structure and conformation, becomes
eventually complicated, and endowed with distinct parts or
organs. The reproduction of the higher plants takes place
either asexually by the formation of buds or organs answering
thereto, or sexually by the production of an embryo plant
within the seed. The conditions requisite for the growth,
development and reproduction of plants are, in general terms,
exposure, at the proper time, to suitable amounts of light, heat
and moisture, and a due supply of appropriate food. The
various amounts of these needed in different cases have to be
adjusted by the gardener, according to the nature of the plant,
its " habit" or general mode of growth in its native country,
and the influence to which it is there subjected, as also in accord-
ance with the purposes for which it is to be cultivated, &c.
It is but rarely that direct information on all these points can be
obtained; but inference from previous experience, especially
with regard to allied forms, will go far to supply such deficiencies.
Moreover, it must be remembered that the conditions most
favourable to plants are not always those to which they are
subjected in nature, for, owing to the competition of other
forms in the struggle for existence, liability to injury from
insects, and other adverse circumstances, plants may actually
be excluded from the localities best suited for their development.
The gardener therefore may, and does, by modifying, improve
upon the conditions under which a plant naturally exists. Thus
it frequently happens that in our gardens flowers have a beauty
742
HORTICULTURE
[PRINCIPLES
and a fragrance, and fruits a size and savour denied to them
in their native haunts. It behooves the judicious gardener,
then, not to be too slavish in his attempts to imitate natural
conditions, and to bear in mind that such attempts sometimes
end in failure. The most successful gardening is that which
turns to the best account the plastic organization of the plant,
and enables it to develop and multiply as perfectly as possible.
Experience, coupled with observation and reflection, as well
as the more indirect teachings of tradition, are therefore of
primary importance to the practical gardener.
We propose hereto notice briefly the several parts of a flower-
ing plant, and to point out the rationale of the cultural procedures
connected with them (see the references to separate articles
at the end of article on BOTANY).
The Root. The root, though not precluded from access of air,
is not directly dependent for its growth on the agency of light.
The efficiency of drainage, digging, hoeing and like operations is
accounted for by the manner in which they promote aeration of
the soil, raise its temperature and remove its stagnant water. Owing
to their growth in length at, or rather in the immediate vicinity of,
their tips, roots are enabled to traverse long distances by surmount-
ing some obstacles, penetrating others, and insinuating themselves
into narrow crevices. As they have no power of absorbing solid
materials, their food must be of a liquid or gaseous character.
It is taken up from the interstices between the particles of soil
exclusively by the finest subdivisions of the fibrils, and in many
cases by the extremely delicate thread-like cells which project from
them and which are known as root-hairs. The importance of the
root-fibres, or " feeding roots " justifies the care which is taken by
every good gardener to secure their fullest development, and to
prevent as far as possible any injury to them in digging, potting
and transplanting, such operations being therefore least prejudicial
at seasons when the plant is in a state of comparative rest.
Root-Pruning and Lifting. In apparent disregard of the general
rule just enunciated is the practice of root-pruning fruit trees,
when, from the formation of wood being more active than that of
fruit, they bear badly. The contrariety is more apparent than real,
as the operation consists in the removal of the coarser roots, a
process which results in the development of a mass of fine feeding
roots. Moreover, there is a generally recognised quasi-antagonism
between the vegetative and reproductive processes, so that, other
things being equal, anything that checks the one helps forward
the other.
Watering. So far as practical gardening is concerned, feeding
by the roots after they have been placed in suitable soil is confined
principally to the administration of water and, under certain cir-
cumstances, of liquid or chemical manure; and no operations
demand more judicious management. The amount of water re-
quired, and the times when it should be applied, vary greatly
according to the kind of plant and the object for which it is grown,
the season, the supply of heat and light, and numerous other con-
ditions, the influence of which is to be learnt by experience only.
The same may be said with respect to the application of manures.
The watering of pot-plants requires especial care. Water should as
a rule be used at a temperature 'not lower than that of the sur-
rounding atmosphere, and preferably after exposure for some time
to the air.
Bottom-Heat. The " optimum " temperature, or that best suited
to promote the general activity of roots, and indeed of all vegetable
organs, necessarily varies very much with the nature of the plant,
and the circumstances in which it is placed, and is ascertained by
practical experience. Artificial heat applied to the roots, called by
gardeners " bottom-heat," is supplied by fermenting materials
such as stable manure, leaves, &c., or by hot-water pipes. In winter
the temperature of the soil, out of doors, beyond a certain depth is
usually higher than that of the atmosphere, so that the roots are
in a warmer and more uniform medium than are the upper parts
of the plant. Often the escape of heat from the soil is prevented by
" mulching," i.e. by depositing on it a layer of. litter, straw, dead
leaves and the like.
The Stem and its subdivisions or branches raise to the light and
air the leaves and flowers, serve as channels for the passage to them
of fluids from the roots, and act as reservoirs for nutritive substances.
Their functions in annual, biennial and herbaceous perennial plants
cease after the ripening of the seed, whilst in plants of longer duration
layer after layer of strong woody tissue is formed, which enables
them to bear the strains which the weight of foliage and the exposure
to wind entail. The gardener aims usually at producing stout,
robust, short-jointed stems, instead of long lanky growths defective
in woody tissue. To secure these conditions free exposure to light
and air is requisite; but in the case of coppices and woods, or
where long straight spars are needed by the forester, plants are
allowed to grow thickly so as to ensure development in an upward
rather than in a lateral direction. This and like matters will, how-
ever, be more fitly considered in dealing hereafter with the buds
and their treatment.
Leaves. The work of the leaves may briefly be stated to consist
of the processes of nutrition, respiration and transpiration. Nutri-
tion (assimilation) by the leaves includes the inhalation of air, and
the interaction under the influence of light and in the presence of
chlorophyll of the carbon dioxide of the air with the water received
from the root, to form carbonaceous food. Respiration in plants,
as in other organisms, is a process that goes on by night as well as
by day and consists in plants in the breaking up of the complex
carbonaceous substances formed by assimilation into less complex
and more transportable substances. This process, which is as
yet imperfectly understood, is attended by the consumption of
oxygen, the liberation of energy in the form of heat, and the ex-
halation of carbon dioxide and water vapour. Transpiration is
loss of water by the plant by evaporation, chiefly from the minute
pores or stomata on the leaves. In xerophytic plants (e.g. cacti,
euphorbias, &c.) from hot, dry and almost waterless regions where
evaporation would be excessive, the leaf surface, and consequently
the number of stomata, are reduced to a minimum, as it would be
fatal to such plants to exhale vapour as freely in those regions as the
broad-leaved plants that grow in places where there is abundance of
moisture. Although transpiration is a necessary accompaniment of
nutrition, it may easily become excessive, especially where the plant
cannot readily recoup itself. In these circumstances " syringing "
and " damping down " are of value in cooling the temperature of
the air in hothouses and greenhouses and increasing its humidity,
thereby checking excessive transpiration. Shading the glass with
canvas or washes during the summer months has the same object
in view. Syringing is also beneficial in washing away dirt and
insects.
Buds. The recognition of the various forms of buds and their
modes of disposition in different plants is a matter of the first
consequence in the operations of pruning and training. Flower-
buds are produced either on the old wood, i.e. the shoots of the
past year's growth, or on a shoot of the present year. The peach,
horse-chestnut, lilac, morello cherry, black currant, rhododendron
and many other trees and shrubs develop flower-buds for the next
season speedily after blossoming, and these may be stimulated into
premature growth. The peculiar short, stunted branches or " spurs "
which bear the flower-buds of the pear, apple, plum, sweet cherry,
red currant, laburnum, &c., deserve special attention. In the rose,
passion-flower, clematis, honeysuckle, &c., in which the flower-
buds are developed at the ends of the young shoot of the year,
we have examples of plants destitute of flower-buds during the
winter.
Propagation by Buds. The detached leaf-buds (gemmae or bulbils,
of some plants are capable under favourable conditions of forming
new plants. The edges of the leaves of Bryophyllum calycinum
and of Cardamine pratensis, and the growths in the axils of the
leaves of Lilium bulbiferum, as well as the fronds of certain ferns
(e.g. Asplenium bulbiferum), produce buds of this character. It is
a matter of familiar observation that the ends of the shoots of
brambles take root when bent down to the ground. In some in-
stances buds form on the roots, and may be used for purposes of
propagation, as in the Japan quince, the globe thistle, the sea holly,
some sea lavenders, Bocconia, Acanthus, &c. Of the tendency in buds
to assume an independent existence gardeners avail themselves in
the operations of striking " cuttings," and making " layers " and
" pipings," as also in budding and grafting. In taking a slip or
cutting the gardener removes from the parent plant a shoot having
one or more buds or " eyes," in the case of the vine one only, and
places it in a moist and sufficiently warm situation, where, as
previously mentioned, undue evaporation from the surface is pre-
vented. For some cuttings, pots filled with light soil, with the
protection of the propagating-house and of bell-glasses, are requisite ;
but for many of our hardy deciduous trees and shrubs no such
precautions are necessary, and the insertion of a short shoot about
half its length into moist and gritty ground at the proper season
suffices to ensure its growth. In the case of the more delicate plants,
the formation of roots is preceded by the production from the
cambium of the cuttings of a succulent mass of tissue, the callus.
It is important in some cases, e.g. zonal pelargoniums, fuchsias,
shrubby calceolarias, dahlias, carnations, &c., to retain on the
cutting some of its leaves, so as to supply the requisite food for
storage in the callus. In other cases, where the buds themselves
contain a sufficiency of nutritive matter for the young growths, the
retention of leaves is not necessary. The most successful mode of
forming roots is to place the cuttings in a mild bottom-heat, which
expedites their growth, even in the case of many hardy plants whose
cuttings strike roots in the open soil. With some hard-wooded
trees, as the common white-thorn, roots cannot be obtained without
bottom-heat. It is a general rule throughout plant culture that
the activity of the roots shall be in advance of that of the leaves.
Cuttings of deciduous trees and shrubs succeed best if planted
early in autumn while the soil still retains the solar heat absorbed
during summer. For evergreens August or September, and for
greenhouse and stove-plants the spring and summer months, are
the times most suitable for propagation by cuttings.
Layering consists simply in bending down a branch and keeping
it in contact with or buried to a small depth in the soil until roots
are formed; the connexion with the parent plant may then be
PRINCIPLES]
HORTICULTURE
743
severed. Many plants can be far more easily propagated thus than
by cuttings.
Grafting or "working" consists in the transfer of a branch, the
" graft " or " scion," from one plant to another, which latter is
termed the " stock." The operation must be so performed that the
growing tissues, or cambium-layer of the scion, may fit accurately
to the corresponding layer of the stock. In budding, as with roses
and peaches, a single bud only is implanted. Inarching is essentially
the promotion of the union of a shoot of one plant to that of another
of the same or allied species or variety. The outer bark of each
being removed, the two shoots are kept in contact by ligature until
union is established, when the scion is completely severed from its
original attachments. This operation is varied in detail according
to the kind of plant to be propagated, but it is essential in all cases
that the affinity between the two plants be near, that the union be
neatly effected, and that the ratio as well as the season of growth
of stock and scion be similar.
The selection of suitable stocks is a matter still requiring much
scientific experiment. The object of grafting is to expedite and
increase the formation of flowers and fruit. Strong-growing pears,
for instance, are grafted on the quince stock in order to restrict
their tendency to form " gross " shoots and a superabundance of
wood in place of flowers and fruit. Apples, for the same reason, are
" worked " on the " paradise " or " doucin " stocks, which from
their influence on the scion are known as dwarfing stocks. Scions
from a tree which is weakly, or liable to injury by frosts, are
strengthened by engrafting on robust stocks. Lindley has pointed
out that, while in Persia, its native country, the peach is probably
best grafted on the peach, or on its wild type the almond, in England,
where the summer temperature of the soil is much lower than that
of Persia, it might be expected, as experience has proved, to be
most successful on stocks of the native plum.
The soil in which the stock grows is a point demanding attention.
From a careful series of experiments made in the Horticultural
Society's Garden at Chiswick, it was found that where the soil is
loamy, or light and slightly enriched with decayed vegetable matter,
the apple succeeds best on the doucin stock, and the pear on the
quince; and where it is chalky it is preferable to graft the apple
on the crab, and the pear on the wild pear. For the plum on loamy
soils the plum, and on chalky and light soils the almond, are the
most desirable stocks, and for the cherry on loamy or light rich
soils the wild cherry, and on chalk the " mahaleb " stock.
The form and especially the quality of fruit is more or less affected
by the stock upon which it is grown. The Stanwick nectarine, so
apt to crack and not to ripen when worked in the ordinary way, is
said to be cured of these propensities by being first budded close
to the ground, on a very strong-growing Magnum Bonum plum,
worked on a Brussels stock, and by then 'budding the nectarine on
the Magnum Bonum about a foot from the ground. The fruit of
the pear is of a higher colour and smaller on the quince stock than
on the wild pear; still more so on the medlar. On the mountain ash
the pear becomes earlier.
The effects produced by stock on scion, and more particularly
by scion on stock, are as a rule with difficulty appreciable. Never-
theless, in exceptional cases modified growths, termed " graft-
hybrids," have been obtained which have been attributed to the
commingling of the characteristics of stock and scion (see HYBRIDISM).
Of these the most remarkable example is Cytisus Adami, a tree
which year after year produces some shoots, foliage and flowers
like those of the common laburnum, others like those of the very
different looking dwarf shrub C. purpureus, and others again inter-
mediate between these. We may hence infer that C. purpureus
was grafted or budded on the common laburnum, and that the
intermediate forms are the result of graft-hybridization. Numerous
similar facts have been recorded. Among gardeners the general
opinion is against the possibility of graft-hybridization. The
wonder, however, seems to be that it does not occur more frequently,
seeing that fluids must pass from stock to scion, and matter elaborated
in the leaves of the scion must certainly to some extent enter the
stock. It is clear, nevertheless, from examination that as a rule
the wood of the stock and the wood of the scion retain their external
characters year by year without change. Still, as in the laburnum
just mentioned, in the variegated jasmine and in Abutilon Darwinii,
in the copper beech and in the horse-chestnut, the influence of a
variegated scion has occasionally shown itself in the production
from the stock of variegated shoots. At a meeting of the Scottish
Horticultural Association (see Card. Chron., Jan. 10, 1880, figs. 12-14)
specimens of a small roundish pear, the " Aston Town," and of the
elongated kind known as " Beurr6 Clairgeau," were exhibited.
Two more dissimilar pears hardly exist. The result of working the
Beurr6 Clairgeau upon the Aston Town was the production of fruits
precisely intermediate in size, form, colour, speckling of rind and
other characteristics. Similar, though less marked, intermediate
characters were obvious in the foliage and flowers.
Double grafting (French, greffe sur greffe) is sufficiently explained
by its name. By means of it a variety may often be propagated,
or its fruit improved in a way not found practicable under ordinary
circumstances. For its successful prosecution prolonged experiments
in different localities and in gardens devoted to the purpose are
requisite.
Planting. By removal from one place to another the growth of
every plant receives a check. How this check can be obviated or
reduced, with regard to the season, the state of atmosphere, and the
condition and circumstances of the plant generally, is a matter to
be considered by the practical gardener.
As to season, it is now admitted with respect to deciduous trees
and shrubs that the earlier in autumn planting is performed the
better; although some extend it from the period when the leaves
fall to the first part of spring, before the sap begins to move. If
feasible, the operation should be completed by the end of November,
whilst the soil is still warm with the heat absorbed during summer.
Attention to this rule is specially important in the case of rare
and delicate plants. Early autumn planting enables wounded
parts of roots to be healed over, and to form fibrils, which will be
ready in spring, when it is most required, to collect food for the
plant. Planting late in spring should, as far as possible, be avoided,
for the buds then begin to awaken into active life, and the draught
upon the roots becomes great. It has been supposed that because
the surface of the young leaves is small transpiration is correspond-
ingly feeble; but it must be remembered, not only that their newly-
formed tissue is unable without an abundant supply of sap from the
roots to resist the excessive drying action of the atmosphere, but
that, in spring, the lowness of the temperature at that season in
Great Britain prevents the free circulation of the sap. The com-
parative dryness of the atmosphere in spring also causes a greater
amount of transpiration then than in autumn and winter. Another
fact in favour of autumnal planting is the production of roots in
winter.
The best way of performing transplantation depends greatly on
the size of the trees, the soil in which they grow, and the mechanical
appliances made use of in lifting and transporting them. The
smaller the tree the more successfully can it be removed. The more
argillaceous and the less siliceous the soil the more readily can balls
of earth be retained about the roots. All planters lay great stress
on the preservation of the fibrils; the point principally disputed is
to what extent they can with safety be allowed to be cut off in
transplantation. Trees and shrubs in thick plantations, or in
sheltered warm places, are ill fitted for planting in bleak and cold
situations. During their removal it is important that the roots
be covered, if only to prevent desiccation by the air. Damp days
are therefore the best for the operation; the dryest months are the
most unfavourable. Though success in transplanting depends much
on the humidity of the atmosphere, the most important requisite
is warmth in the soil; humidity can be supplied artificially, but
heat cannot.
Pruning, or the removal of superfluous growths, is practised in
order to equalize the development of the different parts of trees,
or to promote it in particular directions so as to secure a certain
form, and, by checking undue luxuriance, to promote enhanced
fertility. In the rose-bush, for instance, in which, as we have seen,
the flower-buds are formed on the new wood of the year, pruning
causes the old wood to " break," i.e. to put forth a number of new
buds, some of which will produce flowers at their extremities. The
manner and the time in which pruning should be accomplished, and
its extent, vary with the plant, the objects of the operation, i.e.
whether for the production of timber or fruit, the season and
various other circumstances. So much judgment and experience
does the operation call for that it is a truism to say that bad pruning
is worse than none. The removal of weakly, sickly, overcrowded
and gross infertile shoots is usually, however, a matter about which
there can be few mistakes when once the habit of growth and the
form and arrangement of the buds are known. Winter pruning
is effected when the tree is comparatively at rest, and is therefore
less liable to " bleeding " or outpouring of sap. Summer pruning or
pinching off the tips of such of the younger shoots as are not required
for the extension of the tree, when not carried to too great an extent,
is preferable to the coarser more reckless style of pruning. The
injury inflicted is less and not so concentrated; the wounds are
smaller, and have time to heal before winter sets in. The effects
of badly-executed pruning, or rather hacking, are most noticeable
in the case of forest trees, the mutilation of which often results in
rotting, canker and other diseases. Judicious and timely thinning
so as to allow the trees room to grow, and to give them sufficiency
of light and air, will generally obviate the need of the pruning-saw,
except to a relatively small extent.
Training is a procedure adopted when it is required to grow plants
in a limited area, or in a particular shape, as in the case of many
plants of trailing habit. Judicious training also may be of import-
ance as encouraging the formation of flowers and fruit. Growth
in length is mainly in a vertical direction, or at least at the ends of
the shoots; and this should be encouraged, in the case of a timber
tree, or of a climbing plant which it is desired should cover a wall
quickly; but where flowers or fruit are specially desired, then,
when the wood required is formed, the lateral shoots may often be
trained more or less downward to induce fertility. The refinements
of training, as of pruning, may, however, be carried too far; and not
unfrequently the symmetrically trained trees of the French excite
admiration in every respect save fertility.
Sports or Bud Variations. Here we may conveniently mention
certain variations from the normal condition in the size, form or
744
HORTICULTURE
PRINCIPLES
disposition of buds or shoots on a given plant. An inferior variety
of pear, for instance, may suddenly produce a shoot bearing fruit of
superior quality; a beech tree, without obvious 'cause, a shoot
with finely divided foliage; or a camellia an unwontedly fine flower.
When removed from the plant and treated as cuttings or grafts,
such sports may be perpetuated. Many garden varieties of flowers
and fruits have thus originated. The cause of their production is
very obscure.
Formation of Flowers. Flowers, whether for their own sake or
as the necessary precursors of the fruit and seed, are objects of the
greatest concern to the gardener. As a rule they are not formed
until the plant has arrived at a certain degree of vigour, or until a
sufficient supply of nourishment has been stored in the tissues of
the plant. The reproductive process of which the formation of the
flower is the first stage being an exhaustive one, it is necessary that
the plant, as gardeners say, should get " established " before it
flowers. Moreover, although the green portions of the flower do
indeed perform the same office as the leaves, the more highly coloured
and more specialized portions, which are further removed from the
typical leaf-form, do not carry on those processes for which the
presence of chlorophyll is essential; and the floral organs may,
therefore, in a rough sense, be said to be parasitic upon the green
parts. A check or arrest of growth in the vegetative organs seems
to be a necessary preliminary to the development of the flower.
A diminished supply of water at the root is requisite, so as to check
energy of growth, or rather to divert it from leaf-making. Partial
starvation will sometimes effect this; hence the grafting of free-
growing fruit trees upon dwarfing stocks, as before alluded to,
and also the " ringing " or girdling of fruit trees, i.e. the removal
from the branch of a ring of bark, or the application of a tight
cincture, in consequence of which the growth of the fruits above
the wound or the obstruction is enhanced. On the same principle
the use of small pots to confine the roots, root-pruning and lift-
ing the roots, and exposing them to the sun, as is done in the case
of the vine in some countries, are resorted to. A higher temperature,
especially with deficiency of moisture, will tend to throw a plant
into a flowering condition. This is exemplified by the fact that
the temperature of the climate of Great Britain is too low for the
flowering, though sufficiently high for the growth of many plants.
Thus the Jerusalem artichoke, though able to produce stems and
tubers abundantly, only flowers in exceptionally hot seasons.
Forcing. The operation of forcing is based upon the facts just
mentioned. By subjecting a plant to a gradually increasing tempera-
ture, and supplying water in proportion, its growth may be ac-
celerated ; its season of development may be, as it were, anticipated ;
it is roused from a dormant to an active state. Forcing therefore
demands the most careful adjustment of temperature and supplies
' of moisture and light.
Deficiency of light is less injurious than might at first be expected,
because the plant to be forced has stored up in its tissues, and
available for use, a reserve stock of material formed through the
agency of light in former seasons. The intensity of the colour of
flowers and the richness of flavour of fruit are, however, deficient
where there is feebleness of light. Recent experiments show that
the influence of electric light on chlorophyll is similar to that of
sunlight, and that deficiencies of natural light may to some extent
be made good by its use. The employment of that light for forcing
purposes would seem to be in part a question of expense. The
advantage hitherto obtained from its use has consisted in the
rapidity with which flowers have been formed and fruits ripened
under its influence, circumstances which go towards compensating
for the extra cost of production.
Retardation. The art of retarding the period of flowering in certain
plants consists, in principle, jn the artificial application of cold
temperatures whereby the resting condition induced by low winter
temperature is prolonged. For commercial purposes, crowns of lily
of the valley, tulip and other bulbs, and such deciduous woody
plants as lilac and deciduous species of rhododendron, while in a
state of rest, are packed in wet moss and introduced into cold-
storage chambers, where they may be kept in a state of quiescence,
if desired, throughput the following summer. The temperature of
the cold chamber is varied from the freezing-point of water, to a
few degrees lower, according to the needs of the plants under treat-
ment. When required for use they are removed to cool sheds to
thaw, and are then gradually inured to higher temperatures. The
chief advantages of retarded plants are: (a) they may be flowered
almost at will; (b) they are readily induced to flower at those
times when unretarded plants refuse to respond to forcing. Cold-
storage chambers form a part of the equipment of most of the
leading establishments where flowers are grown for market.
Double Flowers. The taste of the day demands that " double
flowers " should be largely grown. Though in many instances, as
in hyacinths, they are less beautiful than single ones, they always
present the advantage of being less evanescent. Under the vague
term " double " many very different morphological changes are
included. The flower of a double dahlia, e.g. offers a totally different
condition of structure from that of a rose or a hyacinth. The double
poinsettia, again, owes its so-called double condition merely to the
increased number of its scarlet involucral leaves, which are not
parts of the flower at all. It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that
the causes leading to the production of double flowers are varied.
A good deal of difference of opinion exists as to whether they are
the result of arrested growth or of exuberant development, and
accordingly whether restricted food or abundant supplies of nourish-
ment are the more necessary for their production. It must suffice
here to say that double flowers are most commonly the result of the
substitution of brightly-coloured petals for stamens or pistils or
both, and that a perfectly double flower where all the stamens
and pistils are thus metamorphosed is necessarily barren. Such a
plant must needs be propagated by cuttings. It rarely happens,
however, that the change is quite complete throughout the flower,
and so a few seeds may be formed, some of which may be expected
to reproduce the double-blossomed plants. By continuous selection
of seed from the best varieties, and " roguing " or eliminating plants
of the ordinary type, a " strain " or race of double flowers is gradually
produced.
Formation of Seed Fertilization. In fertilization the influence
in flowering plants of the male-cell in the pollen tube upon the egg-
cell in the ovule (see BOTANY) there are many circumstances of
importance horticulturally, to which, therefore, brief reference must
be made. Flowers, generally speaking, are either self-fertilized,
cross-fertilized or hybridized. Self-fertilization occurs when the
pollen of a given flower affects the egg-cell of the same individual
flower. Cross-fertilization varies both in manner and degree. In
the simplest instances the pollen of one flower fertilizes the ovules
of another on the same plant, owing to the stamens arriving at
maturity in any one flower earlier or later than the pistils.
Cross-fertilization must of necessity occur when the flowers are
structurally unisexual, as in the hazel, in which the male and female
flowers are monoecious, or separate on the same plant, and in the
willow, in which they are dioecious, or on different plants. A
conspicuous example of a dioecious plant is the common aucuba, of
which for years only the female plant was known in Britain. When,
through the introduction of the male plant from Japan, its fertiliza-
tion was rendered possible, ripe berries, before unknown, became
common ornaments of the shrub.
The conveyance of pollen from one flower to another in cross-
fertilization is effected naturally by the wind, or by the agency of
insects and other creatures. Flowers that require the aid of insects
usually offer some attraction to their visitors in the shape of bright
colour, fragrance or sweet juices. The colour and markings of a
flower often serve to guide the insects to the honey, in the obtaining
of which they are compelled either to remove or to deposit pollen.
The reciprocal adaptations of insects and flowers demand attentive
observation on the part of the gardener concerned with the growing
of grapes, cucumbers, melons and strawberries, or with the raising
of new and improved varieties of plants. In wind-fertilized plants
the flowers are comparatively inconspicuous and devoid of much
attraction for insects; and their pollen is smoother and smaller,
and better adapted for transport by the wind, than that of insect-
fertilized plants, the roughness of which adapts it for attachment
to the bodies of insects.
It is very probable that the same flower at certain times and
seasons is self-fertilizing, and at others not so. The defects which
cause gardeners to speak of certain vines as " shy setters," and of
certain strawberries as " blind," may be due either to unsuitable
conditions of external temperature, or to the non-accomplishment,
from some cause or other, of cross-fertilization. In a vinery, tomato-
house or a peach-house it is often good practice at the time of
flowering to tap the branches smartly with a stick so as to ensure
the dispersal of the pollen. Sometimes more delicate and direct
manipulation is required, and the gardener has himself to convey
the pollen from one flower to another, for which purpose a small
camel's-hair pencil is generally suitable. The degree of fertility
varies greatly according to external conditions, the structural and
functional arrangements just alluded to, and other causes which
may roughly be called constitutional. Thus, it often happens that
an apparently very slight change in climate alters the degree of
fertility. In a particular country or at certain seasons one flower
will be self-sterile or nearly so, and another just the opposite.
Hybridization. Some of the most interesting results and many of
the gardener's greatest triumphs have been obtained by hybridiza-
tion, i.e. the crossing of two individuals not of the same but of
two distinct species of plants, as, for instance, two species of
rhododendron or two species of orchid (see HYBRIDISM). It is
obvious that hybridization differs more in degree than in kind from
cross-fertilization. The occurrence of hybrids in nature explains the
difficulty experienced by botanists in deciding on what is a species,
and the widely different limitations of the term adopted by different
observers in the case of willows, roses, brambles, &c. The artificial
process is practically the same in hybridization as in cross-fertiliza-
tion, but usually requires more care. To prevent self-fertilization,
or the access of insects, it is advisable to remove the stamens and
even the corolla from the flower to be impregnated, as its own pollen
or that of a flower of the same species is often found to be " pre-
potent." There are, however, cases, e.g. some passion-flowers and
rhododendrons, in which a flower is more or less sterile with its
own, but fertile with foreign pollen, even when this is from a distinct
species. It is a singular circumstance that reciprocal crosses are
not always or even often possible; thus, one rhododendron may
PRACTICE]
HORTICULTURE
745
afford pollen perfectly potent on the stigma of another kind, by the
pollen of which latter its own stigma is unaffected.
The object of the hybridizer is to obtain varieties exhibiting
improvements in hardihood, vigour, size, shape, colour, fruitfulness,
resistance to disease or other attributes. His success depends not
alone on skill and judgment, for some seasons, or days even, are
found more propitious than others. Although promiscuous and
hap-hazard procedures no doubt meet with a measure of success,
the best results are those which are attained by systematic work with
a definite aim.
Hybrids are sometimes less fertile than pure-bred species, and
are occasionally quite sterile. Some hybrids, however, are as
fertile as pure-bred plants. Hybrid plants may be again crossed,
or even re-hybridized, so as to produce a progeny of very mixed
parentage. This is the case with many of our roses, dahlias, begonias,
pelargoniums, orchids and other long or widely cultivated garden
plants.
Reversion. In modified forms of plants there is frequently a
tendency to " sport " or revert to parental or ancestral charac-
teristics. So markedly is this the case with hybrids that in a
few generations all traces of a hybrid origin may disappear. The
dissociation of the hybrid element in a plant must be obviated by
careful selection. The researches of Gregor Johann- Mendel (1822-
1884), abbot of the Augustinian monastery, at Brunn, in connexion
with peas and other plants, apparently indicate that there is a
definite natural law at work in the production of hybrids. Having
crossed yellow and green seeded peas both ways, he found that the
progeny resulted in all yellow coloured seeds. These gave rise in due
course to a second generation in which there were three yellows to
one green. In the third generation the yellows from the second
generation gave the proportion of one pure yellow, two impure
yellows, and one green ; while the green seed of the second generation
threw only green seeds in the third, fourth and fifth generations.
The pure yellow in the third generation also threw pure yellows in the
fourth and fifth and succeeding generations. The impure yellows,
however, in the next generation gave rise to one pure yellow, one pure
green, to two impure yellows, and so on from generation to genera-
tion. Accordingly as the green or the yellow predominated in the
progeny it was termed " dominant," while the colour that dis-
appeared was called " recessive." It happened, however, that a
recessive colour in one generation becomes the dominant in a suc-
ceeding one.
Germination. The length of the period during which seeds
remain dormant after their formation is very variable. The con-
ditions for germination are much the same as for growth in general.
Access to light is not required, because the seed contains a sufficiency
of stored-up food. The temperature necessary varies according to
the nature and source of the seed. Some seeds require prolonged
immersion in water to soften their shells ; others are of so delicate a
texture that they would dry up and perish if not kept constantly
in a moist atmosphere. Seeds buried too deeply receive a deficient
supply of air. As a rule, seeds require to be sown more deeply in
proportion to their size and the lightness of the soil.
The time required for germination in the most favourable cir-
cumstances vanes very greatly, even in the same species, and in
seeds taken from one pod. Thus the seeds of Primula japonica,
though sown under precisely similar conditions, yet come up at
very irregular intervals of time. Germination is often slower where
there is a store of available food in the perisperm, or in the endo-
sperm, or in the embryo itself, than where this is scanty or wanting.
In the latter case the seedling has early to shift for itself, and to
form roots and leaves for the supply of its needs.
Selection. Supposing seedlings to have been developed, it is
found that a large number of them present considerable variations,
some being especially robust, others peculiar in size or form. Those
most suitable for the purpose of the gardener are carefully selected
for propagation, while others not so desirable are destroyed; and
thus after a few generations a fixed variety, race or strain superior
to the original form is obtained. Many garden plants have originated
solely by selection ; and much has been done to improve our breeds
of vegetables, flowers and fruit by systematic selection.
Large and well-formed seeds are to be preferred for harvesting.
The seeds should be kept in sacks or bags in a dry place, and if from
plants which are rare, or liable to lose their vitality, they are ad-
vantageously packed for transmission to a distance in hermetically
sealed bottles or jars filled with earth or moss, without the addition
of moisture.
It will have been gathered from what has been said that seeds
cannot always be depended on to reproduce exactly the character-
istics of the plant which yielded them; for instance, seeds of the
greengage plum or of the Ribston pippin will produce a plum or
an apple, but not these particular varieties, to perpetuate which
grafts or buds must be employed. (M. T. M.; W. R. W.)
PART II. THE PRACTICE OF HORTICULTURE
The details of horticultural practice naturally range under
the three heads of flowers, fruits and vegetables (see also FRUIT
AND FLOWER FARMING). There are, however, certain general
aspects of the subject which will be more conveniently noticed
apart, since they apply alike to each department. We shall
therefore first treat of these under four headings: formation
and preparation of the garden, garden structures and edifices,
garden materials and appliances, and garden operations.
I. Formation and Preparation of the Garden.
Site. The site chosen for the mansion will more or less
determine that of the garden, the pleasure grounds and flower
garden being placed so as to surround or lie contiguous to it,
while the fruit and vegetable gardens, either together or separate,
should be placed on one side or in the rear, according to fitness
as regards the nature of the soil and subsoil, the slope of the
surface or the general features of the park scenery. In the
case of villa gardens there is usually little choice: the land
to be occupied is cut up into plots, usually rectangular, and
of greater or less breadth, and in laying out these plots there
is generally a smaller space left in the front of the villa residence
and a larger one behind, the front plot being usually devoted
to approaches, shrubbery and plantations, flower beds being
added if space permits, while the back or more private plot
has a piece of lawn grass with flower beds next the house, and a
space for vegetables and fruit trees at the far end, this latter
being shut off from the lawn by an intervening screen of ever-
greens or other plants. Between these two classes of gardens
there are many gradations, but our remarks will chiefly apply
to those of larger extent.
The almost universal practice is to have the fruit and vegetable
gardens combined; and the flower garden may sometimes
be conveniently placed in juxtaposition with them. When the
fruit and vegetable gardens are combined, the smaller and choicer
fruit trees only should be admitted, such larger-growing hardy
fruits as apples, pears, plums, cherries, &c., being relegated to
the orchard.
Ground possessing a gentle inclination towards the south
is desirable for a garden. On such a slope effectual draining
is easily accomplished, and the greatest possible benefit is
derived from the sun's rays. It is well also to have an open
exposure towards the east and west, so that the garden may
enjoy the full benefit of the morning and evening sun, especially
the latter; but shelter is desirable on the north and north-east,
or in any direction in which the particular locality may happen
to be exposed. In some places the south-western gales are so
severe that a belt of trees is useful as a break wind and shelter.
Soil and Subsoil. A hazel-coloured loam, moderately light
in texture, is well adapted for most garden crops, whether
of fruits or vegetables, especially a good warm deep loam resting
upon chalk; and if such a soil occurs naturally in the selected
site, but little will be required in the way of preparation. If
the soil is not moderately good and of fair depth, it is not so
favourable for gardening purposes. Wherever the soil is not
quite suitable, but is capable of being made so, it is best to remedy
the defect at the outset by trenching it all over to a depth
of 2 or 3 ft., incorporating plenty of manure with it. A heavy
soil, although at first requiring more labour, generally gives far
better results when worked than a light soil. The latter is
not sufficiently retentive of moisture and gets too hot in
summer and requires large quantities of organic manures
to keep it in good condition. It is advantageous to possess
a variety of soils; and if the garden be on a slope it will
often be practicable to render the upper part light and dry,
while the lower remains of a heavier and damper nature.
Natural soils consist of substances derived from the decom-
position of various kinds of rocks, the bulk consisting' of
clay, silica and lime, in various proportions. As regards pre-
paration, draining is of course of the utmost importance.
The ground should also be trenched to the depth of 3 ft. at
least, and the deeper the better so as to bring up the subsoil
whether it be clay, sand, gravel, marl, &c. for exposure to
the weather and thus convert it from a sterile mass into a living
soil teeming with bacteria. In this operation all stones larger
than a man's fist must be taken out, and all roots of trees and of
746
HORTICULTURE
[FORMATION OF GARDEN
perennial weeds carefully cleared away. When the whole
ground has been thus treated, a moderate liming will, in general,
be useful, especially on heavy clay soils. After this, supposing
the work to have occupied most of the summer, the whole may
be laid up in ridges, to expose as great a surface as possible
to the action of the winter's frost.
Argillaceous or clay soils are those which contain a large per-
centage (45-50) of clay, and a small percentage (5 or less) of lime.
These are unfitted for garden purposes until improved by draining,
liming, trenching and the addition of porous materials, such as
ashes, burnt ballast or sand, but when thoroughly improved they
are very fertile and less liable to become exhausted than most other
soils. Loamy soils contain a considerable quantity (30-45 %)
of clay, and smaller quantities of lime, humus and sand. Such
soils properly drained and prepared are very suitable for orchards,
and when the proportion of clay is smaller (20-30%) they form
excellent garden soils, in which the better sort of fruit trees luxuriate.
Marly soils are those which contain a considerable percentage
(10-20) of lime, and are called clay marls, loamy marls and sandy
marls, according as these several ingredients preponderate. The
clay marls are, like clay soils, too stiff for garden purposes until
well worked and heavily manured; but loamy marls are fertile
and well suited to fruit trees, and sandy marls are adapted for
producing early crops. Calcareous soils, which may also be heavy,
intermediate or light, are those which contain more than 20% of
lime, their fertility depending on the proportions of clay and sand
which enter into their composition ; they are generally cold and wet.
Vegetable soils or moulds, or humus soils, contain a considerable
percentage (more than 5) of humus, and embrace both the rich
productive garden moulds and those known as peaty soils.
The nature of the subsoil is of scarcely less importance than
that of the surface soil. Many gardeners are still afraid to dis-
turb an unsuitable subsoil, but experienced growers have proved
that by bringing it up to the surface and placing plenty of
manure in the bottoms of the various trenches, the very best
results are attained in the course of a season or so. An uneven
subsoil, especially if retentive, is most undesirable, as water
is apt to collect in the hollows, and thus affect the upper soil.
The remedy is to make the plane of its surface agree with that
of the ground. When there is a hard pan this should be broken
up with the spade or the fork, and have plenty of manure mixed
with it. When there is an injurious preponderance of metallic
oxides or other deleterious substances, the roots of trees would
be affected by them, and they must therefore be removed. When
the subsoil is too compact to be pervious to water, effectual
drainage must be resorted to; when it is very loose, so that it
drains away the fertile ingredients of the soil as well as those
which are artificially supplied, the compactness of the stratum
should be increased by the addition of clay, marl or loam. The
best of all subsoils is a dry bed of clay overlying sandstone.
Plan. In laying out the garden, the plan should be prepared
in minute detail before commencing operations. The form
of the kitchen and fruit garden should be square or oblong,
rather than curvilinear, since the working and cropping of
the ground can thus be more easily carried out. The whole
should be compactly arranged, so as to facilitate working,
and to afford convenient access for the carting of the heavy
materials. This access is especially desirable as regards the
store-yards and framing ground, where fermenting manures
and tree leaves for making up hot beds, coals or wood for fuel
and ingredients for composts, together with flower-pots and
the many necessaries of garden culture, have to be accom-
modated. In the case of villas or picturesque residences,
gardens of irregular form may be permitted; when adapted
to the conditions of the locality, they associate better with
surrounding objects, but in such gardens wall space is usually
limited.
The distribution of paths must be governed by circumstances.
Generally speaking, the main paths for cartage should be 8 ft.
wide, made up of 9 in. hard core covered by 4 in. of gravel
or ash, with a gentle rise to centre to throw off surface water.
The smaller paths, not intended for cartage, should be 4 ft.
to 6 ft. wide, according to circumstances, made up of 6 in.
hard core and 3 in. of gravel or ash, and should be slightly
raised at centre.
A considerable portion of the north wall is usually covered
in front with the glazed structures called forcing-houses, and to
these the houses for ornamental plants are sometimes attached;
but a more appropriate site for the latter is the flower garden,
when that forms a separate department. It is well, however,
that everything connected with the forcing of fruits or flowers
should be concentrated in one place. The frame ground, in-
cluding melon and pine pits, should occupy some well-sheltered
spot in the slips, or on one side of the garden, and adjoining to
this may be found a suitable site for the compost ground, in
which the various kinds of soils are kept in store, and in which
also composts may be prepared.
As walls afford valuable space for the growth of the choicer
kinds of hardy fruits, the direction in which they are built
is of considerable importance. In the warmer parts of the
country the wall on the north side of the garden should be so
placed as to face the sun at about an hour before noon, or a
little to the east of south; in less favoured localities it should
be made to face direct south, and in still more unfavourable
districts it should face the sun an hour after noon, or a little
west of south. The east and west walls should run parallel
to each other, and at right angles to that on the north side,
in all the most favoured localities; but in colder or later ones,
though parallel, they should be so far removed from a right angle
as to get the sun by eleven o'clock. On the whole, the form of
a parallelogram with its longest sides in the proportion of about
five to three of the shorter, and running east and west, may be
considered the best form, since it affords a greater extent of
south wall than any other.
Fig. i represents a garden of one acre and admits of nearly double
the number of trees on the south aspect as compared with the east
and w.est; it allows a greater number of espalier or pyramid trees
to face the south ; and it admits of being divided into equal principal
compartments, each of
which forms nearly a
square. The size of course
can be increased to any
requisite extent. That of
the royal gardens at Frog-
more, 760 ft. from east to *=
west and 440 ft. from
north to south, is nearly
of the same proportions.
The spaces between
the walls and the outer
fence are called " slips."
A considerable extent is y " ' * ** T T*
sometimes thus enclosed, T- , n
, ..,. j r .1 rlG. i. Plan of Garden an acre in area,
and utilized for the
growth of such vegetables as potatoes, winter greens and sea-
kale, for the small bush fruits, and for strawberries. The
slips are also convenient as affording a variety of aspects,
and thus helping to prolong the season of particular vegetable
crops.
Shelter. A screen of some kind to temper the fury of the
blast is absolutely necessary. If the situation is not naturally
well sheltered, the defect may be remedied by masses of forest
trees disposed at a considerable distance so as not to shade the
walls or fruit trees. They should not be nearer than, say, 50 yds.,
and may vary from that to 100 or 150 yds. distance according
to circumstances, regard being had especially to peculiarities
occasioned by the configuration of the country, as for instance to
aerial currents from adjacent eminences. Care should be taken,
however, not to hem in the garden by crowded plantations, shelter
from the prevailing strong winds being all that is required, while
the more open it is in other directions the better. The trees
employed for screens should include both those of deciduous
and of evergreen habit, and should suit the peculiarities of local
soil and climate. Of deciduous trees the sycamore, wych-elm,
horse-chestnut, beech, lime, plane and poplar may be used, the
abele or white poplar, Populus alba, being one of the most rapid-
growing of all trees, and, like other poplars, well suited for
nursing other choicer subjects; while of evergreens, the holm
oak, holly, laurel (both common and Portugal), and such conifers
as the Scotch, Weymoutb and Austrian pines, with spruce and
(South.)
GARDEN STRUCTURES]
HORTICULTURE
747
silver firs and yews, are suitable. The conifers make the most
effective screens.
Extensive gardens in exposed situations are often divided
into compartments by hedges, so disposed as to break the force
of high winds. Where these are required to be narrow as well
as lofty, holly, yew or beech is to be preferred; but, if there
is sufficient space, the beautiful laurel and the bay may be
employed where they will thrive. Smaller hedges may be
formed of evergreen privet or of tree-box. These subordinate
divisions furnish, not only shelter but also shade, which, at
certain seasons, is peculiarly valuable.
Belts of shrubbery may be placed round the slips outside
the walls; and these may in many cases, or in certain parts,
be of sufficient breadth to furnish pleasant retired promenades,
at the same time that they serve to mask the formality of the
walled gardens, and are made to harmonize with the picturesque
scenery of the pleasure ground.
Water Supply. Although water is one of the most important
elements in plant life, we do not find one garden in twenty where
even ordinary precautions have been taken to secure a competent
supply. Rain-water is the best, next to that river or pond
water, and last of all that from springs; but a chemical analysis
should be made of the last before introducing it, as some spring
waters contain mineral ingredients injurious to vegetation. Iron
pipes are the best conductors; they should lead to a capacious
open reservoir placed outside the garden, and at the highest
convenient level, in order to secure sufficient pressure for effective
distribution, and so that the wall trees also may be effectually
washed. Stand-pipes should be placed at intervals beside the
walks and in other convenient places, from which water may at
all times be drawn; and to which a garden hose can be attached,
so as to permit of the whole garden being readily watered.
The mains should be placed under the walks for safety, and also
that they may be easily reached when repairs are required.
Pipes should also be laid having a connexion with all the various
greenhouses and forcing-houses, each of which should be pro-
vided with a cistern for aerating the daily supplies. In fact,
every part of the garden, including the working sheds and
offices, should have water supplied without stint.
Fence. Gardens of large extent should be encircled by an
outer boundary, which is often formed by a sunk wall or ha-ha
surrounded by an invisible wire fence to exclude ground game,
or consists of a hedge with low wire fence on its inner side.
Occasionally this sunk wall is placed on the exterior of the
screen plantations, and walks lead through the trees, so that
views are obtained of the adjacent country. Although the
interior garden receives its form from the walls, the ring fence
and plantations may be adapted to the shape and surface of
the ground. In smaller country gardens the enclosure or outer
fence is often a hedge, and there is possibly no space enclosed
by walls, but some divisional wall having a suitable aspect is
utilized for the growth of peaches, apricots, &c., and the hedge
merely separates the garden from a paddock used for grazing.
The still smaller gardens of villas are generally bounded by a wall
or wood fence, the inner side of which is appropriated to fruit
trees. For the latter walls are much more convenient and
suitable than a boarded fence, but in general these are too low to
be of much value as aids to cultivation, and they are best covered
with bush fruits or with ornamental plants of limited growth.
Walks. The best material for the construction of garden
walks is good binding gravel. The ground should be excavated
to the depth of a foot or more the bottom being made firm and
slightly concave, so that it may slope to the centre, where a drain
should be introduced; or the bottom may be made convex and
the water allowed to drain away at the sides. The bottom 9 in.
should be filled in compactly with hard, coarse materials, such
as stones, brickbats, clinkers, burned clay, &c., on which should
be laid 2 or 3 in. of coarse gravel, and then i or 2 in. of firm
binding gravel on the surface. The surface of the walks should be
kept well rolled, for nothing contributes more to their elegance
and durability.
All the principal lines of walk should be broad enough to allow
at least three persons to walk abreast; the others may be
narrower, but a multitude of narrow walks has a puny effect.
Much of the neatness of walks depends upon the material of
which they are made. Gravel from an inland pit is to be pre-
ferred; though occasionally very excellent varieties are found
upon the sea-coast. Gravel walks must be kept free from weeds,
either by hand weeding, or by the use of one of the many weed
killers now on the market. In some parts of the country the
available material does not bind to form a close, even surface,
and such walks are kept clean by hoeing.
Grass walks were common in English gardens during the pre-
valence of the Dutch taste, but, owing to the frequent humidity
of the climate, they have in a great measure been discarded.
Grass walks are made in the same way as grass lawns. When the
space to be thus occupied is prepared, a thin layer of sand or poor
earth is laid upon the surface and over this a similar layer of
good soil. This arrangement is adopted in order to prevent
excessive luxuriance in the grass. In many modern gardens
pathways made of old paving stones lead from the house to
different parts. They give an old-fashioned and restful appear-
ance to a garden, and in the interstices charming little plants like
thyme, lonopsidium acaule, &c., are allowed to grow.
Edgings. Walks are separated from the adjoining beds and
borders in a variety of ways. If a living edging is adopted,
by far the best is afforded by the dwarf box planted closely
in line. It is of extremely neat growth, and when annually
clipped will remain in good order for many years. Very good
edgings, but of a less durable character, are formed by thrift
(Armeria vidgaris), double daisy (Belhs perennis), gentianella
(Gentiana acaulis) and London pride (Saxifraga umbrosa),
Cerastium tomentosum, Stachys lavata and the beautiful ever-
green Veronica rupestris with sheets of bright blue flowers
close to the ground, or by some of the finer grasses very carefully
selected, such as the sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina) or its
glaucous-leaved variety. Indeed, any low-growing herbaceous
plant, susceptible of minute division, is suitable for an edging.
Amongst shrubby plants suitable for edgings are the evergreen
candytuft (Iberis sempervirens) , Euonymus radicans variegata,
ivy, and Euonymus microphyllus a charming little evergreen
with small serrated leaves. Edgings may also be formed of
narrow slips of sandstone flag, slate, tiles or bricks. One
advantage of using edgings of this kind, especially in kitchen
gardens, is that they do not harbour slugs and similar vermin,
which all live edgings do, and often to a serious extent, if they
are left to grow large. In shrubberies and large flower-plots,
verges of grass-turf, from i to 3 ft. in breadth, according to the
size of the border and width of the walk, make a very handsome
edging, but they should not be allowed to rise more than an
inch and a half above the gravel, the grass being kept short by
repeated mowings, and the edges kept trim and well-defined
by frequently clipping with shears and cutting once or twice a
year with an edging iron.
II. Garden Structures.
Walls. The position to be given to the garden walls has
been already referred to. The shelter afforded by a wall, and the
increased temperature secured by its presence, are indispensable
in the climate of Great Britain, for the production of all the
finer kinds of outdoor fruits; and hence the inner side of a north
wall, having a southern aspect, is appropriated to the more
tender kinds. It is, indeed, estimated that such positions
enjoy an increased temperature equal to 7 of latitude that
is to say, the mean temperature within a few inches of the wall
is equal to the mean temperature of the open plain 7 farther
south. The eastern and western aspects are set apart for fruits
of a somewhat hardier character.
Where the inclination of the ground is considerable, and the
presence of high walls would be objectionable, the latter may
be replaced by sunk walls. These should not rise more than
3 ft. above the level of the ground behind them. As dryness is
favourable to an increase of heat, such walls should be either
built hollow or packed behind to the thickness of 3 or 4 ft.
HORTICULTURE
[GARDEN STRUCTURES
with rubble stones, flints, brickbats or similar material, thoroughly
drained at bottom. For mere purposes of shelter a height of
6 or 7 ft. will generally be sufficient for the walls of a garden,
but for the training of fruit trees it is found that an average
height of 12 ft. is more suitable. In gardens of large size the
northern or principal wall may be 14 ft., and the side walls 12 ft. in
height; while smaller areas of an acre or so should have the
principal walls 12 and the side walls 10 ft. in height. As brick
is more easily built hollow than stone, it is to be preferred for
garden walls. A i4-in. hollow wall will take in its construction
12,800 bricks, while a solid p-in. one, with piers, will take 11,000;
but the hollow wall, while thus only a little more costly, will
be greatly superior, being drier and warmer, as well as more
substantial. Bricks cannot be too well burnt for garden walls;
the harder they are the less moisture will they absorb. Many
excellent walls are built of stone. The best is dark-coloured
whinstone, because it absorbs very little moisture, or in Scotland
Caithness pavement 4 in. thick. The stones can be cut (in the
quarries) to any required length, and built in regular courses.
Stone walls should always be built with thin courses for conveni-
ence of training over their surface. Concrete walls, properly coped
and provided with a trellis, may in some places be cheapest, and
they are very durable. Common rubble walls are the worst of all.
The coping of garden walls is important, both for the preserva-
tion of the walls and for throwing the rain-water off their surfaces.
It should not project less than from 2 to 25 in., but in wet
districts may be extended to 6 in. Stone copings are best,
but they are costly, and Portland cement is sometimes sub-
stituted. Temporary copings of wood, which may be fixed
by means of permanent iron brackets just below the stone coping,
are extremely useful in spring for the protection of the blossoms
of fruit trees. They should be 9 in. or i ft. wide, and should
be put on during spring before the blossom buds begin to expand ;
they should have attached to them scrim cloth (a sort of thin
canvas), which admits light pretty freely, yet is sufficient to
ward off ordinary frosts; this canvas is to be let down towards
evening and drawn up again in the morning. These copings
should be removed when they are of no further utility as pro-
tectors, so that the foliage may have the full benefit of rain
and dew. Any contrivance that serves to interrupt radiation,
though it may not keep the temperature much above freezing,
will be found sufficient. Standard fruit trees must be left to
take their chance; and, indeed from the lateness of their flower-
ing, they are generally more injured by blight, and by drenching
rains, which wash away the pollen of the flowers, than by the
direct effects of cold.
Espalier Rails. Subsidiary to walls as a means of training
fruit trees, espalier rails were formerly much employed, and
are still used in many gardens. In their simplest form, they
are merely a row of slender stakes of larch or other wood driven
into the ground, and connected by a slight rod or fillet at top.
The use of iron rails has now been almost wholly discontinued
on account of metallic substances acting as powerful conductors
of both heat and cold in equal extremes. Standards from
which galvanized wire is tightly strained from one end to the
other are preferable and very convenient. Trees trained to
them are easily got at for all cultural operations, space is saved,
and the fruit, while freely exposed to sun and air, is tolerably
secure against wind. They form, moreover, neat enclosures
for the vegetable quarters, and, provided excess of growth
from the centre is successfully grappled with, they are productive
in soils and situations which are suitable.
Plant Houses. These include all those structures which are
more intimately associated with the growth of ornamental
plants and flowers, and comprise conservatory, plant stove,
greenhouse and the subsidiary pits and frames. They should
be so erected as to present the smallest extent of opaque surface
consistent with stability. With this object in view, the early
improvers of hot-house architecture substituted metal for wood
in the construction of the roofs, and for the most part dispensed
with back walls; but the conducting power of the metal caused
a great irregularity of temperature, which it was found difficult
to control; and, notwithstanding the elegance of metallic
houses, this circumstance, together with their greater cost,
has induced most recent authorities to give the preference to
wood. The combination of the two, however, shows clearly
that, without much variation of heat or loss of light, any extent
of space may be covered, and houses of any altitude constructed.
The earliest notice we have of such structures is given in the Latin
writers of the 1st century (Mart. Epigr. viii. 14 and 68); the
'ASuwSos Kfjiroi, to which allusion is made by various Greek authors,
have no claim to be mentioned in this connexion. Columella
(xi. 3, 51, 52) and Pliny (H.N. xix. 23) both refer to their use in
Italy for the cultivation of the rarer and more delicate sorts of plants
and trees. Seneca has given us a description of the application of
hot water for securing the necessary temperature. The botanist
Jungermann had plant houses at Altdorf in Switzerland; those of
Loader, a London merchant, and the conservatory in the Apothe-
caries' Botanic Garden at Chelsea, were among the first structures
of the kind erected in British gardens. These were, however, ill
adapted for the growth of plants, as they consisted of little else than
a huge chamber of masonry, having large windows in front, with
the roof invariably opaque. The next step was taken when it became
fashionable to have conservatories attached to mansions, instead of
having them in the pleasure grounds. This arrangement brought
them within the province of architects, and for nearly a century
utility and fitness for the cultivation of plants were sacrificed, as still
is often the case, to the unity of architectural expression between
the conservatory and the mansion.
Plant houses must be as far as possible impervious to wet and
cold air from the exterior, provision at the same time being
FIG. 2. Lean-to Plant House.
made for ventilation, while the escape of warm air from the interior
must also be under control. The most important part of the
enclosing material is necessarily glass. But as the rays of light,
even in passing through transparent glass, lose much of their
energy, which is further weakened in proportion to the distance
it has to travel, the nearer the plant can be placed to the glass
the more perfectly will its functions be performed; hence the
importance of constructing the roofs at such an angle as will
admit the most light, especially sunlight, at the time it is most
required. Plants in glass houses require for their fullest develop-
ment more solar light probably than even our best hot-houses
transmit certainly much more than is transmitted through
the roofs of houses as generally constructed.
Plant houses constructed of the best Baltic pine timber are
very durable, but the whole of the parts should be kept as light
as possible. In many houses, especially those where ornament
is of no consequence, the rafters are now omitted, or only used
at wide intervals, somewhat stouter sash-bars being adopted, and
stout panes of glass (usually called 2i-oz.) 12 to 18 in. wide, made
use of. Such houses are very light; being also very close, they
require careful ventilation. The glass roof is commonly designed
so as to form a uniform plane or slope from back to front in lean-to
houses (fig. 2), and from centre to sides in span-roofed houses.
To secure the greatest possible influx of light, some horticulturists
recommend curvilinear roofs; but the superiority of these is
largely due to the absence of rafters, which may also be dis-
pensed with in plain roofs. They are very expensive to build
and maintain. Span and ridge-and-furrow roofs, the forms now
mostly preferred, are exceedingly well adapted for the admission
of light, especially wnen they are glazed to within a few inches
GARDEN STRUCTURES]
HORTICULTURE
749
of the ground. They can be made, too, to cover in any extent
of area without sustaining walls. Indeed, it has been proposed
to support such roofs to a great extent upon suspension principles,
the internal columns of support being utilized for conducting
the rain-water off the roof to underground drains or reservoirs.
The lean-to is the least desirable form, since it scarcely admits of
elegance of design, but it is necessarily adopted in many cases.
In glazing, the greater the surface of glass, and the less space
occupied by rafters and astragals as well as overlaps, the greater
the admission of light. Some prefer that the sash-bars should
be grooved instead of rebated, and this plan exposes less putty
to the action of the weather. The simple bedding of the glass,
without the use of over putty, seems to be widely approved; but
the glass may be fixed in a variety of other ways, some of which
are patented.
The Conservatory is often built in connexion with the mansion,
so as to be entered from the drawing-room or boudoir. But when
so situated it is apt to suffer from the shade of the building, and
is objectionable on account of admitting damp to the drawing-room.
Where circumstances will admit, it is better to place it at some
distance from the house, and to form a connexion by means of a
glass corridor. In order that the conservatory may be kept gay with
flowers, there should be a subsidiary structure to receive the plants
as they go out of bloom. The conservatory may also with great
propriety be placed in the flower garden, where it may occupy an
elevated terrace, and form the termination of one of the more im-
portant walks.
Great variety of design is admissible in the conservatory, but it
ought always to be adapted to the style of the mansion of which it
is a prominent appendage. Some very pleasing examples are to be
met with which have the form of a parallelogram with a lightly
rounded roof; others of appropriate character are square or nearly
so, with a ridge-and-furrow roof. Whatever the form, there must be
light in abundance; and the shade both of buildings and of trees
must be avoided. A southern aspect, or one varying to south-east or
south-west, is preferable; if these aspects cannot be secured, the
plants selected must be adapted to the position. The central part of
the house may be devoted to permanent plants; the side stages and
open spaces in the permanent beds should be reserved for the
temporary plants.
The Greenhouse is a structure designed for the growth of such
exotic plants as require to be kept during winter in a temperature
considerably above the freezing-point. The best form is the span-
roofed, a single span being better even than a series of spans such
as form the ridge-and-furrow roof. For plant culture, houses at a
comparatively low pitch are better than higher ones where the plants
have to stand at a greater distance from the glass, and therefore in
greater gloom. Fig. 3 represents a convenient form of greenhouse.
It is 20 ft. wide and
12 ft. high, and may
be of any convenient
length. The side
walls are surmounted
by short upright
sashes which open
outwards by ma-
chinery a, and the
roof is provided with
sliding upper sashes
for top ventilation.
The upper sashes
may also be made to
lift, and are in many
respects more con-
venient to operate.
In the centre is a
two-tier stage 6 ft.
FIG. 3. Section of Greenhouse.
wide, for plants, with a pathway on each side 3 ft. wide, and a
side stage 4 ft. wide, the side stages being flat, and the centre stage
having the middle portion one-third of the width elevated I ft.
above the rest so as to lift up the middle row of plants nearer
the light. Span-roofed houses of this character should run north
and south so as to secure an equalization of light, and should
be warmed by two flow, and one or two return 4-in. hot-water pipes,
carried under the side stages along each side and across each end.
Where it is desired to cultivate a large number of plants, it is much
better to increase the number of such houses than to provide larger
structures. The smaller houses are far better for cultural purposes,
while the plants can be classified, and the little details of management
more conveniently attended to. Pelargoniums, cinerarias, calceolarias
cyclamens, camellias, heaths, roses and other specialities might thus
have to themselves either a whole house or part of a house, the con-
ditions of which could then be more accurately fitted to the wants ol
the inmates.
The lean-to house is in most respects inferior to the span-roofed,
one of the latter could be converted into two of the former of opposite
aspects by a divisional wall along the centre. _ Except where space
does not permit a span-roofed building to be introduced, a lean-to
s not to be recommended ; but a house of this class may often be
greatly improved by adopting a half-span or hipped roof that is,
one with a short slope behind and a longer in front.
Where the cultivation of large specimens has to be carried on, a
span-roofed house of greater height and larger dimensions may
sometimes prove useful; but space for this class of plants may
jenerally be secured in a house of the smaller elevation, simply by
owering or removing altogether the staging erected for smaller
slants, and allowing the larger ones to stand on or nearer the floor.
The Plant Stove differs in no respect from the greenhouse except
in having a greater extent of hot-water pipes for the purpose of
securing a greater degree of heat, although, as the plants in stove
louses often attain a
larger size, and many of
them require a bed of
:oco-nut fibre, tan or
leaf mould to supply
them with bottom heat,
a somewhat greater
elevation may perhaps
be occasionally required
in some of the houses.
For the smaller plants,
and for all choicer sub-
jects, the smaller size
of house already recom-
mended for greenhouses,
namely 20 ft. wide and
12 ft. high, with a side
table of 4 ft. on each side,
a pathway of 3 ft. and a
central stage on two levels
FIG. 4. Section of Plant Stove.
of 6 ft. wide, will be preferable, because more easily managed as to the
supply of heat and moisture. It will be seen (fig. 4) that along the
ridge of the roof a raised portion or lantern light b, b is introduced,
which permits of the fixing of two continuous ventilators, one along
each side, for the egress of heated and foul air, openings a, a being
also provided in the side walls opposite the hot-water pipes for the
admission of pure cold air. This type of house is also very suitable
for greenhouse plants, but would not need so much heating apparatus.
Three or four rows of flow and return pipes respectively will be re-
quired on each side, according to the heat proposed to be maintained.
In their interior fittings plant stoves require more care than green-
houses, which are much drier, and in which consequently the staging
does not so soon decay. In stoves the stages should be of slate or
stone where practicable, and the supports of iron. These should be
covered with a layer of 2 or 3 in. of some coarse gritty material, such
as pounded spar, or the shell sand obtained on the sea-coast, on which
the pots are to stand ; its use is to absorb moisture and gradually
give it out for the benefit of the plants. The pathways should be
paved with tiles, brick or stone, or made of concrete and cement, and
the surface should be gently rounded so that the water required for
evaporation may drain to the sides while the centre is sufficiently
dry to walk upon ; they should also have brick or stone edgings to
prevent the water so applied soaking away at the sides and thus
being wasted.
Fruit Houses. The principal of these are the vinery, peach
house, cucumber and melon house and orchard house. These,
or a portion of them,
especially the vineries
and peacheries, are
frequently brought
together into a range
along the principal
interior or south wall
of the garden, where
they are well exposed
to sun and light, an
ornamental plant
house being some-
FIG. 5. Lean-to Vinery.
times introduced into the centre of the range in order to give
effect to the outline of the buildings. When thus associated,
the houses are usually of the lean-to class, which have the
750
HORTICULTURE
[GARDEN STRUCTURES
advantage of being more easily warmed and kept warm than
buildings having glass on both sides, a matter of great im-
portance for forcing purposes.
The Vinfry is a house devoted to the culture of the grape-vine,
which is by far the most important exotic fruit cultivated in English
gardens. When forming part of a range a vinery would in most cases
be a lean-to structure, with a sharp pitch (45-50) if intended for
early forcing, and a flatter roof (40 ) with longer rafters if designed
for the main and late crops, (i) The lean-to (fig. 5) is the simplest
form, often erected against some existing wall, and the best for early
forcing, being warmer on account of the shelter afforded by the back
wall. In this house the principal part of the roof is a fixture, ventila-
tion being provided for by small lifting sashes against the back wall,
and by the upright front sashes being hung on a pivot so as to swing
outwards on the lower side.
The necessary heat is pro-
vided by four 4-in. hot-water
pipes, which would perhaps
be best placed if all laid
side by side, while the vines
are planted in front and
trained upwards under the
roof. A second set of vines
may be planted against the
back wall, and will thrive
there until the shade of the
roof becomes too dense. (2)
The hip-roofed or three-
quarter span (fig. 6) is a
combination of the lean-to
and the span-roofed, uniting
to a great degree the ad-
vantages of both, being
warmer than the span an
FlG. 6. Hip-Roofed Vinery.
lighter than the lean-tp. The heating and ventilating arrangements
are much the same as in the lean-to, only the top sashes which open
are on the back slope, and therefore do not interfere so much with
the vines on the front slope. In both this and the lean-to the aspect
should be as nearly due south as possible. Houses of this form are
excellent for general purposes, and they are well adapted both for
muscats, which require a high temperature, and for late-keeping
grapes. (3) The span-roofed (fig. 7), the most elegant and ornamental
form, is especially adapted for isolated positions; indeed, no other
form affords so much roof space for the development of the vines.
The amount of light admitted being very great, these houses answer
well for general purposes and for the main crop. The large amount of
glass or cooling surface, however, makes it more difficult to keep up
a high and regular temperature in them, and from this cause they
are not so well adapted for very early or very late crops. They are
best, nevertheless, when grapes and ornamental plants are grown in
the same house, except, indeed, in very wet and cold districts, where,
in consequence of its greater warmth, the lean-to is to be preferred.
FIG. 7. Span-Roofed Vinery.
This type of house, cheaply constructed, is in general use for raising
grapes for market.
The Peach House is a structure in which the ripening of the fruit
is accelerated by the judicious employment of artificial heat. For
early forcing, as in vineries, the lean-to form is to be preferred, and
the house may have a tolerably sharp pitch. A width of 7 or 8 ft.,
with the glass slope continued down to within a foot or two of the
ground, and without any upright front sashes, will be suitable for
such a house, which may also be conveniently divided into com-
partments of from 30 to 50 ft. in length according to the extent of
the building, small houses being preferable to larger ones. As a very
high temperature is not required, two or three pipes running the
whole length of the house will suffice. The front wall should be built
on piers and arches to allow the roots to pass outwards into a prepared
border, the trees being planted just within the house. Abundant
means of ventilation should be provided.
For more general purposes the house represented in fig. 8 will be
found more useful. One set of trees is planted near the front, and
trained to an arched trellis b.
Another set is planted at the
back, and trained on a trellis
c, which is nearly upright, and
leans against the back wall;
or the back wall itself may
be used for training. There
are no upright front sashes,
but to facilitate ventilation
there are ventilators d in the
front wall, and the upper roof
sashes are made to move up
FIG. 8. Peach House.
and down for the same object. Two or three hot-water pipes
are placed near the front wall. The back wall is usually planted
with dwarf and standard trees alternately, the latter being temporary,
and intended to furnish the upper part of the trellis, while the per-
manent dwarfs are gradually filling up the trellis from below. In any
case the front trellis should stop conveniently short of the top of the
sashes if there are trees against the back wall, in order to admit light
to them. They would also be better carried up nearly parallel to
the roof, and at about I ft. distant from it, supposing there were no
trees at the back.
A span-roofed house, being lighter than a lean-to, would be so
much the better for peach culture, especially for the crop grown just
FIG. 9. Forcing House.
in anticipation of those from the open walls since a high temperature
is not required. A low span, with dwarf side walls, and a lantern
ventilator along the ridge, the height in the centre being 9 ft., would
be very well adapted for the purpose. The trees should be planted
inside and trained up towards the ridge on a trellis about a foot from
the glass, the walls being arched to permit the egress of the roots.
A trellis path should run along the centre, and movable pieces of
trellis should be provided to prevent trampling on the soil while
dressing and tying in the young wood.
The Forcing House. Whenever continuous supplies of cucumbers,
melons and tomatoes are required, it is most convenient to grow them
in properly constructed forcing houses. Span-roofed houses (fig. 9)
are probably the most useful for the purpose. They are usually
GARDEN STRUCTURES]
HORTICULTURE
12 to 14 ft. wide, by 10 to 12 ft. high, and of any convenient length.
Heating is effected by means of hot-water pipes below the beds, and
against the side ventilators. The walls bordering the central paths
are arched or clotted to admit heat from the chambers below the
beds. Side pipes are occasionally dispensed with, heat being obtained
by means of slots at the back of the beds, communicating with the
chambers. The beds are also of use for plunging pot plants. Ventila-
tion is provided at sides and top.
Pits and frames of various kinds are frequently used for the culti-
vation of cucumbers and melons, as well as hot beds covered by
ordinary garden frames. In these cases the first supply of heat is
derived from the hot bed made up within the pit. When the heat
of the original bed subsides, linings of fermenting dung must be
added, and these must be kept active by occasional turnings and the
addition of fresh material as often as required. It is better, however,
to effect both top and bottom heating by hot-water pipes.
Orchard Houses are span-roofed or lean-to structures, in which
various fruits are cultivated without the aid of artificial heat.
Peaches, nectarines, apricots, cherries and the more tender varieties
of plums and pears succeed well in houses of this kind. The types of
houses in general use are substantially as shown in fig. 7, for span-
roofed, and as fig. 5, for lean-to; in each case without the heating
apparatus. The orchard house is among the most generally useful
of all garden structures. These houses require careful management
in early summer so as to induce the more delicate varieties of peaches
and nectarines to complete and ripen their growth before cold, sunless
weather sets in.
In commercial establishments where utility is of more importance
than ornament, the glass houses and hot water apparatus are not of
so elaborate a type as indicated in the foregoing remarks, and in
many cases excellent produce is grown in structures more or less
dilapidated. In some places movable greenhouses have been erected
for market purposes, so that the soil may be exposed to the sweeten-
ing effect of the weather, when the glass roof is moved to an adjoining
patch.
Pits and Frames. These are used both for the summer
growth and winter protection of various kinds of ornamental
plants, for the growth of such fruits as cucumbers, melons and
strawberries, and for the forcing of vegetables. When heat is
required, it is sometimes supplied by means of fermenting dung,
or dung and leaves, or tanner's bark, but it is much more econ-
omically provided by hot-water pipes. Pits of many different
forms have been designed, but it may be sufficient here to
describe one or two which can be recommended for general
purposes.
An excellent pit for wintering bedding-out plants or young green-
house stock is shown at fig. 10.
FIG. 10. Ventilated Plant Pit.
It is built upon the pigeon-hole
principle as high as the
ground level o, a, and
above that in g-in.
brickwork. At a dis-
tance of 9 in. retaining
walls b, b are built up
to the ground level,
and the spaces be-
* tween the two are
covered by thick
^ boarding, which is to
V be shut down as
)' shown at c in cold
weather to exclude
frost, and opened as
shown at d in mild
weather to promote
The height of the pit
a free circulation of air through the pit.
might be reduced according to the size of the plants; and, to
secure the interior against frost, flow and return hot-water pipe e
should pass along beneath the staging, which should be a strong
wooden trellis supported by projections in the brickwork. The
water which drains from the plants or is spilt in watering would fall
on the bottom, which should be made porous to carry it away. For
many plants this under current of ventilation would be exceedingly
beneficial, especially when cold winds prevented the sashes from
being opened. A pit of this character may be sunk into the ground
deeper than is indicated in the figure if the subsoil is dry and gravelly,
but in the case of a damp subsoil it should rather be more elevated,
as the soil could easily be sloped up to meet the retaining wall.
Frames. Frames (fig. n) should be made of the best red deal,
1 i in. thick. A convenient size is 6 ft. wide, 24 in. high at the back
and 15 in front; and they are usually 12 ft. long, which makes three
lights and sashes, though they can be made with two lights or one
light for particular purposes. Indeed, a one-light frame is often
found very convenient for many purposes. The lights should be
2 in. thick, and glazed with 21 oz. sheet glass, in broad panes four or
five to the breadth of a light, and of a length which will work in
conveniently and economically, very long panes being undesirable
from the havoc caused by accidents, and very short ones being
objectionable as multiplying the chances of drip, and the exclusion
of light by the numerous lappings; panes about 12 in. long are of
convenient size for garden lights of this character. In all gardens
FIG. ii. Hot-Bed Three-Light Frame.
the frames and lights should be of one size so as to be interchangeable,
and a good supply of extra lights (sashes) may always be turned to
good account for various purposes.
Span-roof garden frame (fig. 12) may under some circumstances be
useful as a substitute for the three-light frame. It is adapted for
storing plants in winter, for nursing small plants in summer and for
the culture of melons and other crops requiring glass shelter. These
frames are made 1 1 in. high in front, 22 at the back and 32 at the
FIG. 12. Span- Roof Frame.
ridge, with ends of ij-in. red deal; the sashes, which are 2 in. thick,
open by gearing, the front and back separately. The lights are
hinged so that they can be turned completely back when necessary.
This more direct and ready access to the plants within is one of the
principal recommendations of this form of pit.
Mushroom House. Mushrooms may be grown in sheds and
cellars, or even in protected ridges in the open ground, but a
special structure is usually devoted to them. A lean-to against
the north side of the garden wall will be found suitable for the
purpose, though a span-roofed form may also be adopted,
especially if the building stands apart.
The internal arrangement of a lean-to mushroom house is shown in
fig. 13. The length may vary from 30 ft. to 60 ft.; a convenient
width is 10 ft., which admits of a 3i ft. central path, and beds 3 ft.
wide on each side. The
shelves should be of slate
a, a, supported by iron
uprights b, b, each half
haying a front ledge of
bricks set on edge in
cement c, c. The slabs of
slate forming the shelves
should not be too closely \J'
fitted, as a small interval
will prevent the accumu-
lation of moisture at the
bottom of the bed. They
may be supported by iron
standards or brick piers,
back and front, bearing
up a flat bar of iron on
which the slates may
rest; the use of the bar
will give wider intervals
between the supports,
which will be found con-
venient for filling and
emptying the beds. The
roof may be tiled or
slated; but, to prevent
the injurious influence
of hot sun, there should
be an inner roof or ceil-
ing d, the space between
which and the outer roof
e should be packed with
sawdust. A hot-water pipe / should run along both sides of the
pathway, close to the front ledge of the lowest beds. The different
shelves can be planted in succession; and the lower ones, especially
those on the floor level, as being most convenient, can be utilized
for forcing sea-kale and rhubarb.
The Fruit Room. This important store should be dark,
moderately dry, with a steady, moderately cool atmosphere.
FIG. 13. Lean-to Mushroom House.
752
HORTICULTURE
[ MATERIALS AND APPLIANCES
and with the means of giving sufficient ventilation to keep the air
sweet. It should also be sufficiently commodious to permit of the
fruit being arranged in single layers on the shelves or trays. A
type of building which is becoming increasingly popular for this
purpose, and which is in many respects superior to the older, and
often more expensive structures, is built of wood, with or without
brick foundations, and is thickly thatched with reeds or other
non-conducting material externally on walls and roof while
the interior is matchboarded. Ventilation is afforded at the
ends, usually by tilting laths, operated by a cord. Two doors
are provided at one end an inner, and an outer the inner
being glazed at the top to admit light. They are generally span-
roofed, about 6 ft. high at the eaves, and 8 or 10 ft. high at the
ridge, according to width.
The length and breadth of these stores should be governed by the
amount and character of the storage accommodation to be provided.
If intended for storage only, a width of 9 ft. 6 in. would suffice, but if
intended to combine display with storage, the internal diameter
should be about 13 ft. In the former type, the walls are fitted with
four rows of shelves, about 3 ft. wide, and about I ft. 6 in. apart.
The shelves are of deal strips, 2 or 3 in. wide, laid about I in. apart
for ventilation. These are being superseded, however, by sliding-out
trays of convenient lengths and about 9 in. deep, working on fixed
framework. By this means the storage accommodation is nearly
doubled and the fruit is more easily manipulated. The central
gangway is about 3 ft. 6 in. wide. In the latter a central exhibition
bench about 3 ft. wide and of convenient height is provided. Gang-
ways 2j ft. wide flank this, while the shelves or drawers with which
the walls are fitted are about 2\ ft. wide.
Care of the Fruit Room. This consists mainly in the storing only
of such fruits as are dry and in proper condition; in judicious
ventilation, especially in the presence of large quantities of newly-
gathered fruit ; in the prompt removal of all decaying fruit ; and in
the exclusion of vermin. It is also advisable to wash all woodwork
and gangways annually with a weak solution of formalin, or other
inodorous' germicide.
Healing Apparatus. Plant houses were formerly heated in
a variety of ways by fermenting organic matter, such as dung,
by smoke flues, by steam and by hot water circulating in iron
pipes. The last-named method has proved so satisfactory in
practice that it is now in general use for all ordinary purposes.
The water is heated by a furnace, and is conveyed from the boiler
into the houses by a main or " flow " pipe, connected by means
of syphon branches with as many pipes as it is intended to serve.
When cooled it is returned to the boiler by another main or
" return " pipe. Heat is regulated in the structures by means of
valves on the various branch pipes. The flow pipe is attached
to the boiler at its highest point, to take the heated water as it
ascends. The return pipe is connected with the boiler at or near
its lowest point. The highest points of the pipes are fitted with
small taps, for the removal of air, which would retard circulation
if allowed to remain. Heating by hot water may be said to
depend, in part, on the influence of gravity on water being to
some extent overcome by heating in a boiler. It ascends the
flow pipe by convection, where its onward journey would
speedily end if it were not for the driving force of other molecules
of water following, and the suction set up by the gravitation into
the boiler of the cooled water by the return pipe. The power
of water to conduct heat is very low. The conducting power
of the iron in which it is conveyed is high. It is, however, prob-
able that conduction is to some extent a factor in the process.
Pipes. It is a mistake to stint the quantity of piping, since it is
far more economical and better for the plants to have a larger
surface heated moderately than a smaller surface heated excessively
In view of the fact that air expands, becomes lighter and rises, undo--
the influence of heat, the pipes should be set near the floor. I
intended to raise the temperature of the structure, they should be
set on iron or brick supports just clear of walls, earth or other heat
absorbing bodies. Those intended to provide bottom heat, however
are set in (a) water tanks running under the beds, or (6) in enclpsec
dry chambers under the beds, or are (c) embedded in the soil or
plunging material. The first-named method is distinctly superior to
the others. Pipes of 2 in., 3 in., 4 in. and 6 in. diameters are mostly
used, the 4 in. size being the most convenient for general purposes
The joints are packed or caulked with tow, smeared with a mixture
of white and red lead. Flanged joints are made to bolt together on
washers of vulcanized rubber.
Boilers. There are numerous types of boilers in use, illustrative
of efforts to secure as much exposure as possible to the action of the
lames. The water-tube type, with multiple waterways, consists of a
number of separate tubes joined together in various ways. Some of
hese are built in the form of a blunt cone, and are known as conical
ubular boilers. Others are built with the tubes arranged horizont-
ally, and are known as horizontal tubular boilers. The majority of
he latter are more or less saddle-shaped. Boilers with a single
waterway are of three principal types, the Cornish, the saddle and the
conical. The Cornish is cylindrical with the furnace occupying about
lalf the length of the cylinder. The saddle is so named from its
supposed resemblance to a saddle. It is set to span the furnace,
additional exposure to heat being secured in a variety of ways by
lues. Exposure in the conical boiler is direct on its inner surface,
and is supplemented by flues. Tubular boilers, especially the
lorizontal types, are very powerful and economical. The Cornish
:ype is a rather slow and steady boiler, and is much used for pro-
iding heat for large areas. The saddle boiler is very commonly
mployed to provide heat for moderately sized and small areas.
3oth are powerful and economical. Conical boilers are more ex-
pensive to set by reason of their shape, and are not so convenient to
nanipulate as the horizontal kinds. All the above types require a
setting of masonry. Portable boilers are convenient for heating
small areas, and are less expensive to instal than those described
above. They are less economical, however, owing to loss of heat from
their exposed surfaces. What are called sectional boilers as used in
America and on the Continent are being introduced to British
gardens. Portions can be added or taken away according to the
amount of heating surface required.
Water Supply. Wastage of water in the boilers should be made
food automatically from a cistern controlled by means of a ball-cock.
t should be placed as high above the boiler as practicable. The feed
should connect with the return pipe near the point at which it enters
the boiler.
Stokeholds. These have usually to be excavated to admit of the
boilers being set below the level of the pipes they are intended to
serve. In consequence of their depth, the draining of stokeholds often
presents difficulties. Care should be taken to allow sufficient room
to properly manipulate the fires and to store fuel. It is important
that the ventilation should be as efficient as practicable, especially
where coke fuel is to be used.
Stoking. The management of the furnaces is relatively easy, and
consists in adapting the volume and intensity of the fires to particular
needs. It involves the keeping clean of flues, ashpits and especially
the fires themselves. Where coke or ordinary hard coal are used, the
removal of clinkers should be done systematically, and the fires
stirred; Anthracite coal fires should not be stirred more than is
absolutely necessary, and should not be fed in driblets. They require
more draught than coke fires, but care must be taken not to give too
much, as excessive heat is likely to melt or soften the fire-bars.
Draught is regulated in the ashpit by opening or closing the bottom
door of the furnace and by the damper on the smoke shaft. The latter
must be of a fairly good height, according to circumstances, to secure
a good draught.
Solar Heat. The importance of sun heat to the general well-being
of plant life, its influence on the production of flowers and the
ripening of edible fruits, has long been appreciated in horticulture.
The practice of " closing up " early in the afternoon, i.e. the closing
of ventilators (accompanied by syringing and damping of surfaces to
produce a humid atmosphere) has for its object the conservation of
as much solar heat as practicable.
Ventilation. This consists in the admission of air for the purpose
of preventing stagnation of the atmosphere and for the regulation of
temperature. Means of affording ventilation in all plant houses
should be provided in at least two places as near the floor as
practicable, and at the top. Mechanical contrivances whereby
whole sets of ventilators may be operated simultaneously are now
in common use, and are much more convenient and economical than
the older method of working each ventilator separately. Efficient
ventilating can only be effected by the exercise of common sense and
vigilance, and care must be taken to avoid cold draughts through the
houses.
III. Garden Materials and Appliances.
Soils and Composts. The principal soils used in gardens,
either alone, or mixed to form what are called composts, are
loam, sand, peat, leaf-mould and various mixtures and com-
binations of these made up to suit the different subjects under
cultivation.
Loam is the staple soil for the gardener; it is not only used
extensively in the pure and simple state, but enters into most
of the composts prepared specially for his plants. For garden
purposes loam should be rather unctuous or soapy to the touch
when moderately dry, not too clinging nor adhesive, and should
readily crumble when a compressed handful is thrown on the
ground. If it clings together closely it is too heavy and requires
amelioration by the admixture of gritty macerial; if it has
little or no cohesion when squeezed tightly in the hand, it is
MATERIALS AND APPLIANCES]
HORTICULTURE
753
too light, and needs to be improved by the addition of heavier
or clayey material. Sound friable loam cut one sod deep from
the surface of a pasture, and stacked up for twelve months in
a heap or ridge, is invaluable to the gardener. When employed
for making vine borders, loam of a somewhat heavier nature can
be used with advantage, on account of the porous materials
which should accompany it. For stone fruits a calcareous
loam is best; indeed, for these subjects a rich calcareous loam
used in a pure and simple state cannot be surpassed. Somewhat
heavy loams are best for potting pine apples, for melons and
strawberries, fruit trees in pots, &c., and may be used with the
addition of manures only; but for ornamental plants a loam
of a somewhat freer texture is preferable and more pleasant
to work. Loam which contains much red matter (iron) should
be avoided.
Sand is by itself of little value except for striking cuttings,
for which purpose fine clean sharp silver sand is the best; and
a somewhat coarser kind, if it is gritty, is to be preferred to
the comminuted sands which contain a large proportion of
earthy matter. River sand and the sharp grit washed up
sometimes by the road side are excellent materials for laying
around choice bulbs at planting time to prevent contact with
earth which is perhaps manure-tainted. Sea sand may be
advantageously used both for propagating purposes and for
mixing in composts. For the growth of pot plants sand is an
essential part of most composts, in order to give them the needful
porosity to carry off all excess of moisture from the roots. If
the finer earthy sands only are obtainable, they must be rendered
sharper by washing away the earthy particles. Washed sand
is best for all plants like heaths, which need a pure and lasting
peaty compost.
Peat soil is largely employed for the culture of such plants
as rhododendrons, azaleas, heaths, &c. In districts where
heather and gritty soil predominate, the peat soil is poor and
unprofitable, but selections from both the heathy and the
richer peat soils, collected with judgment, and stored in a dry
part of the compost yard, are essential ingredients in the cultiva-
tion of many choice pot plants, such as the Cape heaths and
many of the Australian plants. Many monocotyledons do well
in peat, even if they do not absolutely require it.
Leaf-mould is eminently suited for the growth of many free-
growing plants, especially when it has been mixed with stable
manure and has been subjected to fermentation for the forma-
tion of hot beds. It any state most plants feed greedily upon
it, and when pure or free from decaying wood or sticks it is a
very safe ingredient in composts; but it is so liable to generate
fungus, and the mycelium or spawn of certain fungi is so injurious
to the roots of trees, attacking them if at all sickly or weakened
by drought, that many cultivators prefer not to mix leaf-mould
with the soil used for permanent plants, as peaches or choice
ornamental trees. For quick growing plants, however, as
for example most annuals cultivated in pots, such as balsams,
cockscombs, globe-amaranths and the like, for cucumbers,
and for young soft-wooded plants generally, it is exceedingly
useful, both by preventing the consolidation of the soil and as
a manure. The accumulations of light earth formed on the
surface in woods where the leaves fall and decay annually are
leaf-mould of the finest quality. Leaves collected in the autumn
and stored in pits or heaps, and covered with a layer of soil,
make beautiful leaf-mo'uld at the end of about twelve months,
if frequently drenched with water or rain during this period.
Composts are mixtures of the foregoing ingredients in varying
proportions, and in combination with manures if necessary,
so as to suit particular plants or classes of plants. The chief
point to be borne in mind in making these mixtures is not to
combine in the same compost any bodies that are antagonistic
in their nature, as for example lime and ammonia. In making
up composts for pot plants, the fibrous portion should not be
removed by sifting, except for small-sized pots, but the turfy
portions should be broken up by hand and distributed in smaller
or larger lumps throughout the mass. When sifting is had
recourse to, the fibrous matter should be rubbed through the
meshes of the sieve along with the earthy particles. Before being
used the turfy ingredients of composts should lie together in
a heap only long enough for the roots of the herbage to die, not
to decompose.
Manures (see MANURE). These are of two classes, organic
and inorganic the former being of animal and vegetable, the
latter of mineral origin. The following are organic manures:
Farm-yard manure consists of the mixed dung of horses and cattle
thrown together, and more or less soaked with liquid drainings of the
stable or byre. It is no doubt the finest stimulant for the growth of
plants, and that most adapted to restore the fertile elements which
the plants have abstracted from exhausted soils. This manure is
best fitted for garden use when in a moderately fermented state.
Horse dung is generally the principal ingredient in all hot bed
manure; and, in its partially decomposed state, as afforded by ex-
hausted hot beds, it is well adapted for garden use. It is most
beneficial on cold stiff soils. It should not be allowed to lie too long
unmoved when fresh, as it will then heat violently, and the ammonia
is thus driven off. To avoid this, it should be turned over two or
three times if practicable, and well moistened preferably with
farm-yard drainings.
Cow dung is less fertilizing than horse dung, but being slower in
its action it is more durable; it is also cooler, and therefore better
for hot dry sandy soils. Thoroughly decayed, it is one of the best of
all manures for mixing in composts for florists' flowers and other
choice plants.
Pig dung is very powerful, containing more nitrogen than horse
dung; it is therefore desirable that it should undergo moderate
fermentation, which will be secured by mixing it with litter and a
portion of earth. When weeds are thrown to the pigs, this fermenta-
tion becomes specially desirable to kill their seeds.
Night-soil is an excellent manure for all bulky crops, but requires
to be mixed with earth or peat, or coal-ashes, so as both to deodorize
it and to ensure its being equally distributed. Quicklime should not
be used, as it dispels the greater part of the ammonia. When
prepared by drying and mixing with various substances, night-soil
is sold as desiccated night-soil or native guano, the value of which
depends upon the materials used for admixture.
Malt-dust is an active manure frequently used as a top-dressing,
especially for fruit trees in pots. It is rapid in its action, but its
effects are not very permanent. Rape dust is somewhat similar in its
character and action.
Bones are employed as a manure with decided advantage both to
vegetable crops and to fruit trees, as well as to flowers. For turnips
bone manure is invaluable. The effects of bones are no doubt
mainly due to the phosphates they contain, and they are most
effectual on dry soils. They are most quickly available when dis-
solved in sulphuric acid.
Guano is a valuable manure now much employed, and may be
applied to almost every kind of crop with decided advantage. It
should be mixed with six or eight times its weight of loam or ashes,
charred peat, charcoal-dust or some earthy matter, before it is
applied to the soil, as from its causticity it is otherwise not unlikely
to kill or injure the plants to which it is administered. Peruvian
guano is obtained from the excreta of South American sea-birds, and
fish guano from the waste of fish. Both are remarkable for the
quantity of nitrates and phosphates they contain.
Pigeon dung approaches guano in its power as manure. It should
be laid up in ridges of good loamy soil in alternate layers to form a
compost, which becomes a valuable stimulant for any very choice
subjects if cautiously used. The dung of the domestic fowl is very
similar in character.
Horn, hoof-parings, woollen rags, fish, blubber and blood, after treat-
ment with sulphuric acid, are all good manures, and should be utilized
if readily obtainable.
Liquid manure, consisting of the drainings of dung-heaps, stables,
cowsheds, &c., or of urine collected from dwelling houses or other
sources, is a most valuable and powerful stimulant, and can be
readily applied to the roots of growing plants. The urine should be
allowed to putrefy, as in its decomposition a large amount of ammonia
is formed, which should then be fixed by sulphuric acid or gypsum;
or it may be applied to the growing crops after being freely diluted
with water or absorbed in a compost heap. Liquid manures can be
readily made from most of the solid manures when required, simply
by admixture with water. When thus artificially compounded,
unless for immediate use, they should be made strong for con-
venience of storage, and applied as required much diluted.
The following are inorganic manures:
Ammonia is the most powerful and one of the most important of
the constituents of manures generally, since it is the chief source
whence plants derive their nitrogen. It is largely supplied in all the
most fertilizing of organic manures, but when required in the in-
organic state must be obtained from some of the salts of ammonia, as
the sulphate, the muriate or the phosphate, all of which, being
extremely energetic, require to be used with great caution. These
salts of ammonia may be used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre
as a top-dressing in moist weather. When dissolved in water they
7.54
HORTICULTURE
form active liquid manures. The most commonly used nitrogenous
manures are nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of
ammonia, the prices of which are constantly fluctuating.
Potash and soda are also valuable inorganic manures in the form
of carbonates, sulphates, silicates and phosphates, but the most
valuable is the nitrate of potash. The price, however, is generally so
high that its use is practically nil, except in small doses as a liquid
manure for choice pot plants. Cheaper substitutes, however, are
now found in sulphate of potash, and muriate of potash and kainit.
The two last-named must not be applied direct to growing crops, but
to the soil some weeks in advance of sowing or cropping. The
manures of this class are of course of value only in cases where the
soil is naturally deficient in them. On this account the salts of soda
are of less importance than those of potash. The value of wood ashes
as a manure very much depends upon the carbonate and other
salts of potash which they contain.
Phosphoric acid, in the form of phosphates, is a most valuable
plant food, and is absorbed by most plants in fairly large quantities
from the soil. It induces the earlier production of flowers and
fruits. In a natural state it is obtained from bones, guano and
wood ashes ; and in an artificial condition from basic slag or Thomas's
phosphate, coprolites and superphosphate of lime.
Lime in the caustic state is beneficially applied to soils which
contain an excess of inert vegetable matter, and hence may be used
for the improvement of old garden soils saturated with humus or
of peaty soils not thoroughly reclaimed. It does not supply the
place of organic manures, but only renders that which is present
available for the nourishment of the plants. It also improves the
texture of clay soils.
Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, applied as a top-dressing at the rate
of 2 to 3 cwt. per acre, has been found to yield good results,
especially on light soils. It is also employed in the case of liquid
manures to fix the ammonia.
Gas lime, after it has been exposed to the air for a few months is
an excellent manure on heavy soils. In a fresh state it is poisonous
and fatal to vegetation, and is often used for this reason to dress land
infested with wireworms, grubs, club-root fungus, &c.
Burnt clay has a very beneficial effect on clay land by improving
its texture and rendering soluble the alkaline substances it contains.
The clay should be only slightly burnt, so as to make it crumble
down readily; in fact, the fire should not be allowed to break
through, but should be constantly repressed by the addition of
material. The burning should be effected when the soil is dry.
Vegetable refuse of all kinds, when smother-burned in a similar
way, becomes a valuable mechanical improver of the soil ; but the
preferable course is to decompose it in a heap with quicklime and
layers of earth, converting it into leaf-mould. Potato haulms, and
club-rooted cabbage crops should, however, never be mixed with
ordinary clean vegetable refuse, as they would be most likely to
perpetuate the terrible diseases to which they are subject. The
refuse of such plants should be burned as early as possible. The ash
may be used as manure.
Soot forms a good top-dressing; it consists principally of charcoal,
but contains ammonia and a smaller proportion of phosphates and
potash, whence its value as a manure is derived. It should be kept
dry until required for use. It may also be used beneficially in pre-
venting the attacks of insects, such as the onion gnat and turnip fly,
by dusting the plants or dressing the ground with it.
Common salt acts as a manure when used in moderate quantities,
but in strong doses is injurious to vegetation. It suits many of
the esculent crops, as onions, beans, cabbages, carrots, beet-root,
asparagus, &c.; the quantity applied varies from 5 to 10 bushels
per acre. It is used as a top-dressing sown by the hand. Hyacinths
and other bulbs derive benefit from slight doses, while to asparagus
as much as 20 Ib to the rood has been used with beneficial effect.
At the rate of from 6 to 10 bushels to the acre it may be used on
garden lawns to prevent worm casts. For the destruction of weeds
on gravel walks or in paved yards a strong dose of salt, applied
either dry or in a very strong solution, is found very effective,
especially a hot solution, but after a time much of it becomes washed
down, and the residue acts as a manure; its continued application is
undesirable, as gravel so treated becomes pasty.
Garden Tools, &c. Most of these are so well known that we
shall not discuss them here. They are, moreover, illustrated
and described in the catalogues of most nurserymen and dealers
in horticultural sundries.
Tallies or Labels. The importance of properly labelling plants
can hardly be over-estimated. For ordinary purposes labels of
wood of various sizes (sold in bundles) are the most convenient.
These should be wiped with a little white paint or linseed oil, and
written with a soft lead pencil before the surface becomes dry.
Copying-ink pencils should not be used, as water will wash away
the writing. For permanent plants, as trees, roses, &c., metallic
labels with raised type are procurable from dealers, and are
neat, durable and convenient. Permanent labels may also be
made from sheet lead, the names being punched in by means
[GARDEN OPERATIONS
of steel type. For stove and greenhouse plants, orchids, ferns,
&c., labels made of xylonite, zinc and other materials are
also used.
IV. Garden Operations.
Propagation. The increase of plants, so far as the production
of new individuals of particular kinds is concerned, is one of
the most important and constantly recurring of gardening opera-
tions. In effecting this, various processes are adopted, which
will now be described.
i. By Seeds. This may be called the natural means of increas-
ing the number of any particular kind of plant, but it is to be re-
membered that we do not by that means secure an exact reproduction
of the parent, especially in the case of plants raised or evolved in the
course of generations by hybridization and selection. We may get
a progeny very closely resembling it, yet each plant possessing a
distinct individuality of its own; or we may get a pro eny very
unlike the parent, or a mixed progeny showing various degrees of
divergence. Many seeds will grow freely if sown in a partially
ripened state ; but as a general rule seeds have to be kept for some
weeks or months in store, and hence they should be thoroughly
ripened before being gathered. They should be sown in fine rich soil
and such as will not readily get consolidated. In the case of outdoor
crops, if the soil is inclined to be heavy, it is a good plan to cover all
the smaller seeds with a light compost. Very small seeds should only
have a sprinkling of light earth or of sand, and sometimes only a thin
layer of soft moss to exclude light and preserve an equable degree
of moisture. Somewhat larger seeds sown indoors may be covered
to the depth of one-eighth 01 one-fourth of an inch, according to
their size. Outdoor crops require to be sown, the smaller seeds
from to I in., and the larger ones from 2 to 4 in. under the
surface, the covering of the smaller ones especially being light
and open. Many seeds grow well when raked in; that is, the
surface on which they are scattered is raked backwards and forwards
until most of them are covered. Whatever the seeds, the ground
should be made tolerably firm both beneath and above them ; this
may be done by treading in the case of most kitchen garden crops,
which are also better sown in drills, this admitting the more readily
of the ground being kept clear from weeds by hoeing. All seeds
require a certain degree of heat to induce germination. For tropical
plants the heat of a propagating house 75 to 80, with a bottom
heat of 80 to 90 is desirable, and in many cases absolutely
necessary ; for others, such as half-hardy annuals, a mild hot bed,
or a temperate pit ranging from 60 to 70, is convenient; while of
course all outdoor crops have to submit to the natural temperature
of the season. It is very important that seeds should be sown when
the ground is in a good working condition, and not clammy with
moisture.
2. By Offsets. This mode of increase applies specially to bulbous
plants, such as the lily and hyacinth, which produce little bulbs on
the exterior round their base. Most bulbs do so naturally to a
limited but variable extent ; when more rapid increase is wanted the
heart is destroyed, and this induces the formation of a larger number
of offsets. The stem bulbs of lilies are similar in character to the
offsets from the parent bulb. The same mode of increase occurs in
the gladiolus and crocus, but their bulb-like permanent parts are
called corms, not bulbs. After they have ripened in connexion with
the parent bulb, the offsets are taken off, stored in appropriate
places, and at the proper season planted out in nursery beds.
3. By Tubers. The tuber is a fleshy underground stem, furnished
with eyes which are either visible, as in the potato and in some
familiar kinds_of Tropaeolum (T. tuberosum) and of Oxalis (O. crenata),
or latent, as in the Chinese yam (Dioscorea Batatas). When used
for propagation, the tubers are cut up into what are called " sets,"
every portion having an eye attached being capable of forming an
independent plant. The cut portions of bulky sets should be suffered
to lie a short time before being planted, in order to dry the surface
and prevent rotting ; this should not, however, be done with such
tropical subjects as caladiums, the tubers of which are often cut up
into very small fragments for propagation, and of course require to
be manipulated in a properly heated propagating pit. No eyes are
visible in the Chinese yam, but slices of the long club-shaped tubers
will push out young shoots and form independent plants, if planted
with ordinary care.
4. By Division. Division, or partition, is usually resorted to in
the case of tufted growing plants, chiefly perennial herbs; they
may be evergreen, as chamomile or thrift, or when dormant may
consist only of underground crowns, as larkspur or lily-of-the-
valley; but in either case the old tufted plant being dug up may
be divided into separate pieces, each furnished with roots, and,
when replanted, generally starting on its own account without much
check. Suffruticose plants and even small shrubs may be propagated
in this way, by first planting them deeper than they are ordinarily
jrown, and then after the lapse of a year, which time they require to
jet rooted, taking them up again and dividing them into parts or
separate plants. Box-edging and southernwood are examples.
The same ends may sometimes be effected by merely working fine
GARDEN OPERATIONS]
HORTICULTURE
755
soil in amongst the base of the stems, and giving them time to throw
out roots before parting them.
5. By Suckers. Root suckers are young shoots from the roots of
plants, chiefly woody plants, as may often be seen in the case of the
elm and the plum. The shoots when used for propagation must be
transplanted with all the roots attached to them, care being taken
not to injure the parent plant. If they spring from a thick root it is
not to be wantonly severed, but the soil should be removed and the
sucker taken off by cutting away a clean slice of the root, which will
then heal and sustain no harm. Stem suckers are such as proceed
from the base of the stem, as is often seen in the case of the currant
and lilac. They should be removed in any case; when required for
propagation they should be taken with all the roots attached to
them, and they should be as thoroughly disbudded below ground as
possible, or they are liable to continue the habit of suckering. In
this case, too, the soil should be carefully opened and the shoots re-
moved with a suckering iron, a sharp concave implement with long
iron handle (fig. 14). When the number of roots is limited, the tops
FIG. 14. Suckering Iron.
should be shortened, and some care in watering and mulching should
be bestowed on the plant if it is of value.
6. By Runners. The young string-like shoots produced by the
strawberry are a well-known example of runners. The process of
rooting these runners should be facilitated by fixing them close down
to the soil, which is done by small wooden hooked pegs or by stones;
hair-pins, short lengths of bent wire, &c., may also be used. After
the roots are formed, the strings are cut through, and the runners
become independent plants.
7. By Proliferous Buds. Not unlike the runner, though growing
in a very different way, are the bud-plants formed on the fronds of
several kinds of ferns belonging to the genera A splenium, Woodwardia,
Polystichum, Lastrea, Adiantum, Cystopteris, &c. In some of these
(Adiantum caudatum, Polystichum lepidocaulon) the rachis of the
frond is lengthened out much like the string of the strawberry
runner, and bears a plant at its apex. In others (Polystichum
angulare proliferum) the stipes below and the rachis amongst the
pinnae develop buds, which are often numerous and crowded. In
others again (Woodwardia orientalis, Asplenium bulbiferum), buds are
numerously produced on the upper surface of the fronds. These will
develop on the plant if allowed to remain. For propagation the
buibiferous portion is pegged down on the surface of a pot of suitable
soil; if kept close in a moist atmosphere, the little buds will soon
strike root and form independent plants. In Cystopteris the buds
are deciduous, falling off as the fronds acquire maturity, but, if
collected and pressed into the surface of a pot of soil and kept close,
they will grow up into young plants the following season. In some
genera of flowering plants, and notably in Bryophyllum, little plants
form on various parts of the leaves. In some Monocotyledons, ordin-
arily in Chlorophytum, and exceptionally in Phalaenopsis and others,
new plants arise on the flower stems.
8. By Layers. Layering consists in preparing the branch of a
plant while still attached to the parent, bending it so that the part
operated on is brought under ground, and then fixing it there by
means of a forked peg. Some plants root so freely that they need
only pegging down ; but in most cases the arrest of the returning sap
to form a callus, and ultimately young roots, must be brought about
artificially, either by twisting the branch, by splitting it, by girding
FIG. 15. Propagation by Layers a, tonguing; b, ringing.
it closely with wire, by taking off a ring of bark, or by " tonguing."
In tonguing the leaves are cut off the portion which has to be brought
under ground, and a tongue or slit is then cut from below upwards
close beyond a joint, of such length that, when the cut part of the
layer is pegged an inch or two (or in larger woody subjects 3 or 4 in.)
below the surface, the elevation of the point of the shoot to an upright
position may open the incision, and thus set it free, so that it may
be surrounded by earth to induce it to form roots. The whole
branch, except a few buds at the extremity, is covered with soil
The best seasons for these operations are early spring and mid-
summer, that is, before the sap begins to flow, and after the first
flush of growth has passed off. One whole summer, sometimes two,
must elapse before the layers will be fully rooted in the case of woody
plants; but such plants as carnations and picotees, which are
usually propagated in this way, in favourable seasons take only a
few weeks to root, as they are layered towards the end of the bloom-
ing season in July, and are taken off and planted separately early in
the autumn. Fig. 15 shows a woody plant with one layer prepared
by tonguing and another by ringing.
In general, each shoot makes, one layer, but in plants like the
Wistaria or Clematis, which make long shoots, what is called serpent-
ine layering may be adopted ; that is, the shoot is taken alternately
below and above the surface, as frequently as its length permits.
There must, however, be a joint at the underground part where it is
to be tongued and pegged, and at least one sound bud in each ex-
posed part, from which a shoot may be developed to form the top of
the young plant.
9. By Circumposition. When a plant is too high or its habit does
not conveniently admit of its being layered, it may often be increased
by what is called circumposition, the soil being carried up to the
branch operated on. The branch is to be prepared by ringing or
notching or wiring as in layering, and a temporary stand made to
support the vessel which is to contain the soil. The vessel may be a
flower-pot sawn in two, so that the halves may be bound together
when used, or it may be a flower-pot or box with a side slit which
will admit the shoot ; this vessel is to be filled compactly with suit-
able porous earth, the opening at the slit being stopped by pieces of
slate or tile. The earth must be kept moist, which is perhaps best
done by a thick mulching of moss, the moss being also bound closely
over the openings in the vessel, and all being kept damp by frequent
syringings. Gardeners often dispense with the pot, using sphagnum
moss and leaf-mould only when propagating indiarubber plants,
perpetual carnations, dracaenas, &c.
10. By Crafts. Grafting is so extensively resorted to that it is im-
possible here to notice all its phases. It is perhaps of most import-
ance as the principal means of propagating our hardy kinds of fruit,
especially the apple and the pear; but the process is the same with
most other fruits and ornamental hardy trees and shrubs that are
thus propagated. The stocks are commonly divided into two
classes: (i) free stocks, which consist of seedling plants, chiefly
of the same genus or species as the trees from which the scions are
taken; and (2) dwarfing stocks, which are of more diminutive
growth, either varieties of the same species or species of the same or
some allied genus as the scion, which have a tendency to lessen the
expansion of the engrafted tree. The French Paradise is the best
dwarfing stock for apples, and the quince for pears. In determining
the choice of stocks, the nature of the soil in which the grafted trees
are to grow should have full weight. In a soil, for example, naturally
moist, it is proper to graft pears on the quince, because this plant
not only thrives in such a soil, but serves to check the luxuriance
thereby produced. The scions should always be ripened portions of
the wood of the preceding year, selected from healthy parents; in
the case of shy-bearing kinds, it is better to obtain them from the
fruitful branches. The scions should be taken off some weeks before
they are wanted, and half-buried in the earth, since the stock at the
time of grafting should in point of vegetation be somewhat inadvance
of the graft. During winter, grafts may be conveyed long distances,
if carefully packed. If they have been six weeks or two months
separated from the parent plant, they should be grafted low on the
stock, and the earth should be ridged up round them, leaving only
one bud of the scion exposed above ground. The best season for
grafting apples and similar hardy subjects in the open air is in March
and April ; but it may be commenced as soon as the sap in the stock
is fairly in motion.
Whip-grafting or Tongue-grafting (fig. 16) is the most usual mode
of performing the operation when there is no great difference in
thickness between the stock and scion. The stock is headed off by
an oblique transverse cut as shown at a, a slice is then pared off the
side as at b, and on the face of this a tongue or notch is made, the cut
being in a downward direction; the scion c is pared off in a similar
way by a single clean sharpcut, and this is notched ortongued in the
opposite direction as the figure indicates; the two are then fitted
together as shown at d, so that the inner bark of each may come in
contact at least on one side, and then tied round with damp soft
bast as at e; next some grafting clay is taken on the forefinger and
pushed down on each side so as to fill out the space between the
top of the stock and the graft, and a portion is also rubbed over
the ligatures on the side where the graft is placed, a handful of the
clay is then taken, flattened out, and rolled closely round the whole
point of junction, being finished off to a tapering form both above and
below, as shown by the dotted line f. To do this deftly, the hands
should be plunged from time to time in dry ashes, to prevent the clay
from sticking to them. Various kinds of grafting wax are now
obtainable, and are a great improvement upon the clay process.
Some cold mastics become very pliable with the warmth of the hands.
They are best applied with a piece of flat wood ; or very liquid waxes
may be applied wiih a brush.
756
HORTICULTURE
[GARDEN OPERATIONS
Cleft-grafting (fig. 17) is another method in common use. The
stock a is cleft down from the horizontal cut d (but not nearly so
FIG. 16. Whip-grafting or Tongue-grafting.
much as the sketch would indicate), and the scion, when cut to a thin
wedge form, as shown at c and e, is inserted into the cleft; the whole
is then bound up and clayed as in the former case. This is not so
good a plan as whip-grafting; it is improved by sloping the stock
on one side to the size of the graft.
Crown-grafting or Rind-grafting (fig. 18) is preferable to cleft-
grafting, inasmuch as it leaves no open spaces in the wood. The
stock b is cut off horizontally or nearly so in January or February.
At grafting time a slit is cut in the bark /, /, a wedge-shaped piece of
FIG. 17. Cleft-Grafting.
FIG. i 8. Crown-Grafting.
iron or a small chisel being inserted to raise the bark; the scion is
then cut to the same wedge-shaped form g, h, and inserted in the space
opened for it between the alburnum and the bark, after which it is
tied down and clayed or waxed over in the manner already described.
Side-grafting is performed like whip-grafting, the graft being
inserted on the side of a branch and not at the cut end of the stock.
It may be practised for the purpose of changing a part of the tree,
and is sometimes very useful for filling out vacant spaces, in trained
trees especially.
Inarching is another form of side-grafting. Here the graft is fixed
to the side of the stock, which is planted or potted close to the plant
to be worked. The branches are applied to the stock while yet
attached to the parent tree, and remain so until united. In the
case of trained trees, a young shoot is sometimes inarched to its
parent stem to supply a branch where one has not been developed
in the ordinary way.
For the propagation by grafts of stove and greenhouse plants the
process adopted is whip-grafting or a modification of it. The parts
are, however, sometimes so small that the tongue of the graft is
dispensed with, and the two stems simply pared smooth and bound
together. In this way hardy rhododendrons of choice sorts, green-
house azaleas, the varieties of the orange family, camellias, roses, rare
conifers, clematises and numerous other plants are increased.
Raffia which has taken the place of bast is generally used for
tying, and grafting wax is only used occasionally with such plants
under glass. All grafting of this kind is done in the propagating
house, at any season when grafts are obtainable in a fit state the
plants when operated on being placed in close frames warmed to a
suitable temperature. Roses and clematis, however, are generally
grafted from January to March and April.
Root-grafting is sometimes resorted to where extensive increase is
an object, or where stem-grafting or other means of propagation are
not available. In fhis case the scion is grafted directly on to a
portion of the root of some appropriate stock, both graft and stock
being usually very small; the grafted root is then potted so as to
cover the point of junction with the soil, and is plunged in the bed
of the propagating house, where it gets the slight stimulus of a
gentle bottom heat. Dahlias (fig. 19), paeonies, and Wistarias may be
FIG. 19. Root-grafting
of Dahlia.
FIG. 20. Root-grafting of
Woody Plant.
grafted by inserting young shoots into the neck of one of the fleshy
roots of each kind respectively the best method of doing so being
to cut a triangular section near the upper end of the root, just large
enough to admit the young shoot when slightly pared away on two
sides to give it a similar form. In the case of large woody plants thus
worked (fig. 20) the grafted roots, after the operation is completed,
are planted in nursery beds, so that the upper buds only are exposed
to the atmosphere, as shown in the figure.
11. By Buds. Budding is the inserting of a bud of a choice variety
cut with a portion of bark into the bark of the stock of an inferior
nature where it is bound gently but firmly. Stone fruits, such as
peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, &c., are usually propagated in this
way, as well as roses and many other plants. In the propagating
house budding may be done at any season when the sap is in motion;
but for fruit trees, roses, &c., in the open air, it is usually done in July
or August, when the buds destined for the following year are com-
pletely formed in the axils of the leaves, and when the bark separates
freely from the wood it covers. Those buds are to be preferred, as
being best ripened, which occur on the middle portion of a young
shoot, and which are quite dormant at the time.
The simplest and most generally practised form of budding is that
called shield-budding or T -budding (fig. 21). The operator should be
FIG. 21. Shield-budding.
provided with a sharp budding knife having a thin ivory or bone
handle, for raising the bark of the stock. A horizontal incision is
made in the bark quite down to the wood, and from this a perpen-
dicular slit is drawn upwards to the extent of perhaps an inch, so that
the slit has a resemblance to the letter T, as at a. A bud is then cut
by a clean incision from the tree intended to be propagated, having a
portion of the wood attached to it, and so that the whole may be
about I in. long, as at d. The bit of wood e must be gently withdrawn,
care being taken that the bud adheres wholly to the bark or shield,
GARDEN OPERATIONS]
HORTICULTURE
757
as it is called, of which / is a side view. The bark on each side of the
perpendicular slit being then cautiously opened, as at b, with the
handle of the knife, the bud and shield are inserted as shown at c.
The upper tip of the shield is cut off horizontally, and brought to fit
the bark of the stock at the transverse incision. Slight ties of soft
cotton wool or worsted, or moist raffia, are then applied. In about a
month or six weeks the ligatures may be removed or slit with the
knife to allow for the swelling stem, when, if the operation has*been
successful, the bud will be fresh and full, and the shield firmly
united to the wood. In the following spring a strong shoot will be
thrown out, and to prevent its being blown out by the wind, must be
fastened to a stake, or to the lower portion of the old stock which
has been left for the purpose.
To be successful the operation should be performed with a quick
and light hand, so that no part of the delicate tissues be injured, as
would happen if they were left for a time exposed, or if the bud were
forced in like a wedge. The union is effected as in grafting, by means
of the organizable sap or cambium, and the less this is disturbed until
the inner bark of the shield is pressed and fixed against it the better.
Trees to be grown in the form of a bush are usually budded low down
on the stem of the stock as near the root as possible to obviate the
development of wild suckers later on. Standard trees, however, are
budded on a sturdy young shoot close to the top. In either case the
stocks should have been carefully planted at least the previous
November when the work is to be done in the open air the following
July or August.
12. By Branch Cuttings. Propagation by cuttings is the mode
of increase most commonly adopted, next to that by seeds. It is
effected by taking a portion from a branch or shoot of the plant,
and placing it in the soil. There are great differences to be observed
in the selection and treatment of cuttings. Sometimes soft green
leafy shoots, as in Verbena (fig. 22, a), are used; sometimes the shoots
FIG. 22. Propagation by Cuttings
must be half-ripened, and sometimes fully matured. So of the mode
of preparation; some will root if cut off or broken off at any point
ana thrust into wet earth or sand in a warm place (fig. 22, a) ; others
require to be cut with the utmost care just below a joint or leaf-base,
and by a keen blade so as to sever the tissues without tearing or
bruising; and others again after being cut across may be split up for
a short distance, but there seems to be no particular virtue in this.
It is usual and in most cases necessary to cut away the lower portion
of a cutting up to just below the node or joint (fig. 22, b, d, e). The
internodal parts will not often divide so as to form separate individual
plants; sometimes, however, this happens; it is said that the
smallest piece of Torenia asiatica, for instance, will grow. Then as to
position, certain cuttings grow readily enough if planted outdoors in
the open soil, some preferring shade, others sunshine, while less
hardy subjects must be covered with a bell-glass, or must be in a close
atmosphere with bottom heat, or must have the aid of pure silver
sand to facilitate their rooting (fig. 22, c). Cuttings should in all
cases be taken from healthy plants, and from shoots of a moderate
degree of vigour. It is also important to select leafy growths, and
not such as will afonce run up to flower. Voung shoots which have
become moderately firm generally make the best cuttings, but some-
times the very softest shoots strike more readily. For all indoor
plants in a growing state spring is a good time for taking cuttings, but
at any time during the summer months is also favourable if cuttings
are obtainable.
Cuttings of deciduous plants should be taken off after the fall
of the leaf. These cuttings should be about 6 in. to I ft. in length, and
should be planted at once in the ground so as to leave only the top
with the two or three preserved buds exposed. If a clean stem,
however, is desired, a longer portion may be left uncovered. Goose-
berries, currants, roses and many hardy [deciduous trees and shrubs
are easily propagated in this way if the cuttings are inserted in well-
drained soil about the end of October or early in November.
Cuttings of growing plants are prepared by removing with a sharp
knife, and moderately close, the few leaves which would otherwise
be buried in the soil; they are then cut clean across just below a
joint; the fewer the leaves thus removed, however, the better,
FIG. 23. Leaf Cuttings.
as if kept from being exhausted they help to supply the elaborated
sap out of which the roots are formed. Free-rooting subjects strike
in any lightish sandy mixture; but difficult subjects should have
thoroughly well-drained pots, a portion of the soil proper for the
particular plants made very sandy, and a surfacing of clean sharp
silver sand about as deep as the length of the cutting.
Such difficult plants as heaths are reared in silver sand, a stratum
of which is placed over the sandy peat soil in a specially prepared
cutting pot, and
thus the cuttings,
though rooting in
the sand under a
bell-glass, find at
once on the emis-
sion of roots con-
genial spil for
them to grow in
(fig. 22, c).
Hardy plants,
such as pinks,
pansies, &c., are
propagated by
cuttings planted
during early sum-
mer in light rich
soil. The cuttings
of pinks are called
pipings (fig. 22, d),
and are planted
about June, while
pansies may be
renewed in this
way both in spring
and in autumn.
13. By Leaf
Cuttings. -Many
plants may be pro-
pagated by plant-
ing their leaves or portions of the leaves as cuttings, as, for example,
the Gloxinia (fig. 23, o) and Gesnera, the succulent Sempervivum,
Echeveria, Pachyphytum and their allies, and such hard-leaved plants
as Theophrasta (fig. 23, b). The leaves are best taken off with the
base whola, and should be planted in well-drained sandy soil; in
due time they form roots, and ultimately from some latent bud
a little shoct which forms the young plant. The treatment is
precisely like that of branch cuttings. Gloxinias, begonias, &c., grow
readily from fragments of the leaves cut clean through the thick
veins and ribs, and planted edgewise like cuttings. This class of
subjects may also be fixed flat on the surface of the cutting pot, by
means of little pegs or hooks, the
main ribs being cut across at in-
tervals, and from these points roots,
and eventually young tubers, will be
produced (fig. 24). /
14. By Root Cuttings. Some
plants which are not easily increased
by other means propagate readily
from root cuttings. Amongst the
indoor plants which may be so
treated, Bouvardia, Pelargonium,
Aralia and Wigandia may be men-
tioned. The modus operandi is to FIG. 24. Leaf-Propagation of
turn the plant out of its pot, Begonia.
shake away the soil so as to free
the roots, and then select as many pieces of the stouter roots as may
be required. These are cut up into half-inch lengths (more or less),
and inserted in light sandy soil round the margin of a cutting pot, so
that the upper end of the root cutting may be level with the soil or
only just covered by it. The pots should be watered so as to settle the
soil, and be placed in the close atmosphere of the propagating pit or
frame, where they will need scarcely any water until the buds are
seen pushing through the surface.
There are various herbaceous plants which may be similarly
treated, such as sea-kale and horseradish, and, among ornamental
plants, the beautiful autumn-blooming Anemone japonica, Bocconia
cordata, Dictamnus Fraxinella the burning bush; the sea hollies
(Eryngium), the globe thistle (Echinops ritro), the Oriental poppy
(Papaver orientale), the sea lavender (Statice latifolia), Senecio pulcker,
&c. The sea-kale and horseradish require to be treated in the open
garden, where the cut portions should be planted in lines in well-
worked soil; but the roots of the others should be planted in pots
and kept in a close frame with a little warmth till the young shoots
have started.
Various hardy ornamental trees are also increased in this way, as
the quince, elm, robinia and mulberry, and the rose amongst shrubs.
The most important use to which this mode of propagation is put is,
however, the increase of roses, and of the various plums used as
stocks for working the choicer stone fruits. The method in the
latter case is to select roots averaging the thickness of the little
finger, to cut these into lengths of about 3 or 4 in., and to plant them
758
HORTICULTURE
[GARDEN OPERATIONS
in lines just beneath the surface in nursery beds. The root cuttings
of rose-stocks are prepared and treated in a similar way.
15. By Cuttings of Single Eyes. This mode of propagation is
by cutting the ripened young branches into short lengths, each con-
taining one well-matured bud or eye, with a short portion of the
stem above and below.
It is a common mode of
"MWJBSaV> propagating vines, the
YLJ r / i eyes being m this case
! ^-; f ut fl from the ripened
leafless wood. The eyes
(fig. 25, a) are planted
just below the surface in
pots of light soil, which
are placed in a hot bed
or propagating pit, and
in due time each pushes
up a young shoot which
forms the future stem,
while from about its
base the young roots are
produced (fig. 25, 6)
which convert it into
an independent plant.
In the case of plants
with persistent leaves,
the stem may be cut
through just above and
below the bud, retaining
the leaf which is left on
the cutting, .the old
wood and eye being
> placed beneath the soil
and the leaf left ex-
posed. In this way the
india-rubber tree (Ficus
elastica), for example,
and many other tender
plants may be increased
FIG. 25. Cutting of Single Eye.
with the aid of a brisk
bottom heat. Many of
the free-growing soft-wooded plants may also be grown from cut-
tings of single joints of the young wood, where rapid increase is
desired ; and in the case of opposite-leaved plants two cuttings
may often be made from one joint by splitting the stem longi-
tudinally, each cutting consisting of a leaf and a perfect bud
attached to half the thickness of the stem.
Planting and Transplanting. In preparing a fruit tree for
transplantation, the first thing to be done is to open a trench
round it at a distance of from 3 to 4 ft., according to size. The
trench should be opened to about two spades' depth, and any
coarse roots which may extend thus far from the trunk may be
cut clean off with a sharp knife. The soil between the trench
and the stem is to be reduced as far as may seem necessary or
practicable by means of a digging fork, the roots as soon as they
are liberated being fixed on one side and carefully preserved.
By working in this way all round the ball, the best roots will be
got out and preserved, and the ball lightened of all superfluous
soil. The tree will then be ready to lift if carefully prized up from
beneath the ball, and if it does not lift readily, it will probably
be found that a root has struck downwards, which will have to
be sought out and cut through. Whenever practicable, it is best
to secure a ball of earth round the roots. On the tree being lifted
from its hole the roots should be examined, and all which have
been severed roughly with the spade should have the ends cut
smooth with the knife to facilitate the emission of fibres. The
tree can then be transported to its new position. The hole for its
reception should be of sufficient depth to allow the base of the
ball of earth, or of the roots, to stand so that the point whence the
uppermost roots spring from the stem may be 2 or 3 in. below
the general surface level. Then the bottom being regulated so
as to leave the soil rather highest in the centre, the plant is to
be set in the hole in the position desired, and steadied there by
hand. Next the roots from the lower portion of the ball are to
be sought out and laid outwards in lines radiating from the stem,
being distributed equally on all sides as nearly as this can be done;
some fine and suitable good earth should be thrown amongst
the roots as they are thus being placed, and worked in well
up to the base of the ball. The soil covering the roots may be
gently pressed down, but the tree should not be pulled up and
down, as is sometimes done, to settle the soil. This done,
another set of roots higher up the ball must be laid out in the
same way, and again another, until the whole of the roots, thus
carefully laid, are embedded as firmly as may be in the soil, which
may now receive another gentle treading. The stem should
next be supported permanently, either by one stake or by three,
according to its size. The excavation will now be filled up about
two-thirds perhaps; and if so the tree may have a thorough
good watering, sufficient to settle the soil closely about its roots.
After twenty-four hours the hole may be levelled in, with
moderate treading, if the water has soaked well in, the surface
being left level and not sloping upwards towards the stem of the
tree. In transplanting trees of the ornamental class, less need
be attempted in respect to providing new soil, although the soil
should be made as congenial as practicable. Generally speaking,
fruit trees are best transplanted when three or four years of age,
in which time they will have acquired the shape given by the
nurseryman, who generally transplants his stock each autumn
to produce large masses of root fibres. Nowadays, however,
quite large trees, chiefly of an ornamental character, and perhaps
weighing several tons, are lifted with a large ball of soil attached
to the roots, by means of a special tree-lifting machine, and are
readily transferred from one part of the garden to another, or
even for a distance of several miles, without serious injury.
The best season for transplanting deciduous trees is during
the early autumn months. As regards evergreens opinions are
divided, some preferring August and September, others April
or May. They can be successfully planted at either period, but
for subjects which are at all difficult to remove the spring
months are to be preferred.
In transplanting smaller subjects, such as plants for the flower
garden, much less effort is required. The plant must be lifted
with as little injury to its rootlets as possible, and carefully set
into the hole, the soil being filled in round it, and carefully
pressed close by the hand. For moving small plants the garden
trowel is a very convenient tool, but we are inclined to give the
preference to the hand-fork. For larger masses, such as strong-
growing herbaceous plants, a spade or digging-fork will be
requisite and the soil may be trodden down with the feet.
When seedlings of vigorous plants have to be " pricked out,"
a dibble or dibber is the best implement to be used. The ground
being prepared and, if necessary, enriched, and the surface made
fine and smooth, a hole is made with the dibble deep enough and
large enough to receive the roots of the seedling plants without
doubling them up, and the hole is filled in by working the soil close
to the plant with the point of the dibble. The pricking out of
seedlings in pots in the propagating pit is effected in a similar
way. The plants, indeed, often require to be removed and set
from j in. to i in. apart before they have become sufficiently
developed to admit of being handled with any degree of facility,
and for these a pointed stickof convenient size is used as a dibble.
In delicate cases, such as seedling gloxinias and begonias, it is
best to lift the little seedling on the end of a flattish pointed
stick, often cleft at the apex, pressing this into the new soil where
the plant is to be placed, and liberating it and closing the earth
about it by the aid of a similar stick held in the other hand.
Potting and Repotting. Garden pots are made with a com-
paratively large hole in the bottom, and those of the largest size
have also holes at the side near the bottom; these openings
are to prevent the soil becoming satu-
rated or soured with superabundant
water. To prepare the pot for the
plant, a broadish piece of potsherd,
called a " crock," is placed over the
large hole, and if there be side holes
they also are covered. The bottom
crock is made from a piece of a broken
garden pot, and is laid with the con-
vex side upwards; then comes a layer FlG . 26 ._Section of Pot
of irregular pieces of crock of various showing Crocks,
sizes, about i in. deep in a s-in. pot,
2 in. in an u-in. or i2-in. pot, &c. The mode of crocking a
pot is shown in fig. 26. A few of the coarser lumps from the outer
GARDEN OPERATIONS]
HORTICULTURE
759
edge of the heap of potting soil are spread over the crocks.
The same end, that of keeping the finer particles of the soil from
mixing with the drainage crocks, may be attained by shaking
in a little clean moss. A handful or two of the soil is then put
in, and on this the plant with its roots spread out is to be set, a
trifle higher than the plant should stand in the pot when finished
off; more soil is to be added, and the whole pressed firmly with
the fingers, the base of the stem being just below the pot-rim,
and the surface being Smoothed off so as to slope a little outwards.
When finished off, the pots should be watered well, to settle the
soil; but they should stand till the water has well drained away,
since, if they are moved about while the fresh soil is very wet,
there will be a risk of its becoming puddled or too much con-
solidated. Larger plants do not need quite such delicate treat-
ment, but care should be taken not to handle the roots roughly.
The soil for these may be somewhat coarser, and the amount of
drainage material more ample. Larger bodies of soil also require
to be more thoroughly consolidated before watering; otherwise
they would settle down so as to leave an unsightly void at the
pot-rim.
Some plants, especially when potted temporarily, may be
dealt with in a simpler way. A single crock may be used in some
cases, and in others no crock at all, but a handful of half-decayed
leaves or half-decayed dung thrown into the bottom of the pot.
This mode of potting does well for bulbs, such as hyacinths,
which are either thrown away or planted out when the bloom
is over. The bedding plants generally may be potted in this way,
the advantage being that at planting-out time there is less risk
of disturbing the roots than if there were potsherds to remove.
Plants of this character should be potted a little less firmly than
specimens which are likely to stand long in the pot, and indeed the
soil should be made comparatively light by the intermixture
of leaf-mould or some equivalent, in order that the roots may run
freely and quickly into it.
For epiphytal plants like orchids the most thorough drainage
must be secured by the abundant use of potsherds, small pots
being sometimes inserted inside the larger ones, or by planting
in shallow pots or pans, so that there shall be no large mass of soil
to get consolidated. For most of these the lightest spongy but
sweet turfy peat must be used, this being packed lightly about
the roots, and built up above the pot-rim, or in some cases freely
mixed before use with chopped sphagnum moss and small pieces
of broken pots or nodules of charcoal. The plants under these
conditions often require to be supported by wooden pegs or sticks.
Some of the species grow better when altogether taken out of
the soil and fixed to blocks of wood, but in this case they require
a little coaxing with moss about the roots until they get estab-
lished. In other cases they are planted in open baskets of wood
or wire, using the porous peat and sphagnum compost. Both
blocks and baskets are usually suspended from the roof of the
house, hanging free, so that no accumulation of water is possible.
These conditions of orchid-growing have undergone great changes
of late years, and the plants are grown much as other stove and
greenhouse plants in ordinary pots with composts not only of peat
but of leaf-mould, and fibres from osmunda and polypodium
ferns.
When repotting is adopted as a temporary expedient, as in
the case of bedding-out plants which it is required to push for-
ward as much as possible, it will suffice if provision is made to
prevent the drainage hole from getting blocked, and a rich light
compost is provided for the encouragement of the roots. When,
however, a hard-wooded plant has to be repotted, the case is
different; it may stand without further potting for one year
or two years or more, and therefore much more care is necessary.
The old ball of earth must be freed from all or most of the old
crocks without doing injury to the roots, and the sharp edge of
the upper surface gently rubbed off. If there be any sour or
sodden or effete soil into which the roots have not run, this
should be carefully picked out with a pointed stick. The ball
is to be set on the new soil just high enough that when finished
the base of the stem may be somewhat below the pot-rim, and
the space between the old ball and the sides of the pot is to
be filled in gradually with the prepared compost, which is from
time to time to be pressed down with a blunt-ended flat piece
of wood called a potting-stick, so as to render the new soil as
solid as the old. The object of this is to prevent the plant from
starving by the water applied all running off by way of the new
soil, and not penetrating the original ball of earth. When this
amount of pressure is necessary, especially in the case of loamy
composts, the soil itself should be rather inclined to dryness, and
should in no case be sufficiently moist to knead together into a
pasty mass. In ordinary cases the potting soil should be just so
far removed from dryness that when a handful is gently pressed
it may hang together, but may lose its cohesion when dropped.
When plants are required to stand in ornamental china pots
or vases, it is better, both for the plants and for avoiding risk
of breakage, to grow them in ordinary garden pots of a size that
will drop into the more valuable vessels. Slate pots or tubs,
usually square, are sometimes adopted, and are durable and
otherwise unobjectionable, only, their sides being less porous, the
earth does not dry so rapidly, and some modification of treatment
as to watering is necessary. For large conservatory specimens
wooden tubs, round or square, are frequently used; these should
be coated with pitch inside to render them more durable.
Various other contrivances take the place of garden pots for
special purposes. Thus shallow square or oblong wooden
boxes, made of light, inexpensive wood, are very useful for seed-
sowing, for pricking out seedlings, or for planting cuttings.
When the disturbance of the roots incidental to all transplanting
is sought to be avoided, the seed or plant is started in some
cases in squares of turf (used grassy-side downwards), which can
when ready be transferred to the place the plant is to occupy.
Cucumber and melon plants and vines reared from eyes are some-
times started in this way, both for the reason above mentioned
and because it prevents the curling of the roots apt to take
place in plants raised in pots. Strips of turf are sometimes used
for the rearing of early peas, which are sown in a warmish house
or frame, and gradually hardened so as to bear exposure before
removal to the open air.
Watering. The guiding principle in watering plants is to do
it thoroughly when it is required, and to abstain from giving
a second supply till the first has been taken up.
When watering becomes necessary for kitchen-garden crops,
the hose should be laid on and the lines of esculents allowed to
drink their fill, if fresh succulent vegetables are desired. So also,
if well-swelled and luscious fruits, such as strawberries, are
required, there must be no parching at the roots. This applies
even more strongly to conservatory borders and to forcing-
houses than to the outside fruit-tree borders, because from these
the natural rain supply is in most cases more distinctly cut off.
In the case of forcing-houses, the water should be heated before
being applied to the borders containing the roots of the trees.
In the watering of pot plants the utmost care is requisite if
the plant be a shy-growing or valuable one, and yet it is almost
impossible to give any intelligible instruction for performing
the operation. The roots should never be suffered either to get
thoroughly dry or to get sodden with excess of water. An adept
will know by the ring of the pot on striking it with his knuckles
whether water is wanted or not, according as it rings loud and
clear or dull and heavy. With very choice subjects watering
may be necessary two or three times a day in drying summer
weather. It is a wrong though common practice to press the
surface of the soil in the pot in order to feel if it is moist enough,
as this soon consolidates it, and prevents it from getting the full
benefit of aeration.
In all heated houses the water used should be warmed at
least up to the temperature of the atmosphere, so as to avoid
chilling the roots. This is also necessary in the case of water
used for syringing the plants, which should be done two or three
times a day in all stoves and forcing-houses, especially during
the period when the young growth is being developed. The
damping of all absorbent surfaces, such as the floors or bare
walls, &c., is frequently necessary several times a day in the
growing season, so as to keep up a humid atmosphere; hence
y6o
HORTICULTURE
[GARDEN OPERATIONS
the advantage of laying the floors a little rounded, as then the
water draws off to the sides against the kerbstone, while the
centre remains dry for promenaders.
In cooler structures it becomes necessary in the dull season
of the year to prevent the slopping of water over the plants
or on the floor, as this tends to cause " damping off," the
stems assuming a state of mildewy decay, which not infrequently,
if it once attacks a plant, will destroy it piece by piece. For
the same reason cleanliness and free ventilation under favourable
weather conditions are of great importance.
Pruning. Pruning is a very important operation in the
fruit garden, its object being twofold (i) to give form to the
tree, and (2) to induce the free production of flower buds as the
precursors of a plentiful crop of fruit. To form a standard tree,
either the stock is allowed to grow up with a straight stem, by
cutting away all side branches up to the height required, say
about 6 ft., the scion or bud being worked at that point, and
the head developed therefrom; or the stock is worked close
to the ground, and the young shoot obtained therefrom is allowed
to grow up in the same way, being pruned in its progress to
keep it single and straight, and the top being cut off when the
desired height is reached, so as to cause the growth of lateral
shoots. If these are three or four in number, and fairly balanced
as to strength and position, little pruning will be required.
The tips of unripened wood should be cut back about one-third
their length at an outwardly placed bud, and the chief pruning
thereafter required will be to cut away inwardly directed shoots
which cross or crowd each other and tend to confuse the centre
of the tree. Bushy heads should be thinned out, and those
that are too large cut back so as to remodel them. If the shoots
produced are not sufficient in number, or are badly placed, or
very unequal in vigour, the head should be cut back moderately
close, leaving a few inches only of the young shoots, which should
be pruned back to buds so placed as to furnish shoots in the
positions desired. When worked at the top of a stem formed
of the stock, the growth from the graft or bud must be pruned
in a similar way. Three or four leading shoots should be selected
to pass ere long into boughs and form a well-balanced framework
for the tree; these boughs, however, will soon grow beyond
any artificial system the pruner may adopt.
To form a dwarf or bush fruit tree the stock must be worked
near the ground, and the young shoot produced from the scion
or bud must be cut back to whatever height it is desired the
dwarf stem should be, say 15 to 2 ft. The young shoots produced
from the portion of the new wood retained are to form the
framework of the bush tree, and must be dealt with as in the
case of standard trees. The growth of inwardly directed shoots
FIG. 27. Dwarf-Tree Pruning.
is to be prevented, and the centre kept open, the tree assuming
a cup-shaped outline. Fig. 27, reduced from M. Hardy's
excellent work, Traiti de la tattle des arbre: fruitiers, will give
a good idea how these dwarf trees are to be manipulated, a
showing the first year's development from the maiden tree after
being headed back, and b the form assumed a year or two later.
In forming a pyramidal tree, the lateral growths, instead of
being removed, as in the standard tree, are encouraged to
the utmost; and in order to strengthen them the upper part
of the leading shoot is removed annually, the side branches
being also shortened somewhat as the tree advances in size.
In fig. 28, reduced from M. Hardy's work, a shows a young
FlG. 28. Pyramid Pruning.
tree with its second year's growth, the upright shoot of the maiden
tree having been moderately headed back, being left longer
if the buds near the base promise to break freely, or cut shorter
if they are weak and wanting in vigour. The winter pruning,
carried out with the view to shape the tree into a well-grown
pyramid, would be effected at the places marked by a cross line.
The lowest branch would have four buds retained, the end one
being on the lower side of the branch. The two next would be
cut to three buds, which here also are fortunately so situated
that the one to be left is on the lower side of the branches.
The fourth is not cut at all owing to its shortness and weakness,
its terminal bud being allowed to grow to draw strength into it.
The fifth is an example where the bud to which the shoot should
be cut back is badly placed; a shoot resulting from a bud left
on the upper side is apt instead of growing outwards to grow
erect, and lead to confusion in the form of the tree; to avoid
this it is tied down in its proper place during the summer by a
small twig. The upper shoots are cut closer in. Near the base
of the stem are two prominent buds, which would produce two
vigorous shoots, but these would be too near the ground, and
the buds should therefore be suppressed; but, to strengthen
the lower part, the weaker buds just above and below the lowest
branch should be forced into growth, by making a transverse
incision close above each. Fig. 28, b, shows what a similar tree
would be at the end of the third year's growth.
GARDEN OPERATIONS]
HORTICULTURE
761
In order to bring a young tree into the cordon shape, all its
side branches are shortened back, either to form permanent
spurs, as in the case of pears, or to yield annual young shoots,
as in peaches and nectarines. The single-stemmed cordon may
be trained horizontally, obliquely at any required angle, or
vertically if required, the first two arrangements being preferable.
If a double cordon is required, the original young stem must be
headed back, and the two best shoots produced must be selected,
trained right and left, and treated as for the single cordon.
The forms chiefly adopted for trees trained to walls and
espalier rails are the fan-shaped, the half-fan and the horizontal,
with their various modifications.
The maiden tree is headed down, and two shoots led away
right and left. Two laterals should be allowed to grow from
the upper side of them, one from near the base, the other from
near the middle, all others being pinched out beyond the second
or third leaf during summer, but cut away to the last bud in
winter. The tree will thus consist of six shoots, probably 3 ft.
to 4 ft. long, which are not to be pruned unless they are unequal
in strength, a defect which is rather to be remedied by summer
pinching than by winter pruning. The second year three young
shoots are to be left on each of the six, one close to the base,
one about the middle, and one at the point, the rest being rubbed
off. These three shoots will produce laterals, of which one or
two may be selected and laid in; and thus a number of moder-
ately strong fertile shoots will be obtained, and at the end of
the season a comparatively large tree will be the result.
The method of pruning formerly adopted for the formation
of a fan-shaped tree was to head down the maiden plant to
about two eyes, so placed as to yield a young shoot on each
side (fig. 29), the supernumerary shoots being rubbed off while
quite young, and the reserved shoots trained against the wall
FIG. 29. Pruning for Fan-
shaped Tree.
FIG. 30. The same
third year.
during the summer so as to get them well matured. The next
year they were cut back again, often nearly to the base, in
order that the lower pair of these shoots might each produce
two well-placed young shoots, and the upper pair three young
shoots. The tree would thus consist of ten shoots, to be laid
out at regular distances, and then if closely cut the frame-work
of the tree would be as in fig. 30. These main shoots were not
again to be shortened back, but from each of them three young
shoots were to be selected and trained in two, on the upper side,
one near the base, and the other halfway up, and one on the lower
side placed about midway between these two; these with the
leading shoot, which was also to be nailed in, made four branches
of the current year from each of the ten main branches, and
the form of the tree would therefore be that of fig. 31. The
other young shoots
produced were
pinched off while
quite young, to throw
all the strength of
the tree into those
which were to form
its basis, and to secure
abundant light and
air. In after years
the leading shoot was
not to be cut back, but
all the lateral shoots
FIG. 31. The same fourth year.
were to be shortened, and from these year by year other shoots
were to be selected to fill up the area occupied by the tree.
In pruning for a horizontal tree the young maiden tree has
to be headed back nearly to its base, and from the young shoots
three are to be selected, the two best-placed lower ones to form
an opposite or nearly opposite pair of main branches, and the
best-placed upper one to continue the erect stem (fig. 32). This
upper shoot is at the next winter pruning to be cut down to
within about a foot of the point whence it sprung, and its buds
rubbed off except the upper one for a leader, and one on each
side just below it to furnish another pair of side shoots; these
being trained in position, the tree would appear as in fig. 33.
FIG. 32. Pruning for
Horizontally trained Tree.
FIG. 33. The same
third year.
The same course is to be followed annually till the space is filled.
Sometimes in very favourable soils and with vigorous trees
two pairs of branches may be obtained in one season by summer-
stoppihg the erect shoots and selecting others from the young
growths thus induced, but more commonly the trees have to
be built up by forming one pair of branches annually. The
shoots are not at first lowered to the horizontal line, but are
brought down gradually and tied to thin stakes; and while
the tree is being formed weak shoots may be allowed to grow
in a more erect position than it is ultimately intended they
should occupy. Thus in four or five years the tree will have
FIG. 34. The same fifth year.
acquired something of the character of fig. 34, and will go on
thus increasing until the space is filled.
The half-fan is a combination of the two forms, but as regards
pruning does not materially differ from the horizontal, as two
opposite side branches are produced in succession upwards
till the space is filled, only they are not taken out so abruptly,
but are allowed to rise at an acute angle and then to curve
into the horizontal line.
In all the various forms of cordons, in horizontal training,
and in fan and half -fan training, the pruning of the main branches
when the form of the tree is worked out will vary in accordance
with the kind of fruit under treatment. Thus in the peach,
nectarine, apricot, plum and cherry, which are commonly
trained fan-fashion, the first three (and also the morello cherry
if grown) will have to be pruned so as to keep a succession of
young annual shoots, these being their fruit-bearing wood.
The others are generally pruned so as to combine a moderate
supply of young wood with a greater or less number of fruit
spurs. In the pear and apple the fruit is borne principally on
spurs, and hence what is known as spur-pruning has to be
adopted, the young shoots being all cut back nearly to their
base, so as to cause fruit buds to evolve from the remaining
eyes or buds. Cordons of apples and pears have to be similarly
treated, but cordons of peaches and nectarines are pruned so as
to provide the necessary annual succession of young bearing
wood.
762
HORTICULTURE
[GARDEN OPERATIONS
Fruit trees trained as espaliers, fans or cordons against walls,
trellises or fences, are not only pruned carefully in the winter
but must be also pruned during the early summer months.
Many of the smaller, useless shoots are rubbed out altogether;
the best are allowed to grow perhaps a foot or more in length,
and then either have the tips pinched out with the finger and
thumb, or the ends may be cracked or broken, and allowed
to hang down, but are not detached completely. This is called
summer pruning, and is an important operation requiring
knowledge on the part of the gardener to perform properly.
Shoots of peaches, nectarines and morello cherries are "laid
in," that is, placed in between fruiting shoots where there is the
space to be ripened for next year's crop.
Summer Pruning should be performed while the shoots are yet
young and succulent, so that they may in most cases be nipped
off with the thumb-nail. It is very necessary in the case of trees
trained to a flat surface, as a wall Or espalier rail, to prevent
undue crowding. In some cases , as, for example, with peaches,
the superfluous shoots are wholly removed, and certain selected
shoots reserved to supply bearing wood for next year. In others,
as pears, the tops of the young shoots are
removed, leaving three or four -leaves
and their buds at the base, to be de-
veloped into fruit buds by the additional
nourishment thus
thrown into them
(fig. 35, a). One
or two may push
out a late summer
growth, b; this
will serve as a
vent for the vigour
FIG. 35 Summer Pruning for Spurs. of the treCj and
if the lowermost only go to the formation of a fruit spur, the
object will have been gained. They are cut to the last dormant
bud in winter.
But summer pruning has been much extended since the
introduction of restricted growth and the use of dwarfing stocks.
Orchard-house trees, and also pyramidal and bush trees of apples,
pears and plums, are mainly fashioned by summer pruning;
in fact, the less the knife is used upon them, except in the
necessary cutting of the roots in potted trees, the better. In
the case of orchard-house plants no shoots are suffered to lengthen
out, except as occasionally wanted to fill up a gap in the outline
of the tree. On the contrary, the tops of all young shoots are
pinched off when some three or four leaves are formed, and this
is done again and again throughout the season. When this
pruning is just brought to a balance wich the vigour of the roots,
the consequence is that fruit buds are formed all over the tree,
instead of a thicket of sterile and useless wood. Pyramidal
and bush trees out of doors are, of course, suffered to become
somewhat larger, and sufficient wood must be allowed to grow
to give them the form desired; but after the first year or two,
when the framework is laid out, they are permitted to extend
very slowly, and never to any great extent, while the young
growths are continually nipped off, so as to clothe the branches
with fruit buds as closely placed as will permit of their healthy
development.
The nature of the cut itself in pruning is of more consequence,
especially in the case of fruit trees, than at first sight may appear.
The branches should be separated by a clean cut at an angle of
about 45, just at the back of a bud, the cut entering on a level
with the base of the bud and passing out on a level with its
top (fig. 36, a), for when cut in this way the wound becomes
rapidly covered with new wood, as soon as growth recommences,
whereas if the cut is too close the bud is starved, or if less close an
ugly and awkward snag is left. Fig 36, b and c, are examples of
the former, and d, e, f of the latter. In fact there is only one
right way to cut a shoot and that is as shown at a.
The Pruning of flowering plants is generally a much lighter
matter than the pruning of fruit trees. If a young seedling
or cutting of any soft-wooded plant is to be bushy, it must have
its top nipped out by the thumb-nail or pruning-scissors at a
very early stage, and this stopping must be repeated frequently.
If what is called a well-furnished plant is required, an average
of from 2 to 3 in. is all the extension that must be permitted
FIG. 36. Cuts Good and Bad.
sometimes scarcely so much before the top is nipped out; and
this must be continued until the desired size is attained, whether
that be large or small. Then generally the plant is allowed to
grow away till bloom or blooming shoots are developed. To
form a pyramidal plant, which is a very elegant and useful
shape to give to a decorative pot plant, the main stem should
be encouraged to grow upright, for a length perhaps of 6 or 8 in.
before it is topped; this induces the formation of laterals, and
favours their development. The best-placed upper young shoot
is selected and trained upright to a slender stake, and this also
is topped when it has advanced 6 or 8 in. further, in order to
induce the laterals on the second portion to push freely. This
process is continued till the required size is gained. With all the
difficult and slow-growing plants of the hard-wooded section, all
the pruning must be done in this gradual way in the young wood
as the plant progresses.
Some plants, like pelargoniums, can only be kept handsomely
formed and well furnished by cutting them down severely every
season, after the blooming is over. The plants should be prepared
for this by keeping them rather dry at the root, and after cutting
they must stand with little or no water till the stems heal over,
and produce young shoots, or " break," as it is technically termed.
The appearance of a specimen pelargonium properly pruned is
shown in fig. 37, in which a shows a young plant, the head of
which has been
taken off to form
a cutting, and
whose buds are
ready to break
into young
shoots. Three
shoots will be
produced, and
these, after
growing from 4
to 6 in. in length,
should be stopped by pinching out the point, this giving rise to
lateral shoots. These will blossom in due course, and, after being
ripened thoroughly by full exposure to the sun, should be cut
back as shown at b. This is the proper foundation for a good
specimen, and illustrates how all such subjects should be pruned
to keep them stocky and presentable in form.
Root-pruningismost commonly practised in fruit-tree cultiva-
tion. It is often resorted to as a means of restoring fertility in
plants which have become over rank from an excess of nourishment
in the soil, or sterile from want of it. The effect of root -pruning
in the first case is to reduce the supply of crude sap to the
branches, and consequently to cause a check in their develop-
ment. In the second case all roots that have struck downwards
into a cold uncongenial subsoil must be pruned off if they cannot
be turned in a lateral direction, and all the lateral ones that
have become coarse and fibreless must also be shortened back by
means of a clean cut with a sharp knife, while a compost of rich
loamy soil with a little bone-meal, and leaf-mould or old manure,
should be filled into the trenches from which the old sterile
soil has been taken. The operation is best performed early in
autumn, and may be safely resorted to in the case of fruit trees
FIG. 37-
GARDEN OPERATIONS]
HORTICULTURE
7 6 3
of moderate age, and even of old trees if due care be exercised.
In transplanting trees all the roots which may have become
bruised or broken in the process of lifting should be cut clean
away behind the broken part, as they then more readily strike
out new roots from the cut parts. In all these cases the cut
should be a clean sloping one, and made in an upward and out-
ward direction.
The root-pruning of pot-plants is necessary in the case of many
soft-wooded subjects which are grown on year after year
pelargoniums and fuchsias, for example. After the close pruning
of the branches to which they are annually subjected, and when
the young shoots have shot forth ah inch or two in length, they are
turned out of their pots and have the old soil shaken away from
their roots, the longest of which, to the extent of about half the
existing quantity, are then cut clean away, and the plants
repotted into small pots. This permits the growing plant to be
fed with rich fresh soil, without having been necessarily trans-
ferred to pots of unwieldy size by the time the flowering stage
is reached.
Ringing. One of the expedients for inducing a state of fruit-
fulness in trees is the ringing of the branches or stem, that is,
removing a narrow annular portion of the bark, by which means,
it is said, the trees are not only rendered productive, but the
quality of the fruit is at the same time improved. The advantage
depends on the obstruction given to the descent of the sap.
The ring should be cut out in spring, and be of such a width that
the bark may remain separated for the season. A tight ligature
of twine or wire answers the same end. The advantages of the
operation may generally be gained by judicious root pruning,
and it is not at all adapted for the various stone fruits.
Training. What is called training is the guiding of the
branches of a tree or plant in certain positions which they would
not naturally assume, the object being partly to secure their
full exposure to light, and partly to regulate the flow and dis-
tribution of the sap. To secure the former object, the branches
must be so fixed as to shade each other as little as possible; and
to realize the
second, the
branches must
have given to
them an upward
or downward
direction, as they
may require to
be encouraged
or repressed.
Something of the
same vegetative
vigour which is
given to a plant
or tree by hard
pruning is afforded by training in an upward direction so as
to promote the flow of the sap; while the repression effected
by summer pruning is supplemented by downward training,
which acts as a check. One main object is the preservation
of equilibrium in the growth of the several parts of the tree;
and for this various minor details deserve attention. Thus
a shoot will grow more vigorously whilst waving in the air
than when nailed close to the wall; consequently a weak
shoot should be left free, whilst its stronger antagonist should
be restrained; and a luxuriant shoot may be retarded for
some time by having its tender extremity pinched off to allow
a weaker shoot to overtake it.
By the prudent use of the knife, fruit trees may be readily
trained into the forms indicated below, which are amongst the
best out of the many which have been devised.
The training of standard and bush trees in the open ground has
been already referred to under the section Pruning. When the
growth of pyramids is completed, the outline is something like
that of fig. 39, and very pretty trees are thus formed. It is
better, however, especially if the tendency to bear fruit is rather
slack, to adopt what the French call en quenouille training
FIG. 38. Diagram illustrating Branch
Distribution.
(fig. 40), which consists in tying or weighting the tips of the
branches so as to give them all a downward curve. Pear trees
FIG. 39. Pyramidal Training. FIG. 40. Training en quenouille.
worked on the quince stock, and trained en quenouille, are
generally very fertile.
Wall trees, it must be evident, are placed in a very unnatural
and constrained position, and would in fact soon be reduced to a
state of utter confusion if allowed to grow unrestricted; hence
the following modes of training have been adopted.
Horizontal Training (fig. 41) has long been a favourite form in
England. There is one principal ascending stem, from which
^fc.,li.^i|a' _3 j,* iv .'*
^^5^.
FIG. 41. Horizontal Training.
the branches depart at right angles, at intervals of about a foot.
Horizontal training is best adapted to the apple and the pear;
and for the more twiggy growing slender varieties, the forms
shown in fig. 42 have been recommended. In these the horizontal
branches are placed wider, 18 to 20 in. apart, and the smaller
shoots are trained between them, either on both sides, as at a,
or deflexed from the lower side, as at b. The latter is an ex-
cellent method of reclaiming neglected trees. Every alternate
C/7T77F777
mrm
rnrnw
4 -v^fipgaasBKES- a
FlG. 42. Forms of Horizontal Training.
branch should be taken away, and the spurs cut off, after which
the young shoots are trained in, and soon produce good fruit.
In Fan Training (fig. 43) there is no leading stem, but the
branches spring from the base and are arranged somewhat like
the ribs of a fan. This mode of training is commonly adopted
for the peach, nectarine, apricot and morello cherry, to which
HORTICULTURE
[GARDEN OPERATIONS
it is best adapted. Though sometimes adopted, it is not so
well suited as the horizontal form for apples and pears, because,
when the branches reach the top of the wall, where they must
FIG. 43. Fan Training.
be cut short, a hedge of young shoots is inevitable. A modifica-
tion of the fan shape (fig. 44) is sometimes adopted for stone
fruits, such as the plum and apricot. In this the object is to
establish a number of mother branches, and on these to form a
series of subordinate members, chiefly composed of bearing wood.
The mother branches or limbs should not be numerous, but
well marked, equal in strength and regularly disposed. The
FIG. 44. Modified Fan Training.
side branches should be pretty abundant, short and not so
vigorous as to rival the leading members.
The Half-fan mode of training, which is intermediate between
horizontal and fan training, is most nearly allied to the former,
but the branches leave the stem at an acute angle, a disposition
supposed to favour the more equal distribution of the sap. Some-
times, as in fig. 45, two vertical stems are adopted, but there is no
particular advantage in this, and a single-stemmed tree is more
manageable. The half-fan form is well adapted for such fruits
FIG. 45. Half-Fan Training.
as the plum and the cherry; and, indeed, for fruits of vigorous
habit, it seems to combine the advantages of both the foregoing.
Trees must be fixed to the walls and buildings against which
they are trained by means of nails and shreds (neat medicated
strips are now sold for this purpose), or in cases where it is
desired to preserve the wall surface intact, by permanent nails
or studs driven in in regular order. Sometimes the walls are
furnished with galvanized wires, but this has been objected to
as causing cankering of the shoots, for which, however, painting
is recommended as a remedy. By crossing the tying material
between the wire and the wood, however, and so preventing
them from coming in contact, there is no danger. If they are
adopted, the wires should be a few inches away from the wall, to
allow free circulation of air between it and the tree, and thus
avoid the scorching or burning of leaves and fruits during the
summer months in very hot places. Care should be taken that
the ties or fastenings do not eventually cut into the bark as the
branches swell with increased age. When shreds and nails are
used, short thick wire nails and " medicated shreds " are the
best; the ordinary cast iron wall nails being much too brittle
and difficult to drive into the wall. It must be remembered that
nails spoil a wall sooner or later, whereas a wire trellis is not only
much neater, but enables the gardener to tie his trees up much
more quickly.
For tying plants to trellises and stakes soft tarred string or
raffia (the fibre from the Raphia palm of Madagascar) is used.
In training greenhouse plants the young branches should be
drawn outwards by means of ties fastened to a string or wire
FIG. 46. Clematis trained on Balloon-Shaped Trellis.
under the pot-rim; the centre then fills up, and slender stakes
are used as required; but the fewer these are in number the
better. Climbers are trained from the bottom around or across
trellises, of which the cylindrical or the balloon-shaped, or
sometimes the flat oval or circular, are the best forms. The size
should be adapted to the habit of the plant, which should cover
the whole by the time flowers are produced. Bast fibre and
raffia fibre are to be preferred for light subjects of this character,
as they can be split to any degree of fineness. Very durable
trellises for greenhouse climbers are made of slender round iron
rods for standards, having a series of hooks on the inner edge,
into which rings of similar metal are dropped; the rings may be
graduated so as to form a broad open top, or may be all of the
same size, when the trellis will assume the cylindrical form.
Fig. 46 shows a pot specimen of clematis trained over a balloon-
shaped trellis.
The training of certain bedding plants over the surface of
the soil is done by small pegs of birch wood or bracken, by
loops of wire or cheap hair-pins, or sometimes by loops of raffia
having the ends fixed in the soil by the aid of the dibble. The
object is to fill up the blank space as quickly and as evenly as
possible.
Forcing is the accelerating, by special treatment, of the growth
of certain plants, which are required to be had in leaf, in flower
or in fruit before their natural season, as, for instance, the leaves
of mint at Eastertide or the leafstalks of sea-kale and rhubarb
FLOWERS]
HORTICULTURE
765
at Christmas, the flowers of summer in the depth of winter, or
some of the choicest fruits perfected so much before their normal
period as to complete, with the retarded crops of winter, the circle
of the seasons.
In the management of artificial heat for this purpose, a
considerable degree of caution is required. The first stages
of forcing should, of course, be very gentle, so that the whole
growth of the plants may advance in harmony. The immediate
application of a very hot atmosphere would unduly force the
tops, while the roots remained partially or wholly inactive; and
a strong bottom heat, if it did not cause injury by its excess, would
probably result in abortive growth.
Any sudden decrease of warmth would be very prejudicial
to the progress of vegetation through the successive stages of
foliation, inflorescence and fructification. But it is not necessary
that one unvarying range of temperature should be kept up at
whatever pains or risk. Indeed, in very severe weather it is
found better to drop a little from the maximum temperature by
fire heat, and the loss so occasioned may be made good by a little
extra heat applied when the weather is more genial. Night
temperatures also should always be allowed to drop somewhat,
the heat being increased again in the morning. In other words,
the artificial temperature should increase by day and decrease
by night, should rise in summer and fall in winter, should, in
short, imitate as nearly as possible the varying influence of the
sun.
For the growth of flowers generally, and for that of all fruits,
every ray of light to be obtained in the dull winter season is
required, and therefore every possible care should be taken to
keep the glass clean. A moist genial atmosphere too is essential,
a point requiring unremitting attention on account of the
necessity of keeping up strong fires. With moisture as with heat,
the cultivator must hold his hand somewhat in very severe or
very dull weather; but while heat must not drop so as to chill
the progressing vegetation, so neither must the lack of moisture
parch the plants so as to check their growth.
There are some few subjects which when forced do not require
a light house. Thus amongst flowers the white blossoms of the
lilac, so much prized during winter, are produced by forcing
purple-flowered plants in darkness. Rhubarb and sea-kale among
esculents both need to be forced in darkness to keep them crisp
and tender, and mushrooms also are always grown in dark
structures. In fact, a roomy mushroom house is one of the most
convenient of all places for forcing the vegetables just referred
to. The lilac would be better placed in a dark shed heated to
about 70 or 80, in which some dung and leaves could be
allowed to lie and ferment, giving off both a genial heat
and moisture.
One of the most important preliminaries to successful forcing
is the securing to the plants a previous state of rest. The
thorough ripening of the preceding season's wood in fruit trees
and flowering plants, and of the crown in perennial herbs like
strawberries, and the cessation of all active growth before the
time they are to start into a new growth, are of paramount im-
portance. The ripening process must be brought about by free
exposure to light, and by the application of a little extra heat with
dryness, if the season should be unfavourable; and both roots
and tops must submit to a limitation of their water supply.
When the ripening is perfected, the resting process must be
aided by keeping the temperature in which they await the forcing
process as low as each particular subject can bear. (See Re-
tardation above.)
V. Flowers.
Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds. Wherever there is a
flower garden of considerable magnitude, and in a separate
situation, it should be constructed on principles of its own.
The great object must be to exhibit to advantage the graceful
forms and glorious hues of flowering plants and shrubs. Two
varieties of flower gardens have chiefly prevailed in Britain.
In one the ground is turf, out of which flower-beds, of varied
patterns, are cut; in the other the flower-beds are separated
by gravel walks, without the introduction of grass. When
the flower garden is to be seen from the windows, or any other
elevated point of view, the former is to be preferred; but where
the surface is irregular, and the situation more remote, and,
especially where the beauty of flowers is mainly looked to, the
choice should probably fall on the latter.
The flower garden may include several different compartments.
Thus, for example, there is the " Rock Garden," which should
consist of variously grouped masses of large stones, those which
are remarkable for being figured by water-wearing, or containing
petrifactions or impressions, or showing something of natural
stratification, being generally preferred. In the cavities between
the stones, filled with earth, alpine or trailing plants are inserted,
and also some of the choicest flowers. In proper situations, a
small pool of water may be introduced for the culture of aquatic
plants. In these, days the rock-garden is a most important
feature, and it requires a good deal of care and skill to arrange
the boulders, walks, pools or streams in natural and artistic
fashion. The selection of suitable alpines, perennials and
shrubs and trees also necessitates considerable knowledge
on the part of the gardener. A separate compartment laid out
on some regular plan is often set apart for roses, under the name
of the " Rosery." A moist or rather a shady border, or a section
of the pleasure ground supplied with bog earth, may be devoted
to what is called the " American Garden," which, as it includes
the gorgeous rhododendrons and azaleas, forms one of the
grandest features of the establishment during the early summer,
while if properly selected the plants are effective as a garden
of evergreens at all seasons. The number of variegated and
various-coloured hardy shrubs is now so great that a most
pleasant plot for a " Winter Garden " may be arrayed with plants
of this class, with which may be associated hardy subjects which
flower during that season or very early spring, as the Christmas
rose, and amongst bulbs the crocus and snowdrop. Later the
spring garden department is a scene of great attraction; and
some of the gardens of this character, as those of Cliveden and
Belvoir, are among the most fascinating examples of horti-
cultural art. The old-fashioned stereotyped flower garden
that one met with almost everywhere is rapidly becoming a
thing of the past, and grounds are now laid out more in accord-
ance with their natural disposition, their climatic conditions
and their suitability for certain kinds of plants. Besides the
features already mentioned there are now bamboo gardens,
Japanese gardens, water gardens and wall gardens, each
placed in the most suitable position and displaying its own
special features.
Lawns. In the formation of lawns the ground must be
regularly broken up so that it may settle down evenly, any deep
excavations that may have to be filled in being very carefully
rammed down to prevent subsequent settlement. The ground
must also be thoroughly cleared of the roots of all coarse, perennial
weeds, and be worked to a fine
tilth ready for turfing or sow-
ing. The more expeditious
method is of course to lay
down turf, which should be free
from weeds, and is cut usually
in strips of i ft. wide, 3 ft. long,
and about i in. in thickness.
This must be laid very evenly
and compactly, and should then
be beaten down firmly with the
implement called a turf-beater
(fig. 47). When there is a large
space to cover, it is much the
cheaper plan to sow the lawn FlG - 47- Turf-Beater,
with grass-seeds, and equally effective, though the sward takes
much longer to thicken. It is of the utmost importance that
a good selection of grasses be made, and that pure seeds
should be obtained (see GRASS AND GRASSLAND). The follow-
ing sorts can be recommended, the quantities given being those
for sowing an acre of ground:
7 66
HORTICULTURE
[FLOWERS
Cynosurus cristatus Crested Dog's-tail . . . . 6 Ib
Festuca duriuscula Hard Fescue 3 Ib
Festuca ovina Sheep's Fescue 3 Ib
Lolium perenne tenue 18 Ib
Poa nemoralis sempervirens Evergreen Meadow-grass . 3 Ib
Poa trivialis Trivial Meadow-grass . . . . 3 Ib
Trisetum flavescens Yellow Oat-grass . . . 2 Ib
Trifclium repens Dutch Clover 6 Ib
The seeds should be thoroughly mixed, and very evenly sown,
after which the surface should be raked over to bury them, and
then rolled down while dry so as to finish it off smooth and level.
When thus sown, lawns require to be promptly weeded. During
the growing season established lawns should be mown at least
once a week. They should be occasionally rolled, and towards
autumn they require frequent sweepings to remove worm-casts.
HARDY ANNUALS. Annual plants are those which grow up
from seed, flower, ripen seed, and die in the course of one season
one year. They are useful in the mixed garden, for though in some
cases they are of short duration, many of them are possessed of much
beauty of hue and elegance of form. Annuals may be divided into
three classes: the hardy, which are sown at once in the ground
they are to occupy; the half-hardy, which succeed best when aided
at first by a slight hot bed, and then transplanted into the open air;
and the tender, which are kept in pots, and treated as greenhouse
or stove plants, to which departments they properly belong. Some
of the more popular annuals, hardy and half-hardy, have been very
much varied as regards habit and the colour of the flowers, and
purchases may be made in the seed shops of such things as China
asters, stocks, Chinese and Indian pinks, larkspurs, phloxes and
others, amongst which some of the most beautiful of the summer
flowers may be found.
The hardy annuals may be sown in the open ground during
the latter part of March or beginning of April, as the season may
determine, for the weather should be dry and open, and the soil in
a free-working condition before sowing is attempted. In favourable
situations and seasons some of the very hardiest, as Silene pendula,
Saponaria, Nemophila, Gilia, &c., may be sown in September or
October, and transplanted to the beds or borders for very early spring
flowering. Those sown in spring begin to flower about June. The
plants, if left to flower where they are sown, should be thinned out
while young, to give them space for proper development. It is
from having ample room that pricked out transplanted seedlings
often make the finest plants. The soil should be rich and light.
The half-hardy series are best sown in pots or pans under glass in
mild' heat, in order to accelerate germination. Those of them which
are in danger of becoming leggy should be speedily removed to a
cooler frame and placed near the glass, the young plants being
pricked off into fresh soil, in other pots or pans or boxes, as may
seem best in each case. All the plants must be hardened off gradually
during the month of April, and may generally be planted out some
time in May, earlier or later according to the season.
The class of tender annuals, being chiefly grown for greenhouse
decoration, should be treated much the same as soft-wooded plants,
being sown in spring, and grown on rapidly in brisk heat, near the
glass, and finally hardened off to stand in the greenhouse when in
flower.
We add a select list of some of the more distinct annuals desirable
for general cultivation as decorative plants for the open air:
Acroclinium roseum: half-hardy, I ft., rose-pink or white; ever-
lasting.
Agrostis pulchella : hardy, 6 in. ; a most graceful grass for bouquets.
Amberboa moschata atropurpurea (Sweet Sultan): hardy, ij ft.,
purple; musk-scented.
Antirrhinum majus (Snapdragon): hardy, 6 in. to 2 ft., white,
yellow and red. This plant is perennial, but is best treated as an
annual.
Arnebia cornuta: hardy, 15 to 2 ft. yellow.
Bartonia aurea; hardy, 2 ft., golden yellow; showy and free.
Brachycome iberidifolia: half-hardy, I ft., blue or white with dark
disk.
Calendula officinalis Meteor: hardy, I ft., orange striped with
yellow.
Calliopsis or Coreopsis bicolor (lincloria} : hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow
and chestnut-brown.
Calliopsis or Coreopsis Drummondii: hardy, I to 2 ft., golden
yellow with red disk.
Callistephus hortensis or chinensis (the China aster) : half-hardy,
6 in. to li ft.; there are several groups of various colours. The
species itself is a very handsome plant.
Campanula Loreyi: hardy, t j ft., purplish-lilac or white.
Campanula macrostyla : hardy, I to 2 ft., purple, beautifully veined.
Carnations, Marguerite: half-hardy, 9 to 12 in., colours various.
Centaurea Cyanus: hardy, 3 ft., blue, purple, pink or white;
showy.
Centranthus macrosiphon: hardy, ij to 2 ft., rosy-carmine.
Centranthus ruber (known as Pretty Betsy and Red Valerian) :
hardy, 2 to 3 ft., red.
Chrysanthemum carinatum: a charming half-hardy annual, 2 to
3 ft. high, with several varieties, of which C. Burridgeanum with zones
of white, crimson and yellow is best.
C. coronarium, a yellow-flowered species requires similar treatment.
Clarkia pulchella: hardy, ij ft., rosy-purple; some varieties very
handsome.
Collinsia bicolor: hardy, Ij ft., white and purple; pretty.
Gollinsia verna: hardy, I ft., white and azure; sow as soon as
ripe.
Convolvulus tricolor atroviolacea: hardy, I ft., white, blue and
yellow. This is the Convolvulus minor of gardens.
Cosmos bipinnatus: half-hardy, 3 ft., rose, purple, white; requires
sunny spots.
Dianthus chinensis (Indian pink) : half-hardy, 6 in. to I ft., various
shades of red and white.
Delphinium Ajacis and Delphinium Consolida (Larkspurs) : hardy,
3 ft., various colours.
Erysimum Peroffskianum: hardy, 2 ft., deep orange; in erect
racemes.
Eschscholtzia californica: hardy, ij ft., yellow with saffron eye.
Eschscholtzia crocea flore-pleno: hardy, ij ft., orange yellow;
double.
Eutoca viscida: hardy, 2 ft., bright blue, with white hairy centre.
Gaillardia Drummondii (picta): half-hardy, Ij ft., crimson, yellow
margin.
Gilia achilleaefolia: hardy, 2 ft., deep blue; in large globose heads
Godetia Lindleyana: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., rose-purple, with crimson
spots.
Godetia Whitneyi: hardy, I ft., rosy-red, with crimson spots. The
variety Lady Albemarle is wholly crimson, and very handsome.
Gypsophila elegans: hardy, ij ft., pale rose; branched very
gracefully.
Helianthus cucumerifolius : hardy, 3 to 4 ft., golden yellow, black
disk ; branching, free and bold without coarseness.
Helichrysum bracteatum: half-hardy, 2 ft.; the incurved crimson,
rose and other forms very handsome.
Hibiscus Trionum (africanus): hardy, l ft., cream colour, dark
purple centre.
Iberis umbellata (Candytuft): hardy, I ft., white, rose, purple,
crimson. Some new dwarf white and flesh-coloured varieties are very
handsome.
Kaulfussia amelloides: hardy, I ft., blue or rose; the var.
kermesina is deep crimson.
Kochia scoparia (Belvedere or lawn cypress): hardy, graceful
green foliage, turning purple in autumn.
Koniga maritima (Sweet Alyssum) : hardy, I ft., white; fragrant,
compact.
Lathyrus odoratus (Sweet Pea): hardy; there are two races,
dwarf and tall, the latter far and away the most beautiful requires
support; various colours; numerous immensely popular forms.
Lavatera trimestris: hardy, 3 ft., pale-rose, showy malvaceous
flowers.
Leptosiphon densiflorus: hardy in light soil, I ft., purplish or
rosy-lilac.
Leptosiphon roseus: hardy in light soil, 6 in., delicate rose; fine in
masses.
Linaria bipartita splendida: hardy, I ft., deep purple.
Linum grandiflorum: hardy, I ft., splendid crimson; var.
roseum is pink.
Lupinus luteus: hardy, 2 ft., bright yellow, fragrant.
Lupinus mutabilis Cruickshanksii: hardy, 4 ft., blue and yellow;
changeable.
Lupinus nanus: hardy, I ft., bluish-purple; abundant flowering.
Lychnis Coeli-rosa: hardy, 15 ft., rosy-purple, with pale centre;
pretty.
Lychnis oculata cardinalis: hardy, Ij ft., rosy-crimson; very
brilliant.
Malcolmia maritima (Virginian Stock): hardy, 6 in., lilac, rose or
white.
Malope trifida: hardy, 3 ft., rich glossy purplish-crimson; showy.
M. grandiflora is a finer plant in every way.
Matthiola annua (Ten-week Stock and its variety, the intermediate
stock) : half-hardy, I to 2 ft., white, rose and red.
Matthiola graeca (Wallflowcr-lvd. Stock) : hardy, I ft., various as
in Stock.
Mesembryanthemum tricolor: half-hardy, 3 in., pink and crimson,
with dark centre.
Mimulus cupreus: half-hardy, 6 in., coppery red, varying con-
siderably.
Mimulus luteus tigrinus: half-hardy, I ft., yellow spotted with
red ; var. duplex has hose-in-hose flowers.
Mirabilis Jalapa: half-hardy, 3 ft., various colours; flowers
evening-scented.
Nemesia floribunda : hardy, I ft., white and yellow; pretty and
compact.
Nemophila insignis: hardy, 6 in., azure blue, with white centre.
Nemophila maculata: hardy, 6 in., white, with violet spots at the
edge.
Nicotiana affinis: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white.
FLOWERS]
HORTICULTURE
767
Nicotiana Sanderae: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white, crimson,
scarlet, &c.
Nigella hispanica: hardy, ij ft., pale blue, white or dark purple.
Oenolhera odorata: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; fragrant.
Omphalodes linifolia (Venus's Navelwort) : hardy, I ft., white.
Papaver Rhoeas flore-pleno : hardy, 2 ft., scarlet and other colours;
showy.
Papaver somniferum flore-pleno: hardy, 3 ft., white, lilac, rose,
&c. ; petals sometimes fringed.
Petunia violacea hybrida: half-hardy, ij ft., various colours; sow
in heat.
Pharbitis hispida: hardy, 6 ft., various; the many-coloured
twining Convolvulus major.
Phlox Drummondii: half-hardy, ? ft., various colours.
Platystemon calif ornicus : hardy, I ft., sulphur yellow; neat and
distinct.
Portulaca splendens: half-hardy, 6 in., crimson, rose, yellow, white,
&c., single and double; splendid prostrate plants for sunny rockwork.
Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum: half-hardy, I ft.; grown for its
golden foliage, and much used for bedding.
Reseda odorata (Mignonette) : hardy, I ft., greenish, but exquisitely
fragrant ; there are some choice new sorts.
Rhodanthe maculata: half-hardy, ij ft., rosy-pink or white;
larger flower-heads than the next.
Rhodanthe Manglesii: half-hardy, I ft., rosy-pink; a drooping
everlasting.
Salpiglossis sinuata: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow, purple, crimson,
&c. ; much varied and beautifully veined.
Sanvitalia procumbens flore-pleno: half-hardy, 6 in., golden yellow;
procumbent.
Saponaria calabrica: hardy, 6 to 8 in., bright rose pink or white;
continuous blooming, compact-growing.
Scabiosa atropurpurea: hardy, I to 2 ft., rose, white, lilac, crimson,
&c.
Schizanthus pinnalus: hardy, I to 2 ft., purple-lilac, prettily
blotched; curiously lobed flowers.
Schizopetalon Walkeri: hardy, I ft., white, sweet-scented at night;
curiously fringed petals.
Senecio elegans: half-hardy, ij ft., white, rose or purple; the
various double forms are showy.
Silene pendula: hardy, I ft., bright rose pink; very showy in
masses; var. compacta forms close dense tufts.
Silene Pseudo-Atocion: hardy, I ft., rose pink; free-flowering.
Specularia Speculum: hardy, 6 in., reddish-violet; free-flowering.
Sphenogyne speciosa: half-hardy, I ft., orange-yellow, with black
ring around the disk.
Statice Bonduelli (Sea Lavender): half-hardy, ij ft., yellow.
5. Limonum: bluish purple.
5. sinuata: white, blue, yellow.
5. Suworowi: lilac.
Tagetes signata: half-hardy, ij ft., golden yellow; continuous
blooming, with elegant foliage. The French and African marigolds,
favourites of some, are allied to this.
Tropaeolum aduncum (Canary creeper) : half-hardy, 10 ft., yellow,
fringed ; an elegant climber.
Tropaeolum majus (the nasturtium of gardens) : hardy. There are
two races, dwarf and tall, various shades of red and yellow.
Waitzia aurea: half-hardy, ij ft., golden yellow; a showy
everlasting.
Xeranthemum annuum flore-pleno: hardy, 2 ft., lilac-purple;
floriferous.
Zinnia elegans: half-hardy, I to 2 ft., various colours.
HARDY BIENNIALS. Biennials live through one winter period.
They require to be sown in the summer months, about June or July,
in order to get established before winter; they should be pricked out
as soon as large enough, and should have ample space so as to become
hardy and stocky. They should be planted in good soil, but not of
too stimulating a character. Those that are perfectly hardy are best
planted where they are to flower in good time during autumn.
This transplanting acts as a kind of check, which is rather beneficial
than otherwise. Of those that are liable to suffer injury in winter,
as the Brompton and Queen Stocks, a portion should be potted and
wintered in cold frames ventilated as freely as the weather will
permit.
The number of biennials is not large, but a few very desirable
garden plants, such as the following, occur amongst them :
Agrostemma coronaria (Rose Campion): hardy, ij ft., bright
rose-purple or rose and white.
Beta Cicla variegata: hardy, 2 ft., beautifully coloured leaves and
midribs, crimson, golden, &c.
Campanula Medium (Canterbury Bell) : hardy, 2 ft., blue, white,
rose, &c. The double-flowered varieties of various colours are very
handsome.
Campanula Medium calycanthema: hardy, 2 ft., blue or white;
hose-in-hose flowered.
Catananche coerulea: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., blue or white.
Celsia cretica: hardy, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, with two dark spots near
centre; in spikes.
Cheiranthus Cheiri (Wallflower): hardy, ii to 2 ft., red, purple,
yellow, &c. ; really a perennial but better as a biennial.
Coreopsis grandiflora: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow; the finest
member of the genus.
Dianthus barbatus (Sweet William): hardy, I to ii ft., crimson,
purple, white or parti-coloured.
Dianthus chinensis (Indian Pink): half-hardy, I ft., various;
flower earlier if treated as biennials; must be protected from frost.
Digitalis purpurea (Foxglove) : hardy, 3 to 5 ft., rosy-purple or
white; beautifully spotted; the variety called gloxinioides has
regular, erect flowers.
Echium pomponium : hardy, 4 ft., rosy-pink.
Hedysarum coronarium (French Honeysuckle) : hardy, 2 to 3 ft.,
scarlet or white ; fragrant.
Hesperis tristis (Night-scented Rocket) : hardy, 3 ft., dull purplish ;
fragrant at night.
Lunaria biennis (Honesty): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., purple; the silvery
dissepiment attractive among everlastings.
Matthiola incana (two groups, the Brompton and the Queen
stocks): hardy, 2 to 2\ ft., white, red and purple.
Meconopsis. Charming members of the poppy family, of which
M. aculeata, purple; M. grandis, purple; M. heterophylla, coppery-
orange; M. nepalensis, golden yellow; M. integrifolia, yellow;
M. simplicifolia, violet purple, are grown with care in sheltered spots,
and in rich, very gritty soil.
Michauxia campanuloides, a remarkable bell flower, 3 to 8 ft. high;
white tinged purple. Requires rich loam in warm sheltered spots.
Oenolhera biennis and O. Lamarckiana (Evening primrose) : hardy,
5 ft., bright yellow; large.
Scabiosa caucasica: hardy, 3 ft., blue, white.
Silene compacta: half-hardy, 3 to 6 inches, bright pink; clustered
as in S. Armeria.
Verbascum Blattaria: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., yellowish, with purple hairs
on the filaments; in tall spikes.
HARDY HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS. This term includes not only
those fibrous-rooted plants of herbaceous habit which spring up from
the root year after year, but also those old-fashioned subjects known
as florists' flowers, and the hardy bulbs. Some of the most beautiful
of hardy flowering plants belong to this class. When the length of
the flowering season is considered, it will be obvious that it is im-
possible to keep up the show of a single border or plot for six months
together, since plants, as they are commonly arranged, come dropping
into and out of flower one after another; and even where a certain
number are in bloom at the same time, they necessarily stand apart,
and so the effects of contrast, which can be perceived only among
adjacent objects, are lost. To obviate this defect, it has been recom-
mended that ornamental plants should be formed into four or five
separate suites of flowering, to be distributed over the garden.
Not to mention the more vernal flowers, the first might contain the
flora of May; the second that of June; the third that of July; and
the fourth that of August and the following months. These com-
partments should be so intermingled that no particular class may be
entirely absent from any one quarter of the garden.
Before beginning to plant, it would be well to construct tables or
lists of the plants, specifying their respective times of flowering,
colours and heights. To diversify properly and mingle well together
the reds, whites, purples, yellows and blues, with all their intervening
shades, requires considerable taste and powers of combination;
and ascertained failures may be rectified at the proper time the next
season. The one great object aimed at should be to present an
agreeable contrast a floral picture; and, as at particular seasons a
monotony of tint prevails, it is useful at such times to be in possession
of some strong glaring colours. White, for instance, should be much
employed in July, to break the duller blues and purples which then
preponderate. Orange, too, is very effective at this season. On the
other hand, yellows are superabundant in autumn, and therefore reds
and blues should then be sought for. The flower-gardener should
have a small nursery, or reserve garden, for the propagation of the
finer plants, to be transferred into the borders as often as is required.
As a rule, all the fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants flourish in good
soil which has been fairly enriched wfth manure, that of a loamy
character being the most suitable. Many of them also grow satis-
factorily in a peaty soil if well worked, especially if they have a cool
moist subsoil. Pentstemons and phloxes, amongst others, succeed well
in soil of this character, but the surface must be well drained ; the former
are rather apt to perish in winter in loamy soil, if at all closeand heavy.
The herbaceous border should be a distinct compartment varying
from 6 to 10 ft. in width, and perhaps backed up by evergreens under
certain conditions. Such a border will take in about four lines of
plants, the tallest being placed in groups at the back and in the centre,
and the others graduated in height down to the front. In the front
row patches of the white arabis, the yellow alyssum, white, yellow,
blue, or purple violas, and the purple aubrietia, recurring at intervals
of S or 6 yards on a border of considerable length, carry the eye
forwards and give a balanced kind of finish to the whole. The same
might be done with dianthuses or the larger narcissi in the second
row, with paeonies, columbines and phloxes in the third, and with
delphiniums, aconitums and some of the taller yellow composites as
helianthus and rudbeckia at the back. Spring and autumn flowers,
as well as those blooming in summer, should be regularly distributed
throughout the border, which will then at no season be devoid of
interest in any part. Many of the little alpines may be brought into
768
HORTICULTURE
[FLOWERS
the front line planted between suitable pieces of stone, or they
may be relegated to a particular spot, and placed on an artificial
rockery. Most of the hardy bulbs will do well enough in the border,
care being taken not to disturb them while leafless and dormant.
Some deep-rooting perennials do not spread much at the surface,
and only require refreshing from time to time by top-dressings.
Others, as the asters, spread rapidly; those possessing this habit
should be taken up every second or third year, and, a nice patch being
selected for replanting from the outer portions, the rest may be either
thrown aside, or reserved for increase; the portion selected for
replanting should be returned to its place, the ground having mean-
while been well broken up. Some plants are apt to decay at the base,
frequently from exposure caused by the lifting process going on
during their growth; these should be taken up annually in early
autumn, the soil refreshed, and the plants returned to their places,
care being taken to plant them sufficiently deep.
Only a section of some of the best of the decorative hardy per-
ennials can be noted, before we pass on to those popular subjects of
this class which have been directly influenced by the hybridizer and
improver. Many more might be added to the subjoined list :
Acaena. Neat trailing plants adapted for rockwork, thriving in
sandy soil. A. microphylla and A. myriophylla have pretty spiny
heads of flowers.
Acantholimon. Pretty dwarf tufted plants, with needle-shaped
leaves, adapted for rockwork. A. glumaceum and A. venustum bear
bright pink flowers in July and August. Light sandy loam.
Acanthus. Bold handsome plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft.
high, of flowers with spiny bracts. A. mollis, A. latifolius, and A.
longifolius are broad-leaved sorts; A. spinosus and A. spinosissimus
have narrower spiny toothed leaves.
Achillea. Handsome composite plants, the stronger ones of easy
culture in common soil. A. Eupatorium and filipendula, 3 to 4 ft.,
have showy yellow corymbose flowers; A. rosea, 2 ft., rosy-crimson;
and A. Ptarmica flore-pleno, 2 ft., double white flowers. Others
suitable for front lines or rockwork are A. tomentosa, q in., bright
yellow; A. aegyptiaca, I ft., silvery leaves and yellow flowers;
A. umbellata, 8 in., silvery leaves and white flowers; and A. Claven-
ruu., 6 in., with silvery leaves and pure white flowers.
Aconitum. Handsome border plants, the tall stems crowned by
racemes of showy hooded flowers. A. Camarum, 3 to 4 ft., has deep
purple flowers in August; A. sinense, ij to 2 ft., has large dark
purple flowers in September; A. variegatum, 3 ft., has the flowers
white edged with blue; A. autumnale, 3 ft., has pale blue flowers;
A. Anthora, I to 2 ft., yellow; and A. japonicum, 2% ft., deep blue
flowers, produced in September and October. A. Wilsoni, a new
species from China, 6 ft high, with bluish-purple flowers.
Adenophora. Bell-shaped flowers. A. slylosa, 2 ft., pale blue,
elegant; A. denticulata, Ij ft., dark blue; and in A. liliifolia, l^ ft.,
pale blue, sweet-scented all blooming during summer. Light soil.
Adonis. A. vernalis, I ft., has large bright yellow stellate flowers
in April. Deep light soil. A. amurensis is a fine Chinese species.
Ajuga. Free growing, dwarf and showy. A. reptans, 8 in., has
creeping runners, which A. genevensis has not; both bear handsome
spikes of blue labiate flowers. Ordinary soil.
Allium. Hardy bulbs of the garlic family, some species of which
are ornamental; the inflorescence is umbellate. In A. azureum,
i to 2 ft., the flowers are deep-blue; in A. Moly, I ft., golden yellow;
in A. neapolitanum, ij ft., white, very handsome; in A. triquetrum,
8 in., white with green central stripes; in A. pedemontanum, 9 in.,
reddish- violet, very beautiful, the umbels nodding.
Alstroemeria. Beautiful plants with fleshy tuberous roots, which
are the better if not often disturbed. A. aurantiaca, 2 to 3 ft.,
orange streaked with red, in July and August; A. chilensis, 2 to 3 ft.,
blood-red, streaked with yellow, affording many varieties. Deep
sandy loam or peat. Should be planted at least 6 or 8 in. deep.
Althaea rosea. The hollyhock is a noble perennial, 6 to 15 ft.
high, with flowers of every colour except blue. Requires rich loamy
soil and plenty of space.
Alyssum. Showy rockwork or front row border plants of easy
culture in any light soil; the plants should be frequently renewed
from cuttings'. A. saxatile, with greyish leaves, and deep yellow
flowers, produced in April and May, and the dwarfer A. montanum
are useful.
Amaryllis. Noble half-hardy bulbs, for planting near the front
wall of a hothouse or greenhouse; the soil must be deep, rich and
well drained. A. Belladonna, the Belladonna Lily, 3 ft., has large
funnel-shaped flowers in September, of a delicate rose colour. The
variety A. blanda has paler flowers, almost white.
Anchusa. Pretty boraginaceous herbs, easily grown. A. italica,
3 to 4 ft., has blue star-like flowers. A. sempervirens, i$ ft., rich
blue, is well suited for rough borders.
Androsace. Pretty dwarf rock plants, requiring rather careful
management and a gritty soil. A. Vitaliana, yellow; A. Wulfeniana,
purplish-crimson; A. tillosa, white or pale rose; A. lactea, white
with yellow eye; A. lanuginosa, delicate rose; and A. Chamaejasme,
delicate rose, are some of the best.
Anemone. The Japanese kinds, A. japonica, flowers white and
purple, are very easily grown and are particularly fine in autumn.
The scarlet A. fulgens, and A. coronaria, the poppy anemone, are
useful for the front, or in nooks in the rockery; while the common
hepatica (A. hepalica) with its bright blue flowers should also have a
place.
Antennaria. Composite plants, with everlasting flowers. A.
margaritacea, ij to 2 ft., has white woolly stems and leaves, and
white flower-heads.
Anthericum. Charming border flowers. A. Liliastrum, St Bruno's
Lily, ij ft., bears pretty white sweet-scented flowers in May; A.
Hookeri (Chrysobactron), 2 ft., with long racemes of bright golden
yellow flowers, requires cool peaty soil.
Aquilegia. The Columbine family, consisting of beautiful border
flowers in great variety, ranging from I to 2 or 3 ft. in height. Besides
the common purple A. vulgaris with its numerous varieties, double
and single, there are of choice sorts A. alpina and A. pyrenaica, blue;
A. glandulosa, A. jucunda, and A. coerulea, blue and white; A.
leptoceras, blue and yellow; A. canadensis, A. Skinneri, and A.
iruncata (calif arnica), scarlet and yellow; A. chrysantha, yellow;
and A. fragrans, white or flesh-colour, very fragrant. Light rich
garden soil.
Arabis. Dwarf close-growing evergreen cruciferous plants,
adapted for rockwork and the front part of the flower border, and
of the easiest culture. A. albida forms a conspicuous mass of greyish
leaves and white blossoms. There is also a charming double variety.
A. lucida, which is also white-flowered, bears its bright green leaves
in rosettes, and has a variety with prettily gold-margined leaves.
Arenaria Evergreen rock plants of easy culture. A. graminifolia
and A. laricifolia are tufted, with grassy foliage and white flowers,
while A. balearica, a creeping rock plant, has tiny leaves and solitary
white flowers.
Armeria. The Thrift or Sea-Pink, of which the common form A.
maritima is sometimes planted as an edging for garden walks; there
are three varieties, the common pale pink, the deep rose, and the
white, the last two being the most desirable. A. cephalotes, ij ft.,
is a larger plant, with tufts of linear lance -shaped leaves, and
abundant globular heads of deep rose flowers, in June and July.
Asclepias. A. tuberosa is a handsome fleshy-rooted plant, very
impatient of being disturbed, and preferring good peat soil; it
grows I to i J ft. high, and bears corymbs of deep yellow and orange
flowers in September. A. incarnata, 2 to 4 ft., produces deep rose
sweet-scented flowers towards the end of summer.
Asperula odorata. The woodruff, a charming white-flowered
plant with leaves in circles. Well adapted for carpeting the border
or rockery.
Asphodelus. Handsome liliaceous plants, with fleshy roots, erect
stems, and showy flowers, thriving in any good garden soil. A.
albus, 4 ft., A. aestivus, 4 ft., and A. ramosus, 4 ft., have all long
tapering keeled leaves, and simple or branched spikes of white
flowers; A. luteus, 2 ft., has awl-shaped leaves and dense spikes
of fragrant yellow flowers; A. capillaris is similar to A. luteus, but
more slender and elegant.
Aster. A very large family of autumn-blooming composites, in-
cluding some ornamental species, all of the easiest culture. Of
these, A. alpinus, I ft., and A. Amellus, ij ft., with its yar. bessara-
bicus, have broadish blunt leaves, and large starry bluish flowers;
A. longifolius Jormosus, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; A. elegans, 3 to 5 ft.,
small pale purple or whitish; A. laxus, 2 ft., purplish-blue; A.
pendulus, 2j ft., white, changing to rose; A. pyrenaeus, 2 to 3 ft.,
lilac-blue; A. turbinellus, 2 to 3 ft., mauve-coloured, are showy
border plants; and A. Novae Angliae, 5 to 6 ft., rosy- violet; A.
cyaneus, 5 ft., blue-lilac; and A. grandiflorus, 3 ft., violet, are
especially useful from their late-flowering habit.
Astilbe. A. japonica, I to ij ft., better known as Hoteia japonica
or Spiraea japonica, thrives in peaty or sandy soil ; its glossy
tripinnate leaves, and feathery panicles of white flowers early in
summer, are very attractive. It proves to be a fine decorative pot-
plant, and invaluable for forcing during the spring.
Astragalus. Showy pea -flowered plants, the smaller species
adapted for rockwork; sandy soil. A. dasyglottis, 6 in., has bluish-
purple flowers in August and September; and A. monspessulanus,
8 in., crimson-purple in July; while A. hypoglottis, 6 in., produces
in summer compact heads of pretty flowers, which are either purple
or white. There are many very ornamental kinds.
Aubrietia. Beautiful dwarf spring-blooming rock plants, forming
carpety tufts of flowers of simple cruciferous form. A. delioidea is
of a deep lilac-blue; A. Campbelliae is more compact and rather
darker, approaching to purple; A. grandiflora and graeca are rather
larger, but of a lighter hue. Light sandy soil.
Bambusa. The bamboo family are elegant arborescent grasses
(see BAMBOO).
Baplisia. Stoutish erect-growing, 2 to 3 ft., with smooth foliage
and spikes of pea-like flowers. B. australis is purplish-blue,
B. alba, white, B. exaltata, deep blue; all flowering in the summer
months.
Bellis. B. perennis flore-pleno, the Double Daisy, consists of
dwarf showy plants 3 to 4 in. high, flowering freely in spring if grown
in rich light soil, and frequently divided and transplanted. The
white and pink forms, with the white and red quilled, and the vane-
gated-leaved aucubaefolia, are some of the best.
Bocconia. Stately poppyworts, 6 to 8 ft. B. cordata has heart-
shaped lobed leaves, and large panicles of small flesh-coloured
flowers. Sometimes called Macleaya. Deep sandy loam.
FLOWERS]
HORTICULTURE
769
Brodiaea. Pretty bulbous plants. B. grandiflora, I ft., has large
bluish-purple flowers; B. coccinea, 2 to 3 ft., has tubular campanulate
nodding flowers of a rich crimson with green tips. Sandy loam.
Bulbocodium. Pretty spring-flowering crocus-like bulbs. B.
vernum, 4 to 6 in. high, purplish-lilac, blooms in March. Good
garden soil.
Buphthalmum. Robust composite herbs with striking foliage, for
the back of herbaceous or shrubbery borders. B. cordifolium, 4 ft.,
has large cordate leaves, and heads of rich orange flowers in cymose
panicles in July. Also called Telekia speciosa.
Calandrinia. Showy dwarf plants for sunny rockwork, in light
sandy soil. C. umbeUata, 3 to 4 in., much branched, with narrow
hairy leaves, and corymbs of magenta-crimson flowers in the summer
months.
Calochortus. Beautiful bulbous plants, called mariposa lilies,
requiring warm sheltered spots in rich gritty and well-drained soil.
There are several species known, the best being albus, elegans,
luteus, Plummerae, splendens, Purdyi, venustus and Weedi.
Caltha. Showy marsh plants, adapted for the margins of lakes,
streamlets or artificial bogs. C. palustris flore-pleno, I ft., has double
brilliant yellow flowers in May.
Calystegia. Twining plants with running perennial roots. C.
pubescens flore-pleno, 8 to 10 ft., has showy double-pink convolvuloid
flowers in July; C. dahurica is a handsome single-flowered summer-
blooming kind, with rosy-coloured flowers.
Camassia esculenta. A beautiful bulbous plant 2 to 3 ft. high
with large pale blue flowers. Also a white variety.
Campanula. Beautiful, as well as varied in habit and character.
They are called bell-flowers. C. pulla, 6 in., purplish, nodding, on
slender erect stalks; C. turbinata, 9 in., purple, broad-belled;
C. carpatica, I ft., blue, broad-belled; C. nobilis, ij ft., long-belled,
whitish or tinted with chocolate; C. persicifolia, 2 ft., a fine border
plant, single or double, white or purple, blooming in July; and
C. pyramidalis, 6 ft., blue or white, in tall branching spikes, are
good and diverse. There are many other fine sorts.
Centaurea. Bold-habited composites of showy character; com-
mon soil. C. babylonica, 5 to 7 ft., has winged stems, silvery leaves,
and yellow flower-heads from June to September; C. montana,
3 ft., deep bright blue or white.
Centranthus, Showy free-flowering plants, for rockwork, banks,
or stony soil. C. ruber, 2 ft., branches and blooms freely all summer,
and varies with rosy, or crimson, or white flowers. It clothes the
chalk cuttings on some English railways with a sheet of colour in
the blooming season.
Cheiranthus. Pretty rock plants, for light stony soils. C. alpinus,
6 in., grows in dense tufts, and bears sulphur-yellow flowers in May.
C. ochroleucus is similar in character.
Chionodoxa. Charming dwarf hardy bulbous plants of the
liliaceous order, blooming in the early spring in company with Scilla
sibirica, and of equally easy cultivation. C. Luciliae, 6 in., has star-
shaped flowers of a brilliant blue with a white centre. C. gigantea
is the finest of the few known species. It blooms from February to
April.
Chrysanthemum. Apart from the florist's varieties of C. indicum
there are a few fine natural species. One of the best for the flower
border is C. maximum and its varieties all with beautiful white
flowers having yellow centres. C. latifolium is also a fine species.
Colchicum. Showy autumn-blooming bulbs (corms), with crocus-
like flowers, all rosy-purple or white. C. speciosum, C. autumnale,
single and double, C. byzantinum, and C. variegatum are all worth
growing.
Convallaria. C. majalis, the lily of the valley, a well-known
sweet-scented favourite spring flower, growing freely in rich garden
soil; its spikes, 6 to q in. high, of pretty white fragrant bells, are
produced in May and June. Requires shady places, and plenty of
old manure each autumn.
Coreopsis. Effective composite plants, thriving in good garden
soil. C. auriculata, 2 to 3 ft., has yellow and brown flowers in July
and August; C. lanceolata, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow, in August;
next to the biennial C. grandiflora it is the best garden plant.
Corydalis. Interesting and elegant plants, mostly tuberous,
growing in good garden soil. C. bracteata, 9 in., has sulphur-coloured
flowers in April, and C. nobilis, I ft., rich yellow, in May; C. solida,
with purplish, and C. tuberosa, with white flowers, are pretty spring-
flowering plants, 4 to 6 in. high. C. thalictrifolia, I ft., yellow, May
to October.
Cyclamen. Charming tuberous-rooted plants of dwarf habit,
suitable for sheltered rockeries, and growing in light gritty soil.
C. europaeum, reddish-purple, flowers in summer, and C. hederae-
folium in autumn.
Cypripedium. Beautiful terrestrial orchids, requiring to be
planted in peat soil, in a cool and rather shady situation. C. specta-
bile, 1$ to 2 ft., white and rose colour, in June, is a lovely species,
as is C. Calceolus, I ft., yellow and brown, in May; all are full of
interest and beauty.
Delphinium. The Larkspur family, tall showy plants, with spikes
of blue flowers in July. Distinct sorts are D. grandiflorum and D.
grandiflorum flore-pleno, 2 to 3 ft., of the richest dazzling blue,
flowering on till September; D. chinense, 2 ft., blue, and its double-
flowered variety, are good, as is D. Barlowi, 3 ft., a brilliant double
xiu. 25
blue-purple. D. nudicaule, 2 ft., orange-scarlet, very showy, is best
treated as a biennial, its brilliant flowers being produced freely
in the second year from the seed.
Dianthus. Chiefly rock plants with handsome and fragrant
flowers, the smaller sorts growing in light sandy soil, and the larger
border plants in rich garden earth. Of the dwarfer sorts for rock
gardens, D. alpinus; D. caesius, D. deltoides, D. dentosus, D. neglectus,
D. petraeus, and D. glacialis are good examples; while for borders
or larger rockwork D. plumarius, D. superbus, D. Fischeri, D.
cruentus, and the clove section of D. Caryophyllus are most desirable.
Dicentra.Very elegant plants, of easy growth in good soil.
D. spectabilis, 2 to 3 ft., has paeony-like foliage, and gracefully
drooping spikes of heart-shaped pink flowers, about May, but it
should have a sheltered place, as it suffers from spring frosts and
winds; D. formosa and D. eximia, I ft., are also pretty rosy-flowered
species.
Dictamnus. D. Fraxinella is a very characteristic and attractive
plant, 2 to 3 ft., with bold pinnate leaves, and tall racemes of irre-
gular-shaped purple or white flowers. It is everywhere glandular,
and strongly scented.
Digitalis. Stately erect-growing plants, with long racemes of
pouch-shaped drooping flowers. The native D. purpurea, or fox-
glove, 3 to 5 ft., with its dense racemes of purple flowers, spotted
inside, is very showy, but is surpassed by the garden varieties that
have been raised. It is really a biennial, but grows itself so freely
as to become perennial in the garden. An erect flowered form is
called gloxinioides. The yellow-flowered D. lutea and D. grandiflora
are less showy. Good garden soil, and frequent renewal from seeds.
Doronifum. Showy composites of free growth in ordinary soil.
D. caucasicum and D. austriacum, I to i ft., both yellow-flowered,
bloom in spring and early summer. D. plantagineum excelsum,
3 to 5 ft. high, is the best garden plant.
Draba. Good rockwork cruciferous plants. D. alpina, D. aizoides,
D. ciliaris, D. Aizoon, and D. cuspidata bear yellow flowers in early
spring; D. cinerea and D. ciliata have white flowers. Gritty well-
drained soil.
Dracocephalum. Handsome labiate plants, requiring a warm
and well-drained soil. D. argunense, ij ft., D. austriacum, I ft.,
D. grandiflorum, I ft., and D. Ruyschianum, ij ft., with its var.
japonicum, all produce showy blue flowers during the summer
months.
Echinacea. Stout growing showy composites for late summer and
autumn flowering, requiring rich deep soil, and not to be often dis-
turbed. E. angustifolia, 3 to 4 ft., light purplish-rose, and E. inter-
media, 3 to 4 ft., reddish-purple, are desirable kinds. E. purpurea
(often called Rudbeckia) is the showiest species. Height 3 to 4 ft.,
with rosy-purple flowers.
Eomecon chionanthus. A lovely poppywort about I ft. high,
with pure white flowers 2 to 3 in. across. Root-stocks thick, creeping.
Epimedium. Pretty plants, growing about I ft. high, with
elegant foliage, and curious flowers. E. macranthum, white flowers,
and E. rubrum, red, are distinctly spurred; E. pinnatum and E.
Perralderianum, yellow, less so. They bloom in spring, and prefer
a shady situation and a peaty soil.
Eranthis hyemalis. A charming tuberous rooted plant, called
winter aconite. Flowers bright yellow, January to March, close to
the ground.
Eremurus. Noble plants with thick rootstocks, large sword-like
leaves, and spikes of flowers from 3 to 10 ft. high. They require
warm sunny spots and rich gritty soil. The best kinds are robustus,
pink, 6 to 10 ft.; himalaicus, 4 to 8 ft., white; Aitchisoni, 3 to 5 ft.,
red; Bungei, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; and aurantiacus, 2 to 3 ft., orange-
yellow. There are now several hybrid forms.
Erigeron. Composite plants, variable in character. E. purpureus,
ij ft., with pink flower-heads, having narrow twisted ray-florets;
E. Roylei, I ft., dark blue; and E. pulchellus, I ft., rich orange,
flowering during the summer, are among the best kinds. Good
ordinary garden soil.
Erinus. E. alpinus is a beautiful little alpine for rockwork,
3 to 6 in., of tufted habit, with small-toothed leaves, and heads of
pinkish-purple or, in a variety, white flowers, early in summer.
Sandy well-drained soil.
Erodium. Handsome dwarf tufted plants. E. Manescavi, I to
ij ft., has large purplish-red flowers in summer; E. Reichardi, a
minute stemless plant, has small heart-shaped leaves in rosette-like
tufts, and white flowers striped with pink, produced successively.
Light soil.
Eryngium. Very remarkable plants of the umbelliferous order,
mostly of an attractive character. E. amethystinum, 2 ft., has the
upper part of the stem, the bracts, and heads of flowers all of an
amethystine blue. Some of more recent introduction have the
aspect of the pine-apple, such as E. bromeliaefolium, E. pandanifolium,
and E, eburneum. Deep light soil.
Erythronium. E. dens-canis, the Dog's Tooth Violet, is a pretty
dwarf bulbous plant with spotted leaves, and rosy or white flowers
produced in spring, and having reflexed petals. Mixed peaty and .
loamy soil, deep and cool. Several charming American species are
now in cultivation.
Euphorbia. Plants whose beauty resides in the bracts or floral
leaves which surround the inconspicuous flowers. E. aleppica, 2 ft.,
770
HORTICULTURE
[FLOWERS
and E. Ckaracias, 2 to 3 ft., with green bracts, are fine plants for
rockwork or sheltered corners.
Ferula. Gigantic umbelliferous plants, with magnificent foliage,
adapted for shrubbery borders or open spots on lawns. They have
thick fleshy roots, deeply penetrating, and therefore requiring deep
soil, which should be of a light or sandy character. F. communis,
P. glauca, and F. tingitana, the last with glossy lozenge-shaped
leaflets, grow 8 to 10 ft. high; F. Ferulago, with more finely cut
leaves, grows 5 to 6 ft. high. They flower in early spring, and all
have a fine appearance when in bloom, on account of their large
showy umbels of yellow flowers.
Fritillaria. A large genus of liliaceous bulbs, the best known of
which is the crown imperial (F. imperialis) and the snake's head
(F. Meleagris). There are many charming species grown, such as
aurea, pudica, recurva, sewerzowi, askabadensis, &c.
Funkia. Pretty liliaceous plants, with simple conspicuously
longitudinal-ribbed leaves, the racemose flowers funnel-shaped and
deflexed. F. Sieboldiana, I ft., has lilac flowers; F. grandifiora,
18 in., is white and fragrant; F. coerulea, 18 in., is violet-blue; F.
albo-marginata, 15 in., has the leaves edged with white, and the flowers
lilac. Rich garden soil.
Gaillardia. Showy composite plants, thriving in good garden soil.
G. aristata, 2 ft., has large yellow flower-heads, 2 or 3 in. across, in
summer; G. Baeselari and G. Loiselii have the lower part of the ray-
florets red, the upper part yellow.
Galanthus. The Snowdrop. Early spring-flowering amaryllidace-
ous bulbs, with pretty drooping flowers, snow-white, having the tips
of the enclosed petals green. The common sort is G. nivalis, which
blossoms on the first break of the winter frosts; G. Imperoti, G.
Elwesi and G. plicatus have larger flowers.
Galax aphylla. A neat little rock plant, 6 to 8 in. high, with
pretty round leaves and white flowers. Requires moist peaty soil.
Galega officinalis. A strong-growing leguminous plant, 2 to 5 ft.
high, with pinnate leaves, and masses of pinkish purple pea-like
flowers. Also a white variety. Grows anywhere.
Galtpnia candicans. A fine bulbous plant, 3 to 4 ft. high, with
drooping white flowers.
Gaura. G. Lindheimeri, 3 to 5 ft., is much branched, with elegant
white and red flowers of the onagraceous type, in long slender
ramose spikes during the late summer and autumn months. Light
garden soil ; not long-lived.
Gentiana. Beautiful tufted erect-stemmed plants preferring a
strong rich loamy soil. G. acaulis, known as the Gentianella, forms
a close carpet of shining leaves, and in summer bears large erect
tubular deep blue flowers. G. Andrewsii, I ft., has, during summer,
large deep blue flowers in clusters, the corollas closed at the mouth ;
G. asclepiadea, 18 in., purplish-blue, flowers in July.
Geranium. Showy border flowers, mostly growing to a height
of 1 1 or 2 ft., having deeply cut leaves, and abundant saucer-
shaped blossoms of considerable, size. G. ibericum, platypetalum,
armenum and Endressi are desirable purple- and rose-flowered sorts ;
G. sanguineum, a tufted grower, has the flowers a deep rose colour;
and the double-flowered white and blue forms of G. pratense and
G. sylvaticum make pretty summer flowers. Good garden soil.
Gerbera. A South African genus of composites requiring very
warm sunny spots and rich gritty soil. G. Jamesoni, with large
scarlet marguerite-like flowers, and G. viridiflora, with white flowers
tinged with lilac, are best known. Numerous hybrids have been
raised, varying in colour from creamy white to salmon, pink, yellow,
red and orange.
Geum. Pretty rosaceous plants. The single and double flowered
forms of G. chiloense and its varieties grandiflorum and miniatum,
2 ft., with brilliant scarlet flowers; G. coccineum, 6 to 12 in., scarlet,
and G. montana, 9 in., yellow, are among the best sorts. Good
garden soil.
Gillenia trifoliaia. A pretty rosaceous plant about 2 ft. high.
Flowers white in graceful panicles; flourishes in a mixture of sandy
peat and loam.
Gunnera. Remarkable rhubarb-like plants with huge lobed
leaves, often 6 ft. across. They should be grown near water as they
like much moisture, and a good loamy soil. G. manicala and G.
scabra are the two kinds grown.
Gynerium. The Pampas-Grass, a noble species, introduced from
Buenos Aires; it forms huge tussocks, 4 or 5 ft. high, above which
towards autumn rise the bold dense silvery plumes of the inflorescence.
It does best in sheltered nooks.
Gypsophila. Interesting caryophyllaceous plants, thriving in
dryish situations. G. paniculata, 2 ft., from Siberia, forms a dense
semi-globular mass of small white flowers from July onwards till
autumn, and is very useful for cutting.
Haberlea rhodopensis. A pretty rock plant with dense tufts of
leaves and bluish-lilac flowers. It likes fibrous peat in fissures of the
rocks.
Helenium. Showy composites of free growth in lightish soil.
H. autumnale, 4 ft., bears a profusion of yellow-rayed flower-heads
in August and September.
Helianthemum. Dwarf subshrubby plants well suited for rockwork,
and called Sun-Roses from their blossoms resembling small wild
roses and their thriving best in sunny spots. Some of the hand-
somest are H. roseum, mutabile, cupreum and rhodanthum, with red
flowers; H. vulgare flore-pleno, grandiflorum and stramineum, with
yellow flowers; and H. macranthum and papyraceum, with the
flowers white.
Helianthus. The Sunflower genus, of which there are several
ornamental kinds. H. multiflorus, 4 ft., and its double-flowered
varieties, bear showy golden yellow flower-heads in profusion, and
are well adapted for shrubbery borders; H. orgyalis, 8 ft., has droop-
ing willow-like leaves. Many other showy species.
Helichrysum. Composite plants, with the flower-heads of the
scarious character known as Everlastings. H. arenarium, 6 to 8 in.,
is a pretty species, of dwarf spreading habit, with woolly leaves and
corymbs of golden yellow flowers, about July.
Hetteborus. Charming very early blooming dwarf ranunculaceous
herbs. H. niger or Christmas Rose, the finest variety of which is
caljed maximus, has white showy saucer-shaped flowers; H. orien-
talis, I ft., rose-coloured; H. atrorubens, I ft., purplish-red; and
H. colchicus, I ft., deep purple. Deep rich loam.
Hemerocallis. The name of the day lilies of which H. fulva,
H. disticha, H. flava, H. Dumortieri and H. aurantiaca major are the
most showy, all with yellow or orange flowers. They flourish in
any garden soil.
Hepatica. Charming little tufted plants requiring good loamy
soil, and sometimes included with Anemone. H. triloba, 4 in., has
three-lobed leaves, and a profusion of small white, blue, or pink
single or double flowers, from February onwards; H. angulosa,
from Transylvania, 6 to 8 in., is a larger plant, with sky-blue flowers.
Hesperis. H. matronalis, I to 2 ft., is the old garden Rocket, of
which some double forms with white and purplish blossoms are
amongst the choicest of border flowers. They require a rich loamy
soil, not too dry, and should be divided and transplanted into fresh
soil annually or every second year, in the early autumn season.
Heuchera. H. sanguinea and its varieties are charming and
brilliant border plants with scarlet flowers in long racemes. Rich
and well-drained soil.
Hibiscus. Showy malvaceous plants. H. Moscheutos, rose-
coloured, and H. palustris, purple, both North American herbs,
3 to 5 ft. high, are suitable for moist borders or for boggy places
near the margin of lakes.
Iberis. The Candytuft, of which several dwarf spreading sub-
shrubby species are amongst the best of rock plants, clothing the
surface with tufts of green shoots, and flowering in masses during
May and June. The best are /. saxatilis, 6 to 10 in. ; /. sempervirens ,
12 to 15 in.; and /. Pruitii (variously called coriacea, carnosa,
correaefolia) , 12 in.
Incarvillea. I. Delavayi is the best species for the open air. It
grows 2 ft. high and has large tubular rosy carmine blossoms. It
likes rich sandy loam and sunny spots.
Lathyrus. Handsome climbing herbs, increased by seeds or
division. L. grandiflorus, 3 ft., has large rose-coloured flowers with
purplish-crimson wings, in June; L. latifolius, the everlasting pea,
6 ft., has bright rosy flowers in the late summer and autumn; the
vars. albus, white, and superbus, deep rose, are distinct. Ordinary
garden soil.
Lavatera. L. thuringiaca, 4 ft., is a fine erect-growing malvaceous
plant, producing rosy-pink blossoms freely, about August and
September. Good garden soil.
Leucojum. Snowflake. Pretty early-blooming bulbs, quite hardy.
L. vernum, 6 in., blooms shortly after the snowdrop, and should
have a light rich soil and sheltered position; L. carpaticum, flowers
about a month later; L. pulchellum, ij ft., blooms in April and
May; and L. aestivum, 2 ft., in May. All have white pendant
flowers, tipped with green.
Liatris. Pretty composites with the flower-heads collected into
spikes. L. pumila, I ft., L. squarrosa, 2 to 3 ft., L. spicata, 3 to 4 ft.,
L. pycnostachya, 3 to 4 ft., all have rosy-purplish flowers. Deep,
cool, and moist soil.
Lilium.See LILY.
Linaria. Toadflax. Pretty scrophulariads, of which L. alpina,
3 to 6 in., with bluish-violet flowers having a brilliant orange spot,
is suitable for rockwork; L. dalmatica, 4 ft., and L. genistifolia, 3 ft.,
both yellow-flowered, are good border plants; L. vulgaris, the
common British toad-flax, and its regular peloriate form, are very
handsome and free flowering during the summer months.
Linum. Flax. L. alpinum, 6 in., large, dark blue; L. narbon-
nense, ij ft., large, blue; L. perenne, ij ft., cobalt blue; and L.
arboreum (flavum), I ft., yellow, are all pretty. The last is liable
to suffer from damp during winter, and some spare plants should be
wintered in a frame. It is really shrubby in character.
Lithospermum. L. prostratum, 3 in., is a trailing evergreen herb,
with narrow hairy leaves, and paniculate brilliant blue flowers in
May and June. Well adapted for rockwork or banks of sandy soil.
Lupinus. Showy erect-growing plants with papilionaceous
flowers, thriving in good deep garden soil. L. polyphyllus, 3 ft.,
forms noble tufts of palmate leaves, and long spikes of bluish-
purple or white flowers in June and July; L. arboreus is subshrubby,
and has yellow flowers.
Lychnis. Brilliant erect-growing caryophyllaceous plants, thriv-
ing best in beds of peat earth or of deep sandy loam. L. chalcedonica,
3 ft., has dense heads of bright scarlet flowers, both single and
double, in June and July; L. fulgens, I ft., vermilion;!,. Haageana,
FLOWERS]
HORTICULTURE
771
ii ft., scarlet; and L. grandiflora, i to 2 ft., with clusters of scarlet,
crimson, pink and white flowers. All large-flowered and showy,
but require a little protection in winter.
Lysimachia. The best known is the Creeping Jenny, L. Num-
mularid, much used for trailing over rockeries ana window boxes,
with bright yellow flowers. The variety aurea with golden leaves
is also popular. Other species that grow from 2 to 3 ft. high, and
are good border plants, are L. clethroides, with white spikes of
flowers; L. vulgaris, L. thyrsiflora, L. ciliata, L. verticillata and
L. punctata, all yellow.
Malva. M. moschata, 2 ft., with a profusion of pale pink or white
flowers, and musky deeply cut leaves, though a British plant, is
worth introducing to the flower borders when the soil is light and
free.
Meconopsis. The Welsh poppy, M. cambrica, I to 2 ft. high,
yellow, and M. Wallichi, from, the Himalayas, 4 to 6 ft. high with
pale blue flowers, are the best known perennials of the genus. The
last-named, however, is best raised from seeds every year, and treated
like the biennial kinds.
Mertensia. M. virginica, I to ij ft., azure blue, shows flowers in
drooping panicles in May and June. It does best in shady peat
borders.
Mimulus. Monkey-flower. Free-blooming, showy scrophulari-
aceous plants, thriving best in moist situations. M. cardinalis,
2 to 3 ft., has scarlet flowers, with the limb segments reflexed; M.
luteus and its many garden forms, I to i| ft., are variously coloured
and often richly spotted; and M. cupreus, 8 to 10 in., is bright
coppery-red. M. moschatus is the Musk-plant, of which the variety
Harrisoni is a greatly improved form, with much larger yellow
flowers.
Monarda. Handsome labiate plants, flowering towards autumn,
and preferring a cool soil and partially shaded situation. M. didyma,
2 ft., scarlet or white; M. fistulosa, 3 ft., purple; and M, purpurea,
2 ft., deep purple, are good border flowers.
Muscari. Pretty dwarf spring-flowering bulbs. M. botryoides
(Grape Hyacinth), 6 in., blue or white, is the handsomest; M.
moschatum (Musk Hyacinth), 10 in., has peculiar livid greenish-
yellow flowers and a strong musky odour; M. monstrosum jJFeather
Hyacinth) bears sterile flowers broken up into a feather-like mass.
Good garden soil.
Myosotidium nobile. A remarkable plant, ij to 2 ft. high, with
large blue forget-me-not-like flowers. Requires gritty peat soil and
cool situations, but must be protected from frost in winter.
Myosotis. Forget-me-not. Lovely boraginaceous plants. M.
dissitiflora, 6 to 8 in., with large, handsome and abundant sky-blue
flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards;
it does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be
renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. M. rupicola, 2 to 3 in.,
intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and
gritty soil; M. sylvatica, I ft., blue, pink or white, used for spring
bedding, should be sown annually in August.
Narcissus. See NARCISSUS.
Nepeta. N. Mussinii, I ft., is a compactly spreading greyish-
leaved labiate, with lavender-blue flowers, and is sometimes used for
bedding or for marginal lines in large compound beds.
Nierembergia. N. rivularis, 4 in., from La Plata, has slender,
creeping, rooting stems, bearing stalked ovate leaves, and large
funnel-shaped white flowers, with a remarkably long slender tube;
especially adapted for rockwork, requiring moist sandy loam.
Nymphaea. See WATER-LILY.
Oenothera. The genus of the Evening Primrose, consisting of
showy species, all of which grow and blossom freely in rich deep
soils. Oe. missouriensis (macrocarpa), 6 to 12 in., has stout trailing
branches, lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms; Oe.
taraxacifolia, 6 to 12 in., has a stout crown from which the trailing
branches spring out, and these bear very large white flowers, changing
to delicate rose; this perishes in cold soils, and should therefore be
raised from seed annually. Of erect habit are Oe. speciosa, I to 2 ft.,
with large white flowers; Oe. fruticosa, 2 to 3 ft., with abundant
yellow flowers; and Oe. serotina, 2 ft., also bright yellow.
Omphalodes. Elegant dwarf boraginaceous plants. O. verna,
4 to 6 in., a creeping, shade-loving plant, has bright blue flowers
in the very early spring; O. Lueiliae, 6 in., has much larger lilac-blue
flowers, and is an exquisite rock plant for warm, sheltered spots.
Light sandy soil.
Onosma. O. taurica, 6 to 8 in., is a charming boraginaceous plant
from the Caucasus, producing hispid leaves and cymose heads of
drooping, tubular, yellow flowers. It is of evergreen habit, and
requires a warm position on the rockwork and well-drained sandy
soil ; or a duplicate should be sheltered during winter in a cold, dry
frame.
Ornithogalum. The Star of Bethlehem. O. arabicum can only
be grown in the warmest parts of the kingdom, and then requires
protection in winter. Other species, all bulbous, are O. riutans,
O. pyramidale, O. pyrenaicum, and the common Star of Bethlehem,
O. umbellatum; all are easily grown, and have white flowers.
Ostrowskya magnified. A magnificent bellflower from Bokhara,
4 to 5 ft. high, and white flowers tinted and veined with lilac, 3 to
5 in. across. Requires rich, gritty loam of good depth, as it produces
tuberous roots I to 2 ft. long.
Ourisia. Handsome scrophulariaceous plants, from Chile, thriving
in moist, well-drained peaty soil, and in moderate shade. O. coccinea,
I ft., has erect racemes of pendent crimson flowers.
Papaver. The Poppy. Very showy plants, often of strong growth,
and of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. P. orientate, 3 ft., has
crimson-scarlet flowers, 6 in. across, and the variety bracteatum
closely resembles it, but has leafy bracts just beneath the blossom.
P. alpinum, 6 in., white with yellow centre; P. nudicaule, I ft.,
yellow, scented, and P. pilosum, I to 2 ft., deep orange, are orna-
mental smaller kinds.
Pentstemon. -The popular garden varieties have sprung from P.
Hartwegii and P. Cobaea. Other distinct kinds are P. campanulatus,
ii ft., pale rose, of bushy habit; P. humilis, 9 in., bright blue;
P. speciosus, cyananthus and Jaffrayanus, 2 to 3 ft., all bright blue;
P. barbatus, 3 to 4 ft., scarlet, in long terminal panicles; P. Murray-
anus, 6 ft., with scarlet flowers and connate leaves; and P. Palmeri,
3 to 4 ft., with large, wide-tubed, rose-coloured flowers.
Petasites. P. fragrans, the Winter Heliotrope, though of weedy
habit, with ample cordate coltsfoot-like leaves, yields in January
and February its abundant spikes, about I ft. high, of greyish
flowers scented like heliotrope; it should have a corner to itself.
Phlomis. Bold and showy labiates, growing in ordinary soil.
P. Russelliana (lunariaefolia), 4 ft., yellow, and P. tuberosa, 3 ft.,
purplish-rose, both with downy hoary leaves, come in well in broad
flower borders.
Phygelius. P. capensis from South Africa is hardy south of the
Thames and in favoured localities. Flowers tubular scarlet, on
branching stems, 2 to 3 ft. high. Requires light, rich soil.
Physalis. P. Alkekengi from South Europe has long been known
in gardens for its bright orange-red globular calyxes. It has been
surpassed by the much larger and finer P. Francheti from Japan;
the brilliant calyxes are often 3 in. in diameter in autumn. Grows
in any garden soil.
Physostegia. Tall, autumn-blooming labiates, of easy growth in
ordinary garden soils. P. imbricata, 5 to 6 ft., has pale purple
flowers in closely imbricated spikes.
Phytolacca. Ornamental strong-growing perennials requiring
much space. P. acinosa, from the Himalayas, 3 to 4 ft., with
whitish flowers in erect spikes. P. decandra, the North American
Poke Weed or Red Ink plant, grows 5 to 10 ft. high, has fleshy
poisonous roots, erect purple stems and white flowers. P. icosandra,
from Mexico, 2 to 3 ft., pinky white. The foliage in all cases is
handsome. Ordinary garden soil.
Platycodon.P. grandiflorum, 6 to 24 in. high, is a fine Chinese
perennial with flattish, bell-shaped flowers, 2 to 3 in. across, and
purple in colour. The variety Mariesi (or pumilum) is dwarf, with
larger, deeper-coloured flowers. Requires rich sandy loam.
Podophyllum. Ornamental herbs with large lobed leaves. P.
Emodi, 6 to 12 in. high, from the Himalayas, has large white or pale-
rose flowers, and in autumn bright red, hen's-egg-like fruits. P.
peltatum, the North American mandrake, has large umbrella-like
leaves and white flowers; P. pleianthum, from China, purple. They
all require moist, peaty soil in warm, sheltered nooks.
Polemonium. Pretty border flowers. P. coeruleum (Jacob's
Ladder), 2 ft., has elegant pinnate leaves, and long panicles of blue
rotate flowers. The variety called variegatum has very elegantly
marked leaves, and is sometimes used as a margin or otherwise in
bedding arrangements. Good garden soil.
Polygonatum. Elegant liliaceous plants, with rhizomatous stems.
P. multiflorum (Solomon's Seal), 2 to 3 ft., with arching stems, and
drooping white flowers from the leaf axils, is a handsome border
plant, doing especially well in partial shade amongst shrubs, and
also well adapted for pot culture for early forcing. Good garden
soil.
Polygonum. A large family, varying much in character, often
weedy, but of easy culture in ordinary soil. P. vacciniifolium, 6 to
10 in., is a pretty prostrate subshrubby species, with handsome
rose-pink flowers, suitable for rockwork, and prefers boggy soil;
P. affine (Brunonis), I ft., deep rose, is a showy border plant, flowering
in the late summer; P. cuspidatum, 8 to 10 ft., is a grand object for
planting where a screen is desired, as it suckers abundantly, and its
tall spotted stems and handsome cordate leaves have quite a noble
appearance. Other fine species are P. baldschuanium, a climber,
P. sphaerostachyum, P. lanigerum, P. polystachyum and P. sachali-
nense, all bold and handsome.
Potentilla. The double varieties are fine garden plants obtained
from P. argyrophylla atrosanguinea and P. nepalensis. The colours
include golden-yellow, red, orange-yellow, crimson, maroon and
intermediate shades. They all flourish in rich sandy soil.
Primula. Beautiful and popular spring flowers, of which many
forms are highly esteemed in most gardens. P. vulgaris, 6 in.,
affords numerous handsome single- and double-flowered varieties,
with various-coloured flowers for the spring flower-beds and
borders. Besides this, P. Sieboldii (cortusoides amoena), i ft.,
originally deep rose with white eye, but now including many varieties
of colour, such as white, pink, lilac and purple; P. japonica, I to
2 ft., crimson-rose; P. denticulata, I ft., bright bluish-lilac, with
its allies P. erosa and P. purpurea, all best grown in a cold frame;
P. viscosa, 6 in., purple, and its white variety nivalis, with P. pede-
montana and P. spectabilis, 6 in., both purple; and the charming
772
HORTICULTURE
[FLOWERS
little Indian P. rosea, 3 to 6 in., bright cherry-rose colour, are but a
few of the many beautiful kinds in cultivation.
Pulmonaria. Handsome dwarf, boraginaceous plants, requiring
good deep garden soil. P. officinalis, I ft., has prettily mottled leaves
and blue flowers; P. sibirica is similar in character, but has broader
leaves more distinctly mottled with white.
Pyrethrum. Composite plants of various character, but of easy
culture. P. Parthenium eximium, 2 ft., is a handsome double white
form of ornamental character for the mixed border; P. uliginosum,
5 to 6 ft., has fine large, white, radiate flowers in October; P.
Tchihatchewii, a close-growing, dense evergreen, creeping species,
with long-stalked, white flower-heads, is adapted for covering slopes
in lieu of turf, and for rockwork.
Ramondia. R. pyrenaica, 3 to 6 in., is a pretty dwarf plant,
requiring a warm position on the rockwork and a moist, peaty soil
more or less gritty; it has rosettes of ovate spreading root-leaves,
and large purple, yellow-centred, rotate flowers, solitary, or two to
three together, on naked stalks.
Ranunculus. The florists' ranunculus is a cultivated form of
R. asiaticus (see RANUNCULUS). R. amplexicaulis, i ft., white;
R. aconitifolius , I to 2 ft., white, with its double variety R. aconiti-
folius flore-pleno (Fair Maids of France) ; and R. acns flore-pleno
(Bachelor's Buttons), 2 ft., golden yellow, are pretty. Of dwarfer
interesting plants there are R. alpestris, 4 in., white; .R. gramineus,
6 to 10 in., yellow; R. parnassifolius, 6 in., white; and R. rutae-
folius, 4 to 6 in., white with orange centre.
Rodgersia. Handsome herbs of the saxifrage family. R. podo-
phyllo, with large bronzy-green leaves cut into 5 large lobes, and
tall branching spikes 3 to 4 ft. high the whole plant resembling one
of the large meadow sweets. R. aesculifplia, yellowish-white; R.
Henrici, deep purple; R. pinnata, fleshy pink; and R. sambucifolia,
white, are recently introduced species from China. They require
rich sandy peat and warm sheltered spots.
Romneya. R. Coulteri, a fine Californian plant, with large white
flowers on shoots often as high as 7 ft.; R. trichocalyx is similar.
Both require very warm, sunny spots and rich, sandy soil, and
should not be disturbed often.
Rudbeckia. Bold-habited composite plants, well suited for
shrubbery borders, and thriving in light loamy soil. The flower-
heads have a dark-coloured elevated disk. R. Drummondii, 2 to
3 ft., with the ray-florets reflexed, yellow at the tip and purplish-
brown towards the base; R.'fulgida, 2 ft. golden-yellow with dark
chocolate disk, the flower-heads 2 to 3 in. across; and R. speciosa,
2 to 3 ft., orange-yellow with blackish-purple disk, the flower-heads
3 to 4 in. across, are showy plants.
Sagittaria. Graceful water or marsh plants with hastate leaves,
and tuberous, running and fibrous roots. 5. japonica plena; S.
lancifolia, S. macrophylla and 5. sagittifolia, are among the best
kinds, all with white flowers.
Salvia. The Sage, a large genus of labiates, often very handsome,
but sometimes too tender for English winters. 5. Sclarea, 5 to 6 ft.,
is a very striking plant little more than a biennial, with branched
panicles of bluish flowers issuing from rosy-coloured bracts; 5.
patens, 2 ft., which is intense azure, has tuberous roots, and may be
taken up, stored away and replanted in spring like a dahlia. 5.
pratensis, 2 ft., blue, a showy native species, is quite hardy; the
variety lupinoides has the centre of the lower lip white.
Saxifraga. A very large genus of rock and border plants of easy
culture. The Megasea group, to which S. ligulata, S. cordifolia and
S. crassifolia belong, are early-flowering kinds of great beauty,
with fleshy leaves and large cymose clusters of flowers of various
shades of rose, red and purple. Another very distinct group with
silvery foliage the crustaceous group contains some of our
choicest Alpines. Of these 5. caesia, S. calyciflora, S. Cotyledon are
among the best known. Some of the species look more like lichens
than flowering plants. The green moss-like saxifrages are also a
very distinct group, with dense tufted leaves which appear greener
in winter than in summer. The flowers are borne on erect branching
stems and are chiefly white in colour. Saxifraga umbrosa (London
Pride) and S. Geum belong to still another group, and are valuable
alike on border and rockery. 5. peltata is unique owing to its large
peltate leaves, often I ft. to 18 in. across, with stalks I to 2 ft. long.
Flowers in April, white or pinkish. Likes plenty of water and a
moist peaty soil or marshy place. 5. sarmentosa, the well-known
" mother of thousands," is often grown as a pot plant in cottagers'
windows.
Scilla. Beautiful dwarf bulbous plants, 'thriving in well-worked
sandy loam, or sandy peat. S. bifolia, 3 in., and 5. sibirica, 4 in.,
both intense blue, are among the most charming of early spring
flowers; 5. patula, 6 to 8 in., and 5. campanulata, I ft., with
tubular greyish-blue flowers, freely produced, are fine border plants,
as is the later-blooming S. peruviana, 6 to 8 in., dark blue or white.
Sedum. Pretty succulent plants of easy growth, and mostly
suitable for rockwork. They are numerous, varied in the colour of
both leaves and foliage, and mostly of compact tufted growth.
S. spectabile, I to l ft., pink, in great cymose heads, is a fine plant
for the borders, and worthy also of pot-culture for greenhouse
decoration. Mention may also be made of the common 5. acre
(Stonecrop), 3 in., yellow, and its variety with yellow-tipped leaves.
Sempervivum. House-Leek. Neat-growing, succulent plants,
forming rosettes of fleshy leaves close to the ground, and rapidly
increasing by runner-like offsets; they are well adapted for rock-
work, and do best in sandy soil. The flowers are stellate, cymose,
on stems rising from the heart of the leafy rosettes. 5. arachnoideum,
purplish, 5. arenarium, yellow, 5. glofaferum and 5. Laggeri, rose,
grow when in flower 3 to 6 in. high; 5. calcareum, rose colour, and
S. Boutignianum, pale rose, both have glaucous leaves tipped with
purple; 5. Heuffelii, yellow, with deep chocolate leaves, and 5.
Wulfeni, sulphur-yellow, are from 8 to 12 in. high.
Senecio. A large genus with comparatively few good garden
plants. Large and coarse-growing kinds like S. Doria, S. macro-
phyllus and 5. sarracenicus are good for rough places; all yellow-
flowered. 5. pulcher is a charming plant, 2 to 3 ft. high, with rosy-
purple flower-heads, having a bright orange centre. It likes a warm
corner and moist soil. 5. clivorum, from China, has large roundish
leaves and orange-yellow flowers. It flourishes near water and in
damp places.
Shortia. S. galacifolia, a beautiful tufted plant 2 to 3 in. high,
with roundish crenate leaves, on long stalks, and white funnel-
shaped flowers inMarch and April. 5. uniflora from Japan is closely
related. The leaves of both assume rich purple-red tints in autumn.
Warm sunny situations and rich sandy loam and peat are requi/ed.
Silene. Pretty caryophyllaceous plants, preferring sandy loam,
and well adapted for rockwork. 5. alpestris, 6 in., white, and S.
quadridentata, 4 in., white, are beautiful tufted plants for rockwork
or the front parts of borders; S. maritima flore-pleno, 6 in., white,
S. Elizabethae, 4 in., bright rose, and 5. Schafta, 6 in., purplish-rose,
are also good kinds.
Sisyrinchium. Pretty dwarf iridaceous plants, thriving in peaty
soil. S. grandiflorum, 10 in., deep purple or white, blooms about
April, and is a fine plant for pot -culture in cold frames.
Sparaxis. Graceful bulbous plants from South Africa. 5. grandi-
flora, with deep violet-purple, and S. tricolor, with rich orange-red,
flowers are best known. 5. pulcherrima, a lovely species, 3 to 6 ft.
high, with drooping blood-red blossoms, is now referred to the genus
Dierama. A warm, light, but rich soil in sheltered spots required.
Spiraea. Vigorous growing plants of great beauty, preferring
good, deep, rather moist soil; the flowers small but very abundant,
in large corymbose or spicate panicles. 5. Aruncus, 4 ft., white;
5. astilbioides, 2 ft., white; 5. Filipendula, ij ft., and 5. Ulmaria,
3 ft., both white; 5. palmata, 2 ft., rosy-crimson; and S. venusta,
3 ft., carmine rose, are some of the best.
Statice. Pretty plants with broad, radical leaves, and a much-
branched inflorescence of numerous small flowers. 5. latifolia, 2 ft.,
greyish-blue; 5. tatarica, I ft., lavender-pink; 5. speciosa, ij ft.,
rose colour; and S. eximia, ij ft., rosy-lilac are good border plants.
5. beUidifolia, 9 in., lavender; 5. emarginata, 6 in., purple; 5.
globulariaefolia, 9 in., white; and S. nana, 4 in. are good sorts for
the rockery.
Stenactis. S. speciosa, I to 2 ft., is a showy composite, of easy
culture in good garden soil; it produces large corymbs of flower-
heads, with numerous narrow blue ray-florets surrounding the
yellow disk. Now more generally known as Erigeron.
Stipa. S. pennata (Feather Grass), ij ft., is a very graceful-
habited grass, with stiff slender erect leaves, and long feathery
awns to the seeds.
Stokesia. 5. cyanea, 2 ft., is a grand, autumn-flowering, composite
plant, with blue flower-heads, 4 in. across. Sandy loam and warm
situation.
Symphytum. Rather coarse-growing but showy boraginaceous
plants, succeeding in ordinary soil. S. caucasicum, 2 ft., with blue
flowers changing to red, is one of the finer kinds for early summer
blooming.
Thalictrum. Free-growing but rather weedy ranunculaceous
plants, in many cases having elegantly cut foliage. T. aquilegifolium,
2 ft., purplish from the conspicuous stamens, the leaves glaucous,
is a good border plant ; and T. minus has foliage somewhat re-
sembling that of the Maidenhair fern. Ordinary garden soil.
Tiarella. T. cordifolia, the foam flower, is very ornamental in
border or rockery. Leaves heart-shaped lobed and toothed;
flowers white starry ; ordinary garden soil.
Tigridia. Lovely bulbous plants called tiger flowers, useful in
the warmest parts of the kingdom for the border in rich but gritty
soil. T. Pavonia, the peacock tiger flower, from Mexico, grows I
to 2 ft. high, with plaited sword-like leaves, and large flowers about
6 in. across, having zones of violet and yellow blotched with purple
and tipped with scarlet. There are many varieties, all charming.
Trillium. T. grandiflorum, the wood-lily of North America, is
the finest. It has large white flowers and grows freely in peaty soil
in shady borders. There are several other species, some with
purplish flowers.
Tritonia. A genus of South African plants with fibrous-coated
corms or solid bulbs, often known as montbretas. T. crocata, 2 ft.,
orange-yellow, T. crocosmiaeflora, 2 to 2\ ft., orange-scarlet, and
T. Pottsi, 3 to 4 ft., bright yellow, are the best-known varieties, of
which there are many subsidiary ones, some being very large and
free in flowering. A rich, gritty soil, and warm, sunny situations are
best for these plants.
Triteleia. Charming spring-flowering bulbs, thriving in any good
sandy soil. T. Murrayana, 8 in., lavender-blue, and T. uniflora,
FLOWERS]
HORTICULTURE
773
6 in., white, are both pretty plants of the easiest culture, either for
borders or rockeries.
Tritoma. Splendid stoutish-growing plants of noble aspect,
familiarly known as the Poker plant, From their erect, rigid spikes
of flame-coloured flowers; sometimes called Kniphofia. T. Uvaria,
3 to 4 ft., bright orange-red, passing to yellow in the lower flowers,
is a fine autumnal decorative plant. They should be protected
from frosts by a covering of ashes over the crown during winter.
Trollius. Showy ranunculaceous plants, of free growth, flowering
about May and June. T. europaeus, 18 in., lemon globular; T.
asiaticus, 2 ft., deep yellow; and T. napellifolius, 2 to 2j ft.,
golden yellow, are all fine showy kinds. Rich and rather moist
soil.
Tulipa. Splendid dwarfish bulbs, thriving in deep, sandy, well-
enriched garden soil, and increased by offsets. They bloom during
the spring and early summer months. T. Gesneriana, the parent
of the florists' tulip, 12 to 18 in., crimson and other colours;
T. Eichleri, I ft., crimson with dark spot; T. Greigi, I ft., orange
with dark spot edged with yellow, and having dark spotted leaves;
T. oculus solis, I ft., scarlet with black centre; and T. sylvestris,
12 to 1 8 in., bright yellow, are showy kinds.
Veratrum. Distinct liliaceous plants with bold ornamental leaves
regularly folded and plaited. V. album, 3 to 5 ft., has whitish
blossoms in dense panicles, I to 2 ft. long. V. nigrum, 2 to 3 ft., has
blackish-purple flowers, also V. Maacki, 2 ft. Rich sandy loam and
peat.
Verbascum. Showy border flowers of erect spire-like habit, of
the easiest culture. V. Chaixii, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, in large pyramidal
panicles; V. phoeniceum, 3 ft., rich purple or white; and V. for-
mosum, 6 ft., golden yellow in dense panicles, are desirable species.
Veronica. The Speedwell family, containing many ornamental
members; all the hardy species are of the easiest cultivation in
ordinary garden soil. The rotate flowers are in close, erect spikes,
sometimes branched. V. crassifolia, 2 ft., dark blue; V. incarnata,
ij ft., flesh-colour; V. corymbosa, ij ft., pale blue in corymbosely-
arranged racemes; V. gentianoides, 2 ft., grey with blue streaks;
V. spicata, blue, and its charming white variety alba; and V.
virginica, 5 ft., white, are distinct.
Vinca. Periwinkle. Pretty rock plants, growing freely in ordinary
soil. V. herbacea, of creeping habit, with purplish-blue flowers;
V. minor, of trailing habit, blue; and V. major, I to 2 ft. high, also
trailing, are suitable for the rock garden. The last two are ever-
green, and afford varieties which differ in the colour of their flowers,
while some are single and others double.
Viola. -Violet. Charming dwarf plants, mostly evergreen and of
tufted habit, requiring well-worked rich sandy soil. V. calcarata,
6 in., light blue; V. cornuta, 6 to 8 in., blue; V. lutea, 4 in., yellow;
V. altaica, 6 in., yellow or violet with yellow eye; V. palmaensis,
6 to 8 in., lavender-blue; V. pedata, 6 in., pale blue; and V. odorata,
the Sweet Violet, in its many single and double flowered varieties,
are all desirable.
Yucca. Noble subarborescent liliaceous plants, which should be
grown in every garden. They do well in light, well-drained soils,
and have a close family resemblance, the inflorescence being a
panicle of white, drooping, tulip-shaped flowers, and the foliage
rosulate, sword-shaped and spear-pointed. Of the more shrubby-
habited sorts Y. gloriosa, recurvifolia and Treculeana are good and
distinct ; and of the dwarfer and more herbaceous sorts Y. fila-
mentosa, flaccida and angustifolia are distinct and interesting kinds,
the first two flowering annually.
The taste for cultivation of the class of plants, of which the fore-
going list embraces some of the more prominent members, is on the
increase, and gardens will benefit by its extension.
HARDY TREES AND SHRUBS. Much of the beauty of the pleasure
garden depends upon the proper selection and disposition of orna-
mental trees and shrubs. We can only afford space here for lists of
some of the better and more useful and ornamental trees and shrubs,
old and new.
The following list, which is not exhaustive, furnishes material
from which a selection may be made to suit various soils and situa-
tions. The shrubs marked * are climbers.
Hardy
Acer Maple.
Aesculus Horse-Chestnut.
Ailantus Tree of Heaven.
Alnus Alder.
Amygdalus Almond.
Betufa Birch.
Carpinus Hornbeam.
Carya Hickory.
Castanea Sweet Chestnut.
Catalpa.
Celtis Nettle Tree.
Cercis Judas Tree.
Cotoneaster (some species).
Crataegus Thorn.
Davidia.
Diospyros.
Fagus Beech.
Deciduous Trees.
Fraxinus Ash.
Ginkgo Maidenhair Tree.
Gleditschia Honey Locust.
Gymnocladus Kentucky Coffee
Tree.
Juglans Walnut.
Kolreuteria.
Laburnum.
Larix Larch.
Liriodendron Tulip-tree.
Magnolia.
Morus M ulberry.
Negundo Box- Elder.
Ostrya Hop Hornbeam.
Paulownia.
Planera.
Platanus Plane.
Populus Poplar.
Prunus (Plums, Cherries, &c.).
Ptelea Hop Tree.
Pyrus Pear, &c.
Quercus Oak.
Rhus Sumach.
Robinia Locust Tree.
Salix Willow.
Sophora.
Taxodium Deciduous Cypress.
Tilia Lime.
Ulmus Elm.
Virgilia.
Xanthoceras.
Hardy
Abies Silver Fir.
Araucaria Chili Pine.
Arbutus Strawberry Tree.
Biota Arbor Vitae.
Buxus Box.
Cedrus Cedar.
Cephalotaxus.
Cryptomeria Japan Cedar.
Cupressus Cypress.
Ilex Holly.
Juniperus Juniper.
Laurus Bay Laurel.
Evergreen Trees.
Libocedrus.
Magnolia grandiflora.
Picea Spruce Fir.
Pinus Pine.
Quercus Ilex Holm-Oak.
Retinospora.
Sciadopitys Umbrella Pine.
Sequoia (Wellingtonia).
Taxus Yew.
Thuiopsis.
Thuya Arbor Vitae.
Tsuga.
Hardy Deciduous Shrubs.
Abelia.
Acer Maple.
Amelanchier.
Ampelopsis. *
Amygdalopsis.
Aralia.
Aristolochia.*
Berberis Berberry.
Bignonia* Trumpet Flower.
Buddleia.
Calophaca.
Calycanthus Carolina Allspice.
Caragana.
Chimonanthus.
Clematis.*
Colutea Bladder Senna.
Cornus Dogwood.
Cotoneaster (some species).
Crataegus Thorn.
Cydonia Japan Quince.
Cytisus Broom, &c.
Daphne.
Deutzia.
Edwardsia.
Euonymus europaeus Spindle
Tree.
Forsythia.
Fremontia.
Genista.
Halesia Snowdrop Tree.
Hamamelis Wych Hazel.
Hibiscus Althaea frutex, &c.
Hippophae Sea Buckthorn.
Hypencum St John's Wort.
Jasminum* Jasmine.
Kerria.
Lonicera* Honeysuckle.
Lycium. *
Magnolia.
Menispermum* Moonseed.
Periploca.*
Philadelphus Mock Orange.
Rhus Wig Tree, &c.
Ribes Flowering Currant.
Robinia Rose Acacia, &c.
Rosa Rose.
Rubus* Bramble.
Spartium Spanish Broom.
Spiraea.
Staphylaea Bladder-Nut.
Symphoricarpus Snowberry.
Syringa Lilac.
Tamarix Tamarisk.
Viburnum Guelder Rose, &c.
Vitis* Vine.
Weigela.
Hardy
Akebia.*
Arbutus.
Aucuba Japan Laurel.
Azara.
Bambusa Bamboo.
Berberidopsis.*
Berberis Berberry.
Buddleia.
Bupleurum.
Buxus Box.
Ceanothus.
Cerasus Cherry-Laurel, &c.
Cistus-Sun-Rose.
Cotoneaster.
Crataegus Pyracantha Fire
Thorn.
Daphne.
Desfontainea.
Elaeagnus Oleaster.
Erica Heath.
Escallonia.
Euonymus.
Fabiana.
Fatsia (Aralia).
Garrya.
Evergreen Shrubs.
Griselinia.
Hedera* Ivy.
Hypericum St John's Wort.
Ilex Holly.
Jasminum* Jasmine.
Kadsura.*
Lardizabala.*
Laurus Sweet Bay.
Ligustrum Privet.
Lonicera * Honeysuckle.
Osmanthus.
Pernettya.
Phillyrea.
Photmia.
Rhamnus Alaternus.
Rhododendron Rose- Bay.
Rosa* Rose.
Ruscus.
Skimmia.
Smilax.*
Stauntonia.*
Ulex Furze.
Viburnum Laurustinus.
Vinca Periwinkle.
Yucca Adam's Needle.
BEDDING PLANTS. This term is chiefly applied to those summer-
flowering plants, such as ivy-leaved and zonal pelargoniums, petunias,
dwarf lobelias, verbenas, &c., which are employed in masses for
filling the beds of a geometrical parterre. Of late years, however,
more attention has been bestowed on arrangements of brilliant
flowering plants with those of fine foliage, and the massing also of
hardy early-blooming plants in parterre fashion has been very greatly
extended. Bedding plants thrive best in a light loam, liberally
manured with thoroughly rotten dung from an old hotbed or
thoroughly decomposea cow droppings and leaf-mould.
774
HORTICULTURE
Spring Bedding. For this description of bedding, hardy plants
only must be used ; but even then the choice is tolerably extensive.
For example, there are the Alyssums, of which A. saxatile and A.
gemonense are in cultivation; Antennaria tomentosa; the double
white Arabis albida; Aubrietias, of which the best sorts are A.
Campbelliae and A. grandiflora; the double Bellis perennis or Daisy;
the Wallflowers, including Cheiranthus Cheiri (the Common Wall-
flower), C. alpina and C. Marshallii; Hepaticas, the principal of
which are the varieties of H. triloba, and the blue H. angulosa;
Iberis or Candytuft ; Lithospermum fruticosum ; Myosotis or Forget-
me-not, including M. alpestris, M. dissitiflora, M. azorica and M.
sylvestris; Phloxes, like P. subulata, with its varieties setacea,
Nelsoni, nivalis; the single-flowered varieties of the Primrose,
Primula vulgaris; the Polyanthuses; Pyrethrum Parthenium
aureum, called Golden Feather; Sempervivum calcareum; the pink-
flowered Silene pendula; self-coloured varieties of the Pansy, V.
tricolor, and of V. lutea and V. cornuta, as well as some recent hybrids.
Besides these there are the various spring-flowering bulbs, such as
the varieties of _Hyacinthus, Tulipa, Narcissus, Fritillaria, Muscari
or Grape Hyacinth, Crocus, Scilla, Chionodoxa and Galanthus or
Snowdrop.
Summer Bedding. There is great variety amongst the plants
which are used for bedding-out in the garden during the summer
months, but we can note only some of the most important of them.
Amongst them are the Ageratums, the old tall-growing sorts of
which have been superseded by dwarfer blue and white flowered
varieties; Alternantheras, the principal of which are A. amoena,
amoena spectabilis, magnified, paronychioides major aurea and
amabilis; Alyssum maritimum variegatum; some of the dwarf
varieties of A ntirrhinum majus; Arundo Donax variegata; Begonias;
Calceolarias; Cannas; Centaurea ragusina; Clematises, of which
the hybrids of the Jackmanni type are best; Dahlia variabilis,
and the single-flowered forms of D. coccinea; Echeverias, of
which E. secunda and E. metallica are much employed; Gazanias;
Heliotropes; Iresines; Lantanas; Lobelias; Mesembryanthemum
cordifolium variegatum; Pelargoniums, of which the various classes
of zonal or bedding varieties are unapproachable for effect and general
utility; Petunias; Phloxes; Polemonium coeruleum variegatum;
Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum, the well-known Golden Feather,
especially useful as an edging to define the outline of beds upon
grass; Tropaeolums, especially some of the varieties of T. Lob-
bianum ; and Verbenas, the offspring of Tweedieana, chamaedrifolia
and others. Few bulbs come into the summer flower gardens, but
amongst those which should always be well represented are the
Gladiolus, the Lilium, the Tigridia and the Montbretia.
Subtropical Bedding. Foliage and the less common flowering
plants may be used either in masses of one kind, or in groups ar-
ranged for contrast, or as the centres of groups of less imposing or
of dwarfer-flowering subjects; or they may be planted as single
specimens in appropriate open spaces, in recesses, or as distant
striking objects terminating a vista.
Carpet Bedding consists in covering the surface of a bed, or a
series of beds forming a design, with close, low-growing plants, in
which certain figures are brought out by means of plants of a different
habit or having different coloured leaves. Sometimes, in addition
to the carpet or ground colour, individual plants of larger size and
handsome appearance are dotted symmetrically over the beds, an
arrangement which is very telling. Some of the best plants for
carpeting the surface of the beds are: Antennaria tomentosa and
Leucophytum Browni, white; Sedum acre, dasyphyttum, corsicum
and glaucum, grey; and Sedum Lydirm, Mentha Pulegium gibral-
tarica, Sagina subulata and Herniaria glabra, green. The Alternan-
theras, Amaranthuses, Iresines and Coleus Verschaffelti furnish high
and warm colours; while Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum yields
greenish-yellow; Thymus citriodorus aureus, yellowish; Mesem-
bryanthemum cordifolium variegatum, creamy yellow; Centaureas
and others, white; Lobelia Erinus, blue; and the succulent Eche-
verias and Sempervivums, glaucous rosettes, which last add much
to the general effect. In connexion with the various designs such
fine plants as Agave americana, Dracaena indivisa are often used as
centre-pieces.
GREENHOUSE PLANTS. These are plants requiring the shelter of
a glass house, provided with a moderate degree of heat, of which
45 Fahr. may be taken as the minimum in winter. The house
should be opened for ventilation in all mild weather in winter, and
daily throughout the rest of the year. The following is a select list
of genera of miscellaneous decorative plants (orchids, palms and
ferns excluded ; climbers are denoted by * ; bulbous and tuberous
plants by f) :
Abutilon
Acacia
Agapanthus
Agathaea
Agave
Alonspa
Aloysia
Amaryllisf
Ardisia
Asparagus
Aspidistra
Asystasia (Mackaya)
Azalea
Bauera
Begonia f
Blandfordia
Bomarea*
Boronia
Bougainvillea*
Bouvardia
Brugmansia
Calceolaria
Camellia
Campanula
Canna
Celosia
Cestrum*
Chorizema*
Chrysanthemum
Cineraria
Clianthus Ficus
Clivia Fuchsia
Cobaea* Grevillea
Coleus Haemanthusf
Coprosma Heliotropium
Cordyline Hibiscus
Correa Hoya*
Cuphea Hydrangea
Cyclamen f Impatiens
Cyperus Jasminum*
Cytisus Justicia
Darwinia (Genetyllis) Kalosanthes
Diosma Lachenaliaf
Dracaena Lantana
Eccremocarpus* Lapageria*
Epacris Lihumf
Epiphyllum Lophospermum*
Erica Mandevillea*
Eriostemon Manettia*
Erythrina Mutisia*
Eucalyptus Myrsiphyllum*
Eupatorium Maurandya*
Eurya
STOVE PLANTS. For the successful culture of stove plants two
houses at least, wherein different temperatures can be maintained,
should be devoted to their growth. The minimum temperature
during winter should range at night from about 55 in the cooler
to 65 in the warmer house, and from 65 to 75 by day, allowing a
few degrees further rise by sun heat. In summer the temperature
may range 10 higher by artificial heat, night and day, and will
often by sun heat run up to 90 or even 95, beyond which it should
be kept down by ventilation and frequent syringing and damping
down of the pathways. During the growing period the atmosphere
must be kept moist by damping the walls and pathways, and by
syringing the plants according to their needs; when growth is
completed less moisture will be necessary. Watering, which, except
during the resting period, should generally be copious, is best done
in the forenoon ; while syringing should be done early in the morning
before the sun becomes too powerful, and late in the afternoon to
admit of the foliage drying moderately before night. The following
is a select list of genera of stove plants (climbers are denoted by *,
bulbous and tuberous plants by f) :
[FLOWERS
Nerinef
Nerium
Pelargonium
Petunia
Pimelia
Plumbago*
Polianthesf
Primula
Rhododendron
Richardia (Calla)t
Sal via
Sarracenia
Solanum
Sparmannia
Statice
Strelitzia
Streptocarpus
Swamsonia
Tacsonia*
Tecoma
Tradescantia
Vallotaf
Acalypha
Achimenesf
Aeschynanthus
Allamanda*
Alocasiat
Amaryllisf
Anthurium
Aphelandra
Aralia
Ardisia
Arisaemat
Aristolochia*
Ataccia
Begonia
Bertolonia
Bignonia*
Bromeliads
Cactus
Caladiumf
Calathea
Centropogon
Cissus*
Clerodendron*
Crinumf
Codiaeum (Croton)
Cyanophyllum
(Miconia)
Cycas
Dieffenbachia
Dipladenia*
Dracaena
Eranthemum
Eucharist
Euphorbia
Ficus
Franciscea
Gardenia
Gesnera
Gloriosa*
Gloxiniaf
Heliconiaf
Hoffmannia
Ipomaea*
Ixora
Jacobinia
Jasminum*
Luculia
Maranta
Medinilla
Meyenia
Musa
Nelumbiumf
Nepenthes
Nymphaeaf
Oxera*
Pancratiumf
Pandanus
Passiflora*
Pavetta
Petraea*
Pleroma*
Poinsettia
Rondeletia
Sanchezia
Schubert ia*
Scutellaria
Stephanotis
Tabernaemontana
Terminalia
Thunbergia
Torenia
Thyrsacanthus
Tydaea
Vmca
ORCHIDS. For the successful cultivation of a mixed collection
of tropical orchids, it is necessary that two or three houses, in which
different temperatures can be maintained, should be provided.
The greater number of them are epiphytes or plants that grow on
others without absorbing nourishment from them, and heat and
moisture afford all or nearly all the nourishment they require. At
one time it was thought the plants themselves were better for being
associated with such objects as ferns and palms, but they are best
grown by themselves.
The East Indian orchid house takes in those species which are
found in the warm parts of the eastern hemisphere, as well as those
from the hottest parts of the western, and its temperature should
range from about 70 to 80 during the summer or growing season
and from 65 to 70 during winter. The Mexican or Brazilian orchid
house accommodates the plants from the warm parts of South
America, and its temperature should range from about 65 to 75
during summer and from 60 to 65 in winter. A structure called
the cool orchid house is set apart for the accommodation of the many
lovely mountain species from South America and India, such as
odontoglossums, masdevattias, &c., and in this the more uniform the
temperature can be kept the better, that in summer varying between
FRUITS]
HORTICULTURE
775
60 and 65, and in winter from 45 to 60. A genial moist at-
mosphere must be kept up in the hottest houses during the growing
season, with a free circulation of air admitted very cautiously by
well-guarded ventilators. In winter, when the plants are at rest,
little water will be necessary; but in the case of those plants which
have no fleshy pseudobulbs to fall back upon for sustenance, they
must not be suffered to become so dry as to cause the leaves to
shrivel. In the Mexican house the plants will generally be able to
withstand greater drought occasionally, being greatly assisted by
their thick pseudobulbs. In the cool or odontoglossum house a
considerable degree of moisture must be maintained at all times,
for in these the plants keep growing more or less continuously.
For potting or basketing purposes, or for plants requiring block-
culture, the materials used are light fibrous peat, special leaf-mould,
osmunda or polypodium fibre and living sphagnum moss, which
supply free drainage for the copious supply of water required.
Good turfy loam is also used for some, such as cypripediums and
calanthes. Indeed the composts now used are varied considerably
according to the particular group of orchids. The water should,
however, be so used as not to run down into the sheathing bases of
the leaves. While in flower, orchids may with advantage be re-
moved to a drier and cooler situation, and may be utilized in the
drawing-room or boudoir. Of late years not only have many fine
hybrids been raised artificially between various species, but some
remarkable bigeneric hybrids (between what are considered two
distinct genera) have also been produced (indicated in the list
below by *). To keep a valuable collection of orchids in good
condition requires the services of an expert orchid grower.
The following is a select list of genera in cultivation :
Acineta Cymbidium Peristeria
Ada Cypripedium Pescatorea
Aerides Cyrtopodium Phajus
Angraecum Dendrobium Phaio-calanthe*
Anguloa Diacrium Phalaenopsis
Anoectochilus Disa Pilumna
Ansellia Epidendrum Platyclinis
Arachnanthe Eulophia Pleione
Arpophyllum Eulophiella Pleurothallis
Barkeria Galeandra Polystachya
Batemannia Gongora Promenaea
Bifrenaria Grammatophyllum Renanthera
Brassavola Habenaria Restrepia
Brassia Houlletia Rodriguezia
Brasso-Cattleya* lonopsis Saccolabium
Broughtonia Ipsea Schomburgkia
Bulbophyllum Laelia Scuticaria
Burlingtonia Laelio-Cattleya* Sobralia
Calanthe Leptotes Sophro-cattleya*
Catasetum Lissochilus Sophronitis
Cattleya Lycaste Spathoglottis
Chysis Masdevallia Stanhopea
Cirrhopetalum Miltonia Thunia
Cochlioda Mormodes Trichopilia
Coelia Odontoglossum Trichosma
Coelogyne Odontioda* Vanda
Comparettia Oncidium Zygo-colax*
Cycnoches Pachystoma Zygopetalum
PALMS. -These form charming table and drawing-room plants
when quite young. When more fully developed, and long before
their full growth is attained, they are among the most decorative
plants known for the conservatory and for subtropical gardening.
They are easily cultivated, but should not be allowed to become
dry. The soil should consist of about 3 parts turfy loam, I part leaf
mould, I part coarse silver sand, with enough chemical or other
manure added to render the whole moderately rich. The older
plants will occasionally require the roots pruned in order to keep
them in as small pots as possible without being starved. This
should be done early in the spring, and the plants heavily shaded
until feeding roots are again produced. It is of advantage to afford
stove culture while the plants are quite young. A little later most
of the genera succeed well under moderately cool conditions.
The following genera are among those most commonly cultivated:
Acanthophoenix Chamaerops Martinezia
Acanthorhiza Cocos Oreodoxa
Areca Corypha Phoenix
Bactris Geonoma Pritchardia
Brahea Hyophorbe Rhapis
Calamus Kentia Sabal
Caryota Latania Stevensonia
Ceroxylon Livistonia Thrinax
Chamaedorea
FERNS. These popular plants are usually increased by means of
their spores, the " dust " produced on the back of their fronds.
The spores should be sown in well-drained pots or seed pans on the
surface of a mixture of fibrous sifted peat and small broken crocks or
sandstone; this soil should be firmly pressed and well-watered, and
the spores scattered over it, and at once covered with propagating
glasses or pieces of sheet glass, to prevent water or dry air getting
to the surface. The pots should be placed in pans full of water,
which they will absorb as required. A shady place is desirable,
with temperature of 50 to 55 by night and 65 to 70 by day, or
they may be set on a shelf in an ordinary propagating pit. The
spores may be sown as soon as ripe, and when the young plants can
be handled, or rather can be lifted with the end of a pointed flat
stick, they should be pricked out into well-drained pots or pans
filled with similar soil and should be kept moist and shady. As
they become large enough, pot them singly in 3-in. pots, and when
the pots are fairly filled with roots shift on into larger ones.
The best time for a general repotting of ferns is in spring, just
before growth commences. Those with creeping rhizomes can be
propagated by dividing these into well-rooted portions, and, if a
number of crowns is formed, they can be divided at that season.
In most cases this can be performed with little risk, but the glei-
chenias, for example, must only be cut into large portions, as small
divisions of the rhizomes are almost certain to die; in such cases,
however, the points of the rhizomes can be led over and layered into
small pots, several in succession, and allowed to remain unsevered
from the parent plant until they become well-rooted. In potting
the well-established plants, and all those of considerable size, the
soil should be used in a rough turfy state, not sifted but broken,
and one-sixth of broken crocks or charcoal and as much sand as will
insure free percolation should be mixed with it.
The stove ferns require a day temperature of 65 to 75, but do
not thrive in an excessively high or close dry atmosphere. They
require only such shade as will shut out the direct rays of the sun,
and, though abundant moisture must be supplied, the atmosphere
should not be overloaded with it. Ferns should not be allowed to
become quite dry at the root, and the water used should always be
at or near the temperature of the house in which the plants are
growing. Some ferns, as the different kinds of Gymnogramme and
Cheilanthes, prefer a drier atmosphere than others, and the former
do not well bear a lower winter temperature than about 60 by
night. Most other stove ferns, if dormant, will bear a temperature
as low as 55 by night and 60 by day from November to February.
About the end of the latter month the whole collection should be
turned out of the pots, and redrained or repotted into larger pots
as required. This should take place before growth has commenced.
Towards the end of March the night temperature may be raised to
60, and the day temperature to 70 or 75 , the plants being shaded
in bright weather. Such ferns as Gymnogrammes, which have their
surface covered with golden or silver powder, and certain species of
scaly-surfaced Cheilanthes and Nothochlaena, as they cannot bear
to have their fronds wetted, should never be syringed; but most
other ferns may have a moderate sprinkling occasionally (not
necessarily daily), and as the season advances, sufficient air and
light must be admitted to solidify the tissues.
Hardy British ferns belonging to such genera as Asplenium,
Nephrodium, Aspidium, Scolopendrium, have become fairly popular
of late years, and many charming varieties are now used in borders
and rockeries. Spores may be sown as above described, but in a
much lower temperature.
The following is a select list of genera :
Acrpstichum Davallia Osmunda
Actiniopteris Dicksonia Onoclea
Adiantum Gleichenia Phlebodium
Alsophila Gymnogramme Platycerium
Aspidium Hymenophyllum Polypodium
Asplenium Lastrea Ptens
Blechnum Lomaria Scolopendrium
Cheilanthes Lygodium Todea
Cibotium Nephrodium Trichomanes
Cyathea Nephrolepis Woodwardia
VI. Fruits.
Fruit-Tree Borders. No pains should be spared, in the pre-
paration of fruit-tree borders, to secure their thorough drainage.
In case of adhesive clayey subsoil this can generally be secured
by placing over the sloping bottom a good layer of coarse rubbly
material, communicating with a drain in front to carry off the
water, while earthenware drain tubes may be laid beneath the
rubble from 8 to 10 ft. apart, so as to form air drains, and
provided with openings both at the side of the walk and also
near the base of the wall. Over this rubbly matter, rough turfy
soil, grass-side downwards, should be laid, and on this the good
prepared soil in which the trees are to be planted.
The borders should consist of 3 parts rich turfy loam,
the top spit of a pasture, and i part light gritty earth, such
as road-grit, with a small portion (one-sixth) of fine brick rubbish.
They should not be less than 12 ft. in breadth, and may vary
up to 15 or 18 ft., with a fall from the wall of about i in. in
3 ft. The border itself should be raised a foot or more above
the general level. The bottom of the border as well as that
776
HORTICULTURE
[VEGETABLES
of the drain must be kept lower than the general level of the
subsoil, else the soakage will gather in all the little depressions
of its surface. Fruit-tree borders should not be at all cropped
with culinary vegetables, or very slightly so, as the process of
digging destroys the roots of the trees, and drives them from
near the surface, where they ought to be.
Shallow planting, whether of wall trees or standards, is gener-
ally to be preferred, a covering of a few inches of soil being
sufficient for the roots, but a surface of at least equal size to the
surface of the hole should be covered with dung or litter so as
to restrain evaporation and preserve moisture. In the case
of wall trees, a space of 5 or 6 in. is usually left between the
stem at the insertion of the roots and the wall, to allow for
increase of girth. Young standard trees should be tied to
stakes so as to prevent their roots being ruptured by the wind-
waving of the stems and to keep them erect. The best time
for planting fruit trees in the open air is from the end of September
till the end of November in open weather.
In the selection and distribution of fruit trees regard must of
course be had to local situation and climate. The best walls
having a south or south-east aspect are devoted to the peach,
nectarine, apricot, dessert pears, plums and early cherries.
Cherries and the generality of plums succeed very well either
on an east or a west aspect. Morello cherries, apples and stewing
pears succeed well on a north wall. In Scotland the mulberry
requires the protection of a wall, and several of the finer apples
and pears do not arrive at perfection without this help and a
tolerably good aspect. The wall-trees intended to be permanent
are called dwarfs, from their branches springing from near
the ground. Between these, trees with tall stems, called riders,
are planted as temporary occupants of the upper part of the
wall. The riders should have been trained in the nursery into
good-sized trees, in order that when planted out they may come
into bearing as speedily as possible.
Standard Fruit Trees should not be planted, if it can be avoided,
in the borders of the kitchen garden, but in the outer slips,
where they either may be allowed to attain their full size or
may be kept dwarfed. Each sort of fruit should be planted
by itself, for the sake of orderly arrangement, and in order to
facilitate protection when necessary by a covering of nets.
Their produce is often superior in flavour to that of the same
kind of fruit grown on walls.
Orchard-house Trees. Peaches, nectarines, apricots, figs
and dessert plums, cherries, apples and pears are commonly
cultivated in the orchard-house. Peaches and nectarines are
generally planted out, while the rest are more commonly culti-
vated in pots. This allows of the hardier pot plants being re-
moved out of doors while those planted out are in need of the
room. The pot plants are overhauled in the autumn, the roots
pruned, a layer being cut off to allow new soil to be introduced.
Surface dressing and feeding by liquid manure should also be
afforded these plants while the fruit is swelling. Every effort
should be made to complete the growth of peaches and nectarines
while the sun is sufficiently strong to ripen them. Tomatoes
are frequently employed to fill gaps in the orchard-house. Should
it be provided with a central path, requiring shade, Hambro
and Sweet-water grapes serve the purpose well, and in favourable
seasons Afford excellent crops of fruit.
VII. Vegetables.
Under this head are included those esculents which are largely
eaten as " vegetables " or as " salads." The more important
are treated under their individual headings (see ARTICHOKE,
ASPARAGUS, BEAN, &c. &c.). The culinary herbs used for
flavouring and garnishing are for the most part dwarf perennial
plants requiring to be grown on a rich soil in an open sunny
aspect, or annuals for which a warm sheltered border is the most
suitable place; and they may therefore be conveniently grown
together in the same compartment a herb garden. The
perennials should be transplanted either every year or every
second year. For winter use the tops of the most useful kinds
of herbs should be cut when in flower or full leaf and quite
dry, and spread out in an airy but shady place so as to part
slowly with the moisture they contain and at the same time
retain their aromatic properties. When quite dry they should
be put into dry wide-mouthed bottles and kept closely corked.
In this way such herbs as basil, marjoram, mint, sage, savory,
thyme, balm, chamomile, horehound, hyssop and rue, as well
as parsley, may be had throughout the season with almost the
full flavour of the fresh herb.
Intensive Cultivation. This name has been applied to the
method of forcing early vegetables and salads during the winter
and spring months in the market gardens in the neighbourhood
of Paris. The system is now popularly known in England as
" French gardening." Although a few assert that it is an old
English one that has been discarded in favour of superior methods,
there seems to be little or no evidence in support of this con-
tention. The system itself has been practised for about 300
years in the " marais " gardens round Paris. At one time
these gardens were in the centre of the city itself, but owing to
modern improvements they have been gradually pushed out
beyond the city boundaries farther and farther. Most of these
gardens are small not more than a couple of acres in extent,
and the rent paid by the maraicher, or market gardener, is very
high as much as 30 to 40 per acre.
The French maratcher does not use hot-water apparatus
for forcing his plants into early growth. He relies mainly upon
the best stable manure, a few shallow frames about 4! ft. wide
covered with lights, and a number of large bell glasses or
" cloches." The work is carried on from October till the end of
March and April, after which, with the exception of melons, the
cultures are carried on in the open air.
The chief crops grown for early supplies, or " primeurs " as
they are called, are special varieties of cos and cabbage lettuces,
short carrots, radishes, turnips, cauliflowers, endives, spinach,
onions, corn salad and celery. To these is added a very important
crop of melons, a special large-fruited variety known as the
Prescott Canteloup being the most favoured.
It is astonishing how much produce is taken off one of these
small intensive gardens during the year, and especially during
the worst months when prices usually run fairly high. The
fact that rents are so heavy around Paris is in itself an indication
of the money that is realized by the growers not only in the Paris
markets, but also in Covent Garden.
During the winter season narrow beds are made up of manure,
either quite fresh or mixed with old manure, according to the
amount of heat required. These beds are covered with a few
inches of the fine old mould obtained from the decayed manure
of previous years. In the early stages seeds of carrots and
radishes are sown simultaneously on the same beds, and over
them young lettuces that have been raised in advance are
planted. In this way three crops are actually on the same beds
at the same time. Owing, however, to the difference in their
vegetative growth, they mature one after the other instead of
simultaneously. Thus with the genial warmth and moisture of the
hotbeds, all crops grow rapidly, but the radishes mature first,
then the lettuces are taken off in due course, thus leaving the
beds to finish up with the carrots by themselves. Later on in the
season, perhaps small cauliflowers will be planted along the
margins of the beds where the carrots are growing, and will be
developing into larger plants requiring more space by the time
all the carrots have been picked and marketed. So on throughout
the year with other crops, this system of intercropping or
overlapping of one crop with another is carried out in a most
ingenious manner, not only under glass lights, but also in the open
air. Spinach, corn salad, radishes and carrots are the favourite
crops for sowing between others such as lettuces and cauli-
flowers.
Although enormous quantities of water are required during the
summer season', great care must be exercised in applying water
to the winter crops. When severe frost prevails the lights or
cloches are rarely taken off except to gather mature specimens;
and no water is given directly overhead to the plants for fear
of chilling them and checking growth. They must secure their
CALENDAR (GREAT BRITAIN)]
HORTICULTURE
777
supply of moisture from the rain that falls on the glass, and
flows into the narrow pathways from 9 in. to 1 2 in. wide between
each range of frames. As the beds are only about 4^ ft. wide,
the water from the pathways is soaked up on each side by
capillary attraction, and in this way the roots secure a sufficient
supply.
Besides an abundance of water in summer there must also
be an enormous quantity of good stable manure available during
the winter months. This is necessary not only to make up the
required hotbeds in the first place, but also to fill in the path-
ways between the frames, wherever it is considered advisable to
maintain the heat within the frames at a certain point. As it is
impossible to use an ordinary wheelbarrow in these narrow
pathways, the workman carries a specially made wicker basket
called a " hotte " on his shoulders by means of two straps.
In this way large quantities of manure are easily transported
to any required spot, and although the work looks hard to an
English gardener, the Frenchman says he can carry more
manure with less fatigue in half a day than an Englishman can
transport in a day with a wheelbarrow.
This is merely an outline of the system, which is now being
taken up in various parts of the United Kingdom, but not too
rapidly. The initial expenses for frames,, lights, cloches, mats
and water-supply are in many cases prohibitive to men with
the necessary gardening experience, while on the other hand
those who have the capital lack the practical knowledge so
essential to success.
For full details of this system see French Market-Gardening, with
details of Intensive Cultivation, by John Weathers (London, 1909).
VIII. Calendar of Garden Operations (A) for Great Britain.
JANUARY
Kitchen Garden. Wheel out manure and composts during frosty
weather; trench vacant ground not turned up roughly in autumn.
Sow early peas in a cold frame for transplanting. Sow also first-crop
peas, early in the month, and William I. towards the end; Early
Seville and Early Longpod beans; and short-topped radish in two
or three sowings, at a week's interval, all on a warm border; also
Hardy Green and Brown cos lettuce in a frame or on south border.
Plant shallots and Ashleaf potatoes on a warm border. Protect
broccoli as it becomes fit for use, or remove to a dry shed or cellar;
lettuces and endive, which are best planted in frames; and parsley
in frames so as to be accessible.
Fruit Garden. Plant fruit trees in open weather, if not done in
autumn, which is the proper season, mulching over the roots to
protect them from frost, and from drought which may occur in
spring. Prune fruit trees in mild weather or in moderate frosts,
nailing only in fine weather. Wash trees infested with insects with
one of the many insecticides now obtainable. Take off grafts, and
lay them aside in moist earth in a shady place.
Forcing. Prepare manure for making up hotbeds for early
cucumbers and melons, where pits heated with hot water are not in
use; also for Ashleaf potatoes. Sow also in heat mustard and cress
for salads, onions for salads; tomatoes, celery to be pricked out for
an early crop; and Early Horn carrot and kidney-beans on slight
hotbeds. Force asparagus, sea-kale and rhubarb, in hotbeds, in
pits, in the mushroom-house or in the open garden by the use of
covers surrounded with warm litter; for cucumbers a top heat of
70; for vines in leaf and flower a temperature ranging from 65
to 70. Keep forced strawberries with swelling fruit well watered.
Plant vine eyes for propagation in a brisk heat.
Plant Houses. Give abundance of air to the greenhouse, con-
servatory and alpine frame in mild weather, but use little water.
A supply of roses, kalmias, rhododendrons, &c., and of hardy flowers
and bulbs, as lily of the valley, hyacinths, tulips, daffodils, &c.
should be kept up by forcing.
Flower Garden. Plant out tubers and bulbs of border flowers
where neglected in autumn, deferring the finer florists' flowers till
next month. Transplant herbaceous plants in light soils,, if not
done in autumn; also deciduous trees, shrubs and hedges. Lay
edgings in fine weather. Sow mignonette, stocks, &c., in pots
sow sweet peas and a few hardy annuals on a warm border. Give
auriculas and carnations abundance of air, but keep the roots rather
dry to prevent damping off.
FEBRUARY
Kitchen Garden. Sow successional crops of Early Seville beans
and William I., American Wonder or other peas in the beginning
and end of the month; early cabbages to follow the last sowing in
August ; red cabbages and savoys towards the end. Sow also Early
Horn carrot; Early Purple-top Munich turnip; onions for a ful
crop in light soils, with a few leeks and some parsley. Sow lettuce
or succession, with radishes and Round-leaved spinach, twice in the
:ourse of the month; and small salads every fortnight. Plant
^erusalem artichokes, shallots, garlic, horse-radish and early
>otatoes. Transplant to the bottom of a south wall a portion of
he peas sown in pots in frames in November and January for the
irst crop. Sow Brussels sprouts in gentle heat for an early crop.
Fruit Garden. Prune apricots, peaches, nectarines and plums,
>efore the buds are much swelled; finish pruning apples, pears,
cherries, gooseberries, currants and raspberries, before the end of
;he month; also the dressing of vines. Keep the fruit-room free
rom spoiled fruit, and shut it close. Cut down the double-bearing
raspberries to secure strong autumn-fruiting shoots. Head back
stocks preparatory to grafting.
Forcing. Sow melons and cucumbers on hotbeds and in pits.
Sow carrots, turnips, early celery, also aubergines or egg-plants,
capsicums, tomatoes and successional crops of kidney-beans;
cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, in gentle heat, to be afterwards
planted out. Plant early potatoes on slight hotbeds. Continue
:he forcing of asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale. Commence or
continue the forcing of the various choice fruits, as vines, peaches,
igs, cherries, strawberries, &c. Pot roots of mint and place in heat
to produce sprigs for mint sauce. Be careful to protect the stems
of vines that are outside the forcing-houses.
Plant Houses. Let the greenhouse and conservatory have plenty
of air in mild weather. Pot and start tuberous-rooted begonias and
jloxinias. Pot young plants of Hippeastrum, and start the
sstablished ones. Propagate chrysanthemums in cool-house or
vinery under hand lights or frames. Put plants of fuchsias, petunias,
verbenas, heliotropes, salvias and other soft-wooded subjects, into
a propagating house to obtain cuttings, &c., for the flower garden.
Sow stocks, dahlias and a few tender and half-hardy annuals, on
a slight hotbed, or in pots. Propagate old roots of dahlias by
cuttings of the young shoots in a hotbed. Sow petunias in heat,
and prick out and harden for bedding out; also gloxinias to be
grown on in heat till the flowering season.
Flower Garden. In dry open weather plant dried roots, including
most of the finer florists' flowers; continue the transplanting of
hardy biennial flowers and herbaceous plants. Sow in the last
week mignonette, and hardy annuals, in a warm border, for subse-
quent transplanting.
MARCH
Kitchen Garden. Sow main crops of wrinkled marrow peas;
Longpod and Windsor beans; cabbage, onions, leeks, Early Horn
carrots, parsnips, salsafy, scorzonera, Brussels sprouts, borecoles,
lettuces and spinach. In the beginning and also at the end of the
month sow Early Strap-leaf and Early Snowball turnips and savoys.
In the last fortnight sow asparagus, cauliflower and the various
sweet and savoury herbs; also sea-kale, radishes, celery, celeriac
and parsley. Small salads should be sown every ten days. Make
up beds for mushrooms with well-prepared dung towards the end
of the month. Plant early potatoes in the first week, and a main
crop during the last fortnight. Sea-kale, asparagus and peas raised
in frames may now be planted; also garlic and shallots. Full crops
of cabbages should be planted out; also cauliflowers under hand-
glasses. Propagate by slips, or by earthing up the old stems, the
various pot-herbs.
Fruit Garden. Finish the pruning of fruit trees before the middle
of the month. Protect those coming into blossom. Begin grafting
in the third week; dig and dress between the rows of gooseberries,
currants and other fruit trees, if not already done. Kill wasps
assiduously as soon as they appear.
Forcing. Continue the forcing of melons, cucumbers, tomatoes
and the various fruits. In the vinery and peach-house, attend to
the keeping down of insects by syringing; and promote the growth
of the young shoots, by damping the walls and paths morning and
evening. Sow capsicum and tomato; also in slight hea,t such tender
herbs as basil and marjoram.
Plant Houses. More water may be given than formerly. Sow
seeds of greenhouse and hothouse plants; also the different sorts of
tender annuals; pot off those sown last month; sow cineraria for
the earliest bloom; also Chinese" primulas. Shift heaths and other
hard-wooded subjects and stove-plants; plant tuberoses in pots
for forcing. Begin to propagate greenhouse plants by cuttings; also
coleuses by cuttings in heat, potting them off as soon as rooted.
Flower Garden and Shrubbery. In the last week, sow hardy
annuals in the borders, with biennials that flower the first season,
as also perennials. Plant anemone and ranunculus roots and
the corms of gladiolus. Transplant from the nursery to their final
sites annuals sown in autumn, with biennials and herbaceous plants.
Propagate perennials from root-slips and offsets. Continue to
l>r oagate the finer sorts of dahlias, both by cuttings and by division
of the roots. Finish the pruning of all deciduous trees and hedges
as soon as possible. Attend to the dressing of shrubberies; lay
turf-edgings, and regulate the surface of gravel walks.
APRIL
Kitchen Garden. Sow asparagus, sea-kale, Turnip-rooted beet,
salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and onions on heavy soils; al?o
marrow peas, Longpod and Windsor beans, turnips, spinach, celery,.
77 8
HORTICULTURE
[CALENDAR (GREAT BRITAIN)
cabbage, savoys and Brussels sprouts for succession. Sow broccoli
and kidney-beans both in the second and in the last week, and
lettuces and small salads twice or thrice during the month; sow
all herbs, if not done last month. Sow vegetable marrow. Plant
cauliflower, cabbages, sea-kale, lettuce; and finish the planting of
the main crops of potatoes; divide and replant globe-artichokes.
Propagate all sorts of pot-herbs, and attend to the hoeing and
thinning of spinach, onions, turnips, carrots, beet, &c. Earth up
cabbages, cauliflower, peas, beans and early potatoes. Stake up
peas; blanch sea-kale and rhubarb in the open air by covering with
straw or leaves.
Fruit Garden. If vines have been neglected to be pruned, rub
off the buds that are not wanted; this is safer than pruning now.
Protect the finer sorts of fruit trees on the walls. The hardier
orchard-house fruits should now be moved outdoors under temporary
awnings, to give the choicer fruits more space, the roots being
protected by plunging the pots. Mulch all newly-planted fruit trees,
watering abundantly in dry weather.
Forcing. Continue the preparation of succession heds and pits
for cucumbers and melons. Sow; pot tomatoes and capsicums for
succession. Pollinate tomatoes by hand to ensure early fruit on
plants intended for outdoor culture. In the forcing-houses, from
the variable state of the weather, considerable vigilance is required
in giving air. Keep down red spider (Acarus) in the more advanced
houses by frequent syringings and a well- moistened atmosphere.
Continue the usual operations of disbudding and thinning of fruit,
and take care to keep up the proper temperatures.
Plant Houses. Still sow tender annuals if required ; also cinerarias
and primulas. Proceed with all necessary shiftings. Propagate rare
and fine plants by cuttings or grafting; increase bouvardias by
cuttings, and grow on for winter flowering. Pot off tender annuals,
and cuttings of half-hardy greenhouse plants put in during February
to get them well established for use in the flower garden. Transfer
chrysanthemums to sheltered positions out of doors, and provide
means of protecting them from frost and cutting winds.
Flower Garden and Shrubbery. Sow main or successional crops
of annuals of all sorts half-hardy annuals in warm borders, or on
slight hotbeds. Biennials and perennials should be sown before
the middle of the month. Plant out gladioli, if not done, tigridias
and fine stocks. Finish the transplanting of herbaceous plants by
the end of the first week. Cuttings of border chrysanthemums may
now be dibbled in a warm spot out of doors. Protect stage auriculas
and hyacinths from extremes of every description of weather; and
tulips from hoar-frosts and heavy rains. Plant out tender deciduous
trees and shrubs raised in pots; plant out tea-roses, mulching the
roots. Remove part of the coverings of all tender shrubs and
plants in the first week, and the remainder at the end of the month.
Form and repair lawns and grass walks by laying turf and sowing
perennial grass-seeds; mow the lawns frequently; plant evergreens.
MAY
Kitchen Garden. Sow main crop of beet in the first week, small
salads every week, radishes and lettuces thrice, spinach once a
fortnight, carrots and onions for late drawing, kidney-beans in the
first week and together with scarlet runners in the last fortnight;
endive for an early crop; also peas and Longpod and Windsor
beans, cauliflowers, Early York or Little Pixie cabbages, Brussels
sprouts, borecole, broccoli, savoys and kale for late crops. Sow
vegetable marrows and hardy cucumbers on a warm border in the
last week; sow cardoons in trenches, or (in the north) in pots under
glass shelter; sow chicory for salading. Continue hoeing and earth-
ing up the several crops.
Fruit Garden. Disbud peaches, nectarines and other early trees
against the walls; also attend to the thinning of fruit. Give
occasional washings with the engine to keep down insects. Pick
caterpillars from gooseberries and wall trees on their first appearance.
Remove from raspberries and strawberries all suckers and runners
that are not wanted.
Forcing. Plant melons and cucumbers on the hotbeds prepared
for vegetables in February, and now free. Plant out vegetable
marrows and pumpkins on dung-ridges, under hand-glasses. Sow
late crops of cucumbers and melons.
Plant Houses. Turn out hardy plants about the middle, and the
more tender at the latter end of the month. Sow tender annuals
for succession, potting and shifting those sown at an earlier period;
sow cinerarias for succession; and a few hardy annuals and ten-
week stock, &c., for late crops. Pot off all rooted cuttings. Put
in cuttings of the different desirable species which are now fit for
that purpose. Plant out in rich soil Richardias, to be potted up in
autumn for flowering. Bedding plants should be placed to harden
in sheltered positions out of doors towards end of month. Towards
the end of the month many of the main stock of chrysanthemums
will be ready for the final potting.
Flower Garden. Sow annuals for succession in the last week,
also biennials and perennials in the nursery compartment, for
planting out next year. Propagate plants of which more stock is
required either by cuttings or by dividing the roots. Plant out,
during the last week, dahlias, hardy pelargoniums, stocks and
calceolarias, protecting the dahlias from slight frosts. By the end
of the month, masses of the following plants may be formed with
safety in warm localities: pelargonium, heliotrppium, fuchsia,
petunia, nierembergia, salvia, verbena, bouvardia and lobelia.
Protect tulips, ranunculuses and anemones from the mid-day sun,
and from rains and winds. Remove the coverings from all tender
plants in the open air.
Shrubbery. Transplant all kinds of evergreens, this month and
September being the proper seasons. The rarer conifers should
be planted now and in June, after they have commenced to grow.
Proceed with the laying down of lawns and gravel-walks, and keep
the former regularly mown.
JUNE
Kitchen Garden. Sow kidney-beans for succession; also the
wrinkled marrow peas and Seville Longpod and Windsor beans for
late crops. Sow salading every ten days; also carrots, onions
and radishes for drawing young; and chicory for salads; sow
endive for a full crop. In the first week sow Early Munich and
Golden Ball turnips for succession, and in the third week for a full
autumn crop. Sow scarlet and white runner beans for a late crop,
and cabbages for coleworts. Make up successional mushroom beds
early in the month. Plant full crops of broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
savoys, kales, leeks and early celery, with successional crops of
cabbage and cauliflower. In the first fortnight of the month, plant
hardy cucumbers for pickling, in a warm border, placing hand-
glasses over them towards the end of the month. Plant out capsi-
cums and tomatoes in sunny positions, and stake and tie securely.
Pull and store winter onions, if ripe.
Fruit Garden. Train and prune the summer shoots of wall and
trellis and other trained trees. Mulch and water fruit trees and
strawberries in dry weather, desisting when the fruit begins to ripen.
Net over cherry-trees. Destroy aphides and other insects by
syringing with tobacco water, or by fumigating, or by dusting with
tobacco powder.
Forcing. Proceed with planting melons, cucumbers and toma-
toes. Keep up the necessary temperatures for the ripening of
the various fruits. Ventilation will still require constant care.
Tomatoes will now be fruiting freely; thin out judiciously,
avoiding excessive pruning at one time. Attend to the gathering
of fruit as it ripens.
Plant Houses. These will now be occupied with tender green-
house plants and annuals, and the more hardy plants from the stove.
Shift, repot and propagate all plants that are desirable. Sow fragrant
or showy annuals to flower in pots during winter; and grow on a
set of decorative plants for the same object. Continue the final
potting of chrysanthemums as the plants become ready.
Flower Garden. Plant out dahlias and other tender subjects, if
risk of frost is past. Take up bulbs and tuberous roots and dry
them in the shade before removing them to the store-room. Fill
up with annuals and greenhouse plants those beds from which the
bulbs and roots have been raised. After this season, keep always
a reserve of annuals in pots, or planted on beds of thin layers of
fibrous matter, so as to be readily transplanted. Layer carnations
and pipe pinks in the end of the month. Keep the lawns closely
mown.
JULY
Kitchen Garden. Watering will be necessary in each department,
if the weather is hot and dry. In the first week, sow peas for the last
crop of the season; also Longpod beans and French beans. In the
last week, sow red globe or Chirk Castle turnip for a full winter crop,
spinach for an early winter supply and Enfield Market cabbage
for early summer use. Sow endive, for autumn and winter use, in
the beginning and end of the month; also successional crops of
lettuce and small salads. Make up successioual mushroom beds.
Plant full crops of celery, celeriac, endive about the middle and end
of the month ; late crops of broccoli, cauliflower and coleworts in the
last week. Gather and dry herbs; also propagate these by slips
and cuttings.
Fruit Garden. Continue the pruning and training of wall and
espalier trees, and the destruction of noxious insects. Pot straw-
berries for forcing next winter, and make new beds out of doors as
soon as well-rooted runners can be obtained. Propagate the different
sorts of stone fruit trees by budding on other trees or on prepared
stocks. Gather fruits of all kinds as they ripen.
Forcing. Prune melons and cucumbers, giving air and water and
maintaining heat, &c. Continue the routine treatment in the tomato-
houses. Feed the plants artificially as soon as good crops are set;
do not wait for signs of distress. The forcing-houses ought to have
abundance of fresh air and moisture where required, along with the
necessary heat.
Plant Houses. Ventilation will be necessary to keep down ex-
cessive heat; and attention must be paid to potting, shifting and
putting in cuttings, and giving abundance of water to the potted
plants, both indoors and out. Sow seed of herbaceous calceolarias;
shift heaths, if they require it; cut down pelargoniums past flower-
ing, and plant the cuttings.
Flower Garden and Shrubbery. Take up the remaining tuberous
roots, such as anemones, ranunculuses, &c., by the end of the first
week; fill up their places, and any vacancies that may have oc-
curred, with annuals or bedding plants from the reserve ground.
CALENDAR (GREAT BRITAIN)]
HORTICULTURE
779
Repot auriculas, and sow auricula seed in boxes under glass. Pro-
pagate herbaceous and other plants that have gone out of flower,
by means of cuttings and slips, especially those required for spring
bedding; propagate also the various summer bedding plants in-
creased by cuttings. Increase roses and American shrubs, by layer-
ing, budding or cuttings, and go on with the layering of carnations
and picotees. Stake and tie up dahlias and strong herbaceous
plants.
AUGUST
Kitchen Garden. Sow winter and spring spinach in the beginning
and about the end of the month; parsley and winter onions, for a
full crop, in the first week; cabbages about the middle of the
month, for planting out in spring; cauliflower in the first half
(Scotland) and in the second half (England) of the month; Hardy
Hammersmith and Brown Cos lettuce in the first and last week;
small salads occasionally; and Black Spanish radish, for winter
crops. Plant out kales and broccoli for late crops; plant celery
(earthing up the advancing crops as required), endive for succession,
and a few coleworts. Take up shallots, garlic, &c.
Fruit Garden. Proceed in training and regulating the summer
shoots of all fruit trees as directed for the last three months. Net
up, in dry weather, gooseberry and currant bushes, to preserve the
fruit till late in the autumn. Make new strawberry beds if required.
Preserve the ripening fruits on the wall and other trees from in-
sects, and destroy wasp nests. Gather fruits as they ripen.
Forcing. The routine of cultivation in hotbeds and pits may be
continued. Sow tomatoes and cucumbers for a winter crop. Make
up mushroom beds. In the forcing-houses, where the crops are past,
part of the sashes may be removed, so as to permit thorough ventila-
tion.
Plant Houses. Attend to the propagation of all sorts of green-
house plants by cuttings, and to the replacing in the greenhouse and
stoves the more tender species, by the end of the month in ordinary
seasons, but in wet weather in the second week. Sow half-hardy
annuals, as Nemophila, Collinsia, Schizanthus, Rhodanthe, &c., to
flower during winter.
Flower Garden and Shrubbery. Sow in the second and the last
week, on a warm border of a light sandy soil, with an east aspect,
any free-flowering hardy annuals as Silene pendula, Nemophila, &c.,
for planting in spring; and auricula and primula seeds in pots
and boxes. Propagate all sorts of herbaceous plants by rooted
slips or suckers; take off layers of carnations, picotees and
pansies. Plant cuttings of bedding plants, an<! of bedding pelar-
goniums in boxes for convenience of removal. Layer the tops of
chrysanthemums, to obtain dwarf flowering plants. Transplant
evergreens in moist weather, about the end of the month ; and pro-
pagate them by layers and cuttings. Pot Neapolitan violets for
forcing; or plant out on a mild hotbed. Clip box edgings.
SEPTEMBER
Kitchen Garden. Sow small salading for late crops; and lettuce
and spinach, if not done last month, for spring crops. Plant endive
and lettuce at the foot of a south wall to stand the winter; plant
out cabbages from the chief autumn sowing. Plant cauliflowers on
a warm border in spaces such as can be protected by hand-lights.
Thin the winter spinach, when large enough, that it may have space
to grow. If broccoli be too rank or tall to withstand the winter,
lift and lay nearly up to the neck in the earth, the heads sloping
towards the north. Lift onions, and lay them out to ripen on a
dry border or gravel-walk. Lift potatoes and store them.
Fruit Garden. Finish the summer pruning and training. Where
the walls are heated, assist the maturing of peaches and nectarines,
and the ripening of the young wood for next year, by fires during
the day. Gather and lay up in the fruit-room with care the autumnal
sorts of apples and pears. Prepare borders and stations for fruit
trees during dry weather. Plant strawberries for a main crop.
Repot orchard-house trees, disrooting if necessary.
Forcing. Take care that late melons, cucumbers and tomatoes be
not injured by getting too much water and too little air. Sow a few
kidney beans for an early forced crop. Expel damp, and assist the
ripening of late grapes and peaches with fires during the day.
Prune early vines and peaches.
Plant Houses. The various pot plants should now be put in
their winter quarters. Keep up moderate temperatures in the stove,
and merely repel frosts in the greenhouse, guarding against damp,
by ventilation and by the cautious use of water. Pot hyacinths,
tulips and other bulbs for forcing; and propagate half-hardy
plants by cuttings. Begin the housing of the main stock of chrys-
anthemums.
Flower Garden, &c. Sow in the beginning of this month all half-
hardy annuals required for early flowering; also mignonette in pots,
thinning the plants at an early stage; the different species of primula;
and the seeds of such plants as, if sown in spring, seldom come up
the same season, but if sown in September and October, vegetate
readily the succeeding spring. Put in cuttings of bedding pelar-
goniums in boxes, which may stand outdoors exposed to the sun, but
should be sheltered from excessive rains. Continue the propagation
of herbaceous plants, taking off the layers of carnations, picotees,
pansies and chrysanthemums, by the end of the month; choice
carnations and picotees may be potted and wintered in cold frames
if the season is wet and ungenial. Plant evergreens; lay and
put in cuttings of most of the hard- wooded sorts of shrubby
plants
OCTOBER
Kitchen Garden. Sow small salading and radishes in the first
week, and lettuces in frames on a shallow hotbed for planting out in
spring. If the winter prove mild they will be somewhat earlier
than those sown next month or in January. Plant parsley in pots
or boxes to protect under glass in case very severe weather occurs.
Plant cabbages in beds or close rows till wanted in spring; and
cauliflowers in the last week, to receive the protection of frames, or
a sheltered situation. Store potatoes, beet, salsafy, scorzonera,
skirret, carrots and parsnips, by the end of the month. Band and
earth up cardoons.
Fruit Garden. Such fruit trees as have dropped their leaves may
be transplanted; this is the best season for transplanting (though
with care it may be done earlier), whether the leaves have fallen or
not. Protect fig-trees, if the weather proves frosty, as soon as they
have cast their leaves. Plant out raspberries. The orchard-house
trees should be got under glass before the end of the month. Gather
and store all sorts of apples and pears, the longest-keeping sorts
not before the end of the month, if the weather be mild.
Forcing. Maintain the heat in hotbeds and pits by means of
fresh dung linings. Give abundance of air in mild bright weather.
Dress vines and peaches. Clean and repair the forcing-houses, and
overhaul the heating apparatus to see it is in good working con-
dition. Plant chicory in boxes or on hotbeds for blanching. Sow
kidney beans. Make up successional winter mushroom beds.
^Plant Houses. Replace all sorts of greenhouse plants. Fill the
pits with pots of stocks, mignonette and hardy annuals for planting
out in spring, along with many of the hardy sorts of greenhouse
plants; the whole ought to be thoroughly ventilated, except in
frosty weather. From this time till spring keep succulent plants
almost without water. Begin to force roses, hyacinths and a few
other bulbs, for winter and early spring decoration. Plant hyacinths
in glasses for windows. The last of the pot chrysanthemums should
be housed by the end of the first week.
Flower Garden. Sow a few pots of hardy annuals in a frame, or
on a sheltered border, for successional spring use if required. Plant
the greater part of the common border bulbs, as hyacinths, narcissi,
crocuses and early tulips, about the end of the month, with a few
anemones for early flowering. Transplant strong plants of biennials
and perennials to their final situations; also the select plants used
for spring bedding. Protect alpine plants, stage auriculas, and choice
carnations and picotees with glass frames; and tea roses and other
tender plants with bracken or other protective material. Take up,
dry and store dahlias and all tender tubers at the end of the month;
pot lobelias and similar half-hardy plants from the open borders.
Transplant all sorts of hardy evergreens and shrubs, especially in dry
soils, giving abundance of water. Put in cuttings of all sorts of ever-
greens, &c. Plant out the hardier sorts of roses.
NOVEMBER
Kitchen Garden. Trench up all vacant ground as soon as cleared
of its crops, leaving the surface as rough as possible. Sow early peas
and Early Dwarf Prolific beans in the second week, for an early
crop; also in frames for transplanting. Protect endive, celery,
artichoke and sea-kale with stable-litter or fern, or by planting the
former in frames; take up late cauliflower, early broccoli and lettuces,
and place them in sheltered pits or lay them in an open shed ; earth
up celery ; manure and dress up asparagus beds.
Fruit Garden. Plant all sorts of fruit trees in fine weather the
earlier in the month the better. Protect fig-trees. Commence
pruning and nailing. Gather and store the latest apples and pears.
Examine the fruit-room and remove all decayed fruit.
Forcing. Keep up the requisite degree of heat in hotbeds and
pits. Cucumbers and tomatoes will require more than ordinary
attention. Force asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale, in the mushroom-
house, in pits, or in the open border under boxes or cases surrounded
and covered by well-fermented stable dung and leaves. Sow Early
Horn carrot; also kidney beans and radishes, pn hotbeds. In the
forcing-houses prune and train the trees; fork over and dress the
borders of such houses as have not been already done.
Plant Houses. The directions for the greenhouse and conservatory
in January apply also to this month generally. Continue the forcing
of roses, hyacinths, &c. Houses containing large-flowered Japanese
chrysanthemums will require to be kept dry, airy and moderately
warm to prevent " damping-off " of petals.
Flower Garden, &c. Plant dried tubers of border flowers, but the
finer sorts had better be deferred till spring. Plant tulips in the
early part of the month. Put in cuttings of bedding calceolarias,
choosing the shoots that will not run up to flower. Protect such
half-hardy plants as are not already sheltered. Plant deciduous
trees and shrubs so long as the weather continues favourable, and
before the soil has parted with the solar heat absorbed during summer.
Dig and dress such flower borders and shrubberies as may now be
cleared of annuals and the stems of herbaceous plants.
HORTICULTURE
[CALENDAR (UNITED STATES)
DECEMBER
Kitchen Garden. Collect and smother-burn all vegetable refuse,
and apply it as a dressing to the ground. Sow a few peas and beans,
in case of accident to those sown in November, drawing up the soil
towards the stems of those which are above ground as a protection ;
earth up celery; blanch endive with flower-pots; sow radishes in a
very sheltered place. Attend to trenching and digging in dry
weather.
Fruit Garden. Plant all sorts of fruit trees in mild weather.
Proceed with pruning and nailing wall-trees. Examine the fruit-
room every week, removing promptly all decaying fruit.
Forcing. The same degree of attention to hotbeds and pits will be
necessary as in the last month. Continue the forcing of asparagus,
rhubarb and sea-kale, in pits and in the mushroom-house. Proceed
with the usual routine of culture commenced last month. Make
the necessary preparations to begin forcing early or succession crops
by the last week of this or the first of next month.
Plant Houses, Frames, &c. Carnations and picotees in pots must
be kept rather dry to prevent damping off. Heaths and Australian
plants must be very sparingly watered, and kept with only fire heat
enough to repel frost. Cut down plants of chrysanthemums, which
should be placed in a cool pit, near the glass, in order to afford hard
sturdy cuttings in February. Shy plants should be given gentle
bottom heat to induce growth, which should be gently hardened by
exposure under cooler conditions.
Flower Garden, &fc. Plant shrubs in open weather. Prune shrubs.
Sweep and roll the lawns, and put in repair the gravel-walks, keeping
the surface frequently rolled. (J. Ws. ; W. R. W.)
(B) For the United States (chiefly for the latitude of New York).
JANUARY
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. Little is to be done in either.
In the greenhouse care must be used to protect against frost. Venti-
late but little, and with care; raise the ventilating sash only high
enough to let the heated air from the greenhouse drive back the
outer air so as not to chill the plants. To destroy the red spider,
syringe the plants copiously at night, and splash the paths with
water. The aphis, or " green fly," must also be destroyed; tobacco
may be used. Various new preparations are coming on the market
for the destruction of greenhouse pests. Several new effective
preparations of tobacco have been brought into use. The white-fly
is now a common pest in greenhouses, the nymphs being greenish
scale-like objects on the under sides of the leaves, and adults very
small white flies. The remedy is to spray with kerosene emulsion
or whale-oil soap; or if on cucumbers or tomatoes, it is best to
fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas, using one ounce of potassium
cyanide to each IOOQ cubic ft. of space. (This material is very
poisonous.) Many greenhouse insects can be kept more or less in
check by careful and effective hosing of the plants at proper times.
At this season roses, grape vines and other plants are often affected
by mildew; an effectual remedy is to paint the hot-water pipes with
a mixture of sulphur and lime, put on as thick as ordinary white-
wash, once each week until it is checked; but care must be taken
not to apply it on any surface at a higher temperature than 212.
Hyacinths and other bulbs that have been kept in a cellar or other
dark cool place may now be brought into the light of the greenhouse
or sitting-room, provided they have filled the pots with roots. If
they are not well rooted, leave them until they are, or select such of
them as are best, leaving the others. In the outside flower garden
little can be done except that shrubs may be pruned, or new work,
such as making walks or grading, performed, if weather permits. See
that the ornamental plants and trees are not injured by heavy
weights of ice or snow.
Fruit Garden. Pruning, staking up or mulching can be done if the
weather is such that the workmen can stand out. In all warm or
comfortable days the fruit trees may be pruned.
Grapery. Graperies used for the forcing of foreign grapes may be
started, beginning at a temperature of 50 at night, with 10 or 15
higher during the day. The borders must be covered sufficiently
deep with leaves or manure to prevent the soil from freezing, as it
would be destruction to the vines to start the shoots if the roots were
frozen ; hence, when forcing is begun in January, the covering should
be put on in November, before severe frosts begin.
Vegetable Garden. But little can be done in the northern states
except to prepare manure, and get sashes, tools, &c., in working
order; but in sections of the country where there is little or no frost
the hardier kinds of seeds and plants may be sown and planted, such
as asparagus, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, leek, lettuce, onion, par-
snip, peas, spinach, turnip, &c. In any section where these seeds can
be sown in open ground, it is an indication that hotbeds may be
started for the sowing of such tender vegetables as tomatoes, egg
and pepper plants, &c.; though, unless in the extreme southern
states, hotbeds should not be started before the beginning or middle
of February. Make orders for the spring seeds.
FEBRUARY
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. The directions for January will in
the main apply to this month, except that now some of the hardier
annuals may be sown in hotbed or greenhouse, and also the propaga-
tion of plants by cuttings may be done rather better now than in
January, as the greater amount of light gives more vitality to the
cutting.
Fruit Garden. But little can be done in most of the northern
states as yet, and in sections where there is no frost in the ground
it is likely to be too wet to work; but in many southern states this
will be the best month for planting fruit trees and plants of all kinds,
particularly strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pear and apple
trees, while grape vines will do, though they will also do well quite a
month later. Continue the pruning. Fruit trees for spring planting
should be ordered, if not already done.
Grapery. The graperies started last month at 50 at night may
now be increased to 60, with a correspondingly higher day tempera-
ture. Great care must be taken to syringe the leaves thoroughly at
least once a day, and to deluge the paths with water, so as to produce
a moist atmosphere. Paint the hot-water pipes with sulphur
mixture, as recommended in January.
Vegetable Garden. Leaves from the woods, house manure or
refuse hops from breweries may be got together towards the latter
part of this month, and mixed and turned to get " sweetened "
preparatory to forming hotbeds. Cabbage, lettuce and cauliflower
seeds, if sown early this month in hotbed or greenhouse, will rrake fine
plants if transplanted into hotbed in March. This is preferable
to the use of fall-sown plants. Manure that is to be used for the crop
should be broken up as fine as possible, for the more completely
manure of any kind can be mixed with the soil the better the crop
will be, and, of course, if it is dug or ploughed in in large unbroken
lumps it cannot be properly commingled.
MARCH
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. The long days and bright sun-
shine will now begin to tell on the plants under glass. Examine all
plants that are vigorous and healthy; if the roots have matted the
" ball " of earth they must be shifted into a larger-sized pot. Plants
from cuttings struck last month may now be shifted, and the propa-
gation of all plants that are likely to be wanted should be continued.
Hardier kinds of annuals may be sown; it is best done in shallow
boxes, say 2 in. deep.
Lawns can be raked off and mulched with short manure, or rich
garden earth where manure cannot be obtained. Flower-beds on
Fight soils may be dug up so as to forward the work of the coming
busy spring season. Lawns may be benefited by a good dressing, in
addition to the manure, of some reliable commercial fertilizer. If
the lawn is thin in spots, these places may be raked over heavily and
new grass seed sown.
Fruit Garden. In many sections, planting may now be done with
safety, provided the soil is light and dry, but not otherwise. Although
a tree or plant will receive no injury when its roots are undisturbed
in the soil should a frost come after planting, the same amount of
freezing will, and very often does, greatly injure the plant if the roots
are exposed.
Grapery. The grapery started in January will have set its fruit,
which should be thinned by one-third. The temperature may now
be further advanced to 70 at night, with 15 higher in the daytime.
The same precautions must be used against mildew and insects as
given in January. Graperies wanted for succession may be started
in February or this month.
Vegetable Garden. This is a busy month. In localities where
the frost is out of the ground, if it is not wet, seeds of the hardier
vegetables can be sown. The list of seeds given for the southern
states in January' may now be used at the north, while for most of
the southern states tender vegetables, such as egg plant, okra, sweet
potatoes, melon, squash, potatoes, tomatoes, &c., may be sown and
planted. Hotbeds must now be all started. In March flower seeds
and vegetable seeds may be sown in boxes or flats in the greenhouse,
or in residence windows, or near the kitchen stove. Unless one has
space under glass, or in hotbeds, in which the plants may be trans-
planted before they are set in the open ground, it is well not to start
the seeds too early, inasmuch as the plants are likely to become too
large or to be pot-bound, or to become drawn.
APRIL
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. Window and greenhouse plants
require more water and ventilation. Due attention must be paid to
shifting well-rooted plants into larger pots; and, if space is desired,
many kinds of hardier plants can be safely put out in cold frames.
Towards the end of the month it may be necessary slightly to shade
the glass of the greenhouse. All herbaceous plants and hardy shrubs
may be planted in the garden. The covering of leaves or litter should
be taken off bulbs and tender plants that were covered up for winter,
so that the beds can be lightly forked and raked. Sow tender annual
flower seeds in boxes inside.
Fruit Garden. Strawberries that have been covered up with straw
or leaves should be relieved around the 'plants, leaving the covering
between them. Special care must be exercised that the mulch be
not left on too long; the plants should not become whitened or
" drawn." Raspberries, grape vines, &c., that have been laid down
may now be uncovered and tied up to stakes or trellises, and all new
CALENDAR (UNITED STATES)]
HORTICULTURE
781
plantations of these and other fruits may now be made. Fruit trees
may be grafted.
Vegetable Garden. Asparagus, rhubarb, spinach, &c., should be
uncovered, and the beds hoed or dug lightly. Hardier sorts of
vegetable seeds and plants, such as beets, cabbage, cauliflower,
celery, lettuce, onions, parsley, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes,
spinach, turnip, &c., should all be sown or planted by the middle of
the month if the soil is dry and warm, and in all cases, where practic-
able, before the end of the month. It is essential, in sowing seeds
now, that they be well firmed in the soil. Any who expect to get
early cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce or radishes, while planting or
sowing is delayed until the time of sowing tomato and egg plant in
May, are sure to be disappointed of a full crop. Frequent rotation of
crops should be practised in the vegetable garden, in order to head
off insects and diseases; and also to make the best use of the land.
Every three or four years the vegetable garden should be laid out in
some new place; but, if this cannot be done, the crops should be
rotated on different parts of the old garden.
MAY
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. Window and greenhouse plants
should be in their finest bloom. Firing may be entirely dispensed
with, though care must still be exercised in ventilating. If weather is
cold and backward, however, and in very northern regions, care must
be taken not to stop firing too soon, or the plants will mildew and
become, stunted. Every precaution must be used to keep the air
moist. " Moss culture " may be tried, the common sphagnum or
moss of the swamps, mixed with one-twentieth of its bulk of bone-
dust, being laid as a mulch on the top of the earth of the flower-pots;
its effect is to shield the pots from the sun, and at the same time
stimulate the roots to come to the surface. By the end of the month
all of the plants that are wanted for the summer decoration of the
flower border may be planted out, first loosening a little the ball of
earth at the roots. If the weather is dry, water freely after planting.
When the greenhouse is not to be used during the summer months,
camellias, azaleas and plants of that character should be set out of
doors under partial shade; but most of the other plants usually
grown in the conservatory or window garden in winter may be set
in the open border. Flower-beds should be kept well hoed and raked,
to prevent the growth of weeds next month.
Pelargoniums, pinks, monthly roses and all the half-hardy kinds of
flowering plants should be planted early, but coleus, heliotrope and
the more tender plants should be delayed until the end of the month.
Annuals that have been sown in the greenhouse or hotbed may be
planted out, and seeds of such sorts as mignonette, sweet alyssum.
Phlox Drummondii, portulaca, &c., may be sown in the beds or
borders. The china aster is now one of the most popular of summer
and fall plants. The seed may be sown in the north as late as the
middle of May, or even the first of June, with good results for fall
blooming. If the plants are started early in the greenhouse, they are
likely to spend themselves before fall, and therefore a later sowing
should be provided.
Lawns should be mown, and the edgings trimmed.
Fruit Garden. The hay or leaf mulching on the strawberry beds
should be removed and the ground deeply hoed (if not removed in
April in the more forward places), after which it may be placed on
again to keep the fruit clean and the ground from drying. Where it
has not been convenient before, most of the smaller fruits may yet
be planted during the first part of the month. Tobacco dust will
dislodge most of the numerous kinds of slugs, caterpillars or worms
that make their appearance on the young shoots of vines or trees.
Fruit trees may be planted this month, if they were not planted in
March or April. If they have been kept fresh and dormant, they
should still be in good condition. The broken roots should be cut
back to fresh wood, and the cops should be headed back in proportion.
Vegetable Garden. Attention should be given to new sowings and
plantings for succession. Crops sown last month will have to be
thinned out if large enough. Hoe deeply all transplanted crops, such
as cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, &c. . Tender vegetables, such as
tomatoes, egg and pepper plants, sweet potatoes, &c., can be planted
out. Seeds of Lima beans, sweet corn, melon, okra, cucumbers, &c.,
should be sown; and sow for succession peas, spinach, lettuce, beans,
radishes, &c., every ten days.
JUNE
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. Tropical plants can now be used
to fill up the greenhouse during the summer months. It should be
well shaded, and fine specimens of fancy caladiums, dracaenas,
coleus, crotons, palms, ferns and such plants as are grown for the
beauty of their foliage, will make a very attractive show. If these
cannot be had, common geraniums may be used. The " moss
culture " will be found particularly valuable for these plants. Hya-
cinths, tulips and other spring bulbs may be dug up, dried and placed
away for next fall's planting, and their places filled with bedding
plants, such as coleus, achyranthes, pelargoniums, and the various
white and coloured leaf plants. It will be necessary to mow the lawn
once a week, and sometimes oftener.
_ Fruit Garden. The small fruits should be mulched about the roots,
if this has not yet been done. If the fruit garden is large enough to
admit of horse culture, it is best to keep the bush-fruits well cultivated
during the season; this tillage conserves the moisture and helps to
make a full and plump crop of berries. In small areas the mulching
system is sometimes preferable.
Vegetable Garden. Beets, beans, carrots, corn, cucumbers, lettuce,
peas and radishes may be sown for succession. This is usually a busy
month, as many crops have to be gathered, and, if hoeing is not
promptly seen to, weeds are certain to give great trouble. Tomatoes
should be tied up to trellises or stakes if fine-flavoured and handsome
fruit is desired, for if left to ripen on the ground they are apt to have
a gross earthy flavour.
JULY
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. Watering, ventilating and fumi-
gating (or the use of tobacco in other forms for destruction of aphides)
must be attended to. The atmosphere of the greenhouse must be
kept moist. Watch the plants that have been plunged out of doors,
and see if any require repotting. All plants that require staking, such
as dahlias, roses, gladioli and many herbaceous plants, should now
be looked to. Carnations and other plants that are throwing up
flower stems, if. wanted to flower in winter, should be cut back, that
is, the flower stems should be cut off to say 5 in. from the ground.
Fruit Garden. If grape vines show any signs of mildew, dust
them over with dry sulphur, selecting a still warm day. The fruit
having now been gathered from strawberry plants, if new beds are to
be formed, the system of layering the plants in small pots is the best.
In general, field strawberries are not grown from potted layers, but
from good strong layers that strike naturally in the field. In the
north, spring planting of strawberries is generally advised for market
conditions; although planting in early fall or late summer is
successful when the ground is well prepared and when it does not
suffer from drought. Where apples, pears, peaches, grapes, &c., have
set fruit thickly, thin out at least one-half to two-thirds of the young
fruit.
Vegetable Garden. The first ten days of this month will yet be
time enough to sow sweet corn, beets, lettuce, beans, cucumbers and
ruta-baga turnips. Such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, celery,
&c., wanted for fall or winter use, are best planted this month, though
in some sections they will do later. Keep sweet potatoes hoed to
prevent the vines rooting at the joints.
AUGUST
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. But little deviation is required in
these departments from the instructions for July. See that sufficient
water is applied ; the walks may be wet in the houses.
Fruit Garden. Strawberries that have fruited will now be making
" runners," or young plants. These should be kept cut off close to the
old plant^so that the full force of the root is expended in making the
" crowns " or fruit buds for next season's crop. If plants are re-
quired for new beds, only the required number should be allowed to
grow, and these may be layered in pots as recommended in July.
The old stems of raspberries and blackberries that have borne fruit
should be cut away, and the young shoots thinned to three or four
canes to each hill or plant. If tied to stakes and topped when 4 or
5 ft. high, they will form three or four branches on a cane, and will
make stronger fruiting plants for next year.
Vegetable Garden. Hoe deeply such crops as cabbage, cauliflower
and celery. The earthing up of celery this month is not to be
recommended, unless a little very early supply is wanted. Onions in
many sections can be harvested. The proper condition is when the
tops are turning yellow and falling down. They are dried best by
placing them in a dry shed in thin layers. Sow spinach for fall use,
but not yet for the winter crop. Red top, white globe, and yellow
Aberdeen turnips should now be sown; ruta-baga turnips sown last
month will need thinning, and in extreme southern states they may
yet be sown.
SEPTEMBER
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. The flower-beds in the lawn should
be at their best. If planted in " ribbon lines " or " massing," strict
attention must be given to pinching off the tops, so that the lines or
masses will present an even surface. Tender plants will require to
be put in the greenhouse or housed in some way towards the end of
this month ; but be careful to keep them as cool as possible during
the day. Cuttings of bedding plants may now be made freely if
wanted for next season, as young cuttings rooted in the fall make
better plants for next spring's use than old plants, in the case of such
soft-wooded plants as pelargoniums, fuchsias, verbenas, heliotropes,
&c. ; with roses and plants of a woody nature, however, the old
plants usually do best. Dutch bulbs, such as hyacinths, tulips,
crocus, &c., and most of the varieties of lilies, may be planted.
Violets that are wanted for winter flowering will now be growing
freely, and the runners should be trimmed off. Sow seeds of sweet
alyssum, candytuft, daisies, mignonette, pansies, &c. Visit the
roadsides and woods for interesting plants to put in the hardy
borders.
Fruit Garden. Strawberry plants that have been layered in pots
may yet be planted, or in southern districts the ordinary ground
layers may be planted. The sooner in the month both are planted
the better crop thev will give next season ; and, as these plants soon
782
HORTICULTURE
[CALENDAR (UNITED STATES)
make runners, it will be necessary to trim them off. Attend to rasp-
berries and blackberries as advised tor last month, if they have
not already been attended to. All fruit trees should be gone over for
borers before cold weather sets in; they also should have been gone
over for the same purpose in May and June.
Vegetable Garden. If cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce are wanted
to plant in cold frames, the seed should be sown from about the loth
to the 2Oth of this month; but judgment should be exercised,
for, if sown too early, cabbage and cauliflower are apt to run to seed.
The best date for latitude of New York is September isth. The
main crop of spinach or sprouts that is wanted for winter or spring
use should be sown about the same date. The earth should be drawn
up to celery with a hoe preparatory to earthing up with a spade.
Onions that were not harvested and dried last month must now be
attended to. Turnips of the early or flat sorts may yet be sown the
first week of this month in the northern states, and in the south
from two to four weeks later.
OCTOBER
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. In northern sections of the United
States, tender plants that are still outside should be got under cover
as early as possible. Delay using fire heat as long as possible, unless
the nights Decome so cold as to chiil the plants inside the house.
Roses, carnations, camellias, azaleas, pelargoniums and the hardier
sorts of plants will do better if placed in a cold frame or pit until the
middle of November than they would in an ordinary greenhouse.
Look out for insects. Fall bulbs of all kinds may be planted. Take
up summer-flowering bulbs and tubers, such as dahlias, tuberoses,
gladioli, cannas, caladiums, tigridias, and dry them off thoroughly,
stowing them away afterwards in some place free from frost and
moisture during the winter. Before winter sets in see that the lawn
is freely top-dressed. Be careful not to mow the grass too short in
fall.
Fruit Garden. Strawberries that have been grown from pot-grown
layers may yet be planted in southern states; keep the runners
trimmed off. Fruit trees and shrubs may be set out ; but, if planting
is deferred to the last of the month, the ground around the roots
should be mulched to the thickness of 3 or 4 in. with straw, leaves or
rough manure, as a protection against frost. The fruit garden must
be protected from the ravages of mice in winter. Mice will nest about
the plants if there is straw or other litter around them. Before
winter, all tall grass and loose litter should be taken away ; if this is
not done, then the first snow should be tramped heavily around the
plants, in order to destroy any nesting-places.
Vegetable Garden. Celery will now be in full growth, and will
require close attention to earthing up, and during the last part of the
month the first lot may be stored away in trenches for winter. All
vegetable roots not designed to be left in the ground during the
winter should be dug up, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, sweet
potatoes, &c. The cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants grown
from seed sown last month should be pricked out in cold frames. If
lettuce is wanted for winter use, it may now be planted in the green-
house or cold frame, and will be ready for use about Christmas. If
asparagus or rhubarb is wanted for winter use, it should be taken
up and stowed away in pit, frame, shed or cellar for a month or
two. It may then be taken into the greenhouse and packed closely
together under the stage, and will be fit for use from January to
March, according to the temperature of the house. Vegetable
gardens often become infested with diseases that are carried over
from year to year in the old plants and litter; this is specially true
of water-melons and of some diseases of tomatoes. It is well, there-
fore, to burn the tops of the plants in the fall, rather than to plough
them under or to throw them on the compost heap.
NOVEMBER
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. Plants intended to be grown
inside should now all be indoors. Keep a sharp look-out for cold
snaps, as they come very unexpectedly in November, and many
plants are lost thereby. In cases where it is not convenient to use
fire heat, 5 to 10 of cold can be resisted by covering the plants over
with paper, and by using this before frost has struck the plants
valuable collections may be saved. When fire heat is fresly used, be
careful to keep up the proper amount of moisture by sprinkling the
paths with water. Little can be done in the flower garden, except to
clean off all dead stalks, and straw up tender roses, vines, &c., and,
wherever there is time, to dig up and rake the borders, as it will
greatly facilitate spring work. Cover up all beds in which there are
hyacinths, tulips and other bulbs with a litter of leaves or straw to
the depth of 2 or 3 in. If short, thoroughly-decayed manure can
be spared, a good sprinkling spread over the lawn will help it to a
finer growth next spring.
Fruit Garden. Strawberry beds should be covered (in cold sections)
with hay, straw or leaf mulching, to a depth not exceeding 2 in.
Fruit trees and grape vines generally should be pruned ; and, if the
wood of the vine is wanted for cuttings, or scions of fruit trees for
grafts, they should be tied in small bundles and buried in the ground
until spring. They may be taken in December or January if pre-
ferred.
Vegetable Garden. Celery that is to be stored for winter use should
be put away before the end of the month in all sections north of
Virginia; south of that it may be left in most places where grown
throughout the winter if well covered up. The stalks of the asparagus
bed should be cut off, and burned if there are berries on them, as the
seeds scattered in the soil sometimes produce troublesome weeds.
Mulch the beds with 2 or 3 in. of rough manure. All vegetable roots
that are yet in the ground, and not designed to be left there over
winter, must be dug up in this latitude before the middle of the
month or they may be frozen in. Cover up onions, spinach, sprouts,
cabbage or lettuce plants with a covering of 2 or 3 in of leaves, hay,
or straw, to protect them during the winter. Cabbages that have
headed may usually be preserved against injury by frost until the
middle of next month, by simply pulling them up and packing them
closely in a dry spot in the open field with the heads down and roots
up. On approach of cold weather in December they should be covered
up with leaves as high as the tops of the roots, or, if the soil is light,
it may be thrown over them, if leaves are not convenient. Cabbages
will keep this way until March if the covering has not been put on
too early. Plough all empty ground if practicable, and, whenever
time will permit, do trenching and subsoiling. Cabbage, cauli-
flower and lettuce plants that are in frames should be regularly
ventilated by lifting the sash on warm days, and on the approach
of very cold weather they should be covered with straw mats or
shutters. In the colder latitudes, and even in the middle states, it
is absolutely necessary to protect cauliflower in this way, as it is much
more tender than cabbage and lettuce plants.
DECEMBER
Flower Garden and Greenhouse. Close attention must be paid to
protecting all tender plants, for it is not uncommon to have the care
of a whole year spoiled by one night's neglect. Vigilance and extra
hot fires will have to be kept up when the thermometer falls to 34
or 35 in the parlour or conservatory. It is well to set the plants
under the benches or on the walks of the greenhouses; if they are in
the parlour move them away from the cold point and protect them
with paper; this will usually save them even if the thermometer
falls to 24 or 26. Another plan in the greenhouse is to dash water
on the pipes or flues, which causes steam to rise to the glass and
freeze there, stopping up all the crevices. With plants outside that
require strawing up or to be mulched, this will have now to be
finished.
Fruit Garden. In sections where it is an advantage to protect
grape vines, raspberries, &c.,from severe frost, these should be laid
down as close to the ground as possible, and covered with leaves,
straw or hay, or with a few inches of soil. Grapes may be pruned.
Fruit trees may be pruned from now till March in the north.
Vegetable Garden. Celery in trenches should receive the final
covering for the winter, which is best done by leaves or light stable
litter; in the latitude of New York it should not be less than 12 in.
thick. Potatoes, beets, turnips or other roots in pits, the spinach
crop in the ground, or any other article in need of protection, should
be attended to before the end of the month ; manure and compost
heaps should be forwarded as rapidly as possible, and turned and
mixed so as to be in proper condition for spring. Remove the snow
that accumulates on cold frames or other glass structures, particu-
larly if the soil which the glass covers was not frozen before the snow
fell; it may remain on the sashes longer if the plants are frozen in,
since they are dormant, and would not be injured if deprived of light
for eight or ten days. If roots have been placed in cellars, attention
must be given to ventilation, which can be done by making a wooden
box, say 6 by 8 in., to run from the ceiling of the cellar to the eaves
of the building above. (L. H. B.; P. H.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MODERN WORKS ON HORTICULTURE. W.
Robinson, Alpine Flowers; Lord Redesdale (A. B. Freeman Mitford),
The Bamboo Garden; ]. Weathers, Bulbous Plants (33 col. plates);
H. H. Cousins, Chemistry of the Garden; W. Watson, Cactus Culture
for Amateurs; R. P. Brotherston and M. R. Smith, Book of the
Carnation; J. Weathers, Cottage and Allotment Gardening; ]. Veitch
and Sons, Manual of Coniferae ; W. Wells, Culture of the Chrysanthe-
mum; Rev. S. E. Bourne, Book of the Daffodil; Geo. Nicholson,
Dictionary of Gardening (5 vols.); W. Robinson, The English Flower
Garden; Geo. Schneider, Book of Choice Ferns (3 vols.); W. Robin-
son, Flora and Sylva ( 3 vols.; col. plates by the late H. G. Moon);
J. Weathers, Flowering Trees and Shrubs (33 col. plates) ; J. Weathers,
French Market-Gardening and Intensive Cultivation; T. Smith,
French Gardening; Geo. Bunyard and O. Thomas, The Fruit
Garden; Josh. Brace, Fruit Trees in Pots; Dr R. Hogg, The Fruit
Manual; M. C. Cooke, Fungoid Pests of Cultivated Plants; Thos. H.
Mawson, The Art and Craft of Garden- Making; J. Weathers, A
Practical Guide to Garden Plants; W. Watson, The Gardeners'
Assistant; C. H. Wright and D. Dewar, The Gardeners' Dictionary;
J. Weathers, Garden Flowers for Town and Country (33 col. plates);
Chas. Baltet, The Art of Grafting and Budding; W. Thomson, The
Grape Vine; Thos. Baines, Greenhouse and Stove Plants; R. Irwin
Lynch, The Book of the Iris; G. Jekyll, Lilies for English Gardens;
E. A. Ormerod, Manual of Injurious Insects; Dr A. B. Griffiths,
Manures for Fruit and other Trees; F. W. Burbridge and I. G. Baker,
The Narcissus (48 col. plates); H. A, Burberry, The Orchid Culti-
vator's Handbook; B. S. Williams, The Orchid Grower's Manual:
HORTON, C. HOSE
783
J. Veitch & Sons, Manual of Orchidaceous Plants ; Dr Paul Sorauer
and F. E. Weiss, Physiology of Plants; W. Watson, Orchids, their
Culture and Management; G. Massee, Plant Diseases; Rev. A.
Foster-Melliar, Book of the Rose; Wm. Paul, The Rose Garden (20
col. plates); G. Jekyll and E. Mawley, Roses for English Gardens;
J. Weathers, Roses for Garden and Greenhouse (33 col. plates) ; Nat.
Rose Society, Handbook on Pruning Roses; Rev. J. H. Pemberton,
Roses, their History, Development and Culture ; Very Rev. Dean Hole,
A Book about Roses; J. Hoffmann, The Amateur Gardener's Rose
Book (20 col. plates; translated from the German); A. Gaut,
Seaside Planting of Trees and Shrubs; E. Beckett, Book of the
Strawberry; W. Iggulden, The Tomato; J. Weathers, Trees and
Shrubs for English and Irish Gardens (33 col. plates); Vilmorin et
Cie., The Vegetable Garden (Eng. ed. by W. Robinson) ; A. F. Barren,
Vines and Vine Culture; G. Jekyll, Wall and Water Gardens; W.
Robinson, The Wild Garden; L. H. Bailey, Practical Garden Book
(New York, 1908). (J. Ws.; W. R. W.)
HORTON, CHRISTIANA (c. i6g6-c. 1756), English actress,
first appeared in London as Melinda in The Recruiting Officer
in 1714 at Drury Lane. Here she remained twenty years,
followed by fifteen at Covent Garden. At both houses during
this long career she played all the leading tragedy and comedy
parts, and Barton Booth (who " discovered " her) said she was
the best successor of Mrs. Oldfield. She was the original Mariana
in Fielding's Miser (1733).
HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN (1855- ), British Noncon-
formist divine, was born in London on the i8th of September
1855. He was educated at Shrewsbury school and New College,
Oxford, where he took first classes in classics. He was president
of the Oxford Union in 1877. He became a fellow of his college
in 1879, and lectured on history for four years. In 1880 he
accepted an influential invitation to become pastor of the Lynd-
hurst Road Congregational church, Hampstead, and sub-
sequently took a very prominent part in church and denomina-
tional work generally. He delivered the Lyman Beecher
lectures at Yale in 1893; i n ^98 he was chairman of the London
Congregational Union; and in 1903 of the Congregational Union of
England and Wales. In 1909 he took a prominent part in the
75th anniversary celebration of Hartford Theological Seminary.
His numerous publications include books on theological, critical,
historical, biographical and devotional subjects.
HORTON, SAMUEL DANA (1844-1895), American writer
on bimetallism, was born in Pomeroy, Ohio, on the i6th of
January 1844. He graduated at Harvard in 1864, and at the
Harvard Law School in 1868, studied Roman law in Berlin in
1869, and in 1871 was admitted to the Ohio bar. He practised
law in Cincinnati, and then in Pomeroy until 1885, when he gave
up law for the advancement of bimetallism. His attention had
been turned to monetary questions by the " greenback cam-
paign " of 1875 in Ohio, in which, as in former campaigns, he
had spoken, particularly effectively in German, for the Republican
party. He was secretary of the American delegation to the
Monetary Conference which met in Paris in 1878, and edited
the report of the delegation. To the conference of 1881 he was
a delegate, and thereafter he spent much of his time in Europe,
whither he was sent by President Harrison in 1889 as special
commissioner to promote the international restoration of silver.
He died in Washington, B.C., on the 23rd of February 1895.
Horton's principal works were The Silver Pound (1887) and
Silver in Europe (1890), a volume of essays.
HORUS (Egyptian Hor), the name of an Egyptian god,
if not of several distinct gods. To all forms of Horus the falcon
was sacred; the name Hor, written with a standing figure of that
bird, Vis. is connected with a root signifying "upper," and
probably means " the high-flyer." The tame sacred falcon on
its perch J5* is the commonest symbol of divinity in early
hieroglyphic writing; the commonest title of the king in the
earliest dynasties, and his first title later, was that which named
him Horus. Hawk gods were the presiding deities of Poi (Pe)
and Nekhen, which had been the royal quarters in the capitals
of the two primeval kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, at Buto
and opposite El Kab. A principal festival in very early times
was the " worship of Horus," and the kings of the prehistoric
dynasties were afterwards called " the worshippers of Horus."
The Northern Kingdom in particular was under the patronage
of Horus. He was a solar divinity, but appears very early in
the Osiris cycle of deities, a son of Isis and probably of Osiris,
and opponent of Seth. On monuments of the Middle Kingdom
or somewhat later we find besides Hor the following special
forms: Har-behtet, i.e. Hor of Beht, the winged solar disk,
god of Edfu (Apollinopolis Magna); Har-khentekthai, god of
Athribis; Har-mesen (whose principal sacred animal was a
lion), god of the Sethroite (?) nome; Har-khentemna, i.e. the
blind (?) Horus (with a shrew-mouse) at Letopolis; Har-mert
(" of two eyes ") at Pharbaethus; Har-akht, Ra-har-akht, or
Har-m-akhi (Harmakhis, " Hor of the horizon "), the sun-god
of Heliopolis.
As a sun-god Horus not only worsted the hostile darkness and
avenged his father, but also daily renewed himself. He was thus
identical with his own father from one point of view. In the
mythology, especially that of the New Kingdom, or of quite late
times, we find the following standing epithets applied to more or
less distinct forms or phases: Harendotes (Har-ent-yotf),
i.e. " Hor, avenger of his father (Osiris) "; Harpokhrates
(Har-p-khrat) , i.e. " Hor the child," with finger in mouth,
sometimes seated on a lotus-flower; Harsiesis (Har-si-Esi) ,
i.e. " Hor, son of Isis," as a child; Har-en-khebi, " Hor in
Chemmis," a child nursed by Isis in the papyrus marshes;
Haroeris (Har-uer), i.e. " the elder Hor," at Ombos, &c., human-
headed or falcon-headed; Harsemteus (Har-sem-teu) , i.e.
" Hor, uniter of the two lands," and others.
In the judgment scene Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris.
To the Greeks Horus was equivalent to Apollo, but in the name
of Hermopolis Parva (see DAMANHUR), which must have been
among the first of the Egyptian cities to be known to them, he
was apparently identified with Hermes. Although the falcon
was the bird most properly sacred to Horus, not only its varieties,
but also* the sparrow-hawk, kestrel and other small hawks were
mummified in his honour in late times.
See EGYPT: section Religion; Meyer, art. " Horos " in Roscher,
Lexicon der Griech. und Rom. Mythologie. (F. LL. G.)
HORWICH, an urban district in the Westhoughton parlia-
mentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. W.N.W. of
Bolton, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901)
15,084. It lies beneath the considerable elevation of Rivington
Pike, where formerly was a great forest. It has extensive
locomotive works, and there are large stone quarries in the
district. Bleaching and cotton-spinning and the manufacture
of fire-bricks and tiles are carried on.
HOSANNA, the cry of praise or adoration shouted in recogni-
tion of the Messiahship of Jesus on his entry into Jerusalem
(Matt. xxi. 9, 15; Mark xi. 9 sq.; John xii. 13), and since used
in the Christian Church. It is also a Jewish liturgical term,
and was applied specifically to the " hosanna " branches carried
in procession in the Feast of Booths or Tabernacles, the seventh
day of which was called the Hosanna-day (so also in Syrian
usage; cf. " Palm " Sunday). This festival (for which see Lev.
xxiii. 39 sqq.; 2 Mace. x. 7; Jos. Ant. xii. 10. 4, xiii. 13. 15; and
the Talmudic tractate Sukkah) already suggested a Dionysiac
celebration to Plutarch (Symp. iv. 6), and was associated with
a ceremonial drawing of water which, it was believed, secured
fertilizing rains in the following year; the penalty for abstinence
was drought (cf. Zech. xiv. 16 seq.). The evidence (see further
Ency. Bib. cols. 3354, 4880 seq.; I. Levy, Rev. des Et. juives,
1901, pp. 192 sqq.) points to rites of nature- worship, and it
is possible that in these the term Hosanna had some other
application.
The old interpretation " save, now ! " which may be a popular
etymology, is based on Ps. cxviii. 25 (Heb. hoshVah-nna), but this
does not explain the occurrence of the word in the Gospels, a compli-
cated problem, on which see the articles of J. H. Thayer in Hastings's
Diet. Bib., and more especially T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib. s.v.
HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf.
Dutch, hoos, stocking, Ger. Hose, breeches, tights; the
ultimate origin is unknown), the name of an article of dress,
7 8 4
HOSEA
used as a covering for the leg and foot. The word has been
used for various forms of a long stocking covering both the foot
and leg (see HOSIERY), and this is the usual modern sense. But
it also formerly meant a kind of gaiter covering the leg from the
knee to the ankle only, of the long tight covering for the -whole
of the lower limbs, and later of the short purled or slashed
breeches worn with the doublet at this period, from the early
part of the i6th century onwards, comes the distinction between
the " hose " or " trunk hose " and the stocking (see COSTUME).
The term is applied to certain objects resembling such a covering,
as in its application to flexible rubber or canvas piping used
for conveying water (see HOSEPIPE), and in botany, to the
" sheath " covering, e.g. the ear of corn. The term " hose-in-
hose " is thus used in botany for a flower in which the corolla
has become doubled, as though a second were inserted in the
throat of the first; it occurs sometimes in the primrose.
HOSEA, the son of Beerl, the first in order of the minor
prophets of the Old Testament. The name Hosea (JS^i, LXX.
'Qcn^, Vulg. Osee, and so the English version in Rom. ix. 25)
ought rather to be written Hoshea, and is identical with that
borne by the last king of Ephraim, and by Joshua in Num.
xiii. 16, Deut. xxxii. 44. Of the life of Hosea 1 we know nothing
beyond what can be gathered from his prophecies. That he
was a citizen of the northern kingdom appears from the whole
tenor of the book, but most expressly from i. 2, where " the
land," the prophet's land, is the realm of Israel, and vii. 5,
where " our king " is the king of Samaria. The date at which
Hosea flourished is given in the title, i. i, by the reigning kings
of Judah and Israel. He prophesied (i) in the days of Uzziah,
Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah; (2) in the days
of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. The dates in-
dicated by the title, which may be regarded as editorial, are,
for the four kings of the southern kingdom, 789-740, 730-734,
733~7 21 an d 720-693 B.C. respectively; and, for Jeroboam II.,
782-743 (cf. Ency. Bib. col. 797-798). The book itself, however,
plainly belongs to the period prior to 734 B.C. since, 'in that
year, (a) the Syro-Ephraimitic war began, to which there is
here no reference, nor is Assyria yet the open foe it then became;
(b) Gilead became Tiglaih-Pileser's (2 Kings xv. 29), whereas
it is here described as still part of the territory of Israel (vi. 8;
xii. ii ; cf. the included place-names of v. i). On the other hand,
the prophet connects with the birth of his eldest child the
approaching fall of the house of Jehu (i. 4), thus anticipating
the death of Jeroboam II. in 743, and the period of anarchy
which followed (2 Kings xv.). Thus the prophetic work of
Hosea may be dated, with practical certainty, as beginning
from some point previous to 743 and extending not later than
734. 2 This is corroborated by the general character of the
book. Of its two parts, i.-iii. reflects the wealth and prosperity
of the reign of Jeroboam II., whilst iv.-xiv. contains frequent refer-
ences to the social disorder and anarchy of the subsequent years.
1 Traditions about Hosea. Been, the prophet's father, is identified
by the Rabbins with Beerah (i Chron. v. 6), a Reubenite prince
carried captive by Tiglath-Pileser. This view is already expressed
by Jerome, Quaest. in Paralip., and doubtless underlies the state-
ment of the Targum to Chronicles that Beerah was a prophet. For
it is a Jewish maxim that when a prophet's father is named, he, too,
was a prophet, and accordingly a tradition of R. Simon makes
Isa. viii. 19, 20 a prophecy of Been (Kimchi in loc.; Leviticus
Rabba, par. 15). According to the usual Christian tradition, how-
ever, Hosea was of the tribe of Issachar, and from an unknown town,
Belemoth or Belemon (pseudo-Epiphanius, pseudo-Dorotheus,
Ephraem Syr. ii. 234; Chron. Pasch., Bonn ed., i. 276). As the
tradition adds that he died there, and was buried in peace, the
source of the story lies probably in some holy place shown as his
grave. There are other traditions as to the burial-place of Hosea.
A Jewish legend in the Shalshelet haqqabala (Carpzov, Introd., pt. iii.
ch. yii. 3) tells that he died in captivity at Babylon, and was
carried to Upper Galilee, and buried at rax, that is, Safed (Neubauer,
Ceog. du Talmud, p. 227) ; and the Arabs show the grave of Nebi
'Osha, east of the Jordan, near Es-Salt (Baedeker's Palestine, p. 337 ;
Burckhardt's Syria, p. 353).
2 The supposed reference of viii. 9-10 to the tribute paid by
Menahem to Tiglath-Pileser (2 Kings xv. 19), and dated, on the
monuments, 738 B.C., depends on a corrupt text: read v. IO with
Septuagint.
The first part of Hosea's prophetic work, corresponding to
chs. i.-iii., lay in the years of external prosperity immediately
preceding the catastrophe of the house of Jehu in or near the year
743. The second part of the book is a summary of prophetic
teaching during the subsequent troublous reign of Menahem,
and, perhaps, that of his successor, Pekahiah, and must have
been completed before 734 B.C. Apart from the narrative
in chs. i.-iii., to which we shall presently recur, the book throws
little or no light on the details of Hosea's life. It appears from
ix. 7, 8, that his prophetic work was greatly embarrassed by
opposition: " As for the prophet, a fowler's snare is in all his
ways, and enmity in the house of his God." The enmity which
had its centre in the sanctuary probably proceeded from the
priests (comp. Amos vii.), against whose profligacy and pro-
fanation of their office our prophet frequently declaims perhaps
also from the degenerate prophetic gilds which had their seats
in the holy cities of the northern kingdom, and with whom
Hosea's elder contemporary Amos so indignantly refuses to
be identified (Amos vii. 14). In ch. iv. 5 Hosea seems to
comprise priests and prophets in one condemnation, thus placing
himself in direct antagonism to all the leaders of the religious
life of his nation. He is not less antagonistic to the kings and
princes of his day (vii. 3-7, viii. 4, viii. 10 Septuagint, x. 7-15,
xiii. n). 3 In view of the familiarity shown with the intrigues
of rulers and the doings of priests, it has been conjectured that
Hosea held a prominent position, or even (by Duhm) that he
was himself a priest (Marti, p. 2).
The most interesting problem of Hosea's history lies in the
interpretation of the story of his married life (chs. i.-iii.). We
read in these chapters that God's revelation to Hosea began
when in accordance with a divine command he married a profligate
wife, Corner, the daughter of Diblaim. Three children were born
in this marriage and received symbolical names, illustrative of
the divine purpose towards Israel, which are expounded in ch.
i. In ch. ii. the faithlessness of Israel to Jehovah (Yahweh),
the long-suffering of God, the moral discipline of sorrow and
tribulation by which He will yet bring back His erring people
and betroth it to Himself for ever in righteousness, love and
truth, are depicted under the figure of the relation of a husband
to an erring spouse. The suggestion of this allegory lies in
the prophet's marriage with Gomer, but the details are worked
out quite independently, and under a rich multiplicity of figures
derived from other sources. In the third chapter we return
to the personal experience of the prophet. His faithless wife
had at length left him and fallen, under circumstances which are
not detailed, into a state of misery, from which Hosea, still
following her with tender affection, and encouraged by a divine
command, brought her back and restored her to his house,
where he kept her in seclusion, and patiently watched over
her for many days, yet not readmitting her to the privileges
of a wife.
In these experiences the prophet again recognizes a parallel
to Yahweh's long-suffering love to Israel, and the discipline
by which the people shall be brought back to God through a
period in which all their political and religious institutions are
overthrown. Throughout these chapters personal narrative
and prophetic allegory are interwoven with a rapidity of transi-
tion very puzzling to the modern reader; but an unbiassed
exegesis can hardly fail to acknowledge that chs. i. and iii.
narrate an actual passage in the prophet's life. The names of the
three children are symbolical, but Isaiah in like manner gave
symbolical names to his sons, embodying prominent points
3 Some scholars hold that his attack is directed against the very
principle of monarchy (Nowack, p. 8; Smend, p. 209: " Hosea
rejects the kingship in itself"; Wellhausen, p. 125: "The making
of kings in Israel is for him, together with the heathen cultus, the
fundamental evil "). This view depends on a disputed interpreta-
tion of. the reference to Gibeah (x. 9; cf. ix. 9); and on the words:
" I give thee kings in mine anger, and I take them away in my
wrath " (xiii. Ii), which may refer to the rise and fall of contem-
porary kings (cf. Marti, ad loc.). In any case, as Wellhausen himself
says (p. 132) : " He does not start from a dogmatic theory, but
simply from historical experience."
HOSEA
785
in his prophetic teaching (Shear-jashub, Isa. vii. 3, comp. x. 21;
Maher-shalal-hash-baz, viii. 3). And the name of Corner bath
Diblaim is certainly that of an actual person, upon which all
the allegorists, from the Targum, Jerome and Ephraem Syrus
downwards, have spent their arts in vain, whereas the true sym-
bolical names in the book are perfectly easy of interpretation. 1
That the ancient interpreters take the whole narrative as a mere
parable is no more than an application of their standing rule that
everything in the Biblical history is allegorical which in its .literal
sense appears offensive to propriety (comp. Jerome's proem to
the book). But the supposed offence to propriety seems to rest
on mistaken exegesis and too narrow a conception of the way
in which the Divine word was communicated to the prophets. 2
There is no reason to suppose that Hosea knowingly married
a woman of profligate character. The point of the allegory
in i. 2 is plainly infidelity after marriage as a parallel to Israel's
departure from the covenant God, and a profligate wife (Q'^i fittm)
is not the same thing with an open prostitute (u). The
marriage was marred by Comer's infidelity; and the struggle
of Hosea's affection for his wife with this great unhappiness
a struggle inconceivable unless his first love had been pure and
full of trust in the purity of its object furnished him with a new
insight into Yahweh's dealings with Israel. Then he recognized
that the great calamity of his life was God's own ordinance and
appointed means to communicate to him a deep prophetic lesson.
The recognition of a divine command after the fact has its
parallel, as Wellhausen observes, in Jer. xxxii. 8.
It was in the experiences of his married life, and in the spiritual
lessons opened to him through these, that Hosea first heard
the revealing voice of Yahweh (i. 2). 3 Like Amos (Amos iii. 8),
he was called to speak for God by an inward constraining voice,
1 Theodorus Mops, remarks very justly, nal TO ofojua'/cai
SoKoirj TO
irarepa
* This explanation of the narrative, which is essentially Ewald's,
is now generally accepted. It has the great advantage of supplying
a psychological key to the conception of Israel or the land of Israel
(i. 2) as the spouse of Yahweh, which dominates these chapters,
but in the later part of the book gives way to the personification of
the nation as God's son. This conception has, indeed, formal points
of contact with notions previously current, and even with the ideas
of Semitic heathenism. On the one hand, it is a standing Hebrew
usage to represent the land as mother of its people, while the repre-
sentation of worshippers as children of their god is found in Num.
xxi. 29, where the Moabites are called children of Chemosh, and is
early and widespread throughout the Semitic field (cf. Trans. Bib.
Arch. vi. 438; Jour, of Phil. ix. 82). The combination of these
two notions gives at once the conception of the national deity as
husband of the land. On the other hand, the designation of Yahweh
as Baal, which, in accordance with the antique view of marriage,
means husband as well as lord and owner, was current among the
Israelites in early times, perhaps, indeed, down to Hosea's age
(ii. 16). Now it is highly probable that among the idolatrous
Israelites the idea of a marriage between the deity and individual
worshippers was actually current and connected with the immorality
which Hosea often condemns in the worship of the local Baalim
whom the ignorant people identified with Yahweh. For we have
a Punic woman's name, ^yawm, " the betrothed of Baal " (Euting,
Punische Steine, pp. 9, 15), and a similar conception existed among
the Babylonians (Herod, i. 181, 182). But Hosea takes the idea of
Yahweh as husband, and gives it an altogether different turn,
filling it with a new and profound meaning, based on the psychical
experiences of a deep human affection in contest with outraged
honour and the wilful self-degradation of a spouse. It can hardly
be supposed that all that lies in these chapters is an abstract study
in the psychology of the emotions. It is actual human experience
that gives Hosea the key to divine truth.
3 Davidson (D.B. ii. 422) remarks that " it was not his mis-
fortunes that gave Hosea his prophetic word. Israel's apostasy was
plain to him, and he foreshadowed her doom in Jezreel, the name
of his first childi before any misfortunes overtook him. At most,
his misfortunes may at a later time have given a complexion to his
prophetic thoughts." Wellhausen (p. 108) objects to the emergence
of the call from the experience, on the ground that the name given
to the first child gives no indication that Hosea had yet reached his
specific message, the infidelity of his wife and of Israel, though it
shows him already as a prophet. Marti (p. 15) agrees with Davidson
in making the order (a) call, (b) marriage and birth of three children,
(c) comprehension of the significance of the marriage for himself
and for Israel. The statement made above must be interpreted of
Hosea's specific message from Yahweh, as recorded in his book.
and there is no reason to think that he had any connexion with
the recognized prophetic societies, or ever received such outward
adoption to office as was given to Elisha. His position in Israel
was one of tragic isolation. Amos, when he had discharged his
mission at Bethel, could return to his home and to his friends;
Hosea was a stranger among his own people, and his home was
full of sorrow and shame. Isaiah in the gloomiest days of Judah's
declensions had faithful disciples about him, and knew that there
was a believing remnant in the land. Hosea knows no such
remnant, and there is not a line in his prophecy from which
we can conclude that his words ever found an obedient ear.
As already stated, this prophecy falls into two clearly dis-
tinguished sections, 4 the former (i.-iii.), already dealt with,
accounting for the general standpoint of the latter (iv.-xiv.).
It is not possible to make any convincing subdivisions of this
latter section (cf. G. A. Smith, i. p. 223) which is best regarded
as a series of separate discourses on certain recurrent topics,
viz. (a) the cultus, (b) the social disorder and immorality, (c)
political tendencies (alliance with either Assyria or Egypt sought). 5
In regard to each of these topics, the attitude of the prophet
involves the discernment of present guilt, and the assertion
of future punishment. For him the present condition of the
people contained no germ or pledge of future amendment, and
he describes the impending judgment, not as a sifting process
(Amos ix. 9, 10) in which the wicked perish and the righteous
remain, but as the total wreck of the nation which has wholly
turned aside from its God. In truth, while the idolatrous feasts of
Ephraim still ran their joyous round, while the careless people
crowded to the high places, and there in unbridled and licentious
mirth flattered themselves that their many sacrifices ensured the
help of their God against all calamity, the nation was already
in the last stage of internal dissolution. To the prophet's eye
there was " no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the
land nought but swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing
and adultery; they break out, and blood toucheth blood "
(iv. i, 2). The root of this corruption lay in total ignorance of
Yahweh, whose precepts were no longer taught by the priests,
while in the national calf-worship, and in the local high places,
this worship was confounded with the service of the Canaanite
Baalim. Thus the whole religious constitution of Israel was
undermined. And the political state of the realm was in Hosea's
eyes not more hopeful. The dynasty of Jehu, still great and
powerful when the prophet's labours began, is itself an incorpora-
tion of national sin. Founded on the bloodshed of Jezreel, it
must fall by God's vengeance, and the state shall fall with it
(i. 4; iii. 4). This sentence stands at the head of Hosea's pre-
dictions, and throughout the book the civil constitution of
Ephraim is represented as equally lawless and godless with the
corrupt religious establishment. The anarchy that followed
on the murder of Zachariah appears to the prophet as the natural
decadence of a realm not founded on divine ordinance. The
nation had rejected Yahweh, the only helper. And now the
avenging Assyrian 6 is at hand. Samaria's king shall pass away
as foam on the water. Fortress and city shall fall before the
ruthless invader, who spares neither age nor sex, and thistles shall
cover the desolate altars of Ephraim.
In our present book of Hosea, this condemnatory judgment on
contemporary Israel culminates in a chapter of appeal for penitence,
with promise of divine forgiveness. The question of the authenticity
of this and of other " restoration" passages 7 forms the chief problem
4 Marti disregards this generally accepted division, arguing that
a) i.-iii. was not written earlier than iv.-xiv., (b) iii. is not Hoseanic,
c) ii. is much more akin to iv.-xiv. than to i.-iii. (Comm. p. I ; cf.
Enc. Bib. 2123 n. 3 ). He holds that another wife, not Corner, is
intended in iii., which is an allegory referring to Israel, as Comer
referred to Judah. His arguments are not convincing.
6 So, practically, Davidson, D.B. ii. p. 423 seq., where the detailed
references will be found.
This is too definite for the data; cf. Davidson, I.e. " Hosea has
no clear idea of the instrument or means of Israel's destruction.
It is ' the sword ' (vii. 16, xi. 6), the ' enemy ' (viii. 3, v. 8-9) ;
or it is natural, internal decay (vii. 8-9, ix. 16), the moth and
rottenness (v. 12)."
1 e.g. i. lo-ii. i, ii. I4f., iii. 5, v. I5~vi. 3, xi. 10-11.
HOSE-PIPE
for literary criticism presented by the book. 1
a, G. A. Smith and Nowack regard
Amongst the more
recent commentators, Davidson, G. A. Smith and Nowack regard
Hosea xiv. as written by the prophet, though the second admits
its chronological misplacement and the third its later expansion
On the other hand, it is altogether rejected by Cheyne, Wellhausenj
Marti and Harper. These claim that the passage reflects the later
standpoint of completed punishment, and is therefore inconsisten
in the prophet who anticipates that punishment. But the case is
different from that of the epilogue to Amps, since Hosea's persona
experience covers forgiveness as well as discipline (Marti consistently
though without ground, rejects this experience also). There seems
therefore, to be no sufficient evidence for denying thoughts o
restoration to Hosea, whilst it is highly probable that such passages
would be amplified in a later age. Indeed, the importance of these
passages for the interpretation of Hosea is apt to be overrated
for, as one of those rejecting them remarks, though Hosea " promisee
nothing," yet he " contributed a conception of Yahweh which made
such a future not only possible but even probable " (Harper, p. cliii.).
We may therefore read the closing chapter as, at least, the explicit
statement of a hope implicit in Hosea's teaching.
Hosea could discern no faithful remnant in Ephraim, yet
Ephraim in all his corruption is the son of Yahweh, a child
nurtured with tender love, a chosen people, whose past history
declares in every episode the watchful and patient affection
of his father. And that father is God and not man, the Holy
One who will not and cannot sacrifice His love even to the justest
indignation (chap. xi.). To the prophet who knows this love of
Yahweh, who has learned to understand it in the like experience
of his own life, the very ruin of the state of Israel is a step in the
loving guidance which makes the valley of trouble a door of hope
(ii. 15), and the wilderness of tribulation as full of promise as
the desert road from Egypt to Canaan was to Israel of old. Of the
manner of Israel's repentance and conversion Hosea presents no
clear image nay, it is plain that on this point he had nothing to
tell. The certainty that the people will at length return and
seek Yahweh their God rests, not on any germ of better things
in Israel, but on the invincible supremacy of Yahweh's love.
And so the two sides of his prophetic declaration, the passionate
denunciation of Israel's sin and folly, and the not less passionate
tenderness with which he describes the final victory of divine
love, are united by no logical bond. The unity is one of feeling
only, and the sob of anguish in which many of his appeals to a
heedless people seem to end turns once and again with sudden
revulsion into the clear accents of evangelical promise, which in
the closing chapter swell forth in pure and strong cadence out
of a heart that has found its rest with God from all the troubles
of a stormy life.
The strongly emotional temperament of Hosea suggests com-
parison with that of Jeremiah, who like himself is the prophet
of the decline and fall of a kingdom. The subsequent influence
of Hosea on the literature of the Old and New Testaments is
very marked. Not only is it seen in the conception of the
relation between God and His people as a marriage, which
he makes current coin (cf. Marti, p. 15), but still more in the
fact that his conception of the divine character becomes the
inspiration of the book of Deuteronomy and so of the whole
canon of Scripture. " In a special degree, the author of
Deuteronomy is the spiritual heir of Hosea." 2
RECENT LITERATURE (where references to older works will be
found): Cheyne, "Hosea" in Cambridge Bible (1884); W. R.
Smith, The Prophets of Israel, 2 with Cheyne's introduction (1895);
G. A. Smith, " The_Book of the Twelve," i., in The Expositor's Bible
(1896); Nowack, Die Kleinen Propheten (1897); Wellhausen, Die
Ency.
1 Apart from glosses and minor alterations, the only other critical
problem of importance is that of the references to Judah scattered
throughout the book (i. 7, iv. 15, v. 5, v. 10 f., vi. 4, n, viii.
14, x. ii, xi. 12). There is no inherent improbability in some
mention of the sister kingdom; but some of the actual references
do suggest interpolation, especially i. 7, where the deliverance of
Judah from Sennacherib in 701 B.C. seems intended. Each case,
as Wellhausen implies, is to- be considered on its merits. On
these and other suspected passages, cf. Cheyne, Intro, to W. R.
Smith s Prophets of Israel, pp. xvii.-xxii. ; Marti, p. 8 ; Harper,
p. chx.
1 Driver, Deuteronomy, p. xxvii.
Biblica, ii. c. 2119 (1901) (a revision of the original article by W R
Smith, in the Ency. Britannica, partially reproduced above)- Marti'
Dodekapropheton (1903) ; W. R. Harper, " Amos and Hosea " in
Inter. Critical Commentary (1905) (with copious bibliography)
(W. R. S.;H. W R.*)
HOSE-PIPE, or simply " hose," the name given to flexible
piping by means of which water may be conveyed from one
place to another. One end of the pipe is connected to the source
of the water, while the other end is free, so that the direction of
the stream of water which issues from the pipe may be changed
at will. The method of manufacture and the strength of the
materials used depend naturally upon the particular use to
which the finished article is to be put Simple garden hose is
often made of india-rubber or composition, but the hose intended
for fire brigade and similar important purposes must be of a much
more substantial material. The most satisfactory material is
the best long flax, although cotton is also extensively used for
many types of this fabric.
The flax fibre, after having been carefully spun into yarn,
is boiled twice and then beetled; these two processes remove
all injurious matter, and make the yarn soft and lustrous. The
yarn is then wound on to large bobbins, and made into a chain;
the number of threads in the chain depends upon the size of the
hose, which may be anything from half an inch to 15 in. or even
more in diameter. When the chain is warped, it is beamed
upon the weaver's beam, and the ends either double or triple
are drawn through the leaves of the cambs of heddles, passed
through the reed and finally tied to the cloth beam. The prepara-
tion of the warp for any kind of loom varies very little, but the
weaving may vary greatly. In all cases the hose fabric is
essentially circular, although it appears quite flat during the
weaving operation.
There are very few hand-made fabrics which can compete
with the machine-made article, but the very best type of hose-
pipe is certainly one of the former class. The cloth can be made
much more cheaply in the power-loom than in the hand-loom, but,
up to the present, no power-loom has been made which can weave
as substantial a cloth as the hand-loom product; the weak
part in all hose-pipes is where the weft passes round the sides from
top to bottom of the fabric or vice versa, that is, the side corre-
sponding to the selvages in an ordinary cloth; the hand-loom
weaver can draw the weft tighter than is possible in the power-
loom, hence the threads at the sides can be brought close to-
gether, and by this means the fabric is made almost, but not
quite, as perfect here as in other parts. It is essential that the
warp threads be held tightly in the loom, and to secure this, they
pass alternately over and under three or four back rests before
reaching the heddles or cambs, which are almost invariably
made of wire. Although the warp yarn is made very soft and
^liable by boiling and beetling, the weaver always tallows
't in order to make it work more easily.
The commonest type of hose-pipe is made on the double-plain
principle of weaving, the cloth being perfectly plain but woven in
such a manner that the pipe is without seams of any kind. Fig. I
s a design showing two repeats or eight shots in the way of the weft,
and six repeats or twenty-four threads in the way of the warp,
consequently the weave is complete on four threads, or leaves, and
'our picks. Fig. 2 illustrates the method of interlacing the threads
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
nd the picks: this figure shows that twenty-three threads only are
ised, the first thread shown shaded in fig. I having been left out.
t is necessary to use a number of threads which is either one less
or one more than some multiple of four the number of threads in
he unit weave. The sectional view (fig. 2), although indicating
he crossings of the warp and the weft, is quite different from an
actual section through the threads: the warp is almost invariably
wo or three ply, and in addition two or more of these twisted
hreads pass through the same heddle-eye in the camb; moreover,
hey are set very closely together so closely, indeed, that the threads
ntirely conceal the weft; it is, therefore/impossible to give a correct
HOSHANGABAD HOSHIARPUR
787
FIG. 3. Section through
the Warp.
sectional view with satisfactory clearness, as the threads are so very
rank, but fig. 3 gives some idea of the structure of the fabric. This
view shows ninety-nine threads and one complete round of weft;
this round is, of course, equal to two picks or shots one pick for
the top part of the cloth and one for the bottom part. A com-
parison of this figure with fig. 2 will,
perhaps, make the description clearer.
The weft in fig. 3 is thinner than the
warp, but, in practice, it is always
much thicker, and may consist of
from two to seventy threads twisted
together.
Hose-pipes are also woven with the
three-leaf twill on both sides, and
occasionally with the four-leaf twill.
These pipes, woven with the twill
weaves, are usually lined with a pure
rubber tube which is fixed to the
inside of the cloth by another layer
of rubber after the cloth leaves the
loom. Such pipes have usually, but
not invariably, a smoother inner sur-
face than those which are unlined, hence, when they are used, less
friction is presented to the flow of water, and there is less ten-
dency for the pipe to leak. They are, therefore, suitable for
hotels, public buildings and similar places where their temporary
use will not result in undue damage to articles of furniture, carpets
and general decoration.
The greatest care must be observed in the weaving of these
fabrics, the slightest flaw in the structure rendering the article
practically useless. After the cloth has been woven, it is carefully
examined, and then steeped in a chemical solution which acts as
an antiseptic. The cloth is thus effectively preserved from mildew,
and is, in addition, made more pliable. Finally the hose-pipe is dried
artificially, and then fitted with the necessary couplings and nozzles.
For a more detailed description of circular weaving see Woodhouse
and Milne, Textile Design: Pure and Applied. (T. Wo.)
HOSHANGABAD, a town and district of British India, in
the Nerbudda division of the Central Provinces. The town
stands on the left bank of the Nerbudda, 1009 ft. above the sea,
and has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 14,940. It is supposed
to have been founded by Hoshang Shah, the second of the Ghori
kings of Malwa, in the i5th century; but it remained an in-
significant place till the Bhopal conquest about 1720, when a
massive stone fort was constructed, with its base on the river,
commanding the Bhopal road. It sustained several sieges during
the 1 8th century, and passed alternately into the hands of the
Bhopal and Nagpur rulers. Since 1818 it has been the residence
of the chief British officials in charge of the district. It has a
government high school, and agricultural school and a brass-
working industry.
The DISTRICT OF HOSHANGABAD has an area of 3676 sq. m.
Pop. (1901), 449,165, showing a decrease of 10% in the decade,
due to famine. It may be described as a valley of varying
breadth, extending for 150 m. between the Nerbudda river and
the Satpura mountains. The soil consists chiefly of black basaltic
alluvium, often more than 20 ft. deep; but along the banks of the
Nerbudda the fertility of the land compensates for the tameness
of the scenery. Towards the west, low stony hills and broken
ridges cut up the level ground, while the Vindhyas and the
Satpuras throw out jutting spurs and ranges. In this wilder
country considerable regions are covered with jungle. On the
south the lofty range which shuts in the valley is remarkable
in mountain scenery, surpassing in its picturesque irregularity
the Vindhyan chain in the north. Many streams take their
rise amid its precipices, then, winding through deep glens, flow
across the plain between sandy banks covered with low jungle till
they swell the waters of the Nerbudda. None is of any impor-
tance except the Tawa, which is interesting to the geologist on
account of the many minerals to be found along its course. The
boundary rivers, the Nerbudda and Tapti, are the only con-
siderable waters in Hoshangabad. The principal crops are
wheat, millets and oil-seeds. The district is traversed through-
out its length by the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
HOSHEA (Heb. for " deliverance "), the last king of Israel,
in the Bible. The attempt of his predecessor Pekah to take
Jerusalem with the help of his ally Rasun (Rezin) of Damascus
was frustrated by the intervention of Tiglath-Pileser IV.
(see AHAZ), who attacked Gilead, Galilee and the north frontier,
and carried off some of its population (cp. i Chron. v. 26).
Pekah's resistance to Assyria led to a conspiracy in which
he lost his life, and Hoshea the son of Elah became king
(2 Kings xv. 27-30). The Assyrian king held him as his vassal
(and indeed claims to have set him on the throne), and exacted
from him a yearly tribute. Meanwhile, Damascus was besieged
(733-732 B.C.), Ra?un was slain and the inhabitants deported
(2 Kings xvi. 9; LXX. omits " to Kir," but see Amos i. 5).
The impending fate of Damascus is illustrated by Isaiah (vii. 16,
viii. 4, xvii. i-n), who also gives a vivid description of the
impression left by the Assyrian army (v. 26-30). After the
death of Tiglath-Pileser, Israel regained confidence (Isa. ix. 8-x. 4)
and took steps to recover its independence. Its policy vacillated
" like a silly dove " (Hos. vii. n), and at length negotiations
were opened with Mizraim. The annual payment of tribute
ceased and Shalmaneser IV. (who began to reign in 727 B.C.)
at once laid siege to Samaria, which fell at the end of three years
(722-721 B.C.). The achievement is claimed by his successor
Sargon. Hoshea was killed, the land was again partly depopu-
lated and a governor appointed (2 Kings xviii. 9-12; cp. xvii.
i sqq.). For other allusions to this period see HOSEA, ISAIAH.
2 Kings xvii. 3 and 5 imply two attacks by Shalmaneser: in the
first of which Hoshea was imprisoned and perhaps blinded (Cheyne,
emending, " shut him up " in v. 4), although in v. 6 he is still reigning;
see on this Winckler, Keilinschr. u. Alte Test. 3 p. 268; Burney,
Kings, p. 328 seq.; Skinner, Kings, p. 372 seq. The chronological
notes, moreover, are extremely confused; contrast xv. 30 with
xvii. I. The usual identification of So (or Seve), king of Mizraim,
with Shabaka of Egypt is difficult, partly on chronological grounds
(which Petrie, History of Egypt, pp. 277, 281 sqq. does not remove),
and partly because the Ethiopian dominion in Egypt appears to be
still weak and divided. The Assyrian records name a certain Sibi
as officer, and also Piru (Pharaoh!) as king of Musri, and it is
doubtful whether Hoshea's ally was a petty prince of Egypt or of
a N. Arabian district (see MIZRAIM). If the latter, Hoshea's policy
becomes more intelligible; see Whitehouse, Isaiah, p. 17 seq.;
JEWS: History; PHILISTINES. On the depopulation of Samaria
and the introduction of colonists, see Winckler's objections,
Alttest. Untersuch. pp. 95-107, with Burney's criticisms, Kings,
P- 334 seq- (S. A. C.)
HOSHIARPUR, a town of British India, in the Jullundur
division of the Punjab. Pop. (1901), 17,549. It was founded,
according to tradition, about the early part of the i4th century.
In 1809 it was occupied by Ranjit Singh. The maharaja and
his successors maintained a considerable cantonment i m. S.E.
of the town, and the British government kept it up fo- several
years after the annexation of the Punjab in 1849. There are
manufactures of cotton goods, inlaid woodwork, lacquered ware,
shoes and copper vessels.
The DISTRICT OF HOSHIARPUR comprises an area of 2244
sq. m.; pop. (1901) 989,782, showing a decrease of 2% in the
decade, compared with an increase of 12% during the previous
decade. It falls into two nearly equal portions of hill and
plain country. Its eastern face consists of the westward slope
of the Solar Singhi Hills; parallel with that ridge, a line of
lower heights belonging to the Siwalik range traverses the
district from south to north, while between the two chains
stretches a valley of uneven width, known as the Jaswan Dun.
Its upper portion is crossed by the Sohan torrent, while the
Sutlej sweeps into its lower end through a break in the hills,
and flows in a southerly direction till it turns the flank of the
central range, and debouches westwards upon the plains. This
western plain consists of alluvial formation, with a general
westerly slope owing to the deposit of silt from the mountain
torrents in the sub-montane tract. The Beas has a fringe of
lowland, open to moderate but not excessive inundations, and
considered very fertile. A considerable area is covered by
government woodlands, under the care of the forest department.
Rice is largely grown, in the marshy flats along the banks of
the Beas. Several religious fairs are held, at Anandpur, Mukerian
and Chintpurni, all of which attract an enormous concourse
of people. The district, owing to its proximity to the hills,
possesses a comparatively cool and humid climate. Cotton
fabrics are manufactured, and sugar, rice and other grains,
tobacco and indigo are among the exports.
788
HOSIERY
The country around Hoshiarpur formed part of the old Hindu
kingdom of Katoch in Jullundur. The state was eventually
broken up, and the present district was divided between the
rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan. They retained undisturbed
possession of their territories until 1759, when the rising Sikh
chieftains commenced a series of encroachments upon the hill
tracts. In 1815 the aggressive maharaja, Ranjit Singh, forced
the ruler of Jaswan to resign his territories in exchange for
an estate on feudal tenure; three years later the raja of Ditarpur
met with similar treatment. By the close of the year 1818 the
whole country from the Sutlej to the Beas had come under
the government of Lahore, and after the first Sikh war in 1846
passed to the British government. The deposed rajas of Ditarpur
and Jaswan received cash pensions from the new rulers, but
expressed bitter disappointment at not being restored to their
former sovereign position. Accordingly the outbreak of the
second Sikh war, in 1848 found the disaffected chieftains ready
for rebellion. They organized a revolt, but the two rajas and
the other ringleaders were captured, and their estates con-
fiscated.
HOSIERY, a term used to designate all manufactured textile
fabrics which in their process of manufacture have been built
on the principle of looping or loop structure. The origin of the
term is obvious, being derived from " hose " or stocking, this
being one of the earliest garments made by the process of
knitting (q.v.). While it still forms one of the staples of the
trade, it is only one of a very numerous and diversified range
of applications of the entire industry. The elastic structure
of knitting makes it very adaptable for all kinds of body or
underwear. There is scarcely a single textile article manufactured
but can be reproduced on the knitting or loop structure principle.
The art of knitting is of very modern origin as compared with
that of weaving. No certain allusion to the art occurs before
the beginning of the isth century. In an act of parliament
of Henry VII. (1488) knitted woollen caps are mentioned. It
is supposed that the art was first practised in Scotland, and
thence carried into England, and that caps were made by knitting
for some period before the more difficult feat of stocking-making
was attempted. In an act of Edward VI. (1553) " knitte hose,
knitte peticotes, knitte gloves and knitte sleeves " are enumer-
ated, and the trade of hosiers, among others, included in an act
dated 1563. Spanish silk stockings were worn on rare occasions
by Henry VIII., and the same much-prized articles are also
mentioned in connexion with the wardrobe of Edward VI.
Knitting, or loop formation by mechanical means, is divided
into two distinct principles frame-work knitting and warp
knitting. Both principles may be employed in the formation
of a large variety of plain and fancy stitches or a combination
of the two.
Frame-work Knitting in its simplest form consists of rows of
loops supporting each other built from one continuous thread of
yarn and running from one side of the fabric to the other and back
FlG. 2. A Single Thread
formed into a Chain of
Crocket Work, showing the
Loop Structure of the plain
Warp-knitted Fabric. It
FIG. I. The Stitch or Loop is built up as shown in the
Structure of Plain Knitting diagram by a number of
(back of fabric). threads running up the fabric.
(fig. i). It is on this principle of stitch that the greatest amount
of hosiery is built (hose, shirts, pants).
Warp Knitting in its simplest form consists of rows of loops, but
the number of threads employed are equal to the number of loops
in the width of the fabric. Thus it will be seen that the threads
run lengthwise of the fabric (fig. 2). This principle gives greater
scope for reproducing designs in openwork and colour than that of
frame-work knitting. For this reason it is largely used in the shawl,
glove and fancy hosiery industries.
Machinery. In hand knitting the implements employed (a few
needles or wires) are very simple and inexpensive. In the manu-
facturing industry
the most complex
and ingenious
machinery is used.
In 1589 the Rev.
William Lee, a
graduate of St
John's College,
Cambridge, while
acting as curate (or
vicar) of Calvcrton,
Nottinghamshire,
i ntroduced his
stocking-frame.
This machine was
the first mechanical
means employed to
produce a looped or
knitted fabric. This
frame or machine of
Lee's was the origin
of all the hosiery
and lace machines
at present in use.
One of the most
remarkable points
about his invention
was its complete-
ness and adapt-
ability for the work
for which its inven-
tor intended it. The
main principles of
Lee's frame are em-
FIG. 3. Hand Stocking Frame.
bodied in most of the rotary or power frames of the present day.
Fig. 3 shows a hand frame of the present day.
In hand knitting an indefinite number of loops are skewered on
a wire or pin, but, in Lee's frame, an individual hooked or bearded
needle is employed for the support and formation of each loop in
the breadth of the fabric. This needle consists of a shank with a
terminal spring-pointed hook (or beard), the point of which can be
pressed at will into a groove or eye in the shank. For method by
which the loops are formed on the needles of the frame see fig. 4.
This shows a few of Lee's hooked or bearded needles having the old
loops or work hanging round the needle shanks. The thread of
yarn which is to form the new row of loops is laid over the needle
shanks and waved or looped between each pair of needles. This
waving or looping ensures sufficient yarn being drawn and loops of
a uniform size being made, so that a regular and level fabric will be
produced. The looping or waving is obtained by having thin plates
of shaped metal, called sinkers, which have a nose-shaped point
and hang between
the needles. When
looping they have
an individual
movement down-
wards between the
needles, and as
they fall the nose-
shaped point car-
ries the yarn down,
thus forming the
new loop (fig. 5).
The size of the loop ~\l&& s Sf-"-~> KIT* a
is regulated by the i C *fff
distance the sinker
is allowed to fall.
After
of
fl
A ' The
pj c *
whi ' ch the needles
D, The old loops or work.
by the snkers the , C : The new loops formed and brought under
loops are brought the beards '
forward under the needle beards or hooks. A presser bar is
now brought down to close or press all the points of the needle
beards into the eye in the shank. Thus all the hook ends of the
needles are temporarily closed, with the newly formed loops under
them. While in this position, the old loops hanging round the
shank are brought forward and landed on to the top of the needle
beard and off the needle altogether, being thus left hanging round,
or supported by the loops newly formed. The needle beards are now
released, and the loops drawn back along the shanks to be in position
for next new course of loops. The foregoing is only an outline of
how the loops are formed on the needles. It is not necessary here
to enter into a description of the complex mechanical movements
of Lee's stocking-frame. The first fabric made by Lee was of a
HOSIERY
789
flat, even-selvedged nature, so that garments had to be cu.t to
shape from the fabric. He soon learned to fashion or shape the
garment at will, during the process of making, by transferring loops
4 ~~V 5
FIG. 5. Formation of a Loop on a Hand Frame.
1, Bearded needle cast in the lead. A, Lead; B, Shank; C, Eye;
D, Beard.
2, The thread is laid over the needles and formed into loops between
the needles by means of the sinkers, those new-formed loops
being brought under the needle beards (as at 3).
4, The beards pressed or closed to allow the old loops to be passed
on to the top.
5, The old loops knocked off the needles and left hanging round the
newly formed loops.
at the edges, inwards to narrow, or outwards to widen. This process
at the present day is known as fashioning, and all garments of the
best make are shaped or fashioned in this manner. After Lee had
practised his new art for a few years at Calverton he removed to
London, but on his receiving no help or encouragement from Queen
Elizabeth or her successor, King James, he was induced to cross over
to France with his frames. There he built up a flourishing industry
at Rouen, under the patronage of the French king, Henry IV.
Through the murder of this monarch he lost his patronage and died
of want about the year 1610. He was buried in an unknown grave
in Paris.
A number of improvements had been made on Lee's frame during
the l8th century. The one of greatest importance was the rib
machine invented by Jedediah Strutt of Betper in 1758. It was
not what could be actually termed an improvement on Lee's frame,
but an addition to it. Lee's frame was not altered in any way,
Strutt's machine being added to it, and the two being worked in
conjunction produced a fabric of a more elastic nature and alike
on both sides (fig. 6). Strutt's machine consisted of a set of needles
placed at right angles to and between Lee's
plain needles, with the result that, when
knitting, the frame needles drew their loops
to one. side and the machine needles their
loops to the opposite side of the fabric. The
first offshoot from frame-work knitting was
the invention of the hand warp loom in
!775- It was improved by the addition of
the Dawson wheel by William Dawson in
1791. This machine is the origin of the
various complex machines now working on
FIG. 6. A \ Rib
Stitch.
this principle. Some of these have Jacquard mechanism attached,
and nearly all of them are driven by motive power. About the
middle of the igth century close on 50,000 of Lee's hand frames
were in use, finding employment for nearly 100,000 persons. Many
attempts had been made previously to transform Lee's frame into
a power or rotary frame. One of the first and most successful was
that invented by Luke Barton in 1857. This frame was fitted with
self-acting mechanism for fashioning, and was practically Lee's
frame having rotary shafts with cams added to give the various
movements, this type of frame being known as straight bar rotary
frames. In 1864 William Cotton of Loughborough altered this
frame by reversing the positions of the needles and sinkers. Although
made by various builders it is still known as the " Cotton Patent
Rotary Frame " (fig. 7). Since 1864 a great number of important
improvements and additions have been made to this frame. Single
frames are built which will turn off one dozen pairs of hose at once,
with the attention of one person. One of the most important
inventions in connexion with the hosiery trade was the latch, tumbler,
or self-acting needle invented by Matthew Townsend and
David Moulding of Leicester in 1858. Previous to this
Lee's type of needle was the only one in use. This latch-
needle (fig. 8) consists of a stem having a butt at lower
end by which it receives its knitting action from cams,
FIG. 7. Eight at once, 130 gauge, full-fashioned, seamless bosom, sloped shoulder underwear frame.
Cotton's patents. (William Cotton, Ltd., Loughborough.)
790
HOSIUS HOSKINS
the upper end being turned into a hook. Near the hook end
and attached to the stem by a pin is the spoon-shaped latch,
which closes over the hook as required. Machines fitted with latch-
needles have grooves in which the stem of the needle works. Cams,
which act on the
needle butts, give
the needles their
individual knit-
ting action in rota-
tion. This needle
is self-acting, in
that it is made to
draw its own loop,
sinkers being dis-
pensed with.
Fig. 9 shows the
looping action of
this needle. The
needles when not
knitting have a
FIG. 8. Various Shapes of the Latch Needle, loop round their
shank, thus hold-
ing the latch open. When about to knit, they are raised individually
and in rotation (by the cams acting on the needle butts) to receive
the new loop of yarn.
Down till almost the middle of the igth century only a flat web
could be knitted in the machines in use, and for the finishing of
stockings, &c., it was necessary to seam up the selvedges of web
shaped on the frame (fashioned work), or to cut and seam them
from even web (cut work). The introduction of any device by
which seamless garments could be fabricated was obviously a great
desideratum, and it is a singular fact that a machine capable of
doing this was patented in 1816 by Sir Marc I. Brunei. This frame
was the origin of the French-German loop-wheel circular frame of
the present day. Brunei's frame was greatly improved by Peter
Claussen of Brussels and was shown at an exhibition in Nottingham
in 1845. This frame had horizontal placed needles fixed on a rotating
rim. A few years later Moses Mellor of Nottingham transformed this
type of frame by altering the position of the needles to perpendicular.
This is now known as the English loop-wheel circular frame. After
the invention of the latch-needle there was a revolution in the
hosiery machine-building industry, new types of machines being
invented, fitted to
work with latch-
needles. Among
others there was the
latch-needle circular
frame, invented by
Thomas Thompson,
which was the origin
of the English latch-
needle circular frame,
I a frame largely used
for the production
of wide circular
fabric.
A circular knitting
machine of American
origin is the type of
machine on which is
produced the seam-
less hosiery of to-day.
Like the sewing machine it is largely used in the home as well as in
the factory. From this machine all the circular automatic power
machines for making plain and rib seamless hose and half hose
have been developed. The " flat " or " lamb " type of machine,
an American invention, was introduced by J. W. Lamb in 1863.
This machine has two needle beds or rows of needles sloping at an
angle of 'nearly 90.
A great many varieties of this type of machine have been invented
for the production of all kinds of plain and fancy hosiery. It is
built in small sizes to be wrought by hand or in large power machines.
A large variety of sewing, seaming and linking machines are em-
ployed in the hosiery industry for the purpose of putting together
or joining all kinds of hosiery and knitted goods. These machines
have almost entirely superseded the sewing or joining of the gar-
ments by hand.
The principle centres in Great Britain of the hosiery industry are
Leicester and Nottingham and the surrounding districts. It is also
an industry of some extent in the south of Scotland. (T. B.*)
HOSIUS, or Osius (c. 257-359), bishop of Cordova, was born
about A.D. 257, probably at Cordova, although from a passage
in Zosimus it has sometimes been conjectured that he was
believed by that writer to be a native of Egypt. Elected to
the see of Cordova before the end of the 3rd century, he narrowly
escaped martyrdom in the persecution of Maximian (303-305).
In 305 or 306 he attended the council of Illiberis or Elvira (his
FIG. 9. Individual Action of the Latch
Needle.
name appearing second in the list of those present), and upheld
its severe canons concerning such points of discipline as the
treatment of the lapsed and clerical marriages. In 3 13 he appears
at the court of Constantine, being expressly mentioned by
name in a constitution directed by the emperor to Caecilianus
of Carthage in that year. In 323 he was the bearer and possibly
the writer of Constantine's letter to Bishop Alexander of Alex-
andria and Arius his deacon, bidding them cease disturbing
the peace of the church; and, on the failure of the negotiations
in Egypt, it was doubtless with the active concurrence of Hosius
that the council of Nicaea was convened in 325. He certainly
took part in its proceedings, and was one of the large number
of " confessors " present; that he presided is a very doubtful
assertion, as also that he was the principal author of the Nicene
Creed. StUJ he powerfully influenced the judgment of the
emperor in favour of the orthodox party. After a period of quiet
life in his own diocese, Hosius presided in 343 at the fruitless
synod of Sardica, which showed itself so hostile to Arianism;
and afterwards he spoke and wrote in favour of Athanasius in
such a way as to bring upon himself a sentence of banishment
to Sirmium (355). From his exile he wrote to Constantius II.
his only extant composition, a letter not unjustly characterized
by the great French historian Sebastian Tillemont as displaying
gravity, dignity, gentleness, wisdom, generosity and in fact
all the qualities of a great soul and a great bishop. Subjected
to continual pressure the old man, who was near his hundredth
year, was weak enough to sign the formula adopted by the
second synod of Sirmium in 357, which involved communion
with the Arians but not the condemnation of Athanasius. He
was then permitted to return to his diocese, where he died in 359.
See S. Tillemont, Memoires, vii. 300-321 (1700); Hefele, Con-
ciliengeschichte, vol. i.; H. M. Gwatkin, Studies of Arianism
(Cambridge, 1882, 2nd ed., 1900); A. W. W. Dale, The Synod of
Elvira (London, 1882); and article s.v. in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopadie (3rd ed., 1900), with bibliography.
HOSIUS, STANISLAUS (1504-1579), Polish cardinal, was
born in Cracow on the sth of May 1504. He studied law at
Padua and Bologna, and entering the church became in 1549
bishop of Kulm, in 1551 bishop of Ermland, and in 1561 cardinal.
Hosius had Jesuit sympathies and actively opposed the Pro-
testant reformation, going so far as to desire a repetition of
the St Bartholomew massacre in Poland, Apart from its being
" the property of the Roman Church," he regarded the Bible
as having no more worth than the fables of Aesop. Hosius
was not distinguished as a theologian, though he drew up the
Confessio fidei Christiana catholica adopted by the synod of
Piotrkow in 1557. He was, however, supreme as a diplomatist
and administrator. Besides carrying through many difficult
negotiations, he founded the lyceum of Braunsberg, which
became the centre of the Roman Catholic mission among
Protestants. He died at Capranica near Rome on the 5th
of August 1579.
A collected edition of his works was published at Cologne in 1584.
Life by A. Eichhorn (Mainz, 1854), 2 vols.
HOSKINS, JOHN (d. 1664), English miniature painter, the
uncle of Samuel Cooper, who received his artistic education in
Hoskins's house. His finest miniatures are at Ham House,
Montagu House, Windsor Castle, Amsterdam and in the Pierpont
Morgan collection. Vertue stated that Hoskins had a son, and
Redgrave added that the son painted a portrait of James II.
in 1686 and was paid 10, 53. for it, a statement for which there
must have been some evidence, although it is not supposed
by any reference in the State Papers. Some contemporary
inscriptions on the miniatures at Ham House record them as
the work of "Old Hoskins," but the fact of the existence
of a younger artist of the same name is settled by a miniature
in the Pierpont Morgan collection, signed by Hoskins, and
bearing an authentic engraved inscription on its contemporary
frame to the effect that it represents the duke of Berwick at
the age of twenty-nine in 1700. The elder Hoskins was buried
on the 22nd of February 1664, in St Paul's, Covent Garden, and
as there is no doubt of the authenticity of this miniature or of
HOSMER HOSPITAL
791
the signature upon it, it is evident that he had a son who survived
him thirty-six years and whose monogram we find upon this
portrait. The frame of it has also the royal coat of arms de-
bruised, the batons of a marshal of France, the collar of the
Golden Fleece and the ducal coronet. (G. C. W.)
HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE (1830-1908), American
sculptor, was born at Watertown, Massachussetts, on the gth
of October 1830. She early showed marked aptitude for model-
ling, and studied anatomy with her father, a physician, and
afterwards at the St Louis Medical College. She then studied
in Boston until 1852, when,, with her friend Charlotte Cushman,
she went to Rome, where from 1853 to 1860 she was the pupil of
the English sculptor John Gibson. She lived in Rome until a few
years before her death. There she was associated with Nathaniel
Hawthorne, Thorwaldsen, Flaxman, Thackeray, George Eliot and
George Sand; and she was frequently the guest of the Brownings
at Casa Guidi, in Florence. Among her works are " Daphne "
and " Medusa," ideal heads (1853); " Puck " (1855), a spirited
and graceful conception which she copied for the prince of
Wales, the duke of Hamilton and others; "Oenone " (1855),
her first life-sized figure, now in the St Louis Museum of Fine
Arts; " Beatrice Cenci " (1857), for the Mercantile Library
of St Louis; " Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, in Chains " (1859),
now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; " A
Sleeping Faun" (1867); "A Waking Faun"; a bronze statue
of Thomas H. Benton (1868) for Lafayette Park, St Louis;
bronze gates for the earl of Brownlow's art gallery at Ashridge
Hall; a Siren fountain for Lady Marian Alford; a fountain for
Central Park, New York City; a monument to Abraham
Lincoln; and, for the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893,
statues of the queen of Naples as the " heroine of Gaeta," and
of Queen Isabella of Spain. Miss Hosmer died at Watertown,
Mass., on the 2ist of February 1908.
HOSPICE (Lat. hospitium, entertainment, hospitality, inn,
hospes, host), the name usually given to the homes of rest and
refuge kept by religious houses for pilgrims and guests. The
most famous hospices are those of the Great and Little St
Bernard Passes in the Alps.
HOSPITAL (Lat. hospitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or
guest), a term now in general use for institutions in which
medical treatment is given to the sick or injured. The place
where a guest was received was in Lat. hospitium (Fr. hospice),
but the terms hospitalis (sc. domus] , hospitale (sc. cubiculum) and
hospitalia (sc. cubicula) came into use in the same sense. Hence
were derived on the one hand the Fr. hospital, hopital, applied
to establishments for temporary occupation by the sick for the
purpose of medical treatment, and hospice to places for permanent
occupation by the poor, infirm, incurable or insane; on the
other, the form hotel, which became restricted (except in the
case of hdtel-Dieu) to private or public dwelling-houses for
ordinary occupation. In English, while " hostel " retained the
earlier sense and " hotel " has become confined to that of a
superior inn (q.v.), " hospital " was used both in the sense of a
permanent retreat for the poor infirm or for the insane, and also
for a regular institution for the temporary reception of sick
cases; but modern usage has gradually restricted it mainly to
the latter, other words, such as almshouse and asylum, being
preferred in the former cases.
The Origin of Hospitals. In spite of contrary opinions the
germ of the hospital system may be seen in pre-Christian times
(see CHARITY AND CHARITIES). Pinel goes so far as to declare
that there were asylums distinctly set apart for the insane in
the temples of Saturn in ancient Egypt. But this is probably
an exaggeration, the real historical facts pointing to the existence
of medical schools in connexion with the temples generally, to
the knowledge that the priests possessed what medical science
existed, and finally to the rite of " Incubation," which involved
the visit of sick persons to the temple, in the shade of which they
slept, that the god might inform them by dreams of the treat-
ment they ought to follow. The temples of Saturn are known
to have existed some 4000 years before Christ; and that those
temples were medical schools in their earliest form is beyond
question. The reason why no records of these temples have
survived is due to the fact that they were destroyed in a religious
revolution which swept away the very name of Saturn from the
monuments in the country. Professor Georg Ebers of Leipzig,
whose possession of that important handbook of Egyptian
medicine called the Papyrus Ebers constitutes him an authority,
says the Heliopolis certainly had a clinic united to the temple.
The temples of Dendera, Thebes and Memphis, are other ex-
amples. Those early medical works, the Books of Hermes, were
preserved in the shrines. Patients coming to them paid con-
tributions to the priests. The most famous temples in Greece for
the cure of disease were those of Aesculapius at Cos and Trikka,
while others at Rhodes, Cnidus, Pergamum and Epidaurus were
less known but frequented. Thus it is clear that both in Egypt
and in Greece the custom of laying the sick in the precincts of
the temples was a national practice.
Alexandria again was a famous medical centre. Before
describing the European growth of the hospital system in
modern times, to which its development in the Roman Empire
is the natural introduction, it will be well to dispose very briefly
of the facts relating to the hospital system in the East. Harun
al-Rashid (A.D. 763-809) attached a college to every mosque,
and to that again a hospital. He placed at Bagdad an asylum
for the insane open to all believers; and there was a large number
of public infirmaries for the sick without payment in that city.
Benjamin, the Jewish traveller, notes an efficient scheme for the
reception of the sick inA.D. 1173, which had long been in existence.
The Buddhists no less than the Mahommedanshad their hospitals,
and as early as 260 B.C. the emperor Asoka founded the many
hospitals of which Hindustan could then boast. The one at
Surat, made famous by travellers, and considered to have been
built under the emperor's second edict, is still in existence.
These hospitals contained provision so extensive as to be quite
comparable to modern institutions. In China the only records
that remain are those of books of very early date dealing with
the theory of medicine. To return to India, the hospitals of
Asoka were swept away by a revival of Brahmanism, and a
practical hiatus exists between the hospitals he introduced
and those that were refounded by the British ascendancy.
Hadrian's reign contains the first notice of a military hospital in
Rome. At the beginning of the Christian era we hear of the
existence of open surgeries (of various price and reputation),
the specialization of the medical profession, and the presence
of women practitioners, often as obstetricians. latria, or
tabernae-medicae, are described by Galen and Placetus: many
towns built them at their own cost. These iatria attended
almost entirely to out-patients, and the system of medicine
fostered by them continued without much development down
to the middle of the i8th century. It is to be noted that these
out-patients paid reasonable fees. In Christian days no estab-
lishments were founded for the relief of the sick till the time of
Constantine. A law of Justinian referring to various institutions
connected with the church mentions among them the Nosocomia,
which correspond to our idea of hospitals. In A.D. 370 Basil
had one built for lepers at Caesarea. St Chrysostom founded
a hospital at Constantinople. At Alexandria an order of 600
Parabolani attended to the sick, being chosen for the purpose
for their experience by the prelate of the city (A.D. 416). Fabiola,
a rich Roman lady, founded the first hospital at Rome possessed
of a convalescent home in the country. She even became a nurse
herself. St Augustine founded one at his see of Hippo. These
Nosocomia fell indeed almost entirely into the hands of the
church, which supported them by its revenues when necessary
and controlled their administration. Salerno became famous as a
school of medicine; its rosiest days were between A.D. 1000 and
1050. Frederick II. prescribed the course for students there,
and founded a rival school at Naples. At this period the co.n-
nexion between monasteries and hospitals becomes a marked
one. The crusaders also created another bond between the
church and hospital development, as the route they traversed
was marked by such foundations. Lepers were some of the
earliest patients for whom a specialized treatment was recognized,
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HOSPITAL
and in 1118 a leprosarium was built in London for isolation
purposes. Russia seems the one country where the intercon-
nexion of hospital and monastery was not to be observed.
After the period already reached, the I3th century, hospitals
became common enough to demand individual or at any rate
national treatment.
History of the Hospital Movement. We have now to consider
the principles upon which the provision of the best form of
medical care in hospitals can be secured for all classes of people.
Though hospitals cannot be claimed as a direct result of Chris-
tianity, no doubt it softened the relations between men, and
gradually tended to instil humanitarian views and to make
them popular with the civilized peoples of the world. These
principles, as civilization grew, education improved, and the
tastes and requirements of the common people were developed,
made men and women of many races realize that the treatment
of disease in buildings set apart exclusively for the care of the
sick was, in fact, a necessity in urban districts. The establishment
of a hospital freed the streets of the abuses attendant upon
beggars and other poor creatures, who made their ailments the
chief ground of appeal for alms. As the knowledge of hygiene and
of the doctrine of cleanliness and purity in regard not only to
dwellings and towns, but also in relation to food of all descrip-
tions, including water, became known and appreciated, hospitals
were found to be of even greater importance, if that is possible,
to the healthy in crowded communities, than to the sick.
It took many centuries before sound hygiene really began to
occupy the position of importance which it is now known to
possess, not only in regard to the treatment and cure of disease,
but to its prevention and eradication. So the history of the
world shows, that, whereas a few of the larger towns in most
countries contained hospitals of sorts, up to and including the
middle ages, it was not until the commencement of the i8th
century that inhabitants of important but relatively small towns
of from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants began to provide themselves
with a hospital for the care of the sick. Thus, twenty-three
of the principal English counties appear to have had no general
hospital prior to 1710, while London itself at that date, so
far as the relief of the sick was concerned, was mainly, if not
entirely, dependent upon St Bartholomew's and St Thomas's
Hospitals. These facts are interesting to note, because we are
enabled from them to deduce from recent events that hospital
buildings in the past, though the planning of most of them
was faulty to begin with and became more and more faulty as
extensions were added to the original buildings, did in fact
suffice to satisfy the requirements of the medical profession for
nearly two centuries. In other words, under the old condition
of affairs the life of a building devoted to the care of the sick
might be considered as at least 150 years. To-day, under the
conditions which modern science impose upon the management,
probably few hospital buildings are likely to be regarded as
efficient for the purpose of treating the sick for more than from
30 to 50 years.
The foregoing statement is based upon the history of British
hospitals of importance throughout the country, but the same
remark will apply in practice to hospital buildings almost
everywhere throughout the world. In truth, hospitals have
been more developed and improved in Great Britain than in
other countries, though, since the last quarter of the igth century,
German scientists especially have added much to the efficiency
of the accommodation for the sick, not only at hospitals but
in private clinics, and many German ideas have been accepted
and copied by other countries. In Great Britain hospitals for
the treatment of general and special diseases are mainly main-
tained upon what is known as the voluntary system. On the
European continent, hospitals as a rule are maintained by the
state or municipalities, and this system is so fully developed in
Sweden and elsewhere that a sound economical principle has
been embroidered upon the hospital system, to the great physical
and moral advantage of all classes of the community. The system
referred to confers great benefits upon inhabitants in large towns
by bringing the poor-law and voluntary institutions into more
intimate association, although they may be managed by separate
governing bodies. The plan pursued is to demand payment
from all patients who are admitted to the hospital under a scale
of charges divided into three or four grades. The first grade
pays a substantial sum and obtains anything or everything the
patient may care to have or to pay for, subject to the control
of the medical attendant. The second pays much less, but
a remunerative rate, for all they receive at the hospital; and
the third and fourth classes are very poor people or paupers,
who are paid for on a graduated scale by the poor-law authorities,
or tbe communal government, or the municipality. Under this
system well-to-do thrifty artisans and improvident paupers are
all treated by one staff, controlled by one administration, and
are located in immediate proximity to each other though in
separate pavilions. We have no doubt, as the result of many
years' investigation and an accurate knowledge of the working of
the system, that this is the true principle to enforce in providing
adequate medical relief for large urban populations everywhere
throughout the world. It should be accompanied by a system
of government insurance, whereby all classes who desire to be
thrifty may pay a small annual premium in the days of health,
and secure adequate hospital treatment and care when ill.
Provided that pay wings v/ere added to the existing voluntary
and municipal hospitals, it should be found that the relatively
small annual premium of 3 per annum should enable the
policyholders to defray the cost of medical treatment in a pay
ward or at a consultation department of a great hospital as a
matter of business. In the United States of America most large
towns have great hospitals, usually known as city hospitals,
administered and mainly supported by the municipality. Many
such institutions have pay wards, but nowhere, so far as we have
been able to discover, has the system of medical relief in its
entirety been organized as yet upon the business system we have
just referred to.
As to the relative merits and demerits of the systems of
government of municipal hospitals and voluntary hospitals a
few words may be useful. There can be no doubt that the
voluntary hospital in Great Britain has had a remarkable effect
for good upon all classes in the making of modern England.
The management of these institutions is frequently representative
of all classes of the people, while the voluntary system, as the
Hospital Sunday collections all over the country, and all over the
English-speaking world, prove, has united all creeds in the good
work of caring and providing for the sick and injured members
of each community. Again the voluntary system makes for
efficiency in the administration of all hospitals. Each voluntary
hospital is dependent upon its popularity and efficiency, in
large measure, for the financial support it receives. In this way
an ill-managed voluntary hospital, or one which has ceased to
fulfil any useful public purpose, is sure to disappear in due course
under the voluntary system. Voluntary hospitals are always
open to, as well as supported by, the public, and, owing largely
to the example so prominently set by King Edward VII. and
members of the royal family, more people every year devote
some time in some way to the cause of the hospitals. Attached
to the voluntary hospitals are the principal medical and nursing
schools upon which the public depend for the supply of doctors
and nurses. The education of students and nurses in a clinical
hospital makes that hospital the most desirable place for every-
body when they are really ill. In such a hospital no patient
can be overlooked, no wrong or imperfect diagnosis can long
remain undiscovered and unrectified, and nowhere else have
the patients so continuous a guarantee that the treatment they
receive will be of the best, while the provision made for their
comfort and welfare, owing to the unceasing and ever varying
quality of the criticism to which the work of everybody, from
the senior physician to the humblest official, is subjected in a
clinical hospital, is unequalled anywhere else. At a great
voluntary hospital, not only do hundreds of medical students
and nurses work in the wards, but thousands of people, in the
persons of the patients' friends, and those members of the public
who take an interest in hospitals, pass through the wards in the
HOSPITAL
793
course of every year. Again, each voluntary hospital has to live
by competition, a fact which guarantees that everything in the
way of new treatment and scientific development shall in due
course find its proper place within the walls of such an establish-
ment. Open as they are to the full inspection of everybody
whose knowledge and presence can promote efficiency, the
voluntary hospitals have shown, especially since the last quarter
of the i gth century, a continuous development and improve-
ment. Here the patients are treated with invariable kindness
and consideration, as human beings rather than cases, to the
great benefit of the whole human family as represented by the
officials, the patients and the students, with their relations and
friends, the honorary medical officers, hundreds of medical
practitioners and nurses, who receive their medical training
in the hospitals, and the ever-increasing number of governors and
supporters by whose contributions voluntary hospitals live.
The great missionary and social value of the voluntary hospitals
to the whole community cannot be questioned, and they have
been of inestimable value to the churches by inculcating the
higher principles of humanity, while removing the many acerbities
which might otherwise prevail between rich and poor in large
cities.
The voluntary hospitals are attended, however, by certain dis-
advantages which do not attach to municipal institutions. A
municipality which undertakes the provision of hospitals for
the entire community is largely able to plan out the urban area,
and to provide that each hospital site selected shall not only be
suitable for the purpose, but that it shall be so chosen as to
contribute to make the whole system of hospital provision easily
accessible to all classes who may require its aid. The voluntary
hospitals, on the contrary, have grown up without any com-
prehensive plan of the districts or any real regard to the con-
venience or necessities of their poorer inhabitants. Voluntary
hospital sites were almost invariably selected to suit the con-
venience of the honorary medical staff and the general con-
venience of the hospital economy rather than to save the patients
and their friends long journeys in search of medical aid. The
best of the municipal systems too enables economy to be en-
forced in the administration by a plan which provides a central
office in every town where the number of vacant beds in each
hospital is known, so that the average of occupied beds in all
the hospitals can be well maintained from an economical point
of view. This speedy and ready inter-communication between
all hospitals in a great city, which might perfectly well be secured
under the voluntary system if the managers could only be brought
into active co-operation, prevents delay in the admission of urgent
cases, promotes the absence of waste by keeping the average of
beds occupied in each establishment high and uniform, and has
often proved a real gain to the poor by the diminution in cost to
the patients and their friends, who under the best municipal
systems can find a hospital within reasonable distance of their
home in a large city wherever it may be placed. Another
advantage of the municipal system should be that central control
makes for economical administration. Unfortunately a close
study of this question tends to prove that municipal hospitals
for the most part have resulted in a dead monotony of relative
inefficiency, often entailing great extravagance in buildings, and
accompanied by much waste in many directions. Existing
municipal hospital systems are attended by several grave
disadvantages. The administration shows a tendency to lag
and grow sleepy and inert. The absence of competition, and the
freedom from continuous publicity and criticism such as the
voluntary hospitals enjoy, make for inefficiency and indifferent
work. Rate-supported hospitals, as a rule, are administered by
permanent officials who reside in houses usually situated on
the hospital sites, and who are paid salaries which attract the
younger men, who, once appointed, tend to continue in office
for a long period of years. This fixture of tenure is apt to cause
a decline in the general interest in the work of the municipal
hospital, due mainly to the absence of a continuous criticism
from outside, and so the average of efficiency, both in regard to
treatment and other important matters, may become lower
and lower. Those who have habitually inspected great rate-
supported hospitals must have met instances over and over
again where a gentleman who has held office for twenty or thirty
years has frankly stated that his income is fixed, that his habits
have become crystallized, that he finds the work terribly monoton-
ous, and yet, as he hopes ultimately to retire upon a pension,
he has felt there was no course open to him but to continue in
office, even though he may feel conscientiously that a change
would be good for the patients, for the hospital and for himself.
Under the voluntary system evils of this kind are seldom or
never met with, nor have these latter establishments, within
living memory, ever been so conducted as to exhibit the grave
scandals which have marred the administration of rate-supported
hospitals not only in Great Britain but in other parts of the
world. We believe that the more thoroughly the advantages
and disadvantages of rate-supported and voluntary hospitals for
the care of the sick are weighed and considered, and the more
accurate and full the knowledge which is added to the judgment
upon which a decision can be based, the more certain will it be
that every capable administrator will come to the conclusion
that on the whole it is good for the sick and for the whole com-
munity that these establishments should, at any rate in Great
Britain, be maintained upon the voluntary system. Of course
it is essential to have rate-supported hospitals where cases of
infectious disease and the poorest of the people who are dependent
largely upon the poor-law for their maintenance can be cared for.
It is satisfactory to be able to state that of late years the admini-
stration of both these types of rate-supported hospitals has
greatly improved. The added importance now given all over
the country to medical officers of health, and the disposition
exhibited, both by parliament and government departments,
to make the position of these officers more important and
valuable than ever before, have tended largely to improve the
administrative efficiency of hospitals for infectious diseases. No
doubt the whole community would benefit if residents in every
part of the country could be moved to take a personal interest
in the infectious hospital in their immediate neighbourhood.
Amongst the smaller of these establishments there has been so
marked an inefficiency at times as to cause much avoidable
suffering. The existence of such inefficiency casts a grave
reflection upon the local authorities and others who are re-
sponsible for the evils which undoubtedly exist in various places
at the present time. Unfortunately knowledge has not yet
sufficiently spread to enable the public to overcome its fear and
dread of infectious maladies. It is therefore very difficult to
induce people to take an active interest in one of these hospitals,
but we look forward to the time when, owing to the activity of
the medical officers of health who have immediate charge of
buildings of this kind, this difficulty may be overcome, when the
avoidable dangers and risks and the appalling discomfort which
a poor sufferer from a severe infectious disease in a rural district
may suddenly have to encounter under existing circumstances,
would be rendered impossible.
The poor-law infirmary in large cities, so far as the buildings
and equipment are concerned, very often leaves little to desire.
Poor-law infirmaries lack,, however, the stimulus and the checks
and advantages which impartial criticism continuously applied
brings to a great voluntary hospital. Such disadvantages might
be entirely removed if parliament would decide to throw open
every poor-law infirmary for clinical purposes, and to have con-
nected with each such establishment a responsible visiting
medical staff, consisting of the best qualified men to be found in
the community which each hospital serves. The old prejudice
against hospital treatment has disappeared, for the least in-
telligent members of the population now understand that, when
a citizen is sick, there is no place so good as the wards of a well-
administered hospital. Looking at the question of hospital
provision in Great Britain, and indeed in all countries at the
present time, it may be said, that there is everywhere evidence
of improvement and development upon the right lines, so that
never before in the history of the world has the lot of the sick
man or woman been so relatively fortunate and safe as it is in
794
HOSPITAL
the present day. Probably it is not too much to say that to-day
hospitals occupy the most important position in the social
economy of nations.
Classification of Hospitals. Having dealt with hospitals as a
whole it may be well very briefly to classify them in groups, and
explain as tersely as possible what they represent and how far it
may be desirable to eliminate by consolidation or to increase by
disintegration the number of special hospitals.
General Hospitals. These establishments consist of two kinds,
(a) clinical and (b) non-clinical, each of which, under the
modern system, should include every department of medicine
and surgery, and every appliance and means for the alleviation
of suffering, the healing of wounds, the reduction of fractures,
the removal of mal-formations and foreign growths, the surgical
restoration of damaged and diseased organs and bones, and
everything of every kind which experience and knowledge prove
to be necessary to the rapid cure of disease. The clinical hospital
means an institution to which a medical school is attached, where
technical instruction is given by able and qualified teachers to
medical students and others. A non-clinical hospital is one
which is not attached to a medical school, and where no medical
instruction is organized.
Special Hospitals. Up to about 1840 the general hospital
was, speaking generally, the only hospital in existence. Twenty
years later, as the population increased and medical science
became more and more active, some of the more ardent members
of the medical profession, especially amongst the younger men,
pressed continuously for opportunities to develop the methods of
treatment in regard to special diseases for which neither accom-
modation nor appliances were at that time forthcoming in general
hospitals. In a few cases, where the managers of the great
general hospitals were men of action and initiative special
departments were introduced, and an attempt was made to
make them efficient. The conservative spirit which, on the
whole, represents the British character for the most part, resulted,
however, in a steady resistance being offered by the older
members of the medical staffs and existing committees to the
advocates of special departments. In the result, especially as
such special departments as there were in connexion with general
hospitals were too often starved for want of means and men for
their development and improvement, the younger spirits called
their friends together and began to start special hospitals.
To-day every really efficient clinical general hospital has within
its walls special departments of almost every description, which
have been made as efficient and up-to-date as money and
knowledge can make them. Unfortunately the causes already
referred to led to the establishment of hundreds of the smaller
special hospitals, many of which were started in unsuitable
buildings, and some of which have ever since maintained a
struggling existence. Others, on the contrary, through the
energy of their original promoters and the excellence of the work
they have done, have obtained a position of authority and
reputation which has had a very important bearing for good
upon the development of medical science in the treatment of
disease. If the world had to-day to organize the very best
system of hospital accommodation which could be evolved,
there is no doubt that few or none of the special hospitals would
find any place in that system. As matters stand, however,
the special hospital has had to be accepted, and nothing which
King Edward's Hospital Fund has done in London has met with
greater popularity and professional approval than the labours
which its council have undertaken in promoting the amalgama-
tion of the smaller special hospitals of certain kinds, so as to secure
the provision of one really efficient special hospital for each
speciality. No doubt this policy of amalgamation will be steadily
pursued, and in the course of years every great city will gradually
reorganize its hospital methods so as to secure that, whether the
patients are treated in a general hospital or in a special hospital,
the average efficiency in every institution shall be as high and
as good as possible.
We will take now the special hospitals in detail.
Cancer Hospitals. The justification for efficient cancer hospitals
must be found in the circumstance that most scientific men of
experience believe that, if adequate resources were placed at the
disposal of the medical profession, the origin of cancer might be
discovered, and so the human race would be freed from one of the
most awful diseases which affect humanity. Pending such a dis-
covery the experience of the cancer department connected with the
Middlesex Hospital in London proves to demonstration that the
provision of adequate and special accommodation for the exclusive
treatment of cases of cancer is not only desirable but necessary on
humanitarian grounds alone.
Hospitals for Consumption. For many years it was held that this
group of hospitals was not a necessity, and the patients were treated
in the ordinary medical wards of the general hospitals. Since the
contagious character of tuberculosis became known, and improved
methods of treatment have been developed, every one agrees that
this type of special hospital is desirable, though it is believed by the
more advanced school of scientists that before long it may be happily
rendered obsolete owing to the discovery of methods of treatment
which will stay the disease at its. commencement and restore the
patient to health.
Children's Hospitals. These hospitals were very much opposed
at the outset. There can be no doubt that the children's ward or
wards in a big voluntary hospital is a most valuable asset to the
managers, so long as the children are treated in separate wards.
There is no reason of course why a hospital should confine its work
to the treatment of children, exclusively. Still this special hospital
is popular with the public; it has led to many discoveries and
developments in the treatment of children's diseases; on the whole
the administration of these establishments has been good; and we
believe they will continue to flourish, however many children's
wards may be provided in general hospitals. Children's hospitals
with country branches for the treatment of chronic ailments, such
as hip disease, are a valuable addition to the relief of suffering in
cities.
Cottage Hospitals. These hospitals, established originally in
1859 by Mr Albert Napper at Cranleigh, Surrey, have fulfilled a
most useful function. Many of them are very efficient both in
regard to equipment and treatment. They have become essential
to the well-being and adequate medical care of rural populations,
as they attract to the country some of the best members of the pro-
fession, who are able, with the aid of the cottage hospital, to keep
themselves efficient and up-to-date, so that all classes of the com-
munity are benefited in this way by this type of hospital.
Ear, Throat and Nose Hospitals. The history of this type of
hospital bears out in every particular the reason we have given
above for the establishment of special hospitals in the first instance.
There can be no doubt that the best conducted throat hospitals
have been beneficial to the poorer inhabitants of great cities.
Fever /fos/>ito/s. Incidentally we have dealt with these institu-
tions, which are usually supported out of the rates and administered
by the medical officers of health, who are paid by the county or
municipal authorities.
Maternity and Lying-in Hospitals. This is one of the oldest
types of special hospitals, and has done a great deal of good in its
time. Owing to modern methods of treatment and hygienic de-
velopments the maternity hospital never occupied a stronger position
than it does to-day.
Mental Hospitals. In Great Britain the insane are provided for
in asylums (see INSANITY, ad fin.), though such establishments, if
properly conducted, are essentially hospitals. Scientific and public
opinion tend towards the establishment of mental hospitals to
which all acute cases of mental disease should be first relegated for
treatment and diagnosis before they are consigned to a permanent
lunatic hospital. Too little attention on an organized plan has
been given to the continuous study of mental disease in its clinical
and pathological aspects. It is probable, therefore, that the advent
of the mental hospital may lead to important developments in
treatment in many ways.
Ophthalmic Hospitals. Of all special hospitals this is one which
would probably be the least necessary, providing general hospitals
everywhere were properly equipped and organized. No special
hospital has probably been so abused in the material sense by the
free relief of patients who could well afford to pay for their treatment
at the ophthalmic hospital. Several of the existing ophthalmic
hospitals have entailed an enormous expenditure, and their modern
equipment is wonderfully efficient.
Orthopaedic Hospitals. It is very doubtful whether this type of
hospital is really desirable or necessary. Its necessity may be
advocated on the ground that orthopaedic cases may require pro-
longed treatment, and that the pressure upon the beds of general
hospitals by acute cases is nowadays so great as to render the
orthopaedic hospital more necessary than ever before.
Paralysis and Epileptic Hospitals. Seeing that the percentage
of those who are at present attacked by paralysis and nervous disease
shows a continued tendency to increase under modern conditions of
life in large cities, hospitals of this type are necessary, and London
at any rate, like most foreign towns of importance, possesses, at
present, far too little accommodation for this class of case.
Skin and Photo-Therapy. Up to the end of the igth century
hospitals for diseases of the skin were a constant cause of scandal and
criticism. The introduction of modern methods of treatment by
HOSPITAL
795
light and electricity, including photo-therapy, has given an im-
portance to this department and treatment which it did not previ-
ously possess. We are of opinion that, on the whole, it is better and
more economical to treat these cases in properly equipped depart-
ments of general hospitals than in separate institutions.
Women's Hospitals. These hospitals are not absolutely necessary,
but considering their popularity with the women themselves, and
that several of them have done excellent work, remembering too
that women constitute the majority of the population, there seems
to be some reason for their continuance.
The Evolution of the Modern Hospital. The evolution of
the modern hospital affords one of the most marvellous evidences
of the advance of scientific and humanitarian principles which
the world has ever seen. At the outset hospitals were probably
founded by the healthy more for their own comfort than out of
any regard for the sick. Nowadays the healthy, whilst they
realize that the more efficient they can make the hospital,
the more certain, in the human sense, is their own chance of
prolonged life and health, are, as the progress of the League
of Mercy has shown in recent years, genuinely anxious for the
most part to do something as individuals in the days of health
in the cause of the sick. Formerly the hospital was merely
a building or buildings, very often unsuitable for the purposes
to which it was put, where sick and injured people were retained
and more frequently than not died. In other words the hygienic
condition, the methods of treatment and the hospital atmosphere
were all so relatively unsatisfactory as to yield a mortality
in serious cases of 40%. Nowadays, despite, or possibly
because of, the fact that operative interference is the rule rather
than the exception in the treatment of hospital patients, and in
consequence of the introduction of antiseptic and aseptic methods,
the mortality in hospitals is, in all the circumstances, relatively
less, and probably materially less, than it is even amongst
patients who are attended in their own homes. Originally
hospitals were unsystematic, crowded, ill-organized necessities,
which wise people refused to enter, if they had any voice in the
matter. At the x present time in all large cities, and in crowded
communities in 'civilized countries, great hospitals have been
erected upon extensive sites which are so planned as to con-
stitute in fact a village with many hundreds of inhabitants.
This type of modern hospital has common characteristics.
A multitude of separate buildings are dotted over the site,
which may cover 20 acres or upwards. In one such in-
stitution, within an area of 20 acres, there are 6 m. of
drains, 29 m. of water and steam pipes, 3 m. of roof
gutters, 42 m. of electric wires, and 42 separate buildings,
which to all intents and purposes constitute a series of
distinct, isolated hospitals, in no case containing more than
forty-six patients. On the continent of Europe buildings of
this class are usually of one storey; in the United States,
owing to the difficulty of obtaining suitable sites and for
reasons of economy, some competent authorities strenuously
advocate high buildings with many storeys for town hospitals.
In England the majority have two to three storeys each, the
ward unit containing a ward for twenty beds and two
isolation wards for one and two beds respectively. The two
storeys in modern fever hospitals, however, are absolutely
distinct that is, there is no internal staircase going from one
ward to the others, for each is entered separately from the
outside. This system carries to its extreme limits the principle
of separating the patients as much as possible into small groups
the acute cases are usually treated in the upper ward, anc
as they become convalescent are removed downstairs. In
this way the necessity for an entirely separate convalescent
block is done away with and the patients are kept under the
same charge nurse, an arrangement which promotes necessary
discipline. The unit of these hospitals is the pavilion, not the
ward, and consists of an acute ward, a convalescent ward
separation wards, nurses' duty rooms, store-rooms for linen
an open-air balcony upstairs into which beds can be wheelec
in suitable weather, and a large airing-ground for convalescent
patients directly accessible from the downstairs ward. Each
of the pavilions is raised above the ground level, so that air
can circulate freely underneath. The wall, floor and air spaces
n the scarlet fever wards of one of these hospitals are respectively
12 ft., 156 ft. and 2028 ft. per bed; and in the enteric and
diphtheria wards they have been increased to 15 ft., 195 ft.
and 2535 ft. respectively. The provision of so large a floor
and linear space, especially in the diphtheria wards, is an ex-
periment the effect of which will be watched with considerable
nterest. A building of this type is a splendid example of the
separate pavilion hospital, and is doing great service in the
treatment of fevers wherever it has been introduced. Some
dea of a hospital village, some of the wards of which we have
Deen describing, may be gathered from the circumstances
that it costs from 300,000 to 400,000, that it usually contains
from 500 to 700 beds, and that the staff numbers from 350 to
500 persons. The medical superintendent lives in a separate
louse of his own. The nurses are provided with a home, con-
sisting of several blocks of buildings under the control of the
matron; the charge nurses usually occupy the main block,
where the dining and general sitting-rooms are placed; the
day assistant-nurses another block; and lastly, by a most
excellent arrangement, the night nurses, 80 to 120 in number,
have one whole block entirely given up to their use. The female
servants have a second home under the control of the house-
keeper, and the male servants occupy a third home under the
supervision of the steward. The two main ideas aimed at are
to disconnect the houses occupied by the staff from the infected
area, and to place the members of each division of the staff
together, but in separate buildings, under their respective heads.
These objects are highly to be commended,as they have important
bearings upon the well-being and discipline of the whole establish-
ment and constitute a lesson for all who have to do with buildings
where a great number of people are constantly employed.
The Hospital City. We have shown that the modern hospital
where an adequate site is available under the most favourable
conditions has developed into a hospital village. No one who
is familiar with the existing disadvantages of many of the
sites and their surroundings of town hospitals in many a large
city can have any doubt that, if the well-being of the patients
and the good of the whole community, combined with economical
and administrative reasons, together with the provision of an
adequate system for the instruction and training of medical
students and nurses, are to be the first considerations with
those responsible for the hospitals of the future, the time will
come, and is probably not far distant, when each great urban
community will provide for the whole of its sick by removing
them to a hospital city, which will be situated upon a specially
selected and most salubrious site some distance from the town
itself. The atmosphere of a great city grows less and less suitable
to the rapid and complete recovery of patients who may undergo
the major operations or be suffering from the severe and acute
forms of disease. Asepsis, it is true, has reduced the average
residence in hospital from about 35 to less than 20 days. It
has thereby added quite one million working days each year
to the earning power of the artisan classes in London alone.
Medical opinion is more and more favouring the provision of
convalescent and suburban hospitals, to which patients suffering
from open wounds may be removed from the city hospitals.
This course, which entails much additional expenditure, is
advocated to overcome the difficulty arising from the fact
that, in operation and other cases, the patients cease to continue
to make rapid progress towards recovery after the seventh
or ninth day's residence in a city hospital. A change of such
cases to the country restores the balance and completes the
recovery with a rapidity often remarkable.
Thinking out the problem here presented in all its bearings,
realizing the great and ever-increasing cost of sites for hospitals
in great cities, the heavy consequential taxes and charges which
they have to meet there, and all the attendant disadvantages
and drawbacks, the present writer has ventured upon an antici-
pation which he hopes may prove intelligent and well-founded.
Nearly every difficulty in regard to the cost of hospitals and
in respect to all the many problems presented by securing
79 6
HOSPITAL
the material required, under present systems, for the efficient
training of students and nurses, would be removed by the
erection of the Hospital City, which, he foresees, must ultimately
be recognized by intelligent communities throughout the
civilized world. Why should we not have, on a carefully selected
site well away from the contaminations of the town, and
adequately provided with every requisite demanded from the
site of the most perfect modern hospital which the mind of
man can conceive, a "Hospital City"? Here would be con-
centrated all the means for relieving and treating every form
of disease to the abiding comfort of all responsible for their
adequacy and success. At the present time all the traffic and all
the citizens give way to fire engines and the ambulance in the
public streets. Necessarily the means of transit to and from
the " Hospital City," and its rapidity, would be the most perfect
in the world. So the members of the medical staff, the friends
of the patients, and all who had business in the " Hospital
City," would find it easier and less exacting in time and energy
to be attached to one of the hospitals located therein than to
one situated in the centre of a big population in a crowded town.
To meet the urgent and accident cases a few receiving houses,
or outpost relief stations, with a couple of wards, would be
situated in various quarters of the working city, where patients
could be temporarily treated, and whence they could be removed
to the " Hospital City " by an efficient motor ambulance service.
The writer can see such a " Hospital City " established, can
realize the comfort it will prove in practice to the medical pro-
fession, to the patients' friends, to those who have to manage
the hospitals and train the medical and nursing students, and
indeed to all who may go there as well as to the whole community.
The initial cost of hospital buildings should be reduced at
once to a quarter or less of the present outlay. They could
then be built of the cheapest but most suitable material, which
would have many advantages, whilst the actual money forth-
coming from the realization and sale of the existing hospital sites
in many cities would, in all probability, produce a sum which in
the whole might prove adequate, or nearly adequate, or even in
some cases more than adequate, to defray the entire cost of
building the " Hospital City " and of equipping it too. The
cost of administration and working must be everywhere reduced
to a minimum. The hygienic completeness of the whole city,
its buildings and appliances, must expedite recovery to the
maximum extent. In all probability the removal of the sick
from contact with the healthy would tend in practice so to
increase the healthiness of the town population, i.e. of the
workers of the city proper, as to free them from some of the
most burdensome trials which now cripple their resources and
diminish materially the happiness of their lives. Probably
the United States (where a city has sometimes sprung up in
twelve months) may be the home where this idea may first
find its realization in accomplished fact. The writer may
never live to see such a city in actual working or in its entirety,
but he makes bold to believe its adoption will one day solve
the more difficult of the problems involved in providing ade-
quately for the sick in crowded communities. He has formulated
the idea because it seems desirable to encourage discussion as
to the best method of checking the growing tendency to make
hospital buildings everywhere too costly. If the idea of the
" Hospital City " commends itself to the profession and the
public, the practice of treating all the hospital accommodation
in each city as a whole will gradually increase and spread,
until most of the present pressing difficulties may disappear
altogether. That is a consummation devoutly to be wished.
The Problem of Hospital Administration. A study of the
hospital problem in various countries, and especially in different
portions of the English-speaking world, convinces the writer
that, apart from local differences, the features presented are
everywhere practically identical. A number of hospitals under
independent administration, dependent in whole or in part
on voluntary contributions, administered under different regula-
tions originally representing the idiosyncracies of individual
managers for the time being, without any standard of efficiency
or any system of co-operation, which would bring the whole
of the medical establishments of each or all of the great cities
of the world under one administration which the combined
wisdom and experience of hospital managers as a whole might
agree to be the best, must mean in practice a material gain in
every way to each and all of the hospitals and their supporters
on economical, scientific and other grounds. Such an absence of
system throughout the world has everywhere led to overlapping,
to the perpetuation of many abuses, to the admission of an
increasing number of patients whose social position does not
entitle them to claim free medical relief at all, and, often too,
to the admission of patients belonging to a humbler grade of
society who are already provided for by the rates in institutions
which they do not care to enter and who find their way to the
wards of hospitals which were established to provide for patients
of an entirely different social grade. These evils have continued
to grow and increase almost everywhere, despite many and
varied attempts to grapple with and remove them. Amongst
these attempts we may mention the assembling of hospital
conferences, the establishment of special funds and committees,
and the holding of inquiries of various kinds in London and
other British cities and also in the United States. The most
remarkable proof of the impossibility of inducing those re-
sponsible to act together and enforce the necessary reforms is
afforded by the historical fact that the famous Commission on
Hospital Abuse, known as Sir William Fergusson's Commission,
in 1871, after an exhaustive inquiry, made the following recom-
mendations: (i) to improve the administration of poor-law
medical relief; (2) to place all free dispensaries under the control
of the poor-law authorities; (3) to establish an adequate system
of provident dispensaries; (4) to curtail the unrestricted system
of gratuitous relief, partly by the selection of cases possessing
special clinical interest and partly by the exclusion of those
who on social grounds are not entitled to gratuitous medical
advice; (5) the payment of the medical staff engaged in both
in- and out-patient work, and the payment of fees by patients
in the pay wards and in the consultation departments of
the voluntary hospitals. Other commissions have since been
appointed, have reported, and have disappeared, with the result
that nothing practical had been done up to 1910 in the way of
reform. Yet it is an undoubted fact that, if the foregoing re-
commendations of Sir William Fergusson's Commission had
been carried out in their entirety at the time they were made,
practically all the abuses from which British hospitals afterwards
suffered would have been removed, and the charitable public
might have been saved several millions of pounds sterling.
It may be well, therefore, briefly to indicate exactly what these
changes amount to, and how they can be made effective at
any time by those responsible for the working of a hospital.
There is no doubt that all the facts available tend to prove that
the voluntary hospitals are used to an increasing extent by persons
able to make payment or partial payment for the treatment
which they receive. The evidence and statistics demonstrating
these facts may be readily gathered from a study of the Report
(1909) and Evidence of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws
and Relief of Distress (Lord George Hamilton's Commission)
and in the authorities mentioned at the end of this article. The
underlying cause of the abuse was that no means existed whereby
persons of moderate income could obtain efficient treatment
and hospital care when ill at a rate which they could afford to
pay. The system, or want of system, whereby medical relief is
granted to practically all applicants by the voluntary hospitals
grew up without any combined attempt to organize it efficiently
or to check abuses. Such a system rests upon a wrong basis, and
the best interests of every class of the population demand its
abolition in favour of one which shall afford the maximum of
justice (i) to the poor, (2) to those who can afford to pay in part
or in whole the cost of their medical treatment and care at a
hospital, (3) to the medical profession, (4) to the subscribers and
supporters of voluntary hospitals, whose gifts should be strictly
applied to the purposes they were intended to serve, and (5)
to the ratepayers, who are entitled to a guarantee that the
HOSPITAL
797
maximum efficiency is secured by the poor-law system of
medical relief. The remedy is very simple and easy of application.
Every voluntary hospital, while admitting all accidents and
urgent cases needing immediate attention, should institute a
system whereby each applicant would be asked to prove that
he or she was a fit object of charity. The only real attempt
at reform, up to 1909, was the appointment by many of the larger
hospitals of almoners to ascertain whether certain selected
patients were in a position to pay or not. By putting the burden
of proof of eligibility to receive free medical relief upon the
patients and their friends, ah 1 abuse of every kind must speedily
cease. There would be no hardship entailed upon the patients by
such a system, as experience has proved, but, to make it effective,
the system of providing for in- and out-patients in Great Britain
requires radical change, for, in existing circumstance, if a
voluntary hospital attempted to enforce this simple method, it
would be met with the difficulty that, where it was found that
a patient or his friends could pay at any rate something, no
department connected with British hospitals existed as is the
case in regard to hospitals in the United States enabling such
in-patients to be transferred to accommodation provided in
paying wards. In the same way, directly the out-patients
were dealt with under such a system, it would be made apparent,
where a case could be properly treated under the poor law,
that no plan of co-operation to secure this was organized under
existing conditions. If the patient, being of a better' class, were
suffering from a minor ailment, and could be properly dealt with
at a provident dispensary, the fees of which he could easily
pay, the same absence of co-operation must make it practically
impossible readily to enforce the system. When, again, an out-
patient of the better class was entitled, from the severity of his
ailment, to receive the advantages of a consultation by the
medical staff, no method existed whereby this aid could be
rendered to him, and his transfer afterwards to the care of a
medical practitioner attached to some provident dispensary,
or resident near the patient's home, could be properly carried
out. It follows that adequate reform required that methods
should be adopted with a view to some part or all the cost of
treatment being provided by the patient or his friends through
an entire reorganization of the system of medical relief not only
at the voluntary hospitals, but under the poor-law system. The
reforms required in regard to voluntary hospitals are that every
large hospital shall have connected with the in-patient depart-
ment, in separate buildings, but under the administration of
the managers, pay wards for the reception of those patients who
are able to pay some part or all of the cost of treatment; that,
as regards out-patients, the existing out-patient department
should be abolished; that in substitution for it each hospital
should have a casualty department and a department for
consultation. In the casualty department every applicant
should be seen once, and be there disposed of by being handed on
to the consultation department; if his case was sufficiently
important, he should then be transferred to some provident
or poor-law dispensary, or be referred to a private medical
attendant. It would no doubt take time to overcome the in-
cidental difficulties which would necessarily arise in effecting
so radical a reform as is here contemplated, but if all voluntary
hospitals adopted the same system, and were to be brought into
active co-operation with provident dispensaries and poor-law
dispensaries and private medical practitioners, the new system
might be successfully introduced and made effective within
twelve months, and probably within six months, from the date
of its commencement. This opinion is based upon the assump-
tion that the provident dispensaries would be standardized,
and that every one of them would be brought up to a state of the
highest efficiency. In the town of Northampton the Royal
Victoria Dispensary has been worked with the maximum of
success, so far as the patients and the medical practitioners are
concerned. In London and in other large towns like Manchester
and elsewhere the provident dispensary has not succeeded as
it has done in Northampton, because so many members of the
medical profession are not alive to the importance of making
it their first business to provide that every patient connected
with the provident dispensary who attends at the surgery of a
private medical practitioner shall receive at least equal attention
and accommodation to that afforded to every other private
patient, whatever the fee he may pay. In the same way, poor-
law dispensaries must be radically reformed. Everything which
tends to excite a feeling of shame on the part of the patient
attending the poor-law dispensary, such as the printing of the
word " pauper " at the beginning of the space on which the
patient's name is entered, must be abolished, and the class of
medical service and all the arrangements for the treatment
of the patients, however poor, at the poor-law dispensary,
must be made at least as efficient as those provided by voluntary
hospitals. There undoubtedly is considerable overlapping
between the voluntary hospitals and the poor law in Great
Britain. The Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief
of Distress (1909) deals with this point with a view to set up a
standard of medical relief to be granted by each class and type
of hospitals, provides for adequate co-operation between all
classes of institutions; and these reforms may be commended.
It is too often forgotten that the function of the poor lav/ is the
relief of destitution, while it should be the object and duty of
each voluntary hospital and indeed of all hospitals other than
poor-law institutions to apply their resources entirely to the
prevention of destitution, by stepping in to grant free medical
relief to the provident and thrifty when, through no fault of
their own, they meet with an accident or are overtaken by
disease. An adequate system of co-operation would preserve
the privilege of the voluntary hospitals, which save such patients
from the necessity of requiring the relief which it is the object
of the poor law to supply.
We have dealt with the relative advantages and disadvan-
tages of rate-supported hospitals and voluntary hospitals. We
should regard the establishment of a complete state-provided or
rate-provided system of gratuitous medical relief either for in-
door patients or for out-door patients, or for both, as a grave evil.
Such a system must eventually lead to the extinction of voluntary
hospitals. If this disaster ever happens, it must result in the
gravest evils, for it could not fail to injure the morale of all
classes and tend to harden unnecessarily the relations between
the rich and poor, who, under the voluntary system, have come
to share each other's sufferings and to be animated by respect and
confidence towards each other.
Hospital Construction. Locality and Site. Hospitals are required
for the use of the community in a certain locality, and to be of use
they must be within reach of the centre of population. Formerly
the greater difficulty of locomotion made it necessary that they
should be actually in the midst of towns and cities, and to some
extent this continues to prevail. It is now proved to demonstration
that this is not the best plan. Fresh and pure air being a prime
necessity, as well as a considerable amount of space of actual area in
proportion to population, it would certainly be better to place
hospitals as much in the outskirts as is consistent with considerations
of usefulness and convenience. In short, the best site would be open
fields; but if that be impracticable, a large space, "a sanitary
zone " as it is called by Toilet, should be kept permanently free
between them and surrounding buildings, certainly never less than
double the height of the highest building. In the selection of a site
various factors must be taken into consideration. If the hospital
is to be used as the clinical school of a university or medical college,
then the most suitable ground available within easy reach of the
university or college must be secured. If, on the other hand, the
hospital is not to be used as a teaching school, a site more in the
country should be favoured. In any case ample ground must be
purchased to permit of the wards receiving the maximum of sun-
light, an abundant supply of fresh air, and leave room for possible
future extensions. The site should be self-contained; it should be
in such a position as to prevent the hospital being shadowed by
other buildings in the neighbourhood, and, unless the site is along-
side a public park, it should be entirely surrounded by streets of
from 40 to 60 ft. in width. It is also necessary to secure that ade-
quate water mains serve the site, and that the system of sewers be
ample for all sewage purposes.
The difference between the expense of purchase of land in a town
and in the environs is generally considerable, and this is therefore
an additional reason for choosing a suburban locality. Even with
existing hospitals it would be in most cases pecuniarily advantageous
to dispose of the present building and site and retain only a receiving
house in the town. St Thomas's in London, the H6tel-Dieu in Paris
HOSPITAL
and the Royal Infirmary in Manchester, are all good examples
where this might have been carried out. In none, however, has this
been done; these hospitals have been rebuilt, at enormous outlay,
in the cities as before, although not exactly in the same locality.
As regards the actual site itself, where circumstances admit of
choice, a dry gravelly or sandy soil should be selected, in a position
where the ground water is low and but little subject to fluctuations
of level, arid where the means of drainage are capable of being
effectually carried out. There should also be a cheerful sunny
aspect and some protection from the coldest winds.
Form of Building. A form of building must be selected which
answers the following conditions: (a) the freest possible circulation
of air round each ward, with no cul-de-sac or enclosed spaces where
air can stagnate; (b) free play of sunlight upon each ward during
some portion at least of the day; (c) the possibility of isolating any
ward, or group of wards, effectually, in case of infectious disease
breaking out; (d) the possibility of ventilating every ward inde-
pendently of any other part of the establishment. Those conditions
can only be fulfilled by one system, viz. a congeries of houses or
pavilions, more or less connected with each other by covered ways,
so as to facilitate convenient and economical administration. The
older plans of huge blocks of buildings, arranged in squares or
rectangles, enclosing spaces without free circulation of air, are
obviously objectionable. Even when arranged in single lines or
crosses they are not desirable, as the wards either communicate
with each other or with common passages or corridors, rendering
separation impossible. On this point it may be remarked that
some of the buildings of the i8th century were more wisely con-
structed than many of those in the first half of the igth century,
and that the older buildings have been from time to time spoilt by
ignorant additions made in later times.
The question next arises, is it better to have pavilions of two or
more storeys high, or to have single-storeyed huts or cottages
scattered more widely? For the treatment of tuberculosis there
can be no doubt that, for hygienic reasons, the chdlet or single-
patient hut is the best for the patients in the acute stages; for
economical reasons the chalet has not been heretofore as popular as
it deserves to be, but if the welfare of the patient is to be the first
consideration there is no doubt that the chdlet will ultimately prevail.
It has the merit of being easily adapted to villages and houses
where there is a garden, and in this way poor families may readily
isolate and treat a member affected by tuberculosis at a cost within
their means. For hospital purposes, so long as the system of placing
hospital buildings in densely crowded areas prevails, many-storeyed
buildings for hospital purposes are likely to continue. Should the
proposal to institute a Hospital City ultimately prevail, then it is
robable that the majority of the pavilions will be single-storeyed.
till some hospital authorities prefer the multiple-storeyed system
for administrative reasons, contending that single-storeyed pavilions
have no special advantages over two or three-storeyed buildings,
whereas the difficulties in administration and service of a hospital
building on the single-storey principle outweigh any argument
against the two- or three-storey building, if it is properly designed
and constructed. We hope that the time is approaching when
architects and those members of the public who have to provide
the money for hospital buildings will insist upon the erection of
simple structures, costing little, so that the whole cost of hospital
buildings may be, as it ought to be, reduced by at least half when
compared with the expenditure of the past.
The pavilions may be arranged in various ways; they may be
joined at one end by a corridor, or may be divided by a central
corridor at right angles to them. In fact, the plan is very elastic,
and adapts itself to almost any circumstances. A certain distance,
not less than twice the height of the pavilions, ought to be pre-
served between them. By this means free circulation of air and
plenty of light are secured, whilst separation or isolation may be at
once accomplished if required.
Foundations, Building Materials, &c. It is of the first consequence
that a hospital should be dry; therefore the foundation and walls
ought to be constructed so as to prevent the inroads of damp. An
impervious foundation has the further advantage of preventing
emanations from the soil rising up in consequence of the suction
force produced by the higher temperature of the internal atmosphere
of the building itself. There should be free ventilation in the base-
ment, and the raising of the whole on arches is a good plan, now
generally carried out in hot climates. If the pavilions are two or
more storeys high, it is advisable to use fire-proof material as much
as possible, but single-storeyed huts may be of wood. In any case
effectual means of excluding damp must be employed. The in-
teriors of wards ought to be rendered as non-absorbent as possible,
by being covered with impervious coatings, such as glazed tiles
(Parian, though much used, is apt to crack), silicate paint, which is
preferable to tiles, or the like. The ceilings ought to be treated in
the same way as the walls. There must be a concrete floor between
each flat, experience showing that if a teak floor is laid hard on the
concrete a very noisy floor is the result, but if the teak is laid on
strips of wood, leaving a small space between the concrete and the
floor, a more silent floor is obtained. For the floors themselves
various materials have been suggested: in France there is a pre-
ference for flags (dalles), but in England wood is more liked; and
indeed hard well-fitting wood, such as teak, oak or American willow,
leaves nothing to be desired. The surface should be waxed and
polished or varnished. Even deal floors can be rendered non-
absorbent by waxing, by impregnating them with solid paraffin
as recommended by Dr Langstaff.
Shape and Arrangement of Wards. It is now generally agreed that
wards should have windows on at least two opposite sides. Three
main shapes have been proposed: (a) long wards with windows
down each side, and (generally) one at the farther end with balcony ;
26 ft. is a good width for a ward of twelve or fourteen beds, but for
larger wards of more than fourteen beds the width should be not less
than 28 ft.; (b) wards nearly square, with windows on three sides;
and (c) circular wards with windows all round. The first (a) is the
form usually adopted in pavilions; (b) is recommended by Dr C. F.
Folsom (Plans for the Johns Hopkins Hospital) ; and (c) has been
suggested by Mr John Marshall, F.R.S. (Nat. Assoc. for Promotion
of Social Science, 1878). Of these (b) seems the least to be com-
mended, and (c), now comparatively common, has distinct ad-
vantages in an administrative sense, when the wards are constructed
as to floor space so as to allow the same proportion of superficial
space per bed in a circular ward to that which is contained in a
rectangular ward, as is the case at the Great Northern Central
Hospital, London. Some authorities object to a chimney-stack up
the centre of the circular ward, urging that it prevents the nurses
from having complete supervision over all the beds. In practice
this objection seems to us to have little force, and it can be avoided
by placing the fireplaces at the side of the circular ward, if desirable,
though this adds somewhat to the cost of building.
Each bed should be a little distance, say from 8 in. to I ft. from the
wall, and each bed may be reckoned as 6j ft. long; this gives ^% ft. on
each side. Between the ends of the beds about 10 ft. space is necessary,
so that 25 or 26 ft. of total breadth may be taken as a favourable
width. The wards of the Herbert Hospital are 26 ft.; but some
exceed this, as, for instance, St Thomas's, London, and the New
Royal infirmary, Edinburgh, 28; new H6tel Dieu, 29; and Lari-
boisiere, 30. There seems no necessity for exceeding 26 for a ward of
twelve or fourteen beds, but if the breadth be greater there ought
to be more window space the great difficulty being to get a wide
space thoroughly ventilated. There ought to be only two rows of
beds, one down each wall, with a window on each side of each bed.
For ventilation two things are required sufficient space and
sufficiently frequent change or renewal of air. As regards space,
this must be considered with reference both to total space and to
lateral or floor space. Unless a minimum of floor space be laid
down, we shall always be in danger of overcrowding, for cubic space
may be supplied vertically with little or no advantage to the occupier.
If we allow a minimum distance of 4 ft. between the beds and 10 ft.
between the ends of the beds, this gives 100 sq. ft. of space per
bed; less than th\s is undesirable. In severe surgical cases, fever
cases and the like, a much larger space is required; and in the
Edinburgh Infirmary 150 sq. ft. is allowed. Cubic space must be
regulated by the means of ventilation; we can rarely change the
air oftener than three times in an hour, and therefore the space
ought to be at least one-third of the hourly supply. This ought not
to be less than 4000 cubic ft. per bed, even in ordinary cases of sickness
and the third of that is 1333 cubic ft. of space. With 100 sq. ft.
of floor space a ward of 13 j ft. high would supply this amount, and
there is but little to be gained by raising the ceiling higher, indeed
12 ft. is practically enough. The experiments of Drs Cowles and
Wood of Boston (see Report of State Board of Health of Massachusetts
for 1879) show that above 12 ft. there is little or no movement in the
air except towards the outlet ventilator; the space above is there-
fore of little value as ventilation space. Authorities nowadays,
however, fix 10 ft. 6 in. as the maximum, and any height above this
may be disregarded for purposes of ventilation. Additional height
adds also to the cost of construction, increases the expense of warm-
ing, makes cleaning more difficult, and to some extent hampers
ventilation. Whatever be the height of wards, the windows must
reach to the ceiling, or there must be ventilators in the ceiling or
at the top of the side walls. If this be not arranged for, a mass of
foul air is apt to stagnate near the ceiling, and sooner or later to be
driven down upon the inmates. The reasons for a large and constant
renewal of air are, of course, the immediate removal and dilution of
the organic matter given off by the inmates; as this is greater in
quantity and more offensive and dangerous in sickness than in
health, the change of air in the former case must be greater than in
the latter. Hence in serious cases an amount of air practically
unlimited is desirable the aim of true ventilation being to approach
as near as possible to the condition of pure external air. Without
going too much into details, a few general rules may be laid down.
(i) Fresh air ought, if possible, to be brought in at the lowest part
of the ward, warmed if necessary; (2) foul air ought to be taken
out at the highest part of the ward; (3) fresh air should reach each
patient without passing over the bed of any other; (4) the vitiated
air should be removed from each patient without passing over the
bed of any other; (5) 4000 cubic ft. of fresh air per head per hour
should be the minimum in ordinary cases of sickness, to be increased
without limit in severer cases; (6) the air should move in no part of
a ward at a greater rate than ij ft. per second, except at the point
of entry, where it should not exceed 5 ft. per second, and at the
HOSPITAL
799
outlet, where the rate may be somewhat higher; about 64 sq. in.
of inlet and outlet sectional area ought to be supplied per head as a
minimum ; (7) every opportunity ought to be taken of freely flushing
the wards with air, by means of open windows, when this can be
done with safety.
Warming is a question of great importance in most climates,
especially in such a climate as that of Great Britain, where every
system of ventilation must involve either the warming of some
portion of the incoming air, or the contriving its delivery without
too great lowering of temperature; at the same time it cannot be
too strongly insisted upon that the tendency is too much in the
direction of allowing warmth to supersede freshness of air. There
are very few cases of disease (if any) that are not more injured by
foul air than by low temperature; and in the zymotic diseases,
such as typhus, enteric fever, smallpox, &c., satisfactory results
have been obtained even in winter weather by. almost open-air
treatment. At the same time a reasonable warmth is desirable on
all grounds if it can be obtained without sacrificing purity of atmo-
sphere. For all practical purposes 60 to 6j F. is quite sufficient,
and surgical and lying-in cases do well in lower temperatures.
Various plans of warming have been recommended, but probably
a combination is the best. It is inadvisable to do away altogether
with radiant heat, although it is not always possible to supply
sufficient warmth with open-air fire-places alone. A portion of the
air may be warmed by being passed over a heating apparatus before
it enters the ward, by having an air-chamber round the fire-place
or stove, or by the use of radiators in the ward itself. In each case,
however, the air must be supplied independently to each ward, so
that no general system of air supply is applicable.
The lighting of the ward at night will be most conveniently done by
means of electricity in the form of a lamp for each bed, where gas
is used each jet should have a special ventilator to carry off com-
bustion products, as in the Edinburgh Infirmary.
The Furniture of Wards should be simple, clean and non-
absorbent; the bedsteads of iron, mattresses hair, laid on spring
bottoms without sacking. No curtains should be permitted.
The water-supply ought to be on the constant system, and plenti-
ful; 50 gallons per head per diem may be taken as a fair minimum
estimate.
The closets ought to be of the simplest construction, the pans of
earthenware all in one piece, the flushing arrangements simple but
perfect, and the supply of water ample. Each ward should have its
own closets, lavatories, &c., built in small annexes, with a cross-
ventilated vestibule separating them from the ward. All the pipes
should be disconnected from the drains, the closets by intercepting
traps, the sink and waste pipes by being made to pour their contents
over trapped gratings. The soil pipes should be ventilated, and
placed outside the walls, protected as may be necessary from frost.
Each ward should have a movable bath, which can be wheeled to
the patient's bedside.
Each ward should have attached to it a small kitchen for any
special cooking that may be required, a room for the physician or
surgeon, and generally a room with one or two separate beds. No
cooking should be done in the wards, nor ought washing, airing or
drying of linen to be allowed there.
Hospital Economics. There is no doubt that the voluntary
system of hospital government is far more economical than any
system of state or rate-supported hospitals. That the present
condition of the voluntary hospitals in regard to economy is all
that can be wished is not, of course, true. Still, resting as this
system does upon the goodwill of the public for its continuance and
maintenance, it is satisfactory to note that there is a continuous
improvement in system and method, which makes for economy.
It has taken many years to perfect and enforce the uniform system
of hospital accounts, but this system with the co-operation of the
great funds has produced economical results of the first importance.
This system originated at the Queen's Hospital, Birmingham, in
1869, and was devised by an eminent Birmingham accountant,
William Laundy, and Sir Henry Burdett. It proved so fruitful in
practice that six years later it was introduced at the " Dreadnought "
Seamen's Hospital, the first London hospital to use it, and was then
adopted spontaneously by a few of the best-administered hospitals
where the managers were keen in enforcing economy. In 1891,
in order to secure for comparative purposes an identical classification
of the items and charges included in the system, a glossary or
index of classification was prepared and published in the Hospital
Annual of that year. This index enabled the same classification of
the many items included in the expenditure of a great institution to
be adopted generally. In the same year a committee of hospital
secretaries, at the instigation of the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday
Fund, revised and elaborated the index of classification, and the
new index was adopted by a general meeting of hospital secretaries
in January 1892. The Council of the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday
Fund approved it, and the Uniform System of Accounts was for-
mulated by that body for the use of the metropolitan hospitals.
In 1906 the whole of this system was inquired into on behalf of the
King's Fund by Mr John G. Griffiths, F.C.A., when a committee of
hospital secretaries and representatives of the King's Fund prepared
a further revision of the system. This was completed in the course
of the year and adopted by the King's, the Hospital Sunday and the
Hospital Saturday Funds. The publication of a book by Sir Henry
Burdett led to the adoption of the system in several of the British
Colonies, and as a result of the action taken in the British Empire
the Uniform System of Accounts has recently been set up and
adopted by the principal hospitals of the United States of America.
The prince of Wales (George V.) testified to the value of this system in
enforcing control over expenditure, and Sir Henry Burdett adapted
it for the use of the authorities of all charities of every class. It is
probable that no single reform has had a greater influence for good
upon the administration of charitable institutions than the evolution
and enforcement of the uniform system of accounts.
Nursing. The arrangements for nursing the sick have greatly
improved in recent times, although controversy still goes on as to
the best method of carrying it out. In arranging for the nursing in
a hospital both efficiency and economy have to be considered. No
ward in a general hospital for acute cases should contain more than
24 beds. In hospitals with clinical schools the proportion of nurses
to patients should be about one nurse to every three patients, and
if possible every ward should have a probationer on duty at night in
addition to the night nurse. In all well-conducted hospitals it is
now arranged that the nurses on night duty have a hot meal served
in the general dining-room during the night, and this is only possible
where a nurse and a probationer are allowed for each ward. The
nurses' quarters should be separate from the hospital proper, and
connected by a conservatory or covered way. Each nurse should
have a separate bedroom, measuring not less than 12 ft. long, 9 ft.
broad and 10 ft. high. A bath should be allowed for every eight
rooms, and the water-closets and sinks should, if possible, be in
sanitary towers cut off from the main block of buildings.
Circumstances must to a large extent determine the arrangement,
but it seems desirable on the whole that the work of a nurse should
be confined to a single ward at a time if possible. The duties of
nurses ought also to be distinctly confined to attendance on the sick,
and no menial work, such as scrubbing floors and the like, should
be demanded of them; a proper staff of servants ought to be em-
ployed for such purposes. It is also desirable that a separate
pavilion for lodging the nurses should be set apart, and that fair and
reasonable time for rest and recreation should be allowed. Some
discussion has taken place as to the advisability of placing the
nursing of a hospital in the hands of a sisterhood or a separate
corporation. It will, however, be admitted that the best plan is
for the nursing staff of each hospital to be special and under one
head within the establishment itself, even though it may be con-
nected with some main institution outside. The nursing must, of
course, be carried on in accordance with the directions and treatment
of the physicians and surgeons.
General. The kitchen, laundry, dispensary and other offices
must be in a separate pavilion or pavilions, away from the wards,
but within convenient access. A separate pavilion for isolation of
infectious cases is desirable. This may be a wooden hut, or in
some cases even a tent; either is probably preferable to a per-
manent block o? buildings. A disinfecting chamber ought to be
provided where heat can be applied to clothes and bedding, for the
destruction both of vermin and of the germs of disease. It is ad-
visable to expose all bedding and clothing to its influence after
each occasion of wear. Although this may entail additional expense
from the deterioration of fabric, it is worth the outlay to secure
immunity from disease. This plan is rigidly followed at the Royal
South Hants Infirmary at Southampton. It is of great importance
that the wards should be periodically emptied and kept unoccupied
for not less than one month in each year, and longer if possible.
During such period thorough cleansing and flushing with air could
be carried out, so as to prevent any continuous deposit of organic
matter.
Gate House or Admission Block. If the efficiency of a hospital
and the regular and smooth working of its departments are to be
secured, the proper management and control of the admission
department is of the greatest importance. When one considers for
a moment the number of applicants of all ages in various stages of
disease, and the number of accident cases of every degree of severity
who present themselves every day seeking admission, it will be
evident that the most careful supervision must be exercised on the
very threshold. It is essential that every precaution be taken against
the admission of an unsuitable case, or the refusal, without careful
examination, of any patient seeking admission. It is only necessary
to instance the case of a patient with delirium tremens being ad-
mitted to a general ward at a late hour, or a case of infectious disease
admitted through an overlook, or a case refused admission and
expiring on the way home, in order to illustrate the danger and
trouble which might arise should the supervision exercised over this
department not be systematic, stringent and thorough.
To secure this proper control it is necessary that the admission
department should be designed on a definite plan suitable for the
purposes in view. It is not sufficient to utilize any available rooms,
say, in the basement of the building, where patients may be casually
interviewed by a house surgeon or physician. This department
should be as carefully designed and equipped as any other depart-
ment of the hospital.
Within recent years much more attention has been devoted to
the details of construction than was formerly considered necessary,
8oo
HOSPITAL
but even in the best type of hospital there is still much to be desired
in this respect. It is essential for an architect in designing any
building to have before him an accurate idea of all the requirements,
and the use to which each foot of space is to be put ; for unless he
is furnished with this information it is not possible for him to design
his building so as to give effect to all the details which are so neces-
sary. The following is an endeavour in a general way to enumerate
the various points which an architect should have before him in
designing the admission department of a general hospital :
The admission department should be conveniently placed on the
ground floor of the hospital or it may be a detached building
with a large court where ambulance wagons or other vehicles may
easily pass each other on approaching or retiring from the institu-
tion. The entrance to the admission department for patients should,
if possible, be entirely separate and distinct from that for the staff
and students. An additional entrance should be provided for
patients' friends on visiting days, in order that they may be able
to enter the hospital without passing through the patients' entrance,
or coming into contact with an accident case or other patient seeking
admission. The main entrance door should be protected by a
covered porch so that patients may be removed from the ambulance
or cab to the examination room without being exposed to the weather
or the gaze of inquisitive onlookers. This door should be sufficiently
wide to allow two hand ambulances or barrows to pass should they
require to be brought out to the ambulance or cab, and to facilitate
this the floor of the entrance hall should be as nearly as possible on
a level with that of the outside porch. Adjoining the entrance
vestibule, lavatory accommodation
should be provided for males and
females who may accompany the
patient. Lavatory accommodation
should also be provided for porters
on duty, and all lavatories should
have a cut-off ventilating passage.
A recess to store ambulance barrows
should adjoin the entrance, and this
recess must be in proportion to the size
of the hospital, in order that a hand
ambulance may always be available
when an accident or urgent case
arrives. The vestibule should lead into
a large waiting-hall with an inquiry
office at its entrance, provided with a
telephone exchange, private exchange
box, also letter and parcel racks. If
possible a window of the inquiry office
should command a view of the main
entrance. A room should be provided
for the medical officer on duty, so that
a medical officer may be always at
hand and that no delay will occur in
attending to a patient on arrival.
preferably teak, and have no mouldings or grooves where dust can
lodge. They should be wide enough to admit an ambulance barrow
or bed with ease. In no case should the doors of an examination
room be less than 3 ft. 6 in. in width.
As an aid to a complete understanding of the varied work which
has to be provided for, and the most effective method of carrying it
out, the accompanying plans are given of an admission block de-
signed to embody the
main principles which
govern the construction
of such a department.
All accidents and
patients seeking admis-
sion to this hospital enter
through the central gate-
way, and on the left is
shown the porters' room,
where a porter is always
in readiness to attend to
any applicant. This
room has suitable ac-
commodation for parcels,
letters, telephones, &c.,
and adjoining it is a
small lavatory for the
use of porters. At the
side of the porters' room
J
Plans of Ground Floor and Basement of a Hospital.
Leading off from this waiting-hall, well-lit examination rooms
should be available for the thorough examination of patients, both
male and female, the number of rooms, of course, varying with the
size of the hospital and the amount of work to be done. Each of
these rooms should be fitted with a wash-hand basin and sink, and
a plentiful supply of hot and cold water.
Two rooms, with recovery rooms adjoining, should be fitted up
as small operating-rooms for the treatment of minor casualties.
A special room should also be furnished with an X-ray outfit, and
arrangements should be made whereby this room can be readily
darkened so that suspected fractures, &c., may be examined with
the fluorescent screen.
Adjoining the admission department two small wards should be
provided for the accommodation of drunk or noisy cases unfit to
be placed in the general wards. To these " emergency wards "
must be attached the usual bathroom and lavatory accommodation,
nurses' room, ward kitchen and urine-test room or small lavatory.
These wards should have double windows in order to prevent noise
being heard outside if the wards are near other buildings.
The interior walls of the admission department should, as far as
possible, have a smooth and impervious surface, in order that they
may be easily cleaned. All angles should be avoided and all corners
rounded. Although glazed tiles are open to the criticism that they
have numerous joints, they probably make the most suitable wall
yet devised, as they can be easily washed down at very small cost.
The corridors and waiting-hall should be tiled to a height of 6 ft.
6 in., and the upper walls covered with Parian or Kean's cement,
and be treated with three coats of flat paint and two coats of enamel,
or, what is equally suitable and less costly, enamellette. The floors
of the passages and corridors throughout the department should be
covered with terrazzo, which is a mixture of Portland cement and
marble chips. A margin of I ft. round the rooms should be treated
in this way, and the terrazzo carried up this same distance on the
wall to join the tiles. The remainder of the floors should be covered
with hard wood, such as American maple or teak. As these floors
require to be frequently washed, oak is not so suitable. Oak very
soon becomes destroyed with water; the same trouble is experienced
with pitch pine. The doors should also be made of a hard wood,
is the entrance to the central waiting-hall, which is lit from the
roof. On one side of this hall are examination and dressing-rooms
for males, with lavatory accommodation; and on the other side
similar provision for females, with the addition of a nurses' duty
room. At the end of the central hail are two operating theatres,
with recovery room adjoining each; one theatre for males, and the
other for females. Between these theatres are rooms for sterilizers
and dressings. An X-ray examination room is provided beyond the
male examination room on the right of the hall. In the basement,
under the entrance-hall and operating theatres are two bathrooms
for males and two for females, with W.C.'s for each. The remainder
of the basement is used as a store for patients' clothes, and a hot-
air chamber is provided for purposes of disinfection. The basement
can be reached by a lift or by a wide staircase which is situated at
the end of the waiting-hall.
In the above plan provision is made for a sitting-room for the
medical officer on duty. This is a new and essential feature in the
admission block unit of all hospitals in large cities, for it should
secure that no patient is kept waiting for many minutes before being
seen. One of the blots on the management of many hospitals is
that regrettable delays often take place, and much dissatisfaction
and avoidable suffering may arise from this difficulty in the ad-
ministration of a general hospital. We have given this plan of a
model gatehouse or admission block for a modern general hospital,
because the block as it stands contains all the elements necessary
for a receiving-house block in cities in connexion with a great
Hospital city situated outside its area, in fulfilment of the suggestion
for a Hospital city made above. Apart from its interest as a new
feature which all new hospitals should adopt, the gatehouse or
admission block has an importance in the wider sense, that it may
come to form the key to the solution of the problem of how best to
provide hospital accommodation for the poor in great cities under
the best hygienic conditions, while protecting them from the misery
and danger of prolonged delay in first treatment, especially in con-
nexion with accidents and other cases of urgency.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir H. Burdett, Cottage Hospitals, General, Fever
and Convalescent, their Construction, Management and Work (London,
1877, 1880 and 1896); Toilet, Les Edifices hospitaliers depuis lew
HOSPITIUM HOSTAGE
801
origine jusqu'd nos jours (Paris, 1892); Sir H. Burdett, Hospitals
and Asylums of the World, with large portfolio of plans to a uniform
scale (London, 1893) (a supplement is published every year bringing
the information up to date, entitled Burdett' 's Hospitals and Chanties) ;
J S Billings, The Principles of Ventilation, Heating and their Practical
Application (New York, 1893); Gallon, Healthy Hospitals (London,
1893); Toilet, Les Hopitaux au XIX' siecle (Pans, 1894); Billings
and' Hurd, Suggestions to Hospital and Asylum Visitors (Philadelphia
1895); Oswald Kuhn, "Hospitals," Handbuch der Architektur,
4th part, 5th half- volume, part i. (Stuttgart, 1897); Plans for the
Johns Hopkins Hospital (Baltimore, 1875); Report of State Board
of Health for Massachusetts for 1879. (H. BT.)
HOSPITIUM (Gr. wa, irpo^wi), "hospitality," among the
Greeks and Romans, was of a twofold character : (i) prjvate ;
(2) public.
(i) In Homeric times all strangers without exception were
regarded as being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of
strangers and suppliants. It is doubtful whether, as is commonly
assumed, they were considered as ipso facto enemies; they
were rather guests. Immediately on his arrival, the stranger
was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry was made as to
his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality had
been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was
often presented with gifts (evta), and sometimes a die
(ao-Tpaya\os) was broken between them. Each then took a
part, a family connexion was established, and the broken die
served as a symbol of recognition; thus the members of each
family found in the other hosts and protectors in case of need.
Violation of the duties of hospitality was likely to provoke
the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that any-
thing beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the
rights of a traveller. Similar customs seem to have existed
among the Italian races. Amongst the Romans, private hospit-
ality, which had existed from the earliest times, was more
accurately and legally defined than amongst the Greeks, the
tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that
between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract,
entered into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and
exchange of an agreement in writing (tabula hospitalis) or of
a token (tessera or symbolum), and was rendered hereditary
by the division of the tessera. The advantages thus obtained
by the guest were, the right of hospitality when travelling and,
above all, the protection of his host (representing him as his
patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and inviolable,
undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only
be dissolved by a formal act.
(2) This private connexion developed into a custom according
to which a state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state
as its representative (vpb&vos) to protect any of its citizens
travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual
came forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of
another state (i9t\oirp6evo$). The proxenus is generally
compared to the modern consul or minister resident. His
duties were to afford hospitality to strangers from the state
whose proxenus he was, to introduce its ambassadors, to procure
them admission to the assembly and seats in the theatre, and
in general to look after the commercial and political interests
of the state by which he had been appointed to his office. Many
cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the
family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We
find the office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating
probably from the 7th century B.C., and it continued to grow
more important and frequent throughout Greek history. There
is no proof that any direct emolument was ever attached to
the office, while the expense and trouble entailed by it must
often have been very great. Probably the honours which
it brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted
partly in the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus,
and partly in many more substantial honours conferred by
special decree of the state whose representative he was, sucJ
as freedom from taxation and public burdens, the right o
acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and popular
assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship. Public hospitium
seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the
XIII. 26
circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so
mportant as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establish-
ment of public hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere,
Jvy v. 50), and of towns entering into a position of clientship
to some distinguished Roman, who then became patronus of
such a town. Foreigners were frequently granted the right
of public hospitality by the senate down to the end of the re-
public. The public hospes had a right to entertainment at the
jublic expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of
>uying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action
at law without the intervention of a Roman patron.
A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in
Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquiles, to which may
)e added R. von Jhering, Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum (1887);
see also Smith's Dictionary of Creek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed.,
1890).
HOSPODAR, a term of Slavonic origin, meaning " lord "
Russ. gospodar). It is a derivative of gospod, " lord," and
s akin to gosudar, which primarily means " sovereign," and is
now also used in Russia as a polite form of address, equivalent
to " sir." The pronunciation as hospodar of a word written
gospodar in all but one of the Slavonic languages which retain
the Cyrillic alphabet is not, as is sometimes alleged, due to the
influence of Little Russian, but to that of Church Slavonic.
In both of these g is frequently pronounced h. In Little Russian
the title hospodar is specially applied to the master of a house
or the head of a family. The rulers of Walachia and Moldavia
were styled hospodars from the isth century to 1866. At the
end of this period, as the title had been held by many vassals
of Turkey, its retention was considered inconsistent with the
growth of Rumanian independence. It was therefore discarded
in favour of damn (dominus, "lord"), which continued to be
the official princely title up to the proclamation of a Rumanian
kingdom in 1881.
HOST, (i) (Through the O. Fr. oste or hoste, modern hdte,
from Lat. hospes, a guest or host; hospes being probably from
an original hostipes, one who feeds a stranger or enemy, from
hostis and the root of pascere), one who receives another into
his house and provides him with lodging and entertainment,
especially one who does this in return for payment. The word
is thus transferred, in biology, to an animal or plant upon which
a parasite lives. (2) (From Lat. hostis, a stranger or enemy;
in Med. Latin a military expedition), a very large gathering
of men, armed for war, an army, and so used generally of any
multitude. In biblical use the word is applied to the company
of angels in heaven; or to the sun, moon and stars, the " hosts
of heaven," and also to translate " Jehovah Sabaoth," the
Lord God of hosts, the lord of the armies of Israel or of the hosts
of heaven. (3) (From Lat. hostia, a victim or sacrifice), the
sacrifice of Christ's body and blood in the Eucharist, more
particularly the consecrated wafer used in the service of the
mass in the Roman .Church (see EUCHARIST).
HOSTAGE (through Fr. ostage, modern otage, from Late
Lat. obsidaticum, the state of being an obses or hostage; Med.
Lat. ostaticum, oslagium), a person handed over by one of two
belligerent parties to the other or seized as security for the
carrying out of an agreement, or as a preventive measure against
certain acts of war. The practice of taking hostages is very
ancient, and has been used constantly in negotiations with
conquered nations, and in cases such as surrenders, armistices
and the like, where the two belligerents depended for its proper
carrying out on each other's good faith. The Romans were
accustomed to take the sons of tributary princes and educate
them at Rome, thus holding a security for the continued loyalty
of the conquered nation and also instilling a possible future
ruler with ideas of Roman civilization. This practice was also
adopted in the early period of the British occupation of India,
and by France in her relations with the Arab tribes in North
Africa. 1 The position of a hostage was that of a prisoner of war,
1 The sultan of Bagiemi, in Central Africa, in 1906 sent his nephew
to undergo military training with a squadron of Spahis, and at the
same time to serve as a guarantee of his fidelity to the French
(Bulletin du Comite de I'Afrique franc.aise, Oct. 1906).
5
802
HOSTE HOSUR
to be retained till the negotiations or treaty obligations were
carried out, and liable to punishment (in ancient times), and even
to death, in case of treachery or refusal to fulfil the promises
made. The practice of taking hostages as security for the carrying
out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. The
last occasion was at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748,
when two British peers, Henry Bowes Howard, nth earl of
Suffolk, and Charles, gth Baron Cathcart, were sent to France
as hostages for the restitution of Cape Breton to France.
In modern times the practice may be said to be confined
to two occasions: (i) to secure the payment of enforced con-
tributions or requisitions in an occupied territory and the
obedience to regulations the occupying army may think fit to
issue; (2) as a precautionary measure, to prevent illegitimate
acts of war or violence by persons not members of the recognized
military forces of the enemy. During the Franco-Prussian War
of 1870, the Germans took as hostages the prominent people
or officials from towns or districts when making requisitions and
also when foraging, and it was a general practice for the mayor
and adjoint of a town which failed to pay a fine imposed upon it
to be seized as " hostages " and retained till the money was paid.
The last case where " hostages " have been taken in modern
warfare has been the subject of much discussion. In 1870
the Germans found it necessary to take special measures to put
a stop to train-wrecking by parties in occupied territory not
belonging to the recognized armed forces of the enemy, an
illegitimate act of war. Prominent citizens were placed on the
engine of the train " so that it might be understood that in every
accident caused by the hostility of the inhabitants their com-
patriots will be the first to suffer." The measure seems to have
been effective. In 1900 during the Boer War, by a proclamation
issued at Pretoria (June ipth), Lord Roberts adopted the plan
for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards (July 29) it was
abandoned (see The Times' History of the War in S. Africa,
iv. 492). The Germans also, between the surrender of a town
and its final occupation, took " hostages " as security against
outbreaks of violence by the inhabitants. Most writers on
international law have regarded this method of preventing such
acts of hostility as unjustifiable, on the ground that the persons
taken as hostages are not the persons responsible for the act; *
that, as by the usage of war hostages are to be treated strictly
as prisoners of war, such an exposure to danger is transgressing
the rights of a belligerent; and as useless, for the mere temporary
removal of important citizens till the end of a war cannot be
a deterrent unless their mere removal deprives the combatants
of persons necessary to the continuance of the acts aimed at
(see W. E. Hall, International Law, 1904, pp. 418, 475)- On the
other hand it has been urged (L. Oppenheim, International Law,
1905, vol. ii., " War and Neutrality," pp. 271-273) that the acts,
the prevention of which is aimed at, are not legitimate acts on
the part of the armed forces of the enemy, but illegitimate acts
by private persons, who, if caught, could be quite lawfully
punished, and that a precautionary and preventive measure
is more reasonable than " reprisals." It may be noticed,
however, that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at
be performed by the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy.
In France, after the revolution of Prairial (June 18, 1799),
the so-called " law of hostages " was passed, to meet the insurrec-
tion in La Vendee. Relatives of emigres were taken from dis-
turbed districts and imprisoned, and were liable to execution
at any attempt to escape. Sequestration of their property and
deportation from France followed on the murder of a republican,
four to every such murder, with heavy fines on the whole
body of hostages. The law only resulted in an increase in the
insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to
deal with the insurrection in Lombardy (Carres pondance de
NapoUon I. i. 323, 327, quoted in Hall, International Law).
1 Article 50 of the Hague War Regulations lays it down that
" no general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted on the
population on account of the acts of individuals for which it cannot
be regarded as collectively responsible." The regulations, however,
do not allude to the practice of taking hostage.
In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune, took place
the massacre of the so-called hostages. Strictly they were not
" hostages," for they had not been handed over or seized as
security for the performance of any undertaking or as a preventive
measure, but merely in retaliation for the death of their leaders
E. V. Duval and Gustave Flourens. It was an act of maniacal
despair, on the defeat at Mont Valerien on the 4th of April and
the entry of the army into Paris on the 2ist of May. Among the
many victims who were shot in batches the most noticeable were
Monsignor Darboy, archbishop of Paris, the Abbe Deguery, cure
of the Madeleine, and the president of the Court of Cassation,
Louis Bernard Bonjean.
HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM (1780-1828), British naval captain,
was the son of Dixon Hoste, rector of Godwick and Tittleshill
in Norfolk. He was born on the 26th of August 1780 at Ingolds-
thorpe, and entered the navy in April 1793, under the special care
of Nelson, who had a lively affection for him. He became
lieutenant in 1798, and was appointed commander of the
" Mutine " brig after the battleof the Nile, at which he was present
as lieutenant of the " Theseus." In 1802 he was promoted post
captain by Lord St Vincent. During all his active career, he
was employed in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. From
1808 to 1814 he held the command of a detached force of frigates,
and was engaged in operations against the French who held
Dalmatia at the time, and in watching, or, when they came out,
fighting, the ships of the squadron formed at Venice by Napoleon's
orders. The work was admirably done, and was also lucrative;
and Hoste, although he occasionally complained that his exertions
did not put much money in his pocket, made a fortune of at least
60,000 by the capture of Italian and Dalmatian merchant
ships. He also made many successful attacks on the French
military posts on shore. His most brilliant feat was performed
on the i3th of March 1811. A Franco-Venetian squadron of six
frigates and five small vessels, under the command of a French
officer named Dubourdieu, assailed Hoste's small force of four
frigates near the island of Lissa. The French officer imitated
Nelson's attack at Trafalgar by sailing down on the English
line from windward with his ships in two lines. But the rapid
manoeuvring and gunnery of Hoste's squadron proved how little
virtue there is in any formation in itself. Dubourdieu was killed,
one of the French frigates was driven on shore, and two of the
Venetians were taken. After the action, which attracted a
great deal of attention, Hoste returned to England, but in 1812
he was back on his station, where he remained till the end of the
war. During the peace he did not again go to sea, and he died
on the 6th of December 1828. He married Lady Harriet Walpole
in April 1817, and left three sons and three daughters.
In 1833 his widow published his Memoirs and Letters. See also
Marshall, Roy. Nav. Biog. vol. iii., and James, Naval History.
HOSTEL, the old name for an inn (see HOSPITAL, ad init.);
also employed at Oxford and Cambridge to designate the
lodgings which were in ancient times occupied by students
of the university and to a certain extent regulated by the
authorities. In some English public schools what is known
as the " hostel " system provides for an organization of the
lodging accommodation under separate masterships. ,
HOSTIUS, Roman epic poet, probably flourished in the znd
century B.C. He was the author of a Bellum Histricum in at
least seven books, of which only a few fragments remain. The
poem is probably intended to celebrate the victory gained in
129 by Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (consul and himself an
annalist) over the Illyrian lapydes (Appian, Illyrica, 10; Livy,
epit. 59). Hostius is supposed by some to be the " doctus avus "
alluded to in Propertius (iv. 20. 8), the real name of Propertius's
Cynthia, according to Apuleius (Apologia x.) and the scholiast
on Juvenal (vi. 7), being Hostia (perhaps Roscia).
Fragments in E. Bahrens, Fragmenta poetarum Romanorum
(1884); A. Weichert, Poetarum Latinorum reliquiae (1830).
HOSUR, a town of British India, in the Salem district of
Madras, 24 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901) 6695. It contains
an old fort, frequently mentioned in the history of the Mysore
wars, and a fine castellated mansion built by a former collector.
HOTCH-POT HOTHAM, BARON
803
Close by is the remount dep6t, established in 1828, where
Australian horses are acclimatized and trained for artillery
and cavalry use in southern India.
HOTCH-POT, or HOTCH-POTCH (from Fr. hocher, to shake;
used as early as 1292 as a law term, and from the isth century
in cookery for a sort of broth with many ingredients, and so
used figuratively for any heterogeneous mixture) , in English law,
the name given to a rule of equity whereby a person, interested
along with others in a common fund, and having already received
something in the same interest, is required to surrender what
has been so acquired into the common fund, on pain of being
excluded from the distribution. " It seemeth," says Littleton,
" that this word hotch-pot is in English a pudding; for in a
pudding is not commonly put one thing alone, but one thing
with other things together." The following is an old example
given in Coke on Littleton: " If a man seized of 30 acres
of land in fee hath issue only two daughters, and he gives with
one of them 10 acres in marriage to the man that marries her,
and dies seized of the other 20; now she that is thus married,
to gain her share of the rest of the land, must put her part
given in marriage into hotch-pot; i.e. she must refuse to take
the profits thereof, and cause her land to be so mingled with the
other that an equal division of the whole may be made between
her and her sister, as if none had been given to her; and thus
for her 10 acres she shall have 15, or otherwise the sister will
have the 20." In the common law this seems to have been
the only instance in which the rule was applied, and the reason
assigned for it is that, inasmuch as daughters succeeding to lands
take together as coparceners and not by primogeniture, the
policy of the law is that the land in such cases should be equally
divided. The law of hotch-pot applies only to lands descending
in fee-simple. The same principle is noticed by Blackstone
as applying in the customs of York and London to personal
property. It is also expressly enacted in the Statute of Dis-
tributions ( 5) that no child of the intestate, except his heir-at-
law, who shall have any estate in land by the settlement of the
intestate, or who shall be advanced by the intestate in his
lifetime by pecuniary portion equal to the distributive shares
of the other children, shall participate with them in the surplus;
but if the estate so given to such child by way of advancement
be not equivalent to their shares, then such part of the surplus as
will make it equal shall be allotted to him. It has been decided
that this provision applies only to advancements by fathers, on
the ground that the rule was founded on the custom of London,
which never affected a widow's personal estate. The h'eir-at-law
is not required to bring any land which he has by .descent or
otherwise from the deceased into hotch-pot, but advancements
made to him out of the personal property must be brought
in. The same principle is to be found in the collatio bonorum
of the Roman law: emancipated children, in order to share
the inheritance of their father with the children unemancipated,
were required to bring their property into the common fund.
It is also found in the law of Scotland.
HOTEL-DE-VILLE, the town hall of every French munici-
pality. The most ancient example still in perfect preservation
is that at St-Antonin (Tarn-et-Garonne) dating from the middle
of the 1 2th century. Other fine town halls are those of Com-
piegne, Orleans, Saumur, Beaugency and St Quentin. The
H&tel de Ville in Paris built in the i6th century was burnt by
the Commune in 1871 and has since been rebuilt on an extended
site, the central portion of the main front being a reproduction
of the old design. There is only one town hall in a French town,
those erected for the mayors of the different arrondissements
in Paris being called mairies.
HOTEL-DIEU, the name given to the principal hospital in
any French town. The H6teI-Dieu in Paris was founded in the
year A.D. 660, has been extended at various times, and was
entirely rebuilt between 1868-1878. One of the most ancient
in France is at Angers, dating from 1153. The Hotel-Dieu of
Beaune (C6te-d'0r), founded 1443, is one of the most interesting,
as it retains the picturesque disposition of its courtyard, with
covered galleries on two storeys and large dormer windows;
and the great hall of the H6tel-Dieu at Tonnerre, Yonne (1338),
nearly 60 ft. wide and over 300 ft. long, is still preserved as part
of the chief hospital of the town.
HOTHAM, SIR JOHN (d. 1645), English parliamentarian,
belonged to a Yorkshire family, and fought on the continent
of Europe during the early part of the Thirty Years' War. In
1622 he was made a baronet, and he was member of parliament
for Beverley in the five parliaments between 1625 and 1640,
being sheriff of Yorkshire in 1635. In 1639 he was deprived
by the king of his office of governor of Hull, and joining the
parliamentary party refused to pay ship-money. In January
1642 Hotham was ordered by the parliament to seize Hull,
where there was a large store of munitions of war; this was
at once carried out by his son John. Hotham took command
of Hull and in April 1642 refused to admit Charles I. to the
town. Later he promised his prisoner, Lord Digby, that he
would surrender it to the king, but when Charles appeared
again he refused a second time and drove away the besiegers.
Meanwhile the younger Hotham was taking an active part in
the Civil War in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, but was soon at
variance with other parliamentary leaders, especially with the
Fairfaxes, and complaints about his conduct and that of his
troops were made by Cromwell and by Colonel Hutchinson.
Soon both the Hothams were corresponding with the earl of
Newcastle, and the younger one was probably ready to betray
Hull; these proceedings became known to the parliament,
and in June 1643 father and son were captured and taken to
London. After a long delay they were tried by court-martial,
were found guilty and were sentenced to death. The younger
Hotham was beheaded on the 2nd of January 1645, and in
spite of efforts made by the House of Lords and the Presbyterians
to save him, the elder suffered the same fate on the following
day. Sir John Hotham had two other sons who were persons
of some note: Charles Hotham (i6i5~c. 1672), rector of Wigan,
a Cambridge scholar and author of Ad philosophiam Teutonicam
Manuductio (1648); and Durant Hotham (1617-1691), who
wrote a Life of Jacob Boehme (1654).
HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM, IST BARON ( 17 36-i8i 3 ),
British Admiral, son of Sir Beaumont Hotham (d. 1771), a
lineal descendant of the above Sir John Hotham, was educated
at Westminster School and at the Royal Naval Academy,
Portsmouth. He entered the navy in 1751, and spent most of his
midshipman's time in American waters. In 1755 he became
lieutenant in Sir Edward Hawke's flagship the " St George," and
he soon received a small command, which led gradually to higher
posts. In the " Syren " (20) he fought a sharp action with the
French " Telemaque " of superior force, and in the " Fortune "
sloop he carried, by boarding, a 26-gun privateer. For this
service he was rewarded with a more powerful ship, and from
1757 onwards commanded various frigates. In 1759 his ship
the " Melampe," with H.M.S. " Southampton," fought a spirited
action with two hostile frigates of similar force, one of which
became their prize. The " Melampe " was attached to Keppel's
squadron in 1761, but was in the main employed in detached
duty and made many captures. In 1776, as a commodore,
Hotham served in North American waters, and he had a great
share in the brilliant action in the Cul de Sac of St Lucia (Dec.
iSth, 1778). Here he continued till the spring of 1781, when he
was sent home in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen.
Off Scilly Hotham fell in with a powerful French squadron,
against which he could effect nothing, and many of the merchant-
men went to France as prizes. In 1782 Commodore Hotham
was with Howe at the relief of Gibraltar, and at the time of the
Spanish armament of 1790 he flew his flag as rear-admiral
of the red. Some time later he was made vice-admiral. As
Hood's second-in-command in the Mediterranean he was engaged
against the French Revolutionary navy, and when his chief
retired to England the command devolved upon him. On March
1 2th, 1794 he fought an indecisive fleet action, in which the brunt
of the fighting was borne by Captain Horatio Nelson, and some
months later, now a full admiral, he again engaged, this time
under conditions which might have permitted a decisive victory;
8 04
HOTHO HOT SPRINGS
of this affair Nelson wrote home that it was a " miserable action."
A little later he returned to England, and in 1797 he was made
a peer of Ireland under the title of Baron Hotham of South
Dalton, near Hull. He died in 1813. Hotham lacked the fiery
energy and genius of a Nelson or a Jervis, but in subordinate
positions he was a brave and capable officer.
As Hotham died unmarried his barony passed to his brother,
Sir Beaumont Hotham (1737-1814), who became 2nd Baron
Hotham in May 1813. Beaumont, who was a baron of the
exchequer for thirty years, died on the 4th of March 1814, and
was succeeded as 3rd baron by his grandson Beaumont Hotham
(1794-1870), who was present at the battle of Waterloo, being
afterwards a member of parliament for forty-eight years. He died
unmarried in December 1870 and was succeeded by his nephew,
Charles (1836-1872), and then by another nephew, John (1838-
1907). In 1907 his cousin Frederick William (b. 1863) became
the 6th baron.
Other distinguished members of this family were the 2nd
baron's son, Sir Henry Hotham (1777-1833), a vice-admiral, who
saw a great deal of service during the Napoleonic wars; and Sir
William Hotham (1772-1848), a nephew of the ist baron, who
served with Duncan in 1797 off Camperdown and elsewhere.
See Charnock, Biographic, navalis, vi. 236.
HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1873), German historian
of art, was born at Berlin in 1802, and died in his native city on
Christmas day 1873. During boyhood he was affected for two
years with blindness consequent on an attack of measles. But
recovering his sight he studied so hard as to take his degree at
Berlin in 1826. A year of travel spent in visiting Paris, London
and the Low Countries determined his vocation. He came home
delighted with the treasures which he had seen, worked labori-
ously for a higher examination and passed as " docent " in
aesthetics and art history. In 1829 he was made professor at
the university of Berlin. In 1833 G. F. Waagen accepted him
as assistant in the museum of the Prussian capital; and in 1858
he was promoted to the directorship of the print-room. During
a long and busy life, in which his time was divided between
literature and official duties, Hotho's ambition had always been
to master the history of the schools of Germany and the Nether-
lands. Accordingly what he published was generally confined
to those countries. In 1842-1843 he gave to the world his account
of German and Flemish painting. From 1853 to 1858 he revised
and published anew a part of this work, which he called " The
school of Hubert van Eyck, with his German precursors and
contemporaries." His attempt later on to write a history of
Christian painting overtasked his strength, and remained
unfinished. Hotho is important in the history of aesthetics
as having developed Hegel's theories; but he was deficient in
knowledge of Italian painting.
HOTI-MARDAN, or MARDAN, a frontier cantonment of British
India in the Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier
Province, situated 15 m. N. of Nowshera. Pop. (1901) 3572.
It is notable as the permanent headquarters of the famous
corps of Guides, and also contains a cavalry brigade belonging
to the ist division of the northern army.
HOTMAN, FRANCOIS (1524-1590), French publicist, eldest
son of Pierre Hotman, was born on the 23rd of August 1524,
at Paris, his family being of Silesian origin. His name is latin-
ized by himself Hotomanus, by others Hotomannus and Hotto-
mannus. His father, a zealous Catholic, and a counsellor of
the parlement of Paris, destined him for the law, and sent him
at the age of fifteen to the university of Orleans. He obtained
his doctorate in three years, and became a pleader at Paris. The
arts of the barrister were not to his taste; he turned to the study
of jurisprudence and literature, and in 1546 was appointed
lecturer in Roman Law at the university of Paris. The fortitude
of Anne Dubourg under torture gained his adhesion to the
cause of Reform. Giving up a career on which he had entered
with high repute, he went in 1547 to Lyons, and thence to Geneva
and to Lausanne, where, on the recommendation of Calvin, he
was appointed professor of belles-lettres and history, and
married Claudine Aubelin, a refugee from Orleans. On the
invitation of the magistracy, he lectured at Strassburg on law
in 1555, and became professor in 1556, superseding Francois
Baudouin, who had been his colleague in Paris. His fame was
such that overtures were made to him by the courts of Prussia
and Hesse, and by Elizabeth of England. Twice he visited
Germany, in 1556 accompanying Calvin to the Diet at Frankfort.
He was entrusted with confidential missions from the Huguenot
leaders to German potentates, carrying at one time credentials
from Catherine de Medici. In 1560 he was one of the principal
instigators of the conspiracy of Amboise; in September of that
year he was with Antoine of Navarre at Nerac. In 1562 he
attached himself to Conde. In 1564 he became professor of civil
law at Valence, retrieving by his success the reputation of its
university. In 1567 he succeeded Cujas in the chair of juris-
prudence at Bourges. Five months later his house and library
were wrecked by a Catholic mob; he fled by Orleans to Paris,
where L'Hopital made him historiographer to the king. As
agent for the Huguenots, he was sent to Blois to negotiate the
peace of 1568. He returned to Bourges, only to be again driven
away by the outbreak of hostilities. At Sancerre, during its siege,
he composed his Consolatio (published in 1593). The peace of 1570
restored him to Bourges, whence a third time he fled, in con-
sequence of the St Bartholomew massacre (1572). In 1573, after
publishing his Franco-Gallia, he left France for ever with his
family, and became professor of Roman law at Geneva. On
the approach of the duke of Savoy he removed to Basel in 1579.
In 1580 he was appointed councillor of state to Henry of Navarre.
The plague sent him in 1582 to Montbeliard; here he lost his wife.
Returning to Geneva in 1584 he developed a kind of scientific
turn, dabbling in alchemy and the research for the philosopher's
stone. In 1589 he made his final retirement to Basel, where he
died on the i2th of February 1590, leaving two sons and four
daughters; he was buried in the cathedral.
Hotman was a man of pure life, real piety (as his Consolatio
shows) and warm domestic virtues. His constant removals were
inspired less by fear for himself than by care for his family, and
by a temperament averse to the conditions of warfare, and a
constitutional desire for peace. He did much for 16th-century
jurisprudence, having a critical knowledge of Roman sources, and
a fine Latin style. He broached the idea of a national code of
French law. His works were very numerous, beginning with
his De gradibus cognationis (1546), and including a treatise on
the Eucharist (1566); a treatise (Anti-Tribonien, 1567) to show
that French law could not be based on Justinian; a life of
Coligny (1575); a polemic (Brutum fulmcn, 1585) directed
against a bull of Sixtus V., with many other works on law,
history, politics and classical learning. His most important
work, the Franco-Gallia (1573), was in advance of his age, and
found favour neither with Catholics nor with Huguenots in its
day; yet its vogue has been compared to that obtained later by
Rousseau's Central Social. It presented an ideal of Protestant
statesmanship, pleading for a representative government and
an elective monarchy. It served the purpose of the Jesuits in
their pamphlet war against Henry IV.
See Bayle, Dictionnaire ; R. Dareste, Essai sur f. Hotman (1850);
E. Gr6goire, in Nouvelle Biog. generate (1858). (A. Go.*)
HOT SPRINGS, a city of Arkansas, U.S.A., the county-seat of
Garland county, at the easterly base of the Ozark mountains,
55 m. by rail W.S.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1880) 3554; (1890)
8086; (1900) 9973, of whom 3102 were of negro descent and
561 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,434. The transient
population numbers more than 100,000 annually. Hot Springs
is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Little Rock
& Hot Springs Western, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain &
Southern railways. The city lies partly in several mountain
ravines and partly on a plateau. A creek, flowing through the
valley but walled over, empties into the Ouachita river several
miles from Hot Springs. The elevation of the surrounding hills
is about 1 200 ft. above the sea and 600 above the surrounding
country. The scenery is beautiful, and there is a remarkable
view from a steel tower observatory, 150 ft. high, on the top
of Hot Springs mountain. The climate is delightful. The
HOT SPRINGS HOTTENTOTS
805
average rainfall for the year is about 55 in. The springs are
about forty-four in number, rising within an area of 3 acres
on the slope of Hot Springs mountain. They are all included
within a reservation held by the United States government,
which (since 1903) exercises complete jurisdiction. The daily
flow from the springs used is more than 800,000 gallons. Their
temperature varies from 95 to 147 F. The waters are tasteless
and inodorous, and contain calcium and magnesium bicarbonates,
combinations of hydrogen and silicon, and of iodides, bromides
and lithium. The national government maintains at Hot
Springs an army and navy hospital, and a bath-house open
gratuitously to indigent bathers. The business of Hot Springs
consists mainly in caring for its visitors. Fruit-raising and
small gardening characterize its environs. There are sulphur,
lithia and other springs near the city, and an ostrich farm and
an alligator farm in the suburbs. The finest of the novaculite
rocks of central Arkansas are quarried near the city. The total
value of its factory product in 1905 was $597,029, an increase
of 213-1% since 1900.
The Springs were first used by the itinerant trappers. They
were visited about 1800 by French hunters; and by members
of the Lewis and Clark party in 1804 under instructions from
President Thomas Jefferson. The permanent occupation of the
town site dates only from 1828, though as early as 1807 a
temporary settlement was made. In 1876 Hot Springs was
incorporated as a town, and in 1879 it was chartered as a city.
In 1832 Congress created a reservation, but the right of the
government as against private claimants was definitely settled
only in 1876, by a decision of the United States Supreme Court.
The city was almost destroyed by fire in 1878, and was greatly
improved in the rebuilding.
HOT SPRINGS, a hamlet and health-resort in Cedar Creek
District, Bath county, Virginia, U.S.A., 25 m. by rail (a branch
of the Chesapeake & Ohio railway) N. by E. of Covington and
near the N.W. border of the state. It lies in a narrow valley,
about 2200-2500 ft. above the sea, with rugged mountains on
either side. Pop. of the district (1900) 1761; (1910) 2472. The
mean summer temperature is only 69 F., and the summer nights
are always cool. There is a good golf-course. Mineral waters
(with magnesia, soda-lithia and alum) issue from several springs,
some at a temperature as high as 106 F., and are used both for
drinking and for bathing. The Warm Sulphur Springs (about
98 F.) are 5 m. N.; Healing Springs (85 F.) are 2| m. S. of
Hot Springs; and a few miles to the S.E., in Rockbridge county,
are Rockbridge and Jordan Alum Springs.
HOTTENTOTS, an African people of western Cape Colony and
the adjoining German territory, formerly widely spread through-
out South Africa. The name is that given them by the early
Dutch settlers at the Cape, being a Dutch word of an onomatopoeic
kind to express stammering, in reference to the staccato pro-
nunciation and clicks of the native language. Some early writers
termed them Hodmadods or Hodmandods, and others Hot-nots
and Ottentots all corruptions of the same word. Their name
for themselves was Khoi-Khoin (men of men), or Quae Quae,
Kwekhena, t'Kuhkeub, the forms varying according to the
several dialects. Early authorities believed them to be totally
distinct from all other African races. The researches of Gustav
Fritsch, Dr E. T. Hamy, F. Shrubsall and others have demon-
strated, however, that they are not so much a distinct or inde-
pendent variety of mankind as the result of a very old cross
between two other varieties the Bantu Negro (containing
a distinct Hamitic element) and the Bushman. Hamy calls them
simply " Bushman-Bantu half-breeds," the Bushman element
being seen in the leathery colour, compared to that of the " sere
and yellow leaf " ; in the remarkably prominent cheek-bones
and pointed chin, giving the face a peculiarly triangular shape;
and lastly, in such highly specialized characters as the tablier
and the steatopygia of the women. The cranial capacity is also
nearly the same (1331 c.c. in the Bushman, 1365 c.c. in the
Hottentot), and on these anatomical grounds Shrubsall concludes
that the two are essentially one race, allowing for the undeniable
strain of Bantu blood in the Hottentot. This view is further
strengthened by the vast range in prehistoric times of the
Hottentot variety, which, since the time of Martin H.K. Lichten-
stein (1800-1804), was known to have comprised the whole of
Africa south of the Zambezi, and has since been extended as
far north as the equatorial lake region.
Fritsch divides the Hottentots into three bodies; the Cape
Hottentots, from the Cape peninsula eastward to Kaffraria,
the Koranna, chiefly on the right bank of the Orange river, but
also found on the Harts and the Vaal, and the Namaqua in the
western portion of South Africa. Of these all save the last
mentioned have ceased to exist in any racial purity. The name
which the Namaqua give to themselves is Khoi-Khoin, and this
name must be distinguished from that of the Berg-Damara or
Hau-Khoin, since the latter are physically of Bantu origin
though they have borrowed their speech from the Hottentots.
While the Namaqua preserve the racial type and speech, the
other so-called Hottentots are more or less Hottentot-Dutch
or Hottentot-Bantu half-breeds, mainly of debased Dutch
speech, although the Koranna still here and there speak a
moribund Hottentot jargon flooded with Dutch and English
words and expressions. When the Cape Colony became a part
of the British empire the protection given to the natives
arrested the process of extermination with which the Hottentots
were then threatened, but it did not promote racial purity.
Sir John Barrow, describing the condition of the Hottentots in
1798, estimated their number at about 15,000 souls. In 1806
the official return gave a Hottentot population of 9784 males
and 10,642 females. In 1824 they had increased to 31,000.
At the census of 1865 they numbered 81,589, but by this time
the official classification " Hottentot " signified little more
than a half-breed. The returns for 1904 showed a " Hottentot "
population of 85,892. Very few of these were pure-bred Hotten-
tots, while the official estimate of those in which Hottentot blood
was strongly marked was 56,000.
Customs and Culture. The primitive character of the race having
greatly changed, the best information as to their original manners
and customs is therefore to be found in the older writers. All these
agree in describing the Hottentots as a gentle and friendly people.
They held in contempt the man who could eat, drink or smoke alone.
They were hospitable to strangers, even to the point of impoverishing
themselves. Although mentally and physically indolent, they were
active in the care of their cattle and, within certain limits, clever
hunters. They were of a medium height, the females rather smaller
than the men, slender but well proportioned, with small hands and
feet. Their skin was of a leathery brown colour; their face oval,
with prominent cheekbones; eyes dark brown or black and wide
apart; nose broad and thick and flat at the root; chin pointed
and mouth large, with thick turned-out lips. Their woolly hair grew
in short thick curly tufts and the beard was very scanty. Amongst
the women abnormal developments of fat were somewhat common;
and cases occurred of extraordinary elongation of the labia minora
and of the praeputium ditoridis. 1
Their dress was a skin cloak (kaross) worn across the shoulders
and a smaller one across the loins. They wore these cloaks all the
year round, turning the hairy side inward in winter and outward in
summer; they slept in them at night, and when they died they were
buried in them. They had suspended around their necks little bags
or pouches, containing their knives, their pipes and tobacco or
dakka (Cannabis, or hemp), and an amulet of burnt wood. On their
arms were rings of ivory. Sometimes they wore sandals and carried
a jackal's tail fastened on a stick, which served as handkerchief
and fan. The women wore, besides the kaross, a little apron to
which were hung their ornaments; and underneath this one or
two fringed girdles; and a skin cap. Both sexes smeared themselves
and even their dress with an ointment made of soot, butter or fat,
and the powdered leaves of a shrub called by them bucchu (Diosma
crenata),
Their villages were usually on meadow grounds. They never
entirely exhausted the grass but kept moving from one pasture to
another. The huts were in circles, the area of which varied with
the pastoral wealth of the community. In the centre of the huts
a hole served for a fire-place, and at each side of this small excavations
an inch or two deep were made in the ground in which both sexes,
rolled up in their karosses, slept. A few earthen vessels, well-made
bowls of wood, tortoise shells for spoons and dishes, calabashes,
bamboos and skins for holding milk and butter, and mats of rushes
interwoven with bast, were all their furniture. Their weapons
were primarily bows and arrows, but they also possessed assegais,
l See paper by Messrs Flower and Murie in Journ. Camp. Anal,
and Physiology (1867); and Fritsch, Die Eingebornen Sud-Afrikas
(Breslau, 1873).
8o6
HOTTENTOTS
and knob-kerries. To women much respect was shown; the most
sacred oath a Hottentot could take was to swear by his sister or
mother; yet the females ate apart from the men and did all the
work of the kraal with the exception of the tending of cattle and of
the curing of the hides; the men, however, assisted in the erection of
the framework of the huts. The usual food of the Hottentots was
milk, the flesh of the buffalo, hippopotamus, antelope or other
game, and edible roots and bulbs or wild fruits. On the coast fish
captured by hooks and lines or spears were also eaten. Cows' milk
was commonly drunk by both sexes, but ewes' milk only by the
women, and when cows' milk was scarce the women were obliged to
keep to ewes' milk or water. Milk was drunk fresh, and not allowed
to turn sour as among the Bantu. Meats were eaten either roasted
or boiled, but for the most part half raw, without salt, spices or
bread. From some meats they carefully abstained, such as swine's
flesh. Hares and rabbits were forbidden to the men, but not to the
women; the pure blood of beasts and the flesh of the mole were
forbidden to the women, but not to the men.
In occupation they were essentially cattle-breeders, and showed
great skill in this pursuit, especially the Namaqua, who were capable
of training the horns of their cattle so that they grew in spirals.
Their social pleasures consisted in feasting, smoking, dancing and
singing. Dances were held every first quarter of the moon and
lasted all night, often for eight days in succession. Every signal
event of life, and every change of abode and condition was celebrated
with a feast. On the formation of a new kraal an arbour was con-
structed in the centre, and the women and children adorned and
perfumed it with flowers and branches of trees and odoriferous herbs.
The fattened ox was killed and cooked, and the men ate of it in the
arbour, while the women sitting apart regaled themselves with broth.
Upon such occasions the only intoxicant was tobacco or dakka.
Circumcision, which is common to the Kaffir tribes, was unknown
to the Hottentots, but when a youth entered upon manhood a
ceremony was performed. One of the elders, using a knife of quartz,
made incisions in the young man's body, afterwards besprinkling
them with urine. When a man killed his first elephant, hippopota-
mus or rhinoceros, similar marks were made on his body, and
were regarded as insignia of honour. Finger mutilation was common,
especially among women; this consisted in the removal of one or
two joints of the little finger, and, sometimes, the first joint of the
next. The reason for this is doubtful; it may have been a sign of
mourning, or, especially in the case of children, it may have been
regarded as magically protective. Marriages were by arrangement
between the man and the girl's parents, the consent of the girl
herself being a matter of little consideration. If accepted, the suitor,
accompanied by all his kindred, drove two or three fat oxen to the
house of his bride. There her relations welcomed the visitors;
the oxen were slain, and the bridal feast took place. The nuptial
ceremony was concluded by an elder besprinkling the happy pair.
Among the southern Hottentots these ancient usages have ceased;
but they are continued among some tribes north of the Orange
river. Polygamy was allowed: divorce was common. Family
names were perpetuated in a peculiar manner the sons took the
family name of the mother, the daughters that of the father. The
children were very respectful to their parents, by whom they were
kindly and affectionately treated. Yet the aged father or mother
was sometimes put in the bush and left to die. Namaqua says this
was done by very poor people if they had no food for their parents.
But even when there was food enough, aged persons, especially
women, who were believed to be possessed of the evil spirit, were so
treated.
The Hottentots had few musical instruments. One named the
" gorah " was formed by stretching a piece of the twisted entrails
of a sheep from end to end of a thin hollow stick about 3 ft. in length
in the manner of a bow and string. At one end there was a piece
of quill fixed into the stick, to which the mouth of the player was
applied. The " rpmmel-pot " was a kind of drum shaped like a
bowl and containing water to keep the membrane moist. Reeds
several feet long were used as flutes.
Government and Laws. The system of government was patriarchal.
Each tribe had its hereditary " khu-khoi " or " gao-ao " or chief,
and each kraal its captain. These met in council whenever any great
matters had to be decided. The post was honorary, and the coun-
cillors were held in great reverence, and were installed in office
with solemnities and feasting. In certain tribes the hind part of
every bullock slaughtered was sent to the chief, and this he dis-
tributed among the males of the village. He also collected sufficient
milk at the door of his hut to deal out amongst the poor. A part of
every animal taken in hunting was exacted by the chief, even
though it was in a state of putrefaction when brought to him.
The captains, assisted by the men of each kraal, settled disputes
regarding property and tried criminals. A murderer was beaten or
stoned to death; but if one escaped and was at large for a whole
year, he was allowed to go unpunished. Adultery seldom occurred ;
if any one found parties in the act and killed them he was no
murderer, but on the contrary received praise for his deed. Women
found offending were burnt. Theft, especially cattle-stealing, was
severely punished. The thief was bound hand and foot, and left
on the ground without food for a long time; then, if his offence
was slight, he received some blows with a stick, but if the case was
an aggravated one, he was severely beaten, and then unloosed and
banished from the kraal. The family of even the worst 'criminal
suffered nothing on his account in reputation, privilege or property.
The duel was an institution. If any one was insulted he challenged
his enemy by offering him a handful of earth. If the latter seized
the hand and the dust fell to the ground, the challenge was accepted.
If it was not accepted, the challenger threw the dust in his foe's
face. The duel took place by kicking, with clubs, or with the spear
and shield.
Religious Ideas. The religious ideas of the Hottentots were very
obscure. Francois le Vaillant says they had " neither priests nor
temples, nor idols, nor ceremonials, nor any traces of the notion of
a deity." Other authorities state that they believed in a benevolent
deity or " Great Captain," whom they named Tik-guoa (Tsu-goab).
There were other " captains " of less power, and a black captain
named Gauna, the spirit of evil. The moon was a secondary divinity,
supposed to govern the weather; and its appearance each month
was hailed with dancing and singing. 1 George Schmidt, the first
missionary to the Hottentots, says they also celebrated the annual
appearance of the Pleiades above the eastern horizon. As soon as
the constellation appeared, all the mothers ascended the nearest
hill, carrying their babies, whom they taught to stretch their arms
towards the friendly stars. Some of the tribes are said to worship
a being whom they name Tusib, the rain god. An old Namaqua was
once heard to say " The stars are the souls of the deceased, and a
Hottentot form of imprecation is " Thou happy one, may misfortune
fall on thee from the star of my grandfather."
Such as it was, the Hottentot religion was largely ancestor-worship.
Their deified hero was named Heitsi-Eibib; and of him endless
stories are told. The one most generally accepted is that he was a
notable warrior of great physical strength, who once ruled the
Khoi-Khoin, and that in a desperate struggle with one of his enemies,
whom he finally overcame, he received a wound in the knee, from
which event he got the name of " Wounded knee." He had extra-
ordinary powers during life, and after death he continued to be
invoked as one who could still relieve and protect. According to
the tradition preserved among the Namaqua, Heitsi-Eibib came
from the east. Therefore they make the doors of their huts towards
the east, and those who possess waggons and carts put their vehicles
alongside the mat-house with the front turned towards the east.
All the graves are in true west-easterly direction, so that the face of
the deceased looks towards the east. The spirit of Heitsi-Eibib is
supposed to exist in the old burial places, and, whenever a heathen
Hottentot passes them, he throws stones on the spot as an offering,
at the same time invoking the spirit's blessing and protection.
Johann Georg von Hahn asserts that there are many proofs which
justify the conclusion that Heitsi-Eibib and Tsu-goab (the supreme
being) were identical. Both were benevolent. Both were believed
to have died and risen again. They killed the bad beings and
restored peace on earth ; they promised men immortality, understood
the secrets of nature, and could foretell the future. 2
Various ceremonies were practised to ward off the evil influence of
ghosts and spectres, and charms were freely employed. If a Khoi-
Khoi went put hunting his wife kindled a fire, and assiduously
watched by it to keep it alive; if the fire should be extinguished her
husband would not be lucky. If she did not make a fire, she went
to the water and kept on throwing it about on the ground, believing
that thereby her husband would be successful in getting game.
Charms, consisting of bones, burnt wood, and roots of particular
shrubs cut into small pieces, were generally worn round the neck.
There was also a belief that in every fountain there was a snake,
and that as long as the snake remained there water would continue
to flow, but that if the snake was killed or left the fountain it would
cease. Offerings were sometimes made to the spirit of the fountain.
In common with the Bushmen, the Hottentots venerated the
mantis fausta, a local variety of the insect known as " the praying
mantis " (mantis religiosa). P. Kolbe saw .sacrifices made in its
honour when it appeared inside a kraal; to kill it was strictly
forbidden. The Hottentots had great faith in witch-doctors, or
sorcerers. When called to a sick-bed these ordered the patient to
lie on his back, and then pinched, cuffed, and beat him all over until
they expelled the illness. After that they produced a bone, small
snake, frog or other object which they pretended to have extracted
from the patient's body. If the treatment did not succeed, the person
was declared incurably bewitched. If death occurred, the corpse
was interred on the day of decease. It was wrapt in skins, and
placed in the ground in the same position it once occupied in the
mother's womb. Death was generally regarded in a very stoical
manner.
Language. The existence of a fundamental connexion between
the language of the Hottentot and that of the Bushman was
1 An interesting notice of this form of worship occurs in the
journal of an expedition which the Dutch governor, Ryk van Tulbagh,
sent to the Great Namaqua in 1752, which reached as far as the
Kamob or Lion river (about 27 S. lat.).
2 On the religion and antiquities see Theophilus Hahn's papers,
" Graves of the Heitsi-Eibib," in Cape Monthly Magazine (1879),
and " Der hottentottische Zai-goab und der griechische Zeus," in
Zeilschr. fur Geogr. (Berlin, 1870).
HOTTINGER HOUDENC
807
suggested by Dr Bleek and is supported by further evidence ad-
vanced by Bertin.
The Hottentot language was regarded by the early travellers and
colonists as an uncouth and barbarous tongue. The Portuguese
called the native manner of speaking stammering; and the Dutch
compared it to the " gobbling of a turkey-cock.' These phonetic
characteristics arose from the common use of " clicks," sounds
produced by applying the tongue to the teeth or to various parts of
the gums or roof of the mouth, and suddenly jerking it back.
Three-fourths of the syllabic elements of the language begin with
these clicks, and combined with them are several hard and deep
gutturals and nasal accompaniments. The difficulty a European
has in acquiring an accurate pronunciation is not so much in pro-
ducing the clicking sound singly as in following it immediately
with another letter or syllable. The four recognized clicks, with
the symbols generally adopted to denote them, are as follows:
dental = | ; palatal = #; lateral = II ; cerebral = !. According to
Tindall, one pf the best grammarians of the language, the dental
click (similar to a sound of surprise or indignation) is produced by
pressing the top of the tongue against the upper front teeth, and
then suddenly and forcibly withdrawing it. The palatal click
(like the crack of a whip) is produced by pressing the tongue with
as flat a surface as possible against the termination of the palate at
the gums, so that the top of the tongue touches the upper front
teeth and the back of the tongue lies towards the palate, and then
forcibly withdrawing the tongue. The cerebral click (compared to
the popping of the cork of a bottle of champagne) is produced by
curling up the tip of the tongue against the roof of the palate, and
withdrawing it suddenly and forcibly. The lateral click (similar
to the sound used in stimulating a horse to action) is articulated
by covering with the tongue the whole of the palate and producing
the sound as far back as possible; Europeans imitate it by placing
the tongue against the side teeth and then withdrawing it. The
easiest Hottentot clicks, the dental and cerebral, have been adopted
by the Kaffirs; and it is a striking circumstance, in evidence of
the past Hottentot influence upon the Kaffir languages, that the
clicking decreases amongst these tribes almost in proportion to
their distance from the former Hottentot domain.
The language in its grammatical structure is beautiful and regular.
Dr Bleek describes it as having the distinctive features of the suffix-
pronominal order or higher form of languages, in which the pronouns
are identical with and borrowed from the derivative suffixes of the
nouns. The words are mostly monosyllables, always ending, with
two exceptions, in a vowel or nasal sound. Among the consonants
neither /, nor/ nor v is found. There are two g's, g hard and g guttural,
and a deeper guttural kh. Diphthongs abound. There is no article,
but the definite or indefinite sense of a noun is determined by the
gender. In the fullest known dialect (that spoken by the Namaqua)
nouns are formed with eight different suffixes, which in nouns desig-
nating persons distinguish masc. sing. (-6), masc. plur. (-ku), masc.
dual (kha), fern. sing, (-s), fern. plur. (-/*'), com. sing. (-'), com. plur.
(-a), com. dual (-ro). The adjective is either prefixed to a noun
or referred to it by a suffixed pronoun. This grammatical division
of the nouns according to gender led to the classification of the
language as " sex-denoting, thus suggesting its relationship, in
original structure, with the Galla and others.
There are four dialectical varieties of the language, each with
well-marked characteristics: the Nama dialect, spoken by the
Namaqua as well as by the Hau-Khoin or Hill Damara ; the Kora
dialect, spoken by the Koranna, or Koraqua, dwelling about the
middle and upper part of the Orange, Vaal and M odder rivers;
the Eastern dialect, spoken by the Gona or Gonaqua on the borders
of Kaffirland; and the Cape dialect, now no longer spoken but
preserved in the records of early voyagers and settlers. Of the Nama
dialect there are three grammars: Wallmann's (1857) and Hahn's
in German, and Tindall's (1871) in English, the last being the best;
and the four Gospels, with a large amount of missionary literature,
have been published in it.
The vocabulary is not limited merely to the expression of the
rude conceptions that are characteristic of primitive races. It
possesses such words as koi, human being; khoi-si, kindly or friendly;
koi-si-b, philanthropist; khoi-si-s, humanity; # ei, to think;
# ei-s, thought; amo, eternal; amo-si-b, eternity; tsa, to feel;
tsa-b, feeling, sentiment; tsa-kha, to condole; ama, true; ama-b,
the truth; anu, sacred; anu-si-b, holiness; esa, pretty; anu-xa,
full of beauty.
Literature and History. Much traditionary literature fables,
myths and legends existed amongst the Hottentots, a fact first
made known by Sir James Alexander, who in his journeyings through
Great Namaqualand in 1835 jotted down the stories told him
around the camp fire by his Hottentot followers. These Hottentot
tales generally have much of the character of fables; some are in
many points identical with northern nursery tales, and suggestive
of European origin or of contact with the white man; but the
majority bear evidence of being true native products. Bleek's
Reynard the Fox in South Africa (1864) contains a translation of a
legend written down from the lips of the Namaqua by the Rev.
G. Kronlein, which is regarded as an excellent specimen of the
national style. Another legend relating to the moon and the hare
conveys the idea of an early conception of the hope of immortality.
It is found in various versions, and, like many other stories, occurs
in Bushman as well as in Hottentot mythology.
The earliest accounts of the Hottentots occur in the narratives of
Vasco da Gama's first voyage to India round the Cape in 1497-1498.
In 1510 the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco d'Almeida, count of
Abrantes, met his death in a dispute with the natives. Till the I7th
century they were believed to be cannibals, but with the occupation
of the Cape by the Dutch, in 1652, more accurate knowledge was
obtained. A century of Dutch rule resulted in the Hottentots
becoming a nation of slaves and in serious danger of extermination,
and thus the arrival of the English in 1795 was welcomed by them.
In 1828 an ordinance was passed declaring all Hottentots and other
free persons of colour " entitled to all and every right to which any
other British subjects were entitled. (See CAPE COLONY: History;
and SOUTH AFRICA.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. de Quatrefages, Les Pygmies (1887); G. W.
Stow, The Native Races of South Africa (1905); E. T. Hamy, " Les
Races negres," in L' Anthropologie (1897), pp. 257 et sqq. ; F.
Shrubsall, " Crania of African Bush Races," in Jour. Anthrop. Inst.
(November 1897); W. H. J. Bleek, A Comparative Grammar of
South African Languages (1862); and " Die Hottentotten Stamme,
in Petermanns Mil. (1858), pp. 49 et sqq.; G. Fritsch, Die Einge-
bornen Sud-Afrikas (1872), and " Schilderungen der Hottentotten," in
Globus (1875), pp. 374 et sqq.; G. Bertin, "The Bushmen and their
Language,' in Jour. R. Asiat. Soc. xviii., part i., and reprint;
P. Kolbe or Kolben, Present State of the Cape of Good Hope; Sir
John Barrow, Travels in South Africa (1801-1804).
HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1620-1667), Swiss philo-
logist and theologian, was born at Zurich on the loth of March
1620. He studied at Geneva, Groningen and Leiden, and after
visiting France and England was in 1642 appointed professor
of church history in his native town. The chair of Hebrew
at the Carolinum was added in 1643, and in 1653 he was ap-
pointed professor ordinarius of. logic, rhetoric and theology.
He gained such a reputation as an Oriental scholar that the
elector palatine in 1655 appointed him professor of Oriental
languages and biblical criticism at Heidelberg. In 1661, however,
he returned to Zurich, where in 1662 he was chosen principal of
the university. In 1667 he accepted an' invitation to succeed
Johann Hoornbeck (1617-1666) as professor in the university
of Leiden, but he was drowned with three of his children by the
upsetting of a boat while crossing the river Limmat. His chief
works are Historia ecclesiaslica Nov. Test. (1651-1667); Thesaurus
philologicus seu clavis scripturae (1649; 3rd ed. 1698); Etymo-
logicon orientate, sive lexicon harmonicum heptaglotton (1661).
He also wrote a Hebrew and an Aramaic grammar.
His son, JOHANN JAKOB HOTTINGER (1652-1735), who became
professor of theology at Zurich in 1698, was the author of a work
against Roman Catholicism, Hehetische Kirchengeschichte (4vols.,
1698-1729); and his grandson, JOHANN HEINRICH HOTTINGER
(1681-1750), who in 1721 was appointed professor of theology
at Heidelberg, wrote a work on dogmatics, Typus doctrinae
christianae (1714).
HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS (1698-1780), Dutch engraver,
was born at Dort, on the 25th of December 1698. All that his
father, Arnold Houbraken (1660-1719), bequeathed to him was
a fine constitution and a pure love for work. In 1707 he came
to reside at Amsterdam, where for years he had to struggle
incessantly against difficulties. He commenced the art of
engraving by studying the works of Cornells Cort, Suyderhoef,
Edelinck and the Visschers. He devoted himself almost entirely
to portraiture. Among his best works are scenes from the
comedy of De Onldekte Schijndeugd, executed in his eightieth
year, after Cornelis Troost, who was called by his countrymen
the Dutch Hogarth. He died on the i4th of November 1780.
See A. Ver Hull, Jacobus Houbraken et son auvre (Arnhem, 1875),
where 120 engraved works are fully described.
HOUDENC (or HOUDAN), RAOUL DE, 12th-century French
trouvere, takes his name from his native place, generally
identified with Houdain (Artois), though there are twelve places
bearing the name in one or other of its numerous variants.
It has been suggested that he was a monk, but from the scattered
hints in his writings it seems more probable that he followed the
trade of jongleur and recited his chansons, with small success
apparently, in the houses of the great. He was well acquainted
with Paris, and probably spent a great part of his life there.
His undoubted works are: Le Songe d'enfer, La Voie de paradis,
Le Roman des eles (pr. by A. Scheler in Trouveres beiges, New
8o8
HOUDETOT HOUGHTON, BARON
Series, 1897) and the romance of Meraugis de Portlesguez,
edited by M. Michelant (1869) and by Dr M. Friedwagner
(Halle, 1897). Houdenc was an imitator of Chretien de Troyes;
and Huon de Meri, in his Tournoi de I'antechrist (1226) praises
him with Chretien in words that seem to imply that both were
dead. Meraugis de Portlesguez, the hero of which perhaps
derives his name from Lesguez, the port of Saint Brieuc in
Brittany, is a romand'aventures loosely attached to the Arthurian
cycle.
See Gaston Paris in Hist. lilt, de la France, xxx. 220-237;
W. Zingerle 1 , tJber Raoul de Houdenc und seine Werke (Erlangen,
1880); and O. Boerner, Raoul de Houdenc. Eine stilistische Unter-
suchung (1885).
HOUDETOT, a French noble family, taking its name from
the lordship of Houdetot, between Arques and St Valery.
Louis de Houdetot went with Robert, duke of Normandy, to
Palestine in 1034, and the various branches of the family trace
descent from Richard I. de Houdetot (fl. 1229), who married
Marie de Montfort. Charles Louis de Houdetot received a
marquisate in 1722, and on his son Claude Constance Cesar,
lieutenant-general in the French army, was conferred the
hereditary title of count in 1753. His wife (see below) was
the Madame de Houdetot of Rousseau's Confessions. Their son
Cesar Louis Marie Francois Ange, comte de Houdetot ( 1 740-1 8 25),
was governor of Martinique (1803-1809) and lieutenant-general
(1814) under the Empire. His son Frederic Christophe, comte
de Houdetot (1778-1859), was director-general of indirect
imposts in Prussia after Jena, and prefect of Brussels in 1813.
He acquiesced in the Restoration, but had to resign from the
service after the Hundred Days. He became a peer of France
in 1819, and under the Second Empire he was returned by the
department of Calvados to the Corps Legislatif . His half-brother,
Charles tie-de-France, comte de Houdetot (1780-1866), was
wounded at Trafalgar and transferred to the army, in which he
served through the Napoleonic wars. He retired at the Restora-
tion, but returned to the service in 1823, and in 1826 became
aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans, becoming lieutenant-general
in 1842. He sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1837 to 1848,
when he followed Louis Philippe into exile. A third brother,
Cesar Francois Adolphe, comte de Houdetot (1799-1869), was
a well-known writer on military and other subjects.
HOUDETOT, ELISABETH FRANCHISE SOPHIE DE LA LIVE
DE BELLEGARDE, COMTESSE DE (1730-1813), was born in
1730. She married the comte de Houdetot (see above) in 1748.
In 1753 she formed with the marquis de Saint Lambert (q.v.)
a connexion which lasted till his death. Mme de Houdetot
has been made famous by the chapter in Rousseau's Confessions
in which he describes his unreciprocated passion for her. When
questioned on the subject she replied that he had much ex-
aggerated. A view differing considerably from Rousseau's
is to be found in the Memoires of Mme d'Epinay, Mme de
Houdetot's sister-in-law.
For a discussion of her relations with Rousseau see Saint-Marc-
Girardin in the Revue des deux mondes (September 1853).
HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE (1740-1828), French sculptor,
was born at Versailles on the i8th of March 1740. At the age
of twelve he entered the Ecole royale de Sculpture, and at
twenty, having learnt all that he could from Michel Ange Slodtz
and Pigalle, he carried off the prix de Rome and left France for
Italy, where he spent the next ten years of his life. His brilliant
talent, which seems to have been formed by the influence of that
world of statues with which Louis XIV. peopled the gardens of
Versailles rather than by the lessons of his masters, delighted
Pope Clement XIV., who, on seeing the St Bruno executed
by Houdon for the church of St Maria degli Angeli, said " he
would speak, were it not that the rules of his order impose silence."
In Italy Houdon had lived in the presence of that second
Renaissance with which the name of Winckelmann is associated,
and the direct and simple treatment of the Morpheus which he
sent to the Salon of 1771 bore witness to its influence. This
work procured him his " agregation " to the Academy of Painting
and Sculpture, of which he was made a full member in 1775.
Between these dates Houdon had not been idle; busts of
Catharine II., Diderot and Prince Galitzin were remarked at the
Salon of 1773, and at that of 1775 he produced, not only his
Morpheus in marble, but busts of Turgot, Gluck (in which the
marks of small-pox in the face were reproduced with striking
effect) and Sophie Arnould as Iphigeneia (now in the Wallace
Collection, London), together with his well-known marble relief,
" Grive suspendue par les pattes." He took also an active part
in the teaching of the academy, and executed for the instruction
of his pupils the celebrated Ecorche still in use. To every Salon
Houdon was a chief contributor; most of the leading men of
the day were his sitters; his busts of d'Alembert, Prince Henry
of Prussia, Gerbier, Buffon (for Catharine of Russia) and Mira-
beau are remarkable portraits; and in 1778, when the news of
Rousseau's death reached him, Houdon started at once for
Ermenonville, and there took a cast of the dead man's face, from
which he produced the grand and life-like head now in the Louvre.
In 1779 his bust of Moliere, at the Theatre Francais, won universal
praise, and the celebrated draped statue of Voltaire, in the
vestibule of the same theatre, was exhibited at the Salon of 1781,
to which Houdon also sent a statue of Marshal de Tourville, com-
missioned by the king, and the Diana executed for Catharine II.
This work was refused; the jury alleged that a statue of Diana
demanded drapery; without drapery, they said, the goddess
became a " suivante de Venus," and not even the proud and
frank chastity of the attitude and expression could save the
Diana of Houdon (a bronze reproduction of which is in the
Louvre) from insult. Three years later he went to America, there
to carry out a statue of Washington. With Franklin, whose bust he
had recently executed, Houdon left France in 1785, and, staying
some time with Washington at Mount Vernon, he modelled
the bust, with which he decided to go back to Paris, there
to complete the statue destined for the capitol of the State
of Virginia. After his return to his native country Houdon
executed for the king of Prussia, as a companion to a statue of
Summer, La Frileuse, a naif embodiment of shivering cold,
which is one of his best as well as one of his best-known works.
The Revolution interrupted the busy flow of commissions, and
Houdon took up a half-forgotten project for a statue of St
Scholastica. He was immediately denounced to the convention,
and his life was only saved by his instant and ingenious adapta-
tion of St Scholastica into an embodiment of Philosophy. Under
Napoleon, of whom in 1806 he made a nude statue now at Dijon,
Houdon received little employment; he was, however, com-
missioned to execute the colossal reliefs intended for the decora-
tion of the column of the " Grand Army " at Boulogne (which
ultimately found a different destination); he also produced a
statue of Cicero for the senate, and various busts, amongst
which may be cited those of Marshal Ney, of Josephine and of
Napoleon himself, by whom Houdon was rewarded with the
legion of honour. He died at Paris on the i6th of July 1828.
See memoir by Emile D61erot and Arsene Legrelle in Memoires
de la societe des sciences morales^ . . . de Seine-et-Oise, iv. 49
et seq. (1857); Anatole de Montaiglon and Georges Duplessis in
Revue universelle des arts, i. and ii. (1855-1856); Hermann
Dierks, Houdons Leben und Werke (Gotha, ^1887); Albert Terrade,
Autour de la statue de Jean Houdon (Versailles, 1892); P. E. Man-
geant, Sur une statuette de Voltaire par J. Houdon (Paris, 1896).
HOUFFALIZE, a small town occupying an elevated position
(nearly noo ft.) in the extreme south-east of the province of
Luxemburg, Belgium, much visited during the summer on
account of its fine bracing air. There are the ruins of an old
castle, and some remains of the still older abbey of Val Ste
Catherine. The parish church dates from the i3th or I4th
century. It contains two old black marble tombs to Thierry of
Houffalize and Henri his son, the latter killed at Woeringen in
1288. Houffalize is on the eastern Ourthe, and is connected
by a steam tramway with Bourcy on the line from Libramont
to Bastogne, Spa and Liege. Pop. (1904) 1486.
HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, IST BARON
(1800-1885), English poet and man of letters, son of Robert
Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall, Yorkshire, and the Hon.
Henrietta Monckton', daughter of the fourth Lord Galway, was
born in London on the igth of June 1809. He was educated
HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING HOURS, CANONICAL
809
privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827.
There he was at once drawn into a literary set, and became a
member of the famous " Apostles " Club, which then included
Tennyson, Hallam, Trench, J. W. Blakesley, afterwards dean of
Lincoln, and others. After taking his degree, Milnes travelled
abroad, spending some time at Bonn University. Thence
he went to Italy and Greece, and published in 1834 a volume
of Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece, describing his
experiences. He returned to London in 1837, and was in that
year elected to Parliament as member for Pontefract. His
parliamentary career was marked by much strenuous activity.
He interested himself particularly in the question of copyright
and the conditions of reformatory schools. He left Peel's party
over the Corn Law controversy, and was afterwards identified
in politics with Palmerston, at whose instance he was made a
peer in 1863. His literary career was industrious and cultured,
without being exceptionally distinguished. Church matters
had always a claim upon him: he wrote a striking tract in
1841, which was praised by Newman; and took part in the
discussion about " Essays and Reviews," defending the tractarian
position in One Tract More (1841). He published two volumes
of verse in 1838, Memorials of Residence upon the Continent and
Poems of Many Years, Poetry for the People in 1840 and Palm
Leaves in 1844. He also wrote a Life and Letters of Keats in 1848,
the material for which was largely provided by the poet's friend,
Charles Armitage Brown. Milnes also contributed largely to
the reviews. His poetry is meditative and delicate; some of
his ballads were among the most popular of their day, and all
his work was marked by refinement. But his chief distinctions
were his keen sense of literary meriUn others, and the judgment
and magnanimity with which he fostered it. He was surrounded
by the most brilliant men of his time, many of whom he had been
the first to acclaim. His chief title to remembrance rests on the
part he played, as a man of influence in society and in moulding
public opinion on literary matters, in connexion with his large
circle of talented friends. He secured a pension for Tennyson,
helped to make Emerson known in Great Britain, and was one
of the earliest champions of Swinburne. He helped David Gray
and wrote a preface for The Luggie. He was, in the old sense of
the word, a patron of letters, and one who never abused the
privileges of his position. Milnes married in 1851 the Hon.
Annabel Crewe (d. 1874). He died at Vichy on the nth
of August 1885, and was buried at Fryston. His son, the
second Baron Houghton, was created Earl of Crewe (q.v.) in
1895.
See The Life, Letters and Friendships of Richard Monckton Milnes,
first Lord Houghton (1890), by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.
HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING, an urban district in the Houghton-
le-Spring parliamentary division of Durham, England, 6 m. N.E.
of the city of Durham. Pop. (1901) 7858. It is well situated
at the head of a small valley branching from that of the Wear.
St Michael's church is a cruciform Early English and Decorated
building, with a picturesque embattled rectory adjoining.
Bernard Gilpin, " the Apostle of the North," was rector of this
parish from 1556 to 1583, and the founder of the grammar school.
The principal public buildings are a town hall, market house
and church institute. Houghton Hall is a fine mansion of the
late 1 6th century. In the orchard stands a tomb, that of the
puritan Sir Robert Hutton (d. 1680), of whom a curious tradition
states that he desired burial beside his war-horse, the body of
which was denied interment in consecrated ground. The main
road from Durham to Sunderland here passes through a remark-
able cutting in the limestone 80 ft. deep. The district affords
frequent evidence of ice activity in the glacial period. The
town is the centre of a large system of electric tramways. The
population is mainly dependent on the neighbouring collieries,
but limestone quarrying is carried on to some extent.
HOUND, a dog, now used, except in poetry, only of dogs of
the chase, and particularly of the breed used in hunting the fox,
the " hound " par excellence. Other breeds have a defining
word prefixed, e.g. boar-hound, stag-hound, &c. (see DOG).
The O. Eng. hund is the common Teutonic name for the animal,
cf. Du. hand, Ger. Hund, &c., and is cognate with Sansk. gian,
Gr. Kviav, Lat. canis, Ir. and Gael. cu.
HOUNSLOW, a town in the Brentford parliamentary division
of Middlesex, England, 12^ m. W. by S. of St Paul's Cathedral,
London, on the District and London & South Western railways.
Pop. (1001) 11,377. It has grown into an extensive residential
suburb of London. Its situation at the junction of two great
roads from the west of England made it an important coaching
station, and some 500 coaches formerly passed through it daily.
A priory of friars of the Holy Trinity was founded at Hounslow
in 1296, and existed till the dissolution of the monasteries.
The priory chapel was used as a church till 1830, after which
its place was taken by the existing church of the Holy Trinity
(1835). Hounslow Heath, west of the town, had, according to
the survey of 1546, an area of 4293 acres. It was the site of
Roman and British camps, and in the wars of the i7th century
was the scene of several important military rendezvous. It
was a favourite resort of highwaymen, whose bodies were
exposed on gibbets along the road. In 1784 the base-line of the
first trigonometrical survey in England was laid down on the
heath. In 1793 large cavalry barracks were erected upon it,
and it is also the site of extensive powder mills. It began to be
enclosed towards the end of the reign of George III. In Osterley
Park, N.E. of Hounslow, Sir Thomas Gresham built a mansion
in 1577, and this was rebuilt with great magnificence by Francis
and Robert Child c. 1770. Hounslow is divided between the
parishes of Heston and Isleworth. Pop. of urban district of
Heston and Isleworth (1901) 30,863.
HOUR, the twenty-fourth part of a civil day, the twelfth
part of a natural day or night, a space of time of sixty minutes'
duration. The word is derived through the O. Fr. ure, ore,
houre, mod. heure, from Lat. hora, Gr. &pa, season, time of day,
hour (see CALENDAR).
HOUR ANGLE, the angular distance of a heavenly body from
the meridian, as measured around the celestial pole. It is
equal to the angle at the pole between the hour circle through
the body and the meridian, but is usually expressed in time.
HOUR-GLASS, a device for measuring intervals of time, also
known as sand-glass, and as log-glass when used in conjunction
with the common log for ascertaining the speed of a ship. It
consists of two pear-shaped bulbs of glass, united at their apices
and having a minute passage formed between them. A quantity
of sand (or occasionally of mercury) is enclosed in the bulbs,
and the size of the passage is so proportioned that this sand will
completely run through from one bulb to another in the time
it is desired to measure e.g. an hour or a minute. Instruments
of this kind, which have no great pretensions to accuracy, were
formerly common in churches. In the English House of Commons,
as a preliminary to a division, a two-minute sand-glass is still
turned, and while the sand is running the " division bells " are
set in motion in every part of the building, to give members
notice that a division is at hand.
HOURI, the term for a beautiful virgin who awaits the
devout Mahommedan in Paradise. The word is the French
representative of the Pers. huri, Arab, hawra', a black-eyed
virgin, from hawira, to be black-eyed, like a gazelle.
HOURS, CANONICAL, certain portions of the day set apart by
rule (canon) of the church for prayer and devotion. The Jewish
custom of praying three times a day, i.e. at the third, sixth and
ninth hours, was perpetuated in the early Christian Church
(Acts ii. 15, iii. i, x. 9), and to these were added midnight (when
Paul and Silas sang in prison), and the beginning of day and of
night. Ambrose, Augustine and Hilary commended the example
of the psalmist who gave praise " seven times a day " (Ps. cxix.
164). The seventh (Compline, Completorium) was added by
Benedict. These hours were adopted especially in the monasteries
as a part of the canonical life, and spread thence to the cathedral
and collegiate chapters.
Since the 6th century the number and order of the hours have
been fixed thus: matins, lauds, prime, terce, sext, none,
vespers, compline.
Matins theoretically belongs to midnight, but in Italy it is
8io
HOUSE
said about 7 or 8 A.M. and in France often on the preceding
evening in accordance with the statement " evening and morning
were one day." At matins is said the Venite (Ps. xcv.) and a
hymn, followed by a Nocturna or night-watch (on Sundays three)
which consists of twelve psalms. After the nocturna comes a
lesson divided into three parts, one biblical and two patristic, and
finally the Te Deum.
Lauds is proper to sunrise, but is mostly grouped with matins.
It consists of four psalms, a canticle, psalms 148-150, a hymn,
the Benedictus (Luke i. 68-79) an d prayers.
Prime (6 A.M.), Terce (9 A.M.), Sext (noon) and None (3 P.M.)
are called the Little Day Hours, are often said together, and
are alike in character, consisting of a hymn and some sections
of Ps. atix., followed by a prayer. On Sundays the Athanasian
Creed is said at prime.
Vespers or Evensong consists of five varying psalms, a hymn,
the Magnificat (Luke i. 46-55) and prayers. It belongs theoretic-
ally to sunset.
Compline, technically 9 P.M., but usually combined with
vespers, is a prayer for protection during the darkness. It con-
sists of the general confession, four fixed psalms, a hymn, the
Nunc dimittis (Luke ii. 29-32), prayers and a Commemoration
of the Virgin.
The term " canonical hours " is also used of the time during which
English marriages may be solemnized without special, licence, i.e.
between 8 A.M. and 3 P.M.
HOUSE (O. Eng. hus, a word common to Teutonic languages,
cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhus,
a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of
" hide," conceal), the dwelling-place of a human being (treated,
from the architectural point of view, below), or, in a transferred
sense, of an animal, particularly of one whose abode, like that
of the beaver, is built by the animal -tself, or, like that of the
snail, resembles in some fancied way a human dwelling. Apart
from the numerous compound uses of the word, denoting the
purpose for which a building is employed, such as custom-house,
lighthouse, bakehouse, greenhouse and the like, there may be
mentioned the particular applications to a chamber of a legislative
body, the Houses of Parliament, House of Representatives, &c. ;
to the upper and lower assemblies of convocation; and to the
colleges at a university; the heads of these foundations, known
particularly as master, principal, president, provost, rector, &c.,
are collectively called heads of houses. At English public
schools a " house " is the usual unit of the organization. In the
" houses " the boys sleep, have their " studies " and their meals,
if the school is arranged on the " boarding-house " system.
The houses have their representative teams in the school games,
but have no place in the educational class-system of the school.
It may be noticed that in Scotland the words " house " and
" tenement " are used in a way distinct from the English use,
" tenement " being applied to the large block containing
" houses," portions, i.e., occupied by separate families. " The
House " is the name colloquially given to such different institu-
tions as the London Stock Exchange, the House of Commons or
Lords and to a workhouse.
In the transferred sense, " house " is used of a family, genea-
logically considered, and of the audience at a public meeting or
entertainment, especially of a theatre. A " house-physician "
and " house-surgeon " is a member of the resident medical staff
of a hospital. In astrology the twelve divisions into which the
heavens are divided, and through which the planets pass, are
known as houses, the first being called the " house of life."
The word " house," " housing," used of the trappings of a horse,
especially of a covering for the back and flanks, attached to the
saddle, is of quite distinct origin. In medieval Latin it appears
as hucia, houssia and housia (see Ducange, Glossarium. s.v.
housia), and comes into English from the O. Fr. huche, modern
housse. It has been supposed to have been adopted, at the time
of the crusades, from the Arabic yushiah, a covering.
Architecturally considered, the term " house " is given to a
building erected for habitation, in contradistinction to one built
.for secular or ecclesiastical purposes. The term extends, there-
fore, to a dwelling of any size, from a single-room building to one
containing as many rooms as a palace; thus in London some
of the largest dwellings are those inhabited by royalty, such as
Marlborough House, or others by men of rank, such as Devon-
shire House, Bridgewater House, Spencer House, &c.; and even
those which, formerly built as habitations, have subsequently
been devoted to other purposes, such as Somerset House and
Burlington House, retain the term. In Paris the larger houses
thus named would be called Mtel.
So far as the history of domestic architecture is concerned, the
earliest houses of which remains have been found are those of the
village of Kahun in Egypt, which were built for the workmen
employed in the building of the pyramid at Illahun, and deserted
on its completion. They varied in size from the habitations of
the chief inspectors to the single room of the ordinary labourer,
and were built in unburnt brick with open courts in the larger
examples, to give light and air to the rooms round. The models
found in 1907 at Deir-Rifa opposite Assiut in Upper Egypt,
by Flinders Petrie, and assumed by him to be those of " soul-
houses," suggest that the early type of building consisted of a
hut, to which later a porch or lean-to, with two poles in front,
has been added; subsequently, columns replaced the poles, and
a flat roof with parapet, suggesting the primitive forms of the
Egyptian temple.
The only remains of early houses found in Mesopotamia are
those within the precincts of the Temple of Bel, at Nippur,
occupied 'by the king; but beyond the fact that the walls were
built in unburnt brick and were sometimes of great thickness,
nothing is known.
The houses in Crete would seem to have been small in area,
but this was compensated for in height, as the small plaques
found in the palace at Cnossus show houses in two or three
storeys, with gable roofs and windows subdivided by mullions and
transomes, corresponding with those of the isth to i7th centuries
in England. The stone staircase in the palace rising through
two storeys shows that even at this early period the houses in
towns had floors superposed one above the other; to a certain
extent the same extension existed in the later Greek houses found
in Delos, in two of which there was clear evidence of wooden
staircases leading within to the roof or to an upper storey.
The largest series hitherto discovered is that at Priene in Asia
Minor, where the remains of some thirty examples were found,
varying in dimensions, but all based on the same plan; this
consisted of an entrance passage leading to an open court, on
the north side of which, and therefore facing south, was an open
portico, corresponding to the prostas in Vitruvius (vi. 7), and in
the rear two large rooms, one of which might be the oecus or
sitting-room, and the other the thalamos or chief bedroom.
Other rooms round the court were the triclinium, or dining
room, and cubicula or bedchambers. The largest of these
houses occupied an area measuring 75X30 ft. Those found in
Delos, though fewer in number, are of much greater importance,
the house in the street of the theatre having twelve rooms
exclusive of the entrance passage and the great central court,
surrounded on all four sides by a peristyle; in this house the
oecus measured 26X18 ft. In a second example the prostas
consisted of a long gallery, the whole width of the site, which was
lighted by windows at each end, the sills of which were raised
8 ft. or 9 ft. from the floor.
The remains of the houses found in the Peiraeus are of the
same simple plan as those at Priene, and suggest that the Greek
house was considered to be the private residence only for the
members of the family, and without any provision for entertaining
guests as in Rome and Pompeii. From the descriptions given
by Vitruvius (ii. 8) it may be gathered that in his time many
of the houses in Rome were built in unburnt brick, the walls of
which, if properly protected at the top with a course of burnt
brick projecting over the face of the brickwork, and coated
inside and outside with stucco, were considered to be more
lasting than those built in soft stone. Vitruvius refers also to
Greek houses thus built, and states that in the house of Mausolus,
at Halicarnassus, the walls were of unburnt brick, and the
HOUSE
PLATE L
Photo, Neiird-
FIG. 4. MUSICIAN'S HOUSE, REIMS.
Photo, F. Frith & Co.
FIG. 5. JEW'S HOUSE, LINCOLN.
Photo, Neurdtin.
XIII. 810.
FIG. 6. HOTEL DE CLUNY, PARIS.
PLATE II.
HOUSE
" ^v f^^rm . , .
#*
1. SMM_ -Alt* -v-i
P/ioto , Neurdcin
FIG. 7. HOTEL DE JACQUES CCEUR, BOURGES. FACADE.
FIG. 8. HALF-TIMBERED HOUSE AT HILDESHEIM.
Photo. F. Frith & Co.
FIG. 9. HOUSE OF JOHN HARVARD'S MOTHER.
STRATFORD-ON-AVON.
HOUSE
Sir
plastering with which they were covered was so polished that
they sparkled like glass. In Rome, however, he points out, such
walls ought to be forbidden, as they are not fit to cany an
upper storey, unless they are of great thickness, and as upper
storeys become necessary in a crowded city such walls would
occupy too much space. The houses in Pompeii (q.v.) were
built in rubble masonry with clay mortar, and their walls were
protected at the top by burnt brick courses and their faces with
stucco; they were, however, of a second- or third-rate class
compared with those in Rome, the magnificence of which is
attested in the descriptions given by various writers and sub-
stantiated by the remains occasionally found in excavations.
Vitruvius refers to upper storeys, which were necessary in
consequence of the limited area in Rome, and representations
in mosaic floors and in bas-relief sculpture 'have been found on
which two or three storeys are indicated. The plans of many
Roman houses are shown on the Marble Plan, and they resemble
those of Pompeii, but it is probable that the principal reception
rooms were on an upper storey, long since destroyed. The house
of Livia on the Palatine Hill was in two storeys, and the decora-
tion was of a much finer character than those of Pompeii; this
house and the House of the Vestals might be taken as representa-
tive of the Roman house in Rome itself. In those built in colder
climates, as in England and Germany, account has to be taken
of the special provision required for warming the rooms by
hypocausts, of which numerous examples have been .found,
with rich mosaic floors over them.
Of the houses in succeeding centuries, those found in the
cities of central Syria, described in the article ARCHITECTURE,
are wonderfully perfect, in consequence of their desertion at
the time of the Mahommedan invasion in the 7th century.
Very little is known of the houses in Europe during the dark
ages, owing to the fact that they were generally built in wood,
with thatched roofs. The only examples in stone which have
been preserved are those in the island of Skellig Michael, Kerry,
which were constructed like the beehive tombs at Mycenae
with stone courses overlapping inside until they closed in at the
top. These houses or cells were rectangular inside and round
or oval outside, with a small low door at one end, and an opening
above to let the smoke out.
The houses, even in large towns like London, were built mainly
in wood, in some cases down to the i7th century; in the country,
the smaller houses were constructed with trunks of trees in
pairs, one end of the trunk being sunk in the ground, the other
bent over and secured by a ridge piece, thus forming a pointed
arch, the opening of which was about n ft. The pairs were
fixed 16 ft. apart, and the space included constituted a bay, any
requisite increase in the size of the house being made by doubling
or trebling the bays. The roofs were thatched with straw on
battens, and sometimes with a collar beam carrying a floor,
which constituted an upper storey. The end walls were closed
with wooden studs and wattle-and-dab filling. The pairs of
trees were known as forks or crucks. Vitruvius (ii. i) suggests
a similar kind of building in ancient times, except that the
interlaced twigs were covered with clay, so as to carry off the
rain. In Yorkshire there was another type of house, known as
a coit, which was a dwelling-house and barn (shippon) united;
the latter contained the cow-stalls with loft above, and the
former was in two storeys, with a ladder inside the room leading
to the upper floor. 1
Passing now to structures of a less ephemeral character, the
earliest houses of which there still remain substantial relics are
those built in stone (see MANOR HOUSE). The Jew's House at
Lincoln, xath century, is one of the best-known examples, and
still preserves its street front in stone, with rich entrance door-
way and first-floor windows lighting the principal room, which
seems invariably in those early houses to have been on the first
floor, the ground floor being used for service and stores (see
Plate I. fig. 5). To the i3th century belongs the old Rec-
tory House at West Dean, Sussex, and to the i4th century the
1 A complete description of these houses will be found in The
Evolution of the English House, by S. O. Addy.
Parsonage House at Market Deeping, Lincolnshire. The principal
examples of the domestic architecture of this early period in the
country are castles, manor houses and farm buildings, as town
houses occupied sites too valuable to be left untouched; this,
however, is not the case in France, and particularly in the
south, where streets of early houses are still to be found in good
preservation, such as those at Cluny (fig. i) and Cordes (Tarn),
and others at Montferrand, Cahors, Figeac, Angers, Provins,
Sarlat (fig. 2), St Emilion, P6rigueux, Soissons and Beauvais,
dating from the I2th to the I4th centuries. One of the most
remarkable examples is the Musician's House at Reims (see
Plate I., fig. 4), with large windows on the first floor, between
which are niches with life-size figures of musicians seated in
them. Generally speaking, the ground storeys of these houses,
which in many cases were occupied by shops, have been trans-
formed, but occasionally the old shop fronts remain, as in
Dinan, Morlaix and other old towns in Brittany. Houses of
the first Renaissance of great beauty exist in Orleans, such as
the house of Agnes Sorel; and the example in the Market Place
illustrated in fig. 3 ; in Tours, Tristan's house in brick with stone
FIG. i. Houses at Cluny.
quoins and dressings to windows; in Rouen, Caen, Bayeux,
Toulouse, Dijon and, in fact, in almost every town throughout
France. Of houses of large dimensions, which in France are
termed hdtels, there are also many other fine examples, the best
known of which are the h6tel de Jacques Cceur (see Plate II.,
fig. 7), at Bourges, and the h6tel de Cluny at Paris (see
Plate I., fig. 6). In the isth and i6th centuries in France,
owing to the value of the sites in towns, the houses rose to many
storeys, the upper of which were built in half-timber, sometimes
projecting on corbels and richly carved; of these numerous
examples exist at Rouen, Beauvais, Bayeux and other towns in
Normandy and Brittany. Of such structures in English towns
(see Plate II. fig. 9) there are still preserved some examples
in York, Southampton, Chester, Shrewsbury, Stratford-on-
Avon, and many smaller towns; the greatest development in
half-timber houses in England is that which is found more
particularly throughout Kent, Sussex and Surrey, in houses of
modest dimensions, generally consisting of ground and first floor
only, with sometimes additional rooms in the roof; in these the
upper storey invariably projects in front of the lower, giving
increased dimensions to the rooms in the former, but adopted in
order to protect the walls of the ground storey from rain, which
in the upper storey was effected by the projecting eaves of the
roof. In the north and west of England, where stone could
be obtained at less cost than brick, and in the east of England,
where brick, often imported from the Low Countries, was largely
employed, the ordinary houses were built in those materials,
8l2
HOUSE
and in consequence of their excellent construction many houses
of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries have remained in good preservation
down to the present day; they are found in the Cots wolds
generally, and (among small towns) at Broadway in Worcester-
shire and (of brick) throughout Essex and Suffolk. Among the
larger half-timber houses built in the isth and i6th centuries,
mention may be made of Bramhall Hall, near Manchester;
Speke Hall, near Liverpool (see Plate III., fig. io);The Oaks,
West Bromwich; and Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire, one of the
most elaborate of the series (see Plate III., fig. u).
On the borders of the Rhine, as at Bacharach and Rhense,
and throughout Germany, half-timber houses of the most
FIG. 2. House at Sarlat.
picturesque character are found in every town, large and small,
those of Hildesheim (see Plate II., fig. 8) dating from the isth
and i6th centuries, and in some cases rising to a great height
with four or five storeys, not including those in the lofty roofs.
Houses in stone from the i2th to the i6th century are found in
Cologne, Metz, Trier, Hanover and Munster in Westphalia,
where again there are whole streets remaining; and in brick
at Rostock, Stralsund, Ltibeck, Greifswald and Dantzig, forming
a very remarkable series of isth and 16th-century work.
Of half-timber work in Italy there are no examples, but
sometimes (as at Bologna) the rooms of the upper floors are
carried on arcades, and sometimes on corbels, as the casa dei
Carracci in the same town. The principal feature of the Italian
house is the courtyard in the rear, with arcades on one or more
sides, the front in stone or brick, or both combined, being of the
greatest simplicity (examples in San Gimignano and Pisa). At
Viterbo are small houses in stone, two of which have external
stone staircases of fine design, and the few windows on the
ground floor suggest that the rooms there were used only for stores.
Houses with external staircases, but without any architectural
pretensions, are found throughout the Balkan provinces.
The introduction of the purer Italian style into England in the
1 7th century created a great change in domestic architecture.
Instead of the projecting wings and otherwise picturesque
contour of the earlier work the houses were made square or
rectangular on plan, in two or three storeys, crowned with a
modillion cornice carrying a roof of red tiles; the only embellish-
ments of the main front were the projecting courses of stone
on the quoins and architraves round the windows, and flat
pilasters carrying a hood or pediment flanking the entrance
doorway. In the larger mansions more thought was bestowed
FIG. 3. Detail of house at Orleans.
on the introduction of porticoes (scarcely necessary in the
English climate), with sometimes great flights of steps up to the
principal floor, which was raised abcve a basement with cold
and dark passages; a great saloon in the centre of the block,
lighted from above, took the place of the great entrance hall of
the Tudor period, and the rooms frequently led one out of the
other, without an independent entrance door. On the other hand,
in the ordinary -houses, the deficiency in external ornament
was amply made up for by the comfort in the interior and the
decoration of the staircase and other rooms. Towards the close
of the century the square mullioned and transomed windows,
with opening casements, gave way to sash windows, introduced
from Holland, and these with moulded and stout sash-bars gave
a certain character to the outside of the houses, which are valued
now for their quiet unpretentious character and excellent con-
struction. In the closes of many English cathedrals, on the
outskirts of London, and in some of the older squares, as Lincoln's
Inn Fields and Queen Square, are examples of this style of
house. The substitution of thin sash-bars in the ipth century,
HOUSE
PLATE III.
Photo, F. Frith & Co.
FIG. io. SPEKE HALL, NEAR LIVERPOOL.
Photo. F. Frith & Co.
XIII. Sxa.
FIG. ii. MORETON OLD HALL, NEAR CONGLETON, CHESHIRE.
PLATE IV.
HOUSE
From Corner and Stratton, Domestic Architecture at England during theTudor Period, 1910. By permission of B. T. Balsford.
FIG. 12. SOUTH COURT OF SUTTON PLACE, SURREY, 1525.
From Gotch, Architecture of the Renaissance in England, 1894. By permission of B. T Balsford.
FIG. 13 MOYNS PARK, ESSEX, 1580.
HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL
813
and their omission occasionally, in favour of plate-glass, deprived
the house-front of one of its chief attractions; but the old
English casements and oriels or bow-windows have been again
introduced, and a return has been made to the style which
prevailed in the beginning of the i8th century, commonly known
as that of Queen Anne.
Perhaps in one respect the greatest change which has been
made in the English house is the adoption of "flats"; com-
menced some time in the 'fifties in Ashley Gardens, Westminster,
they have spread throughout London. In consequence of the
great value of the sites on which they are sometimes built, to
which must be added the cost of the houses pulled down to
make way for them, the question of expense in material and
rich decoration has not always been worth considering, so that
frontages in stone, with the classic orders brought in with
many varieties of design, have given the character of a palace
to a structure in which none of the rooms exceeds the modest
height of 10 ft. The increasing demand for these, however,
shows that they meet, so far as their accommodation and comfort
are concerned, the wants and tastes of the upper and middle
classes. In some of the London streets, where shops occupy the
ground floor, a far finer type of house has been erected than that
which could have been afforded for the shopkeeper's residence
above, as in old times, so that London promises in time to
become a city of palaces. The same change in the aspects of
its streets has long been evident in Paris, but there is one feature
in the latter city which has never yet found its way into London,
much to the surprise of French visitors, viz. the porte-cochere,
through which the occupants of the house can in wet weather
drive and be landed in a covered hall or vestibule. This requires,
of course, a small court at the back, so small that one wonders
sometimes how it is possible for the carriage to turn round in it.
The porte-cochere also, from its dimensions, is a feature of more
importance than the ordinary street doorway, even when a
portico of some kind is added; on the other hand, the strict
regulations in Paris as regards the projection of cornices and
other decorative accessories gives to the stranger the appearance
of monotony in their design, which certainly cannot be said of
the houses in flats lately built in London. Within recent years
an old English feature, known as the bow-window, has been
introduced into Paris, the primary object of which does not
seem yet to have been thoroughly understood by the French
architect. An English bow-window, by its slight projection in
front of the main wall, increases greatly the amount of light
entering the room, and it is generally placed between solid piers
of stone or brick. The French architects, however, project
their piers on immense corbels, and then sink their windows
with deep external reveals, so that no benefit accrues to the
room, so far as the increased light is concerned. In Paris, since
1900, there has been a tendency to introduce a style of design in
French houses which is known as " 1'art nouveau," a style
which commenced in furniture as a reaction against the revival
of the Empire and Louis XIV. and XVI. periods, and was then
extended to house fronts; this style has unfortunately spread
through the various towns in France and apparently to Germany,
again as a reaction against the formal classic style of the latter
half of the igth century. It is probable that in Italy and Spain
" 1'art nouveau " may meet with the same success, and for the
same reasons, so that in the latter country it will be a revival,
with modifications, of the well-known Churrigueresque style,
the most debased Rococo style which has ever existed. In
England it has never met with any response. (R. P. S.)
HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL. In all the medieval monarchies of
western Europe the general system of government sprang from,
and centred in, the royal household. The sovereign's domestics
were his officers of state, and the leading dignitaries of the
palace were the principal administrators of the kingdom. The
royal household itself had, in its turn, grown out of an earlier and
more primitive institution. It took its rise in the comitatus
described by Tacitus, the chosen band of comites or companions
who, when the Roman historian wrote, constituted the personal
following, in peace as well as in war, of the Teutonic chieftain. In
England before the Conquest the comitatus had developed or
degenerated into the thegnhood, and among the most eminent and
powerful of the king's thegns were his dishthegn, his bowerthegn,
and his horsethegn or staller. In Normandy at the time of the
Conquest a similar arrangement, imitated from the French
court, had long been established, and the Norman dukes, like
their overlords the kings of France, had their seneschal or
steward, their chamberlain and their constable. After the
Conquest the ducal household of Normandy was reproduced in
the royal household of England; and since, in obedience to
the spirit of feudalism, the great offices of the first had been
made hereditary, the great offices of the second were made
hereditary also, and were thenceforth held by the grantees and
their descendants as grand-serjeanties of the crown. The con-
sequence was that they passed out of immediate relation to the
practical conduct of affairs either in both state and court or in
the one or the other of them. The steward and chamberlain of
England were superseded in their political functions by the
justiciar and treasurer of England, and in their domestic functions
by the steward and chamberlain of the household. The marshal
of England took the place of the constable of England in the
royal palace, and was associated with him in the command of
the royal armies. In due course, however, the marshalship as
well as the constableship became hereditary, and, although the
constable and marshal of England retained their military
authority until a comparatively late period, the duties they had
successively performed about the palace had been long before
transferred to the master of the horse. In these circumstances
the holders of the original great offices of state and the household
ceased to attend the court except on occasions of extraordinary
ceremony, and their representatives either by inheritance or by
special appointment have ever since continued to appear at
coronations and some other public solemnities, such as the
opening of the parliament or trials by the House of Lords. 1
The materials available for a history of the English royal
household are somewhat scanty and obscure. The earliest
record relating to it is of the reign of Henry II. and is contained
in the Black Book of the Exchequer. It enumerates the various
inmates of the king's palace and the daily allowances made to
them at the period at which it was compiled. Hence it affords
valuable evidence of the antiquity and relative importance of the
court offices to which it refers, notwithstanding that it is silent
as to the functions and formal subordination of the persons who
filled them. 2 In addition to this record we have a series uf far
later, but for the most part equally meagre, documents bearing
more or less directly on the constitution of the royal household,
and extending, with long intervals, from the reign of Edward III.
to the reign of William and Mary. 3 Among them, however, are
what are known as the Black Book of the Household and the
Statutes of Eltham, the first compiled in the reign of Edward IV.
and the second in the reign of Henry VIII., from which a good
deal of detailed information may be gathered concerning the
arrangements of the court in the isth and i6th centuries. The
Statutes of Ehham were meant for the practical guidance merely
of those who were responsible for the good order and the sufficient
supply of the sovereign's household at the time they were issued.
1 The great officers of state and the household whom we have
particularly mentioned do not of course exhaust the catalogue of
them. We have named those only whose representatives are still
dignitaries of the court and functionaries of the palace. If the
reader consults Hallam (Middle Ages, i. 181 seq.), Freeman (Norman
Conquest, \. 91 seq., and v. 426 seq.) and Stubbs (Const. Hist. i. 343,
seq.), he will be able himself to fill in the details of the outline we
have given above.
8 The record in question is entitled Constitutio Domus Regis de
Procurationibus, and is printed by Hearne (Liber Niger Scaccarii,
i. 341 sq.). It is analysed by Stubbs (Const. Hist. vol. i. note 2,
P- 345)-
3 A Collection of Ordinances and Regulations for the Government of
the Royal Household, made in Divers Reigns from King Edward III. to
King William and Queen Mary, printed for the Society of Antiquaries,
(London, 1790). See also Pegge's Curialia, published partly before
and partly after this volume; and Carlisle's Gentlemen of the Privy
Chamber, published in 1829. Pegge and Carlisle, however, deal with
small and insignificant portions of the royal establishment.
814
HOUSEL HOUSING
But the Black Book of the Household, besides being a sort of
treatise on princely magnificence generally, professes to be based
on the regulations established for the governance of the court by
Edward III., who, it affirms, was " the first setter of certeynties
among his domesticall meyne, upon a grounded rule " and
whose palace it describes as " the house of very policie and
flowre of England"; and it may therefore possibly, and even
probably, take us back to a period much more remote than that
at which it was actually put together. 1 Various orders, returns
and accounts of the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., Charles I.,
Charles II., and William and Mary throw considerable light on
the organization of particular sections of the royal household in
times nearer to our own. 2 Moreover, there were several parlia-
mentary inquiries into the expenses of the royal household in
connexion with the settlement or reform of the civil list during
the reigns of George III., George IV. and William IV. 3 But they
add little or nothing to our knowledge of the subject in what
was then its historical as distinguished from its contemporary
aspects. So much, indeed, is this the case that, on the accession
of Queen Victoria, Chamberlayne's Present State of England,
which contains a catalogue of the officials at the court of Queen
Anne, was described by Lord Melbourne the prime minister as the
" only authority " which the advisers of the crown could find for
their assistance in determining the appropriate constitution and
dimensions of the domestic establishment of a queen regnant. 4
In its main outlines the existing organization of the royal
household is essentially the same as it was under the Tudors or
the Plantagenets. It is now, as it was then, divided into three
principal departments, at the head of which are severally the
lord steward, the lord chamberlain and the master of the horse,
and the respective provinces of which may be generally described
as " below stairs," " above stairs " and " out of doors." The
duties of these officials, and the various officers under their
charge are dealt with in the articles under those headings. When
the reigning sovereign is a queen, the royal household is in some
other respects rather differently arranged from that of a king and
a queen consort. When there is a king and a queen consort there
is a separate establishment " above stairs " and " out of doors "
for the queen consort. She has a lord chamberlain's department
of her own, and all the ladies of the court from the mistress of the
robes to the maids of honour are in her service. At the com-
mencement of the reign of Queen Victoria the two establishments
were combined, and on the whole considerably reduced. On the
accession of Edward VII. the civil list was again reconstituted;
and while the household of the king and his consort became larger
than during the previous reign, there was a tendency towards
increased efficiency by abolishing certain offices which were
either redundant or unnecessary.
The royal households of such of the continental monarchies
of Europe as have had a continuous history from medieval times
resemble in general outlines that described above. There are,
1 Liber niger domus Regis Edward IV. and Ordinances for the
Household made at Eltham in the seventeenth year of King Henry
VIII., A.D. 1526, are the titles of these two documents. The earlier
documents printed in the same collection are Household of King
Edward HI. in Peace and War from the eighteenth to the twenty-first
year of his reign; Ordinances of the Household of King Henry IV.
in the thirty-third year of his reign, A.D. 1455, an d Articles ordained
by King Henry VII. for the Regulation of his Household, A .D. 1494.
1 The Book of the Household of Queen Elizabeth as it was ordained
in the forty-third year of her Reign delivered to our Sovereign Lord
King James, &c., is simply a list of officers' names and allowances.
It seems to have been drawn up under the curious circumstances
referred to in Archaeologia (xii. 80-85). For the rest of these
documents see Ordinances and Regulations, &c., pp. 299, 340, 347,
352, 368 and 380.
1 Burke's celebrated Act " for enabling His Majesty to discharge
the debt contracted upon the civil list, and for preventing the same
from being in arrear for the future, &c.," 22 Geo. III. c. 82, was
passed in 1782. But it was foreshadowed in his great speech on
" Economical Reform " delivered two years before. Since the
beginning of the igth century select committees of the House of
Commons have reported on the civil list and royal household in
1803, 1804, 1815, 1831 and 1901.
Torrens's Memoirs of William, second Viscount Melbourne,
ii. 303-
common to many, certain great offices, which have become,
in course of time, merely titular and sometimes hereditary.
In most cases, as the name of the office would suggest, they were
held by those who discharged personal functions about the
sovereign.. Gradually, in ways or for reasons which might vary
in each individual case, the office alone survived, the duties either
ceasing to be necessary, or being transferred to officers of less
exalted station and permanently attached to the sovereign's
household. For example, in Prussia, there are certain great
titular officers, such as the Oberstmarschall (great chamberlain) ;.
the Oberstjagermeister (grand master of the hunt); the Oberst-
schenk (grand cup-bearer) and the Obersttruchsess (grand
carver), while, at the same time, there are also departments which
correspond, to a great extent both as to offices and their
duties to those of the household of the English sovereigns.
This is a feature which must necessarily be reproduced in any
monarchical country, whatever the date of its foundation,
to a more or less limited extent, and varying in its constitution
with the needs or customs of the particular countries.
See also LORD STEWARD; LORD CHAMBERLAIN; MASTER OF THE
HORSE; PRIVY PURSE; and CIVIL LIST.
HOUSEL, the English name, until the time of the Reformation,
for the Eucharist. The word in O. Eng. was htisel. Its proper
meaning is " sacrifice," and thus the word hunsl appears in
Ulfilas' Gothic version of Matt. ix. 13, " I will have mercy and
not sacrifice." The ultimate origin is doubtful. The New
English Dictionary connects it with a Teutonic stem meaning
" holy "; from which is derived the Lithuanian szwentas, and
Lettish swets. Skeat refers it to a root meaning " to kill,"
which may connect it with Gr. KaLveiv.
HOUSELEEK, Sempervivum, a genus of ornamental evergreen
plants belonging to the natural order Crassulaceae. About
30 species are known in gardens, some of which are hardy
perennial herbs, and grow well in dry or rocky situations; the
others are evergreen shrubs or undershrubs, fit only for cultivation
in the greenhouse or conservatory. The genus Sempenvium
is distinguished from the nearly allied Sedum by having more
than five (about 1 2) petals, and by the glands at the base of the
ovary being laciniated if present. The common houseleek,.
S. teclorum (Ger. Hauswurzel, Fr.joubarbe), is often met with in
Britain on roofs of outhouses and wall-tops, but is not a native.
Originally it was indigenous in the Alps, but it is now widely
dispersed in Europe, and has been introduced into America.
The leaves are thick, fleshy and succulent, and are arranged
in the form of a rosette lying close to the soil. The plant pro-
pagates itself by offsets on all sides, so that it forms after a time
a dense cushion or aggregation of rosettes. The flowering stem,,
which is of rather rare occurrence, is about i ft. high, reddish,
cylindrical and succulent, and ends in a level-topped cyme, re-
flexed at the circumference, of reddish flowers, which bloom
from June to September. The houseleek has been known
variously as the houselick, homewort or great houseleek. Sedum
acre (stone-crop) is styled the little houseleek. In Germany it is
sometimes called Donnerkraut, from being supposed to protect
the house on which it grows, from thunder. The leaves are said to
contain malic acid in considerable quantity, and have been eaten
as salad, like Portulaca. S. glutinosum and 5. balsamifcrum,
natives respectively of Madeira and the Canary Islands, contain
a very viscous substance in large quantity, and are used for the
preparation of bird-lime; fishermen in Madeira, after dipping
their nets in an alkaline solution, rub them with this substance,
rendering them as tough as leather. 5. montanum, indigenous
in Central Europe, according to Gmelin, causes violent purging;
5. arboreum, rd ntya. adfaov of Diosco rides, is employed in
Cyprus, the East, and northern Africa as an external remedy for
malignant ulcers, inflammations and burns, and internally for
mucous discharges.
HOUSING. The housing of the poorer classes has become
a pressing problem in all populous Western countries, and has
engaged, in a varying but constantly increasing measure, the
attention of legislative and administrative bodies and of phil-
anthropic individuals and societies. The general interest was
HOUSE
PLATE V.
From Belcher and Macartney, Later Renaissance Archil eel tire in England, 1901. By permission of B. T. Batsford.
FIG. 14. HAM HOUSE, PETERSHAM, 1610.
From Gotch, Architecture of the Renaissance in England, 1894. By permission of B. T. Batsford.
Xiil. 814. FIG. 15. BRAMSHILL, HAMPSHIRE, 1612.
PLATE VI.
HOUSE
From Belcher and Macartney, Later Renaissance Architecture in England, 1901. By permission of B. T. Balsford
FIG. 16. THE EARL OF BURLINGTON'S VILLA, CHISWICK. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
the same source as above.
FIG. 17. HOUSES IN CAVENDISH SQUARE, LONDON. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
HOUSING
815
signalized by an International Congress held in London in 1907.
The recognition of the problem is due in the first instance to the
science of public health, the rise of which dates from the second
quarter of the igth century; and in the second instance to the
growth of urban populations consequent on the development
of manufacturing industries and of trading and transporting
agencies, both of which tend to mass increasing numbers of people
in convenient centres. To have a clear view of the subject it
is necessary to distinguish these factors and their respective
influence upon the problem. Urban congestion is quite secondary,
and only important because and so far as it has a prejudicial
effect upon health and strength. Further, the requirements on
the scientific side, made on behalf of public health, are of very
much wider application and more expansive than those which
arise from the mere growth of urban population. That is obvious
at once from the fact that they extend to rural housing, which
has indeed become a prominent feature of the question in
recent years. To ascribe the housing problem to the " factory
system," as some writers have done, is to put forward an in-
adequate and misleading view of it. It is, in fact, particularly
acute in some places totally devoid of factories and least acute
in some purely factory towns. If the factory system were
abolished with all its effects the housing question would remain.
But there is a more important distinction than extent of applica-
tion. The requirements of public health are indeterminate and
interminable; knowledge increases, or rather changes, and the
standard constantly rises. It is the changing standard which
gives most trouble; housing at one period thought good enough
is presently condemned. Fifty years ago no house existed
which would satisfy modern sanitary standards, and the mansions
of the great were in some respects inferior to the worst quarters
to-day. And to this process there is no end. It is quite con-
ceivable that urban congestion might cease to be a difficulty at
all. That actually happens in particular towns where the
population is stationary or diminishing. One whole nation
(France) has already reached that point, and others are moving
towards it at varying rates. But even where the supply of
houses exceeds the demand and many stand empty, the housing
problem remains; condemnation of existing accommodation
continues and the effort to provide superior houses goes on. In
other words, there are two main aspects of the housing question,
quality and quantity; they touch at various points and interact,
but they are essentially distinct. The problem of quantity may
be " solved," that of quality has no finality.
The importance attached to housing is much enhanced by
the general tendency to lay stress on the material conditions
of life, which characterizes the present age. Among material
conditions environment takes a leading place, largely under the
influence of the theory of evolution in a popular and probably
erroneous form; and among the factors of environment the
home assumes a more and more prominent position. There is
reason in this, for whatever other provision be made for work
or recreation the home is after all the place where people spend
most of their time. Life begins there and generally ends there.
At the beginning of life the whole time is spent there and home
conditions are of paramount importance to the young, whose
physical welfare has become the object of increasing care. But
the usual tendency to run to extremes has asserted itself. It
may be admitted that it is extremely difficult to raise the
character and condition of those who live in thoroughly bad
home surroundings, and that an indispensable or preliminary
step is to improve the dwelling. But if in pursuit of this object
other considerations are lost sight of, the result is failure. Bad
housing is intimately connected with poverty; it is, indeed,
largely a question of poverty now that the difference between
good and bad housing is understood and the effects of the latter
are recognized. The poorest people live under the worst housing
conditions because they are the cheapest; the economic factor
governs the situation. Poverty again is associated with bad
habits, with dirt, waste, idleness and vice, both as cause and
as effect. These factors cannot be separated in real life; they
act and react upon each other in such a way that it is impossible
to disentangle their respective shares in producing physical
and moral evils. To lay all responsibility upon the structural
environment is an error constantly exposed by experience.
Defective quality embraces some or all of the following
conditions darkness, bad air, damp, dirt and dilapidation.
Particular insanitary conditions independent of the structure
are often associated, namely defects of water-supply, drainage,
excrement and house refuse removal, back-yards and surround-
ing ground; they contribute to dirt, damp and bad air. De-
fective quantity produces high rents and overcrowding, both of
which have a prejudicial effect upon health; the one by diminish-
ing expenditure on other necessaries, the other by fouling the
atmosphere and promoting the spread of infectious illness.
The physical effects of these conditions have been demon-
strated by comparative statistics of mortality general and
special; among the latter particular stress is laid on the mortality
of infants, that from consumption and from " zymotic " diseases.
The statistical evidence has been especially directed to the
effects of overcrowding, which can be stated with greater pre-
cision than other insanitary conditions. It generally takes the
form of comparing the death-rates of different areas having widely
contrasted densities of population or proportions of persons
to a given space. It is not necessary to quote any of these
figures, which have been produced in great abundance. They
broadly establish a connexion between density and mortality;
but the inference that the connexion can be reduced to a precise
numerical statement and that the difference of mortality shown
is all due to overcrowding or other housing conditions is highly
fallacious. Many other factors ought to be taken into account,
such as the age-distribution of the population, the birth-rate,
the occupations, means, character and habits of the people,
the geographical situation, the number of public institutions,
hospitals, workhouses, asylums and so forth. The fallacious
use of vital statistics for the purpose of proving some particular
point has become so common that it is necessary to enter a
warning against them; the subject of housing is a popular
field for the exercise of that art, though there is no need of it.
The actual state of housing in different countries and localities,
the efforts made to deal with it by various agencies, the sub-
sidiary points which arise in connexion with it and the results
attained all these heads embrace such a vast mass of facts
that any attempt to treat them fully in detail would run to
inordinate length. It must suffice to review the more salient
points; and the most convenient way of doing so is to deal
first with Great Britain, which has led the way historically
in extent of need, in its recognition and in efforts to meet it,
adding some notes upon other countries, in which the question
is of more recent date and for which less information is available.
THE UNITED KINGDOM
The importance of housing and the need of improvement
had by 1909 received public recognition in England for nearly
70 years, a period coinciding almost exactly with the systematic
study of sanitation or public health. The active movement
definitely began about 1841 with voluntary effort in which
Lord Shaftesbury was the most prominent and active figure.
The motive was philanthropic and the object was to improve
the condition of the working classes. It took the form of
societies; one was the " Metropolitan Association for Improving
the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes," incorporated in 1845
but founded in 1841; another was the "Society for Improv-
ing the Condition of the Labouring Classes," originally the
" Labourers' Friend Society," of which the Prince Consort
became president. That fact and the statement of the Society
concerning improved housing that " the moral were almost
equal to the physical benefits," sufficiently prove that public
interest in the subject and a grasp of its significance already
existed at that date. Legislation followed not long after and
has continued at intervals ever since.
Legislation. Twenty-eight Housing and Health Acts, passed
between 1851 and 1903, are enumerated by Mr Dewsnup, whose
monograph on The Housing Problem in England is the fullest account
8i6
HOUSING
of the subject published. The first was the Shaftesbury Act of 1851
for the establishment of lodging-houses for the working classes;
the last was the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1903. The
Shaftesbury Act had in view the provision by local authorities of
good lodging-houses for the better class of artisans, and particularly
of single persons, male and female, though families were also con-
templated. It was accompanied in the same year by another act,
not included in the list of twenty-eight, for the regulation and control
of common lodging-houses, from which Mr Dewsnup reasonably
infers that the object of Lord Shaftesbury, who inspired both acts,
was the separation of the casual and disorderly class frequenting
common lodging-houses from the more regularly employed and
respectable workers who were sometimes driven to use them for
lack of other accommodation. At any rate this early legislation
embodied the principle of differential treatment and showed a grasp
of the problem not always visible in later procedure. The most
important of the subsequent acts were those of 1855 and 1866, both
intended to encourage private enterprise in the provision of working-
class dwellings; the Torrens Act of 1868 (Artisans' and Labourers'
Dwellings Act) for the improvement or demolition of existing
buildings; the Cross Act of 1875 (Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings
Improvement Act), for extending that process to larger areas; the
Public Health Act of 1875; the Housing of the Working Classes Act
of 1885 following the report of the Royal Commission on the Housing
of the Working Classes, of which King Edward, then prince of
Wales, was a member; the Housing of the Working Classes Act of
1890; the Public Health (London) Act of 1891. The acts of 1875
(Public Health), of 1890 and of 1891 are still in force. The story of
this half-century of legislation (which also includes a number of
Scotch and Irish acts, local private acts and others bearing on the
question) is one of tentative efforts first in one direction then in
another, of laws passed, amended, extended, consolidated, super-
seded. Many of the enactments, originally of limited application,
were subsequently extended, and the principal laws now in force
apply to the whole of the United Kingdom. Two main objects can
be distinguished (i) the treatment of existing dwellings by de-
molition or improvement ; (2) the construction of new ones. The
second head is further subdivided into (a) municipal action, (6)
private action. These objects have been alternately promoted by
legislative measures conceived and carried out on no systematic
plan, but gradually and continuously developed into an effective
body of law, particularly with regard to the means of dealing with
existing insanitary dwellings. The advancing requirements of
public health are clearly traceable in the series of enactments directed
to that end. The Nuisances Removal Act of 1855 took cognizance
of premises in such a state as to be " a nuisance or injurious to
health," and made provision for obtaining an order to prohibit the
use of such premises for human habitation. In the same act over-
crowding obtained statutory recognition as a condition dangerous or
prejudicial to health, and provision was made for compelling its
abatement. The campaign against bad housing conditions thus
inaugurated by the legislature was extended by subsequent acts in
1860, 1866 and 1868, culminating in the Cross Act of 1875 for the
demolition (and reconstruction) of large insanitary areas and the
extremely important Public Health Act of the same year. The
constructive policy, begun still earlier in 1851 by Lord Shaftesbury's
Act, was concurrently pursued, and for some years more actively
than the destructive; but after 1866 the latter became more pro-
minent, and though the other was not lost sight of it fell into the
background until revived by the Royal Commission of 1885 and the
housing legislation which followed, particularly the Housing of the
Working Classes Act of 1890, amending and consolidating previous
acts.
The laws in operation at the beginning of 1909 were the
Public Health Acts of 1875 and 1891 (London), as amended by
subsequent minor measures, and the Housing of the Working
Classes Act of 1890, amended in 1894, 190x3 and 1903. The
Public Health Acts place upon the local sanitary authority
the obligation of securing, under by-laws, the proper construction,
draining and cleaning of streets, removal of house refuse and
building of houses, including structural details for the prevention
of damp and decay, the provision of sanitary conveniences and
an adequate water-supply; also of inquiring into and removing
nuisances, which include any premises in such a condition as
to be a nuisance or injurious to health and any house so over-
crowded as to be dangerous or injurious to health. For the
purpose of carrying out these duties the local authority has the
power of inspection, of declaring a building unfit for human
habitation and of closing it by order. The Housing Acts give
more extended power to the local authority to demolish in-
sanitary dwellings and clear whole areas or " slums," and also
to construct dwellings for the working classes with or without
such clearance; they also retain the older provisions for encourag-
ing private enterprise in the erection of superior dwellings for
the working classes. The procedure for dealing with insanitary
property under these Acts is too intricate to be stated in detail;
but, briefly, there are two ways of proceeding. In the first
the local authority, on receiving formal complaint of an unhealthy
area, cause an inspection to be made by their medical officer,
and if the report in their opinion justifies action, they may
prepare an " improvement scheme," which is submitted to the
Local Government Board. The Board holds an inquiry, and, if
satisfied, issues a provisional order, which has to be confirmed
by a special act of parliament, under which the local authority
can proceed to demolish the houses concerned after paying
compensation to the owners. This procedure, which is authorized
by part i. of the act of 1890, is obviously both cumbrous and
costly. The second way, provided for by part ii. of the act,
is much simpler and less ambitious; it only applies to single
houses or groups of houses. The medical officer in the course
of his duty reports to the local authority any houses which are
in his opinion unfit for human habitation; the local authority
can then make an order to serve notices on the owners to repair
the houses at their own expense. Failing compliance on the
part of the owners, an order for closing the houses can be obtained;
and if nothing is done at the end of three months an order for
demolition can be made. Buildings injurious by reason of their
obstructive character (e.g. houses built back to back so as to
be without through ventilation and commonly called " back-to-
back " houses) can be dealt with in a similar manner. Small
areas containing groups of objectionable houses of either kind
may be made the subject of an improvement scheme, as above.
Where areas are dealt with under improvement schemes there
is a certain obligation to re-house the persons displaced. Building
schemes are provided for under part iii. of the act. Land may
be compulsorily purchased for the purpose and the money
required may be raised by loans under certain conditions. The
provisions thus summarized were considerably modified by the
" Housing, Town Planning, &c., Act," passed at the end of 1909.
It rendered obligatory the adoption (previously permissive)
of the housing provisions (part iii.) of the act of 1890 by local
authorities, simplified the procedure for the compulsory purchase
of land required for the purpose and extended the facilities for
obtaining loans. It further gave power to the Local Government
Board to compel local authorities to put in force the act of 1890
in regard both to existing insanitary housing and the provision
of new housing. Power was also given to county councils to
act in default of rural district councils in regard to new housing.
The procedure for dealing with insanitary houses by closing
and demolition under part ii. (see above) was rendered more
stringent. The general intention of the new act was partly
to facilitate the administration of the previous one by local
authorities and partly to provide means of compelling supine
authorities to take action. Its town-planning provisions are
noted below.
Effects of Legislation. The efficacy of 1 a ws depends very largely
on their administration; and when they are permissive and
dependent on the energy and discretion of local bodies their
administration varies greatly in different localities. That has
been the case with the British housing and health laws, and is
one cause of dissatisfaction with them. But in the aggregate
they have effected very great improvement. Public action has
chiefly taken effect in sanitary reform, which includes the
removal of the worst housing, through demolition or alteration,
and general sanitary improvements of various kinds. In some
large towns the worst parts have been transformed, masses of
old, narrow, crowded, dilapidated and filthy streets and courts
have been swept away at one blow or by degrees; other parts
have been reconstructed or improved. The extent to which
this has been accomplished is not generally recognized. It
is not easily demonstrated, and to realize it local knowledge,
observation and memory are needed. The details of the story
are hidden away in local annals and official reports; and writers
on the subject are usually more concerned with what has not
than with what has been done. Both the Public Health and the
Housing Acts have had a share in the improvement effected.
HOUSING
817
The operation of the former is slow and gradual, but it is continu^
ous and far more general than that of the latter. It embraces
many details which are not usually taken into account in discuss-
ing housing, but which have as much bearing on the healthiness
of the home as the structure itself. The Public Health Acts
have further had a certain preventive influence in laying down
a standard for the erection of new houses by the ordinary
commercial agencies. Such houses are not ideal, because the
commercial builder studies economy and the question of rent;
but the standard has risen, and building plans involving in-
sufficient light and air, such as once were general, have now
for several years been forbidden almost everywhere. Super-
vision of commercial building is, in fact, vastly more important
than the erection of dwellings by public or philanthropic agencies,
because it affects a vastly larger proportion of the population.
The influence of the Public Health Acts in improving the condi-
tions of home life cannot be estimated or summarized, but it
is reflected in the general death-rate, which fell steadily in the
United Kingdom from 21-1 per 1000 in 1878 to 15-4 per 1000
in 1907.
Insanitary Areas. The operation of the Housing Acts is
more susceptible of being stated in figures, though no fully com-
prehensive information is available. The original Shaftesbury Act
of 1851 for erecting municipal lodging-houses appears to have been
practically inoperative and little or nothing was done for a good
many years. In 1864, however, Liverpool obtained a private act
and entered on the policy of improvement by the demolition of
insanitary dwellings on a considerable scale, following it up in 1869
by re-housing. In 1866 Glasgow, also under a private act, created
an Improvement Trust, administered by the city council, and em-
barked on a large scheme of improvement. These seem to have
been the earliest examples. The Torrens Act of 1 868, which embodied
the improvement policy, did not produce much effect. According
to a parliamentary return, during the years 1883-1888, proceedings
were only taken under this act in respect of about 2000 houses in
London and four provincial towns. More advantage was taken of
the Cross Act of 1875, which was intended to promote large im-
provement schemes. Between 1875 and 1885 23 schemes involving
a total area of 51 acres and a population of about 30,000 were
undertaken, in London; and II schemes in provincial towns. By
far the most important of these, and the largest single scheme ever
undertaken, was one carried out in Birmingham. It affected an
area of 93 acres and involved a net cost of 550,000. Altogether
between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 were raised for improvement
schemes under those acts. After the Housing Act of 1890 the
clearance policy was continued in London and extended in the
provinces. During the period 1891-1905 loans to the amount of
about 2,300,000 were raised for improvement schemes by 28
provincial towns in England and Wales. The largest of these were
Leeds (923,000), Manchester (285,000), Liverpool (178,000),
Sheffield (131,000), Brighton (112,000). The Leeds scheme
affected an area of 75 acres, which was cleared at a cost of 500,000.
In London the area cleared was raised to a total of 104 acres; the
gross cost, down to March 31, 1908, was 3,417,337, the net cost
2,434,096, and the number of persons displaced 48,525. Glasgow
has under its Improvement Trust cleared an area of 88 acres with
a population of 51,000. At the same time the policy of dealing
with houses unfit for habitation singly or in small groups by com-
pelling owners to improve them has been pursued by a certain
number of local authorities. In the six years 1899-1904 action
was taken each year on the average in respect of about 5000 houses
by some 400 local authorities large and small outside London.
Representations were made against 33,746 houses, 17,210 were
rendered fit for habitation, closing orders were obtained against
4220 and demolition orders against 748. These figures do not in-
clude cases in which action was taken under local acts and Public
Health Acts. In Manchester, between 1885 and 1905, nearly 10,000
" back-to-back " houses were closed and about half of them re-
opened after reconstruction. Hull, an old seaport town with a
great deal of extremely bad housing, has made very effective use of
the method of gradual improvement and has transformed its worst
areas without appearing in any list of improvement schemes. In
recent years this procedure has been systematically taken up in
Birmingham and other places, and has been strongly advocated by
Mr J. 5. Nettlefold (Practical Housing) in preference to large im-
Erovement schemes on account of the excessive expense involved
y the latter in buying up insanitary areas. In the six years 1902-
1907 Birmingham dealt with 4111 houses represented as unfit for
habitation; 1780 were thoroughly repaired, 1005 were demolished;
the rest were under notice or in course of repair at the end of the
period. Among other towns which have adopted this policy are
Liverpool, Cardiff, York, Warrington and two London boroughs.
Building. On the constructive side the operation of the Housing
Acts has been less extensive and much less general. In London
alone has the erection of working-class dwellings by municipal
action and organized private enterprise assumed large proportions.
Philanthropic societies were first in the field and date from a period
anterior to legislation, which however, stimulated their activity for
many years by affording facilities. Fourteen organizations were in
operation in London prior to 1890 and some of them on a large scale;
others have since been formed. The earliest was the Metropolitan
Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes,
whose operations date from 1847; it has built 1441 tenements
containing 5105 rooms. The largest of these enterprises are the
Improved Industrial Dwellings Company (1864), which has built
5421 tenements containing 19,945 rooms; the Peabody Fund
(1864) with 5469 tenements containing 12,328 rooms; the Artisans',
Labourers' and General Dwellings Company (1867), with 1467
tenements containing 3495 rooms, and 6195 cottage dwellings;
the East-End Dwellings Company ( J 885) with 2096 tenements
containing 4276 rooms; the Guinness Trust (1889) with 2574
tenements containing 5338 rooms. The Artisans' Dwellings Com-
pany alone has housed upwards of 50,000 persons. In addition to
these there are the Rowton Houses (1892), which are hotels for
working men, six in number, accommodating; 5162 persons. So
far as can be estimated, private enterprise has housed some 150,000
persons in improved dwellings in London on a commercial basis.
The early activity of the building companies was largely due to the
policy of the Metropolitan Board of Works, which adopted extensive
improvement schemes and sold the cleared sites to the companies,
who carried out the re-housing obligations imposed by the law.
Since the London County Council, which replaced the Board of
Works in 1889, adopted the policy of undertaking its own re-housing,
their activity has greatly diminished. The buildings erected by them
are nearly all in the form of blocks of tenements; the Artisans
Dwellings Company, which has built small houses and shops in
outlying parts of London, is an exception. The tenement blocks are
scattered about London in many quarters. For instance the Pea-
body Fund has 18 sets of dwellings in different situations, the
Metropolitan Association has 14; the Artisans' Dwellings Company
has 10; the Guinness Trust has 8. In 1909 an important addition
to the list of philanthropic enterprises in London was put in hand
under the will of Mr W. R. Sutton, who left nearly 2,000,000 for
the purpose of providing improved working-class dwellings. The
erection of tenement blocks containing accommodation for 300
families was begun on a site in the City Road. In only a few pro-
vincial towns has private enterprise contributed to improved housing
in a similar manner and that not upon a large scale; among them are
Newcastle, Leeds, Hull, Salford and Dublin.
Municipal Building has been more generally adopted. The
following details are taken from Mr W. Thompson's Housing up to
Date, which gives comprehensive information down to the end of
1906. The number of local authorities which had then availed
themselves of part iii. of the Housing Act of 1890, which provides
for the erection of working-class dwellings, was 142. They were
the London County Council, 12 Metropolitan Boroughs, 69 County
Boroughs and Town Councils, 49 Urban District Councils and 12
Rural District Councils. The dwellings erected are classified as
lodging-houses, block dwellings, tenement houses, cottage flats and
cottages. Lodging-houses have been built by 12 towns, of which
8 arc in England, 3 in Scotland (Glasgow, Aberdeen and I.eith) and
I in Ireland (Belfast). The total number of beds provided was
6218, of which Glasgow accounts for 2414, London for 1846, Man-
chester and Salford together for 648. Four other towns have built
or are building municipal lodging-houses for which no details are
available. The other municipal dwellings erected are summarized
as follows: -
Kind of Dwelling.
No. of Dwellings.
No. of Rooms.
Blocks
Tenement Houses
Cottage flats .
Cottages ....
12,165
2,507
2,004
3,830
27-523
6,068
5-747
17,611
Total ....
20,506
56,949
It appears from these figures that municipal building has provided
for a smaller number of persons in the whole of the United Kingdom
than private enterprise in London alone. The principal towns
which have erected dwellings in blocks are London (7786), Glasgow
(2300), Edinburgh (596), Liverpool (501), Dublin (460) and Man.
Chester (420). The great majority of such dwellings contain either
two or three rooms. Tenement houses have been built in Liverpool
(1424), Manchester (308), Sheffield (192), Aberdeen (128), and in
seven other towns on a small scale. Such tenements are generally
somewhat larger than those built in blocks ; the proportion of three-
and four-roomed dwellings is higher and only a small number consist
of a single room. Cottage flats have been built in Dublin (528),
West Ham (401), Battersea (320), Plymouth (238), East Ham (212),
and on a small scale in Liverpool, Birmingham, Newcastle and seven
other places. The majority of the cottage flats contain three or
more rooms, a considerable proportion have four rooms. Cottages
8i8
HOUSING
have been built in 67 places, chiefly small towns and suburban
districts. Of the large towns which have adopted this class of
dwellings Salford stands first with 633 cottages; three London
boroughs, all on the south side of the Thames, have built 234;
Manchester has 228, Sheffield 173, Huddersfield 157, Birmingham
103. The number of rooms in municipal cottages ranges from
three to eight, but the great majority of these dwellings have four
or five rooms.
Some further details of municipal housing in particular towns are
of interest. In London, the work of the London County Council
down to March 31 , 1908, not including three lodging-homes containing
1845 cubicles, is given in the official volume of London Statistics,
published by the Council, as follows:
Buildings Erected and in Course of Erection.
No. of
Dwellings.
No. of
Rooms.
Cost of Land
and Building.
No. of Persons
in Occupation.
8,373
22,939
2,438,263
26,687
With regard to the cost, it is to be noted that the actual cost of the
land purchased for improvement schemes was very much greater
than that stated, having been written down to an arbitrary figure
called " housing valuation." The financial accounts of L.C.C.
dwellings for the year ending March 31 , 1908, are thus summarized :
London County Council Dwellings, Accounts 1(107-1008.
Gross
Rental.
Deductions for
Empties, &c.
Net Receipts.
Expenditure
including
Interest.
Net
Returns.
180,169
19-455
160,714
157-141
3.573
It appears from this that if the actual commercial cost of the land
were taken the housing of the Council would be run at a considerable
annual loss. The occupations of the tenants are stated in the
following proportions: labourers 789, clerks 312, policemen 251,
shop assistants 202, warehousemen 183, printers 182, charwomen
182, tailors 155, cabinetmakers 146, canvassers 122, cigarette
makers 118, widows 116, tram drivers no, postmen 107, packers 97,
engineers 87, dressmakers 41, coachmen 31, motormen 26, milliners
19. These proportional figures show that though a considerable
number of labourers have been housed, the great majority of the
occupants of London municipal dwellings are of a superior class.
The mean weekly rent in London County Council dwellings is
as. lojd. per room against 2s. 4d. in dwellings erected by other
agencies. The most important feature of the County Council's
policy in recent years has been the acquisition of suburban sites for
the erection of cottages. There are four such sites, two on the
south, one on the north and one on the west side of London; the
total area is 349 acres, and the total accommodation contemplated
is for 66,000 persons at an estimated cost of 3,105,840; the present
accommodation is for about 8000. In addition to the housing
provided by the County Council, fourteen London Borough Councils
and the City Corporation had at the beginning of 1909 erected or
adapted 3136 dwellings containing 7999 rooms.
In Liverpool, down to 1907, about 920,000 had been spent in
clearing insanitary areas and building new dwellings; the de-
molition of about 8000 houses and purchase of land cost about
500,000; and the erection of 2046 dwellings, containing 4961
rooms, cost about 350,000. The size of the dwellings and the
number of each class are: I room, 193; 2 rooms, 965; 3 rooms,
719; 4 rooms, 167. The great majority are in tenement houses of
three storeys. The mean weekly rent is is. 6^d. per room, but a
large number are let at less. The net return on the total outlay is
just over I %, on the building outlay it is 2f%. The principal
classes of persons occupying the dwellings are labourers 675, carters
120, charwomen 103, firemen 93, porters 80, hawkers 64, sailors 45,
scavengers 40. These all belpng to the poorest classes, living by
casual or irregular work. Liverpool has, in fact, succeeded more
than any other town in providing municipal dwellings in which the
really poor can afford to live.
In Manchester 956 dwellings have been built at a total cost for
building and improvement of 451,932; of the whole number 420
are in blocks, 308 in tenement houses and 228 in cottages. The
rents are much higher than in Liverpool ; in the tenement houses
the mean weekly rent is about 6d. per room more than in Liverpool.
The gross profit on the block dwellings is i J% on the capital outlay,
on the tenement houses 3 %, on the cottages 2 %. " The total
loss during the last seven to ten years, including loan charges, has
amounted to about 54,240 " (Thompson).
In Glasgow the corporation has built under improvement schemes
2280 new dwellings containing 4013 rooms and 241 shops. The
dwellings, which are all in blocks and centrally situated, are occupied
chiefly by artisans; only 28% have been reserved for the poorest
class of tenants. The total amount taken from the rates on this
account in 30 years is 600,000. Dwellings valued at 400,000 for
building and 300,000 for land give a net return of 3-06 % on out-
lay; dwellings valued at 280,000 for land and building return
3-03% on outlay; leaving the sinking fund charges to be defrayed
out of rates.
In Edinburgh insanitary areas have been bought for 107,023
and new dwellings containing 1032 rooms have been built for 87,970.
Nearly all the dwellings are of one or two rooms only. The rents
charged average about as. a week per room ; actual rents received
average is. 4d. per room and they have to be subsidized out of the
rates to the extent of 2s. 3d. per room to meet the cost of site.
In Dublin provision has been or was in 1909 shortly to be made
for housing 5394 families or 19,000 persons; of which 1041 families,
or about one-fifth, are housed by the Corporation, the rest by
companies and private persons. Altogether it was estimated that
500,000 would be spent under the act of 1890. Fifteen streets,
containing 1665 houses, have been declared unhealthy areas by the
medical officer, and between 1879 and 1909 more than 3000 houses
were closed as unfit for habitation.
Co-operative Building. Municipal and philanthropic housing by no
means exhaust the efforts that have been made to provide working-
class dwellings outside the ordinary building market. Their special
function has been to substitute better dwellings for pre-existing
bad ones, which is the most costly and difficult, as well as the most
urgent, part of the problem in old towns. But in the provision of
new dwellings alone they have been far surpassed by organized self-
help in different forms. Down to 1906 there had been built 46,707
houses by 413 co-operative societies at a cost of nearly 10,000,000.
They are most numerous in the manufacturing towns and particu-
larly in the north-western district of England. Of the whole
number 8530 were owned by the societies which built them; 5577
had been sold to members, and 32,600 had been built by members
on money lent by the societies. These figures do not include the
particular form of co-operative building known as co-partnership
housing, which will be mentioned later on, or the operations of the
so-called building societies, which are really companies lending
money to persons on mortgage for the purpose of building. The
difference between them and the co-operative societies which do
the same thing is that the latter retain the element of co-operation
by lending only to their own members, whereas the building societies
deal in the open market. Their operations are on an immense
scale; at the end of 1908 the invested funds of the registered build-
ing societies exceeded 72,000,000. An agency working on this
scale, which far exceeds the operations of all the others put together,
is obviously an important factor in housing. The number of houses
built must help to relieve congestion, and since they are built to
suit the owners or tenants they cannot be of the worst class. They
also represent a form of thrift, and deserve notice on that account.
The Small Dwellings Acquisition Act of 1899, which has not
previously been mentioned, was intended to facilitate the building
or purchase of small houses by their tenants by means of loans
advanced by local authorities. Down to 1906 about 82,000 had
been so advanced by 5 county boroughs, 17 urban councils and I
rural district council.
Housing by Employers. No comprehensive information is avail-
able on this head, but it has not been an important factor in towns,
being chiefly confined to agricultural, mining and suburban manu-
facturing districts. The former two belong to the subject of Rural
Housing, which is separately discussed below; the third has an
interest of its own on account of its connexion with " model settle-
ments." The building of houses for their workpeople by industrial
employers has never been widely adopted in this country, but it
has attracted considerable attention at two different periods. Sir
Titus Salt was a pioneer in this direction, when he built his woollen
mills at Saltaire, on the outskirts of Bradford, and housed his work-
people on the spot. That plan was maintained by his successors,
who still own some 900 excellent and cheap cottages, and was
adopted by a few other manufacturers in the same neighbourhood.
Saltaire was a model settlement with many institutions for the
benefit of the mill-hands, and as such it attracted much attention;
but the example was not generally followed, and the interest lapsed.
Recently it has been revived by the model settlements at Port
Sunlight, near Liverpool, started about 1888, Bournville near
Birmingham (1895), and Earswick, near York (1904), which are of a
much more elaborate character. Elsewhere, employers setting down
works in some new locality where no provision existed, have had to
build houses for their workmen; but they have done so in a plain
way, and this sort of housing has not assumed large proportions.
Conditions in /pop. It has been said above that great improve-
ments have been effected, and of that there is no doubt at all.
Both quantity and quality are more satisfactory than they were,
though both are still defective. The conditions vary greatly
in different places, and no general indictment can be sustained.
The common practice of citing some exceptionally bad cases,
and by tacit inference generalizing from them to the whole
country, is in nothing more misleading than in the matter of
housing. Local differences are due to several causes age,
HOUSING
819
population, occupations and means of the people, public opinion
and municipal energy. The first three chiefly determine the
difficulty and extent of the problem, the last two influence its
treatment. The difficulty is greatest in towns which are old,
have large populations and a high percentage of poor. Such
pre-eminently are the large seaports, where much casual labour
is employed. London, Liverpool, Glasgow, the Tyne, Hull,
Sunderland are examples. Old inland towns having a large
trading as well as an industrial element present the same features.
Such are Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield and Bradford.
In all these, and some others like them, the past has left a heavy
legacy of bad housing by malconstructior and dilapidation,
which has been increased by growth of population and over-
crowding. They have attacked it with varying degrees of
energy according to the prevalent local spirit and with varying
results.
Overcrowding. The one condition which permits of precise
and comprehensive statement is overcrowding. A standard
has been officially adopted in England based on the number of
persons to a room in each dwelling; and the facts in relation
to this standard are embodied in the census returns. It is a
much better criterion than that of " density " or number of
persons per acre, which is very deceptive; for an apparently
low density may conceal much overcrowding within walls and
an apparently high one may be comparatively guiltless. The
room-density is the important thing in actual life. Some light
is also thrown on this question by the number of rooms contained
in each dwelling, and that is also given in the census. The
standard of overcrowding is more than two persons to a room.
In 1901 there were in England and Wales 2,667,506 persons
or 8-2% of the population living in a state of overcrowding
according to this definition. Their distribution is extremely
irregular and capricious. In rural districts the proportion was
only 5-8%, in urban districts 8-9%; but these summary
figures give no idea of the actual state of things in different
localities. In both rural districts and in towns the proportion
of overcrowding varies in different localities from less than i %
to over 30% of the population. The towns are the most im-
portant and we shall confine attention chiefly to them. A list
of 84 having a population of 50,000 and upwards, exclusive of
London, is given by Mr Dewsnup. The overcrowding ranges
from 34-54% in Gateshead and 32-42% in South Shields to
0-97% in Northampton and 0-62% in Bournemouth. Of the
whole number exactly one-half have less than 5%; 15 have less
than 2% and 22 have 10% or more. Neither size nor character
has much to do with the variation. Bournemouth, at the bottom
of the list with 0-62%, is a residential place and health resort
with a population of about 50,000; so is Tynemouth, which is
nearly at the top, with 30- 71%. The two largest towns, Liverpool
and Manchester, are 26th and 32nd on the list, with only 7-94%
and 6-28% respectively, or considerably less than the average;
and on the other hand none of the first 1 7 towns with the highest
proportion of overcrowding are of the largest size. Again, with
regard to character, Leicester and Northampton, which are
almost at the bottom of the list, with 1-04% and 0-97% respec-
tively, are both purely industrial towns. The most striking facts
are that the six towns, which alone have more than 20% of
overcrowding, namely Gateshead (34-5), South Shields (32-4),
Tynemouth (30-7), Newcastle (30-4), Sunderland (30-10),
Plymouth (20-1) are all old seaports, that four of them at the
head of the list are on the Tyne and the fifth on the Wear.
This points strongly to special local conditions and it is borne out
by the facts with regard to rural districts. Northumberland and
Durham show a great excess of overcrowding over other counties;
and some of their rural districts even surpass any of the towns.
The highest of all is the district of Tynemouth, with 38-18% of
overcrowding. The explanation lies in a special combination
of large families and small houses prevalent in this area. All
the rural districts are seats of coal-mining, and miners are the
most prolific section of the population. They also live in small
houses of a traditional and antiquated character, often of one
storey only or built back to back. Many are built by colliery
proprietors. Large families and small houses also prevail in the
towns. Some of them contain coal-pits and the rest of their
industrial population is engaged chiefly in engineering and
shipbuilding works, occupations also usually associated with a
high birth-rate. The men live as near their work as possible
and the practice of living in flats or occupying part of a house
prevails extensively.
In London the number of persons living in overcrowded
conditions in 1901 was 726,096 or 16-0% of the population.
The proportion varied from 2-6% in Lewisham to 35-2% in
Finsbury, but in 23 out of the 29 boroughs into which the county
is divided it exceeded the urban mean for the whole country,
and in 9 boroughs having an aggregate population of 1,430,000
it was more than double the mean. Conditions in London are
evidently untypical of English towns.
In the light of the census figures it is clear that no large
proportion of the English industrial population is living under
conditions of serious overcrowding, outside the special districts
mentioned and that the expression " house famine " cannot be
properly applied to England or English towns in general. In the
House of Commons, on the i6th of August 1909, the president of
the Local Government Board, Mr John Burns, gave a list of the
number of unoccupied houses and tenements in each of the
London boroughs and in the eight largest provincial towns,
including Glasgow; the total was 104,107. By a further
analysis of the census returns Mr Dewsnup shows that a great
deal of the overcrowding is of a comparatively mild character
and that it is due to a relatively small excess of population.
Bradford, for instance, is credited with 40,896 overcrowded
persons, representing the high percentage of 14-61 of the
population; but in the case of nearly 20,000 the excess over the
standard is very slight, and the proportion of gross overcrowding
comes down to 7-55%. Moreover, this serious overcrowding
is produced by no more than 2-79 of the population, so that
its cure presents no insuperable difficulty. The argument
is confirmed by the very substantial diminution which actually
took place betweeen 1891 and 1901. The facts are so striking
that they deserve to be presented in tabular form:
Percentage of Population Overcrowded.
1891
1901
England and Wales.
11-23
8-20
Gateshead
40-78
34-54
Newcastle
35-08
30-47
Sunderland
32-85
30-10
Plymouth
26-27
20-19
Halifax .
21-31
14-49
Bradford .
20-61
14-61
Huddersfield
19-89
12-88
London .
19-70
16-01
Leeds .
16-46
10-08
St Helens.
I5-72
10-86
Birmingham
I4-27
10-32
Burnley .
12-74
7-14
Sheffield
11-58
9-5O
Bolton
11-22
6-50
IO-96
7'94
Oldham
IO-I3
7-42
Salford . . .
9-39
7-54
West Ham . .
9-34
9-27
Wolverhampton
9-31
4-67
Swansea .
9-25
5-57
Stockport
8-50
4-98
Manchester
8-25
6-28
Bristol . . .
8-03
3-55
Hull . .
7-86
6-12
Blackburn
7-05
3-92
Birkenhead
6-80
5-02
Norwich .
4-91
3-34
Brighton .
4-56
3-07
Cardiff . . .
4-31
2-92
Preston .
4-13
2-64
Nottingham
3-62
3-65
Croydon .
2-76
2-74
Derby. . . .
2-69
1-18
Leicester .
2-22
1-04
Portsmouth
1-74
1-19
820
HOUSING
To what is this remarkable movement due? It is far too
general to be attributed to the operation of the Housing Acts;
for, though they have helped in some cases, a great diminution
has occurred in many places in which no use has been made of
them. Towns of all kinds and in all parts of the country exhibit
the same movement in some degree; those which had little
and those which had much overcrowding, the worst and the
best. In London the precentage fell by 3-7, and the number
of persons overcrowded was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an
increase of population of 324,798. In Gateshead a fall of 6-2%,
in Newcastle one of 4-6% took place; while at the other end
of the scale Leicester and Derby reduced their already very
low proportions by more than one-half. Nottingham is the
only exception in the whole list. And in 28 out of the 35 towns
the decrease of overcrowding was absolute as well as relative
in spite of a large increase of population. London has been
cited. The other large towns may be tabulated witn it, thus:
Town.
Increase of
Population.
Decrease of
Overcrowded
Persons.
London
Liverpool .
Manchester
Birmingham
Leeds .
Sheffield .
Bristol
Bradford .
324,898
166,978
38,504
44,091
61,463
56,550
107,367
63,406
103,669
2,381
7,545
14.290
17,252
1,388
6,105
3,696
The very divergencies make the uniform diminution of over-
crowding the more remarkable. The large increase of population
in Liverpool and Bristol no doubt means extension of boundaries,
which might have the effect of reducing the proportions of over-
crowding, but it cannot account for the actual decrease of
overcrowded persons. The change seems to be due to three
factors all of which have been in general operation though in
varying degrees. They are (i) the centrifugal movement pro-
moted by improved locomotive facilities, (2) the declining
birth-rate, (3) public health administration, (i) The first is the
most important and the chief element has been tramways, of
which a great extension accompanied by electrification took
place in the decade. Thus the process of urbanization has been
modified by one of suburbanization. Bristol is a prominent
case; its overcrowding has been reduced by more than one-half
without any large and costly municipal interference, mainly
through the operation of ordinary economic forces. Tramways
have made the outskirts accessible and builders have
utilized the opportunity. They have built good
houses, too, under supervision, and Bristol, though
an old seaport and industrial town with much
poverty, has the lowest general death-rate and
the lowest infantile death-rate of all the great
towns. (2) The birth-rate and the size of families
are conditions which affect overcrowding in a
very marked degree, though no attention is paid
to them in that connexion. The case of the
mining districts and the towns on the Tyne has
been mentioned above; the same thing is seen
in London, where all the most overcrowded dis-
tricts (Finsbury, Stepney, Shoreditch and Bethnal
Green) have high birth-rates, ranging from 31-3 to 36-4 per
1000 in 1902-1906. The necessity imposed on poor parents
of putting several children into a cheap and therefore small
dwelling accounts for a large proportion of overcrowding, which
automatically diminishes with a falling birth-rate. The ultimate
advantage of this method of reducing overcrowding is a question
on which opinions may differ, but there is no doubt about the
fact. (3) Public health administration is the third general
cause; it attracts no notice and works very gradually, but it
does work. The last annual report (for 1907) of the medical
officer to the London County Council says of overcrowding:
'' There is reason for thinking that in recent years greater
attention has been paid by sanitary authorities to the abatement
of the nuisance, and Dr Newman states that in Finsbury there
has been an enormous reduction in overcrowding, the reduction
having been effected mainly in the years 1901-1905." The
medical officers of the metropolitan boroughs reported in 1907
2613 dwellings overcrowded in 23 boroughs and 3216 such
dwellings remedied in 27 boroughs. It should not be forgotten
that a good deal of overcrowding is voluntary. Families which
have not enough room for their own members nevertheless take
in lodgers; and in some places, of which London is the most
conspicuous but not the only example, foreigners herd together
thickly in a very small space.
The improvement shown by the statistics of overcrowding is
confirmed by those relating to the size of dwellings. Between
1891 and 1901 the percentage of the population living in very
small dwellings appreciably diminished thus in i -roomed
dwellings, from 2-2 to 1-6%; in 2-roomed dwellings, from 8-3
to 6-6%; in 3-roomed dwellings, from n-i to 9-8%; while the
proportion living in dwellings of 5 rooms and upwards increased
from 54-9 to 60-1%. This again is referable to the suburban
movement and a higher standard of requirements. Six-roomed
houses with a bathroom tend to replace the old four-roomed type.
The general report accompanying the census says: " However
the tenement figures for England and Wales are compared it is
impossible to avoid the conclusion that the comparison affords
satisfactory evidence of distinct improvement in the housing of
the people during the ten years 1891-1901." In short, the
problem of quantity is only acute in a few places and steadily
becoming less so.
The foregoing facts apply only to England and Wales. In Scotland
the state of things is much less satisfactory. No statistics of over-
crowding are available, but the following comparative table shows
how different the housing conditions are in the two countries:
Size of Dwellings, England and Scotland,
Dwelling.
Percentage of Population.
England.
Scotland.
I room
2 rooms ....
3 rooms ....
4 rooms ....
5 rooms and over .
1-6
6-6
9-8
21-9
60- 1
n-l
39-5
19-9
9-1
20-4
Over 50% of the population of Scotland live in tenements of one
or two rooms ; only 8-2 % in England. A comparison of the largest
towns in the two countries gives the following result :
Percentage of Population.
Scotland.
England.
Town.
i Room.
2 Rooms.
Town.
i Room.
2 Rooms.
Glasgow .
Edinburgh
Dundee .
Aberdeen
Paisley
Greenock
Kilmarnock .
16-2
8-9
"3
6-1
13-5
n-3
18-9
38-9
32-4
51-7
33-2
49-9
47-6
43-3
London .
Liverpool
Manchester
Birmingham
Leeds
Sheffield .
Bristol
6-7
2-7
0-8
o-3
0-4
0-4
1-6
'5-5
5-9
4-01
2-4
9-5
4-0
5-7
Mean .
12-7
42-4
Mean .
1-8
6-7
The conditions in Scottish towns where very tall tenement houses
are common, resemble those in other countries, in which overcrowd-
ing is far greater than in England. All these matters are comparative,
and the superiority of conditions in England ought to be recognized.
Yet, in Scotland, too, great improvements have been effected. In
1861 there were 25,959 houses without windows; in 1901 only 130.
These facts throw light on the long standing of the housing question,
the change of standard and the improvement effected.
In Ireland there is more overcrowding than in England, though
probably less 1 lan in Scotland, with the possible exception of
Dublin, which has a larger proportion of one-roomed dwellings than
any Scottish town, namely, 24-7 %. The percentage of population
living in overcrowded conditions in the principal towns is Dublin
40-6, Limerick 31-7, Cork 23-4, Waterford 20-6, Londonderry 16-7,
Belfast 8-2.
HOUSING
821
Sanitary Conditions. With regard to the quality of existing
housing reference has already been made to the effect of the
Public Health Acts and the general improvement in sanitation.
The only numerical measure is afforded by the death-rates,
which have fallen in England from 20-9 per 1000 in 1871-1875 to
15-4 per looo in 1903-1907 and in the United Kingdom from
21-3 to 15-7 per icoo in the same period. The condition of the
dwelling must be credited with a considerable share in this fall.
There have, in fact, been great changes and all in the direction
of improvement. The rise and development of sanitation, of
house and main drainage and sewage disposal, the purification of
water and provision of a constant service in the house, the
removal of refuse, the segregation of infectious illness, sanitary
inspection all these, apart from the demolition of the worst
housing and the provision of better, have raised the general'
healthiness of the dwellings of the people. In face of these facts
and of the vital statistics, to say that the people are physically
deteriorating through the influence of bad housing is to talk
obvious nonsense, for all conditions have been improving for
more than a generation. If physical deterioration is going on,
of which there is no proof, either it is not caused by bad housing
or there is less than there was. Deterioration may be caused by
the continued process of urbanization and the congregating of an
ever larger proportion of the population in towns; but that is a
different question. If the town has any injurious influence it is
not due to the sanitary condition of the houses, which is in general
superior to that of houses in the country, but to the habits and
occupations of the people or to the atmosphere and the mere
aggregation. But much misapprehension prevails with regard to
towns. The most distinctive and the most valuable feature of
English housing is the general predominance of the small house or
cottage occupied by a single family. Only in London and a few
other towns do blocks of large tenement houses of the continental
type exist, and even there they are comparatively few. In
England and Wales 84% of the population live in dwellings of
4 rooms and upwards, which means broadly separate houses.
Now the prevalence of small houses involves spreading out and
the covering of much ground with many little streets, which
produce a monotonous effect; a smoky atmosphere makes them
grimy and dull skies contribute to the general dinginess. The
whole presents to the eye a vast area of dreary meanness and
monotony. Thus the best feature of English national housing
turns to its apparent disadvantage and the impression is gained
by superficial observers that the bulk of our working-class
populations lives in " slums." The word " slum " has no precise
meaning, but if it implies serious sanitary defects it is not applic-
able to most of our town housing. There are real slums still, but
the bulk of the working class population do not live in them; they
live in small houses, often of a mean and dingy exterior but in
essential respects more sanitary than the large and often hand-
some blocks to be seen in foreign towns, which are not put down
as slums because they do not look dirty. A smoky atmosphere is
injurious to health, but it must be distinguished from defects of
housing. Ideal houses in a smoky place soon look bad ; inferior
ones in a clean air look brighter and deceive the eye. The worst
of the old housing has disappeared; the filthy, dilapidated, air-
less and sunless rookeries the real slums and the underground
dwellings have been swept away in most cases, and what remains
of them is not so bad as what has gone. But reform has been
very regularly applied. Some towns have done much, others
little. The large towns, in which the evil was most intense and
most conspicuous in bulk, have as a class done far more than
smaller ones in which the need perhaps was less great, but in
which also a less healthy public spirit prevailed. The worst
housing conditions to-day are probably to be found in old towns
of small and medium size, in which the ratepayers have a great
disinclination to spend money on anything, and the control of
local affairs is apt to be in the hands of the owners of the most
insanitary property. Nor is this state of things altogether con-
fined to old places. Some of recent growth have been allowed,
for the same reason, to spring up and develop without any regard
to sanitary principles or the requirements of public health.
England and Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
London.
Provincial
towns.
One room .
Two rooms
Three ,,
Four
Five ,,
Six ,,
4/6 to 7/6
6/- to 9/-
7/6 to 10/6
9/- to I3/-
10/6 to 15/6
3/- to 3/6
3/9 to 4/6
4/6 to 5/6
5/6 to 6/6
6/6 to 7/9
2/- tO 2/6
3/10 to 4/3
5/2 to 6/5
1/6 to 2/6
2/6 to 3/6
4/- to s/-
5/6 to 6/9
There is therefore abundant scope for further reform and in not
a few cases urgent need of it. On the other hand, we have a
number of towns, particularly manufacturing towns, both large
and small in the midlands and the north of England, which have
already reached a good general standard of housing in all essential
requirements, and only need the regular and steady exercise of
vigilance by the public health service to remove such defects as
still remain or may reveal themselves with the lapse of time.
Rents. Rent is a matter of great importance from every point
of view, and that is now being realized. A quantity of official
information on the subject has oeen collected and made available
by an elaborate inquiry ordered by the Board of Trade in 1905 and
published in 1908 (Cd. 3864). It relates to working class dwellings
in the principal industrial towns in the United Kingdom, 94 in all :
namely, 77 in England and Wales, II in Scotland and 6 in Ireland.
The following tables give in a condensed form the chief statistical
results obtained in October 1905 :
Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.
Rents are lowest in Ireland and next lowest in English provincial
towns, considerably higher in Scotland and highest of all in London,
for which further special details are given. It is divided into three
zones (i) central, (2) middle, (3) outer, which have the following
mean weekly rents:
London Mean Weekly Rents.
Zone.
Central.
Middle.
Outer.
One room.
Two rooms
Three ,
Four .
Five ,,....
Six . . . .
4/6
7/-
8/9
3/9
6/-
7/6
9/-
"/-
I3/-
6/6
7/9
9/6
1 1/-
In central London which extends to Stepney in the East, La.nbeth
in the South, Islington in the North, and includes Westminster,
Holborn, Finsbury, Marylebonc, Shoreditch, most of Bethnal Green,
Southwark and Bermondsey the rent of a single room may be
as high as 6s. or even 6s. 6d. (Holborn) a week. It is here that
overcrowding is greatest, and block-tenements, philanthropic and
municipal, most numerous. The rentals of the block dwellings have
not been taken into account in the foregoing official statistics;
they range as follows: I room, 2s. 6d. to 53.; 2 rooms, 55. to 8s.;
three rooms, 6s. 6d. to I is. The lowest rent for which a single
room can be obtained in this area is 2s. 6d. a week. In no English
town are rents nearly so high as in London. If 100 is taken as the
index number for rent in London the nearest towns to it (Croydon
and Plymouth) only reach 81, and one town on the list (Macclesfield)
is as low as 32. The index number of twenty-one towns out of the
whole is 50 or under, and these include a number of important
industrial centres Hull, Leicester, Blackburn, Northampton,
Warrington, Coventry, Crewe and others. The index numbers of
Hull 48; that is to say
more than half that in London. This is one more proof of the un-
typical character of London, and of the fallacy of generalizing from
it to the rest of the country. Even in the overcrowded towns on
Tyneside rents do not run to three-fourths of the London level.
When the towns are divided into geographical groups the index
numbers run thus: London 100, Northern Counties 62, Yorkshire
56, Lancashire and Cheshire 54, Midlands 51, Eastern Counties 50,
Southern Counties 61, Wales and Monmouth 60. Rents are always
highest in capitals, and Edinburgh complies with the rule; but it is
very slightly in advance of Glasgow, and in Scotland generally the
range is much smaller than in England. Dublin, on the other hand,
is differentiated from the other Irish towns as widely as London
from English ones.
A general and progressive rise in rents has been taking place lor
many years. The following index numbers for the great towns are
822
HOUSING
given in the second series of memoranda published by the Board of
Trade in 1904 (Cd. 1761):
1880
1885
1890
Relative Working- Class Rents.
86-6
90-1
89-9
1895
1900
96-3
IOO-O
The tendency to rise is attributable to increased cost of labour,
due to higher wages and less work, increased cost of materials and
higher rates. _ Weekly working-class rents generally include rates
which are paid by the landlord. Housing reform has contributed
to the rise, both directly and through the rates, on which it has
thrown a heavy burden in various ways. When slums are cleared
away and replaced by superior dwellings the new rents are generally
higher than the old and this fact has proved a great difficulty. Most
of the improved housing is beyond the means of those who need it
most, and they seek other quarters resembling the old ones as nearly
as possible. The example of Liverpool, which has the largest
proportion of casual and ill-paid labour of all the great towns, and
has been the most successful in providing new dwellings of a fair
quality, centrally situated and not in blocks, at really low rates,
shows that the problem is not insoluble; but as a rule too little
attention is paid to the question of rent in housing reform, especially
in building undertaken by municipalities. It is not ignored, but the
importance attached to it by the poor is not realized. To them it is
the first consideration after four walls, a roof and a fire-place;
and 6d. a week makes a vast difference in their calculations. Reform
which aims at raising the lowest classes of tenants by improving
their dwellings defeats itself when it drives them away.
Rural Housing. Little has hitherto been said about rural
housing. It is of less importance than urban housing because
it concerns a much smaller proportion of the population, and
because in rural life the influence of inferior housing on health is
offset by other conditions; but it has recently attracted much
attention and was made the subject of inquiry by a Select Com-
mittee of the House of Commons in 1906. The report laid stress
chiefly on the inaction of local rural authorities under the Public
Health and Housing Acts, and on various obstacles in the way
of improving existing houses and of providing more and better
ones at rents which agricultural labourers can afford to pay.
The available facts with regard to rural housing are scrappy and
unsatisfactory. The word " rural " has no precise meaning and
it includes several very different sections of the population; for
instance, the inhabitants of suburbs, mining villages and mill
villages as well as the real agricultural population. Complaint
is made of both the quantity and the quality of rural housing.
With regard to quantity it is said that in spite of migration to
the towns there is a dearth of cottages through dilapidation and
demolition without rebuilding. That may happen in particular
localities, but there is no evidence to support a general allegation.
Inquiries issued by the Board of Trade to agricultural corre-
spondents brought the following replies: insufficient 56, sufficient
in, more than sufficient 3 2 . Similar inquiries of land agents and
owners resulted thus: insufficient 9, sufficient u, more than
sufficient 4, variable 6. From which it appears that insufficiency
exists but is not general. The official evidence with regard to
overcrowding is that it is much less acute than in the towns.
The proportion of the rural population in England living in
overcrowded conditions in 1901 was 5-8%; if the rural mining
districts, the exceptional overcrowding of which has been noted
above, be eliminated, the rest cannot be very bad. Moreover,
the percentage has appreciably diminished; in 1891 it was
8-46. The complaint of bad quality is better founded. Some
landowners take great pride in the state of their property, and
excellent cottages may be found in model villages and elsewhere
in many parts of the country; but much rural housing is of an
extremely insanitary character. A good deal of evidence on this
head has of late years been published in the reports of medical
inspectors to the Local Government Board. And local authorities
are very reluctant to set the law in motion against insanitary
dwellings. On the other hand, they have in some cases hindered
and prevented building by too rigid insistence on by-laws,
framed with a view to urban housing and quite unsuited to rural
conditions. A few rural authorities have taken action with
regard to building schemes under Part III. of the Housing Act.
A list of 31 in 17 counties is given in " Housing up to Date "; 13
applications were refused and 13 granted by the respective county
councils and others were dropped. Details are given by the
same authority of 54 houses built by 17 rural district councils.
Public action may thus be said to amount to nothing at all.
Landowners, however, have borrowed under the Improvements
of Lands Acts upwards of 1,250,000 for building labourers'
cottages; and this is probably only a fraction of the amount
spent privately.
In Ireland a special condition of affairs exists. A series
of about a dozen acts, dating from 1881 and culminating in the
Labourers (Ireland) Act of 1906, have been passed for promoting
the provision of labourers' cottages; and under them 20,634
cottages had been built and some thousands more authorized
previous to the act of 1906, which extended the pre-existing
facilities. The principle is that of the English Housing Acts
applied to rural districts, but the procedure is simpler and
quicker. The law provides that a representation may be made
to the local authority by three ratepayers or resident labourers
that " the existing house accommodation for agricultural
labourers and their families is deficient having regard to the
ordinary requirements of the district, or is unfit for human
habitation owing to dilapidation, want of air, light, ventilation
or other convenience or to any other sanitary defects," whereupon
the local authority shall make an improvement scheme. It may
also initiate a scheme without representation, or the Local
Government Board may do so in default of the local authority.
The scheme is published, an inquiry held, notice given and an
order made with very much less delay and expense than under
the English law. Land is purchased by agreement, or com-
pulsorily and the money for land and building raised by loan.
Loans amounting to about 3^ millions sterling had been raised
down to 1906. The great majority of the cottages built are in
Munster and Leinster. They must have at least 2 bedrooms
and a kitchen, and the habitable rooms must be 8 ft. high. One
of the most remarkable features is the low cost about 150
at which these cottages have been built, including land and the
expenses of procedure.
Recent Developments. It is clear from a general review of
the subject that the problem of housing the working classes in
a satisfactory manner has proved more complex than was at
one time realized. Experience has falsified hopes and led to a
change of attitude. It is seen that there are limits to drastic
interference with the normal play of economic forces and to
municipal action on a large and ambitious scale. A reaction
has set in against it. At the same time the problem is being
attacked on other sides and from new points of departure.
The tendency now is towards the more effectual application of .
gradual methods of improvement, the utilization of other means
and the exercise of prevention in preference to cure. Under
each of these heads certain movements may be noted.
The most troublesome problem is the treatment of existing
bad housing. In regard to this the policy of large improvement
schemes under which extensive areas are bought up and
demolished has had its day, and is not likely to be revived to any
considerable extent. That is not only because it is extremely
costly but also because it has in the main done its work. It
has done what could not have been done otherwise, and has swept
away the worst of the old housing en masse. To call it a failure
because it is costly and of limited application would be as great a
mistake as to regard it as a panacea. The procedure which seems
to be coming into favour in place of it is that adopted in Birming-
ham and advocated by Mr J. S. Nettlefold (Practical Housing)
coupled with a more general and effective use of the Public
Health Acts. The principle is improvement in detail effected
ay pressure brought to bear on owners by public authority.
The embodiment of this principle forms an important part of the
Housing and Town Planning Bill introduced by the Local
Government Board in 1908, which contained clauses empowering
the central authority to compel apathetic local authorities
;o do their duty in regard to the closing of unfit houses, and
authorizing local authorities both to issue closing orders and
to serve notices on landlords requiring them " to execute such
works as the local authority may specify as being necessary to
HOUSING
823
make the house in all respects reasonably fit for human habita-
tion."
Among the other and less direct means to which attention
is being turned is the policy of getting people away from the
towns. The effect of improved travelling facilities in reducing
urban overcrowding has been noted above. That object was
not specifically contemplated in the building and electrification
of tramways, and in the development of other means of cheap
local travel, but the beneficial effect has caused them to be
recognized as an important factor in relation to housing and to
be more systematically applied in that connexion. A newer
departure, however, is to encourage migration not to the outskirts
of towns but altogether into the country by facilitating the
acquisition of small holdings of land. This has been done by
private landowners in an experimental way for some years, and
in 1907 the policy was embodied in the Small Holdings Act,
which gives county and borough councils power to purchase or
hire land compulsorily and let it in holdings of not more than
50 acres or 50 annual value. Failing action on their part the
Board of Agriculture may frame schemes. Power is also
conferred on the Board and on County Councils to establish
co-operative agricultural societies and credit banks. These
measures have been adopted from foreign countries, and particu-
larly from Denmark and Germany. A very large number of
applications for holdings have been made under this act, but it
is too early to state the effects. They will depend on the success
of tenants in earning a livelihood by agricultural produce.
Another new and quite different departure is the attempt
to establish a novel kind of town, called a " Garden City,"
which shall combine the advantages of the town and the country.
The principal points are the choice of a site, which must be
sufficiently convenient to enable industries to be carried on,
yet with rural surroundings, the laying out of the ground in
such a way as to ensure plenty of open space and variety, the
insistence on building of a certain standard and the limitation
of size. One has been established at Letchworth in Hertfordshire,
34 m. from London, and so far seems to be prospering. It consists
of an area of 3800 acres, bought from the previous owners by a
company registered in 1903 and entitled First Garden City Ltd.,
with a capital of 300,000 in 5 shares. The interest is limited
to a dividend of 5%, all further profits to be devoted to the
benefit of the town. The estate is divided into a central urban
area of 1200 and a surrounding agricultural belt of 2600 acres.
The town is planned for an eventual population of 30,000 and
at present (1909) has about 5000. Some London printing
works and other small industrial establishments have been
planted there, and a number of model cottages have been built.
In this connexion another recent novelty has appeared in the
shape of an exhibition of cottages. The idea, originated by
Mr St Loe Strachey, was to encourage the art of designing and
building cheap but good and convenient cottages, especially
for the country. Two exhibitions have been held at Letchworth
in 1905 and 1907, and others at Sheffield (1907) and Newcastle
(1908). The two latter were held on municipal land, and it is
proposed by the National Housing Reform Council to hold one
every year.
The " Garden City " has led to the " Garden Suburb," an
adaptation of the same idea to suburban areas. One was
opened near Hampstead Heath in 1907 : it consists of 240 acres,
of which 72 have been reserved for working-class cottages with
gardens. These developments, with which may be associated
the model industrial villages, mentioned above, at Bournville,
Port Sunlight and Earswick, represent an aspiration towards
a higher standard of housing for families belonging to the upper
ranks of the working classes; and the same movement is
demonstrated in a still more interesting fashion by a particular
form of co-operative activity known as Co-partnership Housing.
The first complete example of this method of organization was
the Ealing Tenants Limited, a society registered under the
Industrial and Provident Societies Act in 1901, though the
Tenant Co-operators Limited, formed in 1888, was a precursor
on very nearly the same lines. The essential principle is self-help
applied by combination to the provision of superior homes, and
the chief material feature is the building of houses which are
not only of good design and workmanship, but disposed on a
systematic plan so as to utilize the ground to the best advantage.
Land is bought and houses are built with combined capital to
which each tenant contributes a substantial share; the houses
are let at rents which will return 5% on share capital and 4%
on loan capital after defraying all expenses, and the surplus
profits are divided among the tenant members in proportion
to the rents paid by them. Each tenant's share of profits is
credited to him in shares until his share capital equals the value
of the house he occupiesj after which it is paid in cash. There
is thus common ownership of the whole group, which forms a
little community. This system has caught on in a remarkable
way and has spread with great rapidity. In 1905 a central
organizing body was formed called the Co-partnership Housing
Council, for the purpose of promoting the formation of societies
and assisting them with advice; it is supported by voluntary
contributions. In 1909 twelve societies, including the original
Tenant Co-operators, had been formed with a total investment
536,300. They are situated at Ealing, Letchworth, Seven-
oaks, Leicester, Manchester, Hampstead (two), Harborne near
Birmingham, Fallings Park, Stoke-on-Trent, Wayford and
Derwentwater. The rapidity with which the movement has
developed and spread since the establishment of the Co-partner-
ship Housing Council indicates great vitality, and since it is
based on thoroughly sound lines it has probably a large future.
It is the most interesting and in many respects the best of all
recent developments. The Report of the Select Committee on
Rural Housing mentioned above suggested that a Co-partner-
ship Housing Society should be formed in every county in
England.
All the enterprises just described have one feature in common,
namely, the laying out of sites on a plan which takes cognizance
of the future, secures a due proportion of open space, variety in
the arrangement of streets and the most advantageous disposition
of the houses and other buildings. They go beyond sanitary
requirements and take account of higher needs. They have
lent force to the advocacy of municipal " town-planning," as
practised by several towns in Germany; and provision was made
for this procedure in the Housing and Town Planning Act of
1909. The act contains clauses giving local authorities power
to prepare plans with reference to any land which appears
likely to be used for building purposes within or near their own
boundaries; and also to purchase land comprised in a town-
planning scheme and either build on it themselves or let plots
for building in accordance with the plan. The chief object is to
safeguard the future, prevent the repetition of past defects
and encourage a higher standard of housing.
These new developments represent an upward movement at
the higher end of the scale. They cater for the superior ranks
of working classes, those who attach some importance to
the aesthetic and moral influence of pleasant and wholesome
surroundings, and are willing to sacrifice immediate gratifications
to a higher end. They embody an aspiration, set an example and
exercise an educative influence. But they have nothing to do
with the housing of the really poor, which is the great difficulty;
and their very attractiveness seems in some danger of drawing
attention from it. Garden cities and suburbs will never house
the poor or even the bulk of our working class population, and
it would be a pity if the somewhat sentimental popularity of
romantic schemes led to a distaste for the plodding effort which
alone can effect a real cure of deep-seated social evils of long
standing. All the new schemes and legislative proposals leave
untouched the greatest difficulty of all, which lies not in the
dwelling but in the tenant. It is comparatively easy to afford
better opportunities to those who are willing to take advantage
of them, but how to raise those who are not ? The lesson taught
by Miss Octavia Hill's classical experiment is, if not forgotten,
certainly neglected in the presence of more showy efforts. Or
perhaps it would be more true to say that half of it is neglected.
Miss Hill was one of the pioneers in the comparatively modest
824
HOUSING
method of improving and reconstructing bad houses, which, as
we have noted, is now being more generally recognized and
pursued; but that was only half her work. She improved bad
dwellings and made them decent, but she also managed them
on business lines, by a system of inspection and rent collection
which combined a judicious discipline with the stimulus of reward.
This was done by means of personal service, which is the secret
of all really effective work among the poor. Her words written
years ago remain true to-day: " The people's homes are bad
partly because they are badly built and arranged; they are
tenfold worse because the tenants' habits and lives are what
they are. Transplant them to-morrow to healthy and com-
modious homes and they will pollute and destroy them."
The following is a list of the principal associations formed for the
promotion of housing reform : Mansion House Council on the Dwell-
ings of the Poor, Rural Housing and Sanitation Association, Work-
men's National Housing Council, National Housing Reform Council,
Co-partnership Tenants Housing Council. They are all of recent
date, except the first. There are also local associations at Liverpool,
Oldham, Rochdale, York, Plymouth, and elsewhere.
OTHER COUNTRIES
At the International Housing Congress organized by the
National Housing Reform Council and held in London in 1907
representatives were present from a number of foreign countries
and a good deal of information was collected and published in
the report of the Congress. Further detailed data have been
supplied by foreign correspondents to Mr W. Thompson and
published in Housing up lo Date. The more important facts
relating to the principal industrial countries are here condensed
from this and other sources of information.
Austria. An act for encouraging the building of cheap working-
class dwellings was passed in 1902; it provides for exemption from
taxes for 24 years of working-class dwellings which fulfil certain
conditions including sanitary requirements, a minimum area per
room, minimum height, minimum door and window spaces, thickness
of walls, a maximum number of inhabitants (one to 4 sq. metres in
sleeping rooms), prohibition of lodgers, fixed rent and maximum
profit. The municipalities are the authority for administering sanitary
and housing laws; they have no power of compulsory purchase of
land without a special law. There is excessive overcrowding in the
large towns; in Vienna (1900) 43 % of the population live in dwellings
of I room or I room and a kitchen; in 60 provincial towns the pro-
portion is 63 %. Overcrowding is reckoned at more than 5 persons
to a room and more than 9 to two rooms; the proportion of over-
crowded on this basis is nearly one-fifth in Vienna and one-fourth in
the provincial towns (Thompson).
Belgium. An act was passed in 1889 instituting Cornices de
Patronage; since then other Acts relating to loan societies, and to
inheritance and succession in the case of small properties. Comites
de Patronage are semi-official bodies, but without legal power, whose
function it is to study the subject of housing, to report to local
authorities on existing conditions, to advise, to collect funds and
promote the provision of good houses by any means in their power.
They influence public opinion and stimulate the activity of local
authorities which have the power to compel improvements and close
dwellings unfit for habitation; they have led to the formation of
numerous societies for erecting working-class dwellings. The latter
are encouraged by the law in various ways; they are exempt from
the payment of some government duties and partly exempt from
others. Working men buying or building houses liable to registration
fees up to from 72 to 171 francs are exempted from personal, pro-
vincial and communal taxes. The National Savings Bank of Belgium
is empowered to lend money to working men for buying or building
houses and to insure the lives of those doing so, to preserve the
home for the family. In 1904 the number of workmen's homes
exempted from taxation was 164,387, and the amount of taxation
remitted considerably exceeded 3 million francs; workmen had
acquired lands and houses valued at nearly 4,000,000; there were
161 societies for building working-class dwellings; 30,000 workmen
representing a population of 150,000 had become owners of property ;
and 70,000 representing a population of 350,000 had availed them-
selves of the law in obtaining exemptions and loans (O. Velghe).
The foregoing results effected in 15 years are remarkable and indicate
a great capacity for self-help on the part of Belgian workmen with
suitable and well-considered assistance. But this movement, in
common with those of a similar character in other countries, does not
touch the problem of housing the very poor. No statistics of over-
crowding are available, but the average number of persons to a
dwelling is over 5 for the whole country and nearly 9 in Brussels.
The communal administrations are the authorities for health and
housing; they have power to abate nuisances but not to compel
landowners to sell land for building, though they have the right to
dispossession for " public purposes." No town has constructed
quarters devoted entirely to working-class dwellings and only one
commune (St Giles) has built any. In towns the height of buildings
is regulated by the width of streets; generally it is the width plus
6 metres. The height of rooms and thickness of walls are prescribed
by local regulations but not the area of rooms. The housing difficulty
has been lessened in a notable degree by cheap transport facilities,
including railroads, light railroads and tramways; a large proportion
of the workpeople travel long distances to and from work. One-
quarter travel on the State railways alone; fares are is. 6d. a week
for a daily double journey of 20 m., 2s. for 44 m. and 2s. 6d. for
66 m. The area of the labour market of Liege extends nearly to
Ostend and out of 5830 workmen travelling over 1000 live more
than 50 kilometres from Li6ge. Some journeys last 3 hours.
France. The question of housing was publicly raised in France
quite as early as in England on grounds of public health in con-
nexion with the first visitation of cholera, and building societies were
formed as early as 1851, but little was done until after 1889, when the
Societe Fran^aise des Habitations a Bon Marche was founded under
the inspiration of M. Siegfried. This led to the formation of several
societies, which increased rapidly after the passage of la loi Siegfried
in 1894, for promoting the provision of working-class dwellings. In
1902 a Public Health Act and in 1906 a Housing of the Working
Classes Act were passed, and these three enactments with regulations
made in 1907 govern the procedure. The act of 1906 embodies the
Belgian system of Comit6s de Patronage, of which at least one was
to be established in each department with grants in aid, and ex-
emptions from certain taxes of working-class dwellings fulfilling
specified conditions as to sanitation and rent. The law promotes
the formation of Housing Societies by granting various facilities for
the investment of money in building by public bodies and benevolent
institutions by taking shares or by loans. Down to the end of 1906
there had been lent for this purpose 233,000 by savings banks,
258,000 by the Caisse des Dep6ts, and 14,000 by charitable in-
stitutions. The law does not authorize municipalities to build
houses and none of the communes have acquired land for this pur-
pose. Under the Public Health Act of 1902 towns can purchase land
compulsorily in connexion with unhealthy areas. The Public Health
and Housing Acts are administered by the local authority, which
makes regulations for building and for laying out building land. A
minimum height of 2-6 metres and a minimum cubical content of
25 cubic metres are prescribed for rooms; there are no regulations
for thickness of walls. Housing societies are under the Ministry of
Works and a Superior Housing Council, which is a central advisory
body. These societies are now numerous; there are 46 in Paris
alone, but their operations are not on a large scale. One of them
deserves special notice on account of its special object. It is called
the Societe de logements pour families nombreuses and it builds special
flats called maisons des enfants which are let at low rents only to
persons with large families. In 1907 it had housed 168 families,
averaging 6-8 persons, in two blocks at Belleville and Montmartre.
The great defect in France is the large quantity of old, bad, insanitary
housing. Real slums exist in all the old towns and in some of them,
such as Marseilles and Lyons, on an extensive scale. Very little
has hitherto been done to grapple with this difficulty. The standard
of sanitation is altogether lower in France than in England, as is
shown by the death-rates, and this holds good of the housing. But
conditions vary widely in different parts of the country. They are
better, generally speaking, in the industrial towns of the north,
which are largely Flemish and distinguished by the prevalence of
small houses after the English fashion, than in the central or southern
districts where tall old tenement houses of six and seven storeys
abound. There are no statistics and no standard of overcrowding;
but the careful inquiry carried out by the Board of Trade and published
in 1909 shows the extraordinary prevalence of tenements consisting
of I, 2 or 3 rooms. In 16 towns for which information was obtained
the average proportion of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms
was 75 % of the whole ; in some it was as high as 89 % and in none
lower than 61 %. In 8 towns, including Paris, the number of one-
roomed dwellings was more than a quarter of the whole, and in two
towns (Brest and Fougeres) it was more than half. Some correspond-
ing statistics for English and German towns are given below in the
section on Germany. According to the same report, the general
accuracy of which has been confirmed by personal inquiries, made
in 1909 by the writer in a number of towns, rents are decidedly
lower in France. If the London level be taken as 100 that of Paris
is only 78 and the other French towns are considerably lower, 21 out
of 29 being less than half the London standard. A general com-
parison between a number of English and French towns shows the
average level of French rents to be less than three-fourths of English
ones. A noticeable feature of housing in France is the large number
cf dwellings built by employers in recent years. The mining com-
panies, particularly in the Pas de Calais, have built whole groups of
villages; the railway companies and various manufacturers have
also done a great deal, chiefly in rural areas. Among the manu-
facturers MM. Schneider at Le Creusot and the textile mill-
owners in the Vosges are noticeable. The houses provided are
of a charming type, white with red roofs; the rooms are of good
size, the rents low, and a large garden is usually attached to every
house.
Germany. In no country is the problem of housing more acute
HOUSING
82s
than in Germany, where the increase of population, the growth of
manufacturing industry and the urbanization of the people have
proceeded at an exceptionally rapid pace in recent years and have
combined with increasing wealth and a rising standard of living to
force the question into prominence. Up to 1909 no uniform legisla-
tion for the empire had been framed and no central authority
existed for dealing with housing; but the several states have their
own public health and housing laws, and great activity has been
devejoped in various directions. The most general difficulty is
deficiency of quantity consequent on the rapid change in the dis-
tribution of the population. The proportion of the whole population
living in the great towns increased from 7-2% to 16-2%, or more
than doubled between 1890 and 1900; in England it only increased
by about one-tenth. Slums are a much less conspicuous feature
than in England because of the comparatively recent development
of German towns, but where old quarters exist on a large scale, as
in Hamburg, the conditions are quite as bad as anything in English
towns, and call for similar measures. Public sanitation in Germany
is still as a whole less advanced than in England; but in some
cases it is superior and in general it is coming up rapidly; the
administration of sanitary laws, as of others, is more effective and
uniform, and less subject to evasion. This also contributes to the
comparative absence of slums. And there is a third factor which
has perhaps the greatest influence of all, and that is the superior
manner in which German homes are kept. But the pressure of
inadequate quantity is urgent; it has caused high rents, over-
crowding, and the development of large barrack or block dwellings
which are becoming the prevailing type. At the same time it has
led to many and varied efforts to meet the difficulty. Isolated
attempts go back to an early date. For instance a building society
was formed in Berlin in 1849, Alfred Krupp began to build his
" colonies " at Essen in 1863, Barmen started a society in 1871 and
there were other cases; but general attention seems first to have
been drawn to the subject by the reforming efforts of Pastor Bodel-
schwingh at Bielefeld about 1884 in connexion with his Arbeiterheim.
In short housing reform in Germany is really a matter of the last
20 years. The first efficient by-laws for regulating building in
Berlin were not adopted till 1887; the previous regulations dating
from 1853 permitted many abuses and under them a great deal of
bad housing was constructed, especially after the establishment
of the empire and the beginning of the great development of the
capital.
The worst feature is the general prevalence of dwellings con-
taining a very small number of rooms from I to 3 and consequent
overcrowding. The following figures are extracted from the Report
to the Board of Trade on Rents, Housing, &c., in Germany (1908,
Cd. 4032). They indicate the proportion of dwellings containing
I, 2 or 3 rooms, or (in a few cases) the proportion of the population
living in such dwellings. The towns are those for which the in-
formation is given. They are not selected as particularly bad
specimens but as representative, and they include most of the
capitals and chief industrial centres. The figures relate to the year
1900, except in a few cases, in which they are taken from a municipal
house census in 1905.
Percentage of Dwellings or Population living in Dwellings containing
Town.
I Room.
2 Rooms.
3 Rooms.
Total under
4 Rooms.
Berlin . . .
8-0
37-2
30-6
75-8
Aachen .
137
32-0
21-9
67-6
Barmen (pop.)
1-5
24-3
28-8
54'6
Bremen .
3'8(?)
26-8
26-1
56-7 (?)
Breslau (pop.)
3'9
4&'O
24-4
74-3
Chemnitz (pop.)
'7
34-8
29-9
66-4
Dantzig .
3-3
45-o
29-9
78-2
Dortmund
47
45-5
30-0
80-2
Dresden .
0-8
3'5
27-8
32-1
Dusseldorf .
5-o
26-4
22-7
54-i
Elberfeld . .
8-4(?)
36-9
21-7
67-0 (?)
Essen
2-9
35'4
30-0
68-3
Hamburg.
I-O
3'9
24-7
29-6
K6nigshutte(pop.)
Leipzig (pop.)
10-0
0-4
60-4
i-7
16-8
14-5
87-2
16-6
Mannheim
3'i
22-1
40-4
65-6
Munich (pop.)
4-6
24-1
28-4
57-1
Plauen (pop.)
'3
14-2
21-8
36-3
The figures must be read with a certain amount of caution, as they
are not in every case compiled on a precisely uniform method with
regard to inclusion of kitchens and attics. For this reason the
position of Bremen and Elberfeld is probably more unfavourable
than it ought to be. But broadly the table shows that in most of
the large towns in Germany more than half, and in some cases more
than three-quarters of the dwellings have less than 4 rooms. Leipzig
is the most striking exception. If working-class quarters alone are
taken it is found that dwellings of more than 3 rooms are so few
as to be negligible. In Stuttgart, where housing is very dear, the
percentages for working-class quarters are I room 2I-O, 2 rooms
51-8, 3 rooms 26'9; total under 4 rooms 98-7. Konigshiitte, the chief
coal and iron centre in Silesia and a purely working-class town,
shows the same state of things; 60% of the whole population live
in dwellings of 2 rooms and 87 % in less than four. It is interesting
to compare English towns. The proportion of dwellings containing
less than 4 rooms in London was (1901) 52-2%, in Berlin 75-8%;
the proportion of the population living m such dwellings was
London 38-7%, Berlin 71-5%. Not only is the proportion of small
dwellings very much higher in Berlin but the proportion of the
population living in them shows a far greater discrepancy. This
indicates a much higher degree of overcrowding. The only point
in which Berlin has the advantage is the smaller number of single-
room dwellings. The proportions are London 14-7%, Berlin 8-0%.
But it is to be observed that overcrowding is not so common in
i-room dwellings, which are often occupied by a single person, as
in those with 2 or 3 rooms, which are occupied by families, though
probably the most extreme cases of overcrowding occur in particular
i-room dwellings. In the English county boroughs tha proportion of
dwellings with less than 4 rooms was 24-0 %, in other urban districts
17-4, and in all urban areas including London 26-4%. When all
allowance is made for minor errors and discrepancies it may be
broadly concluded that the proportion of small dwellings containing
less than 4 rooms is at least twice as great in German as in English
towns, and that the conditions as to accommodation which in
England prevail only in London are general in urban Germany.
As a set-off German rooms are generally larger than English ones
and in block dwellings there is often a little ante-room or landing
which does not count but really increases the space.
The German census does not take cognisance of overcrowding and
there is no general official standard; but some towns have adopted
a standard of their own, namely, six or more persons to I room and
ten or more to 2 rooms. In Breslau, which is one of the worst
towns, 17-5% of the population (53,000) of the "city" or inner
ring were overcrowded on this basis in 1900. In Barmen, which is
not one of the worst, 20 % of the 2-roomed and 1 7 % of the 3-roomed
dwellings (together housing more than half the population) were
overcrowded according to the English standard. Overcrowding
and other bad conditions are worst in the basement or cellar dwell-
ings, of which some towns have a very large number. In Breslau
15,000 persons were living in 3853 such dwellings in 1900; in
Berlin 91,426 persons were living in 24,088 basements. Some of
these are free from objection, but 11,147, housing 38,663 persons,
were situated in back buildings and unfit for habitation on account
of darkness, damp, dilapidation and the like. " Back " houses
are a feature of old towns; they are houses which do not give on
the street but lie behind and are approached by a passage ; they are
what we call courts and quite as insanitary as anything of the kind
in English towns.
With regard to rents the Board of Trade (London) Report gives
the following figures for Berlin and a number of other towns:
No. of Rooms
per Dwelling.
Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.
Berlin.
Other Towns.
2 rooms .
3 rooms .
4 rooms .
5 /-to6/-
7/- to 9/3
2/8 to 3/6
3/6 to 4/9
4/3 to 6/-
Rents are higher in Berlin than in any other town, though
Stuttgart comes very near it. The following table of index numbers
shows the relations of 32 towns to Berlin :
Town.
Index
Number.
Town.
Index
Number.
Berlin ....
IOO
Nuremberg
53
Stuttgart .
97
Aachen
53
Diisseldorf .
79
Crefeld. . . .
52
Dortmund .
68
Bremen
52
Anchaffenburg
67
Plauen
52
Hamburg
66
Leipzig . . .
51
Mannheim .
64
Dantzig
49
Konigsberg
Munich ....
Essen ....
62
63
62
Miilhausen
Konigshutte .
Stettin . . .
48
47
46
Solingen
61
Magdeburg
43
Bochum
57
Chemnitz .
40
Elberfeld . . .
57
Zwickau
38
Barmen
57
Brunswick
37
Remscheid .
56
Stassfurt .
33
Breslau
56
Oschersleben .
28
Dresden
54
Comparing rents in Germany and England, the Board of Trade
Report gives the following table, to which the corresponding ratio
of French towns has been added.
8 2 6
HOUSING
No. of Rooms.
Predominant Weekly Rents.
Ratio of
German to
English (100)
Ratio of
French to
English (100)
England.
Germany.
2 rooms . . :
3 rooms
4 rooms
3/~ to 3/6
3/9 to 4/6
4/6 to 5/6
2/8 to 3/6
3/6 to 4/9
4/3 to 6/-
95
IOO
102
79
86
78
If the mean of the English and German figures be taken it shows
a very slight difference in favour of Germany; the mean weekly rent
per room being is. sd. in England and is. 4jd. in Germany. But in
England rent usually includes local taxation (rates) whereas in
Germany it does not ; if this be added German rents are to English
as 123 to loo, or nearly one-fourth more.
The statistics given above indicate a wide range of variation in
the conditions prevailing in different towns in Germany; and that
holds good with regard to improvements. The administration of
the laws relating to public health and housing is in the hands of the
local authorities. The public health service is generally efficient
and sometimes very good. Increasing attention has been paid in
recent years to the sanitary inspection of houses and in some towns
it is now thorough and systematic, but active efforts to deal with
old and insanitary quarters en masse are isolated and exceptional.
Hamburg is an instance; scared by the visitation of cholera in 1892
the authorities put in hand an extensive improvement scheme on
the English plan at a cost of half a million sterling. But demolition
is exceptional; slums are usually subjected to supervision and are
not allowed to be in a state of dilapidation, and sometimes, as at
Mannheim, notices are served to abate overcrowding. In Munich
a policy of gradually buying up insanitary houses has been adopted.
But improvement has principally been promoted by new building
and the reduction of the population in old insanitary quarters, to
which cheap locomotive facilities have greatly contributed. The
great bulk of urban Germany is new, and the most valuable con-
tribution made by it to the housing question is the more effective
control of new building and particularly the principle of town-
planning, coupled with the purchase of neighbouring ground with
a view to future extension. This policy is comparatively recent and
still very partially applied, but it is now rapidly extending. A
general act providing for the planning of streets was passed in
Prussia in 1875 and still forms the basis of building legislation;
but as noted above no effective by-laws were adopted even in Berlin
until after 1887, and consequently a very faulty style of building
was adopted, especially in large blocks which conceal grave defects
behind an imposing exterior. The Saxon towns have been con-
spicuously successful in regard to housing. Leipzig stands alone
among German towns in having 83-4% of its population living in
dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards. Yet it is a great commercial
city, the fifth in the empire, with a population of upwards of half a
million. It also comes low on the rent table, having an index number
little more than half that of Berlin. All the Saxon towns are low,
Chemnitz and Zwickau particularly so, and the position of Dresden,
being a capital, is remarkable. More than two-thirds of the popula-
tion live in dwellings of 4 rooms or more, and the rent index number
is only 54. In Saxony a general Building Act, especially providing
for town planning, was passed in 1900; and the Grand Duchy of
Hesse, which alone among the German states has a government
Housing Department, adopted a Houfing of the Working Classes
Act in 1902. Other states have followed or are following and the
air is full of movement. The distinctive features of urban housing
reform in Germany are (l) the systematic planning of extensions,
(2) purchase of ground by municipalities, (3) letting or sale of muni-
cipal land for building under prescribed conditions. Many of the
great towns, including Berlin, Munich, Dresden, Leipzig, Cologne,
Frankfort and Diisseldorf, are owners of land to a variable but
sometimes large extent. This policy seems to have been originally
adopted on economic grounds and those municipalities which bought
or otherwise came into possession of town land at an early date
derive a substantial revenue from it now, besides being in a position
to promote housing improvement. There is comparatively little
municipal building, and that as a rule only or principally for muni-
cipal servants, as at Diisseldorf, Mannheim and Nuremberg; but
there seems to be a tendency to venture further in this direction
and some towns have built houses for letting. The municipalities
generally sell or let their land, and the building agencies which enjoy
most official favour are the societies " of public utility "; they are
encouraged in every way and have greatly developed, particularly
in the Rhine province. Some are co-operative, others semi-philan-
thropic in that they aim at building good houses and limit their
profits. In 1901 the Prussian Government issued an order urging
municipalities to support these societies by remitting the cost of
constructing streets and sewers, placing the assistance of building
officials at their disposal, taking their shares, lending them money
and becoming security for them. A great deal of public money
has been advanced to building societies, and one very important
source of supply has been developed, since the Old Age and In-
firmity Insurance Act of 1889, in the National Insurance Funds
which invest their surplus capital in this way. Down to 1906 the
Boards of Insurance had lent 8,650,000 to societies for building;
the Imperial Government had lent ,1,250,000, the
Prussian Government l ,825,000, and the other states
further large sums in addition to the municipalities.
Money lent by the state is usually limited to build-
ing houses for state employees and Insurance Boards
lend on condition that the houses are let to persons
who come under the insurance laws. The develop-
ment of building societies has been promoted by the
formation of general building associations of which
the earliest was established in Dusseldorf in 1897 for the Rhine
provinces; under its influence one-fifth of the new housing provided
in 1901 was erected by the societies. The example was followed
at Frankfort, Munster and Wiesbaden. Housing by employers has
also been carried out on a large scale in Germany. States and
municipalities have to some extent built houses as employers, the
former chiefly for railwaymen, besides lending money to societies
for the purpose; but most housing of this kind has been done by
private employers. Krupps, who had built 4274 dwellings housing
nearly 27,000 persons down to 1901, are the most famous example;
but they are only one among many. In Rhineland and Westphalia
employers had in 1902 provided 22,269 houses containing 62,539
dwellings at a cost of 10,500,000; more than half the families so
housed belonged to the mining industry, the rest to various manu-
factures. These two provinces, in which industrial development
has been extremely rapid, are exceptional; but housing by em-
ployers is not confined to them. At Mannheim for instance over
loco working-class households have been so provided. At Nurem-
berg the Siemens Schuckert Company have encouraged an interesting
system of collective building among their employees, by which 722
dwellings have been provided.
Holland. In 1901 a Public Health and a Housing Act were
passed, and these two embody most of the features of housing reform
adopted in other countries. The first provides for a general sanitary
service under the Ministry of the Interior. The second ordains that
local authorities shall frame by-laws for building and for the main-
tenance and proper use of dwellings; that they shall inspect existing
dwellings, order improvements or repairs or demolition; empowers
them to take land compulsorily for the purposes of the act, to
prohibit building or rebuilding on sites reserved for public purposes
and to make grants or loans to societies or companies operating
exclusively for the improvement of working-class dwellings. If
they fail to make by-laws the provincial authorities may take
action. Land buying with a view to extensions has been adopted
by a number of municipalities including Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
Utrecht and other important towns, and the practice is increasing.
Amsterdam has also begun the systematic planning of extensions.
There has been a little municipal building in some small places, but
it is on an insignificant scale ; the tendency is rather to favour societies
of public utility as in France, Germany and Belgium. The new laws
are too recent to have had much effect and housing reform is as yet
in an early stage. Rents are high in the large towns, namely, I
room is. 8d. to 33.; 2 rooms 2s. 6d. to 53.; 3 rooms 33. 6d. to 6s;
4 rooms 45. 2d. to 73.
Italy. A Housing of the Working Classes Act was passed in
1903, to promote the improvement and provision of workmen's
dwellings. Municipalities have the power to purchase land com-
pulsorily for housing purposes and also to build workmen's dwellings.
A few towns, of which Milan is one, have done so. There are building
regulations relating to the area and height of rooms and the thickness
of walls. The antiquity of the Italian towns and the great quantity
of old and insanitary building make housing improvement a very
difficult matter. La Societa Umanitaria, a benevolent trust founded
by Prosper Loria of Milan in 1902, has taken up this subject among
others and has built two model tenements, housing 2000 persons.
United States. Interest in the housing question in the United
States is confined to a few of the largest cities and can only be said
to be acute in New York, though there have been investigations by
commissions elsewhere and Miss Octavia Hill's work in London
has found admirers and imitators in Philadelphia and Boston as well
as in New York'. The evils of housing in New York have been the
subject of much sensational writing which has elevated them to the
position of a world-wide scandal. It is not necessary to accept all
the allegations made in order to see that several circumstances have
combined to produce an exceptional state of things in this great city.
The limited space the island or peninsula of Manhattan in which
central New York is built has compelled the erection of large tene-
ment blocks, otherwise rare in American towns; the incessant inrush
of immigrants from the poorest parts of Europe has filled these
tenements with immense numbers of persons of many nationalities
accustomed to a low standard of living; the generally backward
state of public sanitation in America, and the absence or evasion of
regulations and supervision, have permitted the erection of bad
dwellings, their deterioration into worse, and their misuse by ex-
cessive overcrowding. Other large cities in which bad housing con-
ditions are known to exist are Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, Balti-
more, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Jersey City. There are doubtless many
others, but bad housing conditions are not so general in the United
States as in Europe. Outside the very large cities there is more
space, more light and air, less crowding together, less darkness, dirt
and dilapidation. Large houses, occupied by two or perhaps three
HOUSMAN HOUSSAYE
827
families, are common, but they have more room space than is usual
in Europe. The i8th annual report (19.03) of the Commissioner
of Labour gives the result of a special inquiry embracing 23,447
families distributed in 33 states. The average number of rooms
was 4-95 per family and I -04 per individual. It is a fair inference
that overcrowding is confined to a comparatively small numbef of
exceptional places. A large number of the schedules were furnished
by the eminently urbanized and manufacturing states of New
York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Ohio and Illinois; and in all
these the average number of rooms to a family exceeded 4, ranging
from 4-2 in Ohio to 5-5 in Massachusetts. The condition of homes
.as to sanitation and cleanliness was statistically stated thus:
Sanitary condition good 61-46 %, fair 32-59 %, bad 5-95 %;
Cleanliness good 79-63 %, fair 14-66 %, bad 5-71 %. Other
special inquiries have been carried out in particular towns. In
1891-1892 the tenements in Boston were investigated for the
Massachusetts Labour Bureau, which found 3657 sleeping rooms
without outside windows and about 8 % of the population living in
conditions objectionable from one cause or another. In 1892
Congress authorized a special inquiry into the slum population of
New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the results of which
were published in the seventh special report (1894) of the United
States Commissioner of Labour. It was estimated that the total
" slum population " (presumably those living in unhealthy con-
ditions) was New York 360,000, Chicago 162,000, Philadelphia
35,000, Baltimore 25,000. In Baltimore 530 families, consisting of
1648 persons, were living in single rooms with an average of 3-15
persons to a room; in Philadelphia 401 families were so living with
an average of 3-11 persons to a room. The proportion of i-room
dwellings was less in New York and Chicago. In New York 44^- 55 %
or nearly half the families investigated were found living in
2-roomed dwellings, in Baltimore 27-88 %, in Philadelphia 19-41 %
and in Chicago 19-14 %. These figures conclusively prove that
European conditions reproduce themselves in American cities.
Poverty was not the cause, as the average earnings per family
ranged from 3, 45. a week in Baltimore to 4, 6s. a week in Chicago.
Another official investigation in New York was carried out in 1895
by the Tenement House Commission appointed by the State of New
York. It reported " many houses in the city in an insanitary con-
dition which absolutely unfits them for habitation." Further details
have been compiled from the census by the New York Federation
of Churches, chiefly relating to density of population in the city. In
1900, out of a total of nearly 250,000 dwellings, 95,433 (38-2 %)
contained from 2 to 6 persons, 60,672 (24-2 %) from 7 to 10 persons
and 89,654 (35-9 %) 1 1 persons or more. The density of population
for the whole city as now constituted was 19 persons to the acre,
in Manhattan 149; in the south-eastern district of Manhattan
,382 and in one ward 735. Between 1900 and 1905 the density
increased in every district, and in the latter year there were 1 2 blocks
with from 1000 to 1400 persons to the acre. The number of persons
to the acre in London (1901) is 60-6; in the most densely populated
borough 182, and in the most densely populated district (a very
small one) 396. This will give a measure of comparison. The large
tenement blocks in New York have been constructed with far less
regard to health than those in Berlin, and reproduce in an aggravated
form the same evil of insufficient light and air. In place of the
inadequate courts round which many are built in Berlin, the New
York tenements have merely narrow air shafts. In 1904 there were
reported to be 362,000 dark interior rooms, that is with no outside
windows.
If American cities have nothing to learn from other countries in
regard to bad housing, they have nothing to teach in the way of
reform. They are following Europe slowly and a long distance
behind. There is no serious attempt to deal with insanitary areas
as they have been dealt with in England, or to prevent the creation
of new ones by regulation and planning of extensions as in Germany,
or to promote the provision of superior houses by organized public
effort as in several countries. A little has been done in New York
to improve the worst housing. A Tenement House Act was passed
after the report of the Commission of 1895 and a Department formed
to give effect to it. Some cleansing and repairing and insertion of
windows is carried out every year, but more attention seems to be
paid to fire escapes. Societies for providing improved dwellings
exist in New York, Boston, Chicago and Philadelphia. The oldest
is one formed in Boston in 1871, called the Co-operative Building
Company; it was followed in 1876 by an Improved Dwellings
Company in Brooklyn, and in 1879 byasimilar society inManhattan,
and in 1885 by another in Boston. The largest concern of the kind
is the City and Suburban Houses Company in New York, formed in
1896 under the guidance of Dr E. R. L. Gould; it has built four
groups of tenements housing 1 238 families in the city and 112 houses
on a suburban estate at Brooklyn; in all it has housed some 6000
persons. More recently Mr Henry Phipps has given 200,000 for
the provision of model dwellings in New York, and a building has
been erected on the plan of the Maison des Enfants in Paris. In
Chicago the City Houses Association works at housing reforms in
various ways. There are some other institutions of a like kind,
but the aggregate results are inconsiderable. Two other building
agencies have done far more in the United States than philanthropic
societies; these are the building and loan associations and private
employers. The former are co-operative provident societies ; they
are widely diffused throughout the United States and their operations
are on a very large scale. They date from 1831, when the Oxford
Provident Building Association was formed at Frankfort, near
Philadelphia. Pennsylvania has still the largest number of associa-
tions, but from 1843 onwards the movement spread rapidly and
continuously in other states. The high-water mark appears to have
been reached in 1897, when the total assets of the associations
amounted to about 133,000,000. In 1905 there were 5326 associa-
tions with an aggregate membership of 1,686,611 and assets of
about 130,000,000. The states of Pennsylvania and Ohio head
the list, but the movement is very strong in many others. It accounts
for the comparatively large number of houses owned by working-
class families in the United States. With regard to housing by
employers, no comprehensive information is available, but the total
amount is certainly considerable though probably not so large as
in Germany or in Fiance. Some of the better-known instances are
the Pelzer Manufacturing Company at Pelzer in South Carolina,
which has built about 1000 dwellings; the Maryland Steel Company
at Sparrows Point, Maryland, 800 dwellings; Ludlow Manufacturing
Associates at Ludlow, Mass., 500 dwellings; Whitin Machine
Works at Whitinsville, Mass., 600 dwellings; Westinghouse Air
Brake Co. at Wilmerding, Penn., 360 dwellings; Draper Co., Hope-
dale, Mass., 250 dwellings. These are all more or less " model "
settlements, not in cities, but in outlying or country places, where
works have been established, and that is generally true of housing
by employers in the United States, whereas in Germany much has
been provided by them in the large towns. Rents are very much
higher in American cities than in European towns of comparable
size and character.
AUTHORITIES. Board of Trade Reports " Cost of Living of the
Working Classes (England) " (1908); " Cost of Living in German
Towns ' (1908); " Cost of Living in French Towns" (1909). Pro-
ceedings of International Housing Congress (London, 1907); The
New Encyclopaedia of Social Reform; E. R. Dewsnup, The Housing
Problem in England; T. C. Horsfall, The Example of Germany;
J. S. Nettlefold, Practical Housing Reform; A. Shadwell, Industrial
Efficiency, ch. xi. on "Housing"; W. Thompson, The Housing
Handbook, Housing up to Date. (A. SL.)
HOUSMAN, LAURENCE (1867- ), English writer and
artist, was born on the i8th of June 1867. Having studied
at South Kensington, he first made a reputation as a book-
illustrator. Some of his best pictorial work may be seen in the
editions of Meredith's Jump to Glory Jane (1892), the Weird
Tales of Jonas Lie (1892), Jane Barlow's Land of Elfintoun
(1894), Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market (1893), Werewolf
(1896), by his sister, Miss Clemence Housman, Shelley's Sensitive
Plant (1898), and his own Farm in Fairyland (1894). His
designs were engraved on wood by Miss Housman. His volumes
of verse include Green Arras (1896), Rue (1899), Spikenard
(1898) and Mendicant Rhymes (1906); and the mysticism which
characterizes the devotional poems in Spikenard recurs in his
half-allegorical tales, All Fellows (1896), The Blue Moon (1904)
and The Cloak of Friendship (1906). His nativity play, Bethlehem,
was presented in the Great Hall of London University at South
Kensington for a week in December 1902. In 1900 he published
anonymously An Englishwoman's Love Letters, which created
a temporary sensation; and he followed this essay in popular
fiction by the novels A Modern Antaeus (1901) and Sabrina
Warham (1904). On the 23rd of December 1904 his fantastic
play Prunella, written in collaboration with Mr Granville
Barker, was produced at the Court Theatre.
His brother, Alfred Edward Housman (b. 1859), an accom-
plished scholar, professor of Latin at University College, London,
is known as a poet by his striking lyrical series, A Shropshire
Lad (1896).
HOUSSAYE, ARSENE (1815-1896), French novelist, poet
and man of letters, was born at Bruyeres (Aisne), near Laon, on
the 28th of March 1815. His real surname was Housset. In
1832 he found his way to Paris, and in 1836 he published two
novels, La Couronne de bluets and La Pecheresse. He had many
friends in Paris, among them Jules Janin and Theophile Gautier,
and he wrote in collaboration with Jules Sandeau. He produced
art criticism in L'Histoire de la peinlure flamande et hollandaise
(1846); semi-historical sketches in Mile de la Valliere et Mme
de Montespan (1860) and Galerie de portraits du XVII' siecle
(1844); literary criticism in Le Roi Voltaire (1858) and his
famous satirical Hisloire du quarante et unieme fauteuil de
I'academie franc,aise (1855); drama in his Comediennes (1857);
poetry in his Symphonic des vingt ans (1867), Cent et un sonnet*
8 2 8
HOUSTON, S. HOUSTON
(1873), &c.; and novels, Les Fittes d' Eve (1852) and many others.
In 1849, through the influence of Rachel, he was entrusted with
the administration of the Theatre Francais, a position he filled
with unfailing tact and success until 1859, when he was made
inspector-general of works of art. He died on the 26th of
February 1896.
His Confessions, souvenirs d'un demi-siecle appeared in 1885-
1891. See also J. Lemaitre, Arsene Houssaye (1897), with a biblio-
graphy.
His son, HENRY HOUSSAYE (1848- ), the historian, was
born in Paris. His early writings were devoted to classical
antiquity, studied not only in books but on the actual Greek
sites which he visited in 1868. He published successively
Histoire d'Apelles (1867), a study on Greek art; L'Armee dans
la Grece antique (1867); Histoire d'Alcibiade et de la rSpublique
athenienne depuis la mart de Pericles jusqu'd I'avenement des
trenle tyrans (1873); Papers on Le Nombre des citoyens d'Athenes
au V*"" siecle avant I' ere chritienne (1882); La Loi agraire d
Sparte (1884); Le Premier Siege de Paris en 52 av. J.-C. (1876);
and two volumes of miscellanies, Athenes, Rome, Paris, I hisioire
et les mceurs (1879), and Aspasie, Cleopatre, Theodora (6th ed.
1889). The military history of Napoleon I. then attracted him.
His first volume on this subject, called 1814 (1888), went through
no fewer than forty-six editions. It was followed by 1815, the
first part of which comprises the first Restoration, the return
from Elba and the Hundred Days (1893); the second part,
Waterloo (1899); and the third part, the second abdication
and the White Terror (1905). He was elected a member of the
French Academy in 1895.
HOUSTON, SAM, or SAMUEL (1793-1863), American general and
statesman, of Scotch-Irish descent, was born near Lexington,
Virginia, on the 2nd of March 1793. His father, who had
fought in the War of Independence, died in 1806, and soon
afterward Samuel removed with his mother to the frontier in
Blount county, Tennessee. When he was about fifteen his
elder brothers obtained for him a place as clerk in a trader's
store, but he ran away and lived with the Cherokee Indians of
East Tennessee for nearly three years. On his return he opened
a country school, and later attended a session or two of the
Academy at Maryville. During theWarof 1812 he served under
Andrew Jackson against the Creek Indians, and his bravery
at the battle of Tohopeka, in which he was disabled by several
wounds, won promotion to a lieutenancy. In 1817 he was
appointed sub-agent in managing the business relating to the
removal of the Cherokees from East Tennessee to a reservation
in what is now Arkansas, but he was offended at a rebuke from
John C. Calhoun, then secretary of war, for appearing before
him in Indian garments, as well as at an inquiry into charges
affecting his official integrity, and he resigned in 1818. He
entered a law office in Nashville, and was admitted to the bar,
and was soon elected a district attorney. From 1823 to 1827
Houston represented the ninth district of Tennessee in Congress,
and in 1827 was elected governor of the state by the Jackson
Democrats. He married Eliza Allen in January 1829; his wife
left him three months later, and he resigned his office of governor,
again took up his residence among the Cherokees, who were at
this time about to remove to Indian Territory, and was formally
adopted a member of their nation.
In 1830 and again in 1832 he visited Washington to expose
the frauds practised upon the Cherokees by government agents,
and attracted national attention by an encounter on the i3th
of April 1832 with William Stanberry, a Congressman from
Ohio, who intimated that Houston himself was seeking to defraud
them. Commissioned by President Jackson, Houston went to
Texas in December 1832 to negotiate treaties with the Indian
tribes there for the protection of American traders on the border.
He decided to remain in Texas, and was elected a delegate to
the constitutional convention which met at San Felipe on the
ist of April 1833 to draw up a memorial to the Mexican Congress
asking for the separation of Texas from Coahuila, in which the
anti-American party was in control, as well as to frame a con-
stitution for the commonwealth as a new member of the Mexican
Republic, and he served as chairman of the drafting committee,
and took a prominent part in the preparations for war when
next year the petition was refused. In October 1835, soon after
the outbreak of the War for Texan Independence, the committees
of the township of Nacogdoches chose Houston as commander-
in-chief of the forces in eastern Texas, and after the San Felipe
convention in November he was chosen commander-in-chief
of the Texan army. On the 2ist of April 1836, while in com-
mand of 743 raw troops, he met. on the bank of the San
Jacinto about 1600 Mexican veterans led by Santa Anna and
completely routed them; on the next day Santa Anna was
taken prisoner.
Absolute independence (recognized by a treaty signed on the
1 4th of May) was won by this decisive victory, and Houston was
elected president of the new republic on the ist of September
and was inaugurated on the 22nd of October. His term expired
in December 1838; he was elected again in 1841 and served until
1844. During his first term a newly founded city was named in
his honour and this was the seat of government in 1837-39 ar >d in
1842-45. Texas having been admitted as a state of the American
Union in 1845, Houston was elected one of its first two United
States senators. He served as a stalwart Union Democrat from
March 1846 until 1859; he opposed the Kansas-Nebraska
bill in an able speech (3rd March 1854), and spoke frequently
in defence of the rights of the Indians. In 1859 he was elected
governor of Texas and tried to prevent the secession of his state;
upon his refusal, in March 1861, to swear allegiance to the
Confederacy he was declared deposed. He died at Huntsville,
Texas, on the 26th of July 1863. Houston was an able soldier,
wary, intrepid and resolute; and was a legislator of rare fore-
sight, cool discrimination and fearless candour.
See A. M. Williams, Sam Houston and the War of Independence
in Texas (Boston, 1893); Henry Bruce, Life of General Houston
(New York, 1891); and W. C. Crane, Life and Select Literary Re-
mains of Sam Houston (Philadelphia, 1884).
HOUSTON, a city and the county-seat of Harris county, Texas,
U.S.A., at the head of deep-sea navigation on Buffalo Bayou,
a tributary of Galveston Bay, 50 m. N.W. of Galveston, and
about 325 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1880) 16,513; (1890)
2 7>SS7; (1900) 44,633, of whom 4415 were foreign-born and
14,608 were negroes; (1910 census) 78,800. The land area
in 1906 was 16-02 sq. m.; in 1908, about 20 sq. m. It is served
by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio (Southern Pacific),
the Galveston, Houston & Henderson, the Gulf, Colorado
& Santa Fe, the Houston & Texas Central (Southern Pacific),
the Houston, East & West Texas, the International & Great
Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the San Antonio & ,
Aransas Pass, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the St Louis, Browns-
ville & Mexico, the Texas & New Orleans, and the Houston Belt
& Terminal railways, several of which have their headquarters
at Houston. The Federal government has greatly improved
the natural channel from the city to the Gulf of Mexico, straighten-
ing, widening and deepening it to a depth of 25 ft. for the entire
distance from the Galveston jetties to the Houston turning
basin where the municipality has constructed free municipal
wharves. The city occupies an unusually fine site on both sides
of the Buffalo Bayou. Among the principal buildings are a
Carnegie library, the Houston Lyceum, the Federal building,
the Masonic temple, the city high school, the 'city hall and
market house, the Harris County Court House, the Cotton
Exchange, and the First and Commercial National banks.
Houston is the seat of the Texas Dental College, of St Thomas
College (1903), and of the Houston, Annunciation and St Agnes
academies; and the will (1901) of William Marsh Rice provided
an endowment (valued in 1908 at about $7,000,000) for the
William M. Rice Institute for the Advancement of Literature,
Science and Art, of which Dr Edgar Odell Lovett, formerly
professor of mathematics (1900-1905) and of astronomy (1905-
1908) in Princeton University, was made president in 1908.
The city is the most important railway and shipping centre of
South Texas, and has a large trade in cotton (the receipts for
the year ending Aug. 31, 1907 being 2,967,535 bales), cotton-seed
HOUWALD HOWARD
829
oil, sugar, rice, 1 lumber and citrus fruits. Houston is important
also as a manufacturing centre, its factory product being valued
at $13,564,019 in 1905, an increase of 81% over the factory
product in 1900. There are extensive railway car-shops, cotton-
seed oil, petroleum and sugar refineries, cotton gins and com-
presses, steel rolling mills, car-wheel factories, boiler, pump and
engine works, flour mills, rice mills and a rice elevator, breweries,
planing and saw-mills, pencil factories, and brick and tile factories.
Its proximity to the Texas oil fields gives the city a cheap factory
fuel. The assessed valuation of taxable property in the city
increased from $27,480,898 in 1900 to $51,513,615 in 1908.
The No-Tsu Oh Carnival week each November is a distinctive
feature of the city. Houston, like Galveston, adopted in 1905
a very successful system of municipal government by commission,
a commission of five (one of whom acts as mayor) being elected
biennially and having both executive and legislative powers.
The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality,
which greatly improved them from the city's surplus under the
first two years of government by commission. In 1908 extensive
improvements in paving, drainage and sewerage were under-
taken by the city. The payment of an annual poll-tax of $2 50 is
a prerequisite to voting. Houston was settled and laid out in
1836, and was named in honour of General Sam Houston, whose
home in Caroline Street was standing in 1908. In 1837-1839
and in 1842-1845 Houston was the capital of the Republic of
Texas. About ism. E.S.E. of the city is the battleground of
San Jacinto, which was bought by the state in 1906 for a public
memorial park.
HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1778-
1845), German dramatist and author, was born at Straupitz
in Lower Lusatia, a son of the president of the district court of
justice, on the 28th of November 1778. He studied law at the
university of Halle, and on completion of his academic studies
returned home, married, and managed the family estates. In
1816 he afforded a home to his friend K. W. S. Contessa (1777-
1825), himself a poet, who had met with serious reverses of
fortune; Contessa lived with Houwald, assisting and stimulating
him in his literary work, for eight years. In 1821 Houwald was
unanimously elected syndic for Lower Lusatia, an office which
placed him at the head of the administration of the province.
He died at Neuhaus, near Liibben, on the 28th of January 1845.
Houwald is remembered as the author of several so-called " Fate
tragedies " (see GERMAN LITERATURE), of which the best known are
Das Bild, Der Leuchtturm, Die Heimkehr, Fluch und Segen (all
published in 1821). They have, however, small literary value, and
Houwald is seen to better advantage in his narratives and books for
juvenile readers, such as Romantische A kkorde (publ. by W. Contessa,
Berlin, 1817); Buck fur Kinder gebildeter Stdnde (1819-1824); and
Jakob Thau, der Hofnarr (1821). Houwald's collected works,
Sdmtliche Werke, were published in five volumes (Leipzig, 1851;
2nd ed., 1858-1859). See J. Minor, Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren
Hauptvertretern (Frankfurt, 1883), and Das Schicksalsdrama in
Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. cli. (Stuttgart, 1884);
O. Schmidtborn, C. E. von Houwald als Dramatiker (1909).
HOVA, the name originally applied to the middle-class Malayo-
Indonesian natives of Madagascar (q.v.), as distinct from the
noble class Andriana and the slave class Andevo. Hova has now
come to mean the most numerous and powerful of the tribes
which form the native population of Madagascar. The Hova,
who occupy the province of Imerina, the central plateau of the
island, are of Malayo-Indonesian origin. The period at which
the Hova arrived in Madagascar is still a subject of dispute.
Some think that the immigration took place in very early times,
before Hinduism reached the Malay Archipelago, since no trace
of Sanskrit is found in Malagasy. Others believe that the Hova
did not reach the island until the I2th or i3th century. At the
French conquest of Madagascar (1895), the Hova were the most
powerful and, politically, the dominant people; but were far
from having subjected the whole of the island to their rule.
The Hova are short and slim, with a complexion of a yellowish
olive, many being fairer than the average of southern Europeans.
Their hair is long, black and smooth but coarse. Their heads
1 Much rice is cultivated in the vicinity of Houston by Japanese
farmers.
are round, with flat straight foreheads, flat faces, prominent
cheekbones, small straight noses, fairly wide nostrils, and small
black and slightly oblique eyes. The physical contrast to the
negro is usually very obvious, but, especially among the lower
classes, there is a tendency to thick lips, kinky hair and dark
skin. In many of their customs, such as taboo, infanticide,
marriage and funeral rites, they show their Indonesian origin.
Most of them now profess Christianity.
HOVE, a municipal borough of Sussex, England, adjoining the
watering-place of Brighton on the west, on the London, Brighton,
& South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 36,535. The great sea-
wall of Brighton continues along the front at Hove, forming a
pleasant promenade. Here is the Sussex county cricket ground.
The municipal borough, incorporated in 1898, includes the
parishes of Hove and Aldrington, of which the first is within the
parliamentary borough of Brighton, but the second is in the
Lewes division of the county. The corporation consists of a
mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 1521 acres.
HOVENDEN, THOMAS (1840-1895), American artist, was
born in Dunmanway, Co. Cork, Ireland, on the 28th of
December 1840. He was a pupil of the South Kensington Art
Schools and those of the National Academy of Design, New
York, whither he had removed in 1863. Subsequently he went
to Paris and studied in the Ecole des Beaux Arts under Cabanel,
but passed most of his time with the American colony in Brittany,
at Pont-Aven, where he painted many pictures of the peasantry.
Returning to America in 1880, he became an academician in
1882, and attracted attention by an important canvas of " The
Last Moments of John Brown " (now in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art). His " Breaking Home Ties," a picture of
American farm life, was engraved with considerable popular
success. Hovenden was mortally injured in a heroic effort to
save a child from a railroad train in the station at Germantown,
near Philadelphia, and died at Norristown, Pennsylvania, on the
i4th of August 1895. Among his principal works are: " News
from the Conscript " (1877), " Loyalist Peasant Soldier of La
Vendee" (1879). "A Breton Interior," " Image Seller " and
" Jerusalem the Golden " (in the Metropolitan Museum of Art).
HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM (1823-1897), English divine, son
of a Shrewsbury solicitor, was born on the i3th of December
1823, and was educated at Shrewsbury school and Wadham
College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1846, and for upwards of
thirty years was actively engaged in parish work at Whittington
in Shropshire and Oswestry (rural dean, 1860). He lefused
preferment on several occasions, but his energy and success made
him well known, and in 1879 he became a suffragan bishop in
London, under the title of bishop of Bedford, his province being
the East End. There he became the inspiring influence of a
revival of church work. He founded the East London Church
Fund, and enlisted a large band of enthusiastic helpers, his
popularity among all classes being immense. He was particularly
fond of children, and was commonly called " the children's
bishop." In 1888 he was made bishop of Wakefield, and in the
north of England he continued to do valuable work. His sermons
were straightforward, earnest and attractive; and besides
publishing several volumes of these, he wrote a good deal of
verse, including such well-known hymns as " Who is this so
weak and helpless," " Lord, Thy children guide and keep." In
1863-1868 he brought out a Commentary on the Four Gospels;
and he also wrote a Manual for the Holy Communion. In the
movement for infusing new spiritual life into the church services,
especially among the poor, How was a great force. He died on
the loth of August 1897. He was much helped in his earlier
work by his wife, Frances A. Douglas (d. 1887).
See his Life by his son, F. D. How (1898).
HOWARD (FAMILY). Among English families, the house of
Howard has long held the first place. Its head, the duke of
Norfolk, is the first of the dukes and the hereditary earl marshal
of England, while the earls of Suffolk, Carlisle and Effingham and
the Lord Howard of Glossop represent in the peerage its younger
lines.
Its founder was a Norfolk lawyer, William Howard or Haward,
8 3 o
HOWARD
who was summoned to parliament as a justice in 1205, being
appointed a justice of the common pleas in 1297. Over the
parentage of this man genealogists have disputed for centuries.
The pedigree-makers have hailed him in turn as the descendant
of a Norman " Auber, earl of Passy " and as the heir of Here-
ward, " the last of the English." But out of the copies of Norfolk
deeds and records collected for Thomas, earl of Arundel, in the
early part of the I7th century, it seems clear enough that he
sprang from a Norfolk family, several of whose members held
lands at Wiggenhall near Lynn. These notes from deeds,
evidently collected by an honest inquirer, make no extravagant
claims of ancient ancestry or illustrious origin for the Howards,
although the facts contained in them were recklessly manipulated
by subservient genealogists. Doubtless the judge was the son
of John Howard of Wiggenhall, living about 1 260, whose widow
Lucy, called by the genealogists the daughter of John Germund,
was probably the wife of John Germund by her second marriage.
William Howard was employed as counsel by the corporation of
Lynn, and it is worthy of note that the " crosslets fitchy " in his
shield of arms suggest the cross with which the dragon was
discomfited by St Margaret, the patroness of Lynn. Prospering
by the law, William Howard of Wiggenhall rose to knight's
rank and acquired by purchase Grancourt's manor in East
Winch, near Lynn, where he had his seat in a moated house
whose ruins remain. He was probably dead and buried in his
chapel at East Winch before November 27, 1308, the date of the
patent by which Henry Scrope succeeded him as a commissioner
of trailbaston. His two wives, Alice Ufford and Alice Fitton
heir of Fitton's manor in Wiggenhall were both daughters of
knightly houses. Before his death his eldest son, John Howard,
was a knight and already advanced by his marriage with Joan of
Cornwall, one of the bastard line founded by Richard of Cornwall,
king of the Romans.
Sir John Howard served in Edward II. 's wars in Scotland and
Gascony, was sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk and governor of
Norwich Castle. When he died in 1331 he was seised of many
Norfolk manors. His son and heir, another Sir John, admiral of
the king's navy in the north, was a banneret who displayed his
banner in the army that laid siege to Calais. By the admiral's wife
Alice, sister and heir of Sir Robert de Boys, the Howards had the
Boys manor of Fersfield, near Diss, which is still among the
possessions of the dukes of Norfolk. His son Sir Robert Howard,
who had married a daughter of Sir Robert Scales (Lord Scales),
died in 1388. From Sir John Howard, the only son of Sir Robert,
two branches of the house of Howard spring. The elder line was
soon extinct. By his first wife, Margaret, daughter and heir of
Sir John Plays, Sir John Howard had a son who died before him,
leaving a daughter through whom descended to her issue, the
Veres, earls of Oxford, the ancient Norfolk estates of the Howards
at East Winch and elsewhere, with the lands of the houses of
Scales, Plays and Walton, brought in by the brides of her fore-
fathers. After the death of Margaret Plays, her widower found,
with the peculiar instinct of his race, a second well-endowed
wife. By her, the heir of the Tendrings of Tendring, he had a
second son, Sir Robert Howard, a knight who fought under
Henry V. in France, and died, like his half-brother, before the old
knight's career ended in 1436.
It is to the marriage of this young knight that the house of
Howard owes the tragedy of its greatness. He was a younger
son, although he had some of his mother's inheritance. Had he
married the landless daughter of a neighbour he might have been
the ancestor of a line of Essex squires, whose careers would have
had the parish topographer for chronicler. But his bride was
Margaret Mowbray, daughter of the banished duke of Norfolk.
Although this was a noble alliance, it is probable that the lady
had no great portion. The head of her elder brother, the boy
earl marshal, had been stricken off in the cornfield under the
walls of York, but her younger brother's right to his father's
dukedom was allowed by parliament in 1425.
Sir John Howard, only son of the match between Howard
and Mowbray, took service with his cousin the third duke of
Norfolk, who had him returned as knight of the shire for Norfolk,
where, according to the Paston Letters, this Howard of the
Essex branch was regarded by the gentry as a strange man.
He followed the White Rose and was knighted at the crowning
of King Edward IV., who pricked him for sheriff of Norfolk and
Suffolk. In the duke's quarrel he brawled with the Pastons,
his wife boasting that, should her husband's men meet with
John Paston " there should go no penny for his life." " And
Howard," writes Clement Paston, " hath with the king a great
fellowship." Offices and lands came to John Howard by reason
of that fellowship. Henry VI., when restored, summoned him
to parliament in 1470 as Lord Howard, a summons which may
have been meant to lure him to London into Warwick's power,
but he proclaimed the Yorkist sovereign on his return and
fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury. When peace was made,
Edward summoned him again as a baron and gave him the
Garter and the treasurership of his household. After Edward's
burial, at which he bore the king's banner, Howard, an enemy
of the Wydviles, linked his fortunes with those of the duke of
Gloucester. At this time came his sudden lifting to the highest
rank in the peerage. The last of the dukes of Norfolk had left
a child heir, Anne Mowbray, married to the infant duke of York,
the younger of the princes doomed by Richard in the Tower.
By the death of this little girl, John Howard became one of the
coheirs of her illustrious house, which was now represented by
the issue of Margaret Mowbray, his mother, and of her sister
Isabel, who had married James, Lord Berkeley. A lion's share
of the Mowbray estates, swollen by the great alliances of the
house, heir of Breouse and Segrave, and, through Segrave, of
Thomas of Brotherton, son of Edward I., fell to Howard, who,
by a patent of June 28, 1483, was created duke of Norfolk and
earl marshal of England with a remainder to the heirs male of
his body. On the same day the lord Berkeley, the other coheir,
was made earl of Nottingham. High steward at Richard's
crowning, the duke bore the crown and rode as marshal into
Westminster Hall. For the rest of his life he was Richard's
man, and though warned by the famous couplet that " Dykon
his master " was bought and sold, " Jack of Norfolk " led the
archer vanguard at Bosworth and died in the fight, from which
his son the earl of Surrey was carried away a wounded prisoner.
An attainder by the first parliament of Henry VII. extinguished
the honours of the father with those of the son, who had been
created an earl when the lord Howard was raised to the dukedom.
Their estates were forfeit.
Thomas Howard, a politic mind, loyal to the powers that be,
was released from the Tower of London in 1489, his earldom
of Surrey and his Garter restored. Accepting the position
in which the Tudor king would have his great nobles, he became
the faithful soldier, diplomatist and official of the new power.
In his seventieth year, as lieutenant-general of the North, he
led the English host on the great day of Flodden, earning a
patent of the dukedom of Norfolk, dated i February 1513/4,
and that strange patent which granted to him and his heirs
that they should bear in the midst of the silver bend of their
Howard shield a demi-lion stricken in the mouth with an arrow,
in the right colours of the arms of the king of Scotland. This
augmentation has been interpreted as a golden scocheon with the
demi-lion within the Scottish tressure. Thus charged on the
silver bend, it makes bad armory and it is worthy of note that,
although the grant of it is clearly to the duke and his heirs in
fee simple, Howards of all branches descending from the duke
bear it in their shields, even though all right to it has long passed
from the house to the duke's heirs general, the Stourtons and
Petres.
The victor of Flodden is the common ancestor of all living
Howards that can show a descent from the main stock. The
second duke, twice married, was father of at least eleven sons
and six daughters, the sons including Edward the lord high
admiral, killed in boarding Pregent's galleys at Brest, Edmund
the knight marshal of the army at Flodden, and William the
first Lord Howard of Effingham. The .eldest son, Thomas,
succeeded as the third duke of his name, although the second
under the patent of 1514. He had fought as captain of the
HOWARD
831
vanguard at Flodden and after the victory was created earl of
Surrey. When Richard III. was allying himself with the Howards,
Thomas Howard, a boy of eleven, had been betrothed to Anne,
daughter of the late King Edward IV., and Henry VII. allowed
the marriage with his queen's sister to take place in 1495. This
royal bride died of consumption, leaving no living child,
and her husband took in 1313, as his second wife, Elizabeth
Stafford, daughter of that duke of Buckingham upon whom the
old duke of Norfolk, the tears upon his cheeks, was forced to
pass sentence of death. Succeeding his father in 1524, Norfolk
was created earl marshal in 1533. An unsuccessful diplomatist,
his chief services in arms were the butchery in the north after
the Pilgrimage of Grace and the raid into Scotland which ended
with the rout of Solway Moss. He left his wife for a mistress,
Elizabeth Holland, was in discord with his family, and lived to
see his two nieces, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, and his
son Surrey, the fiery-tempered poet, go in turn to the block.
He himself was attainted and was lying a prisoner in the Tower,
doomed to die in the morning, on the night of the death of
Henry VIII. He was not released until the accession of Mary,
parliament restoring his dukedom on his petition for reversal
of the attainder. His grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554,
and in 1556 made the second of those marraiges which have
given the Howards their high place among the English nobility.
The bride was Mary, sole heir in her issue of her father Henry,
the last of the Fitzalan earls of Arundel. Her father's line and
the royal Stewards of Scotland sprang from one forefather,
Alan, son of Flaald the Breton. The Mowbray match had already
brought to the Howards the representation of an elder line
of the Fitzalan earls, who sat in the seats of their ancestors,
the Aubignys and Warennes, great earls near akin to their
sovereigns. And now the younger line, earls of Arundel and
Lords Mautravers, were also to have a Howard to represent
them. From this time the spreading genealogy of the Howards
drew its origins from most of the illustrious names of the houses
founded after the Norman Conquest.
The young duchess died in her seventeenth year after giving
birth to a son, and the duke took a second wife from a humble
stock, newly enriched and honoured, the daughter of Henry
VIII. 's subservient chancellor, the Lord Audley of Walden.
Within ten years he married a third time, the lady being Elizabeth
Leybourne, the widow of Lord Dacre of Gilsland. She survived
her marriage but a few months and her husband then obtained
the wardship of her Dacre offspring, a son who died young, and
three daughters whom the duke, with the true Howard eye for
a rich inheritance, gave as brides to three of his sons. After three
such good fortunes by marriage Norfolk in his folly looked for
a crown with a fourth match, listening to the laird of Lethington
when he set forth the scheme by which the duke was to marry
a restored queen of Scots and rule Scotland with her who should
be recognized as Elizabeth's successor. Ten months in the Tower
under strong suspicion would have warned another man, but
Norfolk was unstable and false. After promising fidelity and
the abandonment of the Scots marriage scheme, Cecil took him
corresponding with Mary and tampering with the Ridolfi plot.
He died on Tower Hill in 1572 for an example to the disloyal
counties, protesting innocence and repentance, warning his
children in a last letter to discredit all " false bruits " that he
was a papist.
By his attainder the Norfolk titles were once more forfeited.
But Philip Howard, the son and heir, succeeded to the ancient
earldom of Arundel in 1380. on the death of his maternal grand-
father, while the Lord Lumley, his uncle by marriage, surrendered
to him his life interest in the castle and honour of Arundel.
The next year an act of parliament restored the earl in blood.
After a profligate youth at court, he followed his wife in pro-
fessing the Roman faith, and in 1585 made an attempt to leave
England to seek safety from the penal laws. But his ship was
boarded in the Channel and the earl, condemned by the Star-
Chamber to a heavy fine and to imprisonment during the queen's
pleasure, suffered a harsh captivity in the Tower. After the
defeat of the Armada he had been condemned to death on a
charge of high treason, founded on the tale drawn by torture from
a priest, that Arundel had urged him to say a mass for the success
of the Spaniards. But he was allowed to linger in his prison
until 1595 when he died, the sight of his wife and children being
cruelly refused to the dying man. Thus it befell that, of the chiefs
of the Howards born since the great Mowbray alliance, two had
died by the axe and one in the prison from which a fourth had
hardly escaped. A fifth had fallen in a lost battle, and only one
had died in peace in his own house.
The ill fate of the Howards seemed to be appeased by the
death of Philip, earl of Arundel. Tudor policy did its work well,
and noblemen, however illustrious their pedigrees, could no
longer be counted as menaces by the Crown, which was, indeed,
finding another rival to its power. In the first year of James I.,
Thomas, the young son of Earl Philip, was restored in blood and
given the titles of Arundel and Surrey. But the lands belonging
to these titles remained with the Crown and he had to repair his
fortunes by one of those marriages which never failed his house,
his wife being Alathea Talbot, who was at last the heir of Gilbert,
earl of Shrewsbury. To the grief of his mother he left the Roman
church. A knight of the Garter, he was in 1621 created earl
marshal for life, and revived the jurisdiction belonging to the
office. An act of 1627, one of several such aimed at aggrandizing
families by diverting the descent of dignities in fee from heirs
general, entailed the earldom and castle of Arundel upon Thomas,
earl of Arundel and Surrey and the heirs male of his body " and
for default of such issue, to the heirs of his body." His pride
and austerity made him unpopular at court and he left the
country in 1642, settling at last in Padua, where he died in
1646, impoverished by the sequestrations of the parliament,
whose forces had taken and retaken his castle of Arundel.
In answer to his petition for the dukedom, the king had, on
the 6th of June 1644, given him a patent of the earldom of
Norfolk, in order, as it would seem, to flatter him by suggesting
that the title of Norfolk would at least be refused to any other
family. He is celebrated as a collector of paintings, books, gems
and sculptures, his " Arundel marbles " being given by his
grandson in 1667 to the University of Oxford. The dukedom
for which Arundel had petitioned Charles I. in vain was restored
by act of the first parliament of Charles II. to his grandson
Thomas, a lunatic living at Padua, on whose death in 1677 it
passed to this Thomas's brother, Henry Frederick, who had been
created earl of Norwich and hereditary earl marshal of England
in 1672. In 1777 Edward, the ninth of the Howard duke^, died
childless in his ninety-second year. With him ended the earldom
of Norwich, while the representation of the Mowbrays and
Segraves passed to his nieces, the Ladies Stourton and Petre,
the abeyance of the two baronies being determined in 1878 in
favour of Lord Stourton. Under the act of 1627 the earldom
of Arundel and the castle passed with the dukedom to a second
cousin, Charles Howard of Greystock (d. 1786), an eccentric
recluse. At his death in 1786 he was succeeded by his son
Charles, the notorious " Jockey of Norfolk," the big, coarse,
generous, slovenly, hard-drinking Whig of whom all the memoir-
writers of his age have their anecdotes. He conformed to the
Church of England and spent a vast sum in restoring Arundel
Castle. A third cousin succeeded him in 1815, Bernard Edward
Howard, who, although a Roman Catholic, was enabled, by the
act of 1824, to act as earl marshal. This was the grandfather
of the fifteenth duke, earl of Arundel, Surrey and Norfolk, and
hereditary earl marshal of England.
The eldest of the cadet branches of the ducal house has its origin
in William (c. 1510-1573), eldest son of the victor of Flodden by his
second marriage. He survived the reign of Henry VIII., that
perilous age for the Howards, with no worse misadventure than the
conviction of himself and his wife of misprision of treason in concealing
the offences of his niece, Queen Catherine. But both were pardoned.
In T 553 he had the office of lord admiral of England, and in the next
year the Garter. For his services against Sir Thomas Wyat he
was created (March n, 1553/4) Lord Howard of Effingham, the
title being taken from a Surrey manor granted him by Edward VI.
Queen Elizabeth continued his employment in diplomacy, and had
he been richer he might have had an earldom. His eldest son
Charles (1536-1624), lord admiral of England in 1585, sailed as
8 3 2
HOWARD, CATHERINE HOWARD, J.
commander in chief against the Spanish Armada, and, although
giving due weight to the counsel of Drake and his other officers,
showed himself a leader as prudent as courageous. He was created
earl of Nottingham in 1596 and died in 1624. The legend that the
admiral was a Roman Catholic has no authority. Two of his sons
succeeded in turn to the earldom of Nottingham, extinct on the
death of Charles, the third earl in 1681. Sir William Howard of
Lingfield, younger brother of the great admiral, carried on the
Efhngham line, his great-grandson succeeding to the barony on the
extinction of the earldom. Francis, seventh Lord Howard of
Effingham, was created earl of Effingham in 1731, a title extinct in
1816 with the fourth earl, but revived again in 1837 for the eleventh
baron, who had served as a general officer in the Peninsular cam-
paign, the great-grandfather of the present peer.
A patent of 1604 created Henry Howard (1540-1614), younger
son of Surrey the poet, earl of Northampton, a peerage which ended
with the death of this, the most unprincipled of his house.
Thomas, son of the fourth duke of Norfolk's marriage with the
daughter and heir of Thomas, Lord Audley of Walden, founded the
line of the present earls of Suffolk and Berkshire and of the extinct
Lords Howard of Escrick. His barony of Howard of Walden has
descended to his heirs general. Lord William Howard (15631640),
the " belted Will " of Scott's Lay and the " bauld Willie " of more
authentic legend, was another of the sons of the fourth duke and
Margaret Audley. Married in 1577 to one of the three co-heirs of
the Lord Dacre of Gilsland he suffered under Elizabeth more than
one imprisonment with his brother the unfortunate earl of Arundel.
But in 1603 he was able, on the partition of the Dacre lands, to
make his home at Naworth Castle, where he lived, a border patriarch,
cultivating his estates and serving as a commissioner of the borders.
His great-grandson Charles Howard, although fledged in a nest of
cavaliers, changed sides and fought at Worcester for the parliament.
The Protector summoned him in 1657 to his'House of Lords, but he
was imprisoned in 1659 on suspicion of a share in Booth's insur-
rection and, after the Restoration, was created, in 1661, earl of
Carlisle, Viscount Morpeth and Lord Dacre of Gilsland, titles which
are still held by his descendants. From Sir Francis Howard, a
cavalier colonel and a younger son of " bauld Willie," come the
Howards of Corby Castle in Cumberland, a branch without a here-
ditary title.
William Howard, Viscount Stafford, was the fifth son of Thomas,
earl of Arundel, and grandson of Philip the prisoner. Marrying
the sister and heir of the fifth Lord Stafford, who died in 1637, he
and his wife were created Baron and Baroness Stafford by a patent
of 1640, with remainder, in default of heirs male, to heirs female.
A grant of the precedence enjoyed by the bride's father being held
illegal, her husband was in the same year created Viscount Stafford.
Roger Stafford, the impoverished heir male of the ancient Staffords,
had been forced to surrender his barony to the king by a deed dated
in the preceding year, a piece of injustice which is in the teeth of all
modern conceptions of peerage law. The Viscount Stafford was one
of the " fiye Popish lords " committed to the Tower in 1678 as a
result of the slanders of Titus Oates and he died by the axe in 1680
upon testimony which, as the diarist Evelyn protested, "should not
be taken against the life of a dog." But three earls of his own
house Carlisle, Suffolk and Berkshire and the Lord Howard of
Escrick, an ex-trooper of Cromwell's guard and an anabaptist
sectary, gave their votes against him, his nephew Mowbray being
the only peer of his name in the minority for acquittal. In 1688 his
widow was created countess of Stafford for life, and his eldest son,
Henry, had the earldom of Stafford, with special remainder to his
brothers. This earldom ended in 1762, but the attainder was
reversed by an act of 1824 and in the following year Sir George
Jerningham, the heir general, established his claim to the Stafford
barony of 1640.
AUTHORITIES. State papers;- patent, close and plea rolls.
Tierney, History of Arundel; G. E. C., Complete Peerage', J. H.
Round, Peerage Studies; Howard of Corby, Memorials of the Family
of Howard; Brenan and Statham, House of Howard; Howard,
Historical Anecdotes of the Howard Family; Morant, Essex; Blome-
field, Norfolk. (O. BA.)
HOWARD, CATHERINE (d. 1542), the fifth queen of Henry
VIII., was a daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and a grand-
daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd duke of Norfolk (d. 1524).
Her father was very poor, and Catherine lived mainly with
Agnes, widow of the 2nd duke of Norfolk, meeting the king
at the house of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. Henry
was evidently charmed by her; the Roman Catholic party,
who disliked the marriage with Anne of Cleves, encouraged
his attentions; and after Anne's divorce he was privately
married to Catherine at Oatlands in July 1540. Soon afterwards
she was publicly acknowledged as queen. Before her marriage
Catherine had had several lovers, among them being a musician,
Henry Mannock, or Manox; her cousin, Thomas Culpepper;
and Francis Dereham, to whom she had certainly been betrothed.
After becoming queen she occasionally met Dereham and
Culpepper, and in November 1541 Archbishop Cranmer informed
Henry that his queen's past life had not been stainless. Cranmer
had obtained his knowledge indirectly from an old servant of the
duchess of Norfolk. Dereham confessed to his relations with
Catherine, and after some denials the queen herself admitted
that this was true; but denied that she had ever been betrothed
to Dereham, or that she had misconducted herself since her
marriage. Dereham and Culpepper were executed in December
1541 and their accomplices were punished, but Catherine was
released from prison. Some fresh information, however, very
soon came to light showing that she had been unchaste since
her marriage; a bill of attainder was passed through parliament,
and on the i3th of February 1542 the queen was beheaded.
See A. Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England (vol. iii. 1877).
HOWARD, JOHN (1726-1790), English philanthropist and
prison reformer, was born at Hackney, probably on the 2nd of
September 1726. His childhood was passed at Cardington,
near Bedford, where his father, a retired merchant of independent
means, had a small estate. He was apprenticed to a firm of
grocers in the city of London, but on the death of his father in
1742, by which he inherited considerable property, he bought
up his indenture, and devoted more than a year to foreign travel.
Never constitutionally strong, he became, on his return to
England, a confirmed invalid. Having been nursed through an
acute illness by an attentive landlady, a widow of some fifty-
three years of age, Howard, in return for her kindness, offered
her marriage and they were united in 1752. Becoming a widower
in less than three years, he determined to go abroad again,
Portugal being his destination. The ship, however, in which
he sailed was taken by a French privateer, the crew and passengers
being carried to Brest, where they were treated with great
severity. Howard was permitted to return to England on
parole to negotiate an exchange, which he accomplished, as
well as successfully representing the case of his fellow-captives.
He now settled down on his Cardington property, interesting
himself in meteorological observations. He was admitted a
member of the Royal Society in 1756. In 1758 he married
Henrietta, daughter of Edward Leeds, of Croxton, Cambridge-
shire. He continued to lead a secluded life at Cardington and
at Watcombe, Hampshire, busying himself in the construction
of model cottages and the erection of schools. In 1765 his
second wife died after giving birth to a son. In the following
year Howard went for a prolonged foreign tour, from which he
returned in 1770.
In 1773 the characteristic work of his life may be said to
have begun by his acceptance of the office of high sheriff of
Bedford. When the assizes were held he did not content himself
with sitting out the trials in open court, his inquisitiveness and his
benevolence alike impelled him to visit the gaol. Howard found
it, like all the prisons of the time, wretchedly defective in its
arrangements; but what chiefly shocked him was the circum-
stance that neither the gaoler nor his subordinates were salaried
officers, but were dependent for their livelihood on fees from
the prisoners. He found that some whom the juries had declared
not guilty, others in whom the grand jury had net found even
such appearance of guilt as would warrant a trial, others whose
prosecutors had failed to appear, were frequently detained in
prison for months after they had ceased to be in the position
of accused parties, until they should have paid the fees of gaol
delivery (see Introduction to The State of the Prisons of England
and Wales). His prompt application to the justices of the
county for a salary to the gaoler in lieu of his fees was met by a
demand for a precedent in charging the county with an expense.
This he undertook to find if such a thing existed. He went
accordingly from county to county, and though he could find
no precedent for charging the county with the wages of its
servants he did find so many abuses in prison management
that he determined to devote himself to their reform.
In 1774 he gave evidence before a committee of the House
of Commons, and received the thanks of the house for " the
humanity and zeal which have led him to visit the several gaols
HOWARD, O. O.
833
of this kingdom, and to communicate to the House the interesting
observations which he has made on that subject." Almost
immediately an act was passed which provided for the liberation,
free of all charges, of every prisoner against whom the grand
jury failed to find a true bill, giving the gaoler a sum from the
county rate in lieu of the abolished fees. This was followed in
June by another requiring justices of the peace to see that the
walls and ceilings of all prisons within their jurisdiction were
scraped and whitewashed once a year at least; that the rooms
were regularly cleaned and ventilated; that infirmaries were
provided for the sick, and proper care taken to get them medical
advice; that the naked should be clothed; that underground
dungeons should be used as little as could be; and generally
that such courses should be taken as would tend to restore and
preserve the health of the prisoners. It was highly characteristic
of the man that, having caused the provisions of the new legisla-
tion to be printed at his own private cost in large type, he sent
a copy to every gaoler and warder in the kingdom, that no one
should be able to plead ignorance of the law if detected in the
violation of its provisions. He then set out upon a new tour of
inspection, from which, however, he was brought home by the
approach of a general election in September 1774. Standing
as one of the anti-ministerial candidates for Bedford, he was
returned by a narrow majority but was unseated after a
scrutiny. I
After a tour in Scotland and Ireland, he set out in April 1775
upon an extended tour through France, the Low Countries
and Germany. At Paris he was at first denied access to the
prisons; but, by recourse to an old and almost obsolete law of
1717, according to which any person wishing to distribute alms
to the prisoners was to be admitted, he succeeded in inspecting
the Bicetre, the Force 1'Eveque and most of the other places
of confinement, the only important exception being the Bastille.
Even in that case he succeeded in obtaining possession of a
suppressed pamphlet, which he afterwards translated and
published in English, to the unconcealed chagrin of the French
authorities. At Ghent he examined with special interest the
great Maison de Force, then recently erected, with its distinctive
features useful labour, in the profits of which the prisoners
had a share, and complete separation of the inmates by night.
At Amsterdam, as in Holland generally, he was much struck
with the comparative absence of crime, a phenomenon which
he attributed to the industrial and reformatory treatment there
adopted. In Germany he found little that was useful and much
that was repulsive; in Hanover and Osnabriick, under the rule
of a British sovereign, he even found traces of torture. After
a short tour in England (Nov. 1775 to May 1776), he again
went abroad, extending his tour to several of the Swiss cantons.
In 1777 appeared The Stale of the Prisons in England and Wales,
with Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign
Prisons. One of the immediate results was the drafting a bill
for the establishment of penitentiary houses, where by means
of solitary imprisonment, accompanied by well-regulated
labour and religious instruction, the object of reforming the
criminal and inuring him to habits of industry might be pursued.
New buildings were manifestly necessary; and Howard volun-
teered to go abroad again and collect plans. He first went
to Amsterdam (April 1778), and carefully examined the "spin-
houses" and "rasp-houses" 1 for which that city was famous;
next he traversed Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia, Austria and Italy,
everywhere inspecting prisons, hospitals and workhouses, and
carefully recording the merits and defects of each. The informa-
tion he thus obtained having been placed at the service of
parliament, a bill was passed for building two penitentiary
houses, and Howard was appointed first supervisor, but he
resigned the post before anything practical had been achieved.
In 1780 he had published a quarto volume as an appendix (the
first) to his State of Prisons ; about the same time also he
caused to be printed his translation of the suppressed French
1 The spinhouses were for women prisoners, who were set to
spinning or other useful work; in the rasp-houses, the prisoners
were employed in rasping wood.
xiii. 27
pamphlet on the Bastille; but on obtaining release from his
employments at home his passion for accumulating statistics
urged him to new and more extended continental tours, as far
as to Denmark, Sweden and Russia in 1781, and to Spain and
Portugal in 1783. The results of these journeys were embodied
in 1784 in a second appendix, with the publication of which his
direct labours in connexion with the subject of prison reform
may be said to have ceased.
The five remaining years of his life were chiefly devoted to
researches on the means for prevention of the plague, and for
guarding against the propagation of contagious distempers
in general. After an extended tour on the continent his researches
seemed to be complete; and with a great accumulation of papers
and memoranda, he was preparing to return homewards from
Constantinople by Vienna, when it occurred to his scrupulous
mind that he still lacked any personal experience of quarantine
discipline. He returned to Smyrna, and, deliberately choosing
a foul ship, took a passage to Venice. A protracted voyage
of sixty days, during which an attack by pirates gave Howard
an opportunity of manifesting his personal bravery, was followed
by a weary term of confinement which enabled him to gain the
experience he had desired. While imprisoned in the Venetian
lazaretto he received the information that his only son, a youth
of twenty-two years of age, had lost his reason and had been
put under restraint. Returning hastily by Trieste and Vienna
(where he had a long and singular interview with the emptror
Joseph II.), he reached England in February 1787. His first
care related to his domestic concerns; he then set out upon
another journey of inspection of the prisons of the United
Kingdom, at the same time busying himself in preparing for
the press the results of his recent tour. The somewhat rambling
work containing them was published in 1798 at Warrington,
under the title An Account of the Principal Lazarettos in Europe :
with various Papers relative to the Plague, together with further
Observations on some Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and addi-
tional Remarks on the present State of those in Great Britain and
Ireland.
In July 1789 he embarked on what proved to be his last
journey. Travelling overland to St Petersburg and Moscow,
and so southwards, and visiting the principal military hospitals
that lay on his route, he reached Kherson in November. In the
hospitals of this place and of the immediate neighbourhood he
found more than enough to occupy his attention while he awaited
the means of transit to Constantinople. Towards the end of the
year his medical advice was asked in the case of a young lady who
was suffering under the camp fever then prevalent, and in
attending her he himself took the disease, which terminated
fatally on the 2oth of January 1790. He was buried near the
village of Dauphigny on the road to St Nicholas. There is a
statue by Bacon to his memory in St Paul's, London, and one at
Bedford by A. Gilbert. In personal appearance Howard is
described as having been short, thin and sallow unpre-
possessing apart from the attraction of a penetrating eye and a
benevolent smile.
AUTHORITIES. Anecdotes of the Life and Character of John Howard,
'written by a Gentleman (1790); Aikin, View of the Character and
Public Services of the late John Howard (1792); Memoirs by I.
Baldwin Brown (1818); T. Taylor (1836), Hepworth Dixon (1849),
J. Field (1850), and J. Stoughton, Howard the Philanthropist (1884).
HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (1830-1909), American soldier, was
born in Leeds, Maine, on the 8th of November 1830. He gradu-
ated at Bowdoin College in 1850, and at the U.S. Military
Academy in 1854. In 1857 he served in Florida against the
Seminole Indians, and from 1857 to 1861 he was assistant
professor of mathematics at West Point. At the beginning of the
Civil War he resigned to become colonel of the 3rd Maine volun-
teer regiment, and at the first battle of Bull Run was in command
of a brigade. In September he was promoted brigadier-general
of volunteers. He served in the Peninsular Campaign, and at
the battle of Seven Pines (Fair Oaks) he was twice wounded,
losing his right arm. On his return to active service in August
1862 he took part in the Virginian campaigns of 1862-63; a '
834
HOWARD, SIR R. HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM
Antietam he succeeded Sedgwick in command of a division, and
he became major-general of volunteers in March 1863. In the
campaign of Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS) he commanded the
XI. corps, which was routed by " Stonewall " Jackson, and in the
first day's battle at Gettysburg he was for some hours (succeeding
Doubleday after Reynolds's death) in command of the Union
troops. The XI. corps was transferred to Tennessee after
Rosecrans's defeat at Chickamauga, and formed part of Hooker's
command in the great victory of Chattanooga. When Sherman
prepared to invade Georgia in the spring of 1864 the XI. corps was
merged with the XII. into the new XX., commanded by Hooker,
and Howard was then placed in command of the new IV. corps,
which he led in all the actions of the Atlanta campaign, receiving
another wound at Pickett's Mills. On the death in action of
General M'Pherson, Howard, in July 1864, was selected to com-
mand the Army of the Tennessee. In this position he took part
in the " March to the Sea " and the Carolinas campaign. In
March 1865 he was breveted major-general U.S.A. " for gallant
and meritorious service in the battle of Ezra Church and during
the campaign against Atlanta," and in 1893 received a Con-
gressional medal of hpnour for bravery at Fair Oaks. After the
peace he served as commissioner of the Bureau of Refugees,
Freedmen and Abandoned Lands from 1865 until 1874; in 1872
he was special commissioner to the hostile Apaches of New
Mexico and Arizona; in 1874-1881 was in command of the
Department of the Columbia and conducted the campaign
against Chief Joseph in 1877 and that against the Bannocks and
Piutes in 1878. In 1881-1882 he was superintendent of West
Point; and in 1882-1886 he commanded the Department of
the Platte, in 1886-1888 the Department of the Pacific, and in
1888-1894 the Department of the East. In 1886 he was pro-
moted major-general and in 1894 he retired. He died at
Burlington, Vermont, on the 26th of October 1909.
Howard was deeply interested in the welfare of the negroes;
and the establishment by the U.S. Government in 1867
of Howard University, at Washington, especially for their
education, was largely due to him; it was named in his
honour, and from 1869 t0 1873 he presided over it. In 1895
he founded for the education of the " mountain whites " the
Lincoln Memorial University at Cumberland Gap, Tenn. (see
CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS), and became president of its board.
He held honorary degrees of various universities, and was a
chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He wrote, amongst other
works, Donald's Schooldays (1877); Chief Joseph (1881); a life
of General Zachary Taylor (1892) in the " Great Commanders "
series; Isabella of Castile (1894); Fighting for Humanity
(1898); Henry in the War (1898); papers in the " Battles and
Leaders " collection on the Atlanta campaign; My Life and
Experience among our Hostile Indians (1907); and Autobio-
graphy of O. O. Howard (2 vols., New York, 1907).
HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626-1698), English dramatist,
sixth son of Thomas Howard, ist earl of Berkshire, was born in
1626. He was knighted at the second battle of Newbury (1644)
for his signal courage on the Royalist side. Imprisoned in
Windsor Castle under the Commonwealth, his loyalty was
rewarded 'at the Restoration, and he eventually became auditor
of the exchequer. His best play is a comedy, The Committee, or
the Faithful Irishman (1663; printed 1665), which kept the stage,
long after its interest as a political satire was exhausted, for the
character of Teague, said to have been drawn from one of his own
servants. He was an early patron of Dryden, who married his
sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, and in the Indian Queen, a
tragedy in heroic verse (1664; pr. 1665) Howard had assistance
from Dryden, although the fact was not made public until the
production of Dryden's Indian Emperor. The magnificence of
the spectacle, and the novelty of the costume of feathers, pre-
sented by Mrs. Aphra Behn, that was worn by Zempoalla, the
Indian queen, made a great sensation. The scenery and acces-
sories were unusually brilliant, the richest ever seen in England,
according to Evelyn. In 1665 Howard published Foure New
Plays, in the preface to which he opposed the view maintained
by Dryden in the dedicatory epistle to The Rival Ladies, that
rhyme was better suited to the heroic tragedy than blank verse.
Howard made an exception in favour of the rhyme of Lord
Orrery, but by his silence concerning Dryden implicated him in
the general censure. Dryden answered by placing Howard's
sentiments in the mouth of Crites in his own Essay on Dramatic
Poesy (1668). The controversy did not end here, but Dryden
completely worsted his adversary in the 1668 edition of The
Indian Emperor. Howard died on the 3rd of September 1698.
His brother, James Howard, wrote two comedies, All Mistaken,
or the Mad Couple, a comedy (1667; pr. 1672), and The English
Mounsieur (1666; pr. 1674), the success of which seems to have
been partly due to the acting of Nell Gwynn.
HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM (1563-1640), known as " Belted
or Bauld (bold) Will," 3rd son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of
Norfolk (executed in 1572), and of his second wife Margaret,
daughter of Lord Audley, was born at Audley End in Essex
on the igth of December 1563. He married on the 28th of
October 1577 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas, Lord Dacre, and
proceeded subsequently to the University of Cambridge. Being
suspected of treasonable intentions together with his elder
brother, Philip, earl of Arundel, he was imprisoned in 1383,
1585 and 1589. He joined the church of Rome in 1584, both
brothers being dispossessed by the queen of a portion of their
Dacre estates, which were, however, restored in 1601 for a pay-
ment of 10,000. Howard them took up his residence with his
children and grandchildren at Naworth Castle in Cumberland,
restored the castle, improved the estate and established order
in that part of the country. In 1603, on the accession of James,
he had been restored in blood. In 1618 he was made one of the
commissioners for the border, and performed great services
in upholding the law and suppressing marauders. Lord William
was a learned and accomplished scholar, praised by Camden,
to whom he sent inscriptions and drawings from relics collected
by him from the Roman wall, as " a singular lover of valuable
antiquity and learned withal." He collected a valuable library,
of which most of the printed works remain still at Naworth,
though the MSS. have been dispersed, a portion being now in
the Arundel MSS. in the Royal College of Arms; he corresponded
with Ussher and was intimate with Camden, Spelman, and
Cotton, whose eldest son married his daughter. He published
in 1592 an edition of Florence of Worcester's Chronicon ex
Chronicis, dedicated to Lord Burghley, and drew up a genealogy
of his family, now among the duke of Norfolk's MSS. at Norfolk
House. He died in October 1640 at Greystock, to which place
he had been removed when failing in health to escape the Scots
who were threatening an advance on Naworth. He had a large
family of children, of whom Philip, his heir, was the grandfather
of Charles, ist earl of Carlisle, and Francis was the ancestor of
the Howards of Corby.
HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD, ist
BARON (c. 1510-1573), English lord high admiral, was the son
of the 2nd duke of Norfolk. He was popular with Henry VIII.,
and at Anne Boleyn's coronation was deputy earl marshal;
and he was sent on missions to Scotland and France; but in
1541 he was charged with abetting his relative Queen Catherine
Howard, and was convicted of misprision of treason, but pardoned.
In 1552 he was made governor of Calais, and in 1553 lord high
admiral, being created Baron Howard of Effingham in 1554
for his defence of London in Sir Thomas Wyat's rebellion against
Queen Mary. He befriended the princess Elizabeth, but his
popularity with the navy saved him from Mary's resentment;
and when Elizabeth became queen he had great influence with
her and filled several important posts. His son, the second
baron, who is famous in English naval history, was created earl
of Nottingham (q.v.); and from a younger son the later earls
of Effingham were descended. William's descendant, Francis
(d. 1695), inherited the barony of Howard of Effingham on the
death of his cousin, Charles, in 1681; and Francis's son, Francis
(1683-1743), was created earl of Effingham in 1731. This earldom
became extinct on the death of Richard, the fourth holder, in
1816; but it was created again in 1837 in favour of Kenneth
Alexander(i767-i845), another of William Howard's descendants,
HOWE, ELIAS HOWE, JOSEPH
835
who had succeeded to the barony of Howard of Effingham in
1816.
HOWE, ELIAS (1819-1867), American sewing-machine
inventor, was born in Spencer, Massachusetts, on the gth of July
1819. His early years were spent on his father's farm. In 1835
he entered the factory of a manufacturer of cotton-machinery
at Lowell, Massachusetts, where he learned the machinist's
trade. Subsequently, while employed in a machine shop at
Cambridge, Mass., he conceived the idea of a sewing machine,
and for five years spent all his spare time in its development.
In September 1846 a patent for a practical sewing machine was
granted to him; and Howe spent the following two years
(1847-1849) in London, employed by William Thomas, a corset
manufacturer, to whom he had sold the English rights for 250.
Years of disappointment and discouragement followed before
he was successful in introducing his invention, and several
imitations which infringed his patent, particularly that of Isaac
Merritt Singer (1811-1875), had already been successfully
introduced and were widely used. His rights were established
after much litigation in 1854, and by the date of expiration
of his patent (1867) he had realized something over $2,000,000
out of his invention. He died in Brooklyn, New York, on the
3rd of October 1867.
See History of the Sewing Machine and of Elias Howe, Jr., the
Inventor (Detroit, 1867); P. G. Hubert, Jr., Inventors, in " Men of
Achievement " series (New York, 1893).
HOWE, JOHN (1630-1706), English Puritan divine, was born
on the 1 7th of May 1630 at Loughborough, Leicestershire,
where his father was vicar. On the igth of May 1647 he entered
Christ's College, Cambridge, as a sizar, and in the following
year took his degree of B.A. During his residence at the univer-
sity he made the acquaintance of Ralph Cudworth, Henry
More and John Smith, from intercourse with whom, as well
as from direct acquaintance with the Dialogues themselves,
his mind received that " Platonic tinge " so perceptible in
his writings. Immediately after graduation at Cambridge, he
migrated to Oxford, where he became fellow and chaplain of
Magdalen College, proceeding M.A. in 1652. He was then
ordained by Charles Herle (1598-1659), the Puritan rector of
Winwick, and in 1654 went as perpetual curate to Great Torring-
ton in Devon, where he preached the discourses which later
took shape in his treatises on The Blessedness of the Righteous
and on Delighting in God. In the beginning of 1657 a journey
to London accidentally brought Howe under the notice of
Cromwell, who made him his domestic chaplain. In this position
his conduct was such as to win the praise of even the bitterest
enemies of his party. Without overlooking his fellow-Puritans,
he was always ready to help pious and learned men of other
schools. Seth Ward (afterwards bishop of Exeter) and Thomas
Fuller were among those who profited by Howe's kindness, and
were not ashamed subsequently to express their gratitude for
it. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell, Howe returned to
Great Torrington, to leave it again in 1662 on the passing of
the Act of Uniformity. For several years he led a wandering
and uncertain life, preaching in secret as occasion offered to
handfuls of trusted hearers. Being in straits he published in
1668 The Blessedness of the Righteous ; the reputation which
he thus acquired procured him an invitation from Lord
Massereene, of Antrim Castle, Ireland, with whom he lived for
five or six years as domestic chaplain, frequently preaching in
public, with the approval of the bishop of the diocese. Here
too he produced the most eloquent of his shorter treatises,
The Vanity of Man as Mortal, and On Delighting in God, and
planned his best work, The Living Temple. In the beginning of
1676 he accepted an invitation to become joint-pastor of a non-
conformist congregation at Haberdashers' Hall, London; and
in the same year he published the first part of The Living Temple
entitled Concerning God's Existence and his Conversableness with
Man: Against Atheism or the Epicurean Deism. In 1677
appeared his tractate On the Reconcileableness of God's Prescience
of the Sins of Men with the Wisdom and Sincerity of His Counsels,
Exhortations and whatsoever means He uses to prevent them,
which was attacked from various quarters, and had Andrew
Marvell for one of its defenders. On Thoughtfulnessfor the Morrow
followed in 1681; Self -Dedication and Union among Protestants
in 1682, and The Redeemer's Tears wept over Lost Souls in 1684.
For five years after his settlement in London Howe enjoyed
comparative freedom, and was on not unfriendly terms with
many eminent Anglicans, such as Stillingfleet, Tillotson, John
Sharp and Richard Kidder; but the greater severity which
began to be exercised towards nonconformists in 1681 so inter-
fered with his liberty that in 1685 he gladly accepted the invita-
tion of Philip, Lord Wharton, to travel abroad with him. In
1686 he determined to settle for a time at Utrecht, where he
officiated in the English chapel. Among his friends there was
Gilbert Burnet, by whose influence he obtained several con-
fidential interviews with William of Orange. In 1687 Howe
availed himself of the declaration for liberty of conscience to
return to England, and in the following year he headed the
deputation of nonconformist ministers who went to congratulate
William on his accession to the English throne. The remainder
of his life was uneventful. His influence was always on the side
of mutual forbearance, between conformists and dissenters
in 1689, and between Congregationalists and Presbyterians
in 1690. In 1693 he published three discourses On the Carnality
of Religious Contention, suggested by the disputes that became
rife among nonconformists as soon as liberty of doctrine and
worship had been granted. In 1694 and 1695 he published
various treatises on the subject of the Trinity, the principal
being A Calm and Solemn Inquiry concerning the Possibility
of a Trinity in the Godhead. The second part of The Living
Temple, entitled Animadversions on Spinosa and a French
Writer pretending to confute him, with a recapitulation of the
former part and an account of the destitution and restitution of
God's Temple among Men, appeared in 1702. In 1701 he had
some controversy with Daniel Defoe on the question of occasional
conformity. In 1705 he published a discourse On Patience
in the Expectation of Future Blessedness, but his health had begun
to fail, and he died in London on the 2nd of April 1706.
Richard Cromwell visited him in his last illness.
Though excelled by Baxter as a pulpit orator, and by Owen
in exegetical ingenuity and in almost every department of
theological learning, Howe compares favourably with either as
a sagacious and profound thinker, while he was much more
successful in combining religious earnestness and fervour of
conviction with large-hearted tolerance and cultured breadth
of view. He was a man of high principle and fine presence,
and it was said of him " that he never made an enemy and never
lost a friend."
The works published in his lifetime, including a number of sermons,
were collected into 2 vols. fol. in 1724, and again reprinted in 3
vols. 8vo. in 1848. A complete edition of the Whole Works, including
much posthumous and additional matter, appeared with a memoir
in 8 vols. in 1822; this was reprinted in I vol. in 1838 and in 6 vols.
in 1862-1863. E. Calamy's Life (1724) forms the basis of The
Life and Character of Howe, with an Analysis of his Writings, by
Henry Rogers (1836, new ed. 1863). See also a sketch by R. F.
Horton (1896).
HOWE, JOSEPH (1804-1873), Canadian statesman, was born
at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the i3th of December 1804, the son
of John Howe (1752-1835), a United Empire Loyalist who was
for many years king's printer and postmaster-general for the
Maritime Provinces and the Bermudas. He received little
regular education, and at the age of 13 entered his father's office.
In 1827 he started the Acadian, a weekly non-political journal,
but soon sold it, and in 1828 purchased the Nova Scotian, which
later became amalgamated with the Morning Chronicle. From
this date he devoted increasing attention to political affairs, and
in 1835 was prosecuted for libelling the magistrates of Halifax.
Being unable to find a lawyer willing to undertake his case, he
pleaded it himself, and won his acquittal by a speech of over six
hours, which secured for Nova Scotia the freedom of the press
and for himself the reputation of an orator. In 1836 he was
elected member for Halifax in the provincial assembly, and
during the next twelve years devoted himself to attaining
8 3 6
HOWE, JULIA WARD HOWE, EARL
responsible government for Nova Scotia. This brought him into
fierce conflict with the reigning oligarchy and with the lieutenant-
governor, Lord Falkland (1803-1884), whom he forced to resign.
Largely owing to Howe's statesmanship responsible government
was finally conceded in 1848 by the imperial authorities, and
was thus gained without the bloodshed and confusion which
marked its acquisition in Ontario and Quebec. In 1850 he was
appointed a delegate to England on behalf of the Intercolonial
railway, for which he obtained a large imperial guarantee.
In 1854 he resigned from the cabinet, and was appointed chief
commissioner of railways. In 1855 he was sent by the imperial
government to the United States in connexion with the Foreign
Enlistment Act, to raise soldiers for the war in the Crimea.
Through the rashness of others he got into difficulties, and was
attacked in the British House of Commons by Mr Gladstone,
whom he compelled to apologize.
In 1855 he was defeated by Mr (afterwards Sir Charles)
Tupper, but was elected by acclamation in the next year in Hants
county, and was from 1860 to 1863 premier of Nova Scotia. In the
latter years he was appointed by the imperial government fishery
commissioner to the United States, and thus took no part in the
negotiations for confederation. Though his eloquence had done
more than anything else to make practicable a union of the
British North American provinces, he opposed confederation,
largely owing to wounded vanity; but on finding it impossible
to obtain from the imperial authorities the repeal of the British
North America Act, he refused to join his associates in the
extreme measures which were advocated, and on the promise
from the Canadian government of better financial terms to his
native province, entered (on the 3oth of January 1869) the
cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as president of the council.
This brought upon him a storm of obloquy, under which his
health gradually gave way. In May 1873 he was appointed
lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, but died suddenly on the
ist of June of the same year.
Howe's eloquence, and still more his unfailing wit and high
spirits, made him for many years the idol of his province. He
is the finest orator whom Canada has produced, and also wrote
poetry, which shows in places high merit. Many of his sayings
are still current in Nova Scotia. In 1904 a statue in his honour
was erected in Halifax.
His Letters and Speeches were published in 1858 in Boston, Mass.,
in 2 vols., edited nominally by William Annand, really by himself.
See also Public Letters and Speeches of Joseph Howe (Halifax,
1909). The Life and Times by G. E. Fenety (1896) is poor. The
Life by the Hon. James W. Longley (Toronto, 1904) is dispassionate,
but otherwise mediocre. Joseph Howe, by George Monro Grant
(reprinted Halifax, 1904), is a brilliant sketch. (W. L. G.)
HOWE, JULIA WARD (1810-1010), American author and
reformer, was born in New York City on the 27th of May 1819.
Her father, Samuel Ward, was a banker; her mother, Julia
Rush [Cutler] (1796-1824), a poet of some ability. When only
sixteen years old she had begun to contribute poems to New
York periodicals. In 1843 she married Dr Samuel Gridley
Howe (<?..), with whom she spent the next year in England,
France, Germany and Italy. She assisted Dr Howe in editing
the Commonwealth in 1851-1853. The results of her study of
German philosophy were seen in philosophical essays; -in
lectures on " Doubt and Belief," " The Duality of Character,"
&c., delivered in 1860-1861 in her home in Boston, and later in
Washington; and in addresses before the Boston Radical Club
and the Concord school of philosophy. Samuel Longfellow,
his brother Henry, Wendell Phillips, W. L. Garrison, Charles
Sumner, Theodore Parker and James Freeman Clarke were
among her friends; she advocated abolition, and preached
occasionally from Unitarian pulpits. She was one of the
organizers of the American Woman-Suffrage Association and of
the Association for the Advancement of Women (1869), and in
1870 became one of the editors of the Woman's Journal, and
in 1872 president of the New England Women's Club. In the
same year she was a delegate to the Prison Reform Congress in
London, and founded there the Woman's Peace Association,
one of the many ways in which she expressed her opposition
to war. She wrote The World's Own (unsuccessfully played at
Wallack's, New York, in 1855, published 1857), and in 1858, for
Edwin Booth, Hippolytus, never acted or published. Her lyric
poetry, thanks to her temperament, and possibly to her musical
training, was her highest literary form: she published Passion
Flowers (anonymously, 1854), Words for the Hour (1856), Later
Lyrics (1866), and From Sunset Ridge: Poems Old and New
(1898); her most popular poem is The Battle Hymn of the
Republic, written to the old folk-tune associated with the song
of " John Brown's Body," when Mrs Howe was at the front
in 1861, and published (Feb. 1862) in the Atlantic Monthly, to
which she frequently contributed. She edited Sex and Education
(1874), an answer to Sex in Education (1873) by Edward Ham-
mond Clarke (1820-1877); and wrote several books of travel,
Modern Society (1880) and Is Polite Society Polite ? (1895),
collections of addresses, each taking its title from a lecture criti-
cizing the shallowness and falseness of society, the power of
money, &c., A Memoir of Dr Samuel G. Howe (1876), Life of
Margaret Fuller (1883), in the " Famous Women " series,
Sketches of Representative Women of New England (1905) and
her own Reminiscences (Boston, 1899). Her children were: Julia
Romana Anagnos (1844-1886), who, like her mother, wrote
verse and studied philosophy, and who taught in the Perkins
Institution, in the charge of which her husband, Michael Anagnos
(1837-1906), whose family name had been Anagnostopoulos,
succeeded her father; Henry Marion Howe (b. 1848), the
eminent metallurgist, and professor in Columbia University;
Laura Elizabeth Richards (b. 1850), and Maud Howe Elliott
(b. 1855), wife of John Elliott, the painter of a fine ceiling in the
Boston library, both these daughters being contributors to
literature. Mrs Howe died on the r7th of October 1910.
HOWE, RICHARD HOWE, EAEL (1726-1799), British admiral,
was born in London on the 8th of March 1726. He was the
second son of Emmanuel Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe,
who died governor of Barbadoes in March 1735, and of Mary
Sophia Charlotte, a daughter of the baroness Kilmansegge,
afterwards countess of Darlington, the mistress of George I.
a relationship which does much to explain his early rise in the
navy. Richard Howe entered the navy in the " Severn," one
of the squadron sent into the south seas with Anson in 1740.
The " Severn " failed to round the Horn and returned home.
Howe next served in the West Indies in the " Burford," and
was present in her when she was very severely damaged in the
unsuccessful attack on La Guayra on the i8th of February 1742.
He was made acting-lieutenant in the West Indies in the same
year, and the rank was confirmed in 1744. During the Jacobite
rising of 1745 he commanded the "Baltimore" sloop in the
North Sea, and was dangerously wounded in the head while
co-operating with a frigate in an engagement with two strong
French privateers. In 1746 he became post-captain, and com-
manded the " Triton " (24) in the West Indies. As captain of
the " Cornwall " (80), the flagship of Sir Charles Knowles, he
was in the battle with the Spaniards off Havana on the 2nd of
October 1748. While the peace between the War of the Austrian
Succession and the Seven Years' War lasted, Howe held com-
mands at home and on the west coast of Africa. In 1755 he
went with Boscawen to North America as captain of the " Dun-
kirk " (60), and his seizure of the French " Alcide " (64) was the
first shot fired in the war. From this date till the peace of 1763
he served in the Channel in various more or less futile expeditions
against the coast of France, with a steady increase of reputation
as a firm and skilful officer. On the 2oth of November 1759
he led Hawke's fleet as captain of the " Magnanime " (64) in
the magnificent victory of Quiberon.
By the death of his elder brother, killed near Ticonderoga on the
6th of July 1758, he became Viscount Howe an Irish peerage.
In 1762 he was elected M.P. for Dartmouth, and held the seat
till he received a title of Great Britain. During 1763 and 1765
he was a member of the Admiralty board, and from 1765 to
1770 was treasurer of the navy. In that year he was promoted
rear-admiral, and in 1 7 7 5 vice-admiral. In 1 7 76 he was appointed
to the command of the North American station. The rebellion
HOWE, S. G.
837
of the colonies was making rapid progress, and Howe was known
to be in sympathy with the colonists. He had sought the
acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin, who was a friend of his
sister Miss Howe, a clever eccentric woman well known in
London society, and had already tried to act as a peacemaker.
It was doubtless because of his known sentiments that he was
selected to command in America, and was joined in commission
with his brother Sir William Howe, the general at the head of the
land forces, to make a conciliatory arrangement. A committee
appointed by the Continental Congress conferred with the Howes
in September 1 776 but nothing was accomplished. The appoint-
ment of a new peace commission in 1778 offended the admiral
deeply, and he sent in a resignation of his command. It was
reluctantly accepted by Lord Sandwich, then First Lord, but
before it could take effect France declared war, and a powerful
French squadron was sent to America under the count d'Estaing.
Being greatly outnumbered, Howe had to stand on the defensive,
but he baffled the French admiral at Sandy Hook, and defeated
his attempt to take Newport in Rhode Island by a fine combina-
tion of caution and calculated daring. On the arrival of Admiral
John Byron from England with reinforcements, Howe left the
station in September. Until the fall of Lord North's ministry
in 1782 he refused to serve, assigning as his reason that he could
not trust Lord Sandwich. He considered that he had not been
properly supported in America, and was embittered both by
the supersession of himself and his brother as peace commis-
sioners, and by attacks made on him by the ministerial writers
in the press.
On the change of ministry in March 1782 he was selected to
command in the Channel, and in the autumn of that year,
September, October and November, he carried out the final
relief of Gibraltar. It was a difficult operation, for the French
and Spaniards had in all 46 line-of-battle ships to his 33, and in
the exhausted state of the country it was impossible to fit his
ships properly or to supply them with good crews. He was,
moreover, hampered by a great convoy carrying stores. But
Howe was eminent in the handling of a great multitude of ships,
the enemy was awkward and unenterprising, and the operation
was brilliantly carried out. From the 28th of January to the
1 6th of April 1783 he was First Lord of the Admiralty, and he
held that post from December 1783 till August 1788, in P,itt's
first ministry. The task was no pleasant one, for he had to
agree to economies where he considered that more outlay was
needed, and he had to disappoint the hopes of the many officers
who were left unemployed by the peace. On the outbreak
of the Revolutionary war in 1793 he was again named to the
command of the Channel fleet. His services in 1704 form the
most glorious period of his life, for in it he won the epoch-making
victory of the ist of June (see FIRST or JUNE, BATTLE OF).
Though Howe was now nearly seventy, and had been trained
in the old school, he displayed an originality not usual with
veterans, and not excelled by any of his successors in the war,
not even by Nelson, since they had his example to follow and
were served by more highly trained squadrons than his. He
continued to hold the nominal command by the wish of the
king, but his active service was now over. In 1797 he was
called on to pacify the mutineers at Spithead, and his great
influence with the seamen who trusted him was conspicuously
shown. He died on the 5th of August 1799, and was buried in
his family vault at Langar. His monument by Flaxman is in
St Paul's Cathedral. In 1782 he was created Viscount Howe
of Langar, and in 1788 Baron and Earl Howe. In June 1797 he
was made a knight of the Garter. With the sailors he was
always popular, though he was no popularity hunter, for they
knew him to be just. His nickname of Black Dick was given
on account of his swarthy complexion, and the well-known
portrait by Gainsborough shows that it was apt.
Lord Howe married, on the loth of March 1758, Mary Hartop,
the daughter of Colonel Chiverton Hartop of Welby in Leicester-
shire, and had issue two daughters. His Irish title descended
to his brother William, the general, who died childless in 1814.
The earldom, and the viscounty of the United Kingdom, being
limited to heirs male, became extinct, but the barony, being
to heirs general, passed to his daughter, Sophia Charlotte
(1762-1835), who married the Hon. Penn Assheton Curzon.
Their son, Richard William Curzon (1796-1870), who succeeded
his paternal grandfather as Viscount Curzon in 1820, was
created Earl Howe in 1821; he was succeeded by his son, George
Augustus (1821-1876), and then by another son, Richard William
(1822-1900), whose son Richard George Penn Curzon-Howe
(b. 1861) became 4th Earl Howe in 1900.
The standard Life is by Sir John Barrow (1838). Interesting
reminiscences will be found in the Life of Codrington, by Lady
Bpurchier. Accounts of his professional services are in Charnpck s
Biographic, Navalis, v. 457, and in Ralf s Naval Biographies, i. 83.
See also Beatson's Naval and Military Annals, James's Naval
History, and Chevalier's Histoire de la Marine fran$aise, vols. i.
and ii. (D. H.)
HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY (1801-1876), American philan-
thropist, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the loth of
November 1801. His father, Joseph N. Howe, was a ship-owner
and cordage manufacturer; and his mother, Patty Gridley, was
one of the most beautiful women of her day. Young Howe was
educated at Boston and at Brown University, Providence, and in
1821 began to study medicine in Boston. But fired by enthusiasm
for the Greek revolution and by Byron's example, he was no
sooner qualified and admitted to practice flian he abandoned
these prospects and took ship for Greece, where he joined the
army and spent six years of hardship amid scenes of warfare.
Then, to raise funds for the cause, he returned to America;
his fervid appeals enabled him to collect about $60,000, which he
spent on provisions and clothing, and he established a relief depot
near Aegina, where he started works for the refugees, the existing
quay, or American Mole, being built in this way. He formed
another colony of exiles on the Isthmus of Corinth. He wrote
a History of the Greek Revolution, which was published in 1828,
and in 1831 he returned to America. Here a new object of
interest engaged him. Through his friend Dr John D. Fisher
(d. 1850), a Boston physician who had started a movement there
as early as 1826 for establishing a school for the blind, he had
learnt of the similar school founded in Paris by Valentin Hatiy,
and it was proposed to Howe by a committee organized by
Fisher that he should direct the establishment of a " New
England Asylum for the Blind " at Boston. He took up the
project with characteristic ardour, and set out at once for Europe
to investigate the problem. There he was temporarily diverted
from his task by becoming mixed up with the Polish revolt, and,
in pursuit of a mission to carry American contributions across
the Prussian frontier, he was arrested and imprisoned at Berlin,
but was at last released through the intervention of the American
minister at Paris. Returning to Boston in July 1832, he began
receiving a few blind children at his father's house in Pleasant
Street, and thus sowed the seed which grew into the famous
Perkins Institution. In January 1833 the funds available
were all spent, but so much progress had been shown that the
legislature voted $6000, later increased to $30,000 a year, to
the institution on condition that it should educate gratuitously
twenty poor blind from the state; money was also contributed
from Salem, and from Boston, and Colonel Thomas H. Perkins,
a prominent Bostonian, presented his mansion and grounds
in Pearl Street for the school to be held there in perpetuity.
This building being later found unsuitable, Colonel Perkins
consented to its sale, and in 1839 the institution was moved to
South Boston, to a large building which had previously been an
hotel. It was henceforth known as the " Perkins Institution
and Massachusetts Asylum (or, since 1877, School) for the Blind."
Howe was director, and the life and soul of the school; he
opened a printing-office and organized a fund for printing for
the blind the first done in America; and he was unwearied
in calling public attention to the work. The Institution, through
him, became one of the intellectual centres of American phil-
anthropy, and by degrees obtained more and more financial
support. In 1837 Dr Howe went still further and brought
the famous blind deaf-mute, Laura Bridgman (q.v.) to the
school.
8 3 8
HOWE, VISCOUNT HOWELL
It must suffice here to chronicle the remaining more important
facts in Dr Howe's life, outside his regular work. In 1843 he
married Julia Ward (see above), daughter of a New York banker,
and they made a prolonged European trip, on which Dr Howe
spent much time in visiting those public institutions which
carried out the objects specially interesting to him. In Rome,
in 1844, his eldest daughter, Julia Romana (afterwards the wife
of Michael Anagnos, Dr Howe's assistant and successor), was
born, and in September the travellers returned to America, and
Dr Howe resumed his activities. In 1846 he became interested
in the condition and treatment of idiots, and particularly in the
experiments of Dr Guggenbiihl on the cretins of Switzerland.
He became chairman of a state commission of inquiry into the
number and condition of idiots in Massachusetts, and the report
of this commission, presented in 1848, caused a profound sensa-
tion. An appropriation of $2500 per annum was made for
training ten idiot children under Dr Howe's supervision, and by
degrees the value of his School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded
Youths, which, starting in South Boston, was in 1890 removed
to Waltham, was generally appreciated. It was the first of its
kind in the United States. An enthusiastic humanitarian on all
subjects, Dr Howe was an ardent abolitionist and a member of
the Free Soil party, and had played a leading part at Boston in
the movements which culminated in the Civil War. When it
broke out he was an active member of the sanitary commission.
In 1871 he was sent to Santo Domingo as a member of the
commission appointed by President Grant to examine the
condition of the island, the government of which desired annexa-
tion; and when that scheme was defeated through Sumner's
opposition he returned (1872) as the representative of the
Samana Bay Company, which proposed to take a lease of the
Samana peninsula; but though in 1874 he revisited the island, it
was only to see the flag of the company hauled down. His health
was then breaking and began soon after to fail rapidly, and on
the pth of January 1876 he died at Boston. The governor of the
state sent a special message of grief to the legislature on his death,
eulogies were delivered in the two houses, and a public memorial
service was held, at which Dr O. W. Holmes read a poem.
Whittier had in his lifetime commemorated him in his poem
" The Hero," in which he called him " the Cadmus of the blind ";
and in 1901 a centennial celebration of his birth was held at
Boston, at which, among other notable tributes, Senator Hoar
spoke of Howe as " one of the great figures of American history."
A Memoir of Dr Howe by his wife appeared in 1876. See also
the Letters and Journals of S. G. Howe, edited by Laura E. Richards
(1910). (H. CH.)
HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE, STH VISCOUNT (1720-1814),
British general, was the younger brother of George Augustus,
3rd viscount, killed in the Ticonderoga expedition of 1758, and
of Richard, 4th viscount and afterwards Earl Howe, the admiral.
He entered the cavalry in 1746, becoming lieutenant a year later.
On the disbanding of his regiment in 1749 he was made captain-
lieutenant and shortly afterwards captain in Lord Bury's (2oth)
regiment, in which Wolfe was then a field officer. Howe became
major in 1756 and lieutenant-colonel in 1757 of the 58th (now
Northampton) regiment, which he commanded at the capture
of Louisburg. In Wolfe's expedition to Quebec he distinguished
himself greatly at the head of a composite light battalion. He
led the advanced party in the landing at Wolfe's Cove and took
part in the battle of the Plains of Abraham which followed. He
commanded his own regiment in the defence of Quebec in 1759-
1760, led a brigade in the advance on Montreal and took part on
his return to Europe in the siege of Belleisle (1761). He was
adjutant-general of the force which besieged and took Havana in
1762, and at the close of the war had acquired the reputation of
being one of the most brilliant of the junior officers of the army.
He was made colonel of the 46th foot in 1764 and lieutenant-
governor of the Isle of Wight four years later. From 1 7 58 to 1 780
he was M.P. for Nottingham. In 1772 he became major-general,
and in 1774 he was entrusted with the training of light infantry
companies on a new system, the training-ground being Salisbury
Plain.
Shortly after this he was sent out to North America. He did
not agree with the policy of the government towards the colonists,
and regretted in particular that he was sent to Boston, where the
memory of his eldest brother was still cherished by the inhabitants,
and General Gage, in whom he had no confidence, commanded in
chief. He was the senior officer after Gage, and led the troops
actively engaged in the storming of Bunker Hill, he himself being
in the thickest of the fighting. In the same year Howe was
made a K.B. and a lieutenant-general, and appointed, with the
local rank of general, to the chief command in the seat of war.
For the events of his command see AMERICAN WAR OF INDE-
PENDENCE. He retained it until May 1778 on the whole with
success. The cause of his resignation was his feeling that the
home government had not afforded the proper support, and
after his return to England, he and his brother engaged in a
heated but fruitless controversy with the ministers. Howe's own
defence is embodied in Narrative of Sir William Howe before a
Committee of the House of Commons (London, 1780). In 1782
Howe was made lieutenant-general of the ordnance; in 1790 he
was placed in command of the forces organized for action against
Spain, and in 1793 he was made a full general. He held various
home commands in the early part of the French revolutionary
war, in particular that of the eastern district at the critical
moment when the French established their forces on the Dutch
coast. When Earl Howe died in 1799, Sir William succeeded to
the Irish viscounty. He had been made governor of Berwick-on-
Tweed in 1795, and in 1805 he became governor of Plymouth,
where he died on the I2th of July 1814. With his death the
Irish peerage became extinct.
HOWEL DDA (" the Good ") (d. 950), prince of Deheubarth
(South Central Wales) from before 915, and king of Wales from
943 to 950, was the grandson of Rhodri Mawr (the Great), who
had united practically the whole of Wales under his supremacy.
As Idwal Voel succeeded his father Anarawd, the elder son of
Rhodri, as lord of Gwynedd in 915, so Howel at some time before
that date succeeded Rhodri's younger son Cadell as prince of
Deheubarth. Howel married Elen, daughter of the last king of
Dyfed, and also added Kidweli and Gwyr to his dominions, while
on the death of Idwal, who was slain by the English in 943, he
took possession of Gwynedd. Both these princes had done
homage to the English kings, Edward the Elder and Aethelstan,
in 922 and 926, and we find that Howel attended the witans
of the English kingdom and witnessed about ten charters between
the years 931 and 949. He was secure, therefore, from attack on
the eastern side of his kingdom, and it is not certain whether he
was engaged in any of the battles recorded during these years in
Wales, either in Mon 914, at Dinas Newydd 919 or at Brun 935.
To the peaceful character of his reign is probably due the high
place which he holds among the Welsh princes. From 943 to
950 Howel Dda was probably ruler of all Wales except Powys
(apparently dependent on Mercia), Brecheiniog, Buallt, Gwent
and Morgannwg. With Morgan Hen, king of Morgannwg,
Howel had a dispute which was eventually settled in favour of the
former at the court of the English king. Howel died in 950, and
such unity as he had preserved at once disappeared in a war
between his sons and those of Idwal Voel. The code of laws
attributed to this prince is perhaps his chief claim to fame. He
is said to have summoned four men from each cantref in his
dominions to the Ty Gwyn (perhaps Whitland in Caermarthen-
shire) to codify existing custom. Three codes, accordingly called
Venedotian,Demetian and Gwentian, are said to have been written
down by Bleggwryd, archdeacon of Llandaff (see WELSH LAWS).
See Sir John Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, The Welsh People (London,
1900); and Aneunn Owen, Ancient Laws and Institutions of Wales
(London, 1841).
HOWELL, JAMES (c. 1594-1666), British author, who came
of an old Welsh family, was born probably at Abernant, in
Carmarthenshire, where his father was rector. From the free
grammar school at Hereford he went to Jesus College, Oxford,
and took his degree of B.A. in 1613. About 1616 he was steward
in Sir Robert Mansell's glass-works in Broad Street, and was
commissioned to go abroad to procure the services of expert
HOWELLS HOWITT
839
workmen. It was not till 1622 that he returned, having visited
Holland, France, Spain and Italy. With the intention of utiliz-
ing to better purpose his knowledge of continental languages
and methods, he left the glass business and applied for a diplo-
matic post. Failing to obtain this, he was for a short time
tutor in a nobleman's family. At the close of 1622 he was sent
on a special mission to Madrid to obtain redress for the seizure
of an English vessel, but, owing to the presence at the Spanish
court of Prince Charles and the duke of Buckingham to arrange
a marriage between the prince and the infanta of Spain, the
negotiations had to be broken off. He made many friends
among the prince's retinue, and, after his return in 1624, applied
for employment to the duke of Buckingham, but without success.
In 1626 he became secretary to Lord Scrope, Lord President
of the North at York, and retained the office under Scrope's
successor, Thomas Wentworth. In 1627 he was elected M.P.
for Richmond; in 1632 he was sent as secretary to the embassy
of the earl of Leicester to Denmark; and in 1642 the king
appointed him one of the clerks of the privy council. In 1643
he was committed to the Fleet prison by the parliament, accord-
ing to his own account, on suspicion of royalist leanings, or, as
Anthony a Wood says, for debt. Whatever the reason, he
remained in prison until 1651. He had acquired considerable
fame by his allegorical Aevdpohoyia: Dodona's Grove, or the
Vocall Forest, published in 1640, and his Instructions for Forreine
Travell (1642), which has been described as the first continental
handbook ; and now he was driven to maintain himself by his
pen. He edited and supplemented (1650) Cotgrave's French and
English dictionary, compiled Lexicon Tetraglotton, or an English,
French, Italian and Spanish Dictionary (London, 1660), trans-
lated various works from Italian and Spanish, wrote a life of
Louis XIII. and issued a number of political pamphlets, varying
the point of view somewhat to suit the changes of the time.
Among these tracts may be mentioned a rather malicious
Perfect Description of the People and Country of Scotland, which
was revived by John Wilkes and printed in the North Briton
during the agitation directed against Lord Bute. In 1660 he
asked for the place of clerk of the privy council; and, though
this was not granted him, the post of historiographer royal was
created for him. In 1661 he applied for the office of tutor in
foreign languages to the infanta Catherine of Braganza, and in
1662 published an English Grammar translated into Spanish.
He was buried in the Temple Church on the 3rd of November
1666, having realized to the last his favourite motto, " Senesco
non segnesco."
All Howell's writings are imbued with a certain simplicity
and quaintness. His elaborate allegories are, forgotten; his
linguistic labours, of value in their time, are now superseded;
but his Letters, the Epistolae Ho-elianae (four volumes issued in
1645, 1647, 1650 and 1655), are still models of their kind. Their
dates are often fictitious, and they are, in nearly every case,
evidently written for publication. Thackeray said that the Letters
was one of his bedside books. He classes it with Montaigne
and says he scarcely ever tired of " the artless prattle " of the
" priggish little clerk of King Charles's council."
The Epistolae have been frequently edited, notably by J. Jacobs
in 1890, with a commentary (1891), and Agnes Repplier (i97)-
HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN (1837- ), American novelist,
was born at Martin's Ferry, Ohio, on the ist of March 1837. His
father, William Cooper Howells, a printer-journalist, moved in
1840 to Hamilton, Ohio, and here the boy's early life was spent
successively as type-setter, reporter and editor in the offices
of various newspapers. In the midst of routine work he contrived
to familiarize himself with a wide range of authors in several
modern tongues, and to drill himself thoroughly in the use of
good English. In 1860, as assistant editor of the leading Re-
publican newspaper in Ohio, he wrote in connexion with the
Presidential contest the campaign life of Lincoln; and in
the same year he was appointed consul at Venice, where he
remained till 1865. On his return to America he joined the staff
of the Atlantic Monthly, and from 1872 to 1881 he was its editor-
in-chief. Since 1885 he has lived in New York. For a time he
conducted for Harper's Magazine the department called " The
Editor's Study," and in December 1900 he revived for the same
periodical the department of " The Easy Chair," which had
lapsed with the death of George William Curtis. Of Mr Howells's
many novels, the following may be mentioned as specially
noteworthy: Their Wedding Journey (1872); The Lady of
the Aroostook (1879); A Modern Instance (1882); The Rise
of Silas Lapham (1885); The Minister's Charge (1886); A
Hazard of New Fortunes '1889); The Quality of Mercy (1892);
The Landlord at Lion's Head (1897). He also published Poems
(1873 and 1886); Stops of Various Quills (1895), a book of verse;
books of travel; several amusing farces; and volumes of essays
and literary criticism, among others, Literary Friends and
Acquaintance (1901), which contains much autobiographical
matter, Literature and Life (1902), and English Films (1905).
Howells is by general consent the foremost representative
of the realistic school of indigenous American fiction. From
the outset his aim was to portray life with entire fidelity in all
its commonplaceness, and yet to charm the reader into a liking
for this commonplaceness and into reverence for what it conceals.
Though in his earliest novels his method was not consistently
realistic he is at times almost as personal and as whimsical as
Thackeray yet his vivid impressionism and his choice of sub-
jects, as well as an occasional explicit protest that " dulness
is dear to him," already revealed unmistakably his realistic
bias. In A Modern Instance (1882) he gained complete command
of his method, and began a series of studies of American life
that are remarkable for their loyalty to fact, their truth of tone,
and their power to reveal, despite their strictly objective method,
both the inner springs of American character and the sociological
forces that are shaping American civilization. He refuses to over-
sophisticate or to over-intellectualize his characters, and he
is very sparing in his use of psychological analysis. He insists
on seeing and portraying American life as it exists in and for
itself, under its own skies and with its own atmosphere; he
does not scrutinize it with foreign comparisons in mind, and thus
try to find and to throw into relief unsuspected configurations
of surface. He keeps his dialogue toned down to almost the
pitch of everyday conversation, although he has shown in his
comedy sketches how easy a master he is of adroit and witty
talk.
See also J. M. Robertson, Essays towards a Critical Method (London,
1889); H. C. Vedder, American Writers (Boston, 1894).
HOWITT WILLIAM, (1792-1879), English author, was born
on the i8th of December 1792 at Heanor, Derbyshire. His
parents were Quakers, and he was educated at the Friends'
public school at Ackworth, Yorkshire. In 1814 he published
a poem on the " Influence of Nature and Poetry on National
Spirit." He married, in 1821, Mary Botham (1790-1888), like
himself a Quaker and a poet. William and Mary Howitt col-
laborated throughout a long literary career, the first of their
joint productions being The Forest Minstrels and other Poems
(1821). In 1831 William Howitt produced a work for which
his habits of observation and his genuine love of nature peculiarly
fitted him. It was a history of the changes in the face of the out-
side world in the different months of the year, and was entitled
The Book of the Seasons, or the Calendar of Nature (1831). His
Popular History of Priestcraft (1833) won for him the favour of
active Liberals and the office of alderman in Nottingham, where
the Howitts had made their home. They removed in 1837 to
Esher, and in 1840 they went to Heidelberg, primarily for the
education of their children, remaining in Germany for two years.
In 1841 William Howitt produced, under the pseudonym of
" Dr Cornelius," The Student Life of Germany, the first of a
series of works on German social life and institutions. Mary
Howitt devoted herself to Scandinavian literature, and between
1842 and 1863 she translated the novels of Frederika Bremer
and many of the stories of Hans Andersen. With her husband
she wrote in 1852 The Literature and Romance of Northern
Europe. In June of that year William Howitt, with two of
his sons, set sail for Australia, where he spent two years in the
goldfields. The results of his travels appeared in A Boy's
840
HOWITZER HOXTER
Adventures in the Wilds of Australia (1854), Land, Labour and
Gold; or, Two Years in Victoria (1855) and Tallangetta, the
Squatter's Home (1857). On his return to England Howitt had
settled at Highgate and resumed his indefatigable book-making.
From 1856 to 1862 he was engaged on Cassell's Illustrated
History of England, and from 1861 to 1864 he and his wife worked
at the Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain. The Howitts
had left the Society of Friends in 1847, and became interested
in spiritualism. In 1863 appeared The History of the Super-
natural in all Ages and Nations, and in all Churches, Christian
and Pagan, demonstrating a Universal Faith, by William
Howitt. He added " his own conclusions from a practical
examination of the higher phenomena through a course of
seven years." From 1870 onwards Howitt spent the summers
in Tirol and the winters in Rome, where he died on the 3rd
of March 1879. Mary Howitt was much affected by his death,
and in 1882 she joined the Roman Catholic Church, towards
which she had been gradually moving during her connexion with
spiritualism. She died at Rome on the 3oth of January 1888.
The Howitts are remembered for their untiring efforts to provide
wholesome and instructive literature. Their son, Alfred William
Howitt, made himself a name by his explorations in Australia.
Anna Mary Howitt married Alaric Alfred Watts, and was the
author of Pioneers of the Spiritual Reformation (1883).
Mary Howitt's autobiography was edited by her daughter, Margaret
Howitt, in 1889. William Howitt wrote some fifty books, and his
wife's publications, inclusive of translations, number over a hundred.
HOWITZER (derived, through an earlier form howitz, and the
Ger. Haubitz, from the Bohemian houfnice = catapult, from
which come also, through the Ital. obiza or obice, the French
forms obus = shell and obusier howitzer), a form of mobile
ordnance in use from the i6th century up to the present day. It is
a short and therefore comparatively light gun, which fires a
heavy projectile at low velocity. A high angle of elevation is
always given and the angle of descent of the projectile is con-
sequently steep (up to 70). On this fact is based the tactical
use of the modem howitzer. The field howitzer is of the greatest
value for " searching " trenches, folds of ground, localities, &c.,
which are invulnerable to direct fire, while the more powerful
siege howitzer has, since the introduction of modern artillery and,
above all, of modern projectiles, taken the foremost place
amongst the weapons used in siege warfare.
See ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE and FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.
HOWLER, a name applied to the members of a group of
tropical American monkeys, now known scientifically as Alouata,
although formerly designated Mycetes. These monkeys, which
are of large size, with thick fur, sometimes red and sometimes
black in colour, are characterized by the inflation of the hyoid-
bone (which supports the roof of the tongue) into a large shell-
like organ communicating with the wind-pipe, and giving the
peculiar resonance to the voice from which they take their title.
To allow space for the hyoid, the sides of the lower jaw are very
deep and expanded. The muzzle is projecting, and the profile of
the face slopes regularly backwards from the muzzle to the
crown. The long tail is highly prehensile, thickly furred, with the
under surface of the extremity naked. Howlers dwell in large
companies, and in the early morning, and again in the evening,
make the woods resound with their cries, which are often con-
tinued throughout the night. They feed on leaves, and are in the
habit of sitting on the topmost branches of trees. When active,
they progress in regular order, led by an old male. (R. L.*)
HOWRAH, a city and district of British India, in the Burdwan
division of Bengal. The city is situated opposite Calcutta, with
which it is connected by a floating bridge. The municipal area
is about ii sq. m.; pop. (1901) 157,594, showing an increase of
35 % in the decade. Since 1872 the population has almost
doubled, owing to the great industrial development that has
taken place. Howrah is the terminus of the East Indian railway,
and also of the Bengal-Nagpur and East Coast lines. It is
also the centre of 'two light railways which run to Amta and
Sheakhala. Further, it is the headquarters of the jute-manu-
facturing industry, with many steam mills, steam presses, also
cotton mills, oil mills, rope-works, iron-works and engineering
works. Sibpur Engineering College lies on the outskirts of the
town. There is a hospital, with a department for Europeans, and
Howrah forms a suburban residence for many people who have
their place of business in Calcutta.
The DISTRICT OF HOWRAH extends southwards down the right
bank of the Hugli to the confluence of the river Damodar. For
revenue purposes it is included within the district of Hugli.
Its area is 510 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 850,514, showing an increase
of 1 1 % in the decade. In addition to the two steam tramways
and the East Indian railway, the district is crossed by the high-
level canal to Midnapore, which communicates with the Hugli
at Ulubaria. The manufacturing industries of Howrah extend
beyond the city into the district. One or two systems of draining
low-lying lands are maintained by the government.
HOWSON, JOHN SAUL (1816-1885), English divine, was born
at Giggleswick-in-Craven, Yorkshire, on the 5th of May 1816.
After receiving his early education at Giggleswick school, of
which his father was head-master, he went to Trinity College,
Cambridge, and there became tutor successively to the marquis of
Sligo and the marquis of Lome. In 1845 Howson, having taken
orders, accepted the post of senior classical master at the Liver-
pool College under his friend W. J. Conybeare, whom he succeeded
as principal in 1849. This post he held until 1865, and it was
largely due to his influence that a similar college for girls was
established at Liverpool. In 1866 he left Liverpool for the
vicarage of Wisbech, and in 1867 he was appointed dean of
Chester Cathedral, where he gave himself vigorously to the work
of restoring the crumbling fabric, collecting nearly 100,000 in
five years for this purpose. His sympathies were with the
evangelical party, and he stoutly opposed the " Eastward
position," but he was by no means narrow. He did much to
reintroduce the ministry of women as deaconesses. The building
of the King's School for boys, and the Queen's School for girls
(both in Chester), was due in a great measure to the active
interest which he took in educational matters. He died at
Bournemouth on the i5th of December 1885, and was buried in
the cloister garth of Chester. Howson's chief literary production
was The Life and Epistles of St Paul (1852) in which he collabor-
ated with Conybeare.
The book is still of interest, especially for its descriptive passages,
which were mostly done by Howson; but later researches (such as
those of Sir W. M. Ramsay) have made the geographical and histori-
cal sections obsolete, and the same may be said of the treatment
of the Pauline theology.
HOWTH [pronounced Hoth], a seaside town of Co. Dublin,
Ireland, on the rocky hill of Howth, which forms the northern
horn of Dublin Bay, 9 m. N.E. by N. of Dublin by the Great
Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1166. It is frequented by the
residents of the capital as a watering-place. The artificial
harbour was formed (1807-1832) between the mainland and the
picturesque island of Ireland's Eye, and preceded Kingstown as
the station for the mail-packets from Great Britain, but was
found after its construction to be liable to silt, and is now chiefly
used by fishing-boats and yachts. The collegiate church,
standing picturesquely on a cliff above the sea, was founded
about 1235, and has a monastic building attached to it. The
embattled castle contains the two-handed sword of Sir Almeric
Tristram, the Anglo-Norman conqueror of the hill of Howth. and
a portrait of Dean Swift holding one of the Drapier letters, with
Wood, the coiner against whom he directed these attacks,
prostrate before him. The view of Dublin Bay from the hill of
Howth is of great beauty. Howth is connected with the capital
by electric tramway, besides the railway, and another tramway
encircles the hill.
HOXTER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, prettily situated on the left bank of the Weser, and
on the Prussian state railways Borssum-Soest and Scherfede-
Holzminden, 32 m. N. of Cassel. Pop. (1905) 7699. It has a
medieval town hall, and interesting houses with high gables and
wood-carved facades of the isth and i6th centuries. The most
interesting of the churches is the Protestant church of St Kilian,
HOY HOZIER
841
with a pulpit dating from 1595 and a font dating from 1631.
There are a gymnasium, a school of architecture and a monu-
ment to Hoffmann von Fallersleben in the town. The Weser is
crossed here by a stone bridge about 500 ft. in length, erected
in 1833. On the Brunsberg adjoining the town there is an old
watch-tower, said to be the remains of a fortress built by Bruno,
brother of Widukind. Near Hoxter is the castle, formerly the
B enedictine monastery, of Corvey. The principal manufactures of
the town are linen, cotton, cement and gutta-percha, and there
is also a considerable shipping trade. Hoxter (Lat. Huxaria)
in the time of Charlemagne was a villa regia, and was the scene of
a battle between him and the Saxons. Under the protection of
the monastery of Corvey it gradually increased in prosperity,
and became the chief town of the principality of Corvey. Later
it asserted its independence and joined the Hanseatic League.
It suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War. After the
peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was united to Brunswick; in 1802
it was transferred to Nassau; and in 1807 to the kingdom of
Westphalia, after the dismemberment of which, in 1814, it came
into the possession of Prussia.
See Karapschulte, Chronik der Stadt Hoxter (Hoxter, 1872).
HOY (Norse Haey, " high island "), the second largest island
of the Orkneys, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1216.
It has an extreme length from N.W.to S.E.of 13^ m.,its greatest
breadth from E. to W. is 8 m., and its area occupies 53 sq. m.
It is situated 2 m. S.W. of Pomona, from which it. is separated
by Hoy Sound. As seen from the west it rises abruptly from the
sea, presenting in this respect a marked contrast to the rest of
the isles of the Orcadian group, which as a whole are low-lying.
Its eastern and southern shores are indented by numerous bays,
one of which, Long Hope, forms a natural harbour 4 m. long,
with a breadth varying from J m. to more than i m., affording
to any number of vessels a haven of refuge from the roughest
weather of the Pentland Firth. Off the eastern coast lie the
islands of Graemsay, Cava, Risa, Fara, Flotta and Switha,
while the peninsula of South Walls, forming the southern side
of the harbour of Long Hope, is an island in all but name. Red
and yellow sandstone cliffs, sometimes over 1000 ft. in height,
stretch for 10 to 12 m. on the Atlantic front. The detached
pillar or stack called the Old Man of Hoy (450 ft.) is a well-known
landmark to sailors. The only break in this remarkable run
of rocky coast is at Rackwick in the bight below the head of
Rora. In the interior, Ward Hill (1564 ft.) is the loftiest summit
in either the Orkneys or Shetlands. In the valley between
Ward Hill and the ridge of the Hamars to the south-east is
situated the famous Dwarfie Stone, an enormous block of
sandstone measuring 28 ft. long, from n ft. to 145 ft. broad,
and 65 ft. high at one end and 2 ft. high at the other, in which
two rooms have been artificially hollowed out, traditionally
believed to be the bed-chambers of Trolld, the dwarf of the
sagas, and his wife. A boulder lying at the narrow end was
supposed to be used to close the entrance. The generally
accepted theory is that it was a pagan altar which some hermit
afterwards converted into a cell. Other hills in the island are
the Cuilags (1420 ft.) and the Knap of Trewieglen (1308 ft.),
besides several peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Hoy is
commonly approached from Stromness, there being piers at
Linksness, the nearest point to Graemsay, and at Hackness,
South Ness and North Bay, the last three all on the harbour
of Long Hope.
HOYLAKE, a watering-place in the Wirral parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead, on the
Wirral railway. With West Kirby to the south, at the mouth
of the estuary of the Dee, it forms the urban district of Hoylake
and West Kirby. Pop. (1901) 10,911. The well-known links
of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club are at Hoylake. The town
has a considerable population of fishermen.
HOYLAND NETHER, an urban district in the Hallamshire
parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
55 m. S.S.E. of Barnsley, on the Midland railway. Collieries
and brickworks employ the large industrial population. Pop.
(1001) 12,464.
HOYLE, EDMUND, or EDMOND (1672-1769), the first system-
atizer of the laws of whist, and author of a book on games,
was born in 1672. His parentage and place of birth are unknown,
and few details of his life are recorded. For some time he was
resident in London, and partially supported himself by giving
instruction in the game of whist. For the use of his pupils he
drew up a Short Treatise on the game, which after circulating
for some time in manuscript was printed by him and entered
at Stationers' Hall in November 1742. The laws of Hoyle
continued to be regarded as authoritative until 1864, since which
time they have been gradually superseded by the new rules
adopted by the Arlington and Portland clubs in that year (see
WHIST). He also published rules for various other games, and
his book on games, which includes the Short Treatise, has passed
into many editions. The weight of his authority is indicated
by the phrase " according to Hoyle," which, doubtless first
applied with reference to whist, has gained currency as a general
proverb. Hoyle died in London on the 29th of August 1769.
HOZIER, PIERRE D', SEIGNEUR DE LA GARDE (1592-1660),
French genealogist, was born at Marseilles on the loth of July
1592. In 1616 he entered upon some very extensive researches
into the genealogy of the noble families of the kingdom, in which
work he was aided by his prodigious memory for dates, names
and family relationships, as well as by his profound knowledge
of heraldry. In 1634 he was appointed historiographer and
genealogist of France, and in 1641 juge d'armes of France, an
officer corresponding nearly to the Garter king-of-arms in
England. In 1643 he was employed to verify the claims to
nobility of the pages and equerries of the king's household. He
accumulated a large number of documents, but published
comparatively little, his principal works being Recueil armorial
des anciennes maisons de Bretagne (1638); Les noms, surnoms,
qualitez, armes et Masons des chevaliers et officiers de I'ordre du
Saint-Esprit (1634); and the genealogies of the houses of La
Rochefoucauld (1654), Bournonville (1657) and Amanze (1659).
He was renowned as much for his uprightness as for his knowledge,
no slight praise in a profession exposed to so many temptations
to fraud. -He died in Paris on the ist of December 1660. At
his death his collections comprised more than 150 volumes or
portfolios of documents and papers relating to the genealogy of
the principal families in France. Of his six sons, only two
survived him. His eldest son, Louis Roger d'Hozier (1634-1708),
succeeded him as juge d'armes, but became blind in 1675, and
was obliged to surrender his office to his brother.
CHARLES RENE D'HOZIER (1640-1732), younger son of Pierre,
was the true continuator of his father. In addition to his
commentary appended to Antoine Varillas's history of King
Charles IX. (1686 ed.), he published Recherches sur la noblesse
de Champagne (1673). On the promulgation in 1696 of an
edict directing all who had armorial bearings to register them
on payment of 20 livres, he was employed to collect the declara-
tions returned in the various generalites, and established the
Armorial general de France. This work, which contained not
only the armorial bearings of noble families, but also of those
commoners who were entitled to bear arms, is not complete,
inasmuch as many refused to register their arms, either from
vanity or from a desire to evade the fee.
The collection (now in the BibliothSque Nationale) consists of
34 volumes of text and 35 of coloured armorial bearings, and in
spite of its deficiencies is a useful store of information for the history
of the old French families. It contains 60,000 names, grouped
according to provinces and provincial subdivisions. The sections
relating to Burgundy and Franche-Comte' were published by Henri
Bouchot (1875-1876): those relating to the generalM of Limoges,
by Moreau de Pravieux (1895) ; and those for the election of Reims,
by P. Cosset (1903).
In 1717, in consequence of a quarrel with his nephew Louis
Pierre, son of Louis Roger, Charles sold his collection to the
king. It then comprised 160 portfolios of genealogical papers
arranged alphabetically, 175 volumes of documents, and numerous
printed books profusely annotated. In 1720 it was inventoried
by P.de Clairambault, who added a certain numberof genealogies
taken from the papers of F. R. de Gaignieres, increasing the
842
HRABANUS HROSVITHA
total to 217 boxes and portfolios. Thus originated the Cabinet
des litres of the Bibliotheque Nationale. Charles subsequently
became reconciled to his nephew, to whom he left all the papers
he had accumulated from the date of the quarrel until his death,
which occurred in Paris on the I3th of February 1732.
Louis PIERRE D'HOZIER (1685-1767), son of Louis Roger,
succeeded his uncle Charles as juge d'armes. He published the
Armorial general, ou registre de la noblesse de France (10 vols.,
1738-1768), which must not be confounded with the publication
mentioned above, inasmuch as it related solely to noble families
and was not an official collection. Complete copies of this work,
which should contain six registres, are comparatively rare.
A seventh registre, forming vol. xi., prepared by Ambroise
Louis Marie, nephew of Louis Pierre, was published in 1847 by
comte Charles d'Hozier. Louis Pierre died on the 25th of
September 1767. His eldest son, Antoine Marie d'Hozier de
Serigny (i72i-c. 1810), was his father's collaborator and con-
tinuator; and his fourth son, Jean Francois Louis, wrote an
account of the knights of St Michael in the province of Poitou,
which was published in 1896 by the vicomte P. de Chabot.
His nephew, AMBROISE Louis MARIE D'HOZIER (1764-1846),
was the last of the juges d'armes of France. He held the position
of president of the courdescomptes, aides et finances of Normandy,
and was therefore generally known as President d'Hozier, to
distinguish him from the other members of the family. After
the Restoration he was employed to verify French armorial
bearings for the conseil du sceau des litres. He died in obscurity.
His collection, which was purchased in 1851 by the Bibliotheque
Nationale, comprised 136 volumes, 165 portfolios of documents
and 200 packets of extracts from title-deeds, known as the
Carres d'Hozier.
ABRAHAM CHARLES AUGUSTE D'HOZIER (1775-1846), who
also belonged to his family, was implicated in the conspiracy
of Georges Cadoudal, and was condemned to death, but Bona-
parte spared his life. He did not, however, recover his liberty
until after the fall of the emperor, and died at Versailles on
the 24th of August 1846. (C. B.*)
HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS (c. 776-856), arch-
bishop of Mainz, and one of the most prominent teachers and
writers of the Carolingian age, was born of noble parents at Mainz.
Less correct forms of his name are Rabanus and Rhabanus.
The date of his birth is uncertain, but in 801 he received deacon's
orders at Fulda, where he had been sent to school ; in the follow-
ing year, at the instance of Ratgar, his abbot, he went together
with Haimon (afterwards of Halberstadt) to complete his studies
at Tours under Alcuin, who in recognition of his diligence and
purity gave him the surname of Maurus, after St Maur the
favourite disciple of Benedict. Returning after the lapse of
two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with the principal charge
of the school, which under his direction rose into a state of great
efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils at Walafrid
Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferrieres and Otfrid of Weissenburg.
At this period it is most probable that his Excerptio from the
grammar of Priscian, long so popular as a text-book during the
middle ages, was compiled. In 814 he was ordained a priest;
but shortly afterwards, apparently on account of disagreement
with Ratgar, he was compelled to withdraw for a time from
Fulda. This " banishment " is understood to have occasioned
the pilgrimage to Palestine to which he alludes in his commentary
on Joshua. He returned to Fulda on the election of a new abbot
(Eigil) in 817, upon whose death in 822 he himself became abbot.
The duties of this office he discharged with efficiency and success
until 842, when, in order to secure greater leisure for literature
and for devotion, he resigned and retired to the neighbouring
cloister of St Peter's. In 847 he was again constrained to enter
public life by his election to succeed Otgar in the archbishopric
of Mainz, which see he occupied for upwards of eight years.
The principal incidents of historical interest belonging to this
period of his life were those which arose out of his relations to
Gottschalk (?..); they may be regarded as thoroughly typical
of that cruel intolerance which he shared with all his contempor-
aries, and also of that ardent zeal which was peculiar to himself;
but they hardly do justice to the spirit of kindly benevolence
which in less trying circumstances he was ever ready to display.
He died at Winkel on the Rhine, on the 4th of February 856.
He is frequently referred to as St Rabanus, but incorrectly.
His voluminous works, many of which remain unpublished, com-
prise commentaries on a considerable number of the books both of
canonical and of apocryphal Scripture (Genesis to Judges, Ruth,
Kings, Chronicles, Judith, Esther, Canticles, Proverbs, Wisdom,
Ecclesiasticus, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Maccabees,
Matthew, the Epistles of St Paul, including Hebrews); and various
treatises relating to doctrinal and practical subjects, including more
than one series of Homilies. Perhaps the most important is that De
institutione clericorum, in three books, by which he did much to
bring into prominence the views of Augustine and Gregory the
Great as to the training which was requisite for a right discharge
of the clerical function; the most popular has been a comparatively
worthless tract De laudibus sanctae crucis. Among the others
may be mentioned the De universo libri xxii., sine etymologiarum
opus, a kind of dictionary or encyclopaedia, designed as a help
towards the historical and mystical interpretation of Scripture, the
De sacris ordinibus, the De disciplina ecclesiastica and the Martyro-
logium. All of them are characterized by erudition (he knew even
some Greek and Hebrew) rather than by originality of thought.
The poems are of singularly little interest or value, except as includ-
ing one form of the " Veni Creator." In the annals of German
philology a special interest attaches to the Glossaria Latino-Theodisca.
A commentary, Super Porphyrium, printed by Cousin in 1836 among
the Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard, and assigned both by that editor
and by Haureau to Hrabanus Maurus, is now generally believed to
have been the work of a disciple.
The first nominally complete edition of the works of Hrabanus
Maurus was that of Colvener (Cologne, 6 vols. fol., 1627). The
Opera omnia form vols. cvii.-cxii. of Migne's Patrologiae cursus
completus. The De universo is the subject of Compendium der
Naturwissenschaften an der Schule zu Fulda im IX. Jahrhundert
(Berlin, 1880). Maurus is the subject ot monographs by Schwarz
(De Rhabano Mauro primo Germaniae praeceptore, 181 1), Kunstmann
(Historische Monographic liber Hrabanus Magneniius Maurus, 1841),
Spengler (Leben des heil. Rhabanus Maurus, 1856) and Kohler
(Rhabanus Maurus u. die Schule zu Fulda, 1870). Lives by his
disciple Rudolphus and by Joannes Trithemius are printed in the
Cologne edition of the Opera. See also Pertz, Monum. Germ. Hist.
(i. and ii.) ; Bahr, Gesch. d. romischen Literatur im Karoling.
Zeitalter (1840), and Hauck's article in the Herzog-Hauck Real-
encyklopddie, ed. 3.
HROLFR KRAKI, perhaps the most famous of the Danish
kings of the heroic age. In Beowulf, where he is called Hroth-
wulf, he is represented as reigning over Denmark in conjunction
with his uncle Hrothgar, one of the three sons of an earlier
king called Healfdene. In the Old Norse sagas Hrolfe is the son
of Helgi (Halga), the son of Half dan (Healfdene). . He is repre-
sented as a wealthy and peace-loving monarch similar to Hrothgar
in Beowulf, but the latter (Hroarr, or Roe) is quite overshadowed
by his nephew in the Northern authorities. The chief incidents
in Hrolfr's career are the visit which he paid to the Swedish king
Asils (Beowulf's Eadgils), of which several different explanations
are given, and the war, in which he eventually lost his life,
against his brother-in-law HiorvarSr. The name Kraki (pole-
ladder) is said to have been given to him on account of his great
height by a young knight named Voggr, whom he handsomely
rewarded and who eventually avenged his death on HiorvarSr.
There is no reason to doubt that Hrolfr was an historical person
and that he reigned in Denmark during the early years of the
6th century, but the statement found in all the sagas that he
was the stepson of Asils seems hardly compatible with the
evidence of Beowu/f, which is a much earlier authority.
See Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, pp. 52-68, ed. A. Holder
(Strassburg, 1886); and A. Olrik, Danmarks Heltedigtning (Copen-
hagen, 1903).
HROSVITHA (frequently ROSWITHA, and properly HROTSUIT),
early medieval dramatist and chronicler, occupies a very notable
position in the history of modern European literature. Her
endeavours formed part of the literary activity by which the age
of the emperor Otto the Great sought to emulate that of Charles
the Great. The famous nun of Gandersheim has occasionally
been confounded with her namesake, a learned abbess of the
same convent, who must have died at least half a century earlier.
The younger Hrosvitha was born in all probability about the year
935; and, if the statement be correct that she sang the praises
of the three Ottos, she must have lived to near the close of the
HSUAN TSANG
843
century. Some time before the year 959 she entered the Bene-
dictine nunnery of Gandersheim, a foundation which was con-
fined to ladies of German birth, and was highly favoured by
the Saxon dynasty. In 959 Gerberga, daughter of Duke Henry
of Bavaria and niece of the emperor Otto I., was consecrated
abbess of Gandersheim; and the earlier literary efforts of the
youthful Hrosvitha (whose own connexion with the royal family
appears to be an unauthenticated tradition) were encouraged
by the still more youthful abbess, and by a nun of the name of
Richarda.
The literary works of Hrosvitha, all of which were as a matter
of course in Latin, divide- themselves into three groups. Of
these the first and least important comprises eight narrative
religious poems, in leonine hexameters or distichs. Their subjects
are the Nativity of the Virgin (from the apocryphal gospel of
St James, the brother of our Lord), the Ascension and a series
of legends of saints (Gandolph, Pelagius, Theophilus, Basil,
Denis, Agnes). Like these narrative poems, the dramas to which
above all Hrosvitha owes her fame seem to have been designed
for reading aloud or recitation by sisters of the convent. For
though there are indications that the idea of their representation
was at least present to the mind of the authoress, the fact of
such a representation appears to be an unwarrantable assumption.
The comedies of Hrosvitha are six in number, being doubtless
in this respect also intended to recall their nominal model, the
comedies of Terence. They were devised on the simple principle
that the world, the flesh and the devil should not have all the
good plays to themselves. The experiment upon which the young
Christian dramatist ventured was accordingly, although not
absolutely novel, audacious enough. In form the dramas of
" the strong voice of Gandersheim," as Hrosvitha (possibly
alluding to a supposed etymology of her name) calls herself, are
by no means Terentian. They are written in prose, with an
element of something like rhythm, and an occasional admixture
of rhyme. In their themes, and in the treatment of these, they
are what they were intended to be, the direct opposites of the
lightsome adapter of Menander. They are founded upon
legends of the saints, selected with a view to a glorification of
religion in its supremest efforts and most transcendental aspects.
The emperor Constantine's daughter, for example, Constantia,
gives her hand in marriage to Gallicanus, just before he starts
on a Scythian campaign, though she has already taken a vow
of perpetual maidenhood. In the hour of battle he is himself
converted, and, having on his return like his virgin bride chosen
the more blessed unmarried state, dies as a Christian martyr
in exile. The three holy maidens, Agape, Chionia and Irene,
are preserved by a humorous miracle from the evil designs of
Dulcitius, to offer up their pure lives as a sacrifice under
Diocletian's persecutions. Callimachus, who has Romeo-like
carried his earthly passion for the saintly Drusiana into her
tomb, and among its horrors has met with his own death, is
by the mediation of St John raised with her from the dead to
a Christian life. All these themes are treated with both spirit
and skill, often with instinctive knowledge of dramatic effect
often with genuine touches of pathos and undeniable felicities
of expression. In Dulcitius there is also an element of comedy,
or rather of farce. How far Hrosvitha's comedies were an isolated
phenomenon of their age in Germany must remain undecided;
in the general history of the drama they form the visible bridge
between the few earlier attempts at utilizing the forms of the
classical drama for Christian purposes and the miracle plays.
They are in any case the productions of genius; nor has Hrosvitha
missed the usual tribute of the supposition that Shakespeare
has borrowed from her writings.
The third and last group of the writings of Hrosvitha is that
of her versified historical chronicles. At the request of the
abbess Gerberga, she composed her Carmen de geslis Oddonis,
an epic attempting in some degree to follow the great Roman
model. It was completed by the year 968, and presented by
the authoress to both the old emperor and his son (then already
crowned as) Otto II. This poem so closely adheres to the materials
supplied to the authoress by members of the imperial family
that, notwithstanding its courtly omissions, it is regarded as
an historical authority. Unfortunately only half of it remains;
the part treating of the period from 953 to 962 is lost with the
exception of a few fragments, and the period from 962 to
967 is summarized only. Subsequently, in a poem (of 837
hexameters) De primordiis et fundatoribus coenobii Ganders-
heimensis, Hrosvitha narrated the beginnings of her own convent,
and its history up to the year 919.
The Munich MS., which contains all the works enumerated above
except the Chronicle of Gandersheim, was edited by the great Vienna
humanist, Conrad Celtes, in 1 501 . The edition of Celtes was published
at Nuremberg, with eight wood-cuts by Albrecht Durer. It was
re-edited by H. L. Schurzfleisch and published at Wittenberg in
1707. The comedies have been edited and translated into German
by J. Bendixen (Lubeck, 1857), and into French by C. Magnin
(Paris, 1845), whose introduction gives a full account of the authoress
and her works. See also her Patsies latines, with a translation into
French verse by V. R6tif de la Bretonne (Paris, 1854). A copious
analysis of her plays will be found in Klein, Geschichte des Dramas,
iii. 665-754. See also W. Creizenach, Geschichte des neueren Dramas,
i. 17 sqq. (Halle, 1893), and A. W. Ward, History of English Dramatic
Literature, i. 6 sqq. (Cambridge, 1899). Gustav Frcytag wrote a
dissertation, De Rosuitha poetna (Breslau, 1839), to qualify himself
as an academical teacher, which, as he records (Erinnerungen aus
meinem Leben, Leipzig, 1887, p. 1839), showed " how impossible it
was to the German, a thousand years since, to compose dramatic-
ally "; and at the beginning of Albert Cohn's Shakespeare in Ger-
many (Berlin, 1865) Shakespearean parallels are suggested to certain
passages in Hrosvitha's dramas. Her two chronicles in verse were
edited by Z. H. Pertz in the Monumenta Germaniae, iv. 306-335
(Hanover, 1841). See also J. P. Migne, Patrologiae curs, compl.
(Paris, 1853, vo '- J 37)- The Carmen was included by Leibnitz
in his Scriptores rer. Brunsvic. (Hanover, 1707-1711). For other
early editions of these see A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii
aevi (supplement, Berlin, 1862-1868); and for an appreciation of
them see Wattenbach, Geschichtsquellen, pp. 214-216, and Giesebrecht,
Deutsche Kaiserzeit, i. 780, who mentions a German translation by
Pfund (1860). There is a complete edition of the works of Hrosvitha
by K. A. Barack (Nurnberg, 1858). J. Aschbach (1867) attempted
to prove that Celtes had forged the productions which he published
under the name of Hrosvitha, but he was refuted by R. Kopke
(Berlin, 1869). Anatole France, La Vie litteraire (3* scrie, Paris,
1891), cited by Creienach, mentions a curious recent experiment,
the performance of Hrosvitha's comedies in the Thdatre des
Marionettes at Paris. (A. W. W.)
HStiAN TSANG (HIOUEN THSANG, HIWEN T'SANG, YUAN
TSANG, YUAN-CHWANG), the most eminent representative of a
remarkable and valuable branch of Chinese literature, consisting
of the narratives of Chinese Buddhists who travelled to India,
whilst their religion flourished there, with the view of visiting
the sites consecrated by the history of Sakya Muni, of studying
at the great convents which then existed in India, and of collecting
books, relics and other sacred objects.
The importance of these writings as throwing light on the geo-
graphy and history of India and adjoining countries, during a very
dark period, is great, and they have been the subject of elaborate
commentaries by modern students. Several Chinese memoirs of
this kind appear to have perished; and especially to be regretted
is a great collection of the works of travellers to India, religious and
secular, in sixty books, with forty moreof mapsand illustrations, pub-
lished at the expense of the emperor Kao-Tsung of the T'ang dynasty,
A.D. 666, with a preface from the imperial hand. We will mention
the clerical travellers of this description who are known to us by name.
I. Shi-tao-'an (d. 385) wrote a work on his travels to the
" western lands " (an expression applying often to India), which is
supposed to be lost. 2. Fa-hien travelled to India in 399, and
returned by sea in 414. His work, called Fo-Kwo-Ki, or Memoirs
on the Buddha Realms, has been translated by Abel-R6musat and
Landresse, and again into English by the Rev. S. Bcalc; Mr Laidlay
of Calcutta also published a translation from the French, with in-
teresting notes. 3. Hwai Seng and Sung-Yun, monks, travelled
to India to collect books and reliques, 518521. Their short narrative
has been translated by Karl Fried. Neumann, and also by Mr Beale
(along with Fa-hien). 4. Hsuan Tsang, the subject of this notice.
In relation to his travels there are two Chinese works, both of which
have been translated with an immense appliance of labour and
learning by M. Stanislas Julien, viz. (a) the Ta-Tang-Si-Yu-Ki, or
Memoirs on Western Countries issued by the T'ang Dynasty, which
was compiled under the traveller's own supervision, by order of the
great emperor Tai-Tsung; and (6) a Biography of Hsuan Tsang by
two of his contemporaries. 5. The Itinerary of Fifty-six Religious
Travellers, compiled and published under imperial authority, 730.
6. The Itinerary of Khi-Nie, who travelled (964-976) at the head
of a large body of monks to collect books, &c. Neither of the last
two has been translated.
HUAMBISAS HUANCAVELICA
Hsiian Tsang was born in the district of Keu-Shi, near Honan-
Fu, about 605, a period at which Buddhism appears to have had
a powerful influence upon a large body of educated Chinese.
From childhood grave and studious, he was taken in charge by an
elder brother who had adopted the monastic life, in a convent at
the royal city of Loyang in Honan. Hsiian Tsang soon followed
his brother's example. For some years he travelled over China,
teaching and learning, and eventually settled for a time at the
capital Chang-gan (now Si-gan-fu in Shensi), where his fame
for learning became great. The desire which he entertained
to visit India, in order to penetrate all the doctrines of the
Buddhist philosophy, and to perfect the collections of Indian
books which existed in China, grew irresistible, and in August
629 he started upon his solitary journey, eluding with difficulty
the strict prohibition which was in force against crossing the
frontier.
The " master of the law," as his biographers call him, plunged
alone into the terrible desert of the Gobi, then known as the
Sha-mo or " Sand River," between Kwa-chow and Igu (now
Kami or Kamil). At long intervals he found help from the small
garrisons of the towers that dotted the desert track. Very
striking is the description, like that given six centuries later
by Marco Polo, of the quasi-supernatural horrors that beset the
lonely traveller in the wilderness the visions of armies and
banners; and the manner in which they are dissipated singularly
recalls passages in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. After great
suffering Hsiian Tsang reached Igu, the seat of a Turkish princi-
pality, and pursued his way along the southern foot of the
T'ian-shan, which he crossed by a glacier pass (vividly described)
in the longitude of Lake Issyk-kul. In the valley of the Talas
river he encounters the great khan of the Turks on a hunting
party, a rencontre which it is interesting to compare with the
visit of Zemarchus to the great khan Dizabul, sixty years before,
in the same region. Passing by the present Tashkend, and by
Samarkand, then inhabited by fire worshippers, he reached the
basin of the Upper Oxus, which had recently been the seat of
the powerful dominion of the Haiathelah, Ephthalites or
White Huns, known in earlier days to the Greeks as Tochari, and
to Hsiian Tsang (by the same name) as Tuholo or Tukhara. His
account of the many small states into which the Tukhara
empire had broken up is of great interest, as many of them are
identical in name and topography with the high valley states
and districts on the Upper Oxus, which are at this day the object
of so much geographical and political interest.
Passing by Bamian, whei'e he speaks of the great idols still
so famous, he crosses Hindu-Kush, and descends the valley of
the Kabul river to Nagarahara, the site of which, still known
as Nagara, adjoining Jalalabad, has oeen explored by Mr W.
Simpson. Travelling thence to Peshawar (Purushapura), the
capital of Gandhara, he made a digression, through the now
inaccessible valley of Swat and the Dard states, to the Upper
Indus, returning to Peshawar, and then crossing the Indus (Sintu)
into the decayed kingdom of Taxila (Ta-cha-si-lo, Takshasila),
then subject to Kashmir. In the latter valley he spent two
whole years (631-633) studying in the convents, and visiting
the many monuments of his faith. In his further travels he visited
Mathura (Mofulo, Muttra), whence he turned north to Thanesar
and the upper Jumna and Ganges, returning south down the
valley of the latter to Kanyakubja or Kanauj, then one of the
great capitals of India. The pilgrim next entered on a circuit
of the most famous sites of Buddhist and of ancient Indian
history, such as Ajodhya, Prayaga (Allahabad), Kausambhi,
Sravasti, Kapilavastu, the birth-place of Sakya, Kusinagara, his
death-place, Pataliputra (Patna, the Palibothra of the Greeks),
Gaya, Rajagriha and Nalanda, the most famous and learned
monastery and college in India, adorned by the gifts of successive
kings, of the splendour of which he gives a vivid description, and
of which traces have recently been recovered. There he again
spent nearly two years in mastering Sanskrit and the depths
of Buddhist philosophy. Again, proceeding down the banks of
the Ganges, he diverged eastward to Kamarupa (Assam), and
then passed by the great ports of Tamralipti (Tamluk, the mis-
placed Tamalitis of Ptolemy), and through Orissa to Kanchipara
(Conjeeveram), about 640. Thence he went northward across
the Carnatic and Maharashtra to Barakacheva (Broach of our
day, Barygaza of the Greeks). After this he visited Malwa, Cutch,
Surashtra (peninsular Gujarat, Syrastrene of the Greeks), Sind,
Multan and Ghazni, whence he rejoined his former course in the
basin of the Kabul river.
This time, however, he crosses Pamir, of which he gives a
remarkable account, and passes by Kashgar, Khotan (Kustana),
and the vicinity of Lop-nor across the desert to Kwa-chow,
whence he had made his venturous and lonely plunge into the
waste fifteen years before. He carried with him great collections
of books, precious images and reliques, and was received (April
645) with public and imperial enthusiasm. The emperor T'ai-
Tsung desired him to commit his journey to writing, and also
that he should abandon the eremitic rule and serve the state.
This last he declined, and devoted himself to the compilation
of his narrative and the translation of the books he had brought
with him from India. The former was completed A.D. 648. In
664 Hsiian Tsang died in a convent at Chang-gan. Some things
in the history of his last days, and in the indications of beatitude
recorded, strongly recall the parallel history of the saints of the
Roman calendar. But on the other hand we find the Chinese
saint, on the approach of death, causing one of his disciples to
frame a catalogue of his good works, of the books that he had
translated or caused to be transcribed, of the sacred pictures
executed at his cost, of the alms that he had given, of the living
creatures that he had ransomed from death. " When Kia-shang
had ended writing this list, the master ordered him to read it aloud.
After hearing it the devotees clasped their hands, and showered
their felicitations on him." Thus the " well-done, good and
faithful " comes from the servant himself in self -applause.
The book of the biography, by the disciples Hwai-li and
Yen-t'sung, as rendered with judicious omissions by Stan.
Julien, is exceedingly interesting; its Chinese style receives
high praise from the translator, who says he has often had to
regret his inability to reproduce its grace, elegance and vivacity.
AUTHORITIES. Fo-Koue-Ki, trad, du Chinois, par Abel-Remusat,
revu et complet6 par Klaproth et Landresse (Paris, 1836); H. de la
vie de Hiouen-Thsang, &c., trad, du Chinois par Stanislas Julien
(Paris, 1853) ; Memoires sur les contrees occidentals . . . trad, du
Chinois en Francais (par le meme) (2 vols., Paris, 1857-1858);
Memoire analytique, &c., attached to the last work, by L. Vivien de
St Martin; " Attempt to identify some of the Places mentioned in
the Itinerary of Hiuan Thsang," by Major Wm. Anderson, C.B., in
Journ, As, Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. pt. 2, p. 1183 (the enunciation of a
singularly perverse theory); " Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan
Thsang, &c.," by Captain Alex. Cunningham, Bengal Engineers, ibid,
vol. xvii. pt. I, p. 476; Travels of Fah-hian and Sung-Yan, Buddhist
Pilgrims, &c., by Sam. Beal (1869); The Ancient Geography of
India, by Major-General Alex. Cunningham, R.E. (1871); " Notes
on Hwen Thsang's Account of the Principalities of Tokharistan,"
by Colonel H. Yule, C.B., in Journ. Roy. As. Soc., new ser., vol. vi.
C. 82; "On Hiouen Thsang's Journey from Patna to Ballabhi,"
y James Fergusson, D.C.L., ibid. p. 213. (H. Y. ; R. K. D.)
HUAMBISAS, a tribe of South American Indians on the upper
Maranon and Santiago rivers, Peru. In 1841 they drove all the
civilized Indians from the neighbouring missions. In 1843 they
killed all the inhabitants of the village of Santa Teresa, between
the mouths of the Santiago and Morona. They are fair-skinned
and bearded, sharing with the Jeveros a descent from the Spanish
women captured by their Indian ancestors at the sack of Sevilla
del Oro in 1599.
HUANCAVELICA, a city of central Peru and capital of a
department, 160 m. S.E. of Lima. The city stands in a deep
ravine of the Andes at an elevation of about 12,400 ft. above the
sea, the ravine having an average width of i m. Pop. (1906
estimate) 6000. The city is solidly and regularly built, the
houses being of stone and the stream that flows through the
town being spanned by several stone bridges. Near Huan-
cavelica is the famous quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, with
its subterranean church of San Rosario, hewn from the native
cinnabar-bearing rock. Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy
Francisco de Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining
continues to be the principal occupation of its inhabitants. The
HUANUCO HUBER, L. F.
845
department is traversed by tte Cordillera Occidental, and is
bounded N., E. and S. by Junin and Ayacucho. Pop. (1906
official estimate) 167,8^0; area, 9254 sq. m. The principal
industry is mining for silver and quicksilver. The best-known
silver mines are the Castrovirreyna.
HUANUCO. a city of central Peru, capital of a department,
170 m. N.N.E. of Lima in a beautiful valley on the left bank of
the Huallaga river, nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906
estimate) about 6000. The town was founded in 1539 by Gomez
Alvarado. Huanuco is celebrated for its fruits and sweetmeats,
the " chirimoya " (Anona chirimolia) of this region being the
largest and most delicious of its kind. Mining is one of the city's
industries. Huanuco was the scene of one of the bloodthirsty
massacres of which the Chileans were guilty during their occupa-
tion of Peruvian territory in 1881-1883. The department of
Huanuco lies immediately N. of Junin, with Ancachs on the W.
and San Martin and Loreto on the N. and E. Pop. (1906
estimate) 108,980; area, 14,028 sq. m. It lies wholly in the
Cordillera region, and is traversed from S. to N. by the Maranon
and Huallaga rivers.
HUARAZ, a city of northern Peru and capital of the department
of Ancachs, on the left bank of the Huaraz, or Santa river, about
190 m. N.N.W. of Lima and 58 m. from the coast. Pop. (1876)
4851, (1906 estimate) 6000. Huaraz is situated in a narrow
fertile valley of the Western Cordillera, at a considerable eleva-
tion above sea-level, and has a mild climate. A railway projected
to connect Huaraz with the port of Chimbote, on the Bay of
Chimbote, a few miles S. of the mouth of the Santa river, was
completed from Chimbote to Suchiman (33 m.) in 1872, when
work was suspended for want of money. In the valley of the
Huaraz cattle are raised, and wheat, sugar and fruit, gold, silver,
copper and coal are produced. Alfalfa is grown by stock-raisers,
and the cattle raised here are among the best in the Peruvian
market. In the vicinity of Huaraz are megalithic ruins similar
to those of Tiahunaco and Cuzco, showing that the aboriginal
empire preceding the Incas extended into northern Peru.
HUARTE DE SAN -JUAN, or HUARTE Y NAVARRO, JUAN
(c. 1530-1592), Spanish physician and psychologist, was born at
Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (Lower Navarre) about 1530, was
educated at the university of Huesca, where he graduated in
medicine, and, though it appears doubtful whether he practised
as a physician at Huesca, distinguished himself by his professional
skill and heroic zeal during the plague which devastated Baeza
in 1566. He died in 1592. His Examen de ingenios para las
ciencias (1575) won him a European reputation, and was trans-
lated by Lessing. Though now superseded, Huarte's treatise is
historically interesting as the first attempt to show the con-
nexion between psychology and physiology, and its acute
ingenuity is as remarkable as the boldness of its views.
HUASTECS, a tribe of North American Indians of Mayan
stock, living to the north of Vera Cruz. They are of interest to the
ethnologist as being so entirely detached from the other Mayan
tribes of Central America. The theory is that the Mayas came
from the north and that the Huastecs were left behind in the
migration southward.
HUBER, FRANCOIS (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, was born
at Geneva on the 2nd of July 1750. He belonged to a family
which had already made its mark in the literary and scientific
world: his great-aunt, Marie Huber (1695-1753), was known as
a voluminous writer on religious and theological subjects, and
as the translator and epitomizer of the Spectator (Amsterdam,
3 vols., 1753); and his father Jean Huber (1721-1786), who had
served for many years as a soldier, was a prominent member of
the coterie at Ferney, distinguishing himself by his Observations
sur le vol des oiseaux (Geneva, 1784). Francois Huber was only
fifteen years old when he began to suffer from an affection of the
eyes which gradually resulted in total blindness; but, with the
aid of his wife, Marie Aimee Lullin, and of his servant, Francois
Burnens, he was able to carry out investigations that laid the
foundations of our scientific knowledge of the life history of the
honey-bee. His Nouiielles Observations sur les abeilles was pub-
lished at Geneva in 1792 (Eng. trans., 1806). He assisted Jean
Senebier in his Mem. sur I'influence de I' air, &c., dans la germina-
tion (Geneva, 1800); and he also wrote " Mem. sur 1'origine de la
cire " (Bibliotheque britannique, tome xxv.), a " Lettre a M.
Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les abeilles " (Bib.
brit. xxvii), and " Nouvelles Observ. rel. au sphinx Atropos "
(Bib. brit. xxvii). He died at Lausanne on the 22nd of December
1831. De Candolle gave his name to a genus of Brazilian trees
Huberia laurina.
PIERRE HUBER (1777-1840) followed in his father's footsteps.
His best-known work is Recherches sur les mceurs des fourmis
indigenes (Geneva and Paris, 1810; new ed., Geneva, 1861), and
he also wrote various papers on entomological subjects.
See the account of Francois Huber, by De Candolle, in Bibl.
universelle (1832); and the notice of Pierre in Bibl. univ. (1886);
also Haag, La France protestante.
HUBSR, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1830-1879), German philo-
sophical and theological writer, a leader of the Old Catholics,
was born at Munich on the i8th of August 1830. Originally
destined for the priesthood, he early began the study of theology.
By the writings of Spinoza and Oken, however, he was strongly
drawn to philosophical pursuits, and it was in philosophy that
he " habilitated " (1854) in the university of his native place,
where he ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859;
ordinarius, 1864). With Dollinger and others he attracted a
large amount of public attention in 1869 by the challenge to the
Ultramontane promoters of the Vatican council in the treatise
Dy Papst unddasKoncil, which appeared under the pseudonym
of " Janus," and also in 1870 by a series of letters (Romische
Briefe, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome during the
sitting of the council), which were published over the pseudonym
Quirinus in the Allgemeine Zeitung. He died suddenly of heart
disease at Munich on the 2oth of March 1879.
WORKS. The treatise Vber die Willensfreiheit (1858), followed in
1859 by Die Philosophie der Kirchenvater , which was promptly
placed upon the Index, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic
students from attending his lectures; Johannes Scotus Erigena
(1861); Die Idee der Unsterblichkeit (1864); Studien (1867); Der
Proletarier; zur Orientirung in der sozialen Frage (1865); Der
Jesuitenorden nach seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und
Geschichte (1873), also placed upon the Index; Der Pessimismus
(1876); Die Forschung nach der Materie (1877); Zur Philosophie
der Astronomie (1878); Das Gedachtnis (1878). He also published
adverse criticisms of Darwin, Strauss, Hartmann and Hackel;
pamphlets on Das Papsttum und der Staat (1870), and on Die Frei-
heiten der franzosischen Kirche (1871); and a volume of Kleine
Schriflen (1871).
See E. Zirngiebl, Johannes Huber (1881); and M. Carnere in
Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xiii. (1881), and in Nord und Sud
(1879).
HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND (1764-1804), German author,
was born in Paris on the I4th of September 1764, the son of
Michael Huber (1727-1804), who did much to promote the
study of German literature in France. In his infancy young
Huber removed with his parents to Leipzig, where he was
carefully instructed in modern languages and literature, and
showed a particular inclination for those of France and England.
In Leipzig he became intimate with Christian Gottfried Korner,
father of the poet; in Dresden Huber became engaged to Dora
Stock, sister of Korner's betrothed, and associated with Schiller,
who was one of Korner's stanchest friends. In 1787 he was
appointed secretary to the Saxon legation in Mainz, where he
remained until the French occupation of 1792. While here he
interested himself for the welfare of the family of his friend
Georg Forster, who, favouring republican views, had gone to
Paris, leaving his wife Therese Forster (1764-1829) and family
in destitute circumstances. Huber, enamoured of the talented
young wife, gave up his diplomatic post, broke off his engagement
to Dora Stock, removed with the Forster family to Switzerland,
and on the death of her husband in 1794 married Therese Forster.
In 1798 Huber took over the editorship of the Allgemeine Zeilung
in Stuttgart. The newspaper having been prohibited in Wiirttem-
berg, Huber continued its editorship in Ulm in 1803. He was
created " counsellor of education " for the new Bavarian province
of Swabia in the following year, but had hardly entered upon
the functions of his new office when he died on the 24th of
December 1804.
HUBERT, ST HUG
Huber was well versed in English literature, and in 1785 he
published the drama Ethelwolf, with notes on Beaumont and
Fletcher and the old English stage. He also wrote many dramas,
comedies and tragedies, most of which are now forgotten, and
among them only Das heimliche Gericht (1790, new ed. 1795)
enjoyed any degree of popularity. As a critic he is seen to
advantage in the Vermischte Schriften von dent Verfasser des
heimlichen Gerichts (2 vols., 1793). As a publicist he made his
name in the historical-political periodicals Friedenspriiliminarien
(1794-1796, 10 vols.) and Klio (1795-1798, 1819).
His collected works, Samtliche Werke seit dem Jahre 1802 (4 vols.,
1807-1819), were published with a biography by his wife Therese
Huber. See L. Speidel and H. Wittmann, Bilder aus der Schiller-
Zeit (1884).
HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727), bishop of
Liege, whose festival is celebrated on the 3rd of November.
The Bollandists have published seven different lives of the
saint. The first is the only one of any value, and is the work
of a contemporary. Unfortunately, it is very sparing of details.
In it we see that Hubert in 708 succeeded Lambert in the see
of Maestricht (Tongres), and that he erected a basilica to his
memory. In 825 Hubert's remains were removed to a Bene-
dictine cloister in the Ardennes, which thenceforth bore his
name (St Hubert, province of Luxemburg, Belgium), and ulti-
mately became a considerable resort of pilgrims. The later
legends (Bibliotheca hagiographica latino,, nos. 3994-4002) are
devoid of authority. One of them relates, probably following
the legend of St Eustace, the miracle of the conversion of St
Hubert. This conversion, represented as having been brought
about while he was hunting on Good Friday by a miraculous
appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a cross or crucifix
surrounded with rays of light, has frequently been made the
subject of artistic treatment. He is the patron of hunters, and
is also invoked in cases of hydrophobia. Several orders of
knighthood have been under his protection; among these may
be mentioned the Bavarian, the Bohemian and that of the
electorate of Cologne.
See Acta Sanctorum, Novembris, i. 759-930; G. Kurth, Charles
de I'abbaye de St Hubert en Ardenne (Brussels, 1903) ; Anna Jameson,
Sacred and Legendary Art, i. 732-737 (London, 1896); Cahier,
Caracteristigues des saints, pp. 183, 775, &c. (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.)
HUBERTUSBURG, a chateau in the kingdom of Saxony,
near the village of Wermsdorf and midway 6 m. between the
towns Oschatz and Grimma. It was built in 1721-1724 by
Frederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony, subsequently King
Augustus III. of Poland, as a hunting box, and was often the
scene of brilliant festivities. It is famous for the peace signed
here on the i5th of February 1763, which ended the Seven Years'
War. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it now serves the
purpose of a lunatic asylum and a training school for nursing
sisters.
See Riemer, Das Schloss Hubertusburg, sonst und jetzt (Oschatz,
1881).
HUBLI, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of
Bombay, 15 m. S.E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 60,214.
It is a railway junction on the Southern Mahratta system,
where the lines to Bangalore and Bezwada branch off south and
west. It is an important centre of trade and of cotton and silk
weaving, and has two cotton mills and several factories for
ginning and pressing cotton. Hubli was in early times the seat
of an English factory, which, with the rest of the town, was
plundered in 1673 by Sivaji, the Mahratta leader.
HUBNER, EMIL (1834-1901), German classical scholar, son
of the historical painter Julius Hiibner (1806-1882), was born at
Diisseldorf on the 7th of July 1834. After studying at Berlin
and Bonn, he travelled extensively with a view to antiquarian
and epigraphical researches. The results of these travels were
embodied in several important works: Inscriptiones Hispaniae
Lalinae (1869, supplement 1892), I.H. Christianae (1871, supple-
ment 1900); Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae (1873), I.E.
Christianae (1876); La Arqueologia de Espana (1888); Monu-
menta linguae Hibericae (1893). Hiibner was also the author
of two books of the greatest utility to the classical student:
Grundriss zu Vorlesungen ilber die romische Liter alurgeschichte
(4th ed. 1878, edited, with large additions, by J. E. B. Mayor as
Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature, 1875), and Bibliographic
der dassischen Altertumswissenschaft (2nd ed., 1889); mention
may also be made of Romische Epigraphik (2nd ed., 1892);
Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae Latinae (1885); and Romische
Herrschafl in Westeuropa (1890). In 1870 Hiibner was appointed
professor of Classical Philology in the university of Berlin,
where he died on the 2ist of February 1901.
HUBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER, COUNT (1811-1892),
Austrian diplomatist, was born in Vienna on the 26th of
November 1811. His real name was Hafenbredl, which he after-
wards changed to Hiibner. He began his public career in 1833
under Metternich, whose confidence he soon gained, and who
sent him in 1837 as attache to Paris. In 1841 he became secretary
of embassy at Lisbon, and in 1844 Austrian consul-general at
Leipzig. In 1848 he was sent to Milan to conduct the diplomatic
correspondence of Archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy.
On the outbreak of the revolution he was seized as a hostage,
and remained a prisoner for some months. Returning to Austria,
he was entrusted with the compilation of the documents and pro-
clamations relating to the abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand
and the accession of Francis Joseph. His journal, an invaluable
clue to the complicated intrigues of this period, was published
in 1891 in French and German, under the title of Une Annee
de ma vie, 1848-1849. In March 1849 he was sent on a special
mission to Paris, and later in the same year was appointed
ambassador ' to France. To his influence was in large measure
due the friendly attitude of Austria to the Allies in the Crimean
War, at the close of which he represented Austria at the congress
of Paris in 1856. He allowed himself, however, to be taken by
surprise by Napoleon's intervention on behalf of Italian unity,
of which the first public intimation was given by the French
emperor's cold reception of Hiibner on New Year's Day, 1859,
with the famous words: " I regret that our relations with your
Government are not so good as they have hitherto been." He
did not return to Paris after the war, and after holding the
ministry of police in the Goluchowski cabinet from August to
October 1859, Jived in retirement till 1865, when he became
ambassador at Rome. Quitting this post in 1867, he undertook
extensive travels, his descriptions of which appeared as Promenade
autour du monde, 1871 (1873; English translation by Lady
Herbert, 1874) and Through the British Empire (1886). Written
in a bright and entertaining style, and characterized by shrewd
observation, they achieved considerable popularity in their
time. A more serious effort was his Sixte-Quint (1870, trans-
lated into English by H. E. H. Jerningham under the title of
The Life and Times ofSixtus the Fifth, 1872), an original contribu-
tion to the history of the period, based on unpublished documents
at the Vatican, Simancas and Venice. In 1879 he was made
a life-member of the Austrian Upper House, where he sat as a
Clerical and Conservative. He had received the rank of Baron
(Freiherr) in 1854, and in 1888 was raised to the higher rank of
Count (Graf). He died at Vienna on the 3oth of July 1892.
Though himself of middle-class origin, he was a profound admirer
of the old aristocratic regime, and found his political ideals in
his former chiefs, Metternich and Schwarzenberg. As the last
survivor of the Metternich school, he became towards the close
of his life more and more out of touch with the trend of modern
politics, but remained a conspicuous figure in the Upper House
and at the annual delegations. That he possessed the breadth
of mind to appreciate the working of a system at total variance
with his own school of thought was shown by his grasp of British
colonial questions. It is interesting, in view of subsequent
events, to note his emphatic belief in the loyalty of the British
colonies a belief not shared at that time by many statesmen
with far greater experience of democratic institutions.
See Sir Ernest Satow, An Austrian Diplomatist in the Fifties (1908).
HUC, EVARISTE RfiGIS (1813-1860), French missionary-
traveller, was born at Toulouse, on the ist of August 1813. In
his twenty-fourth year he entered the congregation of the
Lazarists at Paris, and shortly after receiving holy orders in
HUCBALD HUCHOWN
847
1839 went out to China. At Macao he spent some eighteen
months in the Lazarist seminary, preparing himself for the
regular work of a missionary. Having acquired some command
of the Chinese tongue, and modified his personal appearance
and dress in accordance with Chinese taste, he started from
Canton. He at first superintended a Christian mission in the
southern provinces, and then passing to Peking, where he per-
fected his knowledge of the language, eventually settled in the
Valley of Black Waters or He Shuy, a little to the north of the
capital, and just within the borders of Mongolia. There, beyond
the Great Wall, a large but scattered population of native
Christians had found a refuge from the persecutions of Kia-
King, to be united half a century later in a vast but vague
apostolic vicariate. The assiduky with which Hue devoted
himself to the study of the dialects and customs of the Tatars,
for whom at the cost of much labour he translated various
religious works, was an admirable preparation for undertaking
in 1844, at the instigation of the vicar apostolic of Mongolia,
an expedition whose object was to dissipate the obscurity which
hung over the country and habits of the Tibetans. September
of that year found the missionary at Dolon Nor occupied with
the final arrangements for his journey, and shortly afterwards,
accompanied by his fellow-Lazarist, Joseph Gabet, and a young
Tibetan priest who had embraced Christianity, he set out. To
escape attention the little party assumed the dress of lamas
or priests. Crossing the Hwang-ho, they advanced into the
terrible sandy tract known as the Ordos Desert. After suffering
dreadfully from want of water and fuel they entered Kansu,
having recrosied the flooded Hwang-ho, but it was not till
January 1845 that they reached Tang-Kiul on the boundary.
Rather than encounter alone the horrors of a four months'
journey to Lhasa they resolved to wait for eight months till
the arrival of a Tibetan embassy on its return from Peking.
Under an intelligent teacher they meanwhile studied the Tibetan
language and Buddhist literature, and during three months
of their stay they resided in the famous Kunbum Lamasery,
which was reported to accommodate 4000 persons. Towards
the end of September they joined the returning embassy, which
comprised 2000 men and 3700 animals. Crossing the deserts
of Koko Nor, they passed the great lake of that name, with its
island of contemplative lamas, and, following a difficult and
tortuous track across snow-covered mountains, they at last
entered Lhasa on the 2pth of January 1846. Favourably received
by the regent, they opened a little chapel, and were in a fair way
to establish an important mission, when the Chinese ambassador
interfered and had the two missionaries conveyed back to Canton,
where they arrived in October of the same year. For nearly
three years Hue remained at Canton, but Gabet, returning to
Europe, proceeded thence to Rio de Janeiro, and died there
shortly afterwards. Hue returned to Europe in shattered
health in 1852, visiting India, Egypt and Palestine on his way,
and, after a prolonged residence in Paris, died on the 3ist of
March 1860.
His writings comprise, besides numerous letters and memoirs
in the Annales de la propagation de lafoi, the famous Souvenirs d'-un
voyage dans la Tarlarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les annees
1844-1846 (2 vols., Paris, 1850; Eng. trans, by W. Hazlitt, 1851,
abbreviated by M. Jones, London, 1867); its supplement, crowned
by the Academy, entitled L' Empire chinois (2 vols., Paris, 1854;
Eng. trans., London, 1859); and an elaborate historical work, Le
Christianisme en Chine, &c. (4 vols., Paris, 1857-1858; Eng. trans.,
London, 1857-1858). These works are written in a lucid, racy,
picturesque style, which secured for them an unusual degree of
popularity. The Souvenirs is a narrative of a remarkable feat of
travel, and contains passages of so singular a character as in the
absence of corroborative testimony to stir up a feeling of incredulity.
That Hue was suspected unjustly was amply proved by later re-
search. But he was by no means a practical geographer, and
the record of his travels loses greatly in value from the want of
precise scientific data.
See, for information specially relating to the whole subject, the
Abb6 Desgodin's Mission du Thibet de 18$$ a 1870 (Verdun, 1872) ;
and " Account of the Pundit's Journey in Great Tibet," in the
Royal Geographical Society's Journal for 1877.
HUCBALD (HUGBALDUS, HUBALDUS), Benedictine monk, and
writer on music, was born at the monastery of Saint Amand
near Tournai, in or about 840, if we may believe the statement of
his biographers, to the effect that he died in 930, aged 90. He
studied at the monastery, where his uncle Milo occupied an
important position. Hucbald made rapid progress in the
acquirement of various sciences and arts, including that of music,
and at an early age composed a hymn in honour of St Andrew,
which met with such success as to excite the jealousy of his uncle.
It is said that Hucbald in consequence was compelled to leave
St Amand, and started an independent school of music and other
arts at Nevers. In 860, however, he was at St Germain d'Auxerre,
bent upon completing his studies, and in 872 he was back again
at St Amand as the successor in the headmastership of the
convent school of his uncle, to whom he had been reconciled in
the meantime. Between 883 and 900 Hucbald went on several
missions of reforming and reconstructing various schools of
music, including that of Rheims, but in the latter year he re-
turned to St Amand, where he remained to the day of his death
on the 25th of June 930, o'r, according to other chroniclers,
on the 2oth of June 932. The only work which can positively
be ascribed to him is his Harmonica Inslitutio. The Musica
Enchiriadis, published with other writings of minor importance
in Gerbert's Scriptores de Musica, and containing a complete
system of musical science as well as instructions regarding
notation, has now been proved to have originated about half a
century later than the death of the monk Hucbald, and to have
been the work of an unknown writer belonging to the close of the
toth century and possibly also bearing the name of Hucbald.
This work is celebrated chiefly for an essay on a new form
of notation described in the present day as Dasia Notation.
The author of the Harmonica Inslitutio wrote numerous lives
of the saints and a curious poem on bald men, dedicated to
Charles the Bald.
AUTHORITIES. Sir John Hawkins, General History of the Science
and Practice of Music (i. 153) ; Histoire litteraire de la France (vi. 216
et seq.) ; Coussemaker, Memoire sur Hucbald (Paris, 1841); Hans
Miiller, Hucbald's echte und unechte Schriflen uber Musik (Leipzig,
1884); Spitta, Die Musica Enchiriadis und seine Zeitalter (Viertel-
jahresschrift fur Musikwissenschaft, 1889, 5th year).
HU-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang
(30 48' N., 120 3' E.), a little S. of Tai-hu Lake, in the
midst of the central silk district. According to Chinese authorities
it is 6 m. in circumference, and contains about 100,000 families.
A broad stream or canal crosses the city from south to north,
and forms the principal highway for boat traffic. The main
trade of the place is in raw silk, but some silk fabrics, such as
flowered crape (chousha), are also manufactured. Silk is largely
worn even by the lowest classes of the inhabitants.
HUCHOWN, " of the Awle Ryale " (fl. i 4 th century), Scottish
poet, is referred to by Wyntoun in his Chronicle in these words:
" Hucheon,
t cunnande was in littratur.
e made a gret Gest of Arthurs,
And fe Awntyr of Gawane,
C Pistil als of Suet Susane.
e was curyousse in his stille,
Fayr of facunde and subtile,
And ay to pleyssance hade'delyte,
Mad in metyr meit his dyte
Litil or noucht neuir be lesse
Wauerande fra be suythfastnes."
(Cott. MS. bk. v. n, 4308-4318).
Much critical ingenuity has been spent in endeavouring to
identify (a) the poet and (b) the works named in the foregoing
passage. It has been assumed that " Huchown," or " Hucheon,"
represents the " gude Sir Hew of Eglyntoun " named by Dunbar
(q.v.) in his Lament for the Makaris (i. 53). The only known
Sir Hugh of Eglintoun of the century is frequently mentioned
in the public records from the middle of the century onwards,
as an auditor of accounts and as witness to several charters.
By 1360 he had married Dame Egidia, widow of Sir James
Lindsay and half-sister of Robert the Steward. His public
office and association with the Steward sorts well with the
designation " of the Awle Ryale," if that be interpreted as
" Aula Regalis " or " Royal Palace." He appears to have died
late in 1376 or early in 1377.
bat
He
An
PC
He
HUCHTENBURG HUDDERSFIELD
The first of the poems named above, the Gest of Arthure 01
Gest Historyalle (ib. i. 4288), has been identified by Dr Trautmann,
" Anglia," Der Dichter Huchown (1877), with the alliterative
Morte Arthure in the Thornton MS. at Lincoln, printed by the
E.E.T.S. (ed. Brock, 1865). The problem of the second (The
Awntyr of Gaivane) is still in dispute. There are difficulties in
the way of accepting the conjecture that the poem is the " Awn-
tyres of Arthure at the Tern Wathelyne " (see S.T.S., Scottish
Alliterative Poems, 1897, and Introduction, pp. n et seq.), and
little direct evidence in favour of the view that the reference is
to the greatest of middle English romances, Sir Gaivain and
the Grene Knight. The third may be safely accepted as the
well-known Pistil [Epistle] of Swete Susan, printed by Laing
(Select Remains, 1822) and by the S.T.S. (Scottish Alliterative
Poems, u.s.).
See, in addition to the works named above, G. NeiLon's Sir Heiv
of Eglintoun and Huchown of the Awle Ryale (Glasgow, 1901), which
contains a full record of references to the historical Sir Hew of
Eglintoun; Huchown of the Awle Ryale, the Alliterative Poet
(Glasgow, 1902) by the same; J. T. T. Brown's Huchown of the
Awle Ryale and his Poems (Glasgow, 1902), in answer to the fore-
going. See also the correspondence in the Athenaeum, 1900-1901,
and the review of Mr Neilson's pamphlets, ib. (Nov. 22, 1902) ; and
J. H. Millar's Literary History of Scotland (1903), pp. 8-14.
HUCHTENBURG, the name of two brothers who were Dutch
painters in the second half of the 1 7th century. Both were natives
of Haarlem. Jacob, the elder, of whom very little is known,
studied under Berghem, and went early to Italy, where he
died young about 1667. His pictures are probably confounded
with those of his brother. In Copenhagen, where alone they are
catalogued, they illustrate the style of a Dutchman who transfers
Berghem's cattle and flocks to Italian landscapes and market-
places.
John van Huchtenburg (1646-1733), born at Haarlem it is
said in 1646, was first taught by Thomas Wyk, and afterwards
induced to visit the chief cities of Italy, where, penetrating as
far as Rome, he met and dwelt with his brother Jacob. After
the death of the latter he wandered homewards, taking Paris on
his way, and served under Van der Meulen, then employed in
illustrating for Louis XIV. the campaign of 1667-1668 in the
Low Countries. In 1670 he settled at Haarlem, where he married,
practised and kept a dealer's shop. His style had now merged
into an imitation of Philip Wouvermans and Van der Meulen,
which could not fail to produce pretty pictures of hunts and
robber camps, the faculty of painting horses and men in action
and varied dress being the chief point of attraction. Later
Huchtenburg ventured on cavalry skirmishes and engagements
of regular troops generally, and these were admired by Prince
Eugene and William III., who gave the painter sittings, and
commissioned him to throw upon canvas the chief incidents of
the battles they fought upon the continent of Europe. When
he died at Amsterdam in 1733, Huchtenburg had done much by
his pictures and prints to make Prince Eugene, King William
and Marlborough popular. Though clever in depicting a melee
or a skirmish of dragoons, he remained second to Philip Wouver-
mans in accuracy of drawing, and inferior to Van der Meulen in
the production of landscapes. But, nevertheless, he was a clever
and spirited master, with great facility of hand and considerable
natural powers of observation.
The earliest date on his pictures is 1674., when he executed the
" Stag-Hunt " in the Museum of Berlin.and the " Fight with Robbers "
in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna. A " Skirmish at Fleurus "
(1690) in the Brussels gallery seems but the precursor of larger and
more powerful works, such as the " Siege of Namur " (1695) in the
Belvedere at Vienna, where William III. is seen in the foreground
accompanied by Max Emmanuel, the Bavarian elector. Three
years before, Huchtenburg had had sittings from Prince Eugene
(Hague museum) and William III. (Amsterdam Trippenhuis).
After 1696 he regularly served as court painter to Prince Eugene,
and we have at Turin (gallery) a series of eleven canvases all of the
same size depicting the various battles of the great hero, commenc-
ing with the fight of Zentha against the Turks in 1697, and con-
cluding with the capture of Belgrade in 1717. Had the duke of
Marlborough been fond of art he would doubtless have possessed
many works of our artist. All that remains at Blenheim, however,
is a couple of sketches of battles, which-were probably sent to
Churchill by his great contemporary. The pictures of Huchtenburg
A B
a number of weft threads
are not very numerous now in public galleries. There is one in the
National Gallery, London, another at the Louvre. But Copenhagen
has four, Dresden six, Gotha two, and Munich has the well-known
composition of " Tallart taken Prisoner at Blenheim in 1704."
HUCKABACK, 1 the name given to a type of cloth used for
towels. For this purpose it has perhaps been more extensively
used in the linen trade than any other weave. One of the chief
merits of a towel is its capacity for absorbing moisture; plain
and other flat-surfaced cloths do not perform this function
satisfactorily, but cloths made with huckaback, as well as
those made with the honeycomb and similar weaves, are particu-
larly well adapted for this purpose.
The body or foundation of the cloth
is plain and therefore sound in struc-
ture (see designs A and B in figure),
but at fixed intervals some of the
warp threads float on the surface of
the cloth, while at the same time
float on the back. Thus the cloth has a somewhat similar
appearance on both sides. Weave A is the ordinary and most
used buck or huckaback, while weave B, which is usually
woven with double weft, is termed the Devon or medical huck.
The cloths made by the use of these weaves were originally all
linen, but are too often adulterated with inferior fibres.
HUCKLEBERRY, in botany, the popular name in the north-
eastern United States of the genus Gaylussacia, small branching
shrubs resembling in habit the English bilberry (V accinium) ,
to which it is closely allied, and bearing a similar fruit. The
common huckleberry of the northern states is G. resinosa;
while G. brachycera and G. dumosa are known respectively as
box and dwarf huckleberry. The name Gaylussacia com-
memorates the famous French chemist Gay-Lussac.
HUCKNALL TORKARD, a town in the Rushcliffe parlia-
mentary division of Nottinghamshire, England; 132 m. N.N.W.
from London by the Great Central railway, served also by the
Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 15,250.
The church of St Mary Magdalene contains the tomb of Lord
Byron. There are extensive collieries in the vicinity, and the
town has tobacco and hosiery works. Small traces are found
of Beauvale Abbey, a Carthusian foundation of the I4th century,
in the hilly, wooded district W. of Hucknall; and 3 m. N. is
Newstead Abbey, in a beautiful situation on the border of
Sherwood Forest. This Augustinian foundation owed its
origin to Henry II. It came into the hands of the Byron family
in 1540, and the poet Byron resided in it at various times until
1818. There remain the Early English west front of the church,
a Perpendicular cloister and the chapter-house; while in the
mansion, wholly restored since Byron's time, and in the demesne,
many relics of the poet are preserved. To the S. of Hucknall are
traces of Gresley Castle, of the I4th century.
HUCKSTER, a dealer or retailer of goods in a small way.
The word, in various forms, is common to many Teutonic
languages. In Early English it is found as howkestcr, hokester,
huxter', in early modern Dutch as heuker, and Medieval Low
German as hoker; but the ultimate origin is unknown. Huckster
apparently belongs to that series of words formed from a verb,
as brew, brewer; but the noun " huckster " is found in use
before the verb to huck. Hawker and pedlar are nearly synonym-
ous in meaning, but " huckster " may include a person in a small
way of trade in a settled habitation, while a hawker or pedlar
invariably travels from place to place offering his wares. In
a contemptuous sense, huckster is used of any one who barters,
or makes gain or profit in underhand or mean ways, or who
over-reaches another, to get advantage for himself.
HUDDERSFIELD, a municipal, county and parliamentary
borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 190 m.
N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 95,047. It is served
by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North Western
1 Skeat, Etym. Diet. (1898), says, " The word bears so remarkable
resemblance to Low Ger. hukkebak, Ger. huckeback, pick-a-back, that
it seems reasonable to suppose that it at first meant ' peddler's
ware.' " The New English Dictionary does not consider that the
connexion can at present be assumed.
HUDSON, G. HUDSON, H.
849
railways, and has connexion with all the important railway
systems of the West Riding, and with the extensive canal
system of Lancashire and Yorkshire. It is well situated on a
slope above the river Colne, a tributary of the Calder. It is
built principally of stone, and contains several handsome streets
with numerous great warehouses and business premises, many
of which are of high architectural merit. Of the numerous
churches and chapels all are modern, and some of considerable
beauty. The parish church of St Peter, however, though rebuilt
in 1837, occupies a site which is believed to have carried a church
since the nth century. The town hall (1880) and the corporation
offices (1877) are handsome classic buildings; the Ramsden
Estate buildings are a very fine block of the mixed Italian
order. The market hall (1880) surmounted by a clock-tower
is in geometrical Decorated style. The cloth-hall dates from
1784, when it was erected as a clothiers' emporium. It is no
longer used for any such purpose, but serves as an exchange
news-room. The Armoury, erected as a riding-school, was the
headquarters of a volunteer corps, and is also used for concerts
and public meetings. The chief educational establishments
are the Huddersfield College (1838), a higher-grade school,
the technical school and several grammar-schools, of which
Longwood school was founded in 1731. The Literary and
Scientific Society possesses a museum. Of the numerous
charitable institutions, the Infirmary, erected in 1831, is housed
in a building of the Doric order. The chief open spaces are
Greenhead and Beaumont parks, the last named presented to
the town by Mr H. F. Beaumont in 1880. There is a sulphurous
spa in the district of Lockwood.
Huddersfield is the principal seat of the fancy woollen trade
in England, and fancy goods in silk and cotton are also produced
in great variety. Plain cloth and worsteds are also manufactured.
There are silk and cotton spinning-mills, iron foundries and
engineering works. Coal is abundant in the vicinity. The
parliamentary borough returns one member. The county
borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under
a mayor ,'15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, 11,859 acres.
Huddersfield (Oderesfelte) only rose to importance after the
introduction of the woollen trade in the I7th century. After
the Conquest William I. granted the manor to Ilbert de Laci,
of whom the Saxon tenant Godwin was holding as underlord at
the time of the Domesday Survey. In Saxon times it had been
worth iocs., but after being laid waste by the Normans was
still of no value in 1086. From the Lacys the manor passed to
Thomas Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster, through his marriage
with Alice de Lacy, and so came to the crown on the accession
of Henry IV. In. 1599 Queen Elizabeth sold it to William
Ramsden, whose descendants still own it. Charles II. in 1670
granted to John Ramsden a market in Huddersfield every
Wednesday with the toll and other profits belonging. By the
beginning of the i8th century Huddersfield had become a
" considerable town," chiefly owing to the manufacture of
woollen kersies, and towards the end of the same century the
trade was increased by two events the opening of navigation
on the Calder in 1780, and in 1784 that of the cloth-hall or
piece-hall, built and given to the town by. Sir John Ramsden,
baronet. Since 1832 the burgesses have returned members to
parliament. The town possesses no charter before 1868, when
it was created a municipal borough.
HUDSON, GEORGE (1800-1871), English railway financier,
known as the " railway king," was born in York in March 1800.
Apprenticed to a firm of linendrapers in that city, he soon
became a successful merchant, and in 1837 was elected lord
mayor of York. Having inherited, in 1827, a sum of 30,000,
he invested it in North Midland Railway shares, and was shortly
afterwards appointed a director. In 1833 he had founded and
for some time acted as manager of the York Banking Company.
He had for long been impressed with the necessity of getting
the railway to York, and he took an active part in securing the
passing of the York and North Midland Bill, and was elected
chairman of the new company the line being opened in 1839.
From this time he turned his undivided attention to the projec-
tion of railways. In 1841 he initiated the Newcastle and Darling-
ton line. With George Stephenson he planned and carried out
the extension of the Midland to Newcastle, and by 1844 had
over a thousand miles of railway under his control. In this year
the mania for railway speculation was at its height, and no
man was more courted than the " railway king." All classes
delighted to honour him, and, as if a colossal fortune were an
insufficient reward for his public services, the richest men in
England presented him with a tribute of 20,000. Deputy-
lieutenant for Durham, and thrice lord mayor of York, he was
returned in the Conservative interest for Sunderland in 1845,
the event being judged of such public interest that the news
was conveyed to London by a special train, which travelled part
of the way at the rate of 75 m. an hour. Full of rewards and
honours, he was suddenly ruined by the disclosure of the Eastern
Railway frauds. Sunderland clung to her generous representa-
tive till 1859, but on the bursting of the bubble he had lost
influence and fortune at a single stroke. His later life was
chiefly spent on the continent, where he benefited little by a
display of unabated energy and enterprise. Some friends gave
him a small annuity a short time before his death, which took
place in London, on the i4th of December 1871. His name
has long been used to point the moral of vaulting ambition and
unstable fortune. The " big swollen gambler," as Carlyle calls
him in one of the Latter-Day Pamphlets, was savagely and
excessively reprobated by the world which had blindly believed
in his golden prophecies. He certainly ruined scrip-holders,
and disturbed the great centres of industry; but he had an
honest faith in his own schemes, and, while he beggared himself
in their promotion, he succeeded in overcoming the powerful
landed interest which delayed the adoption of railways in.
England long after the date of their regular introduction into
America.
HUDSON, HENRY, English navigator and explorer. Nothing
is known of his personal history excepting such as falls within
the period of the four voyages on which his fame rests. The
first of these voyages in quest of new trade and a short route
to China by way of the North Pole, in accordance with the sug-
gestion of Robert Thorne (d. 1527), was made for the Muscovy
Company with ten men and u boy in 1607. Hudson first coasted
the east side of Greenland, and being prevented from proceeding
northwards by the great ice barrier which stretches thence to
Spitzbergen sailed along it until he reached " Newland," as Spitz-
bergen was then called, and followed its northern coast to beyond
80 N. lat. On the homeward voyage he accidentally discovered
an island in lat. 71 which he named Hudson's Touches, and
which has since been identified with Jan Mayen Island.
Molineux's chart, published by Hakluyt about 1600, was Hudson's
blind guide in this voyage, and the polar map of 1611 by
Pontanus illustrates well what he attempted, and the valuable
results both negative and positive which he reached. He in-
vestigated the trade prospects at Bear Island, and recommended
his patrons to seek higher game in Newland; hence he may be
called the father of the English whale-fisheries at Spitzbergen.
Next year Hudson was again sent by the Muscovy Company
to open a passage to China, this time by the north-east route
between Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, which had been
attempted by his predecessors and especially by the Dutch
navigator William Barents. This voyage lasted from the 22nd
of April to the 26th of August 1608. He raked the Barents Sea
in vain between 75 30' N.W. and 71 15' S.E. for an opening
through the ice, and on the 6th of July, " voide of hope of a
north-east passage (except by the Waygats, for which I was not
fitted to trie or prove)," he resolved to sail to the north-west, and
if time and means permitted to run a hundred leagues up
Lumley's Inlet (Frobisher Strait) or Davis's " overfall " (Hudson
Strait). But his voyage being delayed by contrary winds he was
finally compelled to return without accomplishing his wish. The
failure of this second attempt satisfied the Muscovy Company,
which thenceforward directed all its energies to the profitable
Spitzbergen trade.
Towards the end of 1608 Hudson " had a call " to Amsterdam,
850
HUDSON, J. HUDSON
where he saw the celebrated cosmographer the Rev. Peter
Plancius and the cartographer Hondius, and after some delay,
due to the rivalry which was exhibited in the attempt to secure
his services, he undertook for the Dutch East India Company
his important third voyage to find a passage to China either by the
north-east or north-west route. With a mixed crew of eighteen
or twenty men he left the Texel in the " Half-Moon " on the 6th
of April, and by the 5th of May was in the Barents Sea. and soon
afterwards among the ice near Novaya Zemlya, where he had
been the year before. Some of his men becoming disheartened
and mutinous (it is now supposed that he had arrived two or
three months too early), he lost hope of effecting anything by
that route, and submitted to his men, as alternative proposals,
either to go to Lumley's Inlet and follow up Waymouth's light, or
to make for North Virginia and seek the passage in about 40 lat.,
according to the letter and map sent him by his friend Captain
John Smith. The latter plan was adopted, and on the I4th of
May Hudson set his face towards the Chesapeake and China.
He touched at Stromo in the Faroe Islands for water, and on
the isth of June off Newfoundland the " Half-Moon " " spent
overboard her foremast." This accident compelled him to put
into the Kennebec river, where a mast was procured, and
some communication and an unnecessary encounter with the
Indians took place. Sailing again on the 26th of July, he began
on the 28th of August the survey where Smith left off, at 37 36'
according to his map, and coasted northwards. On the 3rd of
September, in 40 30', he entered the fine bay of New York, and
after having gone 1 50 m. up the river which now bears his name
to near the position of the present Albany, treating with the
Indians, surveying the country, and trying the stream above
tide-water, he became satisfied that this course did not lead to
the South Sea or China, a conclusion in harmony with that cf
Champlain, who the same summer had been making his way
south through Lake Champlain and Lake St Sacrement (now
Lake George). The two explorers by opposite routes approached
within 20 leagues of each other. On the 4th of October the
" Half-Moon " weighed for the Texel, and on the 7th of November
arrived at Dartmouth, where she was seized and detained by the
English government, Hudson and the other Englishmen of the
ship being commanded not to leave England, but rather to serve
their own country. The voyage had fallen short of Hudson's
expectations, but it served many purposes perhaps as important
to the world. Among other results it exploded Hakluyt's myth,
which from the publication of Lok's map in 1582 to the 2nd
charter of Virginia in May 1609 he had lost no opportunity of
promulgating, that near 40 lat. there was a narrow isthmus,
formed by the sea of Verrazano, like that of Tehuantepec or
Panama.
Hudson's confidence in the existence of a North- West Passage
had not been diminished by his three failures, and a new company
was formed to support him in a fourth attempt, the principal
promoters being Sir Thomas Smith (or Smythe), Sir Dudley
Digges and John (afterwards Sir John) Wolstenholme. He
determined this time to carry out his old plan of searching for a
passage up Davis's " overfall " so-called in allusion to the over-
fall of the tide which Davis had observed rushing through the
strait. Hudson sailed from London in the little ship " Discovery "
of 55 tons, on the I7th of April 1610, and entered the strait
which now bears his name about the middle of June. Sailing
steadily westward he entered Hudson Bay on the 3rd of August,
and passing southward spent the next three months examin-
ing the eastern shore of the bay. On the ist of November
the " Discovery " went into winter quarters in the S.W. corner
of James Bay, being frozen in a few days later, and during the
long winter months which were passed there only a scanty
supply of game was secured to eke out the ship's provisions.
Discontent became rife, and on the ship breaking out of the ice
in the spring Hudson had a violent quarrel with a dissolute
young fellow named Henry Greene, whom he had befriended by
taking him on board, and who now retaliated by inciting the
discontented part of the crew to put Hudson and eight others
(including the sick men) out of the ship. This happened on the
22nd of June 1611. Robert Bylot was elected master and
brought the ship back to England. During the voyage home
Greene and several others were killed in a fight with the Eskimo,
while others again died of starvation, and the feeble remnant
which reached England in September were thrown into prison.
No more tidings were ever received of the deserted men.
Although it is certain that the four great geographical land-
marks which to-day serve to keep Hudson's memory alive,
namely the Hudson Bay, Strait, Territory and River, had
repeatedly been visited and even drawn on maps and charts before
he set out on his voyages, yet he deserves to take a very high rank
among northern navigators for the mere extent of his discoveries
and the success with which he pushed them beyond the limits
of his predecessors. The rich fisheries of Spitzbergen and the
fur industry of the Hudson Bay Territory were the immediate
fruit of his labours.
See Henry Hudson, the Navigator (Hakluyt Society, 1860); and
T. A. Janvier, Henry Hudson (1909). In 1909 a great celebration of
the tercentenary was held in the United States.
HUDSON, JOHN (1662-1719), English classical scholar, was
born at Wythop in Cumberland. He was educated at Oxford,
where the remainder of his life was spent. In 1701 he was
appointed Bodley's librarian, and in 1711 principal of St Mary's
Hall. His political views stood in the way of his preferment in
the church and university. He died on the 26th of November
1719. As an editor and commentator he enjoyed a high reputa-
tion both at home and abroad. His works, chiefly editions of
classical authors, include the following: Velleius Paterculus
(1693); Thucydides (1696); Geographiae Veteris Scriptores
Graeci minores (1698-1712) containing the works and fragments
of 21 authors and the learned, though diffuse, dissertations of
H. Dodwell a rare and valuable work, which in spite of its
faulty text was not superseded until the appearance of C. W.
M tiller's edition in the Didot series: the editio princeps of
Moeris, De Vocibus Atticis et Hellenicis (1712); Josephus (1720,
published posthumously by his friend Anthony Hall, the anti-
quary), a correct and beautifully printed edition, with variorum
notes and translation.
See Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, iv. ; introduction to the edition of
Josephus; W. Hutchinson, History of Cumberland (1794).
HUDSON, a city and the county-seat of Columbia county,
New York, U.S.A., on the E. side of the Hudson river, about
114 m. N. of New York City and about 28 m. S. of Albany.
Pop. (1890) 9970; (1900) 9528, of whom 1155 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 11,417. It is served by the Boston & Albany,
the New York Central & Hudson River and the (electric)
Albany & Hudson railways, by river steamboats, and by a steam
ferry to Athens and Catskill across the river. The city is pictur-
esquely situated on the slope of Prospect Hill; and Promenade
Park, on a bluff above the steamboat landing, commands a
fine view of the river and of the Catskill Mountains. Among
the public buildings and institutions are a fine city hall, the
Columbia County Court House, a public library, a Federal
building, a State Training School for Girls, a State Firemen's
Home, an Orphan Asylum, a Home for the Aged and a hospital.
The city's manufactures include hosiery and knit goods, Portland
cement (one of the largest manufactories of that product in the
United States being here), foundry and machine shop products,
car wheels, ice tools and machinery, ale, beer, bricks and tiles
and furniture. The value of the factory products in 1905 was
$4,115,525, an increase of 58-1% over that in 1900. The
municipality owns and operates the water-works. Hudson,
which was originally known as Claverack Landing, was for many
years merely a landing with two rude wharfs and two small
storehouses, to which farmers in the neighbourhood brought
their produce for shipment on the river. Late in 1783 the place
was settled by an association of merchants and fishermen from
Rhode Island, Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. The present
name was adopted in 1784, and the city was chartered in 1785.
For many years Hudson had a considerable foreign commerce
and whaling interests, but these were practically destroyed
by the war of 1812.
HUDSON BAY HUDSON RIVER
851
HUDSON BAY (less often, but more correctly, HUDSON'S
BAY), an inland sea in the N.E. of Canada, extending from
78 to 95 W. and from 51 to 70 N. On the east it is connected
with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, and on the north with
the Arctic Ocean by Fox Channel and Fury and Hecla Strait.
Its southern extremity between 55 and 51 N. is known as James
Bay. It is 590 m. in width, and 1300 from S. to N., including
James Bay (350 m.) and Fox Channel (350 m.). The customary
use of the term includes James Bay, but not Fox Channel. The
average depth of water is about 70 fathoms, deepening at the
entrance of Hudson Strait to 100 fathoms. James Bay is
much shallower, and unfit for shipping save for a central channel
leading to the mouth of the Moose river. The centre and west
of the main bay are absolutely free from shoals, rocks or islands,
but down its east coast extend two lines of small islands, one
close' to shore, the other at 70 to 100 m. distance, and comprising
a number of scattered groups (the Ottawa Islands, the Sleepers,
the Belchers, &c.)~
Into Hudson and James Bays flow numerous important rivers,
so much so that the water of the latter is rather brackish than
salt. Beginning at the north-west, the chief of these are Churchill,
Nelson (draining Lake Winnipeg, and the numerous inland
rivers of which it is the basin), Hayes (the old boat route of the
voyageurs to Winnipeg), Severn, Albany, Moose, Rupert river
(draining Lake Mistassini), Nottaway, East Main, Great Whale
and Little Whale.
Save for some high bluffs on the east and north-east, the shores
of the bay are low. Around much of James Bay extend marshes
and swampy ground. Geologically the greater part of the
Hudson Bay district belongs to the Laurentian system, though
there are numerous outcrops of later formation; Cambro-
Silurian on the south and west, and to the north of Cape Jones
(the north-eastern extremity of James Bay) a narrow belt of
Cambrian rocks, of which the islands are composed. Coal,
plumbago, iron and other minerals have been found in various
districts near the coast. The climate is harsh, though vegetables
and certain root crops ripen in the open air as far north as Fort
Churchill; cattle flourish, and are fed chiefly on the native
grasses; spruce, balsam and poplar grow to a fair size as far
as the northern limit of James Bay. Caribou, musk ox and other
animals are still found in large numbers, and there is an abun-
dance of feathered game ducks, geese, loons and ptarmigan;
hunting and fishing form the chief occupations of the Indians
and Eskimo who live in scattered bands near the shore. The
bay abounds with fish, of which the chief are cod, salmon,
porpoise and whales. The last have long been pursued by
American whalers, whose destructive methods have so greatly
depleted the supply that the government of Canada is anxious
to declare the bay a mare clausum.
Hudson Strait is about 450 m. long with an average breadth
of ico m., narrowing at one point to 45. Its shores are high
and bold, rarely less in height than 1000 ft., save on the coast
of Ungava Bay, a deep indentation on the south-east. No
islands or rocks impede navigation. Its depth is from too to
200 fathoms. Owing to the violence of the tides, which rise to
a height of 35 ft., it never absolutely freezes over.
After three centuries of exploration, the navigability of Hudson
Bay and Strait remains a vexed question. To Canada it is one of
great commercial interest, and numerous expeditions have been
made and reports issued by the Geological Survey. From Winnipeg
to Liverpool via Churchill is over 500 m. less than via Montreal, and
from Edmonton to Liverpool almost 1000 m. less. Were navigation
open for a sufficient time, such a route for the grain of the Canadian
and American west would be of enormous advantage. But the inlet
from the Arctic sends down masses of heavy ice, which drift about
in the bay and the strait. Past the mouth of the strait flows a
stream often over 100 m. wide, of berg and floe ice, carried by the
Arctic current. Owing to the proximity of the Magnetic Pole (in
Boothia) the compass often refuses to work. For sailing ships, such
as the Hudson's Bay Company has long employed, the season for
safe navigation is from the 15th of July to the 1st of October. In
over 200 years very few serious accidents have occurred to the
company's ships within these limits. It is claimed that specially
built and protected steamers would be safe from the I5th of June
till the 1st of November, and the problem may be solved by ice-
breaking vessels of great power. The only good harbour available
is Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill river, which is large
and easy of access. Moose Factory (at the foot of James Bay) and
York Factory (at the mouth of the Nelson) are mere roadsteads.
Marble Island, south of Chesterfield Inlet, where the whalers winter,
is too far north for regular shipping.
The Cabots entered the strait in 1498, and during the next century
a series of Elizabethan mariners; but the bay was not explored
until 1610, when Henry Hudson pushed through the ice and
explored to the southern limit of James Bay.
See Lieutenant Gordon, R.N., Reports on tlie Hudson's Bay
Expeditions (1884, 5, 6); William Ogilvie, Exploratory Survey to
Hudson's Bay in 1890 (Ottawa, 1891); R. F. Stupart, The Naviga-
tion of Hudson's Bay and Straits (Toronto, 1904).
HUDSON RIVER, the principal river of New York state,
and one of the most important highways of commerce in the
United States of America. It is not a river in the truest sense
of the word, but a river valley into which the ocean water has
been admitted by subsidence of the land, transforming a large
part of the valley into an inlet, and thus opening it up to
navigation.
The Hudson lies entirely in the state of New York, which it
crosses in a nearly north-and-south direction near the eastern
boundary of the state. The sources of the river are in the wildest
part of the Adirondack Mountains, in Essex county, north-
eastern New York. There are a number of small mountain
streams which contribute to the headwater supply, any one of
which might be considered the main stream; but assuming the
highest collected and permanent body of water to be the true
head, the source of the Hudson is Lake Tear-of-the-Clouds,
which lies near Mount Marcy at an elevation of about 4322 ft.
This small mountain stream flows irregularly southward with a
fall of 64 ft. per mile in the upper 52 miles, then, from the mouth
of North Creek to the mouth of the Sacondaga, at the rate of
nearly 14 ft. per mile. In this part of its course the Hudson
has many falls and rapids, and receives a number of mountain
streams as tributaries, the largest being Indian river, Schroon
river and Sacondaga river. Below the mouth of the Sacondaga
the Hudson turns sharply and flows eastward for about 12 m.,
passing through the mountains, and leaping over several falls of
great height and beauty. At Glens Falls there is a fall of about
50 ft.; and just below this, at Sandy Hill, the river again turns
abruptly, and for the rest of its course to New York Bay flows
almost due south. There are numerous falls and rapids between
Glens Falls and Troy which are used as a source of power and are
the seats of busy manufacturing plants. Several large tribu f aries
join this part of the river, including Batten Kill, Fish Creek,
Hoosic river and the Mohawk, which is the largest of all the
tributaries to the Hudson, and contributes more water than the
main river itself.
From Troy to the mouth of the Hudson the river is tidal,
and from this point also the river is navigable, not because of
the river water itself, but because of the low grade of the river
bed by which the tide is able to back up the water sufficiently
to float good-sized boats. From Albany, 6 m. below Troy, to
the mouth of the Hudson, a distance of 145 m., there is a total
fall of only 5 ft. It is this lower, tidal, navigable portion of the
Hudson that is of so much importance and general interest.
Numerous tributaries enter this part of the Hudson from both
the east and the west, the largest and most important being the
Wallkill which enters at Kingston. In general there is in this
part of the river a broad upper valley with a much narrower
gorge cut in its bottom, with its rock floor below sea level and
drowned by the entrance of the sea. Although this is true in
a general way, the character of the river valley varies greatly
in detail from point to point, under the influence of the geological
structure of the enclosing rock walls.
Most of these variations may be included in a threefold division
of the lower Hudson valley. The uppermost of these extends from
the south-eastern base of the Adirondack Mountains to the northern
portal of the Highlands in Dutchess and Ulster counties. This is a
lowland region of ancient Paleozoic rocks. Into the upper portion
of this section of the river the non-tidal Hudson is depositing its
load of detritus, building a delta below Troy. This, shifted about
by the currents, has interposed an obstacle to navigation which has
called for extensive dredging and other work, for the purpose of
maintaining a navigable channel. The width of the tidal river
852
HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY
varies somewhat, being about 300 yds. at Albany and thence to the
Highlands varying from 300 yds. to 900 yds.
The scenery in this part of the river, though not tame, is a little
monotonous, the gently sloping hills, with the variegated colours of
wood and cultivated land, and the occasional occurrence of a town
or village being repeated without any marked feature to break their
regularity. Thirty miles from Troy noble views begin to be obtained
of the Catskill Mountains towering up behind the west bank, the
nearest eminence at the distance of about 7 m. Alon^ the im-
mediate banks of the river are great beds of clay which is extensively
used in the manufacture of brick; and the brick-burning plants
and huge ice houses are conspicuous features in the landscape.
Although the river freezes in the winter, so that ice-boating is a
favourite winter sport, the summer climate is warm enough for the
cultivation of grapes and other fruits, which is aided to a con-
siderable extent by the influence of the large body of water en-
closed between the valley walls, which tends to retard both early
and late frosts, and thus to extend the growing season. In
addition to smaller towns and villages, there are a number of
larger towns and cities, including Hudson and Catskill, nearly
opposite each other, and farther down Kingston and the thriving
city of Poughkeepsie. Near the extreme end of this section
of the Hudson lies the city of Newburgh, a short distance below
which, at Cornwall Landing, the river enters the Highlands, the
second division of the tidal part of the Hudson and far the
grandest of all.
The river enters the northern portals of the Highlands between
a series of hills whose frequently precipitous sides rise often abruptly
from the water's edge. For about 16 m. the river is bordered
by steeply rising hills, giving picturesque and striking views of
great variety. These are due to the fact that the river here is
crossing a belt of ancient crystalline rocks of moderately high
relief, comparable in geological structure to the Adirondack region.
The views in this part of the river, often compared with those along
the Rhine, are of a character in some respects unparalleled, and at
several points they have an impressiveness and surprising grandeur
rarely equalled. About IO m. after the Highlands are entered
West Point is reached, a favourite landing-place of tourists
and the seat of the United States Military Academy, from whose
grounds fine views of the river may be had. This point is
historically interesting as the seat of Fort Putnam, now in ruins,
built during the American War of Independence, at which time
a chain was stretched across the river to prevent the passage of
British ships.
The third and lowest section of the tidal part of the Hudson
extends from the lower end of the Highlands to New York Bay.
This is a region of ancient and metamorphic Paleozoic rocks on the
eastern side, and mainly Triassic rocks on the west. Because of
their less resistance to denudation, these rocks have permitted a
broadening of the valley in this part of the course. Just below
Peekskill the river broadens out to form Haverstraw Bay, at the
extremity of which is the headland of Croton Point. Below this is
the wider expanse of Tappan Bay, which has a length of 12 m. and
a breadth of from 4 to 5 m., while below this bay the river narrows
to a breadth between i and 2 m. On Tappan Bay stands Tarry-
town, famous both historically and from its connexion with Wash-
ington Irving, whose cottage of Sunnyside is in the vicinity. At
Piermont, where the bay ends, the range named the Palisades rises
picturesquely from the water's edge to the height of between 300
and 500 ft., extending along the west bank for about 20 m., the
opposite shore being level and dotted with hamlets, villages and
towns. The Palisades are a lava rock of the variety called trap,
which has been intruded as a sheet into the Triassic sandstones,
and, on cooling, has developed the prismatic jointing which is so
much more perfectly seen at Fingal's Cave in Scotland and Giant's
Causeway in Ireland. It is this imperfect hexagonal jointing that
has given rise to the name " palisade," applied to the range whose
face fronts the lower Hudson. At its mouth the Hudson both
broadens and branches, forming a series of islands and an excellent
harbour, owing to the fact that the sinking of the land here has
permitted the sea to fill the valleys and even to flood low divides.
A submerged valley, traceable over the continental shelf, south-east
of New York, is commonly believed to represent an earlier course of
the Hudson when the land stood 2000 or 3000 ft. higher than
at present, and when the inner gorge above New York was being
excavated.
Although the Hudson river has a total length of only about
300 m., and a drainage area of but 13,370 sq. m., it has been one
of the most significant factors in the development of the United
States. With an excellent harbour at its mouth, and navigable
waters leading into a fertile interior for a distance of 150 m.,
it early invited exploration and settlement. Verrazano pro-
ceeded a short distance up the Hudson in a boat in 1524; but
the first to demonstrate its extent and importance was Henry
Hudson, from whom it derives its name. He sailed above the
mouth of the Mohawk in September 1609. The Dutch later
explored and settled the valley and proceeded westward along
the Mohawk. The Dutch place-names of the region clearly
show the significance of this early use of the Hudson highway.
Later, in wars, and notably in the American War of Independence,
and American War of 1812, the valley became a region of great
strategic importance. This was increased by the fact that from
the Hudson near Sandy Hill there are two low gaps into the
northern country, one along the valley occupied by Lake George,
the other into the Lake Champlain valley. The divide between
this part of the Hudson and Lake Champlain is only 147 ft.
above sea level, and a depression of the land of only 200 ft. in ,
the region between Albany and the St Lawrence river would
convert the Hudson and Champlain valleys into a navigable
strait having a depth sufficient for the largest vessels. Move-
ments of armies across these gaps were noteworthy events in the
wars between the United States and the French and British;
but modern commerce has made far less significant use of this
highway, mainly because the gaps lead to a region of little
economic importance, and thence to the boundary line of a
foreign country. Far more important has been the highway
westward along the Mohawk, which has cut a gap across the
mountains that has been the most useful of all the gaps through
the Appalachians. It has been useful in exploration, in war
and in commerce, the latter especially because it leads to the
fertile ulterior and to the waterway of the Great Lakes. By
the Erie canal the river is connected with Lake Erie, with a
branch to Lake Ontario, and other branches to smaller lakes.
The Champlain canal connects the Hudson with Lake Champlain.
Although these canals are far less used than formerly, the
Hudson is still a busy highway for navigation. It is of interest
to note that it was on the Hudson that Fulton, the inventor of
steam navigation, made his first successful experiment; and
that it was along this same highway, from Albany, that one of
the first successful railways of the country was built. A railway
line now runs parallel to each bank of the Hudson, the New York
Central & Hudson River on the eastern side and the West Shore
on the western side, each with connexions to the north, east and
west, and each turning westward along the Mohawk to Buffalo.
It is largely because of the importance of this highway of com-
merce, by water and by rail, from the coast to the interior, that
the greatest and densest population in the United States has
gathered at the seaward end of the route in New York City,
Jersey City, Hoboken and other places on and near New York
Bay, making one of the leading industrial and commercial centres
of the world.
For references to articles on the physiography of the Hudson river
see R. S. Tarr, Physical Geography of New York State (New York,
1902), pp. 184-190. For Pleistocene conditions see J. B. Wood-
worth, Ancient Water Levels of the Champlain and Hudson Valleys
(Albany, 1905), N.Y. State Museum, Bulletin 84. For facts con-
cerning water supply see Surface Water Supply of the Hudson,
Passaic, Raritan and Delaware River Drainages (1907), being U.S.
Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper, No. 202. For relation
between physiography and history see chapters in E. C. Semple's
American History and its Geographic Conditions (Boston, 1903);
A. P. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History (Boston,
1903), and From Trail to Railway through the Appalachians (Boston,
1907). See also E. M. Bacon, The Hudson River (New York, 1902) ;
W. E. Verplanck and M. W. Collyer, Sloops of the Hudson: Sketch
of the Packet and Market Sloops of the Last Century (New York,
1908), D. L. Buckman, Old Steamboat Days on the Hudson River
(New York, 1907), and Clifton Johnson, The Picturesque Hudson
(New York, 1909). (R. S. T.)
HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY, or " the Governor and Company
of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson's Bay," a
corporation formed for the purpose of importing into Great
Britain the furs and skins which it obtains, chiefly by barter, from
the Indians of British 'North America. The trading stations of
the Company are dotted over the immense region (excluding
Canada proper and Alaska), which is bounded E. and W. by the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and N. and S. by the Arctic Ocean
and the United States. From these various stations the furs are
despatched in part to posts in Hudson Bay and the coast of
Labrador for transportation to England by the Company's ships,
and in part by steamboat or other conveyances to points on the
railways from whence they can be conveyed to Montreal, St John,
HUE HUE AND CRY
853
N.B. , or other Allan tic port, for shipment to London by Canadian
Pacific Railway Company's mail ships, or other line of steamers,
to be sold at auction.
In the year 1670 Charles II. granted a charter to Prince Rupert
and seventeen other noblemen and gentlemen, incorporating tnem
as the " Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading
into Hudson's Bay," and securing to them " the sole trade and
commerce of all those seas, straits, bays, rivers, lakes, creeks and
sounds, in whatsoever latitude they shall be, that lie within the
entrance of the straits commonly called Hudson's Straits, together
with all the lands and territories upon the countries, coasts and
confines of the seas, bays, &c., aforesaid, that are not already actually
possessed by or granted to any of our subjects, or possessed by the
subjects of any other Christian prince or state." Besides the com-
plete lordship and entire legislative, judicial and executive power
within these vague limits (which the Company finally agreed to
accept as meaning all lands watered by streams flowing into Hudson
Bay), the corporation received also the right to " the whole and
entire trade and traffic to and from all havens, bays, creeks, rivers,
lakes and seas into which they shall find entrance or passage by
water or land out of the territories, limits or places aforesaid."
The first settlements in the country thus granted, which was to be
known as Rupert's Land, were made on James Bay and at Churchill
and Hayes rivers; but it was long before there was any advance
into the interior, for in 17^9, when an unsuccessful attempt was
made in parliament to deprive the Company of its charter on the
plea of " non-user," it had only some four or five forts on the coast,
with about 120 regular employes. Although the commercial success
of the enterprise was from the first immense, great losses, amounting
before 1700 to 217,514, were inflicted on the Company by the
French, who sent several military expeditions against the forts.
After the cession of Canada to Great Britain in 1763, numbers of
fur-traders spread over that country, and into the north-western
parts of the continent, and began even to encroach on the Hudson's
Bay Company's territories. These individual speculators finally
combined into the North-West Fur Company of Montreal.
The fierce competition which at once sprang up between the
companies was marked by features which sufficiently demon-
strate the advantages of a monopoly in commercial dealings with
savages, even although it is the manifest interest of the monopolists
to retard the advance of civilization towards their hunting grounds.
The Indians were demoralized, body and soul, by the abundance of
ardent spirits with which the rival traders sought to attract them
to themselves; the supply of furs threatened soon to be exhausted
by the indiscriminate slaughter, even during the breeding season,
of both male and female animals; the worst passions of both
whites and Indians were inflamed to their fiercest (see RED
RIVER SETTLEMENT). At last, in 1821, the companies, mutually
exhausted, amalgamated, obtaining a licence to hold for 21 years the
monopoly of trade in the vast regions lying to the west and north-
west of the older company's grant. In 1838 the Hudson's Bay
Company acquired the sole rights for itself, and obtained a new
licence, also for 21 years. On the expiry of this it was not renewed,
and since 1859 the district has been open to all.
The licences to trade did not of course affect the original possessions
of the Company. Under the terms of the Deed of Surrender, dated
November igth, 1869, the Hudson's Bay Company surrendered
" to the Queen's Most Gracious Majesty, all the rights of Govern-
ment, and other rights, privileges, liberties, franchises, powers and
authorities, granted or purported to be granted to the said Govern-
ment and Company by the said recited Letters Patent of His Late
Majesty King Charles II.; and also all similar rights which may
have been exercised or assumed by the said Governor and Company
in any parts of British North America, not forming part of Rupert's
Land or of Canada, or of British Columbia, and all the lands and
territories within Rupert's Land (except and subject as in the
said terms and conditions mentioned) granted or purported to be
granted to the said Governor and Company by the said Letters
Patent," subject to the terms and conditions set out in the Deed of
Surrender, including the payment to the Company by the Canadian
Government of a sum of 300,000 sterling on the transfer of Rupert's
Land to the Dominion of Canada, the retention by the Company
of its posts and stations, with a right of selection of a block of land
adjoining each post in conformity with a schedule annexed to the
Deed of Surrender; and the right to claim in any township or
district within the Fertile Belt in which land is set out for settle-
ment, grants of land not exceeding one-twentieth part of the land
so set out. The boundaries of the Fertile Belt were in terms of the
Deed of Surrender to be as follows: " On the south by the United
States' boundary; on the west by the Rocky Mountains; on the
north by the northern branch of the Saskatchewan ; on the east by
Lake Winnipeg, the Lake of the Woods, and the waters connecting
them," and " the Company was to be at liberty to carry on its trade
without hindrance, in its corporate capacity; and no exceptional
tax was to be placed on the Company's land, trade or servants,
nor any import duty on goods introduced by them previous to the
surrender."
An Order in Council was passed confirming the terms of the Deed
of Surrender at the Court of Windsor, the 23rd of June 1870.
In 1872, in terms of the Dominion Lands Act of that year, it was
mutually agreed in regard to the one-twentieth of the lands in the
Fertile Belt reserved to the Company under the terms of the Deed
of Surrender that they should be taken as follows:
" Whereas by article five of the terms and conditions in the Deed
of Surrender from the Hudson's Bay Company to the Crown, the
said Company is entitled to one-twentieth of the lands surveyed
into Townships in a certain portion of the territory surrendered,
described and designated as the Fertile Belt.
" And whereas by the terms of the said deed, the right to claim
the said one-twentieth is extended over the period of fifty years,
and it is provided that the lands comprising the same shall be
determined by lo*, and whereas the said Company and the Govern-
ment of the Dominion have mutually agreed, that with a view to an
equitable distribution throughout the territory described, of the
said one-twentieth of the lands, and in order further to simplify
the setting apart thereof, certain sections or parts of sections, alike
in numbers and position in each township throughout the said
Territory, shall, as the townships are surveyed, be set apart and
designated to meet and cover such one-twentieth :
" And whereas it is found by computation that the said one-
twentieth will be exactly met, by allotting in every fifth township
two whole sections of 640 acres each, and in all other townships one
section and three quarters of a section each, therefore
" In every fifth Township in the said Territory; that is to say:
in those townships numbered 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 and
so on in regular succession northerly from the International boundary,
the whole of sections Nos. 8 and 26, and in each and every of the
other townships the whole of section No. 8, and the south half and
north-west quarter of section 26 (except in the cases hereinafter
provided for) shall be known and designated as the lands of the said
Company."
See G. Bryce, Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company
(London, 1900); and A. C. Laut, Conquest of the great Northwest;
being the story of the adventurers of England known as Hudson's
Bay Co. (New York, 1909).
HUE, a town of French Indo-China, capital of Annam, on the
Hue river (Song-Huong-Giang) about 8 m. from its mouth in
the China Sea. Pop. about 42,000, of whom 240 are Europeans.
The country immediately surrounding it is flat, alluvial land,
traversed by streams and canals and 'largely occupied by rice
fields. Beyond the plain rises a circle of hills formed by spurs of
the mountains of Annam. The official portion of the town,
fortified under French superintendence, lies on the left bank of
the river within an enclosure over 7300 yds. square. It contains
the royal palace, the houses of the native ministers and officials,
the arsenals, &c. The palace stands inside a separate enclosure.
Once forbidden ground, it is to-day open to foreigners, and the
citadel is occupied by French troops. The palace of the French
resident-general and the European quarter, opposite the citadel
on the right bank of the Hue, are connected with the citadel by
an iron bridge. Important suburbs adjoin the official town,
the villages of Dong-Bo, Bo-vinh, Gia-Ho, Kim-Long and
Nam-Pho forming a sort of commercial belt around it. Glass-
and ivory-working are carried on, but otherwise industry is of
only local importance. Rice is imported by way of the river.
A frequent service of steam launches connects the town with the
ports of Thuan-an, at the mouth of the river, and Tourane, on
the bay of that name. Tourane is also united to Hue by a
railway opened in 1906. In the vicinity the chief objects of
interest are the tombs of the dead kings of Annam.
HUE AND CRY, a phrase employed in English law to signify
the old common law process of pursuing a criminal with horn and
voice. It was the duty of any person aggrieved, or discovering
a felony, to raise the hue and cry, 1 and his neighbours were bound
to turn out with him and assist in the discovery of the offender.
In the case of a hue and cry, all those joining in the pursuit were
justified in arresting the person pursued, even though it turned
out that he was innocent. A swift fate awaited any one overtaken
1 The word " hue," which is now obsolete except in this phrase
and in the " huers " on the Cornish coast who direct the pilchard-
fishing from the cliffs, is generally connected with the Old French
verb huer, to cry, shout, especially in war or the chase. It has been
suggested that while " cry " represents the sound of the voices of
the pursuers, " hue " applies to the sound of horns or other instru-
ments used in the pursuit ; and so Blackstone, Comment, iv. xxi.
293 (1809), " an hue and cry, hutesium tt clamor^ . . . with horn
and voice." " Hue," appearance, colour, is in Old English hiew,
hiw, cognate with Swedish hij, complexion, skin, and probably
connected with Sanskrit chawi, skin, complexion, beauty.
8 54
HUEHUETANANGO HUESCA
by hue and cry, if he still had about him the signs of his guilt.
If he resisted he could be cut down, while, if he submitted
to capture, his fate was decided. Although brought before a
court, he was not allowed to say anything in self-defence,
nor was there any need for accusation, indictment or appeal.
Although regulated from time to time by writs and statutes,
the process of hue and cry continued to retain its summary
method of procedure, and proof was not required of a culprit's
guilt, but merely that he had been taken red-handed by hue and
cry. The various statutes relating to hue and cry were repealed
in 1827 (7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 27). The Sheriffs Act 1887, re-
enacting 3 Edw. I. c. 9, provides that every person in a county
must be ready and apparelled at the command of the sheriff
and at the cry of the county to arrest a felon, and in default
shall on conviction be liable to a fine.
" Hue and cry " has, from its original meaning, come to be
applied to a proclamation for the capture of an offender or
for the finding of stolen goods,. and to an official publication,
issued for the information of the authorities interested, in
which particulars are given of offenders " wanted," offences
committed, &c.
For the early history, see Pollock and Maitland, History of English
Law, vol. ii. ; W. Stubbs, Select Charters.
HUEHUETANANGO (i.e. in the local Indian dialect, " City
of the Ancients "), the capital of the department of Huehue-
tanango, western Guatemala, 106 m. W.N.W. of Guatemala
city, on the right bank and near the source of the river Salegua,
a tributary of the Chiapas. Pop. (1905) about 12,000. Huehue-
tanango was built near the site of the ancient Indian city of
Zakuleu, now represented by some ruins on a neighbouring ridge
surrounded by deep ravines. It is the principal town of a fertile
upland region, which produces coffee, cocoa and many European
and tropical fruits. Chiantla, a neighbouring town mainly
inhabited by Indians, was long the headquarters of a successful
Dominican mission; its convent, enriched by the gifts of
pilgrims and the revenues of the silver mines owned by the monks,
became one of the wealthiest foundations in Central America.
It was secularized in 1873, and the mines have been abandoned.
HUELVA, a maritime province of south-western Spain,
formed in 1833 of districts taken from Andalusia, and bounded
on the N. by Badajoz, E. by Seville, S. by the Gulf of Cadiz
and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 260,880; area 3913 sq. m.
With the exception of its south-eastern angle, where the province
merges into the flat waste lands known as Las Marismas, at the
mouth of the Guadalquivir, Huelva presents throughout its
entire extent an agreeably varied surface. It is traversed in
a south-westerly direction by the Sierra Morena, here known,
in its main ridge, as the Sierra dt Aracena. The principal
streams are the navigable lower reaches of the Guadalquivir
and Guadiana, which respectively form for some distance the
south-eastern and south-western boundaries; the Odiel and the
Tinto, which both fall into the Atlantic by navigable rias or
estuaries; the Malagon, Chanza, Alcalaboza and Murtiga, which
belong to the Guadiana system; and the Huelva, belonging to
that of the Guadalquivir. Huelva has a mild and equable
climate, with abundant moisture and a fertile soil. Among the
mountains there are many valuable woodlands, in which oaks,
pines, beeches, cork-trees and chestnuts predominate, while
the lowlands afford excellent pasturage. But agriculture and
stock-breeding are here less important than in most Spanish
provinces, although the exports comprise large quantities of
fruit, oil and wine, besides cork and esparto grass. The head-
quarters of the fishing trades, which include the drying and salting
of fish, are at Huelva, the capital, and Ayamonte on the Guadiana.
There are numerous brandy distilleries; and bricks, pottery,
soap, candles and flour are also manufactured; but the great
local industry is mining. In 1903 no fewer than 470 mines were
at work; and their output, consisting chiefly of copper with
smaller quantities of manganese and iron, exceeded 1,500,000
in value. The celebrated Rio Tinto copper mines, near the
sources of the Tinto, were, like those of Tharsis, 30 m. N.N.W.
of Huelva, exploited long before the Christian era, probably by
the Carthaginians, and certainly by the Romans. They are
still among the most important copper mines in the world (see
Rio TINTO). Saline and other mineral springs are common
throughout the province. Huelva is the principal seaport,
and is connected with Seville on the east and Merida on the
north by direct railways; while a network of narrow-gauge
railways gives access to the chief mining centres. The principal
towns, besides Huelva (21,359) and Rio Tinto (11,603), which
are described in separate articles, are Alosno (8187), Ayamonte
(7530), Bollullos (7922), Moguer (8455), Nerva (7908) and
Zalamea la Real (7335). The state and municipal roads are
better engineered and maintained than those of the neighbouring
provinces. See also ANDALUSIA.
HUELVA (the ancient Onuba, Onoba, or Onuba Aestuaria),
the capital of the Spanish province of Huelva, about 10 m.
from the Atlantic Ocean, on the left bank of the river Odiel,
and on the Seville-Huelva, Merida-Huelva and Rio Tinto-
Huelva railways, the last-named being a narrow-gauge line.
Pop. (1900) 21,357. Huelva is built on the western shore of a
triangular peninsula formed by the estuaries of the Odiel and
Tinto, which meet below the town. It is wholly modern in
character and appearance, and owes its prosperity to an ever-
increasing transit trade in copper and other ores, for which
it is the port of shipment. After 1872, when the famous Rio
Tinto copper mines were for the first time properly exploited,
it progressed rapidly in size and wealth. Dredging operations
removed a great part of the sandbanks lining the navigable
main channel of the Odiel, and deepened the water over the bar
at its mouth; new railways were opened, and port works were
undertaken on a large scale, including the construction of
extensive quays and two piers, and the installation of modern
appliances for handling cargo. Many of these improvements
were added after 1900. Besides exporting copper, manganese
and other minerals, which in 1903 reached 2,750,000 tons, valued
at more than 1,500,000, Huelva is the headquarters of profitable
sardine, tunny and bonito fisheries, and of a trade in grain,
grapes, olives and cork. The copper and cork industries are
mainly in British hands, and the bulk of the imports, which
consist chiefly of coal, iron and steel and machinery, comes
from Great Britain. Foodstuffs and Australian hardwood are
also imported.
Huelva was originally a Carthaginian trading-station, and
afterwards a Roman colony; but it retains few memorials of
its past, except the Roman aqueduct, repaired in modern times,
and the colossal statue of Columbus. This was erected in 1892
to commemorate the fourth centenary of his voyage to the new
world in 1492-1493, which began and ended in the village of
San Palos de la Frontera on the Tinto. Columbus resided in
the neighbouring monastery of Santa Maria la Rabida after his
original plans for the voyage had been rejected by King John
II. of Portugal in 1484. An exact reproduction of this monastery
was erected in 1893 at the World's Fair, Chicago, U.S.A., and
was afterwards converted into a sanatorium. Higher up the
Tinto, above San Palos, is the town of Moguer (pop. 8455),
which exports large quantities of oil and wine.
HUERCAL OVERA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the
province of Almeria, on the Lorca-Baza railway, and between
two branches of the river Almanzora. Pop. (1900) 15,763.
Huercal Overa is the chief town of a thriving agricultural
district, largely dependent for its prosperity on the lead mining
carried on among the surrounding highlands.
HUESCA, a frontier province of northern Spain, formed in
1833 of districts previously belonging to Aragon; and bounded
on the N. by France, E. and S.E. by Lerida, S.W. and W. by
Saragossa, and N.W. by Navarre. Pop. (1900) 244,867; area
5848 sq. m. The entire northern half of Huesca belongs to the
mountain system of the Pyrenees, which here attain their greatest
altitudes in Aneto, the highest point of the Maladetta ridge
(11,168 ft.), and in Monte Perdido (10,997 ft.). The southern
half forms part of the rugged and high-lying plateau of Aragon.
Its only conspicuous range of hills is the Sierra de Alcubierre on
the south-western border. The whole province is included in
HUESCA HUET
855
the basin of the Ebro, and is drained by four of its principal
tributaries the Aragon in the north-west, the Gallego in the
west, the Cinca in the centre, and the Noguera Ribagorzana
along part of the eastern border. These rivers rise among the
Pyrenees, and take a southerly course; the two last-named
unite with the Segre on their way to join the Ebro. The Cinca
receives the combined waters of the Alcanadre and Isuela on
the right and the Esera on the left.
The climate varies much according to the region; in the north,
cold winds from the snow-capped Pyrenees prevail, while in
the south, the warm summers are often unhealthy from the
humidity of the atmosphere. Agriculture, the leading industry
of Huesca, is facilitated by a fairly complete system of irrigation,
by means of which much waste land has been reclaimed, although
large tracts remain barren. There is good summer pasturage
on the mountains, where cattle, sheep and swine are reared.
The mountains are richly clothed with forests of pine, beech,
oak and fir; and the southern regions, wherever cultivation
is possible, produce abundant crops of wheat and other cereals,
vines, mulberries and numerous other fruits and vegetables.
The mineral resources include argentiferous lead, copper, iron
and cobalt, with salt, lignite, limestone, millstone, gypsum,
granite and slate. None of these, however, occurs in large
quantities; and in 1903 only salt, lignite and fluor-spar were
worked, while the total output was worth less than 1500.
Mineral springs are numerous, and the mining industry was
formerly much more important; but the difficulties of trans-
port hinder the development of this and other resources. Trade
is most active with France, whither are sent timber, millstones,
cattle, leather, brandy and wine. Between 1882 and 1892
the wine trade throve greatly, owing to the demand for common
red wines, suitable for blending with finer French vintages;
but the exports subsequently declined, owing to the protective
duties imposed by France. The manufactures, which are of
little importance, include soap, spirits, leather, pottery and
coarse cloth.
The Saragossa-Lerida-Barcelona railway traverses the pro-
vince, and gives access, by two branch lines, to Jaca, by way of
Huesca, the provincial capital, and to Barbastro. Up to the
beginning of the 2oth century this was the only railway com-
pleted, although it was supplemented by many good roads.
But by the Railway Convention of 1904, ratified by the Spanish
government in 1906, France and Spain agreed jointly to construct
a Transpyrenean line from Oloron, in the Basses Pyrenees, to
Jaca, which should pass through the Port de Canfranc, and
connect Saragossa with Pau. Apart from the episcopal cities of
Huesca (pop. 1900, 12,626) and Jaca (4934), which are separately
described, the only towns in the province with more than 5000
inhabitants are Barbastro (7033), an agricultural market, and
Fraga (6899), an ancient residence of the kings of Aragon, with
a fine I2th century parish church and a ruined Moorish citadel.
Monzon, long celebrated as the meeting-place of the Aragonese
and Catalonian parliaments, is a town on the lower Cinca, with
the ruins of a Roman fortification, and of a i2th century castle,
which was owned by the Knights Templar. (See also ARAGON.)
HUESCA (anc. Osca), the capital of the Spanish province of
Huesca, 35 m. N.N.E. of Saragossa, on the Tardienta-Huesca-
Jaca railway. Pop. (1900), 12,626. Huesca occupies a height
near the right bank of the river Isuela, overlooking a broad and
fertile plain. It is a very ancient city and bears many traces of its
antiquity. The streets in the older part are narrow and crooked,
though clean, and many of the houses witness by their size and
style to its former magnificence. It is an episcopal see and has
an imposing Gothic cathedral, begun in 1400, finished in 1515,
and enriched with fine carving. In the same plaza is the old
palace of the kings of Aragon, formerly given up for the use of
the now closed Sertoria (the university), so named in memory of
a school for the sons of native chiefs, founded at Huesca by
Sertorius in 77 B.C. (Plut. Sert. 15). Among the other prominent
buildings are the interesting parish churches (San Pedro, San
Martin and San Juan), the episcopal palace, and various bene-
volent and religious foundations. Considerable attention is
paid to public education, and there are not only several good
primary schools, but schools for teachers, an institute, an
ecclesiastical seminary, an artistic and archaeological museum,
and an economic society. Huesca manufactures cloth, pottery,
bricks and leather; but its chief trade is in wine and agricultural
produce. The development of these industries caused an increase
in the population which, owing to emigration to France, had
declined by nearly 2000 between 1887 and 1897.
Strabo (iii. 161, where some editors read Ileosca) describes
Osca as a town of the Ilergetes, and the scene of Sertorius's death
in 72 B.C.; while Pliny places the Oscenses in regio Vescitania.
Plutarch (loc. cit.) calls it a large city. Julius Caesar names it
Vencedora; and the name by which Augustus knew it, Urbs
victrix Osca, was stamped on its coins, and is still preserved
on its arms. In the 8th century A.D. it was captured by the
Moors; but in 1096 Pedro I. of Aragon regained it, after winning
the decisive battle of Alcoraz.
HUET, PIERRE DANIEL (1630-1721), bishop of Avranches,
French scholar, was born at Caen in 1630. He was educated at
the Jesuit school of Caen, and also received lessons from the
Protestant pastor, Samuel Bochart. At the age of twenty he
was recognized as one of the most promising scholars of the time.
He went in 1651 to Paris, where he formed a friendship with
Gabriel Naude, conservator of the Mazarin library. In the
following year Samuel Bochart, being invited by Queen Christina
to her court at Stockholm, took his friend Huet with him.
This journey, in which he saw Leiden, Amsterdam and Copen-
hagen, as well as Stcckholm, resulted chiefly in the discovery,
in the Swedish royal library, of some fragments of Origen's
Commentary on St Matthew, which gave Huet the idea of editing
Origen, a task he completed in 1668. He eventually quarrelled
with his friend Bochart, who accused him of having suppressed
a line in Origen in the Eucharistic controversy. In Paris he
entered into close relations with Chapelain. During the famous
dispute of Ancients and Moderns Huet took the side of the
Ancients against Charles Perrault and Desmarets. Among his
friends at this period were Conrart and Pellisson. His taste for
mathematics led him to the study of astronomy. He next turned
his attention to anatomy, and, being himself shortsighted,
devoted his inquiries mainly to the question of vision and the
formation of the eye. In this pursuit he made more than 800
dissections. He then learned all that was then to be learned in
chemistry, and wrote a Latin poem on salt. All this time he was
no mere book-worm or recluse, but was haunting the salons of
Mile de Scudery and the studiosof painters; nor did his scientific
researches interfere with his classical studies, for during this time
he was discussing with Bochart the origin of certain medals, and
was learning Syriac and Arabic under the Jesuit Parvilliers.
He also translated the pastorals of Longus, wrote a tale called
Diane de Castro, and defended, in a treatise on the origin of
romance, the reading of fiction. On being appointed assistant
tutor to the Dauphin in 1670, he edited with the assistance of
Anne Lefevre, afterwards Madame Dacier, the well-known
edition of the Delphin Classics. This series was a comprehensive
edition of the Latin classics in about sixty volumes, and each work
was accompanied by a Latin commentary, ordo verborum, and
verbal index. The original volumes have each an engraving
of Arion and the Dolphin, and the appropriate inscription in
usum serenissimi Delphini. Huet was admitted to the Academy
in 1674. He issued one of his greatest works, the Demonstratio
evangelica, in 1679. He took holy orders in 1676, and two years
later the king gave him the abbey of Aulnay, where he wrote his
Qmstiones Aletuanae (Caen, 1690), his Censura philosophiae
Cartesianae (Paris, 1689), his Nouveau memoir e pour servir a
Vhistoire du CarUsianisme (1692), and his discussion with
Boileau on the Sublime. In 1685 he was made bishop of Soissons,
but after waiting for installation for four years he took the
bishopric of Avranches instead. He exchanged the cares of his
bishopric for what he thought would be the easier chair of the
Abbey of Fontenay, but there he was vexed with continual law-
suits. At length he retired to the Jesuits' House in the Rue
Saint Antoine at Paris, where he died in 1721. His great library
8 5 6
HUFELAND, C. W. HUGGINS
and manuscripts, after being bequeathed to the Jesuits, were
bought by the king for the royal library.
In the Huetiana (1722) of the abb6 d'Olivet will be found material
for arriving at an idea of his prodigious labours, exact memory and
wide scholarship. Another posthumous work was his Traite philo-
sophique de la faiblesse de I' esprit humain (Amsterdam, 1723). His
autobiography, found in his Commentarius de rebus ad eum pertinenti-
bus (Paris, 1718), has been translated into French and into English.
See de Gournay, Huet, 6vegue d'Avranches, sa vie et ses outrages
(Paris, 1854).
HUFELAND, CHRISTOPH WILHELM (1762-1836), German
physician, was born at Langensalza on the i2th of August 1762.
His early education was carried on at Weimar, where his father
held the office of court physician to the grand duchess. In 1 780
he entered the university of Jena, and in the following year
proceeded to Gottingen, where in 1783 he graduated in medicine.
After assisting his father for some years at Weimar, he was called
in 1793 to the chair of medicine at Jena, receiving at the same
time the dignities of court physician and councillor at Weimar.
In 1798 he was placed at the head of the medical college and
generally of state medical affairs in Berlin. He filled the chair
of pathology and therapeutics in the university of Berlin,
founded in 1809, and in 1810 became councillor of state. He
died at Berlin on the 25th of August 1836. Hufeland is cele-
brated as the most eminent practical physician of his time in
Germany, and as the author of numerous works displaying
extensive reading and cultivated and critical faculty.
The most widely known of his many writings is the treatise
entitled Makrobiotik, oder die Kunst, das menschliche Leben zu
verldngern (1796), which was translated into many languages.
Of his practical works, the System of Practical Medicine (System der
praktischen Heilkunde, 1818-1828) is the most elaborate. From
1795 to 1835 he published a Journal der praktischen Arznei und
Wundarzneikunde. His autobiography was published in 1863. There
are sketches of his life and labours by Augustin and Stourdza (1837).
HUFELAND, GOTTLIEB (1760-1817), German economist
and jurist, was born at Dantzig on the igth of October 1760.
He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and
completed his university studies at Leipzig and Gottingen.
He graduated at Jena, and in 1788 was there appointed to an
extraordinary professorship. Five years later he was made
ordinary professor. His lectures on natural law, in which he
developed with great acuteness and skill the formal principles
of the Kantian theory of legislation, attracted a large audience,
and contributed to raise to its height the fame of the university
of Jena, then unusually rich in able teachers. In 1803, after
the secession of many of his colleagues from Jena, Hufeland
accepted a call to Wiirzburg, from which, after but a brief
tenure of a professorial chair, he proceeded to Landshut. From
1808 to 1812 he acted as burgomaster in his native town of
Dantzig. Returning to Landshut, he lived there till 1816,
when he was invited to Halle, where he died on the 25th of
February 1817.
Hufeland's works on the theory of legislation Versuch uber den
Grundsatz Naturrechts (1785); Lehrbuch des Naturrechts (1790);
Institutionen des gesammten positiven Rechts (1798); and Lehrbuch
der Geschichte und Encyclopedic aller in Deutschland geltenden positiven
Rechte (1790), are distinguished by precision of statement and clear-
ness of deduction. They form on the whole the best commentary
upon Kant's Rechtslehre, the principles of which they carry out in
detail, and apply to the discussion of positive laws. In political
economy Hufeland's chief work is the Neue Grundlegung der Staats-
wirthschaftskunst (2 vols., 1807 and 1813), the second volume of
which has the special title, Lehre -jam Gelde und Geldumlaufe. The
principles of this work are for the most part those of Adam Smith's
Wealth of Nations, which were then beginning to be accepted and
developed in Germany; but both in his treatment of fundamental
notions, such as economic good and value, and in details, such as
the theory of money, Hufeland's treatment has a certain originality.
Two points in particular seem deserving of notice. Hufeland was
the first among German economists to point out the profit of the
entrepreneur as a distinct species of revenue with laws peculiar to
itself. He also tends towards, though he does not explicitly state,
the view that rent is a general term applicable to all payments
resulting from differences of degree among productive forces of the
same order. Thus the superior gain of a specially gifted workman
or specially skilled employer is in time assimilated to the payment
for a natural agency of more than the minimum efficiency.
See Roscher, Geschichte der Nationalokonomik in Deutschland,
654 662.
HUG, JOHANN LEONHARD (1765-1846), German Roman
Catholic theologian, was born at Constance on the ist of June
1765. In 1783 he entered the university of Freiburg, where he
became a pupil in the seminary for the training of priests, and
soon distinguished himself in classical and Oriental philology as
well as in biblical exegesis and criticism. In 1787 he became
superintendent of studies in the seminary, and held this appoint-
ment until the breaking up of the establishment in 1790. In
the following year he was called to the Freiburg chair of Oriental
languages and Old Testament exegesis; to the duties of this
post were added in 1793 those of the professorship of New
Testament exegesis. Declining calls to Breslau, Tubingen,
and thrice to Bonn, Hug continued at Freiburg for upwards of
thirty years, taking an occasional literary tour to Munich, Paris
or Italy. In 1827 he resigned some of his professorial work,
but continued in active duty until in the autumn of 1845 he was
seized with a painful illness, which proved fatal on the nth of
March 1846.
Hug's earliest publication was the first instalment of his Einleitung;
in it he argued with much acuteness against J. G. Eichhorn in favour
of the " borrowing hypothesis " of the origin of the synoptical
gospels, maintaining the priority of Matthew, the present Greek
text having been the original. His subsequent works were disserta-
tions on the origin of alphabetical writing (Die Erfindung der Buch-
stabenschrift, 1801), on the antiquity of the Codex Vaticanus (1810),
and on ancient mythology (Ober den Mythos der alien Volker, 1812) ;
a new interpretation of the Song of Solomon (Das hohe Lied in einer
noch unversuchten Deutung, 1813), to the effect that the lover re-
presents King Hezekiah, while by his beloved is intended the remnant
left in Israel after the deportation of the ten tribes; and treatises
on the indissoluble character of the matrimonial bond (De conjugii
christiani vinculo indissolubili commentatio exegetica, 1816) and on
the Alexandrian version of the Pentateuch (1818). His Einleitung
in die Schriften des Neuen Testaments, undoubtedly his most im-
portant work, was completed in 1808 (fourth German edition, 1847;
English translations by D. G. Wait, London, 1827, and by Fosdick,
New York, 1836; French partial translation by J. E. Cellerier,
Geneva, 1823). It is specially valuable in the portion relating to
the history of the text (which up to the middle of the 3rd century
he holds to have been current only in a common edition (KOIPI) Moo-is),
of which recensions were afterwards made by Hesychius, an Egyptian
bishop, by Lucian of Antioch, and by Origen) and in its discussion
of the ancient versions. The author's intelligence and acuteness are
more completely hampered by doctrinal presuppositions when he
comes to treat questions relating to the history of the individual
books of the New Testament canon. From 1839 to his death Hug
was a regular and important contributor to the Freiburger Zeitschrift
fiir kathol. Theologie.
See A. Maier, Gedachtnisrede auf J. L. Hug (1847); K. Werner,
Geschichte der kath. Theol. in Deutschland, 527-533 (:866).
HUGGINS, SIR WILLIAM (1824-1910), English astronomer,
was born in London on the 7th of February 1824, and was
educated first at the City of London School and then under
various private teachers. Having determined to apply himself
to the study of astronomy, he built in 1856 a private observatory
at Tulse Hill, in the south of London. At first he occupied
himself with ordinary routine work, but being far from satisfied
with the scope which this afforded, he seized eagerly upon the
opportunity for novel research, offered by Kirchhoff's discoveries
in spectrum analysis. The chemical constitution of the stars
was the problem to which he turned his attention, and his first
results, obtained in conjunction with Professor W. A. Miller,
were presented to the Royal Society in 1863, in a preliminary
note on the " Lines of some of the fixed stars." His experiments,
in the same year, on the photographic registration of stellar
spectra, marked an innovation of a momentous character.
But the wet collodion process was then the only one available,
and its inconveniences were such as to preclude its extensive
employment; the real triumphs of photographic astronomy
began in 1875 with Huggins's adoption and adaptation of the
gelatine dry plate. This enabled the observer to make exposures
of any desired length, and, through the cumulative action of
light on extremely sensitive surfaces, to obtain permanent
accurate pictures of celestial objects so faint as to be completely
invisible to the eye, even when aided by the most powerful
telescopes. In the last quarter of the igth century spectroscopy
and photography together worked a revolution in observational
astronomy, and in both branches Huggins acted as pioneer.
HUGH, ST HUGH THE GREAT
857
Many results of great importance are associated with his name.
Thus in 1864 the spectroscope yielded him evidence that planetary
and irregular nebulae consist of luminous gas a conclusion
tending to support the nebular hypothesis of the origin of stars
and planets by condensation from glowing masses of fluid
material. On the i8th of May 1866 he made the first spectro-
scopic examination of a temporary star (Nova Coronae), and
found it to be enveloped in blazing hydrogen. In 1868 he
proved incandescent carbon-vapours to be the main source of
cometary light; and on the 2$rd of April in the same year
applied Doppler's principle to the detection and measurement
of stellar velocities in the line of sight. Data of this kind, which
are by other means inaccessible to the astronomer, are obviously
indispensable to any adequate conception of the stellar system
as a whole or in its parts. In solar physics Huggins suggested
a spectroscopic method for viewing the red prominences in
daylight; and his experiments went far towards settling a
much-disputed question regarding the solar distribution of
calcium. In the general solar spectrum this element is repre-
sented by a large number of lines, but in the spectrum of the
prominences and chromosphere one pair only can be detected.
This circumstance appeared so anomalous that some astronomers
doubted whether the surviving lines were really due to calcium;
but Sir William and Lady Huggins (nie Margaret Lindsay
Murray, who, after their marriage in 1875, actively assisted her
husband) successfully demonstrated in the laboratory that
calcium vapour, if at a sufficiently low pressure, gives under
the influence of the electric discharge precisely these lines and
no others. The striking discovery was, in 1903, made by the
same investigators that the spontaneous luminosity of radium
gives a spectrum of a kind never before obtained without the
aid of powerful excitation, electrical or thermal. It consists,
that is to say, in a range of bright lines, the agreement of which
with the negative pole bands of nitrogen, together with details
of interest connected with its mode of production, was ascertained
by a continuance of the research. Sir William Huggins, who
was made K.C.B. in 1897, received the Order of Merit in 1902,
and was awarded many honours, academic and other. He
presided over the meeting of the British Association in 1891, and
during the five years 1900-1905 acted as president of the Royal
Society, from which he at different times received a Royal, a
Copley and a Rumford medal. Four of his presidential addresses
were republished in 1906, in an illustrated volume entitled
The Royal Society. A list of his scientific papers is contained in
chapter ii. of the magnificent Alias of Representative Stellar
Spectra, published in 1899, by Sir William and Lady Huggins
conjointly, for which they were adjudged the Actonian prize
of the Royal Institution. Sir William Huggins died on the I2th
of May 1910.
See ch. i. of Atlas of Stellar Spectra, containing a history of the
Tulse Hill observatory; Sir W. Muggins's personal retrospect in the
Nineteenth Century for June 1897; "Scientific Worthies," with
photogravure portrait (Nature); Astronomers of To-Day, by Hector
Macpherson, junr. (1905) (portrait); Month. Notices Roy. Astr.
Society, xxvii. 146 (C. Pritchard). (A. M. C.)
HUGH, ST. ST HUGH OF AVALON (c. 1140-1200), bishop of
Lincoln, who must be distinguished from Hugh of Wells, and
also from St Hugh of Lincoln (see below), was born of a noble
family at Avalon in Burgundy. At the age of eight he entered
along with his widowed father the neighbouring priory of canons
regular at Villard-Benoit, where he was ordained deacon at
nineteen. Appointed not long after prior of a dependent cell,
Hugh was attracted from that position by the holy reputation
of the monks of the Grande Chartreuse, whose house he finally
entered despite an oath to the contrary which he had given his
superior. There he remained about ten years, receiving priest's
orders, and rising to the important office of procurator, which
brought him into contact with the outer world. The wide
reputation for energy and tact which Hugh speedily attained
penetrated to the ears of Henry II. of England, and induced
that monarch to request the procurator's assistance in establish-
ing at Witham in Somersetshire the first English Carthusian
monastery. Hugh reluctantly consented to go to England,
where in a short time he succeeded in overcoming every obstacle,
and in erecting and organizing the convent, of which he was
appointed first prior. He speedily became prime favourite with
Henry, who in 1186 procured his election to the see of Lincoln.
He took little part in political matters, maintaining as one of his
chief principles that a churchman should hold no secular office.
A sturdy upholder of what he believed to be right, he let neither
royal nor ecclesiastical influence interfere with his conduct,
but fearlessly resisted whatever seemed to him an infringement
of the rights of his church or diocese. But with all his bluff
firmness Hugh had a calm judgment and a ready tact, which
almost invariably left him a better friend than before of those
whom he opposed; and the astute Henry, the impetuous
Richard, and the cunning John, so different in other points,
agreed in respecting the bishop of Lincoln. Hugh's manners
were a little rigid and harsh; but, though an ascetic to himself,
he was distinguished by a broad kindliness to others, so that
even the Jews of Lincoln wept at his funeral. He had great
skill in taming birds, and for some years had a pet swan, which
occupies a prominent place in all histories and representations
of the saint. In 1200 Bishop Hugh revisited his native country
and his first convents, and on the return journey was seized with
an illness, of which he died at London on the i6th of November
1200. He was canonized by Honorius III. on the i7th of
February 1220. His feast day is kept on the i7th of November
in the Roman Church.
The chief life of St Hugh, the Magna vita S. Hugonis, probably
written by Adam, afterwards abbot of Eynsham, the bishop's
chaplain, was edited by J. F. Dimock in Rer. Britan. med. aevi
script, No. xxxvii. (London, 1864). MSS. of this are in the Bodleian
Library (Digby, 165 of the I3th century) and in Paris (Bib. Nat.
5575. Fonds Latin); the Paris MS. fortunately makes good the
portions lacking in the Oxford one. Mr Dimock also edited a
Metrical Life of St Hugh of Avalon (London, 1860), from two MSS.
in the British Museum and the Bodleian Library. The best modern
source for information as to St Hugh and his time is the Vie de Si
Hugues, eveque de Lincoln (1140-1200) par un religieux de la Grande
Chartreuse (Montreuil, 1890), Eng. trans, edited by H. Thurston,
S.J., with valuable appendices and notes (London, 1898). A com-
plete bibliography is given in U. Chevalier, Bio-bibliographie (Paris,
1905, 2206-2207); see also A. Potthast, Bibliotheca med. aev.,
1380.
HUGH or WELLS, one of King John's officials and councillors,
became bishop of Lincoln in 1209. He soon fell into disfavour
with John, and the earlier years of his bishopric were mainly
spent abroad, while the king seized the revenues of his see.
However, he was one of John's supporters when Magna Carta
was signed, and after the accession of Henry III. he was able to
turn his attention to his episcopal duties. His chief work was
the establishment of vicarages in his diocese, thus rendering the
parish priest more independent of the monastic houses; this
policy, and consequently Hugh himself, was heartily disliked
by Matthew Paris and other monastic writers. The bishop, who
did some building at Lincoln and also at Wells, died on the 7th
of February 1235.
ST HUGH OF LINCOLN, a native of Lincoln, was a child about ten
years old when he was found dead on premises belonging to a
Jew. It was said, and the story was generally believed, that the
boy had been scourged and crucified in imitation of the death of
Jesus Christ. Great and general indignation was aroused, and
a number of Jews were hanged or punished in other ways. The
incident is referred to by Chaucer in the Prioresses Tale and by
Marlowe in the Jew of Malta.
HUGH, called THE GREAT (d. 956), duke of the Franks and
count of Paris, son of King Robert I. of France (d. 923) and
nephew of King Odo or Eudes (d. 898), was one of the founders
of the power of the Capetian house in France. Hugh's first
wife was Eadhild, a sister of the English king, ^Ethelstan. At
the death of Raoul, duke of Burgundy, in 936, Hugh was in
possession of nearly all the region between the Loire and the
Seine, corresponding to the ancient Neustria, with the exception
of the territory ceded to the Normans in 911. He took a very
active part in bringing Louis IV. (d'Outremer) from England in
936, but in the same year Hugh married Hadwig, sister of the
emperor Otto the Great, and soon quarrelled with Louis. Hugh
858
HUGH CAPET HUGH OF ST CHER
even paid homage to Otto, and supported him in his struggle
against Louis. When Louis fell into the hands of the Normans
in 945, he was handed over to Hugh, who released him in 946
only on condition that he should surrender the fortress of Laon.
At the council of Ingelheim (948) Hugh was condemned, under
pain of excommunication, to make reparation to Louis. It was
not, however, until 950 that the powerful vassal became re-
conciled with his suzerain and restored Laon. But new diffi-
culties arose, and peace was not finally concluded until 953.
On the death of Louis IV. Hugh was one of the first to recognize
Lothair as his successor, and, at the intervention of Queen
Gerberga, was instrumental in having him crowned. In recogni-
tion of this service Hugh was invested by the new king with the
duchies of Burgundy (his suzerainty over which had already been
nominally recognized by Louis IV.) and Aquitaine. But his
expedition in 955 to take possession of Aquitaine was unsuccess-
ful. In the same year, however, Giselbert, duke of Burgundy,
acknowledged himself his vassal and betrothed his daughter to
Hugh's son Otto. At Giselbert's death (April 8, 956) Hugh
became effective master of the duchy, but died soon afterwards,
on the i6th or i7th of June 956.
HUGH CAPET (c. 938-996), king of France and founder of the
Capetian dynasty, was the eldest son of Hugh the Great by his
wife Hadwig. When his father died in 956 he succeeded to his
numerous fiefs around Paris and Orleans, and thus becoming one
of the most powerful of the feudatories of his cousin, the Prankish
king Lothair, he was recognized somewhat reluctantly by that
monarch as duke of the Franks. Many of the counts of northern
France did homage to him as their overlord, and Richard I., duke
of Normandy, was both his vassal and his brother-in-law. His
authority extended over certain districts south of the Loire, and,
owing to his interference, Lothair was obliged to recognize his
brother Henry as duke of Burgundy. Hugh supported his royal
suzerain when Lothair and the emperor Otto II. fought for the
possession of Lorraine; but chagrined at the king's conduct in
making peace in 980, he went to Rome to conclude an alliance with
Otto. Laying more stress upon independence than upon loyalty,
Hugh appears to have acted in a haughty manner toward Lothair,
and also towards his son and successor Louis V.; but neither
king was strong enough to punish this powerful vassal, whose
clerical supporters already harboured the thought of securing for
him the Prankish crown. When Louis V. died without children
in May 987, Hugh and the late king's uncle Charles, duke of
Lower Lorraine, were candidates for the vacant throne, and in
this contest the energy of Hugh's champions, Adalberon, arch-
bishop of Reims, and Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II.,
prevailed. Declaring that the Prankish crown was an elective
and not an hereditary dignity, Adalberon secured the election of
his friend, and crowned him, probably at Noyon, in July 987.
The authority of the new king was quickly recognized in his
kingdom, which covered the greater part of France north of the
Loire with the exception of Brittany, and in a shadowy fashion
he was acknowledged in Aquitaine; but he was compelled to
purchase the allegiance of the great nobles by large grants of
royal lands, and he was hardly more powerful as king than he had
been as duke. Moreover, Charles of Lorraine was not prepared
to bow before his successful rival, and before Hugh had secured
the coronation of his son Robert as his colleague and successor in
December 987, he had found allies and attacked the king. Hugh
was worsted during the earlier part of this struggle, and was in
serious straits, until he was saved by the wiles of his partisan
Adalberon, bishop of Laon, who in 991 treacherously seized
Charles and handed him over to the king. This capture virtually
ended the war, but one of its side issues was a quarrel between
Hugh and Pope John XV., who was supported by the empire,
then under the rule of the empresses Adelaide and Theophano as
regents for the young emperor Otto III. In 987 the king had
appointed to the vacant archbishopric of Reims a certain Arnulf,
who at once proved himself a traitor to Hugh and a friend to
Charles of Lorraine. In June 991, at the instance of the king, the
French bishops deposed Arnulf and elected Gerbert in his stead,
a proceeding which was displeasing to the pope, who excom-
municated the new archbishop and his partisans. Hugh and his
bishops remained firm, and the dispute was still in progress when
the king died at Paris on the 24th of October 996.
Hugh was a devoted son of the church, to which, it is not too
much to say, he owed his throne. As lay abbot of the abbeys of
St Martin at Tours and of St Denis he was interested in clerical
reform, was fond of participating in religious ceremonies, and had
many friends among the clergy. His wife was Adelaide, daughter
of William III V duke of Aquitaine, by whom he left a son, Robert,
who succeeded him as king of France. The origin of Hugh's
surname of Cape!, which was also apph'ed to his father, has been
the subject of some discussion. It is derived undoubtedly
from the Lat. capa, cappa, a cape, but whether Hugh received it
from the cape which he wore as abbot of St Martin's, or from
his youthful and playful habit of seizing caps, or from some other
cause, is uncertain.
See Richerus, Historiarum libri IV., edited by G. Waitz (Leipzig,
1877); F. Lot, Les Derniers Carolingiens (Paris, 1891), and Eludes
sur le regne de Hugues Capet (Paris, 1900); G. Monod, " Les Sources
du regne de Hugues Capet," in the Revue historique, tome xxviii.
(Paris, 1891); P. Viollet, La Question de la legitimite A I'avenement
a Hugues Capet (Paris, 1892); and E. Lavisse, Histoire de France,
tome ii. (Paris, 1903-1905).
HUGH DE PUISET (c. 1125-1195), bishop of Durham^ was the
nephew of Stephen and Henry of Blois; the latter brought him
to England and made him an archdeacon of the see of Winchester.
Hugh afterwards became archdeacon and treasurer of York.
In 1153 he was chosen bishop of Durham, in spite of the opposi-
tion of the archbishop of York; but he only obtained consecration
by making a personal visit to Rome. Hugh took little part in
politics in the reign of Henry II., remaining in the north, immersed
in the affairs of his see. He was, however, present with Roger,
archbishop of York, at the coronation of young Henry (i 170), and
was in consequence suspended by Alexander III. He remained
neutral, as far as he could, in the quarrel between Henry and
Becket, but he at least connived at the rebellion of 1173 and
William the Lion's invasion of England in that year. After the
failure of the rebellion the bishop was compelled to surrender
Durham, Norham and Northallerton to the king. In 1179 he
attended the Lateran Council at Rome, and in 1181 by the pope's
order he laid Scotland under an interdict. In 1184 he took the
cross. At the general sale of offices with which Richard began
his reign (1189) Hugh bought the earldom of Northumberland.
The archbishopric of York had been vacant since 1181. This
vacancy increased Hugh's power vastly, and when the vacancy
was filled by the appointment of Geoffrey he naturally raised
objections. This quarrel with Geoffrey lasted till the end of his
life. Hugh was nominated justiciar jointly with William
Longchamp when Richard left the kingdom. But Longchamp
soon deprived the bishop of his place (1191), even going so far as
to imprison Hugh and make him surrender his castle, his earldom
and hostages. Hugh's chief object in politics was to avoid ac-
knowledging Geoffrey of York as his ecclesiastical superior, but
this he was compelled to do in 1195. On Richard's return
Hugh joined the king and tried to buy back his earldom. He
seemed on the point of doing so when he died. Hugh was one of
the most important men of his day, and left a mark upon the
north of England which has never been effaced. Combining in
his own hands the palatinate of Durham and the earldom of
Northumberland, he held a position not much dissimilar to that
of the great German princes, a local sovereign in all but name.
See Kate Norgate's England under the Angevin Kings (1887);
Stubbs's preface to Hoveden, iii.
HUGH OF ST CHER (c. 1200-1263), French cardinal and
Biblical commentator, was born at St Cher, a suburb of Vienne,
Dauphine, and while a student in Paris entered the Dominion
convent of the Jacobins in 1225. He taught philosophy, theology
and canon law. As provincial of his order, which office he held
during most of the third decade of the century, he contributed
largely to its prosperity, and won the confidence of the popes
Gregory IX., Innocent IV. and Alexander IV., who charged him
with several important missions. Created cardinal-priest in
1244, he played an important part in the council of Lyons in
HUGH OF ST VICTOR HUGHES, D. E.
859
1245, contributed to the institution of the Feast of Holy Sacra-
ment, the reform of the Carmelites (1247), and the condemnations
of the Introductorius in evangelium aeternum of Gherardino
del Borgo San Donnino (1255), and of William of St Amour's
De periculis novissimorum temporum. He died at Orvieto on
the igth of March 1263. He directed the first revision of the
text of the Vulgate, begun in 1236 by the Dominicans; this
first " correctorium," vigorously criticized by Roger Bacon,
was revised in 1248 and in 1256, and forms the base of the
celebrated Correctorium Bibliae Sorbonicum. With the aid of
many of his order he edited the first concordance of the Bible
(Concord antiae Sacrormn Bibliorum or Concordantiae S. Jacobi),
but the assertion that we owe the present division of the chapters
of the Vulgate to him is false.
Besides a commentary on the book of Sentences, he wrote the
Poslillae in sacram scripturam juxta quadruplicem sensum, litteralem,
allegoricum, anagogicum et mpralem, published frequently in the
I5th and i6th centuries. His Sermones de tempore el sanctis are
apparently only extracts. His exegetical works were published at
Venice in 1754 in 8 vols.
See, for sources, Quetif-Echard, Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum ;
Denifle, in Archivfiir Litteratur und Kircnengeschichte des Mittelalters,
i. 49, ii. 171, iv. 263 and 471 ; L 'Annee dominicaine, iii. (1886) 509 and
883; Chartularium universitatis Parisiensis, i. 158. (H. L.)
HUGH OF ST VICTOR (c. 1078-1141), mystic philosopher, was
probably born at Hartingam, in Saxony. After spending some
time in a house of canons regular at Hamersleben, in Saxony,
where he completed his studies, he removed to the abbey of St
Victor at Marseilles, and thence to the abbey of St Victor in Paris.
Of this last house he rose to be canon, in 1125 scholasticus, and
perhaps even prior, and it was there that he died on the nth of
February 1141. His eloquence and his writings earned for him
a renown and influence which far exceeded St Bernard's, and
which held its ground until the advent of the Thomist philosophy.
Hugh was more especially the initiator of a movement of ideas
the mysticism of the school of St Victor which filled the whole
of the second part of the i2th century. "The mysticism
which he inaugurated," says Ch. V. Langlois, " is learned,
unctuous, ornate, florid, a mysticism which never indulges in
dangerous temerities; it is the orthodox mysticism of a subtle
and prudent rhetorician." This tendency undoubtedly shows
a marked reaction from the contentious theology of Roscellinus
and Abelard. For Hugh of St Victor dialectic was both
insufficient and perilous. Yet he did not profess the haughty
contempt for science and philosophy which his followers the
Victorines expressed; he regarded knowledge, not as an end in
itself, but as the vestibule of the mystic life. The reason, he
thought, was but an aid to the understanding of the truths which
faith reveals. The ascent towards God and the functions of the
" threefold eye of the soul " cogilatio, meditatio and contem-
platio were minutely taught by him in language which is at
once precise and symbolical.
Manuscript copies of his works abound, and are to be found in
almost every library which possesses a collection of ancient writings.
The works themselves are very numerous and very diverse. The
middle ages attributed to him sixty works, and the edition in Migne's
Pair. Lat. vols. clxxv.-clxxvii. (Paris, 1854) contains no fewer
than forty-seven treatises, commentaries and collections of sermons.
Of that number, however, B. Haurdau (Les (Euvres de Hugues de
St Victor (ist ed., Paris, 1859; 2nd ed., Paris, 1886) contests the
authenticity of several, which he ascribes with some show of proba-
bility to Hugh of Fouilloi, Robert Paululus or others. Among
those works with which Hugh of St Victor may almost certainly be
credited may be mentioned the celebrated De sacramentis christianae
fidei; the Didascalicon de studio legendi; the treatises on mysticism
entitled Soliloquium de arrha animae, De contemplatione et ejus
operibus, Aureum de meditando opusculum, De area Noe morali, De
area Noe mystica, De vanitate mundi, De arrha animae, De amore
sponsi ad sponsam, &c.; the introduction (Praenotatiunculae) to
the study of the Scriptures; homilies on the book of Ecclesiastes ;
commentaries on other books of the Bible, e.g. the Pentateuch,
Judges, Kings, Jeremiah, &c.
See B. Haurdau, op. cit. and Notices et extraits des MSS. latins de
la Bibliolheque Nationale, passim; De Wulf, Histoire df, la, philo-
sophie meditvale (Louvain, 1900), pp. 220-221 ; article by H. Denifle
in Archiv fur Literatur und Kircnengeschichte des Mittelalters, iii.
634-640 (1887) ; A. Mignon, Les Origines de la scholastique et Hugues
de St Victor (Paris, 1895); J. Kilgenstein, Die Gotteslehre des Hugo
von St Victor (1898). (P. A.)
HUGHES, DAVID EDWARD (1831-1000), Anglo-American
electrician, was born on the i6th of May 1831 in London, but the
earlier part of his life was spent in America, whither his parents
emigrated when he was about seven years old. In 1850 he
became professor of music at the college of Bardstown, Kentucky,
and soon afterwards his attainments in physical science procured
his appointment as teacher of natural philosophy at the same
place. His professorial career, however, was brief, for in 1854
he removed to Louisville to supervise the manufacture of the
type-printing telegraph instrument which he had been thinking
out for some time, and which was destined to make both his
name and his fortune. The patent for this machine was taken
out in the United States in 1855, and its success was immediate.
After seeing it well established on one side of the Atlantic,
Hughes in 1857 brought it over to his native country, where,
however, the telegraph companies did not receive it with any
favour. Two or three years afterwards he introduced it to the
notice of the French Government, who, after submitting it to
severe tests, ultimately adopted it, and in the succeeding ten
years it came into extensive use all over Europe, gaining for its
inventor numerous honours and prizes. In the development of
telephony also Hughes had an important share, and the telephone
has attained its present perfection largely as a result of his
investigations. The carbon transmitters which in various forms
are in almost universal use are modifications of a simple device
which he called a microphone, and which consists essentially of
two pieces of carbon, in loose contact one with the other. The
arrangement constitutes a variable electrical resistance of the
most delicate character; if it is included in an electric circuit
with a battery and subjected to the influence of sonorous vibra-
tions, its resistance varies in such a way as to produce an un-
dulatory current which affords an exact representation of the
sound waves as to height, length and form. These results were
published in 1878, but Hughes did much more work on the
properties of such microphonic joints, of which he said nothing till
many years afterwards. When towards the end of 1879 he
found that they were also sensitive to " sudden electric impulses,
whether given out to the atmosphere through the extra current
from a coil or from a frictional machine," he in fact discovered
the phenomena on which depends the action of the so-called
" coherers " used in wireless telegraphy. But he went further
and practised wireless telegraphy himself, surmising, moreover,
that the agency he was employing consisted of true electric
waves. Setting some source of the " sudden electric impulses "
referred to above into operation in his house, he walked along
the street carrying a telephone in circuit with a small battery
and one of these microphonic joints, and found that the sounds
remained audible in the telephone until he had traversed a
distance of 500 yards. This experiment he showed to several
English men of science, among others to Sir G. G. Stokes, to
whom he broached the theory that the results were due to electric
waves. That physicist, however, was not disposed to accept this
explanation, considering that a sufficient one could be found in
well-known electromagnetic induction effects, and Hughes was
so discouraged at that high authority taking this view of the
matter that he resolved to publish no account of his inquiry until
further experiments had enabled him to prove the correctness
of his own theory. These experiments were still in progress
whenH.R.Hertz settled the question by his researches on electric
waves in 1887-1889. Hughes, who is also known for his invention
of the induction balance and for his contributions to the theory
of magnetism, died in London on the 22nd of January 1900.
As an investigator he was remarkable for the simplicity of the
apparatus which served his purposes, domestic articles like
jam-pots, pins, &c., forming a large part of the equipment of his
laboratory. His manner of life, too, was simple and frugal in the
extreme. He amassed a large fortune, which, with the exception
of some bequests to the Royal Society, the Paris Academy of
Sciences, the Institution of Electrical Engineers, and the Paris
Societe Internationale des Electriciens, for the establishment of
scholarships and prizes in physical science, was left to four
London hospitals, subject only to certain life annuities.
86o
HUGHES, SIR E. HUGHES, J.
HUGHES, SIR EDWARD (c. 1720-1794), British admiral,
entered the Royal Navy in 1735, and four years later was present
at Porto Bello. In 1740 he became lieutenant, and in that
rank served in the Cartagena expedition of 1741, and at the
indecisive battle of Toulon (1744). In H.M.S. "Warwick"
he was present at the action with the " Glorioso," but in default
of proper support from the "Lark" (which was sailing in
company with the "Warwick"), the combat ended with the
enemy's escape. The commander of the " Lark " was subse-
quently tried and condemned for his conduct, and Hughes
received the vacant command. Captain Hughes was with
Boscawen at Louisburg and with Saunders at Quebec. He was
in continual employment during the peace, and as Commodore
commanded in the East Indies from 1773 to 1777. It was not
long before he returned to the East as a rear-admiral, with an
overwhelming naval force. On his outward voyage he retook
Goree from the French, and he was called upon to conduct
only minor operations for the next two years, as the enemy
could not muster any force fit to meet the powerful squadron
Hughes had brought from the Channel. In 1782 he stormed
Trincomalee a few days before the squadron of Suffren arrived
in the neighbourhood. For the next year these Indian waters
were the scene of one of the most famous of naval cam-
paigns. Suffren (q.t.) was perhaps the ablest sea-commander
that France ever produced, but his subordinates were factious
and unskilful; Hughes on the other hand, whose ability was that
born of long experience rather than genius, was well supported.
No fewer than five fiercely contested general actions were fought
by two fleets, neither of them gaining a decisive advantage.
In the end Hughes held his ground. After the peace he returned
to England, and, though further promotions came to him, he
never again hoisted his flag. He had accumulated considerable
wealth during his Indian service, which for the most part he
spent in unostentatious charity. He died at his seat of Lux-
borough in Essex in 1794.
HUGHES, HUGH PRICE (1847-1902), British Nonconformist
divine, was born at Carmarthen on the 8th of February 1847,
the son of a surgeon. He began to preach when he was fourteen,
and in 1865 entered Richmond College to study for the Wesleyan
Methodist ministry under the Rev. Alfred Barrett, one of whose
daughters he married in 1873. He graduated at London
University in 1869, the last year of his residence. He established
in 1887 the West London Mission, holding popular services on
Sunday in St James's Hall, Piccadilly, when he preached from
time to time on the housing of the poor, sweating, gambling
and other subjects of social interest. In connexion with this
mission he founded a sisterhood to forward the social side of the
work, which was presided over by Mrs Hughes. He had started
in 1885 iheMethodist Times, and rapidly made it a leading organ
of Nonconformist opinion. He was a born fighter, and carried
the fire and eloquence he showed on the platform and in the
pulpit into journalism. He supported Mr W. T. Stead in 1885,
as he had earlier supported Mrs Josephine Butler in a similar
cause; he attacked the trade in alcohol; was an anti-vivi-
sectionist; he advocated arbitration; and his vehement attacks
on Sir Charles Dilke and Charles Stewart Parnell originated the
phrase the " Nonconformist conscience." He differed strongly,
however, from a large section of Nonconformist opinion in his
defence of the South African War. He was long regarded with
some distrust by the more conservative section of his own church,
but in 1898 he was made president of the Wesleyan Conference.
He raised large sums for church work, amounting it is said to
over a quarter of a million of money. His energies were largely
devoted to co-operation among the various Nonconformist
bodies, and he was one of the founders and most energetic
members of the National Council of the Evangelical Free Churches.
He had long been in failing health when he died suddenly in
London on the I7th of November 1902.
See his Life (1904) by his daughter, Dorothea Price Hughes.
HUGHES, JOHN (1677-1720), English poet and miscellaneous
writer, was born at Marlborough, Wiltshire, on the 29th of
January 1677. His father was a clerk in a city office, and his
grandfather was ejected from the living of Marlborough in 1662
for his Nonconformist opinions. Hughes was educated at a
dissenting academy in London, where Isaac Watts was among
his fellow scholars. He became a clerk in the Ordnance Office,
and served on several commissions for the purchase of land for
the royal dockyards. In 1 7 1 7 Lord Chancellor Cowper made him
secretary to the commissions of the peace in the court of chancery.
He died on the night of the production of his most celebrated
work, The Siege of Damascus, the I7th of February 1720.
His poems include occasional pieces in honour of William
III., imitations of Horace, and a translation of the tenth book
of the Pharsalia of Lucan. He was an amateur of the violin,
and played in the concerts of Thomas Britton, the " musical
small-coal man." He wrote some of the libretti of the cantatas
(2 vols., 1712) set to music by Dr John Christopher Pepusch.
To these he prefixed an essay advocating the claims of English
libretti, and insisting on the value of recitative. Others of his
pieces were set to music by Ernest Galliard and by Handel.
In the masque of 'Apollo and Daphne (1716) he was associated
with Pepusch, and in his opera of Calypso and Telemachus (1712)
with John E. Galliard. He was a contributor to the Taller,
the Spectator and the Guardian, and he collaborated with Sir
Richard Blackmore in a series of essays entitled The Lay
Monastery (1713-1714). He persuaded Joseph Addison to stage
Cato. Addison had requested Hughes to write the last act,
but eventually completed the play himself. He wrote a version
of the Letters of Abelard and Heloise . . . (1714) chiefly from
the French translation printed at the Hague in 1693, which went
through several editions, and is notable as the basis of Pope's
" Eloisa to Abelard" (1717). He also made translations from
Moliere, Fontenelle and the Abbe Vertot, and in 1715 edited
The Works of Edmund Spenser . . . (another edition, 1750).
His last work, the tragedy of The Siege of Damascus, is his best.
It remained on the list of acting plays for a long time, and is to
be found in various collected editions of British drama.
His Poems on Several Occasions, with some Select Essays in Prose
. . . were edited with a memoir in 1735, by William Duncombe,
who had married his sister Elizabeth. See also Letters by several
eminent persons (2 vols., 1772) and The Correspondence of John
Hughes, Esq. . . . and Several of his Friends ... (2 vols., 1773),
with some additional poems. There is a long and eulogistic account
of Hughes, with some letters, in the Biographia Britannica.
HUGHES, JOHN (1797-1864), American Roman Catholic
divine, was born in Annaloghan, Co. Tyrone, Ireland, on the
24th of June 1797. In 1817 he followed his father to Chambers-
burg, Pennsylvania. He was ordained deacon in 1825 and
priest in 1826; and as vicar in St Augustine's and other churches
in Philadelphia he took a prominent part in the defence of
ecclesiastical authority against the lay trustee system. In
1837 he was consecrated coadjutor to Bishop Dubois in New
York. In the New York diocese, of which he was made admi-
nistrator in 1839 and bishop in 1842, besides suppressing (1841)
church control by lay trustees, he proved himself an active,
almost pugnacious, leader. His unsuccessful attempt to build
in Lafargeville, Jefferson county, a seminary of St Vincent de
Paul, was followed by the transfer of the school to Fordham,
where St John's College (now Fordham University) was estab-
lished (1841), largely out of funds collected by him in Europe
in 1839-1840. His demand for state support for parochial
schools was favoured by Governor Seward and was half victorious:
it was in this controversy that he was first accused of forming
a Catholic party in politics. John McCloskey was consecrated
his coadjutor in 1844; in 1847 the diocese of New York was
divided; and in 1850 Hughes was named the first archbishop of
New York, with suffragan bishops of Boston, Hartford, Albany
and Buffalo. In the meantime, during the " Native American "
disturbances of 1844, he had been viciously attacked together
with his Church; he kept his parishioners in check, but bade
them protect their places of worship. His attitude was much
the same at the time of the Anti-Popery outcry of the ' Know-
Nothings " in 1854. His early anti-slavery views had been made
much less radical by his travels in the South and in the West
Indies, but at the outbreak of the Civil War he was strongly
HUGHES, T. HUGLI
861
pro-Union, and in 1861 he went to France to counteract the
influence of the Slidell mission. He met with success not only
in France, but at Rome and in Ireland, where, however, he made
strong anti-English speeches. He died in New York City on
the 3rd of January 1864. Hughes was a hard fighter and
delighted in controversy. In 1826 he wrote An Answer to Nine
Objections Made by an Anonymous Writer Against the Catholic
Religion; he was engaged in a bitter debate with Dr John
Breckenridge (Presbyterian), partly in letters published in 1833
and partly in a public discussion in Philadelphia in 1835, on the
subject of civil and religious liberty as affected by the Roman
Catholic and the Presbyterian " religions " ; in 1856, through
his organ, the Metropolitan Record, he did his best to discredit
any attempts by the Catholic press to forward either the move-
ment to " Americanize " the Catholic Church or that to dis-
seminate the principles of " Young Ireland."
His works were edited by Laurence Kehoe (2 vols., New York,
1864-1865). See John R. G. Hassard, Life of the Most Rev. John
Hughes (New York, 1866); and Henry A. Brann, John Hughes
(New York, 1894), a briefer sketch, in " The Makers of America "
series.
HUGHES, THOMAS, English dramatist, a native of Cheshire,
entered Queens' College, Cambridge, in 1571. He graduated
and became a fellow of his college in 1576, and was afterwards
a member of Gray's Inn. He wrote The Misfortunes of Arthur.
Ulher Pendragon's son reduced into tragical notes by Thomas
Hughes, which was performed at Greenwich in the Queen's
presence on the 28th of February 1 588. Nicholas Trotte provided
the introduction, Francis Flower the choruses of Acts I. and II.,
William Fulbeck two speeches, while three other gentlemen of
Gray's Inn, one of whom was Francis Bacon, undertook the
care of the dumb show. The argument of the play, based on a
story of incest and crime, was borrowed, in accordance with
Senecan tradition, from mythical history, and the treatment
is in close accordance with the model. The ghost of Gorlois,
who was slain by Uther Pendragon, opens the play with a speech
that reproduces passages spoken by the ghost of Tantalus in the
Thyestes; the tragic events are announced by a messenger,
and the chorus comments on the course of the action. Dr W. J.
Cunliffe has proved that Hughes's memory was saturated with
Seneca, and that the play may be resolved into a patchwork
of translations, with occasional original lines. Appendix II. to
his exhaustive essay On the Influence of Seneca on Elizabethan
Tragedy (1893) gives a long list of parallel passages.
The Misfortunes of Arthur was reprinted in J. P. Collier's supple-
ment to Dodsley's Old Plays; and by Harvey Carson Grumline
(Berlin, 1900), who points put that Hughes's source was Geoffrey
of Monmouths Historia Britonum, not the Morte D' Arthur.
HUGHES, THOMAS (1822-1896), English lawyer and author,
second son of John Hughes of Donnington Priory, editor of The
Boscobel Tracts (1830), was born at Uffington, Berks, on the 2oth
of October 1822. In February 1834 he went to Rugby School,
to be under Dr Arnold, a contemporary of his father at Oriel.
He rose steadily to the sixth form, where he came into contact
with the headmaster whom he afterwards idealized; but he
excelled rather in sports than in scholarship, and his school career
culminated in a cricket match at Lord's. In 1842 he proceeded
to Oriel, Oxford, and graduated B.A. in 1845. He was called
to the bar in 1848, became Q.C. in 1869, a bencher in 1870, and
was appointed to a county court judgeship in the Chester district
in July 1882. While at Lincoln's Inn he came under the dominat-
ing influence of his Iffe, that of Frederick Denison Maurice. In
1848 he joined the Christian Socialists, under Maurice's banner,
among his closest allies being Charles Kingsley. In January
1854 he was one of the original promoters of the Working Men's
College in Great Ormond Street, and whether he was speaking
on sanitation, sparring or singing his favourite ditty of " Little
Billee," his work there continued one of his chief interests to the
end of his life. After Maurice's death he held the principalship
of the college. His Manliness of Christ (1879) grew out of a
Bible class which he held there. Hughes had been influenced
mentally by Arnold, Carlyle, Thackeray, Lowell and Maurice,
and had developed into a liberal churchman, extremely religious,
with strong socialistic leanings; but the substratum was still
and ever the manly country squire of old-fashioned, sport-loving
England. In Parliament, where he sat for Lambeth (1865-1868),
and for Frome (1868-1874), he reproduced some of the traits of
Colonel Newcome. Hughes was an energetic supporter of the
claims of the working classes, and introduced a trades union
Bill which, however, only reached its second reading. Of
Mr Gladstone's home rule policy he was an uncompromising
opponent. Thrice he visited America and received a warm
welcome, less as a propagandist of social reform than as a friend
of Lowell and of the North, and an author. In 1879, in a
sanguine humour worthy of Mark Tapley, he planned a co-
operative settlement, " Rugby," in Tennessee, over which he
lost money. In 1848 Hughes had married Frances, niece of
Richard Ford, of Spanish Handbook fame. They settled in
1853 at Wimbledon, and there was written his famous story,
Tom Brown's School-Days, " by an Old Boy " (dedicated to Mrs
Arnold of Fox Howe), which came out in April 1857. It is
probably impossible to depict the schoolboy in his natural state
and in a realistic manner; it is extremely difficult to portray
him at all in such a way as to interest the adult. Yet this last
has certainly been achieved twice in English literature by
Dickens in Nicholas Nickleby, and by Hughes in Tom Brown.
In both cases interest is concentrated upon the master, in the
first a demon, in the second a demigod. Tom Brown did a great
deal to fix the English concept of what a public school should be.
Hughes also wrote The Scouring of the White Horse (1859),
Tom Brown at Oxford (1861), Religio laid (1868), Life of Alfred
the Great (1869) and the Memoir of a Brother. The brother was
George Hughes, who was in the main the original " Tom Brown,"
just as Dean Stanley was in the main the original of " Arthur."
Hughes died at Brighton, on 22nd March 1896. He was English
of the English, a typical broad-churchman, full of " muscular
Christianity," straightforward and unsuspicious to a fault,
yet attaching a somewhat exorbitant value to " earnestness "-
a favourite expression of Doctor Arnold. (T. SE.)
HUGLI, or HOOGHLY, the most westerly and commercially
the most important channel by which the Ganges enters the
Bay of Bengal. It takes its distinctive name near the town of
Santipur, about 1 20 m. from the sea. The stream now known as
the Hugli represents three western deltaic distributaries of the
Ganges viz. (i) the Bhagirathi, (2) the Jalangi and (3) part of
the Matabhanga. The Bhagirathi and Jalangi unite at Nadia,
above the point of their junction with the lower waters of the
Matabhanga, which has taken thf name of the Churni before the
point of junction and thrown out new distributaries of its own.
These three western distributaries are known as the Nadia rivers,
and are important, not only as great highways for internal traffic,
but also as the headwaters of the Hugli. Like other deltaic
distributaries, they are subject to sudden changes in their
channels, and to constant silting up. The supervising and
keeping open of the Nadia rivers, therefore, forms one of the
great tasks of fluvial engineering in Bengal. Proceeding south
from Santipur, with a twist to the east, the Hugli river divides
Nadia from Hugli district, until it touches the district of the
Twenty-Four Parganas. It then proceeds almost due south to
Calcutta, next twists to the south-west and finally turns south,
entering the Bay of Bengal in 21 41' N., 88 E.
In the 40 miles of its course above Calcutta, the channels
of the Hugli are under no supervision, and the result is that
they have silted up and shifted to such an extent as to be no
longer navigable for sea-going ships. Yet it was upon this upper
section that all the famous ports of Bengal lay in olden times.
From Calcutta to the sea (about 80 m.) the river is a record of
engineering improvement and success. A minute supervision,
with steady dredging and constant readjustment of buoys,
now renders it a safe waterway to Calcutta for ships of the
largest tonnage. Much attention has also been paid to the port
of Calcutta (q.v.) .
The tide runs rapidly on the Hugli, and produces a remarkable
example of the fluvial phenomenon known as a " bore." This con-
sists of the head-wave of the advancing tide, hemmed in where the
862
HUGLI HUGO, VICTOR
estuary narrows suddenly into the river, and often exceeds 7 ft.
in height. It is felt as high up as Calcutta, and frequently destroys
small boats. The difference from the lowest point of low-water in
the dry season to the highest point of high-water in the rains is
reported to be 20 ft. 10 in. The greatest mean rise of tide, about
16 ft., takes place in March, April or May with a declining range
during the rainy season to a mean of 10 ft., and a minimum during
freshets of 3 ft. 6 in.
HUGLI, or HOOGHLY, a town and district of British India, in
the Burdwan division of Bengal, taking their name from the
river Hugli. The town, situated on the right bank of the Hugli,
24 m. above Calcutta by rail, forms one municipality with
Chinsura, the old Dutch settlement, lower down the river. Pop.
(1901) 29,383. It contains the Hooghly College at Chinsura,
a Mahommedan college, two high schools and a hospital with a
Lady Dufferin branch for female patients. The principal building
is a handsome imambara, or mosque, constructed out of funds
which had accumulated from an endowment originally left for
the purpose by a wealthy Shia gentleman, Mahommed Mohsin.
The town was founded by the Portuguese in 1537, on the decay
of Satgaon, the royal port of Bengal. Upon establishing them-
selves, they built a fort at a place called Gholghat (close to the
present jail), vestiges of which are still visible in. the bed of the
river. This fort gradually grew into the town and port of Hugli.
The DISTRICT comprises an area of 1191 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 1,049,282, showing an increase of i%in the
decade. It is flat, with a gradual ascent to the north and north-
west. The scenery along the high-lying bank of the Hugli has a
quiet beauty of its own, presenting the appearance of a connected
series of orchards and gardens, interspersed with factories,
villages and temples. The principal rivers, besides the Hugli,
are the Damodar and the Rupnarayan. As in other deltaic
districts, the highest land lies nearest the rivers, and the lowest
levels are found midway between two streams. There are in
consequence considerable marshes both between the Hugli and
the Damodar and between the latter river and the Rupnarayan.
The district is traversed by the main line of the East Indian
railway, with a branch to the pilgrim resort of Tarakeswar,
whence a steam tramway has been constructed for a further
distance of 31 m. The Eden canal furnishes irrigation, and there
are several embankments and drainage works. Silk and indigo
are both decaying industries, but the manufacture of brass and
bell-metal ware is actively carried on at several places. There
are several jute mills, a large flour mill, bone-crushing mills
and a brick and tile works.
From an historical point of view the district possesses as much
interest as any in Bengal. In the early period of Mahommedan
rule Satgaon was the seat of the governors of Lower Bengal and
a mint town. It was also a place of great commercial importance.
In consequence of the silting up of the Saraswati, the river on
which Satgaon was situated, the town became inaccessible to
large ships, and the Portuguese settled at Hugli. In 1632 the
latter place, having been taken from the Portuguese by the
Mahommedans, was made the royal port of Bengal; and all the
public offices and records were withdrawn from Satgaon, which
rapidly fell into decay. In 1640 the East India Company estab-
lished a factory' at Hugli, their first settlement in Lower Bengal.
In 1685, a dispute having taken place between the English factors
and the nawab, the town was bombarded and burned to the
ground. This was not the first time that Hugli had been the scene
of a struggle deciding the fate of a European power in India. In
1629, when held by the Portuguese, it was besieged for three
months and a half by a large Mahommedan force sent by the
emperor Shah Jahan. The place was carried by storm; more
than 1000 Portuguese were killed, upwards of 4000 prisoners
taken, and of 300 vessels only 3 escaped. But Hugli district
possesses historical interest for other European nations besides
England and Portugal. The Dutch established themselves at
Chinsura in the I7th century, and held the place till 1825, when
it was ceded to Great Britain in exchange for the island of
Sumatra. The Danes settled at Serampur in 1616, where they
remained till 1845, when all Danish possessions in India were
transferred to the East India Company. Chandernagore
became a French settlement in 1688. The English captured this
town twice, but since 1816 it has remained in the possession
of the French.
See D. G. Crawford, A Brief History of the Hooghly District
(Calcutta, 1903).
HUGO, GUSTAV VON (1764-1844), German jurist, was born
at Lorrach in Baden, on the 23rd of November 1764. From the
gymnasium at Carlsruhe he passed in 1782 to the university of
Gottingen, where he studied law for three years. Having re-
ceived the appointment of tutor to the prince of Anhalt-Dessau,
he took his doctor's degree at the university of Halle in 1788.
Recalled in this year to Gottingen as extraordinary professor
of law, he became ordinary professor in 1792. In the preface to
his Bcitrdge zur zivilistischen Biicherkenntnis der letzten vierzig
Jahre (1828-1829) he gives a sketch of the condition of the civil
law teaching at Gottingen at that time. The Roman Canon and
German elements of the existing law were, without criticism or
differentiation, welded into an ostensible whole for practical needs,
with the result that it was difficult to say whether historical truth
or practical ends were most prejudiced. One man handed on the
inert mass to the next in the same condition as he had received
it, new errors crept in, and even the best of teachers could not
escape from the false method which had become traditional.
These were the evils which Hugo set himself to combat, and he
became the founder of that historical school of jurisprudence
which was continued and further developed by Savigny. His
magna opera are the Lehrbuch eines zivilistischen Kursus (7 vols.,
1792-1821), in which his method is thoroughly worked out,
and the Zivilistisches Magazin (6 vols., 1790-1837). He died at
Gottingen on the i5th of September 1844.
For an account of his life see Eyssenhardt, Zur Erinnerung an
Gustav Hugo (Berlin, 1845).
HUGO, VICTOR MARIE (1802-1885), French poet, dramatist
and romance-writer, youngest son of General J. L. S. Hugo
(1773-1828), a distinguished soldier in Napoleon's service,
was born at Besangon on the 26th of February 1802. The
all but still-born child was only kept alive and reared by the
indefatigable devotion of his mother Sophie Trebuchet (d. 1821),
a royalist of La Vendee. Educated first in Spain and after-
wards in France, the boy whose infancy had followed the fortunes
of the imperial camp grew up a royalist and a Catholic. His
first work in poetry and in fiction was devoted to the passionate
proclamation of his faith in these principles.
The precocious eloquence and ardour of these early works
made him famous before his time. The odes which he published
at the age of twenty, admirable for their spontaneous fervour
and fluency, might have been merely the work of a marvellous
boy; the ballads which followed them two years later revealed
him as a great poet, a natural master of lyric and creative song.
In 1823, at the age of twenty-one, he married his cousin Adele
Foucher (d. 1868). In the same year his first romance, Han
d'Islande, was given to the press; his second, Bug-Jargal,
appeared three years later. In 1827 he published the great
dramatic poem of Cromwell, a masterpiece at all points except
that of fitness for the modern stage. Two years afterwards he
published Les Orientates, a volume of poems so various in style,
so noble in spirit, so perfect in workmanship, in music and in
form, that they might alone suffice for the foundation of an
immortal fame. In the course of nine years, from 1831 to 1840,
he published Les Feuilles d'automne, Les Chants du crepuscule,
Les Voix interieures and Les Rayons et les ombres.
That their author was one of the greatest elegiac and lyric
poets ever born into the world, any one of these volumes would
amply suffice to prove. That he was the greatest tragic and
dramatic poet born since the age of Shakespeare, the appearance
of Hernani in 1830 made evident for ever to all but the meanest
and most perverse of dunces and malignants. The earlier and
even greater tragedy of Marion de Lorme (1828) had been
proscribed on the ground that it was impossible for royalty
to tolerate the appearance of a play in which a king was repre-
sented as the puppet of a minister. In all the noble and glorious
life of the greatest poet of his time there is nothing on record
HUGO, VICTOR
863
more chivalrous and characteristic than the fact that Victor
Hugo refused to allow the play which had been prohibited by
the government of Charles X. to be instantly produced under
the government of his supersessor. Le Roi s' amuse (1832),
the next play which Hugo gave to the stage, was prohibited
by order of Louis Philippe after a tumultuous first night to
reappear fifty years later on the very same day of the same
month, under the eyes of its author, with atoning acclamation
from a wider audience than the first. Terror and pity had never
found on the stage word or expression which so exactly realized
the ideal aim of tragic poetry among the countrymen of Aeschylus
and Sophocles since the time or since the passing of Shakespeare,
of Marlowe and of Webster. The tragedy of Lucrece Borgia,
coequal in beauty and power with its three precursors, followed
next year in the humbler garb of prose; but the prose of Victor
Hugo stands higher on the record of poetry than the verse of
any lesser dramatist or poet. Marie Tudor (1833), his next
play, was hardly more daring in its Shakespearean defiance of
historic fact, and hardly more triumphant in its Shakespearean
loyalty to the everlasting truth of human character and passion.
Angela, Tyran de Padoue (1835), the last of the tragic triad to
which their creator denied the transfiguration of tragic verse,
is inferior to neither in power of imagination and of style, in
skill of invention and construction, and in mastery over all
natural and noble sources of pity and of terror. La Esmeralda,
the libretto of an opera founded on his great tragic romance
of Notre-Dame de Paris, is a miracle of lyric melody and of
skilful adaptation. Ruy Bias (1838) was written in verse,
and in such verse as none but he could write. In command
and in expression of passion and of pathos, of noble and of evil
nature, it equals any other work of this great dramatic poet;
in the lifelike fusion of high comedy with deep tragedy it excels
them all. Les Burgraves, a tragic poem of transcendent beauty
in execution and imaginative audacity in conception, found
so little favour on the stage that the author refused to submit
his subsequent plays to the verdict of a public audience.
Victor Hugo's first mature work in prose fiction, Le Dernier
Jour d'un condamne, has appeared thirteen years earlier (1829).
As a tragic monodrama it is incomparable for sustained power
and terrible beauty. The story of Claude Gueux, published
five years later (1834), another fervent protest against the in-
fliction of capital punishment, was followed by many other
eloquent and passionate appeals to the same effect, written or
spoken on various occasions which excited the pity or the
indignation of the orator or the poet. In 1831 appeared the
greatest of all tragic or historic or romantic poems in the form
of prose narrative, Norte-Dame de Paris. Three years after-
wards the author published, under the title of Litterature et
philosophic melees, a compilation or selection of notes and essays
ranging and varying in date and in style from his earliest effusions
of religious royalism to the magnificent essay on Mirabeau
which represents at once the historical opinion and the critical
capacity of Victor Hugo at the age of thirty-two. Next year
he published Le Rhin, a series of letters from Germany, brilliant
and vivid beyond all comparison, containing one of the most
splendid stories for children ever written, and followed by a
political supplement rather pathetically unprophetic in its
predictions.
At the age of thirty-eight he honoured the French Academy
by taking his place among its members; the speech delivered
on the occasion was characteristically generous in its tribute to
an undeserving memory, and significantly enthusiastic in its
glorification of Napoleon. Idolatry of his father's hero and
leader had now superseded the earlier superstition inculcated
by his mother. In 1846 his first speech in the chamber of peers
Louis Philippe's House of Lords was delivered on behalf
of Poland; his second, on the subject of coast defence, is memor-
able for the evidence it bears of careful research and practical
suggestion. His pleading on behalf of the exiled family of
Bonaparte induced Louis Philippe to cancel the sentence which
excluded its members from France. After the fall and flight
of the house of Orleans, his parliamentary eloquence was never
less generous in aim and always as fervent in its constancy
to patriotic and progressive principle. When the conspiring
forces of clerical venality and political prostitution had placed a
putative Bonaparte in power attained by perjury after perjury,
and supported by massacre after massacre, Victor Hugo, in
common with all honourable men who had ever taken part in
political or public life under the government superseded by
force of treason and murder, was driven from his country into
an exile of well-nigh twenty years. Next year he published
Napoleon le petit; twenty-five years afterwards, Hisloire d'un
crime. In these two books his experience and his opinion of
the tactics which founded the second French empire stand
registered for all time. In the deathless volume of Chatiments,
which appeared in 1853, his indignation, his genius, and his
faith found such utterance and such expression as must recall
to the student alternately the lyric inspiration of Coleridge and
Shelley, the prophetic inspiration of Dante and Isaiah, the
satiric inspiration of Juvenal and Dryden. Three years after
Les Chatiments, a book written in lightning, appeared Les
Contemplations, a book written in sunlight and starlight. Of the
six parts into which it is divided, the first translates into many-
sided music the joys and sorrows, the thoughts and fancies, the
studies and ardours and speculations of yojith; the second, as
full of light and colour, grows gradually deeper in tone of thought
and music; the third is yet riper and more various in form of
melody and in fervour of meditation; the fourth is the noblest
of all tributes ever paid by song to sorrow a. series of poems
consecrated to the memory of the poet's eldest daughter, who
was drowned, together with her husband, by the upsetting of
a boat off the coast of Normandy, a few months after their
wedding-day, in 1843; the fifth and the sixth books, written
during his first four years of exile (all but one noble poem which
bears date nine years earlier than its epilogue or postscript) ,
contain more than a few poems unsurpassed and unsurpassable
for depth and clarity and trenchancy of thought, for sublimity
of inspiration, for intensity of faith, for loyalty in translation
from nature, and for tenderness in devotion to truth; crowned
and glorified and completed by their matchless dedication to
the dead. Three years later again, in 1859, Victor Hugo gave
to the world the first instalment of the greatest book published
in the igth century, La Legende des siecles. Opening with a
vision of Eve in Paradise which eclipses Milton's in beauty no
less than in sublimity a dream of the mother of mankind at
the hour when she knew the first sense of dawning motherhood,
it closes with a vision of the trumpet to be sounded on the day
of judgment which transcends the imagination of Dante by
right of a realized idea which was utterly impossible of conception
to a believer in Dante's creed: the idea of real and final equity;
the concept of absolute and abstract righteousness. Between
this opening and this close the pageant of history and of legend,
marshalled and vivified by the will and the hand of the poet,
ranges through an infinite variety of action and passion, of light
and darkness, of terror and pity, of lyric rapture and of tragic
triumph.
After yet another three years' space the author of La Ligende
des siecles reappeared as the author of Les Miserabks, the
greatest epic and dramatic work of fiction ever created or
conceived: the epic of a soul transfigured and redeemed, purified
by heroism and glorified through suffering; the tragedy and
the comedy of life at its darkest and its brightest, of humanity
at its best and at its worst. Two years afterwards the greatest
man born since the death of Shakespeare paid homage to the
greatest of his predecessors in a volume of magnificent and
discursive eloquence which bore the title of William Shakespeare,
and might, as its author admitted and suggested, more properly
have been entitled A propos de Shakespeare. It was undertaken
with the simple design of furnishing a preface to his younger
son's translation of Shakespeare; a monument of perfect
scholarship, of indefatigable devotion, and of literary genius,
which eclipses even Urquhart's Rabelais its only possible
competitor; and to which the translator's father prefixed a
brief and admirable note of introduction in the year after the
864
HUGUENOTS
publication of the volume which had grown under his hand into
the bulk and the magnificence of an epic poem in prose. In the
same year Les Chansons des rues el des bois gave evidence of
new power and fresh variety in the exercise and display of an
unequalled skill and a subtle simplicity of metre and of style
employed on the everlasting theme of lyric and idyllic fancy, and
touched now and then with a fire more sublime than that of
youth and love. Next year the exile of Guernsey published
his third great romance, Les Travailleurs de la mer, a work
unsurpassed even among the works of its author for splendour of
imagination and of style, for pathos and sublimity of truth.
Three years afterwards the same theme was rehandled with no
less magnificent mastery in L'Homme qui rit ; the theme of
human heroism confronted with the superhuman tyranny of
blind and unimaginable chance, overpowered and unbroken,
defeated and invincible. Between the dates of these two great
books appeared La Voix de Guernesey, a noble and terrible
poem on the massacre of Mentana which branded and com-
memorated for ever the papal and imperial infamy of the col-
leagues in that crime. In 1872 Victor Hugo published in
imperishable verse his record of the year which followed the
collapse of the empire, L' Annie terrible. All the poet and all
the man spoke out and stood evident in the perfervid patriotism,
the filial devotion, the fatherly tenderness, the indignation and
the pity, which here find alternate expression in passionate
and familiar and majestic song. In 1874 he published his last
great romance, the tragic and historic poem in prose called
Quatrevingt-treizc; a work as rich in thought, in tenderness,
in wisdom and in humour and in pathos, as ever was cast into
the mould of poetry or of fiction.
The introduction to his first volume of Actes et paroles, ranging
in date from 1841 to 1851, is dated in June 1875; it is one of his
most earnest and most eloquent appeals to the conscience and
intelligence of the student. The second volume contains the
record of his deeds and words during the years of his exile; like
the first and the third, it is headed by a memorable preface, as
well worth the reverent study of those who may dissent from
some of the writer's views as of those who may assent to all.
The third and fourth volumes preserve the register of his deeds
and words from 1870 to 1885; they contain, among other things
memorable, the nobly reticent and pathetic tribute to the
memory of the two sons, Charles (1826-1871) and Francois
(1828-1873), he had lost since their common return from exile.
In 1877 appeared the second series of La Legende des siecles;
and in the same year the author of that colossal work, treating
no less of superhuman than of human things, gave us the loveliest
and most various book of song on the loveliest and simplest of
subjects ever given to man, L' Art d'etre grandpere. Next year
he published Le Pape, a vision of the spirit of Christ in appeal
against the spirit of Christianity, his ideal follower confronted
and contrasted with his nominal vicar; next year again La
Pitti supreme, a plea for charity towards tyrants who know
not what they do, perverted by omnipotence and degraded by
adoration; two years later Religions et religion, a poem which
is at once a cry of faith and a protest against the creeds which
deform and distort and leave it misshapen and envenomed and
defiled; and in the same year L'Ane, a paean of satiric invective
against the past follies of learned ignorance, and lyric rapture of
confidence in the future wisdom and the final conscience of the
world. These four great poems, one in sublimity of spirit and
in supremacy of style, were succeeded next year by a fourfold gift
of even greater price, Les Quatre Vents de I 'esprit: the first
book, that of satire, is as full of fiery truth and radiant reason
as any of his previous work in that passionate and awful kind;
the second or dramatic book is as full of fresh life and living
nature, of tragic humour and of mortal pathos, as any other
work of the one great modern dramatist's; the third or lyric
book would suffice to reveal its author as incomparably and
immeasurably the greatest poet of his age, and one great among
the greatest of all time; the fourth or epic book is the sublimest
and most terrible of historic poems a visionary pageant of
French history from the reign and the revelries of Henry IV.
to the reign and the execution of Louis XVI. Next year the
great tragic poem of Torquemada came forth to bear witness
that the hand which wrote Ruy Bias had lost nothing of its
godlike power and its matchless cunning, if the author of Le
Roi s'amuse had ceased to care much about coherence of con-
struction from the theatrical point of view as compared with the
perfection of a tragedy designed for the devotion of students not
unworthy or incapable of the study; that his command of pity
and terror, his powers of intuition and invention, had never been
more absolute and more sublime; and that his infinite and
illimitable charity of imagination could transfigure even the
most monstrous historic representative of Christian or Catholic
diabolatry into the likeness of a terribly benevolent and a
tragically magnificent monomaniac. Two years later Victor
Hugo published the third and concluding series of La Legende
des siecles.
On the 22nd of May 1885 Victor Hugo died. He was given a
magnificent public funeral, and his remains were laid in the
Pantheon. The first volume published of his posthumous works
was the exquisite and splendid Theatre en liberte, a sequence if
not a symphony of seven poems in dramatic form, tragic or
comic or fanciful eclogues, incomparable with the work of any
other man but the author of The Tempest and The Winter's Tale
in combination and alternation of gayer and of graver harmonies.
The unfinished poems, Dieu and La Fin de Satan, are full to
overflowing of such magnificent work, such wise simplicity of
noble thought, such heroic and pathetic imagination, such
reverent and daring faith, as no other poet has ever cast into
deathless words and set to deathless music. Les Jumeaux, an
unfinished tragedy, would possibly have been the very greatest
of his works if it had been completed on the same scale and on
the same lines as it was begun and carried forward to the point
at which it was cut short for ever. His reminiscences of " Things
Seen " in the course of a strangely varied experience, and his
notes of travel among the Alps and Pyrenees, in the north of
France and in Belgium, in the south of France and in Burgundy,
are all recorded by such a pen and registered by such a memory
as no other man ever had at the service of his impressions or his
thoughts. Toute la lyre, his latest legacy to the world, would
be enough, though no other evidence were left, to show that the
author was one of the very greatest among poets and among
men; unsurpassed in sublimity of spirit, in spontaneity of
utterance, in variety of power, and in perfection of workmanship;
infinite and profound beyond all reach of praise at once in thought
and in sympathy, in perception and in passion; master of all the
simplest as of all the subtlest melodies or symphonies of song
that ever found expression in a Border ballad or a Pythian
ode. (A. C. S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Victor Hugo's complete works were published
in a definitive edition at Paris in 58 volumes (1885-1902). The
critical literature which has grown up round his name is very ex-
tensive, from the time of Sainte-Beuve onwards, and only a few of
the more important books need here be mentioned for reference on
biographical and other details: F. T. Marzials, Life of Hugo, with
bibliography (1888); A. C. Swinburne, Study of Hugo (1886); E.
Dupuy, Victor Hugo, I'homme et le poete (1886); Paul de Saint
Victor, Victor Hugo (1885); F. Brunetiere, Victor Hugo (1903);
Jules Claretie, Victor Hugo, souvenirs intimes (1902). See also The
Bookman for August 1904; Francis Gribble, " The Hugo Legend,"
an adverse view, in Fortnightly Review (February 1910) ; and the
article FRENCH LITERATURE.
HUGUENOTS, the name given from about the middle of the
1 6th century to the Protestants of France. It was formerly
explained as coming from the German Eidgenossen, the designa-
tion of the people of Geneva at the time when they were admitted
to the Swiss confederation. This explanation is now abandoned.
The words Huguenot, Huguenote are old French words, common
in I4th and isth-century charters. As the Protestants called
the Catholics papistes, so the Catholics called the Protestants
huguenots. Henri Estienne, one of the great savants of his time,
in the introduction to his Apologie d'Herodote (1566) gives a very
clear explanation of the term huguenots. The Protestants at
Tours, he says, used to assemble by night near the gate of King
Hugo, whom the people regarded as a spirit. A monk, therefore,
HUGUENOTS
865
in a sermon declared that the Lutherans ought to be called
Huguenots as kinsmen of King Hugo, inasmuch as they would
only go out at night as he did. This nickname became popular
from 1560 onwards, and for a long time the French Protestants
were always known by it.
France could not stand outside the religious movement ol
the 1 6th century. It is true that the French reform movement
has often been regarded as an offshoot of Lutheranism; up to
the middle of the century its adherents were known as Lutherans.
But it should not be forgotten that so early as 1512 Jacobus
Faber (q.v.) of Etaples published his Santi Pauli Epistolae xiv.
. . . cum commentariis, which enunciates the cardinal doctrine
of reform, justification by faith, and that in 1523 appeared his
French translation of the New Testament. The first Protestants
were those who set the teachings of the Gospel against the
doctrines of the Roman Church. As early as 1525 Jacques
Pavannes, the hermit of Livry, and shortly afterwards Louis de
Berquin, the first martyrs, were burned at the stake. But no
persecution could stop the Reform movement, and on the walls
of Paris and even at Amboise, on the very door of Francis I.'s
bedroom, there were found placards condemning the mass (1534).
On the 29th of January 1535 an edict was published ordering
the extermination of the heretics. From this edict dates the
emigration of French Protestants, an emigration which did not
cease till the middle of the i8th century. Three years later
(1538) at Strassburg the first French Protestant Church, com-
posed of 1500 refugees, was founded.
Of all these exiles the most famous was John Calvin (q.v.), the
future leader of the movement, who fled to Basel, where he is said
to have written the famous Instilutio christianae religionis,
preceded by a letter to Francis I. in which he pleaded the cause of
the reformers. The first Protestant community in France was
that of Meaux (1546) organized on the lines of the church at
Strassburg of which Calvin was pastor. The Catholic Florimond
de Remond paid it the beautiful tribute of saying that it seemed
as though " la chretiente fut revenue en elle a sa primitive
innocence."
Persecution, however, became more rigorous. The Vaudois
of Cabrieres and Merindol had in 1545 been massacred by the
orders of Jean de Maynier, baron d'Oppede, lieutenant-general
of Provence, and at Paris was created a special court in the
parlement, for the suppression of heretics, a court which became
famous in history as the Chambre ardente (1549). In spite of
persecution the churches became more numerous; the church
at Paris was founded in 1556. They realized the necessity of
uniting in defence of their rights and their liberty, and in 1558
at Poitiers it was decided that all the Protestant churches in
France should formulate by common accord a confession of faith
and an ecclesiastical discipline. The church at Paris was com-
missioned to summon the first synod, which in spite of the danger
of persecution met on the 25th of May I5S9- The Synod of Paris
derived its inspiration from the constitution introduced by
Calvin at Geneva, which has since become the model for all the
presbyterian churches. Ecclesiastical authority resides ulti-
mately in the people, for the faithful select the elders who are
charged with the general supervision of the church and the choice
of pastors. The churches are independent units, and there can be
no question of superiority among them; at the same time they
have common interests and their unity must be maintained
by an authority which is capable of protecting them. The
association of several neighbouring churches forms a local council
(collogue). Over these stands the provincial synod, on which
each church is equally represented by lay delegates and pastors.
Supreme authority resides in the National Synod composed of
representatives, lay and ecclesiastic, elected by the provincial
synods. The democratic character of this constitution of elders
and synods is particularly remarkable in view of the early date
at which it began to flourish. The striking individuality of the
Huguenot character cannot be fully realized without a clear
understanding of this powerful organization which contrived to
reconcile individual liberty with a central authority.
The synod of 1559 was the beginning of a remarkable increase
XIII. 28
in the Reform movement; at that synod fifteen churches were
represented, two years later, in 1561, the number increased to
2150. The parlements were powerless before this increase;
thousands left the Catholic Church, and when it was seen that
execution and popular massacre provided no solution of the
difficulty the struggle was carried into the arena of national
politics. On the side of the reformers were ranged some among
the noblest Frenchmen of the age, Coligny, La Noue, Duplessis
Mornay, Jean Cousin, Ramus, Marot, Ambroise Pare, Olivier de
Serres, Bernard Palissy, the Estiennes, Hotman, Jean de Serres,
with the princess Renee of France, Jeanne d'Albret, Louise de
Coligny. The policy which refused liberty of conscience to the
reformers and thus plunged the country into the horrors of civil
war came near to causing a national catastrophe. For more than
fifty years the history of the Huguenots is that of France (1560-
1629). Francis II., who succeeded Henry II. at the age of sixteen,
married Mary Stuart, and fell under the domination of the queen's
uncles, the Guises, who were to lead the anti-Reform party.
The Bourbons, the Montmorencies, the Chatillons, out of hostility
to them, became the chiefs of the Huguenots.
The conspiracy of Amboise, formed with the object of kid-
napping the king (March 1560), was discovered, and resulted in
the death of the plotters; it was followed by the proclamation
of the Edict of Romorantin which laid an interdict upon the
Protestant religion. But the reformers had become so powerful
that Coligny, who was to become their most famous leader,
protested in their name against this violation of liberty of con-
science. The Guise party caused the prince of Conde to be arrested
and condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried into
effect, and at this moment Catherine de' Medici became regent
on the accession of Charles IX. She introduced Italian methods
of government, alternating between concessions and vigorous
persecution, both alike devoid of sincerity. For a moment, at the
colloquy of Poissy (Oct. 1561), at which Roman Catholic and
Protestant divines were assembled together and Theodore Beza
played so important a part, it seemed as though a modus vivendi
would be established. The attempt failed, but by the edict
of January 1562, religious liberty was assured to the Huguenots.
This, however, was merely the prelude to civil war, the signal
for which was given by the Guises, who slaughtered a number
of Huguenots assembled for worship in a barn at Vassy (March i,
1562). The duke of Guise, entering Paris in triumph, trans-
ferred the court to Fontainebleau by a daring coup d'ttat in
defiance of the queen regent. It was then that Conde declared
" qu'on ne pouvait plus rien esperer que de Dieu et ses armes,"
and with the Huguenot leaders signed at Orleans (April n, 1562)
the manifesto in which, having declared their loyalty to the crown,
they stated that as good and loyal subjects they were driven to
take up arms for liberty of conscience on behalf of the persecuted
saints. The first civil war had already broken out; till the end
of the century the history of France is that of the struggle between
the Huguenots upholding "The Cause" (La Cause) and the
Roman Catholics fighting for the Holy League (La Sainte Ligue).
The leading events only will be related here (see also FRANCE:
History). The Huguenots lost the battle of Dreux (Dec. 19,
1562), the duke of Guise was assassinated by Poltrot de Mere
(Feb. 1 8, 1563) and finally Conde signed the Edict of Amboise
which put an end to this first war. But the League gradually
extended its action and Catherine de' Medici entered into
negotiations with Spain. The Huguenots, seeing their danger,
renewed hostilities, but after their defeat at St Denis (Nov. 10,
1567) and the revolt of La Rochelle, peace was concluded at
Longjumeau (March 23, 1568). This truce lasted only a few
months. Pope Pius V. did not cease to demand the extermination
of the heretics, and the queen mother finally issued the edict of
the z8th of September 1568, which put the Huguenots outside
the protection of the law. The Huguenots once more took up
arms, but were defeated at Jarnac (March 13, 1569), and Conde
was taken prisoner and assassinated by Montesquiou. But
Jeanne d'Albret renewed the courage of the vanquished by pre-
senting to them her son Henri de Bourbon, the future Henry IV.
Coligny, whose heroic courage rose w;'th adversity, collected the
866
HUGUENOTS
remnants of the Protestant army and by a march as able as it
was audacious moved on Paris, and the Peace of St Germain was
signed on the 8th of August 1570.
For a moment it seemed reasonable to hope that the war was
at an end. Coligny had said that he would prefer to be dragged
through the streets of Paris than to recommence the fighting;
Charles IX. had realized the nobility and the patriotism of the
man who wished to drive the Spaniards from Flanders; Henri
de Bourbon was to marry Marguerite of France. Peace seemed
to be assured when on the night of the 24th of August, 1572,
after a council at which Catherine de' Medici, Charles IX., the
duke of Anjou and other leaders of the League assisted, there
occurred the treacherous Massacre of St Bartholomew (q.v.)
in which Coligny and all the leading Huguenots were slain.
This date marks a disastrous epoch in the history of France,
the long period of triumph of the Catholic reaction, during which
the Huguenots had to fight for their very existence. The Paris
massacre was repeated throughout France; few were those
who were noble enough to decline to become the executioners
of their friends, and the Protestants were slain in thousands.
The survivors resolved upon a desperate resistance. It was
at this time that the Huguenots were driven to form a political
party; otherwise they must, like the Protestants of Spain,
have been exterminated. This party was formed at Milhau
in 1573, definitely constituted at La Rochelle in 1588, and lasted
until the peace of Alais in 1629. The delegates selected by the
churches bound themselves to offer a united opposition to the
violence of the enemies of God, the king and the state. It is
a profound mistake to attribute to them, as their enemies have
done, the intention of overthrowing the monarchy and sub-
stituting a republic. They were royalists to the core, as is shown
by the sacrifices they made for the sake of setting Henry IV.
on the throne. It is true, however, that among themselves
they formed a kind of republic which, according to the historian
J. A. de Thou, had its own laws dealing with civil government,
justice, war, commerce, finance. They had a president called
the Protector of the Churches, an office held first by Conde
and afterwards by the king of Navarre up to the day on which
he became king of France as Henry IV. (1589). The fourth
religious war, which had broken out immediately after the
Massacre of St Bartholomew, was brought to an end by the
pacification of Boulogne (July 16, 1573), which granted a general
amnesty, but the obstinate intolerance of the League resulted
in the creation of a Catholic party called " les Politiques "
which refused to submit to their domination and offered aid to
the Huguenots against the Guises. The recollections of the
horrors of St Bartholomew's night had hastened the death ,of
Charles IX., the last of the Valois; he had been succeeded by
the most debauched and effeminate of monarchs, Henry III.
Once more war broke out. Henry of Guise, " le Balafre,"
nephew of the cardinal of Lorraine, became chief of the League,
while the duke of Anjou, the king's brother, made common cause
with the Huguenots. The peace of Monsieur, signed on the
5th of May 1576, marked a new victory of h'berty of conscience,
but its effect was ephemeral; hostilities soon recommenced and
lasted for many years, and only became fiercer when the duke
of Anjou died on the loth of June 1584.
The fact that on the death of Henry III. the crown would
pass to Henry of Navarre, the Protector of the Churches, induced
the Guise party to declare that they would never accept a
heretical monarch, and, at the instigation of Henry of Guise,
Cardinal de Bourbon was nominated by them to succeed. Henry
of Navarre since 1575 'leader of the Huguenots, had year by
year seen his influence increase, and now, faced by the machina-
tions of the Guises, who had made overtures to Spain,
declared that his only object was to free the feeble Henry III.
from their influence. On the 2oth of October 1587 he won the
battle of Coutras, but on the 28th the foreign Protestants
who were coming to his aid were routed by Guise at Montargis.
The new body, known as " the Sixteen of Paris," thereupon
compelled Henry III. to sign the " Edict of Union " by which
the cardinal of Bourbon was declared heir presumptive. The
king could not, however, endure the humiliation of hearing Henry
of Guise described as " king of Paris " and on the 23rd of
December 1588 had him murdered together with the cardinal
of Lorraine at the chateau of Blois. The League, now led by
the duke of Mayenne, Guise's brother, declared war to the knife
upon him and caused him to be excommunicated. In his isola-
tion Henry III. threw himself into the arms of Henry of Navarre,
who saved the royalist party by defeating Mayenne and escorted
the king with his victorious army to St. Cloud, whence he proposed
to enter Paris and destroy the League. But Henry III., on the
ist of August 1589, was assassinated by the monk Jacques
Clement, on his deathbed appointing Henry of Navarre as his
successor.
This only spurred the League to redoubled energy, and
Mayenne proclaimed the cardinal of Bourbon king with the
title of Charles X. But Henry IV., whcThad already promised
to maintain the Roman Church, gained new adherents every
day, defeated the Leaguers at Arques in 1589, utterly routed
Mayenne at Ivry on the i4th of March 1590, and laid siege to
Paris. Cardinal de Bourbon having died in the same year and
France being in a state of anarchy, Philip II. of Spain, in concert
with Pope Gregory XIV., who excommunicated Henry IV.,
supported, the claims of the infanta Isabella. Mayenne, unable
to continue the struggle without Spanish help, promised to,,
assist him, but Henry neutralized this danger by declaring"
himself a Roman Catholic at St Denis (July 25, J593), sayingT"/
" Paris after all is worth a mass, in spite" of the advice and the- 1
prayers of my faithful Huguenots." J*~It is with anguish,and
grief," writes Beza, " that I think of the fall of this prince in whoTl
so many hopes were placed." On the 22nd of March 1594
Henry entered Paris. The League was utterly defeated. Thus
the Huguenots aftet forty years of strife obtained by their
constancy the promulgation of the Edict of Nantes (April 13,
1598), the charter of religion and political freedom (see NANTES,
EDICT OF).
The Protestants might reasonably hope that Henry IV.,
in spite of his abjuration of their faith, would remember the
devoted support which they had given him, and that his authority
would guarantee the observance of the provisions of the Edict.
Unhappily twelve years afterwards, on the I4th of May 1610,
Henry was assassinated by Ravaillac, leaving the great work
incomplete. Once more France was to undergo the misery of
civil war. During the minority of Louis XIII. power resided
in the hands of counsellors who had not inherited the wisdom
of Henry IV. and were only too ready to favour the Catholic
party. The Huguenots, realizing that their existence was at
stake, once more took up arms in defence of their liberty under
the leadership of Henri de Rohan (q.v.). Their watchword had
always been that, so long as the state was opposed to liberty
of conscience, so long there could be no end to religious and
civil strife, that misfortune and disaster must attend an empire
of which the sovereign identified himself with a single section
of his people. Richelieu had entered the king's council on the
4th of May 1624; the destruction of the Huguenots was his
policy and he pursued it to a triumphant conclusion. On the
28th of October 1628, La Rochelle, the last stronghold of the
Huguenots, was obliged to surrender after a siege rendered
famous for all time by the heroism of its defenders and of its
mayor. The peace of Alais, which was signed on the 28th of
June 1629, marks the end of the civil wars.
The Huguenots had ceased to exist as a political party and,
in the assurance that liberty of conscience would be accorded
to them, showed themselves loyal subjects. On the death of
Louis XIII., the declaration of the 8th of July 1643 had
guaranteed to the Protestants " free and unrestricted exercise
of their religion," thus confirming the Edict of Nantes. The
synods of Charenton (1644) and Loudun (1659) asserted their
absolute loyalty to Louis XIV., a loyalty of which the Huguenots
had given proof not only by their entire abstention from the
troubles of the Fronde, but also by their public adherence to
the king. The Roman Catholic clergy had never accepted the
Edict of Nantes, and all their efforts were directed to obtaining
HUGUENOTS
867
its revocation. As long as Mazarin was alive the complaints
of the clergy were in vain, but when Louis XIV. attained his
majority there commenced a legal persecution which was bound
in time to bring about the ruin of the reformed churches. The
Edict of Nantes, which was part of the law of the land, might
seem to defy all attacks, but the clergy found means to evade
the law by demanding that it should be observed with literal
accuracy, disregarding the changes which had been produced
in France during more than half a century. The clergy in 1661
successfully demanded that commissioners should be sent to
the provinces to report infractions of the Edict, and thus began
a judicial war which was to last for more than twenty years.
All the churches which had been built since the Edict of Nantes
were condemned to be demolished. All the privileges which
were not explicitly stated in the actual text of the Edict were
suppressed. More than four hundred proclamations, edicts or
declarations attacking the Huguenots in their households and
their civil freedom, their property and their liberty of
conscience were promulgated during the years which preceded
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In spite of all sufferings
which this rigorous legislation inflicted upon them they did not
cease to resist, and in order to crush this resistance and to
compel them to accept the " king's religion," there were organized
the terrible dragonnades (1683-1686) which effected the forcible
conversion of thousands of Protestants who gave way under
the tortures which were inflicted upon them. It was then
that Louis XIV. declared that " the best of the larger part of
our subjects, who formerly held the so-called reformed religion,
have embraced the Catholic religion, and therefore the Edict
of Nantes has become unnecessary "; on the i8th of October
1685 he pronounced its revocation. Thus under the influence
of the clergy was committed one of the most flagrant political
and religious blunders in the history of France, which in the
course of a few years lost more than 400,000 of its inhabitants,
men who, having to choose between their conscience and their
country, endowed the nations which received them with their
heroism, their courage and their ability.
There is perhaps no example in history of so cruel a persecution
as this, which destroyed a church of which Protestant Europe
was justly proud. At no period in its career had it numbered
among its adherents so many men of eminence, Abbadie, Claude,
Bayle, Du Bosc, Jurieu, Elie Benoist, La Placette, Basnage,
Daille, Mestrezat, Du Quesne, Schomberg, Ruvigny. There
were no Huguenots left in France; those who, conquered by
persecution, remained there were described as "New Catholics."
All the pastors who refused to abjure their faith were compelled
to leave the country within fifteen days. The work was complete.
Protestantism, with its churches and its schools, was destroyed.
As Bayle wrote, "France was Catholic to a man under the reign
of Louis the Great."
Persecution had succeeded in silencing, but it could not
convert the people. The Huguenots, before the ruins of their
churches, remembered the early Christians and held their
services in secret. Their pastors, making light of death, returned
from the lands of their exile and visited their own churches to
restore their courage. If any one denied the Catholic faith on
his death-bed his body was thrown into the common sewers.
The galleys were full of brave Huguenots condemned for remain-
ing constant to the Protestant faith. For fifteen years the
exiles continuously besought Louis XIV. to give them back their
religious liberty. For a moment they hoped that the Treaty
of Ryswick (1697) would realise their hopes, but Louis XIV.
steadily declined to grant their requests. Despair armed the
Cevennes, and in 1702 the war of the Camisards broke out, a
struggle of giants sustained by Jean Cavalier with his moun-
taineers against the royal troops (see CAMISARDS and CAVALIER,
JEAN). The Huguenots seemed to be finally conquered. On
the 8th of March 1715 Louis XIV. announced that he had put
an end to all exercise of the Protestant religion; but in this
very year, on the 2ist of August, while the king was dying at
Versailles, there assembled together at Monoblet in Languedoc,
under the presidency of a young man twenty years of age,
Antoine Court, a number of preachers, as the pastors were then
called, with the object of raising the church from its ruins.
This was the first synod of the Desert. To re-establish the
abandoned worship, to unite the churches in the struggle for
liberty of conscience, such was the work to which Court devoted
his life, and which earned for him the name of the " Restorer
of Protestantism " (see COURT, ANTOINE). In spite of persecu-
tion the Protestants continued their assemblies; the fear of death
and of the galleys were alike powerless to break their resistance.
On the demand of the clergy all marriages celebrated by their
pastors were declared null and void, and the children born of
these unions were regarded as bastards.
Protestantism, which persecution seemed to have driven from
France, drew new life from this very persecution. Outlawed,
exiles in their own country, deprived of all civil existence, the
Huguenots showed an invincible heroism. The history of their
church during the period of the Desert is the history of a church
which refused to die. Amongst its famous defenders was Paul
Rabaut, the successor of Antoine Court. Year by year the
churches became more numerous. In 1756 there were already
40 pastors; several years later, in 1763, the date of the last
synod of the Desert^ their number had increased to 65. The
question of Protestant marriages roused public opinion which
could not tolerate the idea that Frenchmen, whose sole crime
was their religious belief, should be condemned to civil death.
The torture of Jean Calas, who was condemned on a false charge
of having killed his son because he desired to become a Catholic,
caused general indignation, of which Voltaire became the
eloquent mouthpiece. Ideas of tolerance, of which Bayle had
been the earliest advocate, became victorious, and owing to the
devotion of Rabaut Saint-Etienne, son of Paul Rabaut, and the
zeal of Lafayette, the edict of November 1787, in spite of the
fierce opposition of the clergy, renewed the civil rights of the
Huguenots by recognizing the validity of their marriages.
Victories even greater were in store; two years later liberty of
conscience was won. On the 22nd of August 1789 the pastor
Rabaut Saint-Etienne, deputy for the senechaussee of Nimes
to the States General, cried out, " It is not tolerance which I
demand, it is liberty, that my country should accord it equally
without distinction of rank, of birth or of religion." The Declara-
tion of the Rights of Man affirmed the liberty of religion; the
Huguenots had not suffered in vain, for the cause for which their
ancestors and themselves had suffered so much was triumphant,
and it was the nation itself which proclaimed the victory. But
religious passions were always active, and at Montauban as
at Nimes (1790) Catholics and Protestants came to blows. The
Huguenots, having endured the persecutions of successive
monarchs, had to endure those of the Terror; their churches
were shut, their pastors dispersed and some died upon the
scaffold. On the 3rd of Ventose, year II. (February 21, 1795),
the church was divorced from the state and the Protestants
devoted themselves to reorganization. Some years later
Bonaparte, having signed the Concordat of the I5th of July
1801, promulgated the law of the i8th of Germinal, year X.,
which recognized the legal standing of the Protestant church,
but took from it the character of free church which it had
always claimed. So great was the contrast between a past which
recalled to Protestants nothing but persecution, and a present in
which they enjoyed liberty of conscience, that they accepted
with a profound gratitude a regime of which the ecclesiastical
standpoint was so alien to their traditions. With enthusiasm
they repeated the words with which Napoleon had received the
pastors at the Tuileries on the i6th of Frimaire, year XII.:
" The empire of the law ends where the undefined empire of
conscience begins; law and prince are powerless against this
liberty."
The Protestants, on the day on which liberty of conscience
was restored, could measure the full extent of the misery which
they had endured. Of this people, which in the i6th century
formed more than one-tenth of the population of France, there
survived only a few hundred thousands; migration and persecu-
tion had more than decimated them. In 1626 there were 809
868
HUGUENOTS
pastors in the service of 751 churches; in 1802 there were only
121 pastors and 171 churches; in Paris there was only a single
church with a single pastor. The church had no faculty of
theology, no schools, no Bible societies, no asylums, no orphan-
ages, no religious literature. Everything had to be created
afresh, and this work was pursued during the iglh century with
the energy and the earnest faith which is characteristic of the
Huguenot character.
At the fall of the Empire (1815) the reaction of the White
Terror once more exposed the Protestants to outrage, and once
more a number fled from persecution and sought safety in foreign
countries. Peace having been established, attention was once
more focussed on religious questions, and the period was marked
in Protestantism by a remarkable awakening. On all sides
churches were built and schools opened. It was an epoch of
the greatest importance, for the church concentrated itself more
and more on its real mission. During this period were founded
the great religious societies: Societe biblique (1819), Societe de
1'instruction primaire (1829), Societe des traites (1821), Societe
des missions (1822). The influence of English thought on the
development of religious life was remarkable, and theology drew
its inspiration from the writings of Paley, David Bogue, Chalmers,
Ebenezer Erskine, Robert and James Alexander Haldane,
which were translated into French. Later on German theology
and the works of Kant, Neander and Schleiermacher produced
a far-reaching effect. This was due to the period of persecution
which had checked that development of religious thought which
had been so remarkable a feature of French Protestantism of
the 1 6th and i7th centuries.
Slowly Protestantism once more took its place in the national
life. The greatest names in its history are those of Guizot and
Cuvier; Adolf Monod, with Athanase Coquerel, stand in the
front rank of pulpit orators. The Protestants associated them-
selves with all the great philanthropic works Baron Jules
Delessert founded savings banks, Baron de Stael condemned
slavery, and all France united to honour the pastor, Jean
Frederic Oberlin. But the reformers, if they had no longer to
fear persecution, had still to fight in order to win respect for
religious liberty, which was unceasingly threatened by their
adversaries. Numerous were the cases tried at this epoch in
order to obtain justice. On the other hand the old union of the
reformed churches had ceased to exist since the revolution of
July. Ecclesiastical strife broke out and has never entirely
ceased. A schism occurred first in 1848, owing to the refusal of
the synod to draw up a profession of faith, the comtede Gasparin
and the pastor Frederic Monod seceding and founding the Union
des Eglises fivangeliques de France, separated from the state, of
which later on E. de Pressense was to become the most famous
pastor. Under the Second Empire (1852-1870) the divisions
between the orthodox and the liberal thinkers were accentuated;
they resulted in a separation which followed on the reassembly of
the national synod, authorized in 1872 by the government of the
Third Republic. The old Huguenot church was thus separated
into two parts, having no other link than that of the Concordat
of 1802 and each possessing its own peculiar organization.
The descendants of the Huguenots, however, remained faithful
to the traditions of their ancestors, and extolled the great past
of the French reform movement. Moreover, in 1859 were held
the magnificent religious festivals to celebrate the third centenary
of the convocation of their first national synod; and when on
the 1 8th of October 1885 they recalled the zooth anniversary
of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, they were able to assert
that the Huguenots had been the first defenders of religious
liberties in France. In the early days of the 2oth century the
work of restoring French Protestantism, which had been pursued
with steady perseverance for more than one hundred years,
showed great results. This church, which in 1802 had scarcely
100 pastors has seen this number increased to 1000; it possesses
more than 900 churches or chapels and 180 presbyteries. In
contrast with the poverty of religious life under the First Empire
it p presented a striking array of Bible societies, missionary
societies, and others for evangelical, educational, pastoral and
charitable work, which bear witness to a church risen from its
ruins. French Protestantism in the course of the igth century
reckoned among its members such eminent theologians as
Timothee Colani (1824-1888), who together with Edmond Scherer
founded the celebrated Revue de Ihfologie de Strasbourg (1850);
Edmond de Pressense, editor of the Revue chretienne, Charles
Bois and Michel Nicolas, professors of theology at Montauban,
Auguste Sabatier, professor of theology at the university of Paris,
Albert Reville, professor at the College de France, Felix Pecaut,
&c.; well-known preachers such as Eugene Bersier, Ernest
Dhombres, Ariste Vigure, Numa Recolin, Auguste de Coppet,
and missionaries, for example Eugene Casalis and Coillard;
Jean Bost, who founded the hospitals at Laforce; historians
like Napoleon Peyrat, the brothers Haag, who wrote La France
protestanle, Francois Puaux, Charles Coquerel, Onesime Douen,
Henri Bordier, Edouard Sayous, de Felice, Theophile Rollez;
Jean Pedezert, Leon Pilatte and others, who were journalists;
such statesmen as Guizot, Leon Say, Waddington; such scholars
as Cuvier, Broca, Wurtz, Friedel de Quatrefages; such illustrious
soldiers and sailors as Rapp, Admirals Baudin, Jaureguiberry,
Colonel Denfert-Rochereau. But the population of Protestant
France does not exceed 750,000 souls, without counting the
Lutherans, who are attached to the Confession of Augsburg,
numbering about 75,000. Their chief centres are in the depart-
ments of Card, Ardeche, Dr6me, Lozere, the Deux Sevres and
the Seine.
The law of the 9th of December 1905, which separated the
church from the state, has been accepted by the great majority
of Protestants as a legitimate consequence of the reform
principles. Nor has its application given rise to any difficulty
with the state. They used their influence only in the direction
of rendering the law more liberal and immediately devoted
themselves to the organization of their churches under the new
regime. If the two great parties, orthodox and liberal, have each
their particular constitution, nevertheless a third party has been
formed with the object of effecting a reconciliation of all the
Protestant churches and of thus reconstituting the old Huguenot
church.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A complete list of works is impossible. The
following are the most important :
General Authorities. Bulletin de la societe de I'histoire du pro-
testantisme fran<;ais (54 vols.), a most valuable collection, indis-
pensable as a work of reference; Haag, La France protestanle, lives
of French Protestants (10 vols., 1846; 2nd ed., Henri Bordier,
6 vols., 1887) ; F. Puaux, Histoire de la Reformation franchise (7 vols.,
1858) and articles " Calvin " and " France protestante " in Ency-
clopedie des sciences religieuses of Lichtenberger; Smedley, History
of the Reformed Religion in France (3 vols., London, 1832) ; Browning,
History of the Huguenots (i vol., 1840); G. A. de Felice, Histoire des
protestants de France (1874).
Special Periods. The 16th Century. H. M. Baird, The Huguenots
and Henry of Navarre (2 vols., New York, 1886), and History of the
Rise of the Huguenots of France (New York, 1879) ; A. W. Whitehead,
Gaspard de Coligny (London, 1904) ; J. W. Thompson, The Wars of
Religion in France, 1559-1576 (1909) ; Th. Beza, Histoire ecclesiastique
des eglises reformees au royaume de France (3 vols., Antwerp, 1580;
new edition by G. Baum et Cunitz, 1883); Crespin, Histoire des
martyrs persecutes et mis d mart pour la verite de I'evangile (2 vols.
in fol., Geneva, 1619; abridged translation by Rev. A. Maddock,
London, 1780); Pierre de la Place, Commentaires sur I'etat de la
religion et de la republique (1565); Florimond de Raempnd, L'His-
toire de la naissance, progr&s et decadence de I'heresie du siecle
(1610) ; De Thou, Histoire universelle (16 vols.) ; Th. Agrippa
D'Aubign6, Histoire universelle (3 vols., Geneva, 1626); Hermingard,
Correspondance des reformateurs dans les pays de la langue fran$aise
(8 vols., 1866), a scholarly work and the most trustworthy source
for the history of the origin of French reform. " Calvini opera "
in the Corpus reformatorum, edited by Reuss, Baum and Cunitz,
particularly the correspondence, vols. x. to xxii. ; Doumergue,
Jean Calvin, les hommes et les chases de son temps (3 vols., 1899);
G. von Pplenz, Geschichte des franzosischen Calvinismus (5 vols.,
1857); Etienne A. Laval, Compendious history of the reformation
in France and of the reformed Church in that Kingdom from the first
beginning of the Reformation to the Repealing of the Edict of Nantes
(7 vols., London, 1737-1741); Soldan, Geschichte des Protestantismus
in Frankreich bis zum Tode Karls IX. (2 vols., 1855); Merle
D'Aubigni, Histoire de la reformation en Europe au temps de Calvin
(5 vols., 1863).
17th Century. Elie Benoit, Histoire de I'Edit de Nantes (5 vols.,
Delft, 1693), a work of the first rank; Aymon, Tons les synodes
HUGUES HULL
869
nationaux des eglises reformees de France (2 vols.); J- Quick,
Synodicon (2 vols., London, 1692), important for the ecclesiastical
history of French Protestantism; D'Huisseau, La Discipline des
eglises reformees de France (Amsterdam, 1710); H. de Rohan,
Memoires . . . jusqu'en 1629 (Amsterdam, 1644); Jean Claude,
Les Plaintes des Prolestans de France (Cologne, 1686, new edition
with notes by Frank Puaux, Paris, 1885); Pierre Jurieu, Lettres
pastorales (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1688); Brousson, Etat des Reformes
de France (3 vols., The Hague, 1685); Anquez, Histoire des assem-
blies politiques des reformes de France (l vol., Paris, 1859); Pilatte,
Adits el arrets concernant la religion pretendue reformce, 1662-1711
(1889); Douen, Les Premiers pasteurs du Desert (2 vols., 1879);
H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and The Revocation of the Edict of
Nantes (2 vols., New York).
18th Century. Peyrat, Histoire des pasteurs^ du Desert (2 vols.,
1842); Ch. Coquerel, Histoire des eglises du Desert (2 vols., 1841);
E. Hugues, Antoine Court, Histoire de la restauration du protestantisme
en France (2 vols., 1872); Les Synodes du Desert (3 vols., 1875);
A. Coquerel, Jean Galas (1869); Court de Gebelin, Les Toulousaines
(1763)-
19th Century. Die protestantische Kirche Frankreichs (2 vols.,
1848) ; Annuaire de Rabaut 1807, de Soulier 1827, de De Prat 1862,
(1878); Agenda protestant de Frank Puaux (1880-^1894); Agenda
annuaire protestant de Gambler (1895-1907); Bersier, Histoire du
Synode de 1872 (2 vols.) ; Frank Puaux, Les (Euvres du protestantisme
frafifais au XIX' siecle. See also CAMISARDS, CALVIN, EDICT OF
NANTES. (F. Px.)
HUGUES, CLOVIS (1851-1907), French poet and socialist,
was born at Menerbes in Vaucluse on the 3rd of November 1851.
He studied for the priesthood, but did not take orders. For
some revolutionary articles in the local papers of Marseilles
he was condemned in 1871 to three years' imprisonment and a
fine of 6000 francs. In 1877 he fought a duel in which he killed
his adversary, a rival journalist. Elected deputy by Marseilles
in the general elections of 1881, he was at that time the sole
representative of the Socialist party in the chambers. He was
re-elected in 1885, and in 1893 became one of the deputies for
Paris, retaining his seat until 1906. He died on the i ith of June
1907.
His poems, novels and comedies are full of wit and exuberant
vitality.
His principal works are: Poemes de prison (1875), written during
his detention, Soirs de bataille (1883); Jours de combat (1883); and
Le Travail (1889); the novels, Madame Phaeton (1885) and Monsieur
le gendarme (1891); and the dramas, Une etoile (1888) and Le
sommeil de Danton (1888).
HUICHOL (pronounced Veetchol a corruption of the native
name Vishalika or Virarika, doctors or healers) , a tribe of Mexican
Indians living in a mountainous region on the eastern side of the
Chapalagana river, Jalisco. Huichol tradition assigns the south
as their place of origin. Their name of " healers " is deserved,
for about one-fourth of the men are Shamans. The Huichols are
in much the same social condition as at the time of the Aztec
empire. They were conquered by the Spaniards in 1722.
For 'full description of the people and their habits see Carl Lum-
holtz, Unknown Mexico (1903).
HUITZILOPOCHTLI, the supreme being in the religions of
ancient Mexico, and as a specialized deity, the god of war. He
was the mythic leader and chief divinity of the Aztecs, dominant
tribe of the Nahua nation. As a humming-bird Huitzilopochtli
was alleged to have led the Aztecs toanewhome. E. B. Tylor
(Primitive Culture, 4th ed., vol. ii. p. 307) calls him an " in-
extricable compound parthenogenetic deity "; and' finds, in
the fact that his chief festival (when his paste idol was shot
through with an arrow, and afterwards eaten) was at the winter
solstice, ground for believing that he was at first a nature-god,
whose life and death were connected with the year's. His idol
was a huge block of basalt (still thought to be preserved in Mexico) ,
on one side of which he is sculptured in hideous form, adorned with
the feathers of the humming-bird. The ceremonies of his worship
were of the most bloodthirsty character, and hundreds of human
beings were murdered annually before his shrine, their limbs
being eaten by his worshippers. When his temple was dedicated
in 1486 it is traditionally reported that 70,000 people were killed.
See MEXICO.
HULDA, in Teutonic mythology, goddess of marriage. She
was a beneficent deity, the patroness and guardian of all maidens
(see BERCHTA).
HULKE, JOHN WHITAKER (1830-1895), British surgeon
and geologist, was born on the 6th of November 1830, being the
son of a well-known medical practitioner at Deal. He was
educated partly at a boarding-school in this country, partly
at the Moravian College at Neuwied (1843-1845), where he gained
an intimate knowledge of German and an interest in geology
through visits to the Eifel district. He then entered King's
College school, and three years later commenced work at the
hospital, becoming M.R.C.S. in 1852. In the Crimean War he
volunteered, and was appointed (1855) assistant-surgeon at
Smyrna and subsequently at Sebastopol. On returning home
he became medical tutor at his old hospital, was elected F.R.C.S.
in 1857, and afterwards assistant-surgeon to the Royal Oph-
thalmic Hospital, Moorfields (1857), and surgeon (1868-1890).
In 1870 he became surgeon at the Middlesex hospital, and here
much of his more important surgical work was accomplished.
His skill as an operator was widely known: he was an excellent
general surgeon, but made his special mark as an ophthal-
mologist, while as a geologist he attained a European reputation.
He was elected F.R.S. in 1867 for his researches on the anatomy
and physiology of the retina in man and the lower animals,
particularly the reptiles. He subsequently devoted all his spare
time to geology and especially to the fossile reptilia, describing
many remains of Dinosaurs, to our knowledge of which as well as
of other Saurians he largely contributed. In 1887 the Wollaston
medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London.
He was president of both the Geological and Pathological Societies
in 1883, and president of the Royal College of Surgeons from
1893 until his death. He was a man with a wide range of know-
ledge not only of science but of literature and art. He died in
London on the igth of February 1895.
HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843), commodore in the U.S. navy, was
born at Derby in Connecticut on the gth of March 1775. He
went to sea young in the merchant service and was in command
of a vessel at the age of nineteen. In 1798 he was appointed
lieutenant in the newly organized U.S. navy. From 1803 to
1805 he served in the squadron sent to chastise the Barbary
pirates as commander of the " Enterprise," but was transferred
to the " Argus " in November of 1803. When the War of 1812
broke out he was captain of the U.S. frigate "Constitution" (44),
and was on a mission to Europe carrying specie for the payment
of a debt in Holland. The " Constitution " was shadowed by
British men-of-war, but was not attacked. In July of that year,
however, he was pursued by a squadron of British vessels, and
escaped by good seamanship and the fine sailing qualities of the
" Constitution." He was to have been superseded, but put to sea
before the officer who was to have relieved him arrived an action
which might have been his ruin if he had not signalized his cruise
by the capture of the British frigate " Guerriere " (38). Captain
Hull had been cruising off the Gulf of St Lawrence, and the engage-
ment, which took place on the igth of August, was fought south
of the Grand Bank. The " Constitution " was a fine ship of 1533
tons, originally designed for a two-decker, but cut down to a
frigate. The " Guerriere " was of 1092 tons and very ill-manned,
while the " Constitution " had a choice crew. The British ship
was easily overpowered. Hull received a gold medal for the
capture of the " Guerriere," but had no further opportunity cf
distinction in the war. After the peace he held a variety of
commands at sea, and was a naval commissioner from 1815 to
1817. He had a high reputation in the United States navy for
practical seamanship. He died at Philadelphia on the I3th of
February 1843.
HULL, a city (1875) and railway junction of the province of
Quebec, Canada, and the capital of Wright county, opposite the
city of Ottawa. Pop. (1901) 13,988. The magnificent water-
power of the Chaudiere Falls of the Ottawa is utilized for the
lighting of the city, the operation of a system of electric railways
connecting Hull with Ottawa and Aylmer, and a number of large
saw-mills, pulp, paper and match manufactories. Hull has gone
through several disastrous fires, but since that of 1900, which
swept out most of the town, an efficient system of fire protection
has been established. Three bridges unite Ottawa and Hull.
HULL
The city is governed by a council composed of a mayor and twelve
aldermen elected annually. Champlain was the first white man
to set foot on the site of Hull, but long before he came it was a
favourite meeting-place for the Indians. Later it became familiar
to explorers and fur-traders as the foot of the Chaudiere portage,
and many a canoe has been carried shoulder high over the site of
future busy streets. Philemon Wright, of Woburn, Massachusett s,
was the first man to settle here in 1800. The report he sent back
was so favourable that a number of other families followed from
the same place and laid the foundations of the future city.
His descendants have remained among the substantial men of the
town.
HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL) , a city and county
of a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and
seaport in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, at the junction
of the river Hull with the Humber, 22 m. from the open sea,
and 181 m. N. of London. Pop. (1891) 200,472; (1901) 240,259.
Its full name, not in general use, is Kingston-upon-Hull. It
is served by the North Eastern. Great Central and Hull &
Barnsley railways, the principal station being Paragon Street.
The town stands on a level plain so low as to render embank-
ments necessary to prevent inundation. The older portion is
completely enclosed by the Hull and Humber on the E. and S.
and by docks on the N. and W. Here are narrow streets typical
of the medieval mercantile town, though modern improvements
have destroyed some of them; and there are a few ancient houses.
In Holy 'Trinity church Hull possesses one of the largest English
parish churches, having an extreme length of 272 ft. It is
cruciform and has a massive central tower. This and the
transepts and choir are of Decorated work of various dates.
The choir is largely constructed of brick, and thus affords an
unusually early example of the use of this material in English
ecclesiastical architecture. The nave is Perpendicular, a fine
example of the style. William Mason the poet (1725-1797)
was the son of a rector of the parish. The church of St Mary,
Lowgate, was founded in the i4th century, but is almost wholly
a reconstruction. Modern churches are numerous, but of no
remarkable architectural merit. Among public buildings the
town-hall, in Lowgate, ranks first. It was completed in 1866,
but was subsequently extended and in great part rebuilt; it is
in Italian renaissance style, having a richly adorned facade.
The exchange, in the same street, was also completed in 1866,
in a less ornate Italian style. There are also theatres, a chamber
of commerce, corn exchange, market-hall, custom-house, and
the dock offices, a handsome Italian building. The principal
intellectual institution is the Royal Institution, a fine classical
building opened by Albert, prince consort, in 1854, and con-
taining a museum and large library. It accommodates the Literary
and Philosophical Society. The grammar school was founded
in 1486. One of its masters was Joseph Milner (1744-1797),
author of a history of the Church; and among its students were
Andrew Marvell the poet (1621-1678) and William Wilber-
force the philanthropist (1759-1833), who is commemorated
by a column and statue near the dock offices, and by the preserva-
tion of the house of his birth in High' Street. This house
belongs to the corporation and was opened in 1906 as the Wilber-
force and Historical Museum. There are also to be mentioned
the Hull and East Riding College, Hymer's College, comprising
classical, modern and junior departments, the Trinity House
marine school (1716), the Humber industrial school ship
" Southampton," and technical and art schools. Charities and
benevolent foundations are numerous. Trinity House is a
charity for seamen of the merchant service; the building (1753)
was founded by the Trinity House Gild instituted in 1369, and
contains a noteworthy collection of paintings and a museum.
The Charterhouse belongs to a foundation for the support of
the old and feeble, established by Sir Michael de la Pole, after-
wards earl of Suffolk, in 1384. The infirmary was founded in
1782. Of the three parks, Pearson Park was presented by a
mayor of that name in 1860, and contains statues of Queen
Victoria and the Prince Consort. A botanic garden was opened
in 1880.
The original harbour occupied that part of the river Hull
which faced the old town, but in 1774 an act was passed for
forming a dock on the site of the old fortifications on the right
bank of the Hull. This afterwards became known as Queen's
dock, and with Prince's and Humber docks completes the circle
round the old town. The small railway dock opens from Humber
dock. East of the Hull lie the Victoria dock and extensive
timber ponds, and west of the Humber dock basin, parallel to
the Humber, is Albert dock. Others are the Alexandra, St
Andrew's and fish docks. The total area of the docks is about
1 86 acres, and the owning companies are the North Eastern and
the Hull & Barnsley railways. The ports of Hull and Goole
(q.v.) have been administratively combined since 1888, the
conservancy of the river being under the Humber Conservancy
Board. Hull is one of the principal shipping ports for the manu-
factures of Yorkshire and Lancashire, and has direct communica-
tion with the coal-fields of the West Riding. Large quantities
of grain are imported from Russia, America, &c., and of timber
from Norway and Sweden. Iron, fish, butter and fruit are among
other principal imports. The port was an early seat of the whale
fisheries. Of passenger steamship services from Hull the principal
are those to the Norwegian ports, which are greatly frequented
during the summer; these, with others to the ports of Sweden,
&c., are in the hands of the large shipping firm of Thomas Wilson
& Co. A ferry serves New Holland, on the Lincolnshire shore
(Great Central railway). The principal industries of Hull are
iron-founding, shipbuilding and engineering, and the manu-
facture of chemicals, oil-cake, colours, cement, paper, starch,
soap and cotton goods; and there are tanneries and breweries.
The parliamentary borough returns three members, an increase
from two members in 1885. Hull became the seat of a suffragan
bishop in the diocese of York in 1891. This was a revival, as
the office was in existence from 1534 till the death of Edward
VI. The county borough was created in 1888. The city is
governed by a mayor, 16 aldermen and 48 councillors. Area,
8989 acres.
The first mention of Hull occurs under the name of Wyke-
upon-Hull in a charter of 1160 by which Maud, daughter of Hugh
Camin, granted it to the monks of Meaux, who in 1278 received
licence to hold a market here every Thursday and a fair on the
vigil, day and morrow of Holy Trinity and twelve following
days. Shortly afterwards Edward I., seeing its value as a port,
obtained the town from the monks in exchange for other lands
in Lincolnshire and changed its name to Kingston-upon-Hull.
To induce people to settle here he gave the town a charter
in 1299. This granted two weekly markets on Tuesday and
Friday and a fair on the eve of St Augustine lasting thirty days;
it made the town a free borough and provided that the king
would send his justices to deliver the prison when necessary.
He sent commissioners in 1303 to inquire how and where the
roads to the " new town of Kingston-upon-Hull " could best be
made, and in 1321 Edward II. granted the burgesses licence to
enclose the town with a ditch and " a wall of stone and lime."
In the i4th century the burgesses of Hull disputed the right of
the archbishop of York to prisage of wine and other liberties
in Hull, which they said belonged to the king. The archbishop
claimed under charters of King ^Ethelstand and Henry III.
The dispute, after lasting several years, was at length decided
in favour of the king. In 1381 Edward III., while inspecting
former charters, granted that the burgesses might hold the borough
with fairs, markets and free customs at a fee-farm of 70, and
that every year they might choose a mayor and four bailiffs.
The king in 1440 granted the burgesses Hessle, North Ferriby
and other places in order that they might obtain a supply of
fresh water. The charter also granted that the above places
with the town itself should become the county of the town of
Kingston-upon-Hull. -Henry VIII. visited the town in 1541,
and ordered that a castle and other places of defence should be
built, and Edward VI. in 1552 granted the manor to the burgesses.
The town was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth in 1576 and a
new charter was granted by James II. in 1688. During the
civil wars Hull, although the majority of the inhabitants were
HULL HUMANE SOCIETY
871
royalists, was garrisoned by the parliamentarians, and Charles
I. was. refused admission by the governor Sir John Hotham.
In 1643 it stood a siege of six weeks, but the new governor
Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Baron Fairfax, obliged the Royalist
army to retreat by opening the sluices and placing the surround-
ing country under water. Hull was represented in the parlia-
ment of 1295 and has sent members ever since, save that in
1384 the burgesses were exempted from returning any member
on account of the expenses which they were incurring through
fortifying their town. Besides the fairs granted to the burgesses
by Edward I., two others were granted by Charles II. in 1664
to Henry Hildiard who owned property in the town.
See T. Gent, Annales Regioduni Hullini (York, 1735, re-
printed 1869); G. Hadley, History of the Town and County of
Kingston-upon-Hull (Hull, 1788); C. Frost, Notices relative to the
Early History of the Town and Port of Hull (London, 1827); J. J.
Sheaham, General and Concise History of Kingston-upon-Hull
(London and Beverley, 1864).
HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from Man, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille,
covering), the outer covering, pod, or shell of beans, peas, &c.,
also the enclosing envelope of a chrysalis. The word may be the
same as " hull, " meaning the body of a ship without its masts or
superstructure, &c., but in this sense the word is more usually
connected with " hold," the interior cargo-carrying part of a
vessel. This word was borrowed, as a nautical term, from the
Dutch, hoi (cognate with " hole "), the d being due to confusion
with " to hold," " grasp " (O.Eng. healdan). The meanings of
" hull " and " hold " are somewhat far apart, and the closest
sense resemblance is to the word " hulk," which is not known till
about a century later.
HULLAH, JOHN PYKE (1812-1884), English composer and
teacher of music, was born at Worcester on the 27th June
1812. He was a pupil of William Horsley from 1829, and
entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1833. He wrote an opera
to words by Dickens, The Village Coquettes, produced in 1836;
The Barbers of Bassora in 1837, and The Outpost in 1838, the last
two at Covent Garden. From 1839, when he went to Paris to
investigate various systems of teaching music to large masses
of people, he identified himself with Wilhem's system of the
"fixed Do," and his adaptation of that system was taught with
enormous success from 1840 to 1860. In 1847 a large building in
Long Acre, called St Martin's Hall, was built by subscription
and presented to Hullah. It was inaugurated in 1850 and burnt
to the ground in 1860, a blow from which Hullah was long in
recovering. He had risked his all in the maintenance of the
building, and had to begin the world again. A series of lectures
was given at the Royal Institution in 1861, and in 1864 he lectured
in Edinburgh, but in the following year was unsuccessful in his
application for the Reid professorship. He conducted concerts
in Edinburgh in 1866 and 1867, and the concerts of the Royal
Academy of Music from 1870 to 1873; he had been elected to the
committee of management in 1869. In 1872 he was appointed
by the Council of Education musical inspector of training schools
for the United Kingdom. In 1878 he went abroad to report on
the condition of musical education in schools, and wrote a very
valuable report, quoted in the memoir of him published by his
wife in 1886. He was attacked by paralysis in 1880, and again
in 1883. His compositions, which remained popular for some
years after his death in 1884, consisted mainly of ballads; but
his importance in the history of music is owing to his exertions
in popularizing musical education, and his persistent opposition
to the Tonic Sol-Fa system, which had a success he could not
foresee. His objections to it were partly grounded on the
character of the music which was in common use among the early
teachers of the system. While it cannot be doubted that Hullah
would have won more success if he had not opposed the Tonic
Sol-Fa movement so strenuously, it must be confessed that his
work was of great value, for he kept constantly in view and
impressed upon all who followed him or learnt from him the
supreme necessity of maintaining the artistic standard of the
music taught and studied, and of not allowing trumpery com-
positions to usurp the place of good music on account of the
greater ease with which they could be read.
HULME, WILLIAM (1631-1691), English philanthropist,
was born in the neighbourhood of Manchester, and died on the
29th of October 1691. Having lost his only son Banastre, Hulme
left his property in trust to maintain " four exhibitioners of the
poorest sort of bachelors for the space of four years " at Brasenose
College, Oxford. This was the beginning of the Hulme Trust. Its
property was in Manchester, and owing to its favourable situa-
tion its value increased rapidly. Eventually in 1881 a scheme
was drawn up by the charity commissioners, by which (as
amended in 1907) the trust is now governed. Its income of
about 10,000 a year is devoted to maintaining the Hulme
Grammar School in Manchester and to assisting other schools,
to supporting a theological college, Hulme Hall, attached to the
university of Manchester, and to providing a number of scholar-
ships and exhibitions at Brasenose College.
See J. Croston, Hulme's Charity (1877).
HULS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
4 m. N. of Crefeld and 17 N.W. of Dusseldorf by rail. Pop.
(1905) 6510. It has two Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue
and manufactures of damask and velvet. In the neighbourhood
ironstone is obtained.
HULSE, JOHN (1708-1790), English divine, was born the
eldest of a family of nineteen at Middlewich, in Cheshire, in
1708. Entering St John's College, Cambridge, in 1724, he
graduated in 1728; and on taking orders (in 1732) was presented
to a small country curacy. His father having died in 1753,
Hulse succeeded to his estates in Cheshire, where, owing to feeble
health, he lived in retirement till his death in December 1790.
He bequeathed his estates to Cambridge University for the
purpose of maintaining two divinity scholars (30 a year each)
at St John's College, of founding a prize for a dissertation, and of
instituting the offices of Christian advocate and of Christian
preacher or Hulsean lecturer. By a statute in 1860 the Hulsean
professorship of divinity was substituted for the office of Christian
advocate, and the lectureship was considerably modified. The
first course of lectures under the benefaction was delivered in
1820. In 1830 the number of annual lectures or sermons was
reduced from twenty to eight; after 1861 they were further
reduced to a minimum of four. The annual value of the Hulse
endowment is between 800 and 900, of which eight-tenths
go to the professor of divinity and one-tenth to the prize and
lectureship respectively.
An account of the Hulsean lectures from 1820 to 1894 is given in
J. Hunt's Religious Thought in the iQth Century, 332-338; among
the lecturers have been Henry Alford (1041), R. C. Trench (1845),
Christopher Wordsworth (1847), Charles Merivale (1861), James
Moorhouse (1865), F. W. Farrar (1870), F. J. A. Hort (1871),
W. Boyd Carpenter (1878), W. Cunningham (1885), M. Creighton
(1893).
HUMACAO, a small city and the capital of a municipal district
and department of the same name, in Porto Rico, 46 m. S.E. of
San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the city, 4428; and of the municipal
district, 14,313. Humacao is attractively situated near the
E. coast, 9 m. from the port of Naguabo and a little over 6 m.
from its own port of Punta Santiago, with which it is connected
by a good road; a railway was under construction in 1908, and
some of the sugar factories of the department are now connected
by rail with the port. The department covers the eastern end
of the island and includes all the islands off its coast, among
which are Culebra and Vieques; the former (pop. in 1899, 704)
has two excellent harbours and is used as a U.S. naval station;
the latter is 21 m. long by 6 m. wide and in 1899 had a population
of nearly 6000. Grazing is the principal industry, but sugar-cane,
tobacco and fruit are cultivated. There are valuable forests
in the mountainous districts, a part of which has been set aside
for preservation under the name of the Luquillo forest reserve.
Humacao was incorporated as a city in 1899. It suffered severely
in the hurricane of 1898, the damage not having been fully
repaired as late as 1906.
HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL. This society was founded in
England in 1774 for the purpose of rendering "first aid" in cases
of drowning and for restoring life by artificial means to those
apparently drowned. Dr William Hawes (1736-1808), an
872
HUMANISM HUMBERT, KING OF ITALY
English physician, became known in 1773 for his efforts to
convince the public that persons apparently dead from drowning
might in many cases be resuscitated by artificial means. For a
year he paid a reward out of his own pocket to any one bringing
him a body rescued from the water within a reasonable time of
immersion. Dr Thomas Cogan (1736-1818), another English
physician, who had become interested in the same subject during
a stay at Amsterdam, where was instituted in 1 767 a society for
preservation of life from accidents in water, joined Hawes in his
crusade. In the summer of 1774 each of them brought fifteen
friends to a meeting at the Chapter Coffee-house, St Paul's
Churchyard, when the Royal Humane Society was founded.
The society, the chief offices of which are at 4 Trafalgar Square,
London, has upwards of 280 dep6ts throughout the kingdom,
supplied with life-saving apparatus. The chief and earliest of
these depots is the Receiving House in Hyde Park, on the north
bank of the Serpentine, which was built in 1 794 on a site granted
by George III. Boats and boatmen are kept to render aid to
bathers, and in the winter ice-men are sent round to the different
skating grounds in and around London. The society distributes
money-rewards, medals, clasps and testimonials, to those who
save or attempt to save drowning people. It further recognizes
" all cases of exceptional bravery in rescuing or attempting to
rescue persons from asphyxia in mines, wells, blasting furnaces,
or in sewers where foul gas may endanger life." It further
awards prizes for swimming to public schools and training ships.
Since 1873 the Stanhope gold medal has been awarded " to
the case exhibiting the greatest gallantry during the year."
During the year 1905 873 persons were rewarded for saving or
attempting to save 947 lives from drowning. The society is
maintained by private subscriptions and bequests. Its motto
is Lateat scintillula forsan, " a small spark may perhaps lie hid."
(See also DROWNING AND LIFE-SAVING.)
HUMANISM (from Lat. humanus, human, connected with
homo, mankind), in general any system of thought or action
which assigns a predominant interest to the affairs of men as
compared with the supernatural or the abstract. The term is
specially applied to that movement of thought which in western
Europe in the isth century broke through the medieval traditions
of scholastic theology and philosophy, and devoted itself to
the rediscovery and direct study of the ancient classics. This
movement was essentially a revolt against intellectual, and
especially ecclesiastical authority, and is the parent of all
modern developments whether intellectual, scientific or social
(see RENAISSANCE). The term has also been applied to the
philosophy of Comte in virtue of its insistence on the dignity
of humanity and its refusal to Snd in the divine anything
external or superior to mankind, and the same tendency has had
marked influence over the development of modern Christian
theology which inclines to obliterate the old orthodox conception
of the separate existence and overlordship of God. The narrow
sense of the term survives in modern university terminology.
Thus in the University of Oxford the curriculum known as
Litterae Humaniores (" Humane Literature ") consists of Latin
and Greek literature and philosophy, i.e. of the " arts," often
described in former times as the " polite letters." In the
Scottish universities the professor of Latin is called the professor
of " humanity." The plural " humanities " is a generic term
for the classics. In ordinary language the adjective " humane"
is restricted to the sense of " kind-hearted," " unselfish ": the
abstract " humanity " has this sense and also the sense of " that
which pertains to mankind " derived in this case with the
companion adjective " human."
HUMANITARIANS, a term applied (i) to a school of theologians
who repudiate the doctrine of the Trinity and hold an extreme
view of the person of Christ as simply human. The adoption
of this position by men like Nathaniel Lardner, Joseph Priestley
and Theophilus Lindsey in the middle of the i8th century
led to the establishment of the first definitely organized Unitarian
churches in England. (2) It is also applied to those who
believe in the perfectibility of man apart from superhuman aid,
especially those who follow the teaching of Pierre Leroux (q.v.).
The name is also sometimes given to the Positivists, and,
in a more general sense, to persons v/hose chief principle
of action is the desire to preserve others from pain and
discomfort.
HUMAYUN (1508-1556), Mogul emperor of Delhi, succeeded
his father Baber in India in 1530, while his brother Kamran
obtained the sovereignty of Kabul and Lahore. Humayun
was thus left in possession of his father's recent conquests,
which were in dispute with the Indian Afghans under Sher Shah,
governor of Bengal. After ten years of fighting, Humayun was
driven out of India and compelled to .flee to Persia through the
desert of Sind, where his famous son, Akbar the Great, was born
in the petty fort of Umarkot (1542). Sher Shah was killed at
the storming of Kalinjar (1545), and Humayun, returning to
India with Akbar, then only thirteen years of age, defeated the
Indo-Afghan army and reoccupied Delhi (1555). India thus
passed again from the Afghans to the Moguls, but six months
afterwards Humayun was killed by a fall from the parapet of his
palace (1556), leaving his kingdom to Akbar. The tomb of
Humayun is one of the finest Mogul monuments in the neighbour-
hood of Delhi, and it was here that the last of the Moguls, Bahadur
Shah, was captured by Major Hodson in 1857.
HUMBER, an estuary on the east coast of England formed
by the rivers Trent and Ouse, the northern shore belonging
to Yorkshire and the southern to Lincolnshire. The junction
of these two important rivers is near the village of Faxfleet, from
which point the course of the Humber runs E. for 18 m., and
then S.E. for 19 m. to the North Sea. The total area draining
to the Humber is 9293 sq. m. The width of the estuary is i m.
at the head, gradually widening to 35 m. at 8 m. above the
mouth, but here, with a great shallow bay on the Yorkshire
side, it increases to 8 m. in width. The seaward horn of this
bay, however, is formed by a narrow protruding bank of sand
and stones, thrown up by a southward current along the York-
shire coast, and known as Spurn Head. This reduces the width
of the Humber mouth to 55 m. Except where the Humber cuts
through a low chalk ridge, between north and south Ferriby,
dividing it into the Wolds of Yorkshire and of Lincolnshire, the
shores and adjacent lands are nearly flat. The water is muddy;
and the course for shipping considerably exceeds in length the
distances given above, by reason of the numerous shoals it is
necessary to avoid. The course is carefully buoyed and lighted,
for the Humber is an important highway of commerce, having
on the Yorkshire bank the great port of Hull, and on the Lincoln-
shire bank that of Grimsby, while Goole lies on the Ouse a little
above the junction with the Trent. Canals connect with the
great manufacturing district of South Yorkshire, and the Trent
opens up wide communications with the Midlands. The pheno-
menon of the tidal bore is sometimes seen on the Humber. The
action of the river upon the flat Yorkshire shore towards the
mouth alters the shore-line constantly. Many ancient villages
have disappeared entirely, notably Ravenspur or Ravenser,
once a port, represented in parliament under Edward I., and the
scene of the landing of Bolingbroke, afterwards Henry IV., in
1399. Soon after this the town, which lay immediately inside
Spurn Point, must have been destroyed.
HUMBERT, RANIERI CARLO EMANUELE GIOVANNI
MARIA FERDINANDO EUGENIO, KING or ITALY (1844-1900),
son of Victor Emmanuel II. and of Adelaide, archduchess of
Austria, was born at Turin, capital of the kingdom of Sardinia,
on the 1 4th of March 1844. His education was entrusted to
the most eminent men of his time, amongst others to Massimo
d'Azeglio and Pasquale Stanislao Mancini. Entering the army
on the i4th of March 1858 with the rank of captain, he was present
at the battle of Solferino in 1859, and in 1866 commanded a
division at Custozza. Attacked by the Austrian cavalry near
Villafranca, he formed his troops into squares and drove the
assailants towards Sommacampagna, remaining himself through-
out the action in the square most exposed to attack. With Bixio
he covered the retreat of the Italian army, receiving the gold
medal for valour. On the 2ist of April 1868 he married his
cousin, Margherita Teresa Giovanna, princess of Savoy, daughter
HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON
873
of the duke of Genoa (born at Turin on the 2oth of November'
1851). On the nth of November 1869 Margherita gave birth
to Victor Emmanuel, prince of Naples, afterwards Victor
Emmanuel III. of Italy. Ascending the throne on the death of
his father (gth January 1878), Humbert adopted the style
" Humbert I. of Italy " instead of Humbert IV., and consented
that the remains of his father should be interred at Rome in
the Pantheon, and not in the royal mausoleum of Superga (see
CRISPI). Accompanied by the premier, Cairoli, he began a
tour of the provinces of his kingdom, but on entering Naples
(November 17, 1878), amid the acclamations of an immense
crowd, was attacked by a fanatic named Passanante. The king
warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting
to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh. The would-be
assassin was condemned to death, but the sentence was by the
king commuted to one of penal servitude for life. The occurrence
upset for several years the health of Queen Margherita. In
1 88 1 King Humbert, again accompanied by Cairoli, resumed
his interrupted tour, and visited Sicily and the southern Italian
provinces. In 1882 he took a prominent part in the national
mourning for Garibaldi, whose tomb at Caprera he repeatedly
visited. When, in the autumn of 1882, Verona and Venetia
were inundated, he hastened to the spot, directed salvage opera-
tions, and provided large sums of money for the destitute.
Similarly, on the 28th of July 1883, he hurried to Ischia, where
an earthquake had engulfed some 5000 persons. Countermand-
ing the order of the minister of public works to cover the ruins
with quicklime, the king prosecuted salvage operations for five
days longer, and personally saved many victims at the risk of
his own life. In 1884 he visited Busca and Naples, where
cholera was raging, helping with money and advice the numerous
sufferers, and raising the spirit of the population. Compared
with the reigns of his grandfather, Charles Albert, and of his
father, Victor Emmanuel, the reign of Humbert was tranquil.
Scrupulously observant of constitutional principles, he followed,
as far as practicable, parliamentary indications in his choice
of premiers, only one of whom Rudini was drawn from the
Conservative ranks. In foreign policy he approved of the
conclusion of the Triple Alliance, and, in repeated visits to
Vienna and Berlin, established and consolidated the pact.
Towards Great Britain his attitude was invariably cordial, and
he considered the Triple Alliance imperfect unless supplemented
by an Anglo-Italian naval entente. Favourably disposed towards
the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the
occupation of Massawa, he was suspected of aspiring to a vast
empire in north-east Africa, a suspicion which tended somewhat
to diminish his popularity after the disaster of Adowa on the
ist of March 1896. On the other hand, his popularity was
enhanced by the firmness of his attitude towards the Vatican,
as exemplified in his telegram declaring Rome " intangible "
(September 20, 1886), and affirming the permanence of the
Italian possession of the Eternal City. Above all King Humbert
was a soldier, jealous of the honour and prestige of the army
to such a degree that he promoted a duel between his nephew,
the count of Turin, and Prince Henry of Orleans (August 15,
1897) on account of the aspersions cast by the latter upon Italian
arms. The claims of King Humbert upon popular gratitude
and affection were enhanced by his extraordinary munificence,
which was not merely displayed on public occasions, but directed
to the relief of innumerable private wants into which he had
made personal inquiry. It has been calculated that at least
100,000 per annum was expended by the king in this way. The
regard in which he was universally held was abundantly demon-
strated on the occasion of the unsuccessful attempt upon his life
made by the anarchist Acciarito near Rome on the 22nd of
April 1897, and still more after his tragic assassination at
Monza by the anarchist Bresci on the evening of the 2gth
of July 1900. Good-humoured, active, tender-hearted, some-
what fatalistic, but, above all, generous, he was spontaneously
called " Humbert the Good." He was buried in the Pantheon
in Rome, by the side of Victor Emmanuel II., on the 9th of
August 1900. (H. W. S.)
HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON
VON (1769-1859), German naturalist and traveller, was born at
Berlin, on the i4th of September 1769. His father, who was a
major in the Prussian army, belonged to a Pomeranian family
of consideration, and was rewarded for his services during the
Seven Years' War with the post of royal chamberlain. He
married in 1766 Maria Elizabeth von Colomb, widow of Baron
von Hollwede, and had by her two sons, of whom the younger
is the subject of this article. The childhood of Alexander von
Humboldt was not a promising one as regards either health or
intellect. His characteristic tastes, however, soon displayed
themselves; and from his fancy for collecting and labelling
plants, shells and insects he received the playful title of " the
little apothecary." The care of his education, on the unexpected
death of his father in 1779, devolved upon his mother, who
discharged the trust with constancy and judgment. Destined
for a political career, he studied finance during six months at the
university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder; and a year later, April 25,
1789, he matriculated at Gottingen, then eminent for the lectures
of C. G. Heyne and J. F. Blumenbach. His vast and varied
powers were by this time fully developed; and during the vaca-
tion of 1789 he gave a fair earnest of his future performances in
a scientific excursion up the Rhine, and in the treatise thence
issuing, Mineralogische Beobachtungen uber einige Basalle am
Rhein (Brunswick, 1790). His native passion for distant travel
was confirmed by the friendship formed by him at Gottingen with
George Forster, Heyne's son-in-law, the distinguished companion
of Captain Cook's second voyage. Henceforth his studies, which
his rare combination of parts enabled him to render at once
multifarious, rapid and profound, were directed with extra-
ordinary insight and perseverance to the purpose of preparing
himself for his distinctive calling as a scientific explorer. With
this view he studied commerce and foreign languages at Hamburg,
geology at Freiberg under A. G. Werner, anatomy at Jena under
J. C. Loder, astronomy and the use of scientific instruments
under F. X. von Zach and J. G. Kohler. His researches into
the vegetation of the mines of Freiberg led to the publication
in 1793 of his Florae Fribergensis Specimen; and the results of a
prolonged course of experiments on the phenomena of muscular
irritability, then recently discovered by L. Galvani, were con-
tained in his Versuche uber die gereizte Muskel- und Nemenfaser
(Berlin, 1797), enriched in the French translation with not";s by
Blumenbach.
In 1794 he was admitted to the intimacy of the famous Weimar
coterie, and contributed (June 1795) to Schiller's new periodical,
Die Horen, a philosophical allegory entitled Die Lebenskraft,
oder der rhodische Genius. In the summer of 1790 he paid a
flying visit to England in company with Forster. In 1792 and
1797 he was in Vienna; in 1795 he made a geological and botani-
cal tour through Switzerland and Italy. He had obtained in
the meantime official employment, having been appointed
assessor of mines at Berlin, February 29, 1792. Although the
service of the state was consistently regarded by him but as an
apprenticeship to the service of science, he fulfilled its duties
with such conspicuous ability that he not only rapidly rose to
the highest post in his department, but was besides entrusted
with several important diplomatic missions. The death of his
mother, on the igth of November 1796, set him free to follow
the bent of his genius, and, finally severing his official connexions,
he waited for an opportunity of executing his long-cherished
schemes of travel. On the postponement of Captain Baudin's
proposed voyage of circumnavigation, which he had been officially
invited to accompany, he left Paris for Marseilles with Aim6
Bonpland, the designated botanist of the frustrated expedition,
hoping to join Bonaparte in Egypt. Means of transport, however,
were not forthcoming, and the two travellers eventually found
their way to Madrid, where the unexpected patronage of the
minister d'Urquijo determined them to make Spanish America
the scene of their explorations.
Armed with powerful recommendations, they sailed in the
" Pizarro " from Corunna, on the 5th pf June 1799, stopped six
days at Teneriffe for the ascent of the Peak, and landed, on the
HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON
i6th of July, at Cumana. There Humboldt observed, on the
night of the i2-i3th of November, that remarkable meteor-
shower which forms the starting-point of our acquaintance with
the periodicity of the phenomenon; thence he proceeded with
Bonpland to Caracas; and in February 1800 he left the coast
for the purpose of exploring the course of the Orinoco. This trip,
which lasted four months, and covered 1725 m. of wild and
uninhabited country, had the important result of establishing the
existence of a communication between the water-systems of the
Orinoco and Amazon, and of determining the exact position of
the bifurcation. On the 24th of November the two friends set
sail for Cuba, and after a stay of some months regained the
mainland at Cartagena. Ascending the swollen stream of the
Magdalena, and crossing the frozen ridges of the Cordilleras,
they reached Quito after a tedious and difficult journey, on the
6th of January 1802. Their stay there was signalized by the
ascent of Pichincha and Chimborazo, and terminated in an
expedition to the sources of the Amazon en route for Lima.
At Callao Humboldt observed the transit of Mercury on the gth of
November, and studied the fertilizing properties of guano, the
introduction of which into Europe was mainly due to his writings.
A tempestuous sea- voyage brought them to the shores of Mexico,
and after a year's residence in that province, followed by a short
visit to the United States, they set sail for Europe from the mouth
of the Delaware, and landed at Bordeaux on the 3rd of August
1804.
. Humboldt may justly be regarded as having in this memorable
expedition laid the foundation in their larger bearings of the
sciences of physical geography and meteorology. By his delinea-
tion (in 1817) of " isothermal lines," he at once suggested the
idea and devised the means of comparing the climatic conditions
of various countries. He first investigated the rate of decrease
in mean temperature with increase of elevation above the sea-
level, and afforded, by his inquiries into the origin of tropical
storms, the earliest clue to the detection of the more complicated
law governing atmospheric disturbances in higher latitudes;
while his essay on the geography of plants was based on the then
novel idea of studying the distribution of organic life as affected
by varying physical conditions. His discovery of the decrease
in intensity of the earth's magnetic force from the poles to the
equator was communicated to the Paris Institute in a memoir
read by him on the 7th of December 1804, and its importance was
attested by the speedy emergence of rival claims. His services to
geology were mainly based on his attentive study of the volcanoes
of the New World. He showed that they fell naturally into linear
groups, presumably corresponding with vast subterranean
fissures; and by his demonstration of the igneous origin of rocks
previously held to be of aqueous formation, he contributed
largely to the elimination of erroneous views.
The reduction into form and publication of the encyclopaedic
mass of materials scientific, political and archaeological
collected by him during his absence from Europe was now
Humboldt's most urgent desire. After a short trip to Italy
with Gay-Lussac for the purpose of investigating the law of
magnetic declination, and a sojourn of two years and a half
in his native city, he finally, in the spring of 1808, settled in
Paris with the purpose of securing the scientific co-operation
required for bringing his great work through the press. This
colossal task, which he at first hoped would have occupied but
two years, eventually cost him twenty-one, and even then re-
mained incomplete. With the exception of Napoleon Bonaparte,
he was the most famous man in Europe. A chorus of applause
greeted him from every side. Academies, both native and
foreign, were eager to enrol him among their members. Frederick
William III. of Prussia conferred upon him the honour, without
exacting the duties, attached to the post of royal chamberlain,
together with a pension of 2500 thalers, afterwards doubled.
He refused the appointment of Prussian minister of public in-
struction in 1810. In 1814 he accompanied the allied sovereigns
to London. Three years later he was summoned by the king of
Prussia to attend him at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Again
in the autumn of 1822 he accompanied the same monarch to
the congress of Verona, proceeded thence with the royal party
to Rome and Naples, and returned to Paris in the spring of 1823.
The French capital he had long regarded as his true home.
There he found, not only scientific sympathy, but the social
stimulus which his vigorous and healthy mind eagerly craved.
He was equally in his element as the lion of the salons and as the
savant of the institute and the observatory. Thus, when at last
he received from his sovereign a summons to join his court at
Berlin, he obeyed indeed, but with deep and lasting regret.
The provincialism of his native city was odious to him. He never
ceased to rail against the bigotry without religion, aestheticism
without culture, and philosophy without common sense, which
he found dominant on the banks of the Spree. The unremitting
benefits and sincere attachment of two well-meaning princes
secured his gratitude, but could not appease his discontent. At
first he sought relief from the " nebulous atmosphere " of his
new abode by frequent visits to Paris; but as years advanced
his excursions were reduced to accompanying the monotonous
" oscillations " of the court between Potsdam and Berlin. On
the 1 2th of May 1827 he settled permanently in the Prussian
capital, where his first efforts were directed towards the further-
ance of the science of terrestrial magnetism. For many years
it had been one of his favourite schemes to secure, by means
of simultaneous observations at distant points, a thorough
investigation of the nature and law of " magnetic storms "
a term invented by him to designate abnormal disturbances
of the earth's magnetism. The meeting at Berlin, on the i8th
of September 1828, of a newly-formed scientific association, of
which he was elected president, gave him the opportunity of
setting on foot an extensive system of research in combination
with his diligent personal observations. His appeal to the Russian
government in 1829 led to the establishment of a line of magnetic
and meteorological stations across northern Asia; while his
letter to the duke of Sussex, then (April 1836) president of the
Royal Society, secured for the undertaking the wide basis of
the British dominions. Thus that scientific conspiracy of nations
which is one of the noblest fruits of modern civilization was by
his exertions first successfully organized.
In 1811, and again in 1818, projects of Asiatic exploration
were proposed to Humboldt, first by the Russian, and afterwards
by the Prussian government; but on each occasion untoward
circumstances interposed, and it was not until he had entered
upon his sixtieth year that he resumed his early rd!e of a traveller
in the interests of science. Between May and November 1829
he, together with his chosen associates Gustav Rose and C. G.
Ehrenberg, traversed the wide expanse of the Russian empire
from the Neva to the Yenesei, accomplishing in twenty-five
weeks a distance of 9614 m. The journey, however, though
carried out with all the advantages afforded by the immediate
patronage of the Russian government, was too rapid to be
profitable. Its most important fruits were the correction of the
prevalent exaggerated estimate of the height of the Central-
Asian plateau, and the disco very of diamonds in the gold-washings
of the Ural a result which Humboldt's Brazilian experiences
enabled him to predict, and by predicting to secure.
Between 1830 and 1848 Humboldt was frequently employed
in diplomatic missions to the court of Louis Philippe, with whom
he always maintained the most cordial personal relations.
The death of his brother, Wilhelm von Humboldt, who expired
in his arms, on the 8th of April 1836, saddened the later years
of his life. In losing him, Alexander lamented that he had
" lost half himself." The accession of the crown prince as
Frederick William IV., on the death of his father, in June 1840,
added to rather than detracted from his court favour. Indeed,
the new king's craving for his society became at times so im-
portunate as to leave him only some hours snatched from sleep
for the prosecution of his literary labours.
It is not often that a man postpones to his seventy-sixth
year, and then successfully executes, the crowning task of his
life. Yet this was Humboldt's case. The first two volumes of
the Kosmos were published, and in the main composed, between
the years 1845 and 1847. The idea of a work which should
HUMBOLDT, K. W. VON
875
convey, not only a graphic description, but an imaginative
conception of the physical world which should support general-
ization by details, and dignify details by generalization, had
floated before his mind for upwards of half a century. It first
took definite shape in a set of lectures delivered by him before
the university of Berlin in the winter of 1827-1828. These
lectures formed, as his latest biographer expresses it, " the cartoon
for the great fresco of the Kosmos." The scope of this remarkable
work may be briefly described as the representation of the unity
amid the complexity of nature. In it the large and vague
ideals of the i8th are sought to be combined with the exact
scientific requirements of the igth century. And, in spite of
inevitable shortcomings, the attempt was in an eminent degree
successful. Nevertheless, the general effect of the book is
rendered to some extent unsatisfactory by its tendency to sub-
stitute the indefinite for the infinite, and thus to ignore, while
it does not deny, the existence of a power outside and beyond
nature. A certain heaviness of style, too, and laborious pictur-
esqueness of treatment make it more imposing than attractive
to the general reader. But its supreme and abiding value
consists in its faithful reflection of the mind of a great man.
No higher eulogium can be passed on Alexander von Humboldt
than that, in attempting, and not unworthily attempting, to
portray the universe, he succeeded still more perfectly in portray-
ing his own comprehensive intelligence.
The last decade of his long life his " improbable " years,
as he was accustomed to call them was devoted to the con-
tinuation of this work, of which the third and fourth volumes
were published in 1850-1858, while a fragment of a fifth appeared
posthumously in 1862. In these he sought to fill up what was
wanting of detail as to individual branches of science in the
sweeping survey contained in the first volume. Notwithstanding
their high separate value, it must be admitted that, from an
artistic point of view, these additions were deformities. The
characteristic idea of the work, so far as such a gigantic idea
admitted of literary incorporation, was completely developed
in its opening portions, and the attempt to convert it into a
scientific encyclopaedia was in truth to nullify its generating
motive. Humboldt's remarkable industry and accuracy were
never more conspicuous than in the erection of this latest trophy
to his genius. Nor did he rely entirely on his own labours.
He owed much of what he accomplished to his rare power of
assimilating the thoughts and availing himself of the co-operation
of others. He was not more ready to incur than to acknowledge
obligations. The notes to Kosmos overflow with laudatory
citations, the current coin in which he discharged his intellectual
debts.
On the 24th of February 1857 Humboldt was attacked with
a slight apoplectic stroke, which passed away without leaving
any perceptible trace. It was not until the winter of 1858-1859
that his strength began to decline, and on the ensuing 6th of
May he tranquilly expired, wanting but six months of completing
his ninetieth year. The honours which had been showered on him
during life followed him after death. His remains, previously
to being interred in the family resting-place at Tegel, were
conveyed in state through the streets of Berlin, and received by
the prince-regent with uncovered head at the door of the
cathedral. The first centenary of his birth was celebrated on
the i4th of September 1869, with equal enthusiasm in the New
and Old Worlds; and the numerous monuments erected in his
honour, and newly explored regions called by his name, bear
witness to the universal diffusion of his fame and popularity.
Humboldt never married, and seems to have been at all times
more social than domestic in his tastes. To his brother's family
he was, however, much attached; and in his later years the
somewhat arbitrary sway of an old and faithful servant held him
in more than matrimonial bondage. By a singular example of
weakness, he executed, four years before his death, a deed of
gift transferring to this man Seifert the absolute possession of his
entire property. It is right to add that no undue advantage
appears to have been taken of this extraordinary concession.
Of the qualities of his heart it is less easy to speak than of those
of his head. The clue to his inner life might probably be found
in a certain egotism of self-culture scarcely separable from the
promptings of genius. Yet his attachments, once formed, were
sincere and lasting. He made innumerable friends; and it does
not stand on record that he ever lost one. His benevolence was
throughout his life active and disinterested. His early zeal for
the improvement of the condition of the miners in Galicia and
Franconia, his consistent detestation of slavery, his earnest
patronage of rising men of science, bear witness to the large
humanity which formed the ground-work of his character. The
faults of his old age have been brought into undue prominence
by the injudicious publication of his letters to Varnhagen von
Ense. The chief of these was his habit of smooth speaking,
almost amounting to flattery, which formed a painful contrast
with the caustic sarcasm of his confidential utterances. His
vanity, at all times conspicuous, was tempered by his sense of
humour, and was so frankly avowed as to invite sympathy
rather than provoke ridicule. After every deduction has been
made, he yet stands before us as a colossal figure, not unworthy
to take his place beside Goethe as the representative of the
Scientific side of the culture of his country.
The best biography of Humboldt is that of Professor Karl Bruhns
(3 vols., 8vo, Leipzig, 1872), translated into English by the Misses
Lassell in 1873. Brief accounts of his career are given by A. Dove in
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, and by S. Gunther in Alexander von
Humboldt (Berlin, iqoo). The Voyage aux regions equinoxiales du
Nouveau Continent, fait en 1709-1804, par Alexandre de Humboldt el
Aime Bonpland (Paris, 1807, &c.), consisted of thirty folio and quarto
volumes, and comprised a considerable number of subordinate but
important works. Among these may be enumerated Vue des
Cordilleres el monuments des peuples indigenes de I'Amerique (2 vols.
folio, 1810) ; Examen critique de I'histoire de la geographie du Nouveau
Continent (1814-1834); Atlas geographique et physique du royaume de
la Nouvelle Espagne (1811); Essai politique sur le royaume de la
Nouvelle Espagne (1811); Essai sur la geographie des plantes (1805,
now very rare); and Relation historique (1814-1825), an unfinished
narrative of his travels, including the Essai politique sur Vtle de Cuba.
The Nova genera^ et species plantarum (7 vols. folio, 1815-1825), con-
taining descriptions of above 4500 specie^ of plants collected by
Humboldt and Bonpland, was mainly compiled by C. S. Kunth;
J. Oltmanns assisted in preparing the Recueil d' observations astrono-
miques (1808); Cuvier, Latreille, yalenciennes and Gay-Lussac co-
operated in the Recueil d' observations de zoologie et d'anatomie com-
pares (1805-1833). Humboldt's Ansichten der Natur (Stuttgart and
Tubingen, l8o8j went through three editions in his lifetime, and
was translated into nearly every European language. The results
of his Asiatic journey were published in Fragments de geologic et de
climatologie asiatiques (2 vols. 8vo, 1831), and in Asie centrale (3 vols.
8vo, 1843) an enlargement of the earlier work. The memoirs and
papers read by him before scientific societies, or contributed by him
to scientific periodicals, are too numerous for specification.
Since his death considerable portions of his Correspondence have
been made public. The first of these, in order both of time and of
importance, is his Briefe an Varnhagen von Ense (Leipzig, 1860).
This was followed in rapid succession by Briefwechsel mil einem
jungen Freunde (Friedrich Althaus, Berlin, 1861); Briefwechsel mil
Heinrich Berghaus (3 vols., Jena, 1863); Correspondence scientifique
etliMraire (2 vols., Paris, 1865-1869); " Lettresa Marc-Aug. Pictet,"
published in Le Globe, tome yii. (Geneva, 1868); Briefe an
Bunsen (Leipzig, 1869) ; Briefe zwischen Humboldt und Gauss (1877) ;
Briefe an seinen Bruder Wilhelm (Stuttgart, 1880); Jugendbriefe
an W. G. Wegener (Leipzig, 1896); besides some other collections
of less note. An octavio edition of Humboldt's principal works
was published in Paris by Th. Morgand (1864-1866). See also Karl
von Baer, Bulletin de I'acad. des sciences de St-Petersbourg, xvii. 529
(1859); R. Murchison, Proceedings, Geog. Society of London, vi.
(1859); L. Agassiz, American Jour, of Science, xxviii. 96 (1859);
Proc. Roy. Society, X. xxxix. ; A. Quetelet, Annuaire de I'acad. des
sciences (Brussels, 1860), p. 97; J. Madler, Geschichte der Himmels-
kunde, ii. 1 13 ; J. C. Houzeau, Bibl. astronomique, ii. 168. (A. M. C.)
HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON (1767-1835), German
philologist and man of letters, the elder brother of the more
celebrated Alexander von Humboldt, was born at Potsdam, on
the 22nd of June 1767. After being educated at Berh'n, Gottingen
and Jena, in the last of which places he formed a close and lifelong
friendship with Schiller, he married Fraulein von Dacherode, a
lady of birth and fortune, and in 1802 was appointed by the
Prussian government first resident and then minister pleni-
potentiary at Rome. While there he published a poem entitled
Rom, which was reprinted in 1824. This was not, however, the
first .of his literary productions; his critical essay on Goethe's
HUMBUG HUME, DAVID
Hermann und Dorothea, published in 1800, had already placed
him in the first rank of authorities on aesthetics, and, together
with his family connexions, had much to do with his appoint-
ment at Rome; while in the years 1795 and 1797 he had brought
out translations of several of the odes of Pindar, which were held
in high esteem. On quitting his post at Rome he was made
councillor of state and minister of public instruction. He soon,
however, retired to his estate at Tegel, near Berlin, but was
recalled and sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1812 during the
exciting period which witnessed the closing struggles of the
French empire. In the following year, as Prussian plenipo-
tentiary at the congress of Prague, he was mainly instrumental
in inducing Austria to unite with Prussia and Russia against
France; in 1815 he was one of the signatories of the capitulation
of Paris, and the same year was occupied in drawing up the
treaty between Prussia and Saxony, by which the territory
of the former was largely increased at the expense of the latter.
The next year he was at Frankfort settling the future condition
of Germany, but was summoned to London in the midst of his
work, and in 1818 had to attend the congress at Aix-la-Chapelle.
The reactionary policy of the Prussian government made him
resign his office of privy councillor and give up political life in
1819; and from that time forward he devoted himself solely to
literature and study.
During the busiest portion of his political career, however,
he had found time for literary work. Thus in 1816 he had
published a translation of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus, and in
1-817 corrections and additions to Adelung's Mithridates, that
famous collection of specimens of the various languages and
dialects of the world. Among these additions that on the Basque
language is the longest and most important, Basque having
for some time specially attracted his attention. In fact, Wilhelm
von Humboldt may be said to have been the first who brought
Basque before the notice of European philologists, and made
a scientific study of it possible. In order to gain a practical
knowledge of the language and complete his investigations into
it, he visited the Basque country itself, the result of his visit
being the valuable " Researches into the Early Inhabitants of
Spain by the help of the Basque language " (Priifung der Unter-
suchungen uber die Urbewohner Hispaniens' vermittelst der vaski-
schen Sprache), published in 1821. In this work he endeavoured
to show, by an examination of geographical names, that a race
or races speaking dialects allied to modern Basque once extended
through the whole of Spain, the southern coast of France and
the Balearic Islands, and suggested that these people, whom
he identified with the Iberians of classical writers, had come
from northern Africa, where the name of Berber still perhaps
perpetuates their old designation. Another work on what has
sometimes been termed the metaphysics of language appeared
from his pen in 1828, under the title of Uber den Dualis; but
the great work of his life, on the ancient Kawi language of Java,
was unfortunately interrupted by his death on the 8th of April
1835. The imperfect fragment was edited by his brother and
Dr Buschmann in 1836, and contains the remarkable introduc-
tion on " The Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on
the Intellectual Development of Mankind " (Uber die Ver-
schiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf
die geistige Enlivickelung des Menschengeschlechts), which was
afterwards edited and defended against Steinthal's criticisms
by Pott (2 vols., 1876). This essay, which has been called the
text-book of the philosophy of speech, first clearly laid down
that the character and structure of a language expresses the
inner life and knowledge of its speakers, and that languages must
differ from one another in the same way and to the same degree as
those who use them. Sounds do not become words until a
meaning has been put into them, and this meaning embodies
the thought of a community. What Humboldt terms the inner
form of a language is just that mode of denoting the -relations
between the parts of a sentence which reflects the manner in
which a particular body of men regards the world about them.
It is the task of the morphology of speech to distinguish the
various ways in which languages differ from each other as regards
their inner form, and to classify and arrange them accordingly.
Other linguistic publications of Humboldt, which had appeared
in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy, the Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society, or elsewhere, were republished by his
brother in the seven volumes of Wilhelm von Humboldt 's
Gesammelte Werke (1841-1852). These volumes also contain
poems, essays on aesthetical subjects and other creations of his
prolific mind. Perhaps, however, the most generally interesting
of his works, outside those which deal with language, is his
correspondence with Schiller, published in 1830. Both poet and
philosopher come before us in it in their most genial mood.
For, though Humboldt was primarily a philosopher, he was a
philosopher rendered practical by his knowledge of statesmanship
and wide experience of life, and endowed with keen sympathies,
warm imagination and active interest in the method of scientific
inquiry. (A. H. S.)
HUMBUG, an imposture, sham, fraud. The word seems to
have been originally applied to a trick or hoax, and appears as a
slang term about 1 7 50. According to the New English Dictionary,
Ferdinando Killigrew's The Universal Jester, which contains
the word in its sub-title " a choice collection of many conceits . . .
bonmots and humbugs," was published in 1754, not, as is often
stated, in 1735-1740. The principal passage in reference to
the introduction of the word occurs in The Student, 1750-1751,
ii. 41, where it is called " a word very much in vogue with
the people of taste and fashion." The origin appears to have
been unknown at that date. Skeat connects it (Etym. Diet.
1898) with "hum," to murmur applause, hence flatter, trick,
cajole, and " bug," bogey, spectre, the word thus meaning a
false alarm. Many fanciful conjectures have been made, e.g.
from Irish uim-bog, soft copper, worthless as opposed to sterling
money; from " Hamburg," as the centre from which false
coins came into England during the Napoleonic wars; and
from the Italian uomo bugidrdo, lying man.
HUME, ALEXANDER (c. 1557-1609), Scottish poet, second
son of Patrick Hume of Polwarth, Berwickshire, was born,
probably at Reidbrais, one of his family's houses, about 1557.
It has been generally assumed that he is the Alexander Hume
who matriculated at St Mary's college, St Andrews, in 1571,
and graduated in 1574. In A ne Epistle to Maister Gilbert
Montcreif (Moncrieff), mediciner to the Kings Majestie, wherein
is set downe the Experience of the Aulhours youth, he relates the
course of his disillusionment. He says he spent four years in
France before beginning to study law in the courts at Edinburgh
(1. 136). After three years' experience there he abandoned
law in disgust and sought a post at court (ib. 1. 241). Still
dissatisfied, he took orders, and became in 1597 minister of Logie,
near Stirling, where he lived until his death on the 4th of
December 1609. His best-known work is his Hymns, or Sacred
Songs (printed by Robert Waldegrave at Edinburgh in 1599,
and dedicated to Elizabeth Melvill, Lady Comrie) containing
an epistle to the Scottish youth, urging them to abandon vanity
for religion. One poem of the collection, entitled " A description
of the day Estivall,"a sketch of a summer's day and its occupa-
tions, has found its way into several anthologies. " The Triumph
of the Lord after the Manner of Men " is a song of victory of
some merit, celebrating the defeat of the Armada in 1588. His
prose works include A ne Treatise of Conscience (Edinburgh, 1 594),
A Treatise of the Felicitie of the Life to come (Edinburgh, 1594),
and Ane A fold Admonilioun to the Ministerie of Scotland. The
last is an argument against prelacy. Hume's elder brother,
Lord Polwarth, was probably one of the combatants in the
famous " Flyting betwixt Montgomerie and Polwart."
The editions of Hume's verse are: (a) by Robert Waldegrave
(1599) ; (*) a reprint of (a) by the Bannatyne Club (1832) ; and (c) by
the Scottish Text Society (ed. A. Lawson) (1902). The last includes
the prose tracts.
HUME, DAVID (1711-1776), English philosopher, historian
and political economist, was born at Edinburgh, on the 26th
of April (O.S.) 1711. His father, Joseph Hume or Home, a
scion of the noble house of Home of Douglas (but see Notes
and Queries, 4th ser. iv. 72), was owner of a small estate in
HUME, DAVID
877
Berwickshire, on the banks of the Whiteadder, called, from the
spring rising in front of the dwelling-house, Ninewells. David
was the youngest of a family of three, two sons and a daughter,
who after the early death of the father were brought up with
great care and devotion by their mother, the daughter of Sir
David Falconer, president of the college of justice.
Of Hume's early education little is known beyond what
he has himself stated in his Life. He appears to have entered
the Greek classes of the university of Edinburgh in 1723, and,
he tells us, " passed through the ordinary course of education
with success." From a letter printed in Burton's Life (i. 30-39),
it appears that about 1726 Hume returned to Ninewells with
a fair knowledge of Latin, slight acquaintance with Greek and
literary tastes decidedly inclining to " books of reasoning and
philosophy, and to poetry and the polite authors." We do not
know, except by inference, to what studies he especially devoted
himself. It is, however, clear that from his earliest years he
began to speculate upon the nature of knowledge in the abstract,
and its concrete applications, as in theology, and that with this
object he studied largely the writings of Cicero and Seneca and
recent English philosophers (especially Locke, Berkeley and
Butler). His acquaintance with Cicero is clearly proved by the
form in which he cast some of the most important of his specula-
tions. From his boyhood he devoted himself to acquiring a
literary reputation, and throughout his life, in spite of financial
and other difficulties, he adhered to his original intention. A
man of placid and even phlegmatic temperament, he lived
moderately in all things, and sought worldly prosperity only so
far as was necessary to give him leisure for his literary work.
At first he tried law, but was unable to give his mind to a study
which appeared to him to be merely a barren waste of technical
jargon. At this time the intensity of his intellectual activity
in the area opened up to him by Locke and Berkeley reduced him
to a state of physical exhaustion. In these circumstances he
determined to try the effect of complete change of scene and
occupation, and in 1734 entered a business house in Bristol.
In a few months he found " the scene wholly unsuitable " to
him, and about the middle of 1734 set out for France, resolved
to spend some years in quiet study. He visited Paris, resided
for a time at Rheims and then settled at La Fleche, famous
in the history of philosophy as the school of Descartes. His
health seems to have been perfectly restored, and during the
three years of his stay in France his speculations were worked
into systematic form in the Treatise of Human Nature. In the
autumn of 1737 he was in London arranging for its publication
and polishing it in preparation for the judgments of the learned.
In January 1739 appeared the first and second volumes of the
Treatise of Human Nature, being an Attempt to Introduce the
Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects, containing
book i., Of the Understanding, and book ii., Of the Passions.
The third volume, containing book iii., Of Morals, was published
in the following year. The publisher of the first two volumes,
John Noone, gave him 50 and twelve bound copies for a first
edition of one thousand copies. Hume's own words best describe
its reception. " Never literary attempt was more unfortunate;
it fell dead-born from the press, without reaching such distinction
as even to excite a murmur among the zealots." " But," he
adds, " being naturally of a cheerful and sanguine temper, I
very soon recovered the blow, and prosecuted with great ardour
my studies in the country." This brief notice, however, is not
sufficient to explain the full significance of the event for Hume's
own life. The work undoubtedly failed to do what its author
expected from it; even the notice, otherwise not unsatisfactory,
which it obtained in the History of the Works of the Learned,
then the principal critical journal, did not in the least appreciate
the true bearing of the Treatise on current discussions. Hume
naturally expected that the world would see as clearly as he
did the connexion between the concrete problems agitating
contemporary thought and the abstract principles on which their
solution depended. Accordingly he looked for opposition, and
expected that, if his principles were received, a change in general
conceptions of things would ensue. His disappointment at its
reception was great; and though he never entirely relinquished
his metaphysical speculations, though all that is of value in his
later writings depends on the acute analysis of human nature to
which he was from the first attracted, one cannot but regret
that his high powers were henceforth withdrawn for the most part
from the consideration of the foundations of belief, and expended
on its practical applications. In later years he attributed his
want of success to the immature style of his early exposition,
to the rashness of a young innovator in an old and well-established
province of literature. But this has little foundation beyond
the irritation of an author at his own failure to attract such
attention as he deems his due. None of the principles of the
Treatise is given up in the later writings, and no addition is
made to them. Nor can the superior polish of the more mature
productions counterbalance the concentrated vigour of the more
youthful work.
After the publication of the Treatise Hume retired to his
brother's house at Ninewells and carried on his studies, mainly
in the direction of politics and political economy. In 1741 he
published the first volume of his Essays, which had a considerable
and immediate success. A second edition was called for in the
following year, in which also a second volume was published.
These essays Butler, to whom he had sent a copy of his Treatise,
but with whom he had failed to make personal acquaintance,
warmly commended. The philosophical relation between Butler
and Hume is curious. So far as analysis of knowledge is con-
cerned they are in harmony, and Hume's sceptical conclusions
regarding belief in matters of fact are the foundations on which
Butler's defence of religion rests. Butler, however, retained,
in spite of his destructive theory of knowledge, confidence in the
rational proofs for the existence of God, and certainly maintains
what may be vaguely described as an a priori view of conscience.
Hume had the greatest respect for the author of the Analogy,
ranks him with Locke and Berkeley as an originator of the
experimental method in moral science, and in his specially
theological essays, such as that on Particular Providence and
a Future State, has Butler's views specifically in mind. (See
BUTLER.)
The success of the Essays, though hardly great enough to
satisfy his somewhat exorbitant cravings, was a great encourage-
ment to him. He began to hope that his earlier work, if recast
and lightened, might share the fortunes of its successor; and
at intervals throughout the next four years he occupied himself
in rewriting it in a more succinct form with all the literary
grace at his command. Meantime he continued to look about
for some post which might secure him the modest independence
he desired. In 1744 we find him, in anticipation of a vacancy
in the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh university, moving
his friends to advance his cause with the electors; and though,
as he tells us, " the accusation of heresy, deism, scepticism
or theism, &c., &c., was started " against him, it had no effect,
" being bore down by the contrary authority of all the good
people in town." To his great mortification, however, he found
out, as he thought, that Hutcheson and Leechman, with whom
he had been cm terms of friendly correspondence, were giving
the weight of their opinion against his election. The after history
of these negotiations is obscure. Failing in this attempt, he was
induced to become tutor, or keeper, to the marquis of Annandale,
a harmless literary lunatic. This position, financially advantage-
ous, was absurdly false (see letters in Burton's Life, i. ch. v.),
and when the matter ended Hume had to sue for arrears of salary.
In 1746 Hume accepted the office of secretary to General
St Clair, and was a spectator of the ill-fated expedition to France
in the autumn of that year. His admirable account of the
transaction has been printed by Burton. After a brief sojourn
at Ninewells, doubtless occupied in preparing for publication
his Philosophical Essays (afterwards entitled An Inquiry con-
cerning Human Understanding), Hume was again associated
with General St Clair as secretary in the embassy to Vienna
and Turin (1748). The notes of this journey are written in a
light and amusing style, showing Hume's usual keenness of
sight in some directions and his almost equal blindness in others.
8?8
/
HUME, DAVID
During his absence from England, early in the year 1748, the
Philosophical Essays were published; but the first reception
of the work was little more favourable than that accorded to
the Treatise. To the later editions of the work Hume prepared
an " Advertisement " referring to the Treatise, and desiring
that the Essays " may alone be regarded as containing his
philosophical sentiments and principles." Some modern critics
have accepted this disclaimer as of real value, but in fact it has
no significance; and Hume himself in a striking letter to Gilbert
Elliott indicated the true relation of the two works. " I believe
the Philosophical Essays contain everything of consequence
relating to the understanding which you would meet with in
the Treatise, and I give you my advice against reading the latter.
By shortening and simplifying the questions, I really render
them much more complete. Addo dumminuo. The philosophical
principles are the same in both." The Essays are undoubtedly
written with more maturity and skill than the Treatise; they
contain in more detail application of the principles to concrete
problems, such as miracles, providence, immortality; but the
entire omission of the discussion forming part ii. of the first
book of the Treatise, and the great compression of part iv., are
real defects which must always render the Treatise the more
important work.
In 1749 Hume returned to Ninewells, enriched -with "near
a thousand pounds." In 1751 he removed to Edinburgh,
where for the most part he resided during the next twelve
years of his life. These years are the richest so far as literary
production is concerned. In 1751 he published his Political
Discourses, which had a great and well-deserved success both
in England and abroad. It was translated into French by
Mauvillon (1753) and by the Abbe le Blanc (1754). In the same
year appeared the recast of the third book of the Treatise,
called Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, of which
he says that " of all his writings, philosophical, literary or
historical, it is incomparably the best." At this time also
we hear of the Dialogues concerning Natural Religion, a work
which Hume was prevailed on not to publish, but which he
revised with great care, and evidently regarded with the greatest
favour. The work itself, left by Hume with instructions that it
should be published, did not appear till 1779.
In "1751 Hume was again unsuccessful in the attempt to
gain a professor's chair. In the following year he received, in
spite of the usual accusations of heresy, the librarianship of the
Advocates' Library in Edinburgh, small in emoluments (40
a year) but rich in opportunity for literary work. In a playful
letter to Dr Clephane, he describes his satisfaction at his appoint-
ment, and attributes it in some measure to the support of " the
ladies."
In 1753 Hume was fairly settled in Edinburgh, preparing
for his History of England. He had decided to begin the History,
not with Henry VII., as Adam Smith recommended, but with
James I., considering that the political differences of his time
took their origin from that period. On the whole his attitude
in respect to disputed political principles seems not to have been
at first consciously unfair. As for the qualities necessary to
secure success as a writer on history, he felt that he possessed
them in a high degree; and, though neither his ideal of an
historian nor his equipment for the task of historical research
would now appear adequate, in both he was much in advance
of his time. " But," he writes in the well-known passage of
his Life, " miserable was my disappointment. I was assailed
by one cry of reproach, disapprobation, and even detestation;
. . . what was still more mortifying, the book seemed to sink
into oblivion. Mr Millar told me that in a twelvemonth he
sold only forty-five copies of it." This account must be accepted
with reservations. It expresses Hume's feelings rather than
the real facts. In Edinburgh, as we learn from one of his letters,
the book succeeded well, no fewer than 450 copies being disposed
of in five weeks. Nor is there anything in Hume's correspon-
dence to show that the failure of the book was so complete as he
declared. Within a very few years the sale of the History was
sufficient to gain for the author a larger revenue than had ever
before been known in his country to flow from literature, and
to place him in comparative affluence. He seems to have received
400 for the first edition of the first volume, 700 for the first
edition of the second and 840 for the copyright of the two
together. At the same time the bitterness of Hume's feelings
and their effect are of importance in his life. It is from the
publication of the History that we date his virulent hatred of
everything English, towards society in London, Whig principles,
Whig ministers and the public generally (see Burton's Life,
ii. 268, 417, 434). He was convinced that there was a conspiracy
to suppress and destroy everything Scottish. 1 The remainder
of the History became little better than a party pamphlet.
The second volume, published in 1756, carrying on the narrative
to the Revolution, was better received than the first; but Hume
then resolved to work backwards, and to show from a survey
of the Tudor period that his Tory notions were grounded upon
the history of the constitution. In 1759 this portion of the work
appeared, and in 1761 the work was completed by the history
of the pre-Tudor periods. The numerous editions of the various
portions for, despite Hume's wrath and grumblings, the
book was a great literary success gave him an opportunity
of careful revision, which he employed to remove from it all the
''villainous seditious Whig strokes," and "plaguy prejudices
of Whiggism " that he could detect. In other words, he bent
all his efforts toward making his History more of a party work
than it had been, and in his effort he was entirely successful.
The early portion of his History may be regarded as now of
little or no value. The sources at Hume's command were few,
and he did not use them all. None the less, the. History has a
distinct place in the literature of England. It was the first
attempt at a comprehensive treatment of historic facts, the
first to introduce the social and literary aspects of a nation's
life as only second in importance to its political fortunes, and
the first historical writing in an animated yet refined and polished
style. 2
While the History was in process of publication, Hume did
not entirely neglect his other lines of activity. In 1757 appeared
Four Dissertations: The Natural History of Religion, Of the
Passions, Of Tragedy, Of the Standard of Taste. Of these the
dissertation on the passions is a very subtle piece of psychology,
containing the essence of the second book of the Treatise. It
is remarkable that Hume does not appear to have been acquainted
with Spinoza's analysis of the affections. The last two essays
are contributions of no great importance to aesthetics, a de-
partment of philosophy in which Hume was not strong. The
Natural History of Religion is a powerful contribution to the
deistic controversy; but, as in the case of Hume's earlier work,
its significance was at the time overlooked. It is an attempt
to carry the war into a province hitherto allowed to remain at
peace, the theory of the general development of religious ideas.
Deists, though raising doubts regarding the historic narratives
of the Christian faith, had never disputed the general fact that
belief in one God was natural and primitive. Hume endeavours
to show that polytheism was the earliest as well as the most
natural form of religious belief, and that theism or deism is
1 See Burton, ii. 265, 148 and 238. Perhaps our knowledge of
Johnson's sentiments regarding the Scots in general, and of his
expressions regarding Hume and Smith in particular, may lessen our
surprise at this vehemence.
2 Macaulay describes Hume's characteristic fault as an historian:
" Hume is an accomplished advocate. Without positively asserting
much more than he can prove, he gives prominence to all the circum-
stances which support his case ; he glides lightly over those which are
unfavourable to it; his own witnesses are applauded and en-
couraged; the statements which seem to throw discredit on them
are controverted; the contradictions into which they fall are ex-
plained away; a clear and connected abstract of their evidence is-
given. Everything that is offered on the other side is scrutinized with
the utmost severity; every suspicious circumstance is a ground for
argument and invective; what cannot be denied is extenuated, or
passed by without notice; concessions even are sometimes made;
but this insidious candour only increases the effect of the vast mass
of sophistry." Miscell. Writings, " History." With this may be
compared the more favourable verdict by J. S. Brewer, in the preface
to his edition of the Student's Hume.
HUME, DAVID
879
the product of reflection upon experience, thus reducing the
validity of the historical argument to that of the theoretical
proofs.
In 1763 he accompanied Lord Hertford to Paris, doing the
duties of secretary to the embassy, with the prospect of the
appointment to that post. He was everywhere received " with
the most extraordinary honours." The society of Paris was
peculiarly ready to receive a great philosopher and historian,
especially if he were known to be an avowed antagonist of
religion, and Hume made valuable friendships, especially with
D'Alembert and Turgot, the latter of whom profited much by
Hume's economical .essays. In 1766 he left Paris and returned
to Edinburgh. In 1767 he accepted the post of under-secretary
to General Conway and spent two years in London.
He settled finally in Edinburgh in 1769, having now through
his pension and otherwise an income of 1000 a year. The
solitary incident of note in this period of his life is the ridiculous
quarrel with Rousseau, which throws much light upon the
character of the great sentimentalist. Hume certainly did his
utmost to secure for Rousseau a comfortable retreat in England,
but his usually sound judgment seems at first to have been
quite at fault with regard to his protege. The quarrel which
all the acquaintances of the two philosophers had predicted
soon came, and no language had expressions strong enough for
Rousseau's anger. Hume came well out of the business, and
had the sagacity to conclude that his admired friend was little
better than a madman. In one of his most charming letters
he describes his life in Edinburgh. The new house to which
he alludes was built under his own directions at the corner of
what is now called St David Street after him; it became the
centre of the most cultivated society of Edinburgh. Hume's
cheerful temper, his equanimity, his kindness to literary aspirants
and to those whose views differed from his own won him universal
respect and affection. He welcomed the work of his friends
(e.g. Robertson and Adam Smith), and warmly recognized the
worth of his opponents (e.g. George' Campbell and Reid). He
assisted Blackwell and Smollett in their difficulties and became
the acknowledged patriarch of literature.
In the spring of 1775 Hume was struck with a tedious and
harassing though not painful illness. A visit to Bath seemed at
first to have produced good effects, but on the return journey
more alarming symptoms developed themselves, his strength
rapidly sank, and, little more than a month later, he died in
Edinburgh on the 25th of August 1776.
No notice of Hume would be complete without the sketch of his
character drawn by his own hand: " To conclude historically with
my own character, I am, or rather was (for that is the style I must
now use in speaking of myself, which emboldens me the more to
speak my sentiments), I was, I say, a man of mild dispositions, of
command of temper, of an open, social and cheerful humour, capable
of attachment, but little susceptible of enmity, and of great modera-
tion in all my passions. Even my love of literary fame, my ruling
passion, never soured my temper, notwithstanding my frequent
disappointments. My company was not unacceptable to the young
and careless, as well as to the studious and literary ; and as I took
a particular pleasure in the company of modest women, I had no
reason to be displeased with the reception I met with from them.
In a word, though most men anywise eminent have found reason to
complain of calumny, I never was touched, or even attacked, by
her baleful tooth ; and , though I wantonly exposed myself to the
rage of both civil and religious factions, they seem to be disarmed
on my behalf of their wonted fury. My friends never had occasion
to vindicate any one circumstance of my character and conduct ; not
but that the zealots, we may well suppose, would have been glad to
invent and propagate any story to my disadvantage, but they could
never find any which they thought would wear the face of proba-
bility. I cannot say there is no vanity in making this funeral oration
of myself, but I hope it is not a misplaced one; and this is a matter
of fact which is easily cleansed and ascertained." The more his life
has become known, the more confidence we place in this admirable
estimate.
The results of Hume's speculations may be discussed under two
heads: (i) philosophical, (2) economical.
I. The philosophical writings, which mark a distinct epoch in
the development of modern thought, can here be considered in two
only of the many aspects in which they present themselves
as of the highest interest to the historian of philosophy.
sophy. j n t ^ e Treatise of Human Nature, which is in every respect
the most complete exposition of Hume's philosophical conception, we
have the first thorough -going attempt to apply the fundamental
principles of Locke's empirical psychology to the construction of a
theory of knowledge, and, as a natural consequence, the first system-
atic criticism of the chief metaphysical notions from this point of
view. Hume, in that work, holds the same relation to Locke and
Berkeley as the late J. S. Mill held with his System of Logic to Hartley
and James Mill. In certain of the later writings, pre-eminently in the
Dialogues on Natural Religion, Hume brings the result of his specu-
lative criticism to bear upon the problems of current theological dis-
cussion, and gives in their regard, as previously with respect to
general philosophy, the final word of the empirical theory in its
earlier form. The interesting parallel between Hume and J. S. Mill
in this second feature will not be overlooked.
In the first instance, then, Hume's philosophical work is to be
regarded as the attempt to supply for empiricism in psychology a
consistent, that is, a logically developed theory of knowledge. In
Locke, indeed, such theory is not wanting, but, of all the many in-
consistencies in the Essay on the Human Understanding, none is more
apparent or more significant than the complete want of harmony
between the view of knowledge developed in the fourth book and the
psychological principles laid down in the earlier part of the work.
Though Locke, doubtless, drew no distinction between the problems
of psychology and of theory of knowledge, yet the discussion of the
various forms of cognition given in the fourth book of the Essay seems
to be based on grounds quite distinct from and in many respects
inconsistent with the fundamental psychological principle of his
work. The perception of relations, which, according to him, is the
essence of cognition, the demonstrative character which he thinks
attaches to our inference of God's existence, the intuitive knowledge
of self, are doctrines incapable of being brought into harmony with
the view of mind and its development which is the keynote of his
general theory. To some extent Berkeley removed this radical in-
consistency, but in his philosophical work it may be said with safety
there are two distinct aspects, and while it holds of Locke on the
one hand, it stretches forward to Kantianism on the other. Nor in
Berkeley are these divergent features ever united into one harmoni-
ous whole. It was left for Hume to approach the theory of know-
ledge with full consciousness from the psychological point of view,
and to work out the final consequences of that view so far as cc gnition
is concerned. The terms wh : ch he employs in describing the aim and
scope of his work are not those which we should now employ, but the
declaration, in the introduction to the Treatise, that the science of
human nature must be treated according to the experimental method,
is in fact equivalent to the statement of the principle implied in
Locke's Essay, that the problems of psychology and of theory of
knowledge are identical. This view is the characteristic of what we
may call the English school of philosophy.
In ord:;r to make perfectly clear the full significance of the principle
which Hume applied to the solution of the chief philosophical
questions, it is necessary to render somewhat more precise
and complete the statement of the psychological view Theory
which lies at the foundation of the empirical theory, and of know-
to distinguish from it the problem of the theory of know- te^Sf-
ledge upon which it was brought to bear. Without entering into
details, which it is the less necessary to do because the subject has
been recently discussed with great fulness in works readily accessible,
it may be said that for Locke as for Hume the problem of psychology
was the exact description of the contents of the individual mind, and
the determination of the conditions of the origin and development
of conscious experience in the individual mind. And the answer to
the problem which was furnished by Locke is in effect that with which
Hume started. The conscious experience of the individual is the
result of interaction between the individual mind and the universe of
things. This solution presupposes a peculiar conception of the
general relation between themindand things which in itself requires
justification, and which, so far at least as the empirical theory was
developed by Locke and his successors, could not be obtained from
psychological analysis. Either we have a right to the assumption
contained in the conception of the individual mind as standing in
relation to things, in which case the grounds of the assumption must
be sought elsewhere than in the results of this reciprocal relation, or
we have no right to the assumption, in which case reference to the
reciprocal relation can hardly be accepted as yielding any solution
of the psychological problem. But in any case, and, as we shall see,
Hume endeavours so to state his psychological premises as to conceal
the assumption made openly by Locke, it is apparent that this
psychological solution does not contain the answer to the wider and
radically distinct problem of the theory of knowledge. For here
we have to consider how the individual intelligence comes to know
any fact whatsoever, and what is meant by the cognition of a fact.
With Locke, Hume professes to regard this problem as virtually
covered or answered by the fundamental psychological theorem ;
but the superior clearness of his reply enables us to mark with perfect
precision the nature of the difficulty inherent in the attempt to regard
the two as identical. For purposes of psychological analysis the
conscious experience of the individual mind is taken as given fact,
to be known, i.e. observed, discriminated, classified and explained in
the same way in which any one special portion of experience is
treated. Now if this mode of treatment be accepted as the only
possible method, and its results assumed to be conclusive as regards
88o
HUME, DAVID
the problem of knowledge, the fundamental peculiarity of cognition is
overlooked. In all cognition, strictly so-called, there is involved a
certain synthesis or relation of parts of a characteristic nature, and if
we attempt to discuss this synthesis as though it were in itself but one
of the facts forming the matter of knowledge, we are driven to regard
this relation as being of the quite external kind discovered by ob-
servation among matters of knowledge. The difficulty of reconciling
the two views is that which gives rise to much of the obscurity in
Locke's treatment of the theory of knowledge; in Hume the effort
to identify them, and to explain the synthesis which is essential to
cognition as merely the accidental result of external relations among
the elements of conscious experience, appears with the utmost clear-
ness, and gives the keynote of all his philosophical work. The final
perplexity, concealed by various forms of expression, comes forward
at the close of the Treatise as absolutely unsolved, and leads Hume,
as will be pointed out, to a truly remarkable confession of the weak-
ness of his own system.
While, then, the general idea of a theory of knowledge as based
upon psychological analysis is the groundwork of the Treatise, it is
a particular consequence of this idea that furnishes to Hume the
characteristic criterion applied by him to all philosophical questions.
If the relations involved in the fact of cognition are only those dis-
coverable by observation of any particular portion of known experi-
ence, then such relations are quite external and contingent. The
only necessary relation which can be discovered in a given fact of
experience is that of non-contradiction (i.e. purely formal) ; the
thing must be what it is, and cannot be conceived as having qualities
contradictory of its nature. The universal test, therefore, of any
supposed philosophical principle is the possibility or impossibility
of imagining its contradictory. All our knowledge is but the sum of
our conscious experience, and is consequently material for imagina-
tion. " Let us fix our attention out of ourselves as much as possible ;
let us chase our imagination to the heavens or to the utmost limits of
the universe; we never really advance a step beyond ourselves, nor
can conceive any kind of existence, but those perceptions which have
appeared in that narrow compass. This is the universe of the
imagination, nor have we any idea but what is there produced."
(Works, ed. of 1854, i. 93, cf. i. 107.)
The course of Hume's work follows immediately from his funda-
mental principle, and the several divisions of the treatise, so far
as the theoretical portions are concerned, are but its logical con-
sequences. The first part of the first book contains a brief state-
ment of the contents of mind, a description of all that observation
can discover in conscious experience. The second part deals with
those judgments which rest upon the formal elements of experience,
space and time. The third part discusses the principle of real con-
nexion among the elements of experience, the relation of cause and
effect. The fourth part is virtually a consideration of the ultimate
significance of this conscious experience, of the place it is supposed
to occupy in the universe of existence, in other words, of the relations
between the conscious experience of an individual mind as disclosed
to observation and the supposed realities of self and external things.
In the first part Hume gives his own statement of the psycho-
logical foundations of his theory. Viewing the contents of mind as
matter of experience, he can discover among them only
one distinction, a distinction expressed by the terms
Dress/ons impressions and ideas. Ideas are secondary in nature,
' copies of data supplied we know not whence. All that
appears in conscious experience as primary, as arising from some
unknown cause, and therefore relatively as original, Hume designates
by the term impression, and claims to imply by such term no theory
whatsoever as to the origin of this portion of experience. There is
simply the fact of conscious experience, ultimate and inexplicable.
Moreover, if we remain faithful to the fundamental conception that
the contents of the mind are merely matters of experience, it is
evident in the first place that as impressions are strictly individual,
ideas also must be strictly particular, and in the second place that
the faculties of combining, discriminating, abstracting and judging,
which Locke had admitted, are merely expressions for particular
modes of having mental experience, i.e. are modifications of conceiv-
ing (cf. i. 128 n., 137, 192). By this theory, Hume is freed from all
the problems of abstraction and judgment. A comparative judg-
ment is simplified into an isolated perception of a peculiar form, and
a series of similar facts are grouped under a single symbol, represent-
ing a particular perception, and only by the accident of custom
treated as universal (see i. 37, 38, loo).
Such, in substance, is Hume's restatement of Locke's empirical
view. Conscious experience consists of isolated states, each of which
is to be regarded as a fact and is related to others in a quite external
fashion. It remains to be seen how knowledge can be explained on
such a basis; but, before proceeding to sketch Hume's answer to this
Question, it is necessary to draw attention, first, to the peculiar device
invariably resorted to by him when any exception to his general
principle that ideas are secondary copies of impressions presents
itself, and, secondly, to the nature of the substitute offered by him for
that perception of relations or synthesis which even in Locke's con-
fused statements had appeared as the essence of cognition. When-
ever Hume finds it impossible to recognize in an idea the mere copy
of a particular impression, he introduces the phrase " manner of
conceiving." Thus general or abstract ideas are merely copies of a
Associa-
tion.
particular impression conceived in a particular manner. The ideas
of space and time, as will presently be pointed out, are copies of
impressions conceived in a particular manner. The idea of necessary
connexion is merely the reproduction of an impression which the
mind feels itself compelled to conceive in a particular manner.
Such a fashion of disguising difficulties points, not only to an in-
consistency in Hume's theory as stated by himself, but to the initial
error upon which it proceeds; for these perplexities are but the
consequences of the doctrine that cognition is to be explained on the
basis of particular perceptions. These external relations are, in fact,
what Hume describes as the natural bonds of connexion among ideas,
and, regarded subjectively as principles of association among the
facts of mental experience, they form the substitute he offers for the
synthesis implied in knowledge. These principles of association
determine the imagination to combine ideas in various modes, and
by this mechanical combination Hume, for a time, endeavoured
to explain what are otherwise called judgments of relation. It was
impossible, however, for him to carry out this view consistently.
The only combination which, even in appearance, could be explained
satisfactorily by its means was the formation of a complex idea out
of simpler parts, but the idea of a relation among facts is not accur-
ately described as a complex idea; and, as such relations have no
basis in impressions, Hume is finally driven to a confession of the
absolute impossibility of explaining them. Such confession, however,
is only reached after a vigorous effort had been made to render
some account of knowledge by the experimental method.
The psychological conception, then, on the basis of which Hume
proceeds to discuss the theory of knowledge, is that of conscious
experience as containing merely the succession of isolated
impressions and their fainter copies, ideas, and as bound
together by merely natural or external links of connexion,
the principles of association among ideas. The foundations of
cognition must be discovered by observation or analysis of ex-
perience so conceived. Hume wavers somewhat in his division of the
various kinds of cognition, laying stress now upon one now upon
another of the points in which mainly they differ from one another.
Nor is it of the first importance, save with the view of criticizing his
own consistency, that we should adopt any of the divisions implied
in his exposition. For practical purposes we may regard the most
important discussions in the Treatise as falling under two heads.
In the first place there are certain principles of cognition which appear
to rest upon and to express relations of the universal elements in
conscious experience, viz. space and time. The propositions of
mathematics seem to be independent of this or that special fact of
experience, and to remain unchanged even when the concrete matter
of experience varies. They are formal. In the second place, cogni-
tion, in any real sense of that term, implies connexion for the indi-
vidual mind between the present fact of experience and other facts,
whether past or future. It appears to involve, therefore, some real
relation among the portions of experience, on the basis of which
relation judgments and inferences as to matters of fact can be shown
to rest. The theoretical question is consequently that of the nature
of the supposed relation, and of the certainty of judgments and
inferences resting on it.
Hume's well-known distinction between relations of ideas and
matters of fact corresponds fairly to this separation of the formal and
real problems in the theory of cognition, although that distinction
is in itself inadequate and not fully representative of Hume's own
conclusions.
With regard, then, to the first problem, the formal element in
knowledge, Hume has to consider several questions, distinct in
nature and hardly discriminated by him with sufficient precision.
For a complete treatment of this portion of the theory of knowledge,
there require to be taken into consideration at least the following
points: (a) the exact nature and significance of the space and time
relations in our experience, (6) the mode in which the primary data,
facts or principles, of mathematical cognition are obtained, (c) the
nature, extent and certainty of such data, in themselves and with
reference to the concrete material of experience, (d) the principle of
inference from the data, however obtained. Not all of these points
are discussed by Hume with the same fulness, and with regard to
some of them it is difficult to state his conclusions. It will be of
service, however, to attempt a summary of his treatment under
these several heads, the more so as almost all expositions of his
philosophy are entirely defective in the account given of this essential
portion. The brief statement in the Inquiry, iv., is of no value,
and indeed is almost unintelligible unless taken in reference to the
full discussion contained in part ii. of the Treatise.
(a) The nature of space and time as elements in conscious experi-
ence is considered by Hume in relation to a special problem, that of
their supposed infinite divisibility. Evidently upon his ,
view of conscious experience, of the world ofjimagination, t ae
such infinite divisibility must be a fiction. The ultimate
elements of experience must be real units, capable of being repre-
sented or imagined in isolation. Whence then do these units arise?
or, if we put the problem as it was necessary Hume should put it to
himself, in what orders or classes of impressions do we find the
elements of space and time? Beyond all question Hume, in en-
deavouring to answer this problem, is brought face to face with one
of the difficulties inherent in his conception of conscious experience.
HUME, DAVID
For he has to give some explanation of the nature of space and time
which shall identify these with impressions, and at the same time is
compelled to recognize the fact that they are not identical with any
single impression or set of impressions. Putting aside, then, the
various obscurities of terminology, such as the distinction between
the objects known, viz. " points " or several mental states, and the
impressions themselves, which disguise the full significance of his
conclusion, we find Hume reduced to the following as his theory of
space and time. Certain impressions, the sensations of sight and
touch, have in themselves the element of space, for these impressions
(Hume skilfully transfers his statement to the points) have a certain
order or mode of arrangement. This mode of arrangement or manner
of disposition is common to coloured points and tangible points, and,
considered separately, is the impression from which our idea of space
is taken. All impressions and all ideas are received, or form parts of a
mental experience only when received, in a certain order, the order
of succession. This manner of presenting themselves is the im-
pression from which the idea of time takes its rise.
It is almost superfluous to remark, first, that Hume here deliber-
ately gives up his fundamental principle that ideas are but the
fainter copies of impressions, for it can never be maintained that
order of disposition is an impression, and, secondly, that he fails to
offer any explanation of the mode in which coexistence and succession
are possible elements of cognition in a conscious experience made
up of isolated presentations and representations. For the consistency
of his theory, however, it was indispensable that he should insist
upon the real, i.e. presentative character of the ultimate units of
space and time.
(b) How then are the primary data of mathematical cognition to be
derived from an experience containing space and time relations in
the manner just stated? It is important to notice that
Hume, in regard to this problem, distinctly separates
matlcs. geometry from algebra and arithmetic, i.e. he views
extensive quantity as being cognized differently from number.
With regard to geometry, he holds emphatically that it is an em-
pirical doctrine, a science founded on observation of concrete facts.
The rough appearances of physical facts, their outlines, surfaces and
so on, are the data of observation, and only by a method of approxi-
mation do we gradually come near to such propositions as are laid
down in pure geometry. He definitely repudiates a view often
ascribed to him, and certainly advanced by many later empiricists,
that the data of geometry are hypothetical. The ideas of perfect
lines, figures and surfaces have not, according to him, any existence.
(See Works, \. 66, 69, 73, 97 and iv. 180.) It is impossible to give any
consistent account of his doctrine regarding number. He holds,
apparently, that the foundation of all the science of number is the
fact that each element of conscious experience is presented as a unit,
and adds that we are capable of considering any fact or collection of
facts as a unit. This manner of conceiving is absolutely general and
distinct, and accordingly affords the possibility of an all-compre-
hensive and perfect science, the science of discrete quantity. (See
Works, i. 97.)
(c) In respect to the third point, the nature, extent and certainty of
the elementary propositions of mathematical science, Hume's utter-
ances are far from clear. The principle with which he starts and from
which follows his well-known distinction between relations of ideas
and matters of fact, a distinction which Kant appears to have
thought identical with his distinction between analytical and syn-
thetical judgments, is comparatively simple. The ideas of the
quantitative aspects of phenomena are exact representations of
these aspects or quantitative impressions; consequently, whatever
is found true by consideration of the ideas may be asserted regarding
the real impressions. No question arises regarding the existence
of the fact represented by the idea, and in so far, at least, mathe-
matical judgments may be described as hypothetical. For they
simply assert what will be found true in any conscious experience
containing coexisting impressions of sense (specifically, of sight and
touch), and in its nature successive. That the propositions are
hypothetical in this fashion does not imply any distinction between
the abstract truth of the ideal judgments and the imperfect corre-
spondence of concrete material with these abstract relations. Such
distinction is quite foreign to Hume, and can only be ascribed to
him from an entire misconception of his view regarding the ideas of
space and time. (For an example of such misconception, which is
almost universal, see Riehl, Der philosophische Kriticismus, i. 96, 97.)
(d) From this point onwards Hume's treatment becomes ex-
ceedingly confused. The identical relation between the ideas of space
and time and the impressions corresponding to them apparently leads
him to regard judgments of continuous and discrete quantity as
standing on the same footing, while the ideal character of the data
gives a certain colour to his inexact statements regarding the extent
and truth of the judgments founded on them. The emphatic
utterances in the Inquiry (iv. 30, 186), and even at the beginning of
the relative section in the Treatise (i. 95) may be cited in illustration.
But in both works these utterances are qualified in such a manner
as to enable us to perceive the real bearings of his doctrine, and to
pronounce at once that it differs widely from that commonly ascribed
to him. " It is from the idea of a triangle that we discover the
relation of equality which its three angles bear to two right ones;
and this relation is invariable, so long as our idea remains the same "
(i. 95). If taken in isolation this passage might appear sufficient
justification for Kant's view that, according to Hume, geometrical
judgments are analytical and therefore perfect. But it is to be
recollected that, according to Hume, an idea is actually a representa-
tion or individual picture, not a notion or even a schema, and that he
never claims to be able to extract the predicate of a geometrical
judgment by analysis of the subject. The properties of this indi-
vidual subject, the idea of the triangle, are, according to him, dis-
covered by observation, and as observation, whether actual or ideal,
never presents us with more than the rough or general appearances of
geometrical quantities, the relations so discovered have only ap-
proximate exactness. " Ask a mathematician what he means when
he pronounces two quantities to be equal, and he must say that the
idea of equality is one of those which cannot be defined, and that it is
sufficient to place two equal quantities before any one in order to
suggest it. Now this is an appeal to the general appearances of
objects to the imagination or senses " (iv. 180). " Though it (i.e.
geometry) much excels, both in universality and exactness, the loose
judgments of the senses and imagination, yet [it] never attains a
perfect precision and exactness " (i. 97). Any exactitude attaching
to the conclusions of geometrical reasoning arises from the com-
parative simplicity of the data for the primary judgments.
So far, then, as geometry is concerned, Hume's opinion is perfectly
definite. It is an experimental or observational science, founded
on primary or immediate judgments (in his phraseology, perceptions),
of relation between facts of intuition; its conclusions are hypo-
thetical only in so far as they clo not imply the existence at the
moment of corresponding real experience ; and its propositions have
no exact truth. With respect to arithmetic and algebra, the science
of numbers, he expresses an equally definite opinion, but unfortun-
ately it is quite impossible to state in any satisfactory fashion the
grounds for it or even its full bearing. He nowhere explains the
origin of the notions of unity and number, but merely asserts that
through their means we can have absolutely exact arithmetical pro-
positions (Works, i. 97, 98). Upon the nature of the reasoning by
which in mathematical science we pass from data to conclusions,
Hume gives no explicit statement. If we were to say that on his view
the essential step must be the establishment of identities or equival-
ences, we should probably be doing justice to his doctrine of numerical
reasoning, but should have some difficulty in showing the application
of the method to geometrical reasoning. For in the latter case we
possess, according to Hume, no standard of equivalence other than
that supplied by immediate observation, and consequently transition
from one premise to another by way of reasoning must be, in
geometrical matters, a purely verbal process.
Hume's theory of mathematics the only one, perhaps, which is
compatible with his fundamental principle of psychology is a
practical condemnation of his empirical theory of perception. He
has not offered even a plausible explanation of the mode by which a
consciousness made up of isolated momentary impressions and ideas
can be aware of coexistence and number, or succession. The relations
of ideas are accepted as facts of immediate observation, as being
themselves perceptions or individual elements of conscious experience,
and toall appearance they are regarded by Hume as being in a sense
analytical, because the formal criterion of identity is applicable to
them. It is applicable, however, not because the predicate is con-
tained in the subject, but on the principle of contradiction. If these
judgments are admitted to be facts of immediate perception, the
supposition of their non-existence is impossible. The ambiguity in
his criterion, however, seems entirely to have escaped Hume's
attention.
A somewhat detailed consideration of Hume's doctrine with regard
to mathematical science has been given for the reason that this
portion of his theory has been very generally overlooked or
misinterpreted. It does not seem necessary to endeavour
to follow his minute examination of the principle of real
cognition with the same fulness. It will probably be
sufficient to indicate the problem as conceived by Hume, and the
relation of the method he adopts for solving it to the fundamental
doctrine of his theory of knowledge.
Real cognition, as Hume points out, implies transition from the
present impression or feeling to something connected with it. As
this thing can only be an impression or perception, and is not itself
present, it is represented by its copy or ide?. Now the supreme,
all-comprehensive link of connexion between present feeling or im-
pression and either past or future experience is that of causation.
The idea in question is, therefore, the idea of something connected
with the present impression as its cause or effect. But this is ex-
plicitly the idea of the said thing as having had or as about to have
existence, in other words, belief in the existence of some matter of
fact. What, for a conscious experience so constituted as Hume will
admit, is the precise significance of such belief in real existence ?
Clearly the real existence of a fact is not demonstrable. For
whatever is may be conceived not to be. " No negation of a fact
can involve a contradiction." Existence of any fact, not present
as a perception, can only be proved by arguments from cause or
effect. But as each perception is in consciousness only as a con-
tingent fact, which might not be or might be other than it is, we must
admit that the mind can conceive no necessary relations or con-
nexions among the several portions of its experience.
causation.
882
HUME, DAVID
If, therefore, a present perception leads us to assert the existence
of some other, this can only be interpreted as meaning that in some
natural, i.e. psychological, manner the idea of this other perception
is excited, and that the idea is viewed by the mind in some peculiar
fashion. The natural link of connexion Hume finds in the simi-
larities presented by experience. One fact or perception is discovered
by experience to be uniformly or generally accompanied by another,
and its occurrence therefore naturally excites the idea of that other.
But when an idea is so roused up by a present impression, and when
this idea, being a consequence of memory, has in itself a certain
vivacity or liveliness, we regard it with a peculiar indefinable feeling,
and in this feeling consists the immense difference between mere
imagination and belief. The mind is led easily and rapidly from the
present impression to the ideas of impressions found by experience
to be the usual accompaniments of the present tact. The ease and
rapidity of the mental transition is the sole ground for the supposed
necessity of the causal connexion between portions of experience.
The idea of necessity is not intuitively obvious; the ideas of cause
and effect are correlative in our minds, but only as a result of ex-
perience. Hobbes and Locke were wrong in saying that the mind
must find in the relation the idea of Power. We mistake the sub-
jective transition resting upon custom or past experience for an
objective Connexion independent of special feelings. All reasoning
about matters of fact is therefore a species of feeling, and belongs to
the sensitive rather than to the cogitative side of our nature. It
should be noted that this theory of Causation entirely denies the
doctrine of Uniformity in Nature, so far as the human mind is
concerned. All alleged uniformity is reduced to observed similarity
of process. The idea is a mere convention, product of inaccurate
thinking and custom.
While it is evident that some such conclusion must follow from
the attempt to regard the cognitive consciousness as made up of dis-
connected feelings, it is equally clear, not only that the result is self-
contradictory, but that it involves certain assumptions not in ,iny
way deducible from the fundamental view with which Hume starts.
For in the problem of real cognition he is brought face to face with
the characteristic feature of knowledge, distinction of self from
matters known, and reference of transitory states to permanent
objects or relations. Deferring his criticism of the significance of
self and object, Hume yet makes use of both to aid his explanation
of the belief attaching to reality. The reference of an idea to past
experience has no meaning, unless we assume an identity in the
object referred to. For a past impression is purely transitory, and,
as Hume occasionally points out, can have no connexion of fact with
the present consciousness. His exposition has thus a certain plausi-
bility, which would not belong to it had the final view of the per-
manent object been already given.
The final problem of Hume's theory of knowledge, the discussion
of the real significance of the two factors of cognition, self and
external things, is handled in the Treatise with great fulness and
dialectical subtlety.
As in the case of the previous problem, it is unnecessary to follow
the steps of his analysis, which are, for the most part, attempts to
Th If la substitute qualities of feeling for the relations of thought
cognition wn ' cn appear to be involved. The results follow with the
utmost ease from his original postulate. If there is
nothing in conscious experience save what observation can
disclose, while each act of observation is itself an isolated feeling
(an impression or idea), it is manifest that a permanent identical
thing can never be an object of experience. Whatever permanence
or identity is ascribed to an impression or idea is the result of associa-
tion, is one of those " propensities to feign " which are due to natural
connexions among ideas. We regard as successive presentations of
one thing the resembling feelings which are experienced in succession.
Identity, then, whether of self or object, there is none, and the
supposition of objects, distinct from impressions, is but a further
consequence of our " propensity to feign." Hume's explanation of
the belief in external things by reference to association is well
deserving of careful study and of comparison with the more recent
analysis of the same problem by J. S. Mill.
The weak points in Hume's empiricism are so admirably realized
by the author himself that it is only fair to quote his own
negative summa ry in the Appendix to the Treatise. He confesses
Warned that, in confining all cognition to single perceptions and
treatise supplying no purely intellectual faculty for modifying,
recording and classifying their results, he has destroyed
real knowledge altogether:
If perceptions are distinct existences, they form a whole only
by being connected together. But no connexions among distinct
existences are ever discoverable by human understanding. We only
feel a connexion or determination of the thought to pass from one
object to another. It follows, therefore, that the thought alone
feels personal identity, when, reflecting on the train of past percep-
tions that compose a mind, the ideas of them are felt to be connected
together and naturally introduce each other.
" However extraordinary this conclusion may seem, it need not
surprise us. Modern philosophers seem inclined to think that
personal identity arises from consciousness, and consciousness is
nothing but a reflected thought or perception. The present philo-
sophy, therefore, has a promising aspect. But all my hopes vanish
when I come to explain the principles that unite our successive
perceptions in our thought or consciousness. I cannot discover any
theory which gives me satisfaction on this head. . . .
" In short, there are two principles which I cannot render con-
sistent, nor is it in my power to renounce either of them; viz. that
all our distinct perceptions are distinct existences, and that the mind
never perceives any real connexion among distinct existences. Did
our perceptions either inhere in something simple or individual, or
did the mind perceive some real connexion among them, there
would be no difficulty in the case " (ii. 551).
The closing sentences of this passage may be regarded as pointing to
the very essence of the Kantian attempt at solution of the problem
of knowledge. Hume sees distinctly that if conscious experience bj
taken as containing only isolated states, no progress in explanation
of cognition is possible, and that the only hope of further develop-
ment is to be looked for in a radical change in our mode of conceiving
experience. The work of the critical philosophy is the introduction
of this new mode of regarding experience, a mode which, in the
technical language of philosophers, has received the title of trans-
cendental as opposed to the psychological method followed by Locke
and Hume. It is because Kant alone perceived the full significance
of the change required in order to meet the difficulties of the em-
pirical theory that we regard his system as the only sequel to that of
Hume. -The writers of the Scottish school, Reid in particular, did
undoubtedly indicate some of the weaknesses in Hume's funda-
mental conception, and their attempts to show that the isolated
feeling cannot be taken as the ultimate and primary unit of cognitive
experience are efforts in the right direction. But the question of
knowledge was never generalized by them, and their reply to Hume,
therefore, remains partial and inadequate, while its effect is weakened
by the uncritical assumption of principles which is a characteristic
feature of their writings.
The results of Hume's theoretical analysis are applied by him to
the problems of practical philosophy and religion. For the first
of these the reader is referred to the article ETHICS, where
Hume's views are placed in relation to those of his pre- flfl j
decessors in the same field of inquiry. His position, as
regards the second, is very noteworthy. As before said, his
metaphysic contains in abstracto the principles which were at that
time being employed, uncritically, alike by the deists and by their
antagonists. There can be no doubt that Hume has continually in
mina the theological questions then current, and that he was fully
aware of the mode in which his analysis of knowledge might be
applied to them. A few of the less important of his criticisms, such
as the argument on miracles, became then and have since remained
public property and matter of general discussion. But the full
significance of his work on the theological side was not at the time
perceived, and justice has barely been done to the admirable manner
in which he reduced the theological disputes of the century to their
ultimate elements. The importance of the Dialogues on Natural
Religion, as a contribution to the criticism of theological ideas and
methods, can hardly be over-estimated. A brief survey of its contents
will be sufficient to show its general nature and its relations to such
works as Clarke's Demonstration and Butler's Analogy. The Dialogues
introduce three interlocutors, Demea, Cleanthes and Philo, who
represent three distinct orders of theological opinion. The first is
the type of a certain a priori view, then regarded as the safest bulwark
against infidelity, of which the main tenets were that the being of
God was capable of a priori proof, and that, owing to the finitude of
our faculties, the attributes and modes of operation of deity were
absolutely incomprehensible. The second is the typical deist of
Locke's school, improved as regards his philosophy, and hojding that
the only possible proof of God's existence was a posteriori, from
design, and that such proof was, on the whole, sufficient. The third
is the type of completed empiricism or scepticism, holding that no
argument, either from reason or experience, can transcend experience,
and consequently that no proof of God's existence is at all possible.
The views of the first and second are played off against one another,
and criticized by the third with great literary skill and effect.
Cleanthes, who maintains that the doctrine of the incomprehensi-
bility of God is hardly distinguishable from atheism, is compelled
by the arguments of Philo to reduce to a minimum the conclusion
capable of being inferred from experience as regards the existence
of God. For Philo lays stress upon the weakness of the analogical
argument, points out that the demand for an ultimate cause is no
more satisfied by thought than by nature itself, shows that the
argument from design cannot warrant the inference of a perfect or
infinite or even of a single deity, and finally, carrying out his principles
to the full extent, maintains that, as we have no experience of the
origin of the world, no argument from experience can carry us to its
origin, and that the apparent marks of design in the structure of
animals are only results from the conditions of their actual existence.
So far as argument from nature is concerned, a total suspension of
judgment is our only reasonable resource. Nor does the a priori
argument in any of its forms fare better, for reason can never demon-
strate a matter of fact, and, unless we know that the world had a
beginning in time, we cannot insist that it must have had a cause.
Demea, who is willing to give up his abstract proof, brings forward
the ordinary theological topic, man's consciousness of his own
imperfection, misery and dependent condition. Nature is throughout
HUME, DAVID
883
corrupt and polluted, but " the present evil phenomena are rectified
in other regions and in some future period of existence." Such a
view satisfies neither of his interlocutors. Cleanthes, pointing out
that from a nature thoroughly evil we can never prove the existence
of an infinitely powerful and benevolent Creator, hazards the con-
jecture that the deity, though all-benevolent, is not all-powerful.
Philo, however, pushing his principles to their full consequences,
shows that unless we assumed (or knew) beforehand that the system
of nature was the work of a benevolent but limited deity, we certainly
could not, from the facts of nature, infer the benevolence of its
creator. Cleanthes's view is, therefore, an hypothesis, and in no
sense an inference.
The Dialogues ought here to conclude. There is, however., ap-
pended one of those perplexing statements of personal opinion (for
Hume declares Cleanthes to be his mouthpiece) not uncommon
among writers of this period. Cleanthes and Philo come to an agree-
ment, in admitting a certain illogical force in the a posteriori argu-
ment, or, at least, in expressing a conviction as to God's existence,
which may not perhaps be altogether devoid of foundation. The
precise value of such a declaration must be matter of conjecture.
Probably the true statement of Hume's attitude regarding the
problem is the somewhat melancholy utterance with which the
Dialogues close.
It is apparent, even from the brief summary just given, that the
importance of Hume in the history of philosophy consists in the
vigour and logical exactness with which he develops a particular
metaphysical view. Inconsistencies, no doubt, are to be detected
in his system, but they arise from the limitations of the view itself,
and not, as in the case of Locke and Berkeley, from imperfect grasp
of the principle, and endeavour to unite with it others radically
incompatible. In Hume's theory of knowledge we have the final
expression of what may be called psychological individualism or
atomism, while his ethics and doctrine of religion are but the logical
consequences of this theory. So far as metaphysic is concerned,
Hume has given the final word of the empirical school, and all
additions, whether from the specifically psychological side or from
the general history of human culture, are subordinate in character,
and affect in no way the nature of his results. It is no exaggeration
to say that the later English school of philosophy represented by
J. S. Mill made in theory no advance beyond Hume. In the logic
of Mill, e.g., we find much of a special character that has no counter-
part in Hume, much that is introduced ab extra, from general con-
siderations of scientific procedure, but, so far as the groundwork is
concerned, the System of Logic is a mere reproduction of Hume's
doctrine of knowledge. It is impossible for any reader of Mill's
remarkable posthumous essay on theism to avoid the reflection that
in substance the treatment is identical with that of the Dialogues on
Natural Religion, while on the whole the superiority in critical force
must be assigned to the earlier work.
2. Hume's eminence in the fields of philosophy and history must
not be allowed to obscure his importance as a political economist.
p . Berkeley had already, in the Querist, attacked the mercan-
tile theory of the nature of national wealth and the
functions of money, and Locke had, in a partial manner, shown that
political economy could with advantage be viewed in relation to the
modern system of critical philosophy. But Hume was the first to
apply to economics the scientific methods of his philosophy. His
services to economics may be summed up in two heads: (i) he
established the relation between economic facts and the fundamental
phenomena of social life, and (2) he introduced into the study of these
facts the new historical method. Thus, though he gave no special
name to it, he yet describes the subject-matter, and indicates the
true method, of economic science. His economic essays were published
in the volumes entitled Political Discourses (1752) and Essays and
Treatises on Several Subjects (1753) ; the most important are those on
Commerce, on Money, on Interest and on the Balance of Trade, but,
notwithstanding the disconnected form of the essays in general, the
other less important essays combine to make a complete economic
system. We have said that Berkeley and Locke had already begun
the general work for which Hume is most important; in details also
Hume had been anticipated to some extent. Nicholas Barbon and
Sir Dudley North had already attacked the mercantile theory as to
the precious metals and the balance of trade; Joseph Massie and
Barbon had anticipated his theory of interest. Yet when we com-
pare Hume with Adam Smith, the advance which Hume had made
on his predecessors in lucidity of exposition and subtlety of intellect
becomes clear, and modern criticism is agreed that the main errors of
Adam Smith are to be found in those deductions which deviate from
the results of the Political Discourses. A very few examples must
suffice to illustrate his services to economics.
In dealing with money, he refutes the Mercantile School, which
had tended to confound it with wealth. " Money," said Hume, " is
Money non 9 of the wheels of trade; it is the oil which renders the
motion of the wheels more smooth and easy/' " Money
and commodities are the real strength of any community." From
the internal, as distinct from the international, aspect, the absolute
quantity of money, supposed as of fixed amount, in a country, is of
no consequence, while a quantity larger than is required for the
interchange of commodities is injurious, as tending to raise prices
and to drive foreigners from the home markets. It is only during
Free
trade.
Taxation
and
national
debt.
the period of acquisition of money, and before the rise in prices, that the
accumulation of precious metals is advantageous. This principle is
perhaps Hume's most important economic discovery (cf. F. A.
Walker's Money in its Relations to Trade and Industry, London, 1880,
p. 84 sqq.). He goes on to show that the variations of prices are due
solely to money and commodities in circulation. Further, it is a
misconception to regard as injurious the passage of money into
foreign .countries. " A government," he says, " has great reason to
preserve with care its people and its manufactures; its money it may
safely trust to the course of human affairs without fear or jealousy.
Dealing with the phenomena of interest, he exposes the old .
fallacy that the rate depends upon the amount of money
in a country; low interest does not follow on abundance of money.
The reduction in the rate of interest must, in general, result from
" the increase of industry and frugality, of arts and commerce." In
connexion with this he emphasizes a too generally neglected factor
in economic phenomena, " the constant and insatiable desire of the
mind for exercise and employment." " Interest," he says in general,
" is the barometer of the state, and its lowness an almost infallible
sign of prosperity," arising, as it does,' from increased trade, frugality
in the merchant class, and the consequent rise of new lenders: low
interest and low profits mutually forward each other. In the matter
of free trade and protection he compromises. He says on
the one hand, " not only as a man, but as a British subject
I pray for the flourishing commerce of Germany, Spain,
Italy and even France itself," and condemns " the numerous bars,
obstructions and imposts which all nations of Europe, and none more
than England, have put upon trade." On the other hand, he
approves of a protective tax on German linen in favour of home
manufactures, and of a tax on brandy as encouraging the sale of rum
and so supporting our southern colonies. Indeed it has been fairly
observed that Hume retains an attitude of refined mercantilism.
With regard to taxation he takes very definite views. The best taxes,
he says, are those levied on consumption, especially on
luxuries, for these are least heavily felt. He denies that
all taxes fall finally on the land. Superior frugality and
industry on the part of the artisan will enable him to pay
taxes without mechanically raising the price of labour.
Here, as in other points, he differs entirely from the physiocrats, and
his criticism of contemporary French views are, as a whole, in
accordance with received modern opinion. For the modern expe-
dient of raising money for national emergencies by way of loan he
has a profound distrust. He was convinced that what is bad for the
individual credit must be bad for the state also. A national debt, he
maintains, enriches the capital at the expense of the provinces;
further, it creates a leisured class of stockholders, and possesses all
the disadvantages of paper credit. " Either the nation must destroy
public credit, or public credit will destroy the nation." To sum
up, it may be said that Hume enunciated the principle that " every-
thing in the world is purchased by labour, and our passions are the
only causes of labour "; and further, that, in analysing the complex
phenomena of commerce, he is superior sometimes to Adam Smith
in that he never forgets that the ultimate causes of economic change
are the " customs and manners " of the people, and that the solution
of problems is to be sought in the elementary factors of industry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Life. J. H. Burton's Life and Correspondence
of David flume (2 vols., 1846); Dr G. Birkbeck Hill, Letters of Hume
to William Strahan; C. J. W. Francke, David Hume (Haarlem, 1907).
2. Works. Until 1874 the standard edition was that of 1826
(reprinted 1854), in 4 vols. The best modern edition is that in 4 vols.
by T. H. Green and T. H. Grose (containing a valuable introduction
and excellent bibliographical matter) ; the Enquiry and the Treatise
(1894 and 1896, Oxford), edited by L. A. Selby-Bigge.
3. Philosophic (the more important only can be quoted).
Huxley's Hume (a popular reproduction of Hume's views in " English
Men of Letters " series) ; Sir L. Stephen's English Thought in the
XVIIIth Century (1876, especially ch. vi.); J. Orr, David Hume and
his Influence on Philosophy and Theology (1903, especially ch. ix. on
" Moral Theory of Hume"); H. Calderwopd, David Hume (1898,
especially ch. vii. on Hume's attitude to religion) ; A. Seth, Scottish
and German Answers to Hume; F. Jodl, Leben und Philosophie
D. Humes (1872); E. Pfleiderer, Empirismus und Skepsis in D.
Humes Philosophie (1874); G. Spicker, Kant, Hume und Berkeley
(1875); G. Compayre, La Philosophie de D. Hume (1873); A.
Meinong, Hume-Studien (1877, especially Hume's nominalism);
G. von Gizycki (a thorough exposition of Hume's utilitarianism),
Die Ethik D. Humes (1878); G. Lechartier, D. Hume, moraliste el
sociologue (1900); M. Klemme, Die volkswirtschaftlichen Anckau-
ungen D. Humes (1900); E. Marcus, Kants Revolutionsprinzip.
Eine exakte Losung des Kant-Hume' schen Erkenntnis problems (1902) ;
C. Hedvall, Humes Erkenntnislheorie (1906); R. Honigswald, Ober
die Lehre Humes von der Realitiit der Aussendinge (1904); O. Quast,
Der Begriff des Belief bei David Hume (1903). Hume's relation to the
society of his time is described in the Rev. H. G. Graham's Social Life
in Scotland and Scottish Men of Letters; " Jupiter " in Carlyle's
Autobiography. J. MacCosh published a short pamphlet (1884) con-
taining interesting but perhaps not conclusive arguments on the
Agnosticism of Hume and Huxley.
4. Economic. J. Bonar, Philosophy and Political Economy
(London, 1893), chapter on Hume; notes to W. G. F. Roscher's.
HUME, J. HUMITE
Principles of Political Economy (J. Lalor's trans, of 1 3th ed. ,New York,
1878); F. A. Walker's Money (New York, 1877) gives an account of
Hume's views on interest and money ; H. H. Gibbs (Lord Aldenham),
Colloquy on the Currency; for Hume's relation to Adam Smith, John
Rae's Life of Adam Smith (London, 1895). See also M. Teisseire, Les
Essais economiques de David Hume (1902 ; a critical study) ; A. Schatz,
L'CEuvre economiqtie de David Hume (1902). (R. AD. ; J. M. M.)
HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855), British politician, was born on
the 22nd of January 1777, of humble parents, at Montrose,
Scotland. After completing his course of medical study at the
university of Edinburgh he sailed in 1797 for India, where he
was attached as surgeon to a regiment; and his knowledge of the
native tongues and his capacity for business threw open to him
the lucrative offices of interpreter and commissary-general.
In 1802, on the eve of Lord Lake's Mahratta war, his chemical
knowledge enabled him to render a signal service to the admi-
nistration by making available a large quantity of gunpowder
which damp had spoiled. In 1808, on the restoration of peace,
he resigned all his civil appointments, and returned home in
the possession of a fortune of 40,000. Between 1808 and 1811
he travelled much both in England and the south of Europe,
and in 1812 published a blank verse translation of the Inferno.
In 1812 he purchased a seat in parliament for Weymouth and
voted as a Tory. When upon the dissolution of parliament
the patron refused to return him he brought an action and re-
covered part of his money. Six years elapsed before he again
entered the House, and during that interval he had made the
acquaintance and imbibed the doctrines of James Mill and the
philosophical reformers of the school of Bentham. He had
joined his efforts to those of Francis Place, of Westminster,
and other philanthropists, to relieve and improve the condition
of the working classes, labouring especially to establish schools
for them on the Lancasterian system, and promoting the forma-
tion of savings banks. In 1818, soon after his marriage with
Miss Burnley, the daughter of an East India director, he was
returned to parliament as member for the Border burghs. He
was afterwards successively elected for Middlesex (1830), Kil-
kenny (1837) and for the Montrose burghs (1842), in the service
of which constituency he died. From the date of his re-entering
the House Hume became the self-elected guardian of the public
purse, by challenging and bringing to a direct vote every single
item of public expenditure. In 1820 he secured the appointment
of a committee to report on the expense of collecting the revenue.
He was incessantly on his legs in committee, and became a name
for an opposition bandog who gave chancellors of the exchequer
no peace. He undoubtedly exercised a check on extravagance,
and he did real service by helping to abolish the sinking fund. It
was he who caused the word " retrenchment " to be added to the
Radical programme " peace and reform." He carried on a suc-
cessful warfare against the old combination laws that hampered
workmen and favoured masters; he brought about the repeal
of the laws prohibiting the export of machinery and of the act
preventing workmen from going abroad. He constantly pro-
tested against flogging in the army, the impressment of sailors
and imprisonment for debt. He took up the question of light-
houses and harbours; in the former he secured greater efficiency,
in the latter he prevented useless expenditure. Apart from his
pertinacious fight for economy Hume was not always fortunate
in his political activity. He was conspicuous in the agitation
raised by the so-called Orange plot to set aside King William
IV. in favour of the duke of Cumberland (1835 and 1836). His
action as trustee for the notorious Greek Loan in 1824 was at
least not delicate, and was the ground of charges of downright
dishonesty. He died on the aoth of February 1855.
A Memorial of Hume was published by his son Joseph Burnley
Hume (London, 1855).
HUMILIATI, the name of an Italian monastic order created in
the 1 2th century. Its origin is obscure. According to some
chroniclers, certain noblemen of Lombardy, who had offended
the emperor (either Conrad III. or Frederick Barbarossa), were
carried captive into Germany and after suffering the miseries
of exile for some time, " humiliated " themselves before the
emperor. Returning to their own country, they did penance
and took the name of Humiliati. They do not seem to have had
any fixed rule, nor did St Bernard succeed in inducing them to
submit to one. The traditions relating to a reform of this order
by St John of Meda are ill authenticated, his Ada (Acta sanc-
torum Boll., Sept., vii. 320) being almost entirely unsupported
by contemporary evidence. The " Chronicon anonymi Laudu-
nensis canonici " (Man. Germ. hist. Scriplores, xxvi. 449), at
date 1178, states that a group of Lombards came to Rome with
the intention of obtaining the pope's approval of the rule of life
which they had spontaneously chosen; while continuing to live
in their houses in the midst of their families, they wished to lead
a more pious existence than of old, to abandon oaths and
litigation, to content themselves with a modest dress, and all in
a spirit of Catholic piety. The pope approved their resolve to
live in humility and purity, but forbade them to hold assemblies
and to preach in public; the chronicler adding that they in-
fringed the pope's wish and thus drew upon themselves his
excommunication. Their name, Humiliati (" Humiles " would
have been more appropriate), arose from the fact that the clothes
they wore were very simple and of one colour. This lay fraternity
spread rapidly and soon put forth two new branches, a second
order composed of women, and a third composed of priests.
No sooner, however, had this order of priests been formed, than
it claimed precedence of the others, and, though chronologically
last, was called primus ordo by hierarchical right propter
tonsuram (see P. Sabatier, " Regula antiqua Fr. et Sor. de
poenitentia " in Opuscules de critique historique, part i. p. 15).
In 1 201 Pope Innocent III. granted a rule to this third order.
Sabatier has drawn attention to the resemblances between this
rule and the Regula de poenitentia granted to Franciscanism in
the course of its development; on the other hand, it is incon-
testable that Innocent III. wished to reconcile the order with the
Waldenses, and, indeed, its rule reproduces several of the
Waldensian propositions, ingeniously modified in the orthodox
sense, but still very easily recognizable. It forbade useless oaths
and the taking of God's name in vain; allowed voluntary
poverty and marriage; regulated pious exercises; and approved
the solidarity which already existed among the members of the
association. Finally, by a singular concession, it authorized
them to meet on Sunday to listen to the words of a brother
" of proved faith and prudent piety," on condition that the
hearers should not discuss among themselves either the articles
of faith or the sacraments of the church. The bishops were
forbidden to oppose any of the utterances of the Humiliati
brethren, " for the spirit must not be stifled." James of Vitry,
without being unfavourable to their tendencies, represents their
association as one of the peculiarities of the church of his time
(Historia orientalis, Douai, 1597). So broad a discipline must
of necessity have led back some waverers into the pale of the
church, but the Waldenses of Lombardy, in their congregationes
laborantium, preserved the tradition of the independent Humiliati.
Indeed, this tradition is confounded throughout the later 1 2th
century with the history of the Waldenses. The " Chronicon
Urspergense " (Mon. Germ. hist. Scriptores, xxiii. 376-377)
mentions the Humiliati as one of the two Waldensian sects.
The celebrated decretal promulgated in 1184 by Pope Lucius III.
at the council of Verona against all heretics condemns at the
same time as the " Poor Men of Lyons " " those who attribute to
themselves falsely the name of Humiliati," at the very time
when this name denoted an order recognized by the papacy.
This order, though orthodox, was always held in tacit and ever-
increasing suspicion, and, in consequence of grave disorders,
Pius V. suppressed the entire congregation in February 1570-71.
See Tiraboschi, Vetera humilialorum monumenla (Milan, 1766) ;
K. Muller, Die Waldenser (Gotha, 1886); W. Preger, Beitrdge zur
Geschichte der Waldensier (Munich, 1875). (P- " )
HUMITE, a group of minerals consisting of basic magnesium
fluo-silicates, with the following formulae: Chondrodite, ,
Mg3[M g (F,OH)] 2 [Si0 4 ]2; Humite, Mg 6 [Mg(F,OH)] 2 [SiO 4 ] 3 ;
Clinohumite, Mg 7 [Mg(F,OH)] 2 [SiO 4 ]4. Humite crystallizes in
the orthorhombic and the two others in the monoclinic system,
but between them there is a close crystallographic relation: the
HUMMEL HUMMING-BIRD
885
lengths of the vertical axes are in the ratio 5 ! 7 : 9, and this is
also the ratio of the number of magnesium atoms present in each
of the three minerals. These minerals are strikingly similar in
appearance, and can only be distinguished by the goniometric
measurement of the complex crystals. They are honey -yellow to
brown or red in colour, and have a vitreous to resinous lustre;
the hardness is 6-6J, and the specific gravity 3-1-3-2. Further,
they often occur associated together, and it is only comparatively
recently that the three species have been properly discriminated.
The name humite, after Sir Abraham Hume, Bart. (1749-1839),
whose collection of diamond crystals is preserved at Cambridge
in the University museum, was given by the comte de Bournon
in 1813 to the small and brilliant honey-yellow crystals found in
the blocks of crystalline limestone ejected from Monte Somma,
Vesuvius; all three species have since been recognized at this
locality. Chondrodite (from \ov8pos, " a grain ") was a name
early (1817) in use for granular forms of these minerals found
embedded in crystalline limestones in Sweden, Finland and at
several place in New York and New Jersey. Large hyacinth-red
crystals of all three species are associated with magnetite in the
Tilly Foster iron-mine at Brewster, New York; and at Kafveltorp
in Orebro, Sweden, similar crystals (of chondrodite) occur em-
bedded in galena and chalcopyrite.
The relation mentioned above between the crystallographic
constants and the chemical composition is unique amongst
mine'rals, and is known as a morphotropic relation. S. L. Penfield
and W. T. H. Howe, who in 1894 noticed this relation, predicted
the existence of another member of the series, the crystals of
which would have a still shorter vertical axis and contain less
magnesium, the formula being Mg[Mg(F,OH)] 2 SiO4; this has
since been discovered and named prolectite (from Trpotejeiv, " to
foretell "). (L. J. S.)
HUMMEL, JOHAN'N NEPOMUK (1778-1837), German com-
poser and pianist, was born on the i4th of November 1778, at
Pressburg, in Hungary, and received his first artistic training
from his father, himself a musician. In 1785 the latter received
an appointment as conductor of the orchestra at the theatre of
Schikaneder, the friend of Mozart and the librettist of the Magic
Flute. It was in this way that Hummel became acquainted with
the composer, who took a great fancy to him, and even invited
him to his house for a considerable period. During two years,
from the age of seven to nine, Hummel received the invaluable
instruction of Mozart, after which he set out with his father on
an artistic tour through Germany, England and other countries,
his clever playing winning the admiration of amateurs. He began
to compose in his eleventh year. After his return to Vienna he
completed his studies under Albrechtsberger and Haydn, and
for a number of years devoted himself exclusively to composition.
At a later period he learned song-writing from Salieri. For some
years he held the appointment of orchestral conductor to Prince
Eszterhazy, probably entering upon this office in 1807. From
1811 to 1815 he lived in Vienna. On the i8th of May 1813 he
married Elisabeth Rockl, a singer, and the sister of one of Beet-
hoven's friends. It was not till 1816 that he again appeared in
public as a pianist, his success being quite extraordinary. His
gift of improvisation at the piano was especially admired, but his
larger compositions also were highly appreciated, and for a time
Hummel was considered one of the leading musicians of an age
in which Beethoven was in the zenith of his power. In Prussia,
which he visited in 1822, the ovations offered to him were un-
precedented, and other countries France in 1825 and 1829,
Belgium in 1826 and England in 1830 and 1833 added further
laurels to his crown.- He died in 1837 at Weimar, where for a long
time he had been the musical conductor of the court theatre.
His compositions are very numerous, and comprise almost every
branch of music. He wrote, amongst other things, several operas,
both tragic and comic, and two grand masses (Op. 80 and in).
Infinitely more important are his compositions for the pianoforte
(his two concerti in A minor and B minor, and the sonata in
F sharp minor), and his chamber music (the celebrated
septet, and several trios, &c.). His experience as a player
and teacher of the pianoforte was embodied in his Great
Pianoforte School (Vienna), and the excellence of his method is
further proved by such pupils as Henselt and Ferdinand Hiller.
Both as a composer and as a pianist Hummel continued the
traditions of the earlier Viennese school of Mozart and Haydn;
his style in both capacities was marked by purity and correctness
rather than by passion and imagination.
HUMMING-BIRD, a name in use, possibly ever since English
explorers first knew of them, for the beautiful little creatures
to which, from the sound occasionally made by the rapid vibra-
tions of their wings, it is applied. Among books that are ordi-
narily in naturalists' hands, the name seems to be first found
in the Musaeum Tradescantianum, published in 1656, but it
therein occurs (p. 3) so as to suggest its having already been
accepted and commonly understood; and its earliest use, as yet
traced, is by Thomas Morton (d. 1646), a disreputable lawyer
who had a curiously adventurous career in New England, in the
New English Canaan, printed in 1637 a rare work giving an
interesting description of the natural scenery and social life
in New England in the i7th century, and reproduced by Peter
Force in his Historical Tracts (vol. ii., Washington, 1838) . Andre
Thevet, in his Singularilez de la France anlarctique (Antwerp,
1558, fol. 92), has been more than once cited as the earliest
author to mention humming-birds, which he did under the name
of Gouambuch; but it is quite certain that Oviedo, whose
Hystoria general de las Indias was published at Toledo in 1525,
preceded him by more than thirty years, with an account of
the " paxaro mosquito " of Hispaniola, of which island " the first
chronicler of the Indies " was governor. 1 This name, though
now apparently disused in Spanish, must have been current
about that time, for we find Gesner in 1555 (De avium nalura,
iii. 629) translating it literally into Latin as Passer muscalus,
owing, as he says, his knowledge of the bird to Cardan, the
celebrated mathematician, astrologer and physician, from whom
we learn (Comment, in Ptolem. de aslr. judiciis, Basel, 1554,
p. 472) that, on his return to Milan from professionally attending
Archbishop Hamilton at Edinburgh, he visited Gesner at Zurich,
about the end of the year iS52. 2 The name still survives in the
French oiseau-mouche; but the ordinary Spanish appellation
is, and long has been, Tominejo, from tomin, signifying a weight
equal to the third part of an adarme or drachm, and used meta-
phorically for anything very small. Humming-birds, however,
are called by a variety of other names, many of them derived
from American languages, such as Guainumbi, Ourissia and
Colibri, to say nothing of others bestowed upon them (chiefly
from some peculiarity of habit) by Europeans, like Picaflores,
Chuparosa and Froufrou. Barrere, in 1745, conceiving that
humming-birds were allied to the wren, the Troclrilus, 3 in part, of
1 In the edition of Oviedo's work published at Salamanca in I547>
the account (lib. xiv. cap. 4) runs thus: " Ay assi mismo enesta ysla
vnos paxaricos tan negros como vn terciopelo negro muy bueno &
son tan pequefios que ningunos he yo visto en Indias menores/ ex-
cepto el que aca se llama paxaro mosquito. El qual es tan pequefio
que el bulto del es menor harto o assaz que le cabega del dedo pulgar
de la mano. Este no le he visto enesta Ysla pcrq dizen me que aqui
los ay : & por esso dexo de hablar enel pa lo dezir dode los he visto
que es en la tierra firme qiiado della se trate." A modern Spanish
version of this passage will be found in the beautiful edition
of Oviedo's works published by the Academy of Madrid in 1851
(i. 444).
2 See also Morley's Life of Girolamo Cardano (ii. 152, 153).
3 Under this name Pliny perpetuated (Hist, naluralis, viii. 25) the
confusion that had doubtless arisen before his time of two very
distinct birds. As Sundevall remarks (Tentamen, p. 87, note),
rpoxiXos was evidently the name commonly given by the ancient
Greeks to the smaller plovers, and was not improperly applied by
Herodotus (ii. 68) to the species that feeds in the open mouth of the
crocodile the Pluviarius aegyptius of modern ornithologists in
which sense Aristotle (Hist, animalium, ix. 6) also uses it. But the
received text of Aristotle has two other passages (ix. I and 1 1) wherein
the word appears in a wholly different connexion, and can there be
only taken to mean the wren the usual Greek name of which would
seem to be SpxiXos (Sundevall, Om Aristotl. Djurarter, No. 54).
Though none of his editors or commentators has suggested the
possibility of such a thing, one can hardly help suspecting that in
these passages some early copyist has substituted rpoxfXos for SpxiXos,
and so laid the foundation of a curious error. It may be re-
marked that the crocodile of Santo Domingo is said to have the like
office done for it by some kind of bird, which is called by Descourtilz
886
HUMMING-BIRD
Pliny, applied that name in a generic sense (Ornith. spec, novum,
pp. 47, 48) to both. Taking the hint thus afforded, Linnaeus
very soon after went farther, and, excluding the wrens, founded
his genus Trochilus for the reception of sucn humming-birds as
were known to him. The unfortunate act of the great nomen-
clator cannot be set aside ; and, since his time, ornithologists,
with but few exceptions, have followed his example, so that
nowadays humming-birds are universally recognized as forming
the family Trochilidae.
The relations of the Trochilidae to other birds were for a long
while very imperfectly understood. Nitzsch first drew attention
to their agreement in many essential characters with the swifts,
Cypselidae, and placed the two families in one group, which he
called Macrochircs, from the great length of their manual bones,
or those forming the extremity of the wing. The name was
perhaps not very happily chosen, for it is not the distal portion
that is so much out of ordinary proportion to the size of the bird,
but the proximal and median portions, which in both families are
curiously dwarfed. Still the manus, in comparison with the
other parts of the wing, is so long that the term Macrochircs
is not wholly inaccurate. The affinity of the Trochilidae and
Cypselidae, once pointed out, became obvious to every careful
and unprejudiced investigator, and there are probably few
systematists now living who refuse to admit its validity. More
than this, it is confirmed by an examination of other osteological
characters. The " lines," as a boat-builder would say, upon
which the skeleton of each form is constructed are precisely
similar, only that whereas the bill is very short and the head
wide in the swifts, in the humming-birds the head is narrow and
the bill long the latter developed to an extraordinary degree
in some of the Trochilidae, rendering them the longest-billed
birds known. 1 Huxley takes these two families, together with
the goatsuckers (Caprimulgidae), to form the division Cypselo-
morphae one of the two into which he separated his larger
group Aegithognathae. However, the most noticeable portion
of the humming-bird's skeleton is the sternum, which in propor-
tion to the size of the bird is enormously developed both longi-
tudinally and vertically, its deep keel and posterior protraction
affording abundant space for the powerful muscles which drive
the wings in their rapid vibrations as the little creature poises
itself over the flowers where it finds its food. 2
So far as is known, all humming-birds possess a protrusible
tongue, in conformation peculiar among the class A ties, though
to some extent similar to that member in the woodpeckers
(Picidae) 3 the " horns " of the hyoid apparatus upon which
it is seated being greatly elongated, passing round and over
the back part of the head, near the top of which they meet,
and thence proceed forward, lodged in a broad and deep groove,
till they terminate in front of the eyes. But, unlike the tongue
of the woodpeckers, that of the humming-birds consists of two
cylindrical tubes, tapering towards the point, and forming two
sheaths which contain the extensile portion, and are capable
of separation, thereby facilitating the extraction of honey from
the nectaries of flowers, and with it, what is of far greater import-
ance for the bird's sustenance, the small insects that have been
attracted to feed upon the honey. 4 These, on the tongue being
withdrawn into the bill, are caught by the mandibles (furnished
(Voyage, iii. 26), a " Todier," but, as Geoffr. St Hilaire observes
(Descr. de I'&gypte, ed. 2, xxiv. 440), is more probably a plover.
Unfortunately the fauna of Hispaniola is not much better known
now than in Oviedo's days.
1 Thus Docimastes ensifer, in which the bill is longer than both
head and body together.
2 This is especially the case with the smaller species of the group,
for the larger, though shooting with equal celerity from place to
place, seem to flap their wings with comparatively slow but not less
powerful strokes. The difference was especially observed with re-
spect to the largest of all humming-birds, Patagona gigas, by Darwin.
3 The resemblance, so far as it exists, must be merely the result of
analogical function, and certainly indicates no affinity between the
families.
4 It is probable that in various members of the Trochilidae the
structure of the tongue, and other parts correlated therewith, will be
found subject to several and perhaps considerable modifications, as is
the case in various members of the Picidae.
in the males of many species with fine, horny, fawlike teeth 6 ),
and swallowed in the usual way. The stomach is small, mode-
rately muscular, and with the inner coat slightly hardened.
There seem to be no caeca. The trachea is remarkably short,
the bronchi beginning high up on the throat, and song-muscles
are wholly wanting, as in all other Cypselomorphae*
Humming-birds comprehend the smallest members of the
class Aves. The largest among them measures no more than 8|
and the least zf in. in length, for it is now admitted generally
that Sloane must have been in error when he described ( Voyage,
ii. 308) the " least humming-bird of Jamaica" as " about ij
in. long from the end of the bill to that of the tail " unless,
indeed, he meant the proximal end of each. There are, however,
several species in which the tail is very much elongated, such as
the Aithurus polytmus (fig. i) of Jamaica, and the remarkable
Loddigesia mira-
bilis of Chacha-
poyas in Peru,
which last was for
some time only
known from a
unique specimen
(Ibis, 1880, p. 152);
but "trochilidists"
in giving their
measurements do
not take these ex-
traordinary de-
velopments into
account. Next to their generally small
size, the best-known characteristic of the
Trochilidae is the wonderful brilliancy of the
plumage of nearly all their forms, in which
respect they are surpassed by no other
birds, and are only equalled by a few, as,
for instance, by the Necldriniidae, or sun-
birds of the tropical parts of the Old World,
in popular estimation so often confounded
with them.
The number of species of humming-birds
now known to exist considerably exceeds 400;
and, though none departs very widely from what
a morphologist would deem the typical struc-
ture of the family, the amount of modification,
within certain limits, presented by the various
forms is surprising and even bewildering to
the uninitiated. But the features that are
ordinarily chosen by systematic ornithologists Macmiilan & Co., Ltd.
in drawing up their schemes of classification are p- _j ,/&.,
found by the " trochilidists," or special students } ',' , unu f us
of the Trochilidae, insufficient for the purpose of p
arranging these birds in groups, and characters
on which genera can be founded have to be sought in the style and
coloration of plumage, as well as in the form and proportions of those
parts which are most generally deemed sufficient to furnish them.
Looking to the large number of species to be taken into account,
convenience has demanded what science would withhold, and the
genera established by the ornithologists of a preceding generation
have been broken up by their successors into multitudinous sections
the more adventurous making from 150 to 180 of such groups, the
modest being content with 120 or thereabouts, but the last dignifying
each of them by the title of genus. It is of course obvious that these
small divisions cannot be here considered in detail, nor would much
advantage accrue by giving statistics from the works of recent
trochilidists, such as Gould,' Mulsant 8 and Elliot. 9 It would be as
unprofitable here to trace the successive steps by which the original
genus Trochilus of Linnaeus, or the two genera Polytmus and
Mellisuga of Brisson, have been split into others, or have been added
FIom
Cambridge
6 These are especially observable in Rhamphodon naevius and
Androdon aequatorialis.
6 P. H. Gosse (Birds of Jamaica, p. 130) says that Mellisuga
minima, the smallest species of the family, has " a real song " but
the like is not recorded of any other.
7 A Monograph of the Trochilidae or Humming-birds, 5 vols. imp.
fol. (London, 1861, with Introduction in 8vo).
8 Histoire nalurelle des oiseaux-mouches, ou colibris, 4 vols., with
supplement, imp. 410 (Lypn-GenSve-Bale, 1874-1877).
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, No. 317, A Classification
and Synopsis of the Trochilidae, I vol. imp. 4to (Washington, 1879).
HUMMING-BIRD
887
to, by modern writers, for not one of these professes to have arrived
at any final, but only a provisional, arrangement; it seems, however,
expedient to notice the fact that some of the authors of the 1 8th
century ' supposed themselves to have seen the way to dividing what
we now know as the family Trochilidae into two groups, the distinc-
tion between which was that in the one the bill was arched and in
the other straight, since that difference has been insisted on in many
works. This was especially the view taken by Brisson and Buffon,
who termed the birds having the arched bill " colibris," and those
having it straight " oiseaux-mouches." The distinction wholly
breaks down, not merely because there are Trochilidae which possess
almost every gradation of decurvation of the bill, but some which
have the bill upturned after the manner of that strange bird the
avocet, 2 while it may be remarked that several of the species placed
by those authorities among the " colibris " are not humming-birds
at all.
In describing the extraordinary brilliant plumage which most of
the Trochilidae exhibit, ornithologists have been compelled to adopt
the vocabulary of the jeweller in order to give an idea of the inde-
scribable radiance that so often breaks forth from some part or other
of the investments of these feathered gems. In all, save a few
other birds, the most imaginative writer sees gleams which he may
adequately designate metallic, from their resemblance to burnished
gold, bronze, copper or steel, but such similitudes wholly fail when
he has to do with the Trochilidae, and there is hardly a precious
stone ruby, amethyst, sapphire, emerald or topaz the name of
which may not fitly, and without any exaggeration, be employed in
regard to humming-birds. In some cases this radiance beams from
the brow, in some it glows from the throat, in others it shines from
the tail-coverts, in others it sparkles from the tip only of elongated
feathers that crest the head or surround the neck as with a frill, while
again in others it may appear as a luminous streak across the cheek or
auriculars. The feathers that cover the upper parts of the body very
frequently have a metallic lustre of golden-green, which in other
birds would be thought sufficiently beautiful, but in the Trochilidae
its sheen is overpowered by the almost dazzling splendour that
radiates from the spots where Nature's lapidary has set her jewels.
The flight feathers are almost invariably dusky the rapidity of their
movement would, perhaps, render any display of colour ineffective:
while, on the contrary, the feathers of the tail, which, as the bird
hovers over its food-bearing flowers, is almost always expanded, and
is therefore comparatively motionless, often exhibit a rich trans-
lucency, as of stained glass, but iridescent in a manner that no
stained glass ever is cinnamon merging into crimson, crimson
changing to purple, purple to violet, and so to indigo and bottle-
green. But this part of the humming-bird is subject to quite as
much modification in form as in colour, though always consisting
of ten rectrices. It may be nearly square, or at least but slightly
rounded, or wedge-shaped with the middle quills prolonged beyond
the rest; or, again, it may be deeply forked, sometimes by the over-
growth of one or more of the intermediate pairs, but most generally
by the development of the outer pair. In the last case the lateral
feathers may be either broadly webbed to their tip or acuminate, or
again, in some forms, may lessen to the filiform shaft, and suddenly
enlarge into a terminal spatulation as in the forms known as " racquet
tails." The wings do not offer so much variation; still there are a
few groups in which diversities occur that require notice. The
primaries are invariably ten in number, the outermost being the
longest, except in the single instance of Aithurus, where it is shorter
than the next. The group known as " sabre-wings," comprising the
genera Campylopterus, Eupetomena and Sphenoproctus, present a
most curious sexual peculiarity, for while the female has nothing
remarkable in the form of the wing, in the male the shaft of two or
three of the outer primaries is dilated proximally, and bowed near
the middle in a manner almost unique among birds. The feet again,
diminutive as they are, are very diversified in form. In most the
tarsus is bare, but in some groups, as Eriocnemis, it is clothed with
tufts of the most delicate down, sometimes black, sometimes buff,
but more often of a snowy whiteness. In some the toes are weak,
nearly equal in length, and furnished with small rounded nails; in
others they are largely developed, and armed with long and sharp
claws.
Apart from the well-known brilliancy of plumage, of which enough
has been here said, many humming-birds display a large amount of
ornamentation in the addition to their attire of crests of various
shape and size, elongated ear-tufts, projecting neck-frills, and pend-
ant beards forked or forming a single point. But it would be
impossible here to dwell on a tenth of these beautiful modifications,
each of which as it comes to our knowledge excites fresh surprise and
exemplifies the ancient adage maxime miranda in minimis Natura.
It must be remarked, however, that there are certain forms which
possess little or no brilliant colouring at all, but, as most tropical
birds go, are very soberly clad. These are known to trochilidists as
" hermits," and by Gould have been separated as a subfamily under
the name of Phaethornithinae, though Elliot says he cannot find any
1 Salerne must be excepted, especially as he was rebuked by Buffon
for doing what we now deem right.
2 For example Avocettula recurvirostris of Guiana and A. euryplera
of Colombia.
characters to distinguish it from the Trochilidae proper. But sight is
not the only sense that is affected by humming-birds. The large
species known as Pterophanes temmincki has a strong musky odour,
very similar to that given off by the petrels, though, so far as appears
to be known, that is the only one of them that possesses this
property. 3
All well-informed people are aware that the Trochilidae are a
family peculiar to America and its islands, but one of the commonest
of common errors is the belief that humming-birds are found in
Africa and India to say nothing even of England. In the first two
cases the mistake arises from confounding them with some of the
brightly-coloured sun-birds (Nectariniidae), to which British colonists
or residents are apt to apply the better-known name; but in the last
it can be only clue to the want of perception which disables the
observer from distinguishing between a bird and an insect the
object seen being a hawk-moth (Macroglossa), whose mode of feeding
and rapid flight certainly bears some resemblance to that of the
Trochilidae, and hence one of the species (M . stellarum) is very
generally called the " humming-bird hawk-moth." But though
confined to the New World the Trochilidae pervade almost every part
of it. In the south Eustephanus galeritus has been seen flitting about
the fuchsias of Tierra del Fuego in a snow-storm, and in the north-
west Selatophorus rufus in summer visits the nbes-blossoms of Sitka,
while in the north-east Trochilus colubris charms the vision of
Canadians as it poises itself over the althaea-bushes in their gardens,
and extends its range at least so far as lat. 57 N. Nor is the distri-
bution of humming-birds limited to a horizontal direction only, it
rises also vertically. Oreotrochilus chimborazo and O. pichincha live
on the lofty mountains whence each takes its specific name, but just
beneath the line of perpetual snow, at an elevation of some 16,000 ft.,
dwelling in a world of almost
constant hail, sleet and rain, and
feeding on the insects which
resort to the indigenous flower-
ing plants, while other peaks,
only inferior to these in height,
are no less frequented by one or
more species. Peru and Bolivia
produce some of the most splen-
did of the family the genera
Canutes, Diphlogaena and Thau-
mastura, whose very names
indicate the glories of their
bearers. The comparatively
gigantic Pataeona inhabits the
west coast of South America,
while the isolated rocks of Juan
Fernandez not only afford a
home to the Eustephanus but
also to two other species of the
same genus which are not found
elsewhere. The slopes of the
Northern Andes and the hill
country of Colombia furnish
perhaps the greatest number of FIG. 2.Eulampisjugularus. Xj.
forms, and some of the most
beautiful, but leaving that great range, we part company with the
largest and most gorgeously arrayed species, and their number dwindles
as we approach the eastern coast. Still there are many brilliant
humming-birdscpmmon enough in the Brazils, Guiana and Venezuela.
The Chrysolampis mosquitus is perhaps the most plentiful. Thousands
of its skins are annually sent to Europe to be used in the manufacture
of ornaments, its rich ruby-and-topaz glow rendering it one of the
most beautiful objects imaginable. In the darkest depths of the
Brazilian forests dwell the russet-clothed brotherhood of the genus
Phaelhornis the " hermits "; but the great wooded basin of the
Amazons seems to be particularly unfavourable to the Trochilidae,
and from Para to Ega there n.re scarcely a dozen species to be met
with. There is no island of the Antilles but is inhabited by one or
more humming-birds, and there are some very remarkable singu-
larities of geographical distribution to be found. Northwards from
Panama the highlands present many genera whose names it would
be useless here to insert, few or none of which are found in South
America though that must unquestionably be deemed the metro-
polis of the family and advancing towards Mexico the numbers
gradually fall off. Eleven species have been enrolled among the
fauna of the United States, but some on slender evidence, while
others only just cross the frontier line.
The habits of humming-birds have been ably treated by writers like
Waferton, Wilson and Audubon, to say nothing of P. H. Gosse, A. R.
Wallace, H. W. Bates and others. But there is no one appreciative
8 The specific name of a species of Chrysolampis, commonly written
by many writers moschitus, would lead to the belief that it was a
mistake for moschatus, i.e. " musky," but in truth it originates with
their carelessness, for though they quote Linnaeus as their authority
they can never have referred to his works, or they would have found
the word to be mosquitus, the " mosquito " of Oviedo, awkwardly,
it is true, Latinized. If emendation be needed, muscatus, after
Gesner's example, is undoubtedly, preferable.
From The Cambridge National History,
vol. ix., " Birds," by permission of Mac-
m.lkin & Co. Ltd.
888
HUMMOCK HUMOUR
of the beauties of nature who will not recall to memory with delight
the time when a live humming-bird first met his gaze. The sudden-
ness of the apparition, even when expected, and its brief duration,
are alone enough to fix the fluttering vision on the mind's eye. The
wings of the bird, if flying, are only visible as a thin grey film,
bounded above and below by fine black threads, in form of a St
Andrew's cross, the effect on the observer's retina of the instantane-
ous reversal of the motion of the wing at each beat the strokes being
so rapid as to leave no more distinct image. Consequently an ade-
quate representation of the bird on the wing cannot be produced by
the draughtsman. Humming-birds show to the greatest advantage
when engaged in contest with another, for rival cocks fight fiercely,
and, as may be expected, it is then that their plumage flashes with
the most glowing tints. But these are quite invisible to the ordinary
spectator except when very near at hand, though doubtless efficient
enough for their object, whether that be to inflame their mate or to
irritate or daunt their opponent, or something that we cannot com-
pass. Humming-birds, however, will also often sit still for a while,
chiefly in an exposed position, on a dead twig, occasionally darting
into the air, either to catch a passing insect or to encounter an
adversary; and so pugnacious are they that they will frequently
attack birds many times bigger than themselves, without, as would
seem, any provocation.
The food of humming-birds consists mainly of insects, mostly
gathered in the manner already described from the flowers they
visit; but, according to Wallace, there are many species which he
has never seen so occupied, and the " hermits " especially seem to
live almost entirely upon the insects which are found on the lower
surface of leaves, over which they will closely pass their bill, balancing
themselves the while vertically in the air. The same excellent
observer also remarks that even among the common flower-frequent-
ing species he has found the alimentary canal entirely filled with
insects, and very rarely a trace of honey. It is this fact doubtless
that has hindered almost all attempts at keeping them in confine-
ment for any length of time nearly every one making the experi-
ment having fed his captives only with syrup, which, without the
addition of some animal food, is insufficient as sustenance, and
seeing therefore the wretched creatures gradually sink into inanition
and die of hunger. With better management, however, several
species have been brought on different occasions to Europe, some of
them to England.
The beautiful nests of humming-birds, than which the work of
fairies could not be conceived more delicate, are to be seen in most
museums, and will be found on examination to be very solidly and
tenaciously built, though the materials are generally of the slightest
cotton-wool or some vegetable down and spiders' webs. They vary
greatly in form and ornamentation for it would seem that the
portions of lichen which frequently bestud them are affixed to their
exterior with that object, though probably concealment was the
original intention. They are mostly cup-shaped, and the singular
fact is on record (Zool. Journal, v. p. l) that in one instance as the
young grew in size the walls were heightened by the parents, until
at last the nest was more than twice as big as when the eggs were
laid and hatched. Some species, however, suspend their nests from
the stem or tendril of a climbing plant, and more than one case has
been known in which it has been attached to a hanging rope. These
pensile nests are said to have been found loaded on one side with a
small stone or bits of earth to ensure their safe balance, though how
the compensatory process is applied no one can say. Other species,
and especially those belonging to the " hermit " group, weave a frail
structure round the side of a drooping palm-leaf. The eggs are never
more than two in number, quite white, and having both ends nearly
equal. The solicitude for her offspring displayed by the mother is not
exceeded by that of any other birds, but it seems doubtful whether
the male takes any interest in the brood. (A. N.)
HUMMOCK (of uncertain derivation; cf. hump or hillock),
a boss or rounded knoll of ice rising above the general level of
an ice-field, making sledge travelling in the Arctic and Antarctic
region extremely difficult and unpleasant. Hummocky ;ce
is caused by slow and unequal pressure in the main body of the
packed ice, and by unequal structure and temperature at a
later period.
HUMOUR (Latin humor), a word of many meanings and of
strange fortune in their evolution. It began by meaning simply
" liquid." It passed through the stage of being a term of art
used by the old physicians whom we should now call physio-
logists and by degrees has come to be generally understood
to signify a certain " habit of the mind," shown in speech,
in literature and in action, or a quality in things and events
observed by the human intelligence. The word reached its
full development by slow degrees. When Dr Johnson compiled
his dictionary, he gave nine definitions of, or equivalents for,
" humour." They may be conveniently quoted: " (i) Moisture.
(2) The different kinds of moisture in man's body, reckoned by
the old physicians to be phlegm, blood, choler and melancholy,
which as they predominate are supposed to determine the
temper of mind. (3) General turn or temper of mind. (4)
Present disposition. (5) Grotesque imagery, jocularity, merri-
ment. (6) Tendency to disease, morbid disposition. (7) Petu-
lance, peevishness. (8) A trick, a practice. (9) Caprice, whim,
predominant inclination." The list was not quite complete,
even in Dr Johnson's own time. Humour was then, as it is
now, the name of the semi-fluid parts of the eye. Yet no diction-
ary-maker has been more successful than Johnson in giving
the literary and conversational meaning of an English word,
or the main lines of its history. It is therefore instructive to
note that in no one of his nine clauses does humour bear the
meaning it has for Thackeray or for George Meredith. " General
turn or temper of mind " is at the best too vague, and has more-
over another application. His list of equivalents only carries
the history of the word up to the beginning of the last stage
of its growth.
The limited original sense of liquid, moisture, mere wet, in
which " humour " is used in Wycliffe's translation of the Bible,
continued to attach to it until the I7th century. Thus Shakes-
peare, in the first scene of the second act of Julius Caesar, makes
Portia say to her husband:
" Is Brutus sick? and is it physical
To walk unbraced and suck up the humours
Of tne dank morning?"
In the same scene Decius employs the word in the wide meta-
phorical sense in which it was used, and abused, then and
afterwards. " Let me work," he says, referring to Caesar
" For I can give his humour the true bent,
And I will bring him to the Capitol."
Here we have "the general turn or temper of mind," which
can be flattered, or otherwise directed to " present disposi-
tion." We have travelled far from mere fluid, and have
been led on the road by the old physiologists. We are not
concerned with their science, but it is necessary to see what
they mean by " primary humours," and " second or third
concoctions," if we are to understand how it was that a name
for liquid could come to mean " general turn " or " present
disposition," or "whirr." or "jocularity." Part I., Section i,
Member 2, Subsection 2, of Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy
will supply all that is necessary for literary purposes. " A
humour is a liquid or fluent part of the body comprehended
in it, and is either born with us, or is adventitious and acquisite."
The first four primary humours are " Blood, a hot, sweet,
tempered, red humour, prepared in the meseraic veins, and made
of the most temperate parts of the chylus (chyle) in the liver,
whose office it is to nourish the whole body, to give it strength
and colour, being dispersed through every part of it. And
from it spirits are first begotten in the-heart, which afterwards
in the arteries are communicated to the other parts. Pituita
or phlegm is a cold and moist humour, begotten of the colder
parts of the chylus (or white juice coming out of the meat
digested in the stomach) in the liver. His office is to nourish
and moisten the members of the body," &c. " Choler is hot and
dry, begotten of the hotter parts of the chylus, and gathered
to the gall. It helps the natural heat and senses. Melancholy,
cold and dry, thick, black and sour, begotten of the more feculent
part of nourishment, and purged from the spleen, is a bridle
to the other two hot humours, blood and choler, preserving them
in the blood, and nourishing the bones." Mention must also
be made of serum, and of " those excrementitious humours of
the third concoction, sweat and tears." An exact balance
of the four primary humours makes the justly constituted man,
and allows for the undisturbed production of the " concoctions "
or processes of digestion and assimilation. Literature seized
upon these terms and definitions. Sometimes it applied them
gravely in the moral and intellectual sphere. Thus the Jesuit
Bouhours, a French critic of the i7th century, in his Entretiens
d'Ariste et d'Eugene, says that in the formation of a bcl esprit,
" La bile donne le brillant et la penetration, la m61ancolie
donne le bon sens et la solidite; le sang donne 1'agrement et
HUMOUR
889
la d61icatesse." It was, in fact, taken for granted that the
character and intellect of men were produced by were, so to
speak, concoctions dependent on the " humours." In the
fallen state of mankind it rarely happens that an exact balance
is maintained. One or other humour predominates, and thus
we have the long-established doctrine of the existence of the
sanguine, the phlegmatic, the choleric, or the melancholy
temperaments. Things being so, nothing was more natural
than the passage of these terms of art into common speech, and
their application in a metaphorical sense, when once they had
been adopted by the literary class. The process is admirably
described by Asper in the introduction to Ben Jonson's play
Every Man out of his Humour:
" Why humour, as it is ' ens,' we thus define it,
To be a quality of air or water;
And in itself holds these two properties
Moisture and fluxure: as, for demonstration
Pour water on this floor. 'Twill wet and run.
Likewise the air forced through a horn or trumpet
Flows instantly away, and leaves behind
A kind of dew ; and hence we do conclude
That whatsoe'er hath fluxure and humidity
As wanting power to contain itself
Is humour. So in every human body
The choler, melancholy, phlegm and blood
By reason that they flow continually
In some one part and are not continent
Receive the name of humours. Now thus far
It may, by metaphor, apply itself
Unto the general disposition;
As when some one peculiar quality
Doth so possess a man that it doth draw
All his effects, his spirits and his powers,
In their confluxion all to run one way,
This may be truly said to be a humour."
A humour in this sense is a " ruling passion," and has done
excellent service to English authors of " comedies of humours,"
to the Spanish authors of comedias de figuron, and to the French
followers of Moliere. Nor is the metaphor racked out of its
fair proportions if we suppose that there may be a temporary,
or even an " adventitious and acquisite " " predominance of a
humour," and that " deliveries of a man's self " to passing passion,
or to imitation, are also " humours," though not primary, but
only second or third concoctions. By a natural extension,
therefore, " humours " might come to mean oddities, tricks,
practices, mere whims, and the aping of some model admired
for the time being. " But," as Falstaff has told us, " it was
always yet the trick of our English, if they have a good thing,
to make it too common." The word " humour " was a good
thing, but the Elizabethans certainly made it too common.
It became a hack epithet of all work, to be used with no more
discretion, though with less imbecile iteration, than the modern
" awful." Shakespeare laughed at the folly, and pinned it
for ever to the ridiculous company of Corporal Nym " I like
not the humour of lying. He hath wronged me in some humours.
I should have borne the humoured letter to her ... I love
not the humour of bread and cheese; and there's the humour
of it." The humour of Jonson was that he tried to clear the air
of thistledown by stamping on it. Asper ends in denunciation:
' But that a rook by wearing a pied feather,
The sable hat-band, or the three-piled ruff,
A yard of shoe tie, or the Switzer knot
On his French gaiters, should affect a humour,
O! it is more than most ridiculous."
The abuse of the word was the peculiar practice of England.
The use of it was not confined wholly to English writers. The
Spaniards of the i6th and i7th centuries knew humores in
the same sense, and still employ the word as a name for caprices,
whims and vapours. Humorada was, and is, the correct
Spanish for a festive saying or writing of epigrammatic form.
Martial's immortal reply to the critic who admired only dead
poets
Ignoscas petimus Vacerra : tanti
Non est, ut placeam tibi perire,
is a model humorada. It would be a difficult and would
certainly be a lengthy task to exhaust all the applications given
to so elastic a word. We still continue to use it in widely different
senses. " Good humour " or " bad humour " are simply good
temper or bad temper. There is a slight archaic flavour about
the phrases " grim humour," " the humour they were in," in
the sense of suspicious, or angry or careless mood, which were
favourites with Carlyle, but though somewhat antiquated they
are not affected, or very unusual. With the proviso that thi
exceptions must always be excepted, we may say that for a long
time " humour " came to connote comic matter less refined than
the matter of wit. It had about it a smack of the Boar's Head
Tavern in Eastcheap, and of the unyoked " humour " of the
society in which Prince Henry was content to imitate the sun
" Who doth permit the base contagious clouds
To smother up his beauty from the world."
The presence of a base contagious cloud is painfully felt in the
so-called humorous literature of England till the i8th century.
The reader who does not sometimes wonder whether humour in
the mouths of English writers of that period did not stand for
maniacal tricks, horse-play, and the foul names of foul things,
material and moral, must be very determined to prove himself
a whole-hearted admirer of the ancient literature. Addison,
who did much to clean it of mere nastiness, gives an excellent
example of the base use of the word in his day. In Number 371
of the Spectator he introduces an example of the " sort of men
called Whims and Humourists." It is the delight of this person
to play practical jokes on his guests. He is proud when " he
has packed together a set of oglers " who had " an unlucky cast
in the eye," or has filled his table with stammerers. The humor-
ist, in fact, was a mere practical joker, who was very properly
answered by a challenge from a military gentleman of peppery
temper. Indeed, the pump and a horse-whip would appear to
have been the only effective forms of criticism on the prevalent
humour and humours of the i6th, i7th and i8th centuries. But
the pump and the horse-whip were themselves humours. Carlo
Buffone in Jonson's play is put " out of his humour " by the
counter humour of Signer Puntarvolo, who knocks him down
and gags him with candle wax. The brutal pranks of Fanny
Burney's Captain Mirvan, who belongs to the earlier part of
the 1 8th century, were meant for humour, and were accepted as
such. Examples might easily be multiplied. A briefer and also
a more convincing method of demonstration is to take the de-
liberate judgment of a great authority. No writer of the i8th
century possessed a finer sense of humour in the noble meaning
than Goldsmith. What did he understand the word to mean?
Not what he himself wrote when he created Dr Primrose. We
have his express testimony in the gth chapter of The Present
State of Polite Learning. Goldsmith complains that " the critic,
by demanding an impossibility from the comic poet, has, in
effect, banished true comedy from the stage." This he has done
by banning " low " subjects, and by proscribing " the comic or
satirical muse from every walk but high life, which, though
abounding in fools as well as the humbler station, is by no means
so fruitful in absurdity Absurdity is the poet's game, and
good breeding is the nice concealment of absurdity. The truth
is, the critic generally mistakes ' humour ' for ' wit, 1 which is a
very different excellence; wit raises human nature above its
level; humour acts a contrary part, and equally depresses it.
To expect exalted humour is a contradition in terms. . . . The
poet, therefore, must place the object he would have the subject
of humour in a state of inferiority; in other words,the subject
f humour must be low."
That no doubt may remain in his reader's mind, Goldsmith
a;ives an example of true humour. It is nothing more or less
than the absurdity and incongruity obvious in a man who, though
" wanting a nose," is extremely curious in the choice of his snuff-
box. We applaud " the humour of it," for " we here see him
guilty of an absurdity of which we imagine it impossible- for
ourselves to be guilty, and therefore applaud our own good sense
on the comparison."
Nothing could be more true as an account of what the Eliza-
bethans, the Restoration, the Queen Anne men, and the i8th
century meant by " humour." Nothing could be more false
HUMOUR
as an example of what we mean by the humour of Falstaff or
of The Vicar of Wakefield.
When we pass from Goldsmith to Hazlitt one of the greatest
names in English criticism we find that " humour " has grown
in meaning, without quite reaching its full development. In the
introduction to his Lectures on the English Comic Writers he
attempts a classification of the comic spirit into wit and humour.
" Humour," he says, " is the describing the ludicrous as it is in
itself; wit is the exposing it, by comparing or contrasting it
with something else. Humour is, as it were, the growth of
nature and accident; wit is the product of art and fancy.
Humour, as it is shown in books, is an imitation of the natural
or acquired absurdities of mankind, or of the ludicrous in accident,
situation and character; wit is the illustrating and heightening
the sense of that absurdity by some sudden and unexpected
likeness or opposition of one thing to another, which sets off the
quality we laugh at rr despise in a still more contemptible or
striking point of view." Hazlitt's definition will, indeed, not
stand analysis. The element of comparison is surely as necessary
for humour as for wit. Yet his classification is valuable as
illustrating the growth of the meaning of the word. Observe
that Hazlitt has transferred to wit that power of pleasing as by a
flattering sense of our own superiority which Goldsmith attri-
buted to humour. He had not thought, and had not heard,
that sympathy is necessary to complete humour. He cannot
have thought it needful, for if he had he would hardly have said
of the Arabian Nights that they are " an inexhaustible mine of
comic humour and invention," " which from the manners of the
East, which they describe, carry the principle of callous in-
difference in the jest as far as it can go." He might, and probably
would, have dismissed Goldsmith's illustration as " low " in
every conceivable sense. He would not have added, as we should
to-day, that humour does not lie in laughter, according to the
definition of Hobbes, in a " sudden glory," in a guffaw of self-
conceited triumph over the follies and deficiencies of others.
If there is any place for humour in Goldsmith's sordid example,
it must be made by pity, and shown by a deft introduction of the
de te fabula dear to Thackeray, by a reminder that the world is
full of people, who, though wanting noses, are extremely curious
in their choice of snuff-boxes, and that the more each of us thinks
himself above the weakness the more likely he is to fall into it.
The critical value of Hazlitt's examination of the differences
between wit and humour lies in this, that he ignores the doctrine
that the quality of humour lies in the thing or the action and not
in the mind of the observer. The examples quoted above, to
which any one with a moderate share of reading in English
literature could add with ease, show that humour was first
held to lie in the trick, the whim, the act, or the event and clash
of incidents. It might even be a mere flavour, as when men
spoke of the salt humour of sea-sand. Even when it stood for
the " general turn or temper of mind " it was a form of the ruling
passion which inspires men's actions and words. It was used
in that sense by Decius when he spoke of the humour of
Caesar, which is a liability to be led by one who can play on his
weakness
" for he loves to hear
That unicorns may be betrayed with trees
And bears with glasses, elephants with holes,
Lions with toils, and men with flatterers;
But when I tell him he hates flatterers
He says he does; being then most flattered."
It is plain that this is not what Hazlitt meant, or we now mean,
by the humour displayed in " describing the ludicrous as it is
shown in itself." Nor did he, any more than we do, suppose
with Goldsmith that a " low " quality of actions and persons
is inseparable from humour. It had become for Hazlitt what
Addison called cheerfulness, " a habit of the mind " as distin-
guished from mirth, which is " an act." If in Addison's sentences
the place of cheerfulness is taken by humour, and that of mirth
by wit, we have a very fair description of the two. " I have
always preferred cheerfulness to mirth. The latter I consider
as an act, the former as a habit of the mind. Mirth is short
and transient, cheerfulness is fixed and permanent." Humour
is the fixed and permanent appreciation of the ludicrous, of which
wit may be the short and transient expression.
If now we pass to an attempt to define " humour," the tempta-
tion to take refuge in the use of an evasion employed by Dr
Johnson is very strong. When Boswell asked him, " Then, Sir,
what is poetry? " the doctor answered, " Why, Sir, it is much
easier to say what it is not. We all know what light is, but it
is not easy to tell what it is." But George Meredith has come
to our assistance in two passages of his Essay on Comedy and
the uses of the Comic Spirit. " If you laugh all round him (to
wit, the ridiculous person), tumble him, roll him about, deal
him a smack, and drop a tear on him, own his likeness to you,
and yours to your neighbour, spare him as little as you shun,
pity him as much as you expose, it is spirit of Humour that is
moving you. . . . The humourist of mean order is a refreshing
laugher, giving tone to the feelings, and sometimes allowing
the feelings to be too much for him. But the humourist, if
high, has an embrace of contrasts beyond the scope of the comic
poet." The third sentence is required to complete the first.
The tumbling and rolling, the smacks and the exposure, may
be out of place where there is humour of the most humorous
quality. Who could associate them with Sir Walter Scott's
characters of Bradwardine or Monkbarns ? Bradwardine, one
feels, would have stopped them as he did the ill-timed jests of
Sir Hew Halbcrt, " who was so unthinking as to deride my
family name." Monkbarns was a man of peace who loved the
company of Sir Priest better than that of Sir Knight. But
there is that in him which cows mere ridicule, be it ever so genial.
He cared not who knew so much of his valour, and by that
very avowal of his preference took his position sturdily in the
face of the world. But Meredith has given its due prominence
to the quality which, for us, distinguishes humour from pure
wit and the harder forms of jocularity. It is the sympathy,
the appreciation, the love, which include the follies of Don
Quixote, the prosaic absurdities of Sancho Panza, the oddities
of Bradwardine, Dr Primrose or Monkbarns, and the jovial
animalism of Falstaff, in " an embrace of contrasts beyond the
scope of the comic poets."
It is needless to insist that humour of this order is far older than
the very modern application of the name. It is assuredly
present in Horace. Chaucer, who knew the word only as meaning
" liquid," has left a masterpiece of humour in his prologue to
the Canterbury Pilgrims. We look fo'r the finest examples in
Shakespeare. And if it is old, it is also more universal than is
always allowed. National, or at least racial, partiality, has
led to the unfortunate judgment that humour is a virtue of the
northern peoples. Yet Rabelais came from Touraine, and if
the creator of Panurge has not humour, who has? The Italians
may say that umore in the English sense is unknown to them.
They mean the word, not the thing, for it is in Ariosto. To
claim the quality for Cervantes would indeed be to push at an
open door. The humour of the Germans has been rarely indeed
of so high an order as his. It has been found wherever humanity
has been combined with a keen appreciation of the ludicrous.
The appreciation may exist without the humanity. When
Rivarol met the Chevalier Florian with a manuscript sticking
out of his pocket, and said, " How rash you are! if you were not
known you would be robbed," he was making use of the comic
spirit, but he was not humorous. When Rivarol himself, a man
of dubious claim to nobility, was holding forth on the rights of
the nobles, and calling them " our rights," one of the company
smiled. " Do you find anything singular in what I say ? "
asked he. " It is the plural which I find singular," was the
answer. There is certainly something humorous in the neat
overthrow of an insolent wit by a rival insolence, but the humour
is in the spectator, not in the answer. The spirit of humour
as described by George Meredith cannot be so briefly shown as
in the rapid flash of the Frenchmen's wit. It lingers and ex-
patiates, as in Dr Johnson's appreciation of Bet Flint. " Oh,
a fine character, Madam ! She was habitually a slut and a
drunkard, and occasionally a thief and a harlot. And for heaven's
HUMPBACK WHALE HUMPHREYS
891
sake how came you to know her? Why, Madam, she figured
in the literary world too! Bet Flint wrote her own life, and
called herself Cassandra, and it was in verse; it began:
'When nature first ordained my birth
A diminutive I was born on earth
And then I came from a dark abode
Into a gay and gaudy world.'
" So Bet brought her verses to me to correct; but I gave her
half-a-crown, and she liked it as well. Bet had a fine spirit;
she advertised for a husband, but she had no success, for she
told me no man aspired to her. Then she hired very handsome
lodgings and a footboy, and she got a harpsichord, but Bet
could not play; however, she put herself in fine attitudes and
drummed. And pray what became of her, Sir? Why, Madam,
she stole a quilt from the man of the house, and he had her
taken up; but Bet Flint had a spirit not to be subdued, so when
she found herself obliged to go to gaol, she ordered a sedan
chair, and bid her footboy walk before her. However, the
footboy proved refractory, for he was ashamed, though his
mistress was not. And did she ever get out of gaol, Sir? Yes,
Madam, when she came to her trial, the judge acquitted her.
'So now,' she said to me, 'the quilt is my own, and now I'll
make a petticoat of it.' Oh ! I loved Bet Flint."
The subject is low enough to please Goldsmith. The humour
may be of that mean order which has only a refreshing laugh,
and gives tone to the feelings, but it is the pure spirit of humour.
We need not labour to demonstrate that a kindly appreciation
of the ludicrous may find expression in art as well as in literature.
But humour in art tends so inevitably to become caricature,
which can be genial as well as ferocious, that the reader must
be referred to the article on CARICATURE for an account of its
manifestations in that field. (D. H.)
HUMPBACK WHALE (Megaptera longimana or M. boops), the
representative of a genus of whalebone whales distinguished
by the great length of the flippers. This whale (or a closely
Humpback Whale (Megaptera longimana or boops).
allied species) is found in nearly all seas; and when full-grown
may reach from 45 ft. to 50 ft. in length, the flippers which are
indented along their edges measuring from 10 ft. to 12 ft. or
more. The general colour is black, but there are often white
markings on the under surface; and the flippers may be entirely
white, or parti-coloured like the body. Deep longitudinal
furrows, folds or plaits occur on the throat and chest. It is
said that the popular name refers to a prominence on which
the back fin is set; but this " hump " varies greatly in size in
different individuals. The humpback is a coast-whale, irregular
in its movements, sometimes found in " schools," at others
singly. The whalebone is short, broad and coarse; but the
yield of oil from a single whale has been as much as 75 barrels.
A few examples of this whale have been taken in Scotland and
the north of England (see CETACEA).
HUMPERDINCK, ENGELBERT (1854- ), German musical
composer, was born at Siegburg,in the Rhine Province, and
studied under F. Hiller at Cologne, and F. Lachner and J.
Rheinberger at Munich. In 1879, by means of a scholarship,
he went to Italy, where he met Wagner at Naples; and on the
latter's invitation he went to Bayreuth and helped to produce
Parsifal there next year. He travelled for the next few years
in Italy and Spain, but in 1890 became a professor at Frankfort,
where he remained till 1896. In 1900 he became the head of a
school in Berlin. His fame as a composer was made by his
charming children's opera Hansel und Gretel in 1893, founded
very largely (like his later operas) on folk-tunes; but his works
also include other forms of music, in all of which his mastery
of technique is apparent.
HUMPHREY (or HUMFREY), LAWRENCE (is27?-i59o),
president of Magdalen College, Oxford, and dean successively
of Gloucester and Winchester, was born at Newport Pagnel.
He was elected demy of Magdalen College in 1546 and fellow
in 1548. He graduated B.A. in 1549, M.A. in 1552, and B.D. and
D.D. in 1562. He was noted as one of the most promising pupils
of Peter Martyr, and on Mary's accession obtained leave from
his college to travel abroad. He lived at Basel, Zurich, Frank-
fort and Geneva, making the acquaintance of the leading
Swiss divines, whose ecclesiastical views he adopted. His leave
of absence having expired in 1556, he ceased to be fellow of
Magdalen. He returned to England at Elizabeth's accession,
was appointed regius professor of divinity at Oxford in 1560,
and was recommended by Archbishop Parker and others for
election as president of Magdalen. The fellows refused at
first to elect so pronounced a reformer, but they yielded in 1561,
and Humphrey gradually converted the college into a stronghold
of Puritanism. In 1564 he and his friend Thomas Sampson,
dean of Christ Church, were called before Parker for refusing to
wear the prescribed ecclesiastical vestments; and a prolonged
controversy broke out, in which Bullinger and other foreign
theologians took part as well as most of the leading divines in
England. In spite of Bullinger's advice, Humphrey refused
to conform; and Parker wished to deprive him as well as
Sampson. But the presidency of Magdalen was elective and
the visitor of the college was not Parker but the bishop of
Winchester; and Humphrey escaped with temporary retirement.
Parker, in fact, was not supported by the council; in 1566
Humphrey was selected to preach at St Paul's Cross, and was
allowed to do so without the vestments. In the same year he
took a prominent part in the ceremonies connected with Eliza-
beth's visit to Oxford. On this occasion he wore his doctor's
gov/n and habit, which the queen told him " became him very
well "; and his resistance now began to weaken. He
yielded on the point before 1571 when he was made
dean of Gloucester. In 1578 he was one of the divines
selected to attend a diet at Schmalkalde to discuss the
project of a theological accommodation between the
Lutheran and Reformed churches; and in 1380 he
was made dean of Winchester. In 1585 he was per-
suaded by his bishop, Cooper, to restore the use of
surplices in Magdalen College chapel. He died on the
ist of February 1590 and was buried in the college
chapel, where there is a mural monument to his memory; a
portrait is in Magdalen College school.
Humphrey was a voluminous writer on theological and other
subjects. At Parker's desire he wrote a life of his friend and patron
Bishop Jewel, which was published in 1573 and was also prefixed
to the edition of Jewel's works issued in 1600. One of his books
against the Jesuits was included in vol. iii. of the Doctrina Jesuitarum
per varios authores, published at La Rochelle (6 vols., 1585-1586).
See Bloxam's Register of Magdalen College, iv. 104-132; Cooper's
Alhenae Cantabr igienses ; Wood's Athenae Oxonienses; Cough's
Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype's Works: Cal. State Papers (Dom.
1547-1590); Acts of the Privy Council; Burnet's Hist. Ref.;
Collier's Eccles. Hist, ; Dixon's Church Hist. vol. vi. ; Diet. Nat.
Biog. (A. F. P.)
HUMPHREYS, ANDREW ATKINSON (1810-1883), American
soldier and engineer, was born at Philadelphia on the 2nd
of November 1810. He was the son of Samuel Humphreys
(1778-1846), chief constructor U.S.N., and grandson of Joshua
Humphreys (1751-1838), the designer of the "Constitution"
and other famous frigates of the war of 1812, sometimes known
as the " father of the American navy." Graduating from West
Point in 1831, he served with the 2nd Artillery in the Florida
war in 1835. He resigned soon afterwards and devoted himself
to civil engineering. In 1838 he returned to the army for survey
duties, and from 1842 to 1849 was assistant in charge of the Coast
Survey Office. Later he did similar work in the valley of the
| Mississippi, and, with Lieut. H. L. Abbott, produced in 1861
a valuable Report on the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi
' River. In connexion with this work he visited Europe in 1851.
892
HUMPHRY HU-NAN
In the earlier part of the Civil War Humphreys was employed
as a topographical engineer with the Army of the Potomac,
and rendered conspicuous services in the Seven Days' Battles.
It is stated that he selected the famous position of Malvern Hill,
before which Lee's army was defeated. Soon after this he was
assigned to command a division of the V. corps, and at the battle
of Fredericksburg he distinguished himself greatly in the last
attack of Marye's heights. General Burnside recommended
him for promotion to the rank of major-general U.S.V., which
was not however awarded to Humphreys until after Gettysburg.
He took part in the battle of Chancellorsville, and at Gettysburg
commanded a division of the III. corps under Sickles. Upon
Humphreys' division fell the brunt of Lee's attack on the second
day, by which in the end the III. corps was dislodged from its
advanced position. His handling of his division in this struggle
excited great attention, and was compared to Sheridan's work
at Stone river. A few days later he became chief of staff to
General Meade, and this position he held throughout the Wilder-
ness campaign. Towards the end of the war General Humphreys
succeeded General Hancock in command of the famous II. corps.
The short campaign of 1865, which terminated in Lee's surrender,
afforded him a greater opportunity of showing his capacity for
leadership. His corps played a conspicuous part in the final
operations around Petersburg, and the credit of the vigorous
and relentless pursuit of Lee's army may be claimed hardly
less for Humphreys than for Sheridan. After the war, now
brevet major-general, he returned to regular engineer duty as
chief engineer of the U.S. army, and retired in 1879. He was a
member of the American Philosophical Society (1857) and of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1863), and received
the degree of LL.D. from Harvard University in 1868. He died
at Washington on the 27th of December 1883. Amongst his
works may be mentioned From Gettysburg to the Rapidan (1882)
and The Virginia Campaigns of 1864-1865 (1882).
See Wilson, Critical Sketches of some Commanders (Boston, 1895).
HUMPHRY, OZIAS (1742-1810), English miniature painter,
was born at Honiton and educated at the Grammar School of
that town. Attracted by the gallery of casts opened by the
duke of Richmond, Humphry came to London and studied at
Shipley's school; and later he left for Bath, where he lodged
with Linley and became a great friend of his beautiful daughter,
afterwards Mrs Sheridan. In 1766 he was in London warmly
encouraged by Sir Joshua Reynolds, who was always interested
in Devonshire painters. He was a great friend of Romney,
with whom in 1773 ne went to Italy, staying, on his way to Dover,
at Knole, where the duke of Dorset gave him many commissions.
In 1785 he went to India, visiting the native courts, painting
a large number of miniatures, and making many beautiful
sketches. His sight failed him in 1797, and he died in Hampstead
in 1 8 10. The bulk of his possessions came into the hands of
his natural son, William Upcott, the book collector. From
him the British Museum acquired a large number of papers
relating to Humphry. He was Opie's first master, and is alluded
to in some lines by Hayley. His miniatures are exquisite in
detail and delightful in colouring. Many of the finest are in
the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan.
See The History of Portrait Miniatures, by G. C. Williamson, vol. ii.
(London, 1904). (G. C. W.)
HUMUS (a Latin word meaning the ground), a product of
decomposing organic matter. It is especially present in peat
bogs, and also occurs in surface soils, to which it imparts a brown
or black colour. It is one of the most important soil-constituents
from the agricultural point of view; it is the chief source of
nitrogenous food for plants, and modifies the properties of the
soil by increasing its water-holding capacity and diminishing
its tenacity. Little is known with regard to its chemical com-
position. By treating with a dilute acid to remove the bases
present, and then acting on the residue with ammonia, a solution
is obtained from which a mineral acid precipitates humic acid;
the residue from the ammonia extraction is termed humin.
Both the humic acid and humin are mixtures, and several
constituents have been separated; ulmic acid and ulmin,
in addition to humic acid and humin, are perhaps the best
characterized.
HUNALD, DUKE OF AQUITAINE, succeeded his father Odo, or
Eudes, in 735. He refused to recognize the high authority of
the Prankish mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, whereupon
Charles marched south of the Loire, seized Bordeaux and Blaye,
but eventually allowed Hunald to retain Aquitaine on condition
that he should promise fidelity. From 736 to 741 the relations
between Charles and Hunald seem to have remained amicable.
But at Charles's death in 741 Hunald declared war against the
Franks, crossed the Loire and burned Chartres. Menaced by
Pippin and Carloman, Hunald begged for peace in 745 and
retired to a monastery, probably on the Isle of Re. We find
him later in Italy, where he allied himself with the Lombards
and was stoned to death. He had left the duchy of Aquitaine
to Waifer, who was probably his son, and who struggled for
eight years in defending his independence against King Pippin.
At the death of Pippin and at the beginning of the reign of
Charlemagne, there was a last rising of the Aquitanians. This
revolt was directed by a certain Hunald, and was repressed in
768 by Charlemagne and his brother Carloman. Hunald sought
refuge with the duke of the Gascons, Lupus, who handed him
over to his enemies. In spite of the opinion of certain historians,
this Hunald seems to have been a different person from the old
duke of Aquitaine.
See J. Vaissette, Histoire gentrale de Languedoc, vol. i. (ed. of 1872
seq.) ; Th. Breysig, H. Hahn, L. Oelsner, S. Abel and B. Simson,
Jahrbiicher des deutschen Reichs. (C. PF.)
HU-NAN, a central province of China, bounded N. by Hu-peh,
E. by Kiang-si, S. by Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, and W. by
Kwei-chow and Szech'uen. It occupies an area of 84,000 sq. m.,
and its population is estimated at 22,000,000. The provincial
capital is Chang-sha Fu, in addition to which it has eight pre-
fectural cities. It is essentially a province of hills, the only
considerable plain being that around the Tung-t'ing lake, but
this extends little beyond the area which in summer forms part
of the lake. To the north of Heng-chow Fu detached groups
of higher mountains than are found in the southern portion of
the province are met with. Among these is the Heng-shan,
one of the Wu-yo or five sacred mountains of China, upon which
the celebrated tablet of Yu was placed. The principal rivers of
the province are: (i) The Siang-kiang, which takes its rise in
the Nan-shan, and empties into the Tung-t'ing lake; it is
navigable for a great distance from its mouth, and the area of
its basin is 39,000 sq. m.; (2) the Tsze-kiang, the basin of which
covers an area of 10,000 sq. m., and which is full of rapids and
navigable only for the smallest boats; (3) the Yuen-kiang, a
large river, which has some of its head-waters in the province
of Kwei-chow, and empties into the Tung-t'ing lake in the
neighbourhood of Chang-te Fu; its basin has an area of 33,000
sq. m., 22,500 of which are in the province of Hu-nan and 12,500
in that of Kwei-chow; its navigation is dangerous, and only
small boats are able to pass beyond Hang-kia, a mart about
1 80 m. above Chang-te Fu; and (4) the Ling-kiang, which
flows from the tea district of Ho-feng Chow to the Tung-t'ing
lake. Its basin covers an area of about 8000 sq. m., and it
is navigable only in its lowest portion. The principal places
of commerce are: (i) Siang-t'an, on the Siang-kiang, said to
contain 1,000,000 inhabitants, and to extend 3 m. long by nearly
2 m. deep; (2) Chang-sha Fu, the provincial capital which stands
on the same river 60 m. abcjve the treaty port of Yo-chow, and
between which mart and Han-kow steamers of 500 tons burden
run; and (3) Chang-te Fu, on the Yuen-kiang. The products
of the province are tea (the best quality of which is grown at
Gan-hwa and the greatest quantity at Ping-kiang), hemp,
cotton, rice, paper, tobacco, tea-oil and coal. The whole of
the south-eastern portion of the province is one vast coal-field,
extending over an area of 21,700 sq. m. This area is divided
into nearly two equal parts one, the Lei river coal-fields, yield-
ing anthracite, and the other the Siang river coal-fields, yielding
bituminous coal. The people have been, as a rule, more anti-
foreign in their ideas, and more generally prosperous than the
HUNDRED HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
893
inhabitants of the other provinces. Baron von Richthofen
noticed with surprise the number of fine country seats, owned
by rich men who had retired from business, scattered over the
rural districts. Almost all the traffic is conveyed through
Hu-nan by water-ways, which lead northward to Han-kow on
the Yangtsze Kiang, and Fan-cheng on the Han River, eastward
to Fu-kien, southward to Kwang-tung and Kwang-si and west-
ward to Sze-ch'uen. One of the leading features of the province
is the Tung-t'ing lake. Yo Chow, the treaty port of the province,
stands at the outlet of the river Siang into this lake.
HUNDRED, the English name of the cardinal number equal
to ten times ten. The O. Eng. hundred is represented in other
Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch honderd, Ger. JJ.und.ert, Dan. hun-
dreds, &c. It is properly a compound, hund-red, the suffix meaning
" reckoning "; the first part hund is the original Teutonic word
for 100 which became obsolete in English in the i3th century.
It represents the Indo-European form kanta, seen in Gr. iKtarbv,
Lat. centum, Sans, catano; kanta stands for dakanta and meant
the tenth ten, and is therefore connected with Gr. 5eKa, Lat.
decent and Eng. " ten," the Teutonic form of Indo-European dakan
being tehan, cf. Ger. zehn. In England the term " hundred "
is particularly applied to an ancient territorial division inter-
mediate between the villa and the county. Such subordinate
districts were also known in different parts of the country by
other names, e.g. wapentakes in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Notting-
hamshire, Derbyshire, Rutland and Leicestershire; wards in
Northumberland, Durham and Cumberland; while some of the
hundreds of Cornwall were formerly called shires. In some
parts of England a further intermediate division is to be found
between the hundred and the county. Thus we have the trithing,
or as it is now called the riding, in Yorkshire, the lathe in Kent,
and the rape in Sussex. In Lincolnshire the arrangement is
peculiar. The whole county was divided into the three sub-
counties of Lindsey, Kesteven and Holland; and of these
Lindsey was again divided into three ridings. The division into
hundreds is generally ascribed to the creative genius of Alfred,
who, according to William of Malmesbury, divided his kingdom
into counties, the counties into hundreds, and the hundreds into
tithings or villae. It is probable, however, that he merely
rearranged existing administrative districts in that part of
England which was subject to his rule. The significance of the
name hundred is a matter of some difficulty. The old theory,
and perhaps the best, is that the hundred denoted first a
group of a hundred families, and then the district which
these families occupied. This is not inconsistent with another
view, according to which the hundred was originally a term
of measurement denoting a hundred hides of land, for there
is good reason for considering that the hide was originally as
much land as supported one family. It is important to notice
that in the document compiled before the Norman Conquest,
and now known as the County Hidage, the number of hides in
all the counties are multiples of a hundred, and that in many
cases the multiples agree with the number of hundreds ascribed
to a county in Domesday Book. The hundreds of Devon,
however, seem never to have contained a hundred hides; but
various multiples of five, such as twenty, forty and sixty. Here,
and in some of the other western counties, the hundreds are
geographical divisions, to which a varying number of hides was
attributed for fiscal purposes.
In the middle ages the hundred was chiefly important for
its court of justice; and the word hundredum was as often
applied to the court as to the district over which the court had
jurisdiction. According to the compilation known as Leges
Henrici, written shortly before 1118, it was held twelve times
a year, but an ordinance of 1234, after stating that it had been
held fortnightly in the reign of Henry II., declares that its
ordinary sessions were henceforth to take place every three
weeks (Dunstable Annals, 139). Existing court rolls show that
from the i3th to the isth centuries it usually sat seventeen times
a year, in some hundreds in a fixed place, in others in various
places, but in no regular course of rotation. Twice a year a
specially full court was held, to which various names such as
hundredum legate or hundredum magnum were applied. This
was the sheriffs' turn held after Easter and Michaelmas in
accordance with the Magna Carta of 1217. The chief object
of these sessions was to see that all who ought to be were in the
frank-pledge, and that the articles of the view of frank-pledge
had been properly observed during the preceding half-year.
Each township of the hundred was represented by a varying
number of suitors who were bound to attend at these half-yearly
sessions without individual summons. If the proper number
failed to appear the whole township was amerced, the entry on
the rolls being frequently of the form " Villata de A. est in
misericordia quia non iienit plenarie." All the seventeen courts,
including the two full courts, had jurisdiction in trespass covenant
and debt of less than forty shillings, and in these civil cases such
of the freeholders of the county as were present were judges.
But the sheriff or the lord of the hundred was the sole judge
in the criminal business transacted at the full courts. A hundred
court, especially in the west of England, was often appurtenant
to the chief manor in the hundred, and passed with a grant of
the manor without being expressly mentioned. In the i3th
century a large number of hundreds had come in-to private
hands by royal grant, and in Devonshire there was scarcely a
hundred which still belonged to the king. In private hundreds
the lord's steward took the place of the king's sheriff.
Owing to the great fall in the value of money the hundred
court began to decay rapidly under the Tudor sovereigns. They
were for the most part extinguished by a section in the County
Courts Act 1867, which enacts that no action which can be
brought in a county court shall thenceforth be brought in a
hundred or other inferior court not being a court of record.
Until lately the most important of the surviving duties of the
hundred was its liability to make good damages occasioned by
rioters. This liability was removed by the Riot (Damages)
Act 1886, which threw the liability on the police rate.
See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law;F. W. Maitland,
Domesday Book and Beyond (1897); J. H. Round, Feudal England
(1895); Annales monastici, "Rolls" series, iii. (Dunstable), 139;
various court rolls at the Public Record Office, London. (G. J. T.)
HUNDRED DAYS (Fr. Cent Jours), the name commonly given
to the period between the 2oth of March 1815, the date on which
Napoleon arrived in Paris after his return from Elba, and the
z8th of June 1815, the date of the restoration of Louis XVIII.
The phrase Cent Jours was first used by the prefect of Paris, the
comte de Chabrol, in his speech welcoming the king. See
NAPOLEON, and FRANCE: History.
HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. This name is given to the
protracted conflict between France and England from 1337 to
1453, which continued through the reigns of the French kings
Philip VI., John II., Charles V., Charles VI., Charles VII., and
of the English kings Edward III., Richard II., Henry IV.,
Henry V. and Henry VI. The principal causes of the war,
which broke out in Guienne in 1337, were the disputes arising in
connexion with the French possessions of the English kings,
in respect to which they were vassals of the kings of France; the
pretensions of Edward III. to the French throne after the
accession of Philip VI.; Philip's intervention in the affairs of
Flanders and Scotland; and, finally, the machinations of Robert
of Artois.
During Philip VI. 's reign fortune favoured the English.
The French fleet was destroyed at Sluys on the 24th of. June
1340. After the siege of Tournai a truce was arranged on the
25th of September 1340; but the next year the armies of England
and France were again at war in Brittany on account of the
rival pretensions of Charles of Blois and John of Montfort to
the succession of that duchy. In 1346, while the French were
trying to invade Guienne, Edward III. landed in Normandy,
ravaged that province, part of the lie de France and Picardy,
defeated the French army at Cr6cy on the 26th of August 1346,
and besieged Calais, which surrendered on the 3rd of August
1347. Hostilities were suspended for some years after this,
in consequence of the truce of Calais concluded on the z8th
of September 1347.
8 94
HUNGARY
The principal feats of arms which mark the first years of
John the Good's reign were the taking of St Jean d'Angely by
the French in 1351, the defeat of the English near St Omer in
1352, and the English victory near Guines in the same year.
In 1355 Edward III. invaded Artois while the Black Prince was
pillaging Languedoc. In 1356 the battle of Poitiers (September
19), in which John was taken prisoner, was the signal for conflicts
in Paris between Stephen Marcel and the dauphin, and for the
outbreak of the Jacquerie. The treaty of Bretigny, concluded
on the 8th of May 1360, procured France several years' repose.
Under Charles V. hostilities at first obtained only between
French, Anglo-Navarrais (Du Guesclin's victory at Cocherel,
May 16, 1364) and Bretons. In 1369, on the pretext that
Edward III. had failed to observe the terms of the treaty of
Bretigny, the king of France declared war against him. Du Gues-
clin, having been appointed Constable, defeated the English at
Pontvalkin in 1370, at Chize in 1373, and drove them from their
possessions between the Loire and the Gironde, while the duke
of Anjou retook part of Guienne. Edward III. thereupon
concluded the truce of Bruges (June 27, 1375), which was pro-
longed until the 24th of June 1377. Upon the death of Edward
III. (June 21, 1377) Charles V. recommenced war in Artois and
Guienne and against Charles the Bad, but failed in his attempt
to reunite Brittany and France. Du Guesclin, who had refused
to march against his compatriots, died on the i3th of July 1380,
and Charles V. on the i6th of the following September.
In the beginning of Charles VI.'s reign the struggle between
the two countries seemed to slacken. An attempt at recon-
ciliation even took place on the marriage of Richard II. with
Isabella of France, daughter of Charles VI. (September 26, 1396).
But Richard, having been dethroned by Henry of Lancaster
(Henry IV.), hostilities were resumed, Henry profiting little by
the internal discords of France. In 1415 his son, Henry V.,
landed in Normandy on the expiry of the truce of the 2sth of
September 1413, which had been extended in 1414 and 1415.
He won the victory of Agincourt (October 25, 1415), and then
seized Caen and part of Normandy, while France was exhausting
herself in the feuds of Armagnacs and Burgundians. By the
treaty of Troyes (May 2i,i4i5)heobtainedthehandof Catherine,
Charles VI.'s daughter, with the titles of regent and heir to the
kingdom of France. Having taken Meaux on the 2nd of May
1429, and made his entry into Paris on the 3oth of May, he died
on the 3ist of August in the Bois de Vincennes, leaving the throne
to his son, Henry VI., with the duke of Bedford as regent in France.
Charles VI. died shortly afterwards, on the 2ist of October.
His son, who styled himself Charles VII., suffered a series of
defeats in the beginning of his reign: Cravant on the Yonne
(1423), Verneuil (1424), St James de Beuvron (1426) and
Rouvray (1429). Orleans, the last bulwark of royalty, had been
besieged since the I2th of October 1428, and was on the point
of surrender when Joan of Arc appeared. She saved Orleans
(May 8, 1429), defeated the English at Patay on the i6th of June,
had Charles VII. crowned at Reims on the I7th of July, was
taken at Compiegne on the 24th of May 1430, and was burned
at Rouen on the 3oth of May 1431 (see JOAN OF ARC). From this
time on the English lost ground steadily, and the treaty of Arras
(March 20, 1435), by which good relations were established
between Charles VII. and Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy,
dealt them a final blow. Normandy rose against them, while the
constable De Richemont 1 drove them from Paris (1436) and
retook Nemours, Montereau (1437) and Meaux (1439). The
quickly repressed revolt of the Praguerie made no break in
Charles VII. 's successes. . In 1442 he relieved successively Saint
Sever, Dax, Marmande, La Reole, and in 1444 Henry VI. had
to conclude the truce of Tours. In 1448 the English were driven
from Mans; and in 1449 , while Richemont was capturing
Cotentin and Fougeres, Dunois conquered Lower Normandy
and Charles VII. entered Rouen. The defeat of Sir Thomas
Kyriel, one of Bedford's veteran captains, at Formigny in 1450,
and the taking of Cherbourg, completed the conquest of the
1 Arthur, earl of Richmond, afterwards Arthur III., duke of
Brittany.
province. During this time Dunois in Guienne was taking
Bordeaux and Bayonne. Guienne revolted against France,
whereupon Talbot returned there with an army of 5000 men, but
was vanquished and killed at Castillon on the I7th of July 1453.
Bordeaux capitulated on the 9th of October, and the Hundred
Years' War was terminated by the expulsion of -the English,
who were by this time so fully occupied with the Wars of the
Roses as to be unable to take the offensive against France anew.
AUTHORITIES. The chronicles of Jean le Bel, Adam Murimuth,
Robert of Avesbury, Froissart and " Le Religieux de Saint Denis."
See Sime'on Luce, Hist, de Bertrand du Guesclin (3rd ed., Paris,
1896); G. du Fresne de Beaucourt, Hist, de Charles VII (6 vols.,
Paris, 1881-1891); F. J. Snell, articles in the United Service
Magazine (1906-1907). (J. V.*)
HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorsz&g}, a country in the
south-eastern portion of central Europe, bounded E. by Austria
(Bukovina) and Rumania; S. by Rumania, Servia, Bosnia and
Austria (Dalmatia); W. by Austria (Istria, Carniola, Styria
and Lower Austria); and N. by Austria (Moravia, Silesia and
Galicia). It has an area of 125,402 sq. m., being thus about
4000 sq. m. larger than Great Britain and Ireland.
I. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS
The kingdom of Hungary (Magyarbiradolom) is one of the
two states which constitute the monarchy of Austria-Hungary
(q.v.), and occupies 51-8% of the total area of the monarchy.
Hungary, unlike Austria, presents a remarkable geographical
unity. It is almost exclusively continental, having only a short
extent of seaboard on the Adriatic (a little less than 100 m.).
Its land-frontiers are for the most part well defined by natural
boundaries: on the N.W., N., E. and S.E. the Carpathian
mountains; on the S. the Danube, Save and Unna. On the
W. they are not so clearly marked, being formed partly by low
ranges of mountains and partly by the rivers March and Leitha.
From the last-mentioned river are derived the terms Cislcithania
and Transleithania, applied to Austria and Hungary respectively.
General Division. The kingdom of Hungary in its widest
extent, or the " Realm of the Crown of St Stephen," comprises
Hungary proper (Magyarorsz&g), with which is included the
former grand principality of Transylvania, and the province
of Croatia-Slavonia. This province enjoys to a large extent
autonomy, granted by the so-called compromise of 1868. The
town and district of Fiume, though united with Hungary proper
in respect of administration, possess a larger measure of
autonomy than the other cities endowed with municipal rights.
Of the total area of the kingdom Hungary proper has 108,982
sq. m. and Croatia-Slavonia 16,420 sq. m. In the present
article the kingdom is treated mainly as a whole, especially
as regards statistics. In some respects Hungary proper has
been particularly dealt with, while special information regard-
ing the other regions will be found under CROATIA-SLAVONIA,
TRANSYLVANIA and FIUME.
Mountains. Orographically Hungary is composed of an extensive
central plain surrounded by high mountains. These mountains
belong to the Carpathians and the Alps, which are separated by the
valley of the Danube. But by far the greater portion of the Hun-
garian highlands belongs to the Carpathian mountains, which begin,
to the north, on the left bank of the Danube at De've'ny near Press-
burg (Pozsony), run in a north-easterly and easterly direction,
sway round south-eastward and then westward in a vast irregular
semicircle, and end near Orsova at the Iron Gates of the Danube,
where they meet the Balkan mountains. The greatest elevations
are in the Tatra mountains of the north of Hungary proper, in the
east and south of Transylvania (the Transylvanian Alps) and in
the eastern portion of the Banat. The highest peak, the Gerlsdorf
or Spitze or Gerlachfalva, situated in the Tatra group, has an
altitude of 8700 ft. The portion of Hungary situated on the right
bank of the Danube is filled by the Alpine system, namely, the
eastern outlying groups of the Alps. These groups are the Leitha
mountains, the Styrian highlands, the Lower Hungarian highlands,
which are a continuation of the former, and the Bakony Forest.
The Bakony Forest, which lies entirely within Hungarian territory,
extends to the Danube in the neighbourhood of Budapest, the highest
peak being Kprfishegy (2320 ft.). The south-western portion of this
range is specially called Bakony Forest, while the ramifications to
the north-east are known as the Vertes group (1575 ft.), and the
Pilis group (2476 ft.). The Lower Hungarian highlands extend
between the Danube, the Mur, and Lake Balaton, and attain in the
GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS]
HUNGARY
895
Mesek hills near Mohacs and Pecs an altitude of 2200 ft. The
province of Croatia-Slavonia belongs mostly to the Karst region,
and is traversed by the Dinaric Alps.
Plains. The mountain systems enclose two extensive plains,
the smaller of which, called the " Little Hungarian Alfold " or
" Pressburg Basin," covers an area of about 6000 sq. m., and lies
to the west of the Bakony and Matra ranges, which separate it from
the " Pest Basin " or " Great Hungarian Alfold." This is the
largest plain in Europe, and covers about 37,000 sq. m., with an
average elevation above sea-level of from 300 to 350 ft. The Pest
Basin extends over the greater portion of central and southern
Hungary, and is traversed by the Theiss (Tisza) and its numerous
tributaries. This immense tract of low land, though in some parts
covered with barren wastes of sand, alternating with marshes,
presents in general a very rich and productive soil. The monotonous
aspect of the Alfold is in summer time varied by the deli-bdb, or
Fata Morgana.
Caverns. The numerous caverns deserve a passing notice. The
Aggtelek (q.v.) or Baradla cave, in the county of Gomor, is one of
the largest in the world. In it various fossil mammalian remains
have been found. The Fonacza cave, in the county of Bihar, has
also yielded fossils. No less remarkable are the Okno, Vpdi and
Demenyfalva caverns in the county of Lipto, the Veterani in the
Banat and the ice cave at Dobsina (q.v.) in Gomor county. Of the
many interesting caverns in Transylvania the most remarkable
are the sulphurous Biidos in the county of Haromsz6k, the Almas
to the south of Udvarhely and the brook-traversed rocky caverns
of Csetate-Boli, Pestere and Ponor in the southern mountains of
Hunyad county.
Rivers. The greater part of Hungary is well provided with both
rivers and springs, but some trachytic and limestone mountainous
districts show a marked deficiency in this respect. The Matra group,
e.g., is poorly supplied, while the outliers of the Vrtes mountains
towards the Danube are almost entirely wanting in streams, and have
but few water sources. A relative scarcity in running waters prevails
in the whole region between the Danube and the Drave. The
greatest proportionate deficiency, however, is observable in the
arenaceous region between the Danube and Theiss, where for the
most part only periodical floods occur. But in the north and east
of the kingdom rivers are numerous. Owing to its orographical
configuration the river system of Hungary presents several char-
acteristic features. The first consists in the parallelism in the course
of its rivers, as the Danube and the Theiss, the Drave and the Save,
the Waag with the Neutra and the Gran, &c. The second is the
direction of the rivers, which converge towards the middle of the
country, and are collected either mediately or immediately by the
Danube. Only the Zsil, the Aluta and the Bodza or Buzeu pierce
the Transylvanian Alps, and flow into the Danube outside Hungary.
Another characteristic feature is the uneven distribution of the
navigable rivers, of which Upper Hungary and Transylvania are
almost completely devoid. But even the navigable rivers, owing
to the direction of their course, are not available as a means of
external communication. The only river communication with
foreign countries is furnished by the Danube, on the one hand
towards Austria and Germany, and on the other towards the Black
Sea All the rivers belong to the watershed of the Danube, with
the exception of the Poprad in the north, which as an affluent of the
Dunajec flows into the Vistula, and of a few small streams near the
Adriatic. The Danube enters Hungary through the narrow defile
called the Porta Hungarica at DeV6ny near Pressburg, and after a
course ot 585 m leaves it at Orsova by another narrow defile, the
Iron Gate. Where it enters Hungary the Danube is 400 ft. above
sea- level, and where it leaves it is 127 ft.; it has thus a fall within
the country of 273 ft It torms several large islands, as the Great
Schiitt, called in Hungarian Czallokoz of the deceiving island,
with ar area of nearly 1000 sq. m.; the St Andrew's or Szent-Endre
island; the Csepel island; and the Margitta island. The principal
tributaries of the Danube in Hungary, of which some are amongst
the largest rivers in Europe, are, on the right, the Raab, Drave
ant; Save, and, on the left, the Waag, Neutra, Gran, Eipel, Theiss
(the principal affluent, which receives numerous tributaries), Temes
and Cserna. The total length of the river system of Hungary is
aboui 8800 m., of which only about one-third is navigable, while
ot the navigable part only one-half is available for steamers. The
Ddnubc is navigable for steamers throughout the whole of its course
in Hungary. Regulating works have been undertaken to ward off
the clangers of periodical inundations, which occur in the valley of
the Danube and of the other great rivers, as the Theiss, the Drave
and the Save. The beds of these rivers, as well as that of the
Danube, are continually changing, forming morasses and pools, and
rendering the country near their banks marshy. Notwithstanding
the work already done, such as canalizing and regulating the rivers,
the erection of dams, &c., the problems of preventing inundations,
and of reclaiming the marshes, have not yet been satisfactorily
solved.
Canals. Hungary is poorly supplied with canals. They are
constructed not only as navigable waterways, but also to relieve
the rivers from periodical overflow, and to drain the marshy districts.
The most important canal is the Franz Josef canal between B6cse
and Bezdan, above Zombor It is about 70 m. in length, and
considerably shortens the passage between the Theiss and the
Danube. A branch of this canal called Ui Csatorna or New Channel,
extends from Kis-Sztapar, a few miles below Zombor, to Ujvid6k,
opposite Petervarad. The B6ga canal runs from Temesvar to
Nagy-Becskerek, and thence to Titel, where it flows into the Theiss.
The Versecz and the Berzava canal, which are connected with one
another, drain the numerous marshes of the Banat, including the
Alibunar marsh. The Berzava canal ends in the river Temes. The
Sio and the Kapos or Zichy canal between Lake Balaton and the
Danube is joined by the Sarviz canal, which drains the marshes
south of Sopron. The Berettyo canal between the Koros and the
Berettyo rivers, and the Koros canal along the White Koros were
constructed in conjunction with the regulation of the Theiss, and
for the drainage of the marshy region.
Lakes and Marshes. Hungary has two large lakes, Balaton (q.v.)
or Platten-See, the largest lake of southern Europe, and Ferto or
Neusiedler See. The Ferto lake lies in the counties of Moson and
Sopron, not far from the town of Sopron, and is about 23 m. in
length by 6 to 8 m. in breadth. It is so shallow that it completely
evaporated in 1865, but has filled again since 1870, at the same time
changing its configuration. It lies in the marshy district known as
the Hansag, through which it is in communication with the Danube.
In the neighbourhood of this lake are very good vineyards. Several
other small lakes are found in the Hansag. The other lowland
lakes, as, for instance, the Palics near Szabadka, and the Velencze
in the county of Feh6r, are much smaller. In the deep hollows
between the peaks of the Carpathians are many small lakes, popu-
larly called ' eyes of the sea." In the puszla are numerous small
lakes, named generally Feher To or White Lakes, because they
evaporate in the summer leaving a white crust of soda on their bed.
The vegetation around them contains plants characteristic of the
sea shores. The largest of these lakes is the FeheY To situated to
the north of Szeged.
As already mentioned large tracts of land on the banks of the
principal rivers are occupied by marshes. Besides the Hansag,
the other principal marshes are the Sarr<5t, which covers a con-
siderable portion of the counties of Jasz-Kun-Szolnok, B6k6s and
Bihar; the Escedi Lap in the county of Szatmar; the Szernye near
Munkacs, and the Ahbunar in the county of Torontal. Since the
last half of the igth century many thousands of acres have been
reclaimed for agricultural purposes.
Geology. The hilly regions of Transylvania and of the northern
part of Hungary consist of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks and are
closely connected, both in structure and origin, with the Carpathian
chain. The great Hungarian plain is covered by Tertiary and
Quaternary deposits, through which rise the Bakony-wald and the
Mecsek ridge near Pecs (Fiinfkirchen). These are composed chiefly
of Triassic beds, but Jurassic and Cretaceous beds take some share
in their formation. Amongst the most interesting features of the
Bakony-wald are the volcanic and the igneous rocks.
The great plain itself is covered for the most part by loess and
alluvium, but near its borders the Tertiary deposits rise to the
surface. Eocene nummulitic beds occur, but the deposits are mostly
of Miocene age. Five subdivisions may be recognised in the Miocene
deposits, corresponding with five different stages in the evolution
of southern Europe. The first is the First Mediterranean stage of
E. Suess, during which the Hungarian plain was covered by the sea,
and the deposits were purely marine. The next is the SMier, a
peculiar blue-grey clay, widely spread over southern Europe, and
contains extensive deposits of salt and gypsum. During the forma-
tion of the Schlier the plain was covered by an inland sea or series
of salt lakes, in which evaporation led to the concentration and
finally to the deposition of the salts contained in the water. Towards
the close of this period great earth movements took place and the
gap between the Alps and the Carpathians was formed. The third
period is represented by the Second Mediterranean stage of Suess,
during which the sea again entered the Hungarian plain and formed
true marine deposits. This was followed by the Sarmatian period,
when Hungary was covered by extensive lagoons, the fauna being
partly marine and partly brackish water. Finally, in the Pontian
period, the lagoons became gradually less and less salt, and the
deposits are characterized especially by the abundance of shells
which live in brackish water, especially Congeria.
Climate. Hungary has a continental climate^ cold in winter,
hot in summer but owing to the physical configuration of the
country it varies considerably. If Transylvania be excepted, three
separate zones are roughly 'distinguishable: the " highland,"
comprising the counties in the vicinity of the Northern and Eastern
Carpathians, where the winters are very severe and continue for half
the year; the " intermediate " zone, embracing the country stretch-
ing northwards from the Drave and Mur, with the Little Hungarian
Plain, and the region of the Upper Alfold, extending from Budapest
to Nyiregyhaza and Sarospatak; and the " great lowland " zone^
including the main portion of the Great Hungarian Plain, and
the region of the lower Danube, where the heat during the summer
months is almost tropical. In Transylvania the climate bears the
extreme characteristics peculiar to mountainous countries inter-
spersed with valleys; whilst the climate of the districts bordering
on the Adriatic is modified by the neighbourhood of the sea. The^
minimum of the temperature is attained in January and the
896
HUNGARY
[GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS
maximum in July. The rainfall in Hungary, except in the mountain-
ous regions, is small in comparison with that of Austria. In these
regions the greatest fall is during the summer, though in some
years the autumn showers are heavier. Hail storms are of frequent
occurrence in the Carpathians. On the plains rain rarely falls
during the heats of summer; and the showers though violent are
generally of short duration, whilst the moisture is quickly evaporated
owing to the aridity of the atmosphere. The vast sandy wastes
mainly contribute to the dryness of the winds on the Great Hungarian
Alfold. Occasionally, the whole country suffers much from drought ;
but disastrous floods not unfrequently occur, particularly in the
spring, when the beds of the rivers are inadequate to contain the
increased volume of water caused by the rapid melting of the snows
on the Carpathians. On the whole Hungary is a healthy country,
excepting in the marshy tracts, where intermittent fever and
diphtheria sometimes occur with great virulence.
The following table gives the mean temperature, relative
humidity, and rainfall (including snow) at a series of meteorological
stations during the years 1896-1900:
Stations.
Feet
above
Sea.
Mean Temperature
(Fahrenheit).
ll
c
Rainfall
in
Inches.
Annual.
Jan.
July.
Z 3
S
Selmeczbanya .
Budapest
Keszthely .
Z&grab . . .
Fiume .
Debreczen .
Szeged .
Nagyszeben
2037
502
436
534
16
423
312
1357
46-2
50-9
52-5
52-3
56-9
50-2
51-6
48-9
27-9
30-9
30-0
34-3
43-6
28-6
3i-i
25-9
64-8
68-8
71-4
70-5
72-7
70
71-1
69-1
79
76
78
72
75
79
80
79
35-29
24-02
26-67
34-32
70-39
22-26
25-58
28-66
Fauna. The horned cattle of Hungary are amongst the finest in
Europe, and large herds of swine are reared in the oak forests.
The wild animals are bears, wolves, foxes, lynxes, wild cats, badgers,
otters, martens, stoats and weasels. Among the rodents there are
hares, marmots, beavers, squirrels, rats and mice, the last in enor-
mous swarms. Of the larger game the chamois and deer are specially
noticeable. Among the birds are the vulture, eagle, falcon, buzzard,
kite, lark, nightingale, heron, stork and bustard. Domestic and wild
fowl are generally abundant. The rivers and lakes yield enormous
quantities of fish, and leeches also are plentiful. The Theiss, once
better supplied with fish than any other river in Europe, has for
many years fallen off in its productiveness. The culture of the
silkworm is chiefly carried on in the south, and in Croatia-Slavonia.
Flora. Almost every description of grain is found, especially
wheat and maize, besides Turkish pepper or paprika, rape-seed,
hemp and flax, beans, potatoes and root crops. Fruits of various
descriptions, and more particularly melons and stone fruits, are
abundant. In the southern districts almonds, figs, rice and olives
are grown. Amongst the forest and other trees are the oak, which
yields large quantities of galls, the beech, fir, pine, ash and alder,
also the chestnut, walnut and filbert. The vine is cultivated over
the greater part of Hungary, the chief grape-growing districts being
those of the Hegyalja (Tokaj), Sopron, and Ruszt, M6nes, Somlyo
(Schomlau), Bfillye and Villany, Balaton, Neszmely, Visonta, Eger
(Erlau) and Buda. Hungary is one of the greatest wine-producing
countries in Europe, and the quality of some of the vintages, especi-
ally that of Tokaj, is unsurpassed. A great quantity of tobacco is
also grown; it is wholly monopolized by the crown. In Hungary
proper and in Croatia and Slavonia there are many species of indi-
genous plants, which are unrepresented in Transylvania. Besides
12 species peculiar to the former grand-principality, 14 occur only
there and in Siberia.
Population. Hungary had in 1900 a population of 19,254,559,
equivalent to 153-7 inhabitants per square mile. The great
Alfold and the western districts are the most densely populated
parts, whereas the northern and eastern mountainous counties
are sparsely inhabited. As regards sex, for every 1000 men there
were ion women in Hungary, and 998 women in Croatia-
Slavonia. The excess of females over males is great in the
western and northern counties, while in the eastern parts and in
Croatia-Slavonia there is a slight preponderance of males.
The population of the country at the censuses of 1880, 1890
and 1900 was:
1880.
1890.
1900.
Hungary proper .
Croatia-Slavonia .
Total ....
13,749,603
1,892,499
15,261,864
2,201,927
16,838.255
2,416,304
15,642,102
17-463-791
19,254-559
From 1870 to 1880 there was little increase of population, owing
to the great cholera epidemic of 1872-1873, and to many epidemic
diseases among children towards the end of the period. More
normal conditions having prevailed from 1880 to 1890, the
yearly increase rose from 0-13% to 1-09%, declining in the
decade 1890-190x3 to 1-03.
If compared with the first general census of the country, decreed
by Joseph II. in 1785, the population of the kingdom shows an
increase of nearly 108% during these 116 years. Recent historical
research has ascertained that the country was densely peopled in
the 1 5th century. Estimates, based on a census of the tax-paying
peasantry in the years 1494 and 1495, give five millions of inhabitants,
a very respectable number, which explains fully the predominant
position of Hungary in the east of Europe at that epoch. The
disastrous invasion of the Turks, incessant civil wars and devastation
by foreign armies and pestilence, caused a very heavy loss both of
population and of prosperity. In 1715 and 1720, when the land was
again free from Turkish hordes and peace was restored, the popula-
tion did not exceed three millions. Then immigration began to fill
the deserted plains once more, and by 1785 the population had
trebled itself. But as the immigrants were of very different foreign
nationalities, the country became a collection of heterogeneous
ethnical elements, amid which the ruling Magyar race formed only
a minority.
The most serious drain on the population is caused by emigration,
due partly to the grinding poverty of the mass of the peasants,
partly to the resentment of the subject races against the process of
" Magyarization " to which they have long been subjected by the
government. This movement reached its height in 1900, when
178,170 people left the country; in 1906 the number had sunk to
169,202, of whom 47,920 were women. 1 Altogether, since 1896
Hungary has lost about a million of its inhabitants through this cause,
a serious source of weakness in a sparsely populated country; in
1907 an attempt was made by the Hungarian parliament to restrict
emigration by law. The flow of emigration is mainly to the United
States, and a certain number of the emigrants return (27,612 in
1906) bringing with them much wealth, and Americanized views
which have a considerable effect on the political situation. 2 Of
political importance also is the steady immigration of Magyar
peasants and workmen into Croatia-Slavonia, where they become
rapidly absorbed into the Croat population. From the Transyl-
vanian counties there is an emigration to Rumania and the Balkan
territories of 4000 or 5000 persons yearly.
This great emigration movement is the more serious in view of
the very slow increase of the population through excess of births
over deaths. The birth-rate is indeed high (40-2 in 1897), but with
the spread of culture it is tending to decline (38-4 in 1902), and its
effect is counteracted largely by the appalling death-rate, which
exceeds that of any other European country except Russia.
In this respect, however, matters are improving, the death-rate
sinking from 33-1 per thousand in 1881-1885 to 28-1 per thousand
in 1896-1900. The improvement, which is mainly due to better
sanitation and the draining of the pestilential marshes, is most
conspicuous in the case of Hungary proper, which shows the following
figures: 33-3 per thousand in 1881-1885, and 27-8 per thousand in
1896-1900.
At the census of 1900 fifteen towns had more than 40,000 in-
habitants, namely: Budapest, 732,322; Szeged. 100,270; Sza-
badka (Maria-Theresiopel), 81,464; Debreczen, 72,351; Pozsony
(Pressburg), 61,537; Hodmezo-Vasarhely, 60,824 ; Zagrab (Agram),
61,002; Kecskemet, 56,786; Arad, 53,903; Temesvar, 53,033;
Nagyvarad (Grosswardein), 47,018; Kolozsvar (Klausenburg),
46,670; Pe"cs (Funfkirchen), 42,252; Miskolcz, 40,833; Kassa,
35,856.
The number and aggregate population of all towns and boroughs
in Hungary proper having in 1890 more than 10,000 inhabitants
was at the censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900:
Census.
Towns.
Inhabitants.
Percentage of
Total Population.
1880
1890
1900
93
1 06
122
2,191,878
2,700,852
3.525,377
15-94
17-81
21-58
Thus the relative increase of the population living in urban dis-
tricts of more than 10,000 inhabitants amounted in 1900 to nearly
4% of the total population. In Croatia-Slavonia only 5-62% of
the population was concentrated in such towns in 1900.
Races. One of the prominent features of Hungary being the great
complexity of the races residing in it (see map, " Distribution of
1 See the table in Seton-Watson's Racial Problems in Hungary,
Appendix xiii. p. 470, and Drage, Austria-Hungary, p. 289. Of the
emigrants in 1906, 52,121 were Magyars, 32,904 Slovaks, 30,551
Germans, 20,859 Rumanians and 16,016 Croats.
2 Racial Problems, p. 202.
GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS]
HUNGARY
897
Races," in the article AUSTRIA), the census returns of 1880, 1890
and 1900, exhibiting the numerical strength of the different nation-
alities, are of great interest. Classifying the population according
to the mother-tongue of each individual, there were, in the civil
population of Hungary proper, including Fiume :
to a great extent the government and press of the country. Owing
to the improvidence of the Hungarian landowners and the poverty
of the peasants the soil of the country is also gradually passing into
their hands. 3
The Gipsies, according to the special census of 1893, numbered
274,940. Of these, how-
Census.
Hungarians
(Magyars).
Germans
(tftnut).
Slovaks
(Tot).
Rumanians
(Oldh).
Ruthenians
(Ruthen).
Croatians
(Hondt).
Servians
(Szerb).
Others.
1880
1890
1900
6,404,070
7,357,936
8,588,834
1,870,772
1,990,084
1,980,423
1,855-451
1 ,896,665
1 ,99 1 ,402
2,403,041
2,589,079
2,784,726
353,229
379,786
423,159
L
223,054
259,893
329,837
639
194,412
188,552
,986
495-133
434,641
i.e. in percentages of the total population :
1880
1890
1900
46-58
48-53
5I-38
13-61
13-12
II-88
I3'49
12-51
11-88
17-48
17-08
16-62
2-57
2-50
2-52
1-28
1-17
65
3-27
2-60
1-62
1-71
i-95
The censuses show a decided tendency of change in favour of the
dominating nationality, the Magyar, which reached an absolute
majority in the decade 1890-1900. This is also shown by the data
relating to the percentage of members of other Hungarian races
speaking this language. Thus in 1900 out of a total civil population
of 8,132,740, whose mother-tongue is not Magyar, 1,365,764 could
speak Magyar. This represents a percentage of 16-8, while in 1890
the percentage was only 13-8. In Croatia-Slavonia the language of
instruction and administration being exclusively Croat, the other
races tend to be absorbed in this nationality. The Magyars formed
but 3-8%, the Germans 5-6% of the population according to the
census of 1900.
The various races of Hungary are distributed either in compact
ethnographicaj groups, in larger or smaller colonies surrounded by
other nationalities, or -e.g. in the Banat so intermingled as to defy
exact definition. 1 The Magyars occupy almost exclusively the great
central plain intersected by the Danube and the Theiss, being in an
overwhelming majority in 19 counties (99-7% in Hajdu, east of
the Theiss). With these may be grouped the kindred population of
the three Szekel counties of Transylvania. In 14 other counties, on
the linguistic frontier, they are either in a small majority or a con-
siderable minority (61-6% in Szatmar, 18-9% in Torontal). The
Germans differ from the other Hungarian races in that, save in the
counties on the borders of Lower Austria and Styria, where they form
a compact population in touch with their kin across the frontier,
they are scattered in racial islets throughout the country. Excluding
the above counties these settlements form three groups: (i) central
and northern Hungary, where they form considerable minorities in
seven counties (25 % in Szepes, 7 % in Komarom) ; (2) the Swabians
of southern Hungary, also fairly numerous in seven counties (35-5%
in Baranya, 32-9% in Temes, 10-5% in Arad) ; (3) the Saxons of
Transylvania, in a considerable minority in five counties (42-7% in
Nagy Kukullo, 17-6 % in Kis Kukullo). The Germans are most
numerous in the towns, and tend to become absorbed in the Magyar
population. The Slavs, the most numerous race after the Magyars,
are divided into several groups: the Slovaks, mainly massed in the
mountainous districts of northern Hungary; the Ruthenians,
established mainly on the slopes of the Carpathians between Poprad
and Maramaros Sziget; the Serbs, settled in the south of
Hungary from the bend of the Danube eastwards across the Theiss
into the Banat; the Croats, overwhelmingly preponderant in
Croatia-Slavonia, with outlying settlements in the counties of Zala,
Vas and Sopron along the Croatian and Styrian frontier. Of these
the Slovaks are the most important, having an overwhelming
majority in seven counties (94-7% in Arva, 66- 1% in Saros), a
bare majority in three (Szepes, Bars and Poszody) and a consider-
able minority in five (40-6% in Gomor, 22-9% in Abauj-Torna).
The Ruthenians are not in a majority in any county, but in four
they form a minority of from 36 to 46 % (Maramaros, Bereg, Ugocsa,
Ung) and in three others (Saros, Zemptfn, Szepes) a minority of
from 8-2 to 19-7%. The Serbs form considerable minorities in the
counties of Torontal (31-2%), Bacs-Bodrog (19-0%) and Temes
(21-4%). Next to the Slav races in importance are the Rumanians
(Vlachs), who are in an immense majority in ten of the eastern and
south-eastern counties (90-2% in Fogaras), in eight others form
from 30 to 60% of the population, and in two (Maramaros and
Torontal) a respectable minority.*
The Jews in 1900 numbered 851,378, not counting the very great
number who have become Christians, who are reckoned as Magyars.
Their importance is out of all proportion to their number, since they
monopolize a large portion of the trade, are with the Germans the
chief employers of labour, and control not only the finances but
1 The colouring of ordinary ethnographical maps is necessarily
somewhat misleading. When an attempt is made to represent in
colour the actual distribution of the races (as in Dr Chavanne's
Ceographischer und statistischer Handatlas) the effect is that of
occasional blotches of solid colour on a piece of shot silk.
2 The distribution of the races is analysed in greater detail in
Mr Seton-Watson's Racial Problems, p. 3 seq.
xni. 29
ever, only 82,000 gave
Romany as their lan-
guage, while 104,000
described themselves as
Magyars and 67,000 as
Rumanians. They are
scattered in small
colonies, especially in
Gomor county and in
Transylvania. O n ! v
some 9000 are still
nomads, while some
20,000 more are semi-
nomads. Other races,
Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars,
which are not numerous, ;
Albanians and Italians.
The ethnographical map of Hungary does much to explain the
political problems of the country. The central plains, which have
the most fertile soil, and from the geographical conditions of the
country form its centre of gravity, are occupied almost exclusively
by the Magyars, the most numerous and the dominant race. But
all round these, as far as the frontiers, the country is inhabited by
the other races, which, as a rule, occupy it in large, compact and
uniform ethnographical groups. The only exception is formed by
the Banat, where Magyars, Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Croats
and Germans live mixed together. Another important fact is that
these races are all in direct contact with kindred peoples living
outside Hungary: the Rumanians in Transylvania and Banat with
those in Rumania and Bukovina; the Serbs and Croats with those
on the other bank of the Danube, the Save and the Unna; the
Germans in western Hungary with those in Upper Austria and
Styria; the Slovaks in northern Hungary with those in Moravia;
and lastly the Ruthenians with the Ruthenians of Galicia, who
occupy the opposite slopes of the Carpathians. The centrifugal
forces within the Hungarian kingdom are thus increased by the
attraction of kindred nationalities established beyond its borders,
a fact which is of special importance in considering the vexed and
difficult racial problem in Hungary.
Agriculture. Hungary is pre-eminently an agricultural country
and one of the principal wheat-growing regions of Europe. At the
census of 1900 nearly 69% of the total population of the country
derived their income from agriculture, forestry, horticulture and
other agricultural pursuits. The agricultural census taken in 1895
shows the great progress made in agriculture by Hungary, mani-
fested by the increase in arable lands and the growth of the average
production. The increase of the arable land has been effected
partly by the reclamation of the marshes, but mostly by the trans-
formation of large tracts of puszta (waste prairie land) into arable
land. This latter process is growing every year, and is coupled with
great improvements in agricultural methods, such as more intensive
cultivation, the use of the most modern implements and the
application of scientific discoveries. According to the agricul-
tural census of 1895, the main varieties of land are distributed
as follows :
Hungary
Croatia-
Proper.
Slavonia.
By area in acres
Arable land
29,714,382
13.370,540
Gardens
928,053
136,354
Meadows
7,075,888
1,099,451
Vineyards
482,801
65-475
Pastures
9,042,267
1,465,93
Forests
18.464,396
3-734,094
Marshes
199,685
7,921
By percentage of the total area
Arable land
42-81
32-26
Gardens
1-34
i-3i
Meadows
10-19
10-52
Vineyards
0-69
0-63
Pastures
13-03
14-03
Forests
26-60
35-74
Marshes
0-28
0-08
The remainder, such as barren territory, devastated vineyards,
water and area of buildings, amounts to 5-1 % of the total.
The chief agricultural products of Hungary are wheat, rye, barley,
oats and maize, the acreage and produce of which are shown in
the following tables :
' Seton-Watson, op. cit. pp. 173, 188, 252; Drage, Austria-
Hungary, pp. 280, 588 ; Gonnard, La Hongrie, p. 72.
HUNGARY
[GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS
Area in Acres in Hungary Proper.
Cereal.
Average per Annum.
1900.
1907.
1881-85.
1886-90.
1891-95.
Wheat . .
Rye . .
Barley . .
Oats . .
Maize .
6,483,876
2,475,301
2,420,393
2,460,080
4,567,186
7,014,891
2,727,078
2,491,422
2,546,582
4,681,376
7,551,584
2,510,093
2,407,469
2,339,297
5,222,538
8,142,303
2,546,738
2,485,117
2,324,992
5,469,050
8,773,440
2,529,350
2,885,160
2,898,780
7,017,270
Produce in Millions of Bushels.
Cereal.
Average per Annum.
1900.
1907.
1881-85.
1 886-90.
1891-95-
Wheat . .
Rye . .
Barley . .
Oats . .
Maize .
99-8
41-8
46-2
53-9
92-4
121-3
42-1
43-7
52-3
86-4
144-9
46-5
53-6
64-9
118-0
137-3
39-2
49-7
63-6
121-7
128-5
38-0
5i-o
43-7
I58-7
In Croatia-Slavonia no crop statistics were compiled before 1885.
Subsequent returns for maize and wheat show an increase both in the
area cultivated and quantity yielded. The former is the principal
product of this province. Certain districts are distinguished for
particular kinds of fruit, which form an important article of com-
merce both for inland consumption and for export. The principal
of these fruits are: apricots round Kecskemet, cherries round
Koros, melons in the Alfold and plums in Croatia-Slavonia. The
vineyards of Hungary, which have suffered greatly by the phyl-
loxera since 1881, show since 1900 a tendency to recover ground,
and their area is again slowly increasing.
Forests. Of the productive area of Hungary 26-60% is occupied
by forests, which for the most part cover the slopes of the
Carpathians. Nearly half of them belong to the state, and in them
forestry has been carried out on a scientific basis since 1879. The
exploitation of this great source of wealth is still hindered by want
of proper means of communication, but in many parts of Transyl-
vania it is now carried on successfully. The forests are chiefly
composed of oak, fir, pine, ash and alder.
Live Stock. The number of live stock in Hungary proper in two
different years is shown in the following table:
Animal.
1884.
1895-
Horses .
Cattle . .
Sheep
Pigs . .
1,749,302
4,879,334
10,594,867
4,803,777
1,972,930
5,829,483
7,526,783
6,447,134
In Croatia-Slavonia the live stock was numbered in 1895 at:
horses, 309,098; cattle, 908,774; sheep, 595,898; pigs, 882,957.
But the improved quality of the live stock is more worthy of
notice than the growth in numbers.
The small Magyar horse, once famous for its swiftness and endur-
ance, was improved during the Turkish wars, so far as height and
beauty were concerned, by being crossed with Arabs; but it de-
generated after the I7th century as the result of injudicious cross-
breeding. The breed has, however, been since improved by govern-
ment action, the establishment of state studs supported since 1867
by annual parliamentary grants, and the importation especially of
English stock. The largest of the studs is that at Mezohegyes
(founded 1785) in the county of Csanad, the most extensive and
remarkable of those " economies," model farms on a gigantic scale,
which the government has established on its domains. 1 In 1905
it had 2224 horses, including 27 stallions and 422 blood mares.
The next most important stud is at Kisber (founded 1853), with 731
horses; others are at Babolna (founded 1798), with 802 horses
and Fogaras (founded 1874), with 400 horses. 2 Besides these there
are several large dep6ts of state stallions, which are hired out or
sold at moderate rates; but buyers have to guarantee not to export
them without permission of the government. Large numbers of
horses are exported annually, principally to Austria, Germany,
Italy, France and Rumania.
Owing to its wide stretches of pasture-land Hungary is admirably
suited for cattle-raising, and in the government " economies " the
same care has been bestowed on improving the breed of horned
beasts as in the case of horses. The principal breeds are either
native or Swiss (especially that of Simmenthal). The export trade
in cattle is considerable, amounting in 1905 to 238,296 head of
1 An admirable account of this " little world, which produces
almost everything and is almost self-sufficient " is given by M.
Gonnard in his Hongrie au XX"" siecle, p. 159 seq.
2 !b. p. 349 seq.
oxen, 56,540 cows, 23,765 bulls and 19,643 breeding cattle, as well
as a large number of carcases.
Sheep are not stocked so extensively as cattle, and are tending
rapidly to decrease, a result due to the spread of intensive cultiva-
tion and the rise in value of the soil. They are not exported, but
there is a considerable export trade in wool.
Pigs are reared in large quantities all over the country, but the
grincipal centres for distribution are Debreczen, Gyula, Bares,
zeged and Budapest. They are exported in large numbers (408,000
in 1905), almost exclusively to Austria. There is also a considerable
export trade in geese and eggs.
Minerals. Hungary is one of the richest countries in Europe as
regards both the variety and the extent of its mineral wealth. Its
chief mineral products are coal, nitre, sulphur, alum, soda, saltpetre,
gypsum, porcelain-earth, pipe-clay, asphalt, petroleum, marble
and ores of gold, silver, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony,
cobalt and arsenic. The principal mining regions are Zsepes-Gomor
in Upper Hungary, the Kremnitz-Schemnitz district, the Nagy-
banya district, the Transylvanian deposits and the Banat. Gold
and silver are chiefly found in Transylvania, where their exploitation
dates back to the Roman period, and are mined at Zalatna and
Abrudbanya ; rich deposits are also found in the Kremnitz-Schem-
nitz, and the Nagybanya districts. The average yearly yield of gold
is about 100,000, and that of silver about the same amount. The
sand of some of the rivers, as for instance the Maros, Szamos, Koros
and Aranyos, is auriferous. Coal is extensively mined in the region
of Budapest-Oravicza, Nagybanya, Zalatna, at Brennberg near
Sopron, at Salgo-Tarjan, Pecs, in the counties of Krasso-Szor6ny,
and of Esztergom, and in the valley of the river Zsil. Iron is ex-
tracted in the counties of Zsepes, Gomor and Abauj-Torna. The
production of coal and iron trebled during the period 1880-1900,
amounting in 1900 to 6,600,000 tons, and 463,000 tons respectively.
The principal salt-mines are in Transylvania at Torda, Parajd,
De6sakna and Maros-Ujvar; and in Hungary at Szlatina, Ronazsek
and Sugatag. The salt-mines are a state monopoly. Hungary is
the only country in Europe where the opal is found, namely at the
famous mines of Vorosvagas in the county of Saros, and at Nagy-
Mihaly in that of Zemplin. Other precious stones found are chalce-
dony, garnet, jacinth, amethyst, carnelian, agate, rock-crystals, &c.
Amber is found at Magura in Zsepes, while fine marble quarries
are found in the counties of Esztergom, Komarom, Veszprem and
Szepes. The value of the mining (except salt) and smelting pro-
duction in Hungary amounted in 1900 to 4,500,000, while in 1877
the value was only 1,500,000. The number of persons employed
in mining and smelting works was (1900 census) 70,476.
Mineral Springs. Hungary possesses a great number of cold,
and several hot mineral springs, some of them being greatly fre-
quented. Among the principal in Hungary proper except Transyl-
vania are those of Budapest, Mehadia, Eger, Sztubnya (Turocz
county), Szliacs (Zolyom county), Harkany (Baranya county),
Pistyan (Nyitra county) and Trencsen-Teplitz, where there are hot
springs. Cold mineral springs are at Bartfa, with alkaline ferru-
ginous waters; Czigelka, with iodate waters; Parad, with ferru-
ginous and sulphate springs; Koritnicza or Korytnica, with strong
iron springs; and the mineral springs of Budapest. Among the
principal health resorts of Hungary are Tatrafiired in the Tatra
mountains, and Balatonfiired on the shores of Lake Balaton.
Industrial Development. Efforts to create a native industry date
only from 1867, and, considering the shortness of the time and other
adverse factors, such as scarcity of capital, lack of means of com-
munication, the development of industry in the neighbouring state
of Austria, &c., the industry of Hungary has made great strides.
Much of this progress is due to the state, one of the principal aims of
the Hungarian government being the creation of a large and inde-
pendent native industry. For this purpose legislation was promoted
in 1867, 1881, 1890 and 1907. The principal facilities granted by
the state are, exemption of taxation for a determined period of
years, reduced railway fares for the goods manufactured, placing of
government contracts, the grant of subsidies and loans and the
foundation of industrial schools for the training of engineers and of
skilled workmen. The branches of industry which have received
special encouragement are those whose products are in universal
request, such as cotton and woollen goods, and those which are in
the service of natural production. In this category are the manu-
facture of agricultural machines, of tools and implements for agri-
culture, forestry and mining; such industries as depend for their
raw material on the exploitation of the natural resources of the
country, viz. those related to agriculture, forestry, mining, &c.
Lastly, encouragement is given to all branches of industry concerned
with the manufacture of articles used in the more. important Hun-
garian industries, i.e. machinery, or semi-manufactured goods
which serve as raw material for those industries. For the period
1890-1905, an average of 40 to 50 industrial establishments with an
invested capital of 1,250,000 to 1,750,000 were founded yearly.
The principal industry of Hungary is flour-milling. The number
of steam-mills, which in 1867 was about 150, rose to 1723 in 1895
and to 1845 in 1905. Between 3,000,000 and 3,200,000 tons of
wheat-flour are produced annually. The principal steam-mills are
at Budapest; large steam-mills are also established in many towns,
while there are a great number of water-mills and some wind-mills.
GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS]
HUNGARY
899
The products of these mills form the principal article of export of
Hungary. Brewing and distilling, as other branches of industry
connected with agriculture, are also greatly developed. The sugar
industry has made great strides, the amount of beetroot used having
increased tenfold between 1880 and 1905. Other principal branches
of industry are : tobacco manufactories, belonging to the state,
tobacco being a government monopoly; iron foundries, mostly in
the mining region; agricultural machinery and implements, notably
at Budapest; leather manufactures; paper-mills, the largest at
Fiume; glass (only the more common sort) and earthenwares;
chemicals; wooden products; petroleum-refineries; woollen yarns
and cloth manufactories, as well as several establishments of knitting
and weaving. The various Industrial establishments are located
in the larger towns, but principally at Budapest, the only real
industrial town of Hungary.
In 1900 the various industries of Hungary (including Croatia-
Slavonia) employed 1,127,730 persons, or 12-8% of the earning
population. In 1890 the number of persons employed was 913,010.
Including families and domestic servants, 2,605,000 persons or 13-5%
of the total population' were dependent on industries for their
livelihood in Hungary in 1900.
Commerce. Hungary forms together with Austria one customs
and commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade is
given under AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. The following table gives the
Foreign trade of Hungary only for a period of years in millions
sterling:
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
1886-1890
1891-1895
1900
I go-
37-3
43-7
46-3
66-0
37-5
44-1
55-3
64-7
Of the merchandise 1 entering the country, 75-80% comes from
Austria, and exports go to the same country to the extent of 75 %.
Next conies Germany with about 10% of the value of the total
exports and 5% of that of imports. The neighbouring Balkan
states Rumania and Servia follow, and the United Kingdom
receives somewhat more than 2 % of the exports, while supplying
about 1-5% of the imports. The principal imports are: cotton
goods, woollen manufactures; apparel, haberdashery and linen;
silk manufactures; leather and leather goods. The exports, which
show plainly the prevailing agricultural character of the country,
are flour, wheat, cattle, beef, barley, pigs, wine in barrels, horses
and maize.
With but a short stretch of sea-coast, and possessing only one
important seaport, Fiume, the mercantile marine of Hungary is
not very developed. It consisted in 1905 of 434 vessels with a
tonnage of 91,784 tons and with crews of 2359 persons. Of these
95 vessels with a tonnage of 89,161 tons were steamers. Fifty-four
vessels with 84,844 tons and crews numbering 1168 persons were
sea-going; 134 with 6587 tons were coasting-vessels, and 246 with
353 tons were fishing vessels.
At all the Hungarian ports in 1900 there entered 19,223 vessels
of 2,223,302 tons; cleared 19,218 vessels of 2,226,733 tons. The
tonnage of British steamers amounted to somewhat more than n %
of the total tonnage of steamers entered and cleared.
Railways. Hungary is covered by a fairly extensive network of
railways, although in the sparsely populated parts of the kingdom
the high road is still the only means of communication. The first
railway in Hungary was the line between Budapest and Vacz
(Waitzen), 20 m. long, opened in 1846 (i5th of July). After the
Compromise of 1867, the policy of the Hungarian government was
to construct its own railways, and to take over the lines constructed
and worked by private companies. 2 In 1907 the total length of the
Hungarian railways, in which over 145,000,000 had been invested,
was 12,100 m., of which 5000 m. belonged to and were worked by
the state, 5>oo m. belonged to private companies but were worked
by the state, and 2000 m. belonged to and were worked by private
companies. The passengers carried in 1907 numbered 107,171,000,
the goods traffic was 61,483,000 tons; the traffic receipts for the
year were 16,420,000. The corresponding figures for 1880 were as
follows: passengers carried, 9,346,000; goods carried, 11,225,000
tons ; traffic receipts, 4,300,000. The so-called zone tariff, adopted
for the first time in Europe by the Hungarian state railways, was
inaugurated in 1889 for passengers and in 1891 for goods. The
principle of this system is to offer cheap fares and relatively low
tariffs for greater distances, and to promote, therefore, long-distance
travelling. The zone tariff has given a great impetus both to
passenger and goods traffic in Hungary, and has been adopted on
some of the Austrian railways.
1 Merchandise passing the boundaries is subject to declaration;
the respective values are stated by a special commission of experts
residing in Budapest.
2 The acquisition of the Austrian Staatsbahn in 1891 practically
gave to the state the control of the whole railway net of Hungary.
By 1900 all the main lines, except the Sudbahn and the Kaschan-
Oberbergar Bahn, were in its hands.
In 1907 the length of the navigable waterways of Hungary was
3200 m., of which 2450 m. were navigable by steamers.
Seaports. On the Adriatic lies the port of Fiume (q.v.), the only
direct outlet by sea for the produce of Hungary. Its commanding
position at the head of the Gulf of Quarnero, and spacious new
harbour works, as also its immediate connexions with both the
Austrian and Hungarian railway systems, render it specially ad-
vantageous as a commercial port. As shipping stations, Buccari,
Portor6, Selce, Novi, Zengg, San Giorgio, Jablanac and Carlopago
are of comparative insignificance. The whole of the short Hungarian
seaboard is mountainous and subject to violent winds.
Government. Hungary is a constitutional monarchy, its
monarch bearing the title of king. The succession to the throne
is hereditary in the order of primogeniture in the male line of the
house of Habsburg-Lorraine ; and failing this, in the female line.
The king must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church.
The king of Hungary is also emperor of Austria, but beyond this
personal union, and certain matters regulated by both govern-
ments jointly (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY), the two states are
independent of each other, having each its own constitution,
legislature and administration. The king is the head of the
executive, the supreme commander of the armed forces of the
nation, and shares the legislative power with the parliament.
The constitution of Hungary is in many respects strikingly
analogous to that of Great Britain, more especially in the fact
that it is based on no written document but on immemorial
prescription, confirmed or modified by a series of enactments,
of which the earliest and most famous was the Golden Bull of
Andrew III. (1222), the Magna Carta of Hungary. The ancient
constitution, often suspended and modified, based upon this
charter, was reformed under the influence of Western Liberalism
in 1848, the supremacy of the Magyar race, however, being
secured by a somev/hat narrow franchise. Suspended after
the collapse of the Hungarian revolt in 1849 for some eighteen
years, the constitution was restored in 1867 under the terms
of the Compromise (Ausgleich) with Austria, which established
the actual organization of the country (see History, below).
The legislative power is vested in the parliament (Orsz&ggyiiles) ,
which consists of two houses: an upper house or the House of
Magnates (F orendihdz) , and a lower house or House of Repre-
sentatives (Kepviselohdz). The House of Magnates is composed
as follows: princes of the royal house who have attained their
majority (16 in 1904); hereditary peers who pay at least 250
a year land tax (237 in 1904) ; high dignitaries of the Roman
Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches (42 in 1904); repre-
sentatives of the Protestant confessions (13 in 1904); life peers
appointed by the crown, not exceeding 50 in number, and life
peers elected by the house itself (73 altogether in 1904) ; members
ex officio consisting of state dignitaries and high judges (19 in
1904); and three delegates of Croatia-Slavonia. The House of
Representatives consists of members elected, under the Electoral
Law of 1874, by a complicated franchise based upon property,
taxation, profession or official position, and ancestral privileges. 3
The house consists of 453 members, of which 413 are deputies
elected in Hungary and 43 delegates of Croatia-Slavonia sent
by the parliament of that province. The members are elected
for five years and receive payment for their services. The
parliament is summoned annually by the king at Budapest.
The official language is Magyar, but the delegates of Croatia-
Slavonia may use their own language. The Hungarian parlia-
ment has power to legislate on all matters concerning Hungary,
but for Croatia-Slavonia only on matters which concern these
provinces in common with Hungary. The executive power is
vested in a responsible cabinet, consisting of ten ministers,
namely, the president of the council, the minister of the interior,
of national defence, of education and public worship, of finance,
8 The franchise is " probably the most illiberal in Europe."
Servants, in the widest sense of the word, apprenticed workmen
and agricultural labourers are carefully excluded. The result is
that the working classes are wholly unrepresented in the parliament,
only 6% of them, and 13% of the small trading class, possessing
the franchise, which is only enjoyed by 6% of the entire population
(see Seton-Watson, Racial Problems, 250, 251). For the question
of franchise reform which played so great a part in the Austro-
Hungarian crisis of 1909-1910 see History, below. [ED.]
goo
HUNGARY
[GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS
of agriculture, of industry and commerce, of justice, the minister
for Croatia-Slavonia, and the minister ad latus or near the king's
person. As regards local government, the country is divided
into municipalities or counties, which possess a certain amount
of self-government. Hungary proper is divided into sixty-three
rural, and including Fiume twenty-six urban municipalities
(see section on Administrative Divisions). These urban munici-
palities are towns which for their local government are inde-
pendent of the counties in which they are situated, and have,
therefore, a larger amount of municipal autonomy than the
communes or the other towns. The administration of the
municipalities is carried on by an official appointed by the king,
aided by a representative body. The representative body is
composed half of elected members, and half of citizens who pay
the highest taxes. Since 1876 each municipality has a council
of twenty members to exercise control over its administration.
Administrative Divisions. Since 1867 the administrative and
political divisions of the lands belonging to the Hungarian crown
have been in great measure remodelled. In 1868 Transylvania was
definitely reunited to Hungary proper, and the town and district
of Fiume declared autonomous. In 1873 part of the " Military
Frontier " was united with Hungary proper and part with Croatia-
Slavonia. Hungary proper, according to ancient usage, was generally
divided into four great divisions or circles, and Transylvania up to
1876 was regarded as the fifth. In 1876 a general system of counties
was introduced. According to this division Hungary proper is
divided into seven circles, of which Transylvania forms one. The
whole country is divided into the following counties:
(a) The circle on the left bank of the Danube contains eleven
counties: (i) Arva, (2) Bars, (3) Esztergom, (4) Hont, (5)
Lipto, (6) Nograd, (7) Nyitra, (8) Pozsony (Pressburg), (9)
Trencs6n, (ip) Turocz and (11) Zolyom.
(6) The circle on the right bank of the Danube contains eleven
counties: Baranya, Fejer, Gyor, Komarom, Moson, Somogy,
Sopron, Tolna, Vas, Veszpr<m and Zala.
(c) The circle between the Danube and Theiss contains five
counties: Bacs-Bodrog, Csongrad, Heves, Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok
and Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun.
(d) The circle on the right bank of the Theiss contains eight
counties: Abauj-Torna, Bereg, Borsod, G6m6r-6s Kis-Hont, Saros,
Szepes, Ung, Zempln.
(e) The circle on the left bank of the Theiss contains eight counties :
B6kds, Bihar, Hajdu, Maramaros, Szabolcs, Szatmar, Szilagy and
Ugocsa.
(/) The circle between the Theiss and the Maros contains five
counties: Arad, Csanact, Krass6-Szor6ny, Temes and Torontal.
(g) Transylvania contains fifteen counties: Als6-Feh6r, Besztercze-
Naszod, Brasso, Csik, Fogaras, HaromszSk, Hunyad, Kis-Kukullo,
Kolozs, Maros-Torda, Nagy-Kukullo, Szeben, Szolnok-Doboka,
Torda-Aranyos and Udvarhely.
Fiume town and district forms a separate division.
Croatia-Slavonia is divided into eight counties: Belovar-Koros,
Lika-Krbava, Modrus-Fiume, Pozsega, Szer6m, Varasd, Verocze
and Zagrab.
Besides these sixty-three rural counties for Hungary, and eight
for Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary has twenty-six urban counties or
towns with municipal rights. These are: Arad, Baja, Debreczen,
Gyor, Hodmezo-Vasarhely, Kassa, Kecskemet, Kolozsvar, Komarom,
Maros-Vasarhely, Nagyvarad, Pancsova, P6cs, Pozsony, Selmecz-<5s
B61abanya, Sopron, Szabadka, Szatmar-N6meti, Szeged, Sz6kes-
feh^rvar, Temesvar, Ujvid6k, Versecz, Zombor, the town of Fiume,
and Budapest, the capital of the county.
In Croatia-Slavonia there are four urban counties or towns with
municipal rights namely: Esz6k, Varasd, Zagrab and Zimony.
Justice. The judicial power is independent of the administrative
power. The judicial authorities in Hungary are: (i) the district
courts with single judges (458 in 1905); (2) the county courts with
collegiate judgeships (76 in number); to these are attached 15
jury courts for press offences. These are courts of first instance.
(3) Royal Tables (12 in number), which are courts of second instance,
established at Budapest, Debreczen, Gyor, Kassa, Kolozsvar,
Maros-Vasarhely, Nagyvarad, Pecs, Pressburg, Szeged, Temesvar
and Zagrab. (4) The Royal Supreme Court at Budapest, and the
Supreme Court of Justice, or Table of Septemvirs, at Zagrab, which
are the highest judicial, authorities. There are also a special com-
mercial court at Budapest, a naval court at Fiume, and special army
courts.
Finance. After the revolution of 1848-1849 the Hungarian budget
was amalgamated with the Austrian, and it was only after the
Compromise of 1867 that Hungary received a separate budget.
The development of the Hungarian kingdom can be better ap-
preciated by a comparison of the estimates for the year 1849 prepared
by the Hungarian minister of finance, which shows a revenue of
i,335> and an expenditure of 5,166,000 (including 3,500,000
for warlike purposes), with the budget of 1905, which shows a revenue
f 51.583,000, and an expenditure of about the same sum. Owing
to the amount spent on railways, the Fiume harbour works and
other causes, the Hungarian budgets after 1867 showed big annual
deficits, until in 1888 great reforms were introduced and the finances
of the country were established on a more solid basis. During the
years 1891-1895 the annual revenue was 42,100,000 and the ex-
penditure 39,000,000; in 1900 the revenue and expenditure
balanced themselves at 45,400,000. The following ngures in
later years are typical :
Revenue. Expenditure.
1904 . . . 49,611,200 49,592,400
!98 . . . 57,896,845 57,894,923
The ordinary revenue of the state is derived from direct and
indirect taxation, monopolies, stamp dues, &c. In 1904 direct
taxes amounted to 9,048,000, and the chief heads of direct taxes
yielded as follows: ground tax, 2,317,000; trade tax, 1,879,000;
income tax, 1,400,000; house tax, 1,000,000. Indirect taxes
amounted in 1904 to 7,363,000, and the chief heads of indirect
taxation yielded as follows: taxes on alcoholic drinks, 4,375,000;
sugar tax, 1,292,000; petroleum tax, 418,000; meat tax, 375,000.
The principal monopolies yielded as follows: salt monopoly,
1,210,000; tobacco monopoly, 2,850,000; lottery monopoly,
105,000. Other revenues yielded as follows: stamp taxes and
dues, 3,632,000; state railways, 3,545,000; post and telegraphs,
710,000; state landed property and forests, 250,000.
The national debt of Hungary alone, excluding the debt incurred
jointly by both members of the Austro-Hunganan monarchy, was
192,175,000 at the end of 1903. The following table shows the,
growth of the total debt, due chiefly to expenditure on public works,
in millions sterling:
1880.
83-6
1890.
1900.
192-8
1905-
198-02
Religion. There is in Hungary just as great a variety of religious
confessions as there is of nationalities and of languages. None of
them possesses an overwhelming majority, but perfect equality is
granted to all religious creeds legally recognized. According to the
census returns of 1900 in Hungary proper there were:
Roman Catholics
Uniat Greeks *
Greek Orthodox
Evangelicals
Augsburg confession, or Lutherans
Helvetian confession, or Calvinists
Unitarians
Jews
Others .
Per Cent, of Population.
8, 198,497 or 48-69
1,841,272 or 10-93
2,199,195 or 13-06
i, 258,860 or 7-48
2,427,232 or 14-41
68,551 or 0-41
831, 162 or 4-94
13,486 or 0-08
In many instances nationality and religious faith are conterminous.
Thus the Servians are mostly Greek Orthodox; the Ruthenians are
Uniat Greeks; the Rumanians are either Greek Orthodox or Greek
Uniats; the Slovaks are Lutherans; the only other Lutherans are
the Germans in Transylvania and in the Zsepes county. The
Calvinists are composed mostly of Magyars, so that in the country
the Lutherans are designated as the " German Church," and the
Calvinists as the " Hungarian Church." The Unitarians are all
Magyars. Only to the Roman Catholic Church belong several
nationalities. The Roman Catholic Church has 4 archbishops;
Esztergom (Gran), Kalocsa, Eger (Erlau) and Zagrab (Agram),
and 17 diocesan bishops; to the latter must be added the chief
abbot of Pannonhalma, who likewise enjoys episcopal rights. The
primate is the archbishop of Esztergom, who also bears the title of
prince, and whose special privilege it is to crown the sovereigns of
Hungary. The Greek Uniat Church owns besides the archbishop
of Esztergom the archbishop of Gyulafeh6rvar (Carlsburg), or rather
Balasfalva (i.e. " the city of Blasius "), and 6 bishops. The Armenian
Uniat Church is partly under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic
bishop of Transylvania, and partly under that of the Roman Catholic
archbishop of Kalocsa. The Orthodox Eastern Church in Hungary
is subject to the authority of the metropolitan of Carlowitz and the
archbishop of Nagyszeben (Hermannstadt) ; under the former are
the bishops of Bacs, Buda, Temesvar, Versecz and Pakracz, and
under the latter the bishops of Arad and Karansebes. The two
great Protestant communities are divided into ecclesiastical districts,
five for each; the heads of these districts bear the title of super-
intendents. The Unitarians, chiefly resident in Transylvania, are
under the authority of a bishop, whose see is Kolozsvar (Klausen-
burg). The Jewish communities are comprised in ecclesiastical
districts, the head direction being at Budapest.
Education. Although great improvements have been effected
in the educational system of the country since 1867, Hungary is
still backward in the matter of general education, as in 1900 only a
little over 50% of the population could read and write. Before
1867 public instruction was entirely in the hands of the clergy of
the various confessions, as is still the case with the majority of the
1 i.e. Catholics of the Oriental rite in communion with Rome.
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
901
primary and secondary schools. One of the first measures of newly
established Hungarian government was to provide supplementary
schools of a non-denominational character. By a law passed in
1868 attendance at school is obligatory on all children between
the ages of 6 and 12 years. The communes or parishes are bound
to maintain elementary schools, and they are entitled to levy an
additional tax of 5% on the state taxes for their maintenance.
But the number of state-aided elementary schools is continually
increasing, as the spread of the Magyar language to the other races
through the medium of the elementary schools is one of the principal
concerns of the Hungarian government, and is vigorously pursued. 1
In 1902 there were in Hungary 18,729 elementary schools with
32,020 teachers, attended by 2,573,377 pupils, figures which compare
Favourably with those of 1877, when there were 15,486 schools with
20,717 teachers, attended by 1,559,636 pupils. In about 61 % of
these schools the language used was exclusively Magyar, in about
20 % it was mixed, and in the remainder some non-Magyar language
was used. In 1902, 80-56% of the children of school age actually
attended school. Since 1891 infant schools, for children between
the ages of 3 and 6 years, have been maintained either by the com-
munes or by the state.
The public instruction of Hungary contains three other groups
of educational institutions: middle or secondary schools, " high
schools " and technical schools. The middle schools comprise
classical schools (gymnasia) which are preparatory for the uni-
versities and other " high schools," and modern schools (Realschulen)
preparatory for the technical schools. Their course of study is
generally eight years, and they are maintained mostly by the state.
The state-maintained gymnasia are mostly of recent foundation,
but some schools maintained by the various churches have been in
existence for three, or sometimes four, centuries. The number of
middle schools in 1902 was 243 with 4705 teachers, attended by
71,788 pupils; in 1880 their number was 185, attended by 40,747
nupils.
The high schools include the universities, of which Hungary
possesses three, all maintained by the state: at Budapest (founded
in 1635), at Kolozsvar (founded in 1872), and at Zagrab (founded in
1874). They have four faculties: of theology, law, philosophy and
medicine. (The university at Zagrab is without a faculty of medi-
cine.) There are besides ten high schools of law, called academies,
which in 1900 were attended by 1569 pupils. The Polytechnicum
in Budapest, founded in 1844, which contains four faculties and
was attended in 1900 by 1772 pupils, is also considered a high
school. There were in Hungary in 1900 forty-nine high theological
colleges, twenty-nine Roman Catholic; five Greek Uniat, four
Greek Orthodox, ten Protestant and one Jewish. Among special
schools the principal mining schools are at Selmeczbanya, Nagyag
and Felsobanya; the principal agricultural colleges at Debreczen
and Kolozsvar; and there are a school of forestry at Selmeczbanya,
military colleges at Budapest, Kassa, D6va and Zagrab, and a
naval school at Fiume. There are besides an adequate number of
training institutes for teachers, a great number of schools of
commerce, several art schools for design, painting, sculpture,
music, &c. Most of these special schools are of recent origin, and
are almost entirely maintained by the state or the communes.
The richest libraries in Hungary are the National Library at
Budapest; the University Library, also at Budapest, and the library
of the abbey of Pannonhalma. Besides the museums mentioned in
the article Budapest, several provincial towns contain interesting
museums, namely, Pressburg, Temesvar, DeVa, Kolozsvar, Nagysze-
ben; further, the national museum at Zagram, the national
(Szfikler) museum at Maros-Vasarhely, and the Carpathian museum
at Poprad should be mentioned.
At the head of the learned and scientific societies stands the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, founded in 1830; the Kisfaludy
Society, the Petofi Society, and numerous societies of specialists,
as the historical, geographical, &c., with their centre at Budapest.
There are besides a number of learned societies in the various
provinces for the fostering of special provincial or national aims.
There are also a number of societies for the propagation of culture,
both amongst the Hungarian and the non-Hungarian nationalities.
Worth mentioning are also the two Carpathian societies: the
Hungarian and the Transylvanian.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. Umlauft, Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in
Wort und Bild (Vienna, 1879-1889, 15 vols., I2th volume, 1886,
deals with Hungary), Die osterreichische Monarchie in Wort und
Bild (Vienna 1888-1902, 24 vols., 7 vols. are devoted to Hungary),
Die Volker Osterreich-Ungarns (Teschen, 1881-1885, I2 vols.); A.
Supan, " Osterreich-Ungarn " (Vienna, 1889, in KirchhofF s Lander-
kunde von Europa, vol. it.); Auerbach, Les Races.et les nationalit&s en
Autriche-Hongrie (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, Osterreich-ungarisches
Ortslexikon (Vienna, 1896); Hungary, Its People, Places and Politics.
The Journey of the Eighty Club to Hungary in 1906 (London,
1907); R. W. Seton- Watson (" Scotus Viator"), Racial Problems
in Hungary (London, 1908), a strong indictment of the racial
policy of the Magyars, supported by exact references and many
1 The methods pursued to this end are exposed in pitiless detail
by Mr Seton-Watson in his chapter on the Education Laws of
Hungary, in Racial Problems, 205.
documents, mainly concerned with the Slovaks; Ren6 Gonnard,
La Hongrie au XX' siecle (Paris, 1908), an admirable descrip-
tion of the country and its people, mainly from the point of
view of economic development and social conditions; Geoffrey
Drage, Austria-Hungary (London, 1909), a very useful book of
reference; P. Alden (editor), Hungary of To-day, by members of
the Hungarian Government (London, 1909); see also " The Problem
of Hungary " in the Edinburgh Review (No. 429) for July 1909.
The various reports of the Central Statistical Office at Budapest
contain all the necessary statistical data. A summary of them is
annually published under the title Magyar statisztikai Evkonyo
(Statistical Year-Book of Hungary). (0. BR.)
II. HISTORY
When Arpad, the semi-mythical founder of the Magyar
monarchy, at the end of A.D. 895 led his savage hordes through
the Vereczka pass into the regions of the Upper
Theiss, the land, now called Hungary, was, for the most conquest.
part, in the possession of Slavs or semi-Slavs. From
the Riesengebirge to the Vistula, and from the Moldau to the
Draye, extended the shadowy empire of Moravia, founded by
Moimir and Svatopluk (c. 850-890), which collapsed so com-
pletely at the first impact of the Magyars that, ten years after
their arrival, not a trace of it remained. The Bulgarians, Serbs,
Croats and Avars in the southern provinces were subdued with
equal ease. Details are wanting, but the traditional decisive
battle was fought at Alpar on the Theiss, whereupon the victors
pressed on to Orsova, and the conquest was completed by
Arpad about the year 906. This forcible intrusion of a non-
Aryan race altered the whole history of Europe; but its peculiar
significance lay in the fact that it permanently divided the
northern from the southern and the eastern from the western
Slavs. The inevitable consequence of this rupture was the
Teutonizing of the western branch of the great Slav family,
which, no longer able to stand alone, and cut off from both
Rome and Constantinople, was forced, in self-defence, to take
Christianity, and civilization along with it, from Germany.
During the following seventy years we know next to nothing
of the internal history of the Magyars. Arpad died in 907, and
his immediate successors, Zsolt (907-947) and Taksony (947-972),
are little more than chronological landmarks. This was the
period of those devastating raids which made the savage Magyar
horsemen the scourge and the terror of Europe. We have an
interesting description of their tactics from the pen of the
emperor Leo VI., whose account of them is confirmed by the
contemporary Russian annals. Trained riders, archers and
javelin-throwers from infancy, they advanced to the attack
in numerous companies following hard upon each other, avoiding
close quarters, but wearing out their antagonists by the persist-
ency of their onslaughts. Scarce a corner of Europe was safe
from them. First (908-910) they ravaged Thuringia, Swabia
and Bavaria, and defeated the Germans on the Lechfeld, where-
upon the German king Henry I. bought them off for nine years,
employing the respite in reorganizing his army and training
cavalry, which henceforth became the principal military arm
of the Empire. In 933 the war was resumed, and Henry, at the
head of what was really the first national German army, defeated
the Magyars at Gotha and at Ried (933). The only effect of
these reverses was to divert them elsewhere. Already, in 926,
they had crossed the Rhine and ravaged Lotharingia. In 934
and 942 they raided the Eastern Empire, and were bought off
under the very walls of Constantinople. In 943 Taksony led
them into Italy, when they penetrated as far as Otranto. In
955 they ravaged Burgundy. The same year the emperor
Otto I. proclaimed them the enemies of God and humanity,
refused to receive their ambassadors, and finally, at the famous
battle of the Lechfeld, overwhelmed them on the very scene
of their first victory, near Augsburg, which they were besieging
(Aug. 10, 955). Only seven of the Magyars escaped, and these
were sold as slaves on their return home.
The catastrophe of the Lechfeld convinced the leading Magyars
of the necessity of accommodating themselves as far as possible
to the Empire, especially in the matter of religion. Christianity
had already begun to percolate Hungary. A large proportion
902
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
of the captives of the Magyars had been settled all over the
country to teach their conquerors the arts of peace, and close
Acce t- contact with this civilizing element was of itself an
aace of enlightenment. The moral superiority of Christianity
Christ!- to paganism was speedily obvious. The only question
*atty. was w hj c ij form of Christianity were the Magyars to
adopt, the Eastern or the Western? Constantinople was the
first in the field. The splendour of the imperial city profoundly
impressed all the northern barbarians, and the Magyars, during
the xoth century, saw a great deal of the Greeks. One Tran-
sylvanian raider, Gyula, brought back with him from Constanti-
nople a Greek monk, Hierothus (c. 950), who was consecrated
" first bishop of Turkia." Simultaneously a brisk border trade
was springing up between the Greeks and the Magyars, and the
Greek chapmen brought with them their religion as well as their
wares. Everything at first tended to favour thf propaganda
of the Greek Church. But ultimately political prevailed over
religious considerations. Alarmed at the sudden revival of the
Eastern Empire, which under the Macedonian dynasty extended
once more to the Danube, and thus became the immediate
neighbour of Hungary, Duke Geza, who succeeded Taksony
in 972, shrewdly resolved to accept Christianity from the more
distant and therefore less dangerous emperor of the West.
Accordingly an embassy was sent to Otto II. at Quedlinburg
in 973, and in 975 Geza and his whole family were baptized.
During his reign, however, Hungarian Christianity did not
extend much beyond the limits of his court. The nation at
large was resolutely pagan, and Geza, for his own sake, was
obliged to act warily. Moreover, by accepting Christianity
from Germany, he ran the risk of imperilling the independence
of Hungary. Hence his cautious, dilatory tactics: the encourage-
ment of Italian propagandists, who were few, the discouragement
of German propagandists, who were many. Geza, in short,
regarded the whole matter from a statesman's point of view,
and was content to leave the solution to time and his successor.
That successor, Stephen I. (q.v.), was one of the great construc-
tive statesmen of history. His long and strenuous reign (997-
103*5) resulted in the firm establishment of the Hun-
' garian church and the Hungarian state. The great
work may be said to have begun in 1001, when Pope Silvester II.
recognized Magyar nationality by endowing the young Magyar
prince with a kingly crown. Less fortunate than his great
exemplar, Charlemagne, Stephen had to depend entirely upon
foreigners men like the Saxon Asztrik 1 (c. 976-1010), the first
Hungarian primate; the Lombard St Gellert (c. 977-1046);
the Bosomanns, a German family, better known under the
Magyarized form of their name Pazmany, and many others
who came to Hungary in the suite of his enlightened consort
Gisela of Bavaria. By these men Hungary was divided into
dioceses, with a metropolitan see at Esztergom (Gran), a city
originally founded by Geza, but richly embellished by Stephen,
whose Italian architects built for him there the first Hungarian
cathedral dedicated to St Adalbert. Towns, most of them also
the sees of bishops, now sprang up everywhere, including
Szekesfehervar (Stuhlweissenburg) , Veszprem, Pecs (Funfkirchen)
and Gyor (Raab). Esztergom, Stephen's favourite residence,
was the capital, and continued to be so for the next two centuries.
But the Benedictines, whose settlement in Hungary dates from
the establishment of their monastery at Pannonhalma (c. 1001),
were the chief pioneers. Every monastery erected in the Magyar
wildernesses was not only a centre of religion, but a focus of
civilization. The monks cleared the forests, cultivated the
recovered land, and built villages for the colonists who flocked
to them, teaching the people western methods of agriculture and
western arts and handicrafts. But conversion, after all, was the
chief aim of these devoted missionaries, and when some Venetian
priests had invented a Latin alphabet for the Magyar language
a great step had been taken towards its accomplishment.
The monks were soon followed by foreign husbandmen,
artificers and handicraftsmen, who were encouraged to come to
Hungary by reports of the abundance of good .land there and-
1 Ger. Ottrik, in religion Anastasius.
county
system.
the promise of privileges. This immigration was also stimulated
by the terrible condition of western Europe between 987 and
1060, when it was visited by an endless succession of bad harvests
and epidemics. 2 Hungary, now better known to Europe, came
to be regarded as a Promised Land, and, by the end of Stephen's
reign, Catholics of all nationalities, Greeks, Pagans, Jews and
Mahommedans were living securely together within her borders.
For, inexorable as Stephen ever was towards fanatical pagans,
renegades and rebels, he was too good a statesman to inquire
too closely into the private religious opinions of useful and
quiet citizens.
In endeavouring, with the aid of the church, to establish
his kingship on the Western model Stephen had the immense
advantage of building on unencumbered ground,
the greater part of the soil of the country being at his The
absolute disposal. His authority, too, was absolute,
being tempered only by the shadowy right of the Magyar
nation to meet in general assembly; and this authority he was
careful not to compromise by any slavish imitation of that
feudal polity by which in the West the royal power was becoming
obscured. Although he broke off the Magyar tribal system,
encouraged the private ownership of land, and even made
grants of land on condition of military service in order to
secure an armed force independent of the national levy he
based his new principle of government, not on feudalism, but
on the organization of the Prankish empire, which he adapted
to suit the peculiar exigencies of his realm. Of the institutions
thus borrowed and adapted the most notable was the famous
county system which still plays so conspicuous a part in
Hungarian national life. Central and western Hungary (the
south and north-east still being desolate) were divided into
forty-six counties (iiannegyek, Lat. comitatus). At the head of
each county was placed a count, or lord-lieutenant 3 (Foispdn,
Lat. comes), who nominated his subordinate officials: the
castellan (i/drnagy), chief captain (hadnagy) and " hundredor "
(szfaados, Lat. centurio). The lord-lieutenant was nominated
by the king, whom he was bound to follow to battle at the first
summons. Two-thirds of the revenue of the county went into the
royal treasury, the remaining third the lord-lieutenant retained
for administrative purposes. In the county system were in-
cluded all the inhabitants of the country save two classes:
the still numerous pagan clans, and those nobles who were
attached to the king's person, from whom he selected his chief
officers of state and the members of his council, of which we now
hear for the first time.
It is significant for the whole future of Hungary that no effort
was or could be made by Stephen to weld the heterogeneous races
under his crown into a united nation. The body politic consisted,
after as before, of the king and the whole mass of Magyar freemen
or nobles, descendants of Arpad's warriors, theoretically all
equal in spite of growing inequalities of wealth and power, who
constituted the populus; privileges were granted by the king
to foreign immigrants in the cities, and the rights of nobility
were granted to non-Magyars for special services; but, in
general, the non-Magyars were ruled by the royal governors as
subject races, forming in contradistinction to the " nobles "-
the mass of the peasants, the misera contribuens plebs upon whom
until 1848 nearly the whole burden of taxation fell. The right,
not often exercised, of the Magyar nobles to meet in general
assembly and the elective character of the crown Stephen also
did not venture to touch. On the other hand, his example in
manumitting most of his slaves, together with the precepts of
the church, practically put an end to slavery in the course of
the I3th century, the slaves becoming for the most part serfs,
who differed from the free peasants only in the fact that they
were attached to the soil (adscripti glebae).
At this time all the conditions of life in Hungary were simple
2 At its worst, c. 1030-1033, cannibalism was-common.
3 The English title of lord-lieutenant is generally used as the
best translation of Foispdn or conies (in this connexion). The title
of count (grof) was assumed later (l5th century) by those nobles
who had succeeded, in spite of the Golden Bull, in making their
authority over whole counties independent and hereditary. [Ed.]
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
93
and primitive. The court itself was perambulatory. In summer
the king dispensed justice in the open air, under a large tree.
Only in the short winter months did he dwell in the house built
for him at Esztergom by his Italian architects. The most
valuable part of his property still consisted of flocks and herds,
or the products of the labours of his serfs, a large proportion of
whom were bee-keepers, hunters and fishers employed in and
around the interminable virgin-forests of the rough-hewn young
monarchy.
A troubled forty years (1038-1077) divides the age of St Stephen
from the age of St Ladislaus. Of the six kings who reigned in
Hungary during that period three died violent deaths, and
the other three were fighting incessantly against foreign and
domestic foes. In 1046, and again in 1061, two dangerous pagan
risings shook the very foundations of the infant church and
state; the western provinces were in constant danger from the
attacks of the acquisitive emperors, and from the south and south-
east two separate hordes of fierce barbarians (the Petchenegs
in 1067-1068, and the Rumanians in 1071-1072) burst over the
land. It was the general opinion abroad that the Magyars would
either relapse into heathendom, or become the vassals of the Holy
Roman Empire, and this opinion was reflected in the increasingly
hostile attitude of the popes towards the Arpad kings. The
political independence of Hungary was ultimately secured by
the outbreak of the quarrel about investiture (1076), when
Geza I. (1074-1077) shrewdly applied to Pope Gregory
VII. for assistance, and submitted to accept his
kingdom from him as a fief of the Holy See. The immediate
result of the papal alliance was to enable Hungary, under both
Ladislaus and his capable successor Coloman [Kalman] (1095-
1116), to hold her own against all her enemies, and extend her
dominion abroad by conquering Croatia and a portion of the
Dalmatian coast. As an incipient great power, she was beginning
to feel the need of a seaboard.
In the internal administration both Ladislaus I. and Coloman
approved themselves worthy followers of St Stephen. Ladislaus
planted large Petcheneg colonies in Transylvania and
f 1md /a " S tne tran -Dravian provinces, and established military
Coloman. cordons along the constantly threatened south-eastern
boundary, the germs of the future banates 1 (bdnsagok)
which were to play such an important part in the national
defence in the following century. Law and order were enforced
with the utmost rigour. In that rough age crimes of violence
predominated, and the king's justiciars regularly perambulated
the land in search of offenders, and decimated every village which
refused to surrender fugitive criminals. On the other hand,
both the Jews and the " Ishmaelites " (Mahommedans) enjoyed
complete civil and religious liberty in Hungary, where, indeed,
they were too valuable to be persecuted. The Ishmaelites,
the financial experts of the day, were the official mint-masters,
treasurers and bankers. The clergy, the only other educated class,
supplied the king with his lawyers, secretaries and ambassadors.
The Magyar clergy was still a married clergy, and their connubial
privileges were solemnly confirmed by the synod of Szabolcs,
presided over by the king, in 1092. So firmly rooted in the land
was this practice, that Coloman, much as he needed the assistance
of the Holy See in his foreign policy, was only with the utmost
difficulty induced, in 1106, to bring the Hungarian church into
line with the rest of the Catholic world by enforcing clerical
celibacy. Coloman was especially remarkable as an administrative
reformer, and Hungary, during his reign, is said to have been
the best -governed state in Europe. He regulated and simplified
the whole system of taxation, encouraged agriculture by dif-
ferential duties in favour of the farmers, and promoted trade by
a systematic improvement of the ways of communication.
The Magna via Colomanni Regis was in use for centuries after
his death. Another important reform was the law permitting
the free disposal of landed estate, which gave the holders an
increased interest in their property, and an inducement to im-
prove it. During the reign of Coloman, moreover, the number
of freemen was increased by the frequent manumission of serfs.
1 The bdn is equivalent to the margrave, or count of the marches.
The lot of the slaves was also somewhat ameliorated by the
law forbidding their exportation.
Throughout the greater part of the i2th century the chief
impediment in the way of the external development of the
Hungarian monarchy was the Eastern Empire, which, Rivalry
under the first three princes of the Comnenian dynasty, with the
dominated south-eastern Europe. During the earlier Eastern
part of that period the Magyars competed on fairly
equal terms with their imperial rivals for the possession of
Dalmatia, Rascia (the original home of the Servians, situated
between Bosnia, Dalmatia and Albania) and Rama or northern
Bosnia (acquired by Hungary in 1135); but on the accession
of Manuel Comnenus in 1143 the struggle became acute. As
the grandson of St Ladislaus, Manuel had Hungarian blood in
his veins; his court was the ready and constant refuge of the
numerous Magyar malcontents, and he aimed not so much at
the conquest as at the suzerainty of Hungary, by placing one
of his Magyar kinsmen on the throne of St Stephen. He success-
fully supported the claims of no fewer than three pretenders to
the Magyar throne, and finally made Bela III. (1173-1196) king
of Hungary, on condition that he left him, Manuel, a free hand
in Dalmatia. The intervention of the Greek emperors had im-
portant consequences for Hungary. Politically it increased the
power of the nobility at the expense of the crown, every com-
peting pretender naturally endeavouring to win adherents by
distributing largesse in the shape of crown-lands. Ecclesi-
astically it weakened the influence of the Catholic Church in
Hungary, the Greek Orthodox Church, which permitted a
married clergy and did not impose the detested tithe (the
principal cause of nearly every pagan revolt) attracting thousands
of adherents even among the higher clergy. At one time, indeed,
a Magyar archbishop and four or five bishops openly joined the
Orthodox communion and willingly crowned Manuel's nominees
despite the anathemas of their Catholic brethren.
The Eastern Empire ceased to be formidable on the death of
Manuel (1080), and Hungary was free once more to pursue a
policy of aggrandizement. In Dalmatia the Venetians B ^ /a m
were too strong for her; but she helped materially to
break up the Byzantine rule in the Balkan peninsula by assisting
Stephen Nemanya to establish an independent Servian kingdom,
originally under nominal Hungarian suzerainty. Bela en-
deavoured to strengthen his own monarchy by introducing the
hereditary principle, crowning his infant son Emerich, as his
successor during his own lifetime, a practice followed by most
of the later Arpads; he also held a brilliant court on the Byzan-
tine model, and replenished the treasury by his wise economies.
Unfortunately the fruits of his diligence and foresight were
dissipated by the follies of his two immediate successors, Emerich
(1196-1204) and Andrew II. (q.v.}, who weakened the Aa<lrew H
royal power in attempting to win support by lavish
grants of the crown domains on the already over-influential
magnates, a policy from which dates the supremacy of the
semi-savage Magyar oligarchs, that insolent and self-seeking
class which would obey no superior and trampled ruthlessly
on every inferior. The most conspicuous event of Andrew's
reign was the promulgation in 1222 of the so-called Golden Bull,
which has aptly been called the Magna Carta of Hungary, and
is in some of its provisions strikingly reminiscent of that signed
seven years previously by the English king John.
The Golden Bull has been described as consecrating the humiliation
of the crown by the great barons, whose usurpations it legalized;
the more usually accepted view, however, is that it was directed
not so much to weakening as to strengthening the crown by uniting
its interests with those of the mass of the Magyar nobility, equally
threatened by the encroachments of the great barons. 2 The pre-
amble, indeed, speaks of the curtailment of the liberties of the nobles
by the power of certain of the kings, and at the end the right of
armed resistance to any attempt to infringe the charter is conceded
to " the bishops and the higher and lower nobles" of the realm;
but, for the rest, its contents clearly show that it was intended to
strengthen the monarchy by ensuring " that the momentary folly
2 Andrassy, Development of Hung. Const. Liberty (Eng. trans.,
p. 93) ; Knatchbull-IIugessen, \. 26 seq., where its provisions jre
given in some detail.
94
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
or weakness of the king should not endanger the institution itself."
This is especially clear from clause xvi., which decrees that the
title and estates of the lords-lieutenant of counties should not be
hereditary, thus attacking feudalism at its very roots, while clause
xiv. provides for the degradation of any lord-lieutenant who should
abuse his office. On the other hand, the principle of the exemption
of all the nobles from taxation is confirmed, as well as their right to
refuse military service abroad, the defence of the realm being their
sole obligation. All nobles were also to have the right to appear
at the court which was to be held once a year at Sz6kesfeh6r-
var, by the king, or in his absence by the palatine, 1 for the purpose
of hearing causes. A clause also guarantees all nobles against
arbitrary arrest and punishment at the instance of any powerful
person.
This famous charter, which was amplified, under the influence
of the clergy, in 1231, when its articles were placed under the
guardianship of the archbishop of Esztergom (who was authorized
to punish their violation by the king with excommunication),
is generally regarded as the foundation of Hungarian constitu-
tional liberty, though like Magna Carta it purported only to
confirm immemorial rights; and as such it was expressly
ratified as a whole in the coronation oaths of all the Habsburg
kings from Ferdinand to Leopold I. Its actual effect in the
period succeeding its issue was, however, practically nugatory ;
if indeed it did not actually give a new handle to the subversive
claims of the powerful barons.
Bela IV. (1235-1270), the last man of genius whom the Arpads
produced, did something to curb the aristocratic misrule which
was to be one of the determining causes of the collapse
of his dynasty. But he is best known as the regenerator
of the realm after the cataclysm of 1241-1242 (see BELA IV.).
On his return from exile, after the subsidence of the Tatar deluge,
he found his kingdom in ashes; and his two great remedies,
wholesale immigration and castle-building, only sowed the seeds
of fresh disasters. Thus the Rumanian colonists, mostly pagans,
whom he settled in vast numbers on the waste lands, threatened
to overwhelm the Christian population; while the numerous
strongholds, which he encouraged his nobles to build as a protec-
tion against future Tatar invasions, subsequently became so
many centres of disloyalty. To bind the Rumanian still more
closely to his dynasty, Bela married his son Stephen V.
Stephen v. (1270-1272) to a Rumanian girl, and during the
"ausiv. " re ig n of ner son Ladislaus IV. (1272-1290) the court
was certainly more pagan than Christian. Valiant
and enterprising as both these princes were (Stephen successfully
resisted the aggressions of the brilliant " golden Ring," Ottakar
II. of Bohemia, and Ladislaus materially contributed to his
utter overthrow at Durnkrut in 1278), neither of them was
strong enough to make head against the disintegrating influences
all around them. Stephen contrived to hold his own by adroitly
contracting an alliance with the powerful Neapolitan Angevins
who had the ear of the pope; but Ladislaus (q.v.)
f" l . J the was so completely caught in the toils of the Rumanians,
o-yoasty. tnat the Holy See, the suzerain of Hungary, was
forced to intervene to prevent the relapse of the
kingdom into barbarism, and the unfortunate Ladislaus perished
in the crusade that was preached against him. An attempt
of a patriotic party to keep the last Arpad, Andrew III. (1290-
1301), on the throne was only temporarily successful, and after
a horrible eight years' civil war (1301-1308) the crown of St
Stephen finally passed into the capable hands of Charles Robert
of Naples.
During the four hundred years of the Arpad dominion the
nomadic Magyar race had established itself permanently in
central Europe, adopted western Christianity and founded a
national monarchy on the western model. Hastily and violently
converted, driven like a wedge between the Eastern and the
Western Empires, the young kingdom was exposed from the
first to extraordinary perils. But, under the guidance of a
J The full title of the palatine (Mag. nddor or nddor-ispdn, Lat.
palatinus) was comes palatii regni, the first palatine being Abu Samuel
(c. 1041). By the Golden Bull the palatine acquired something of
the quality of a responsible minister, as " intermediary between the
crown and people, guardian of the nation's rights, and keeper of
the king's conscience " (Knatchbull-Hugessen, i. 30).
series of eminent rulers, it successfully asserted itself alike against
pagan reaction from within, and aggressive, pressure from
without, and, as it grew in strength and skill, expanded territori-
ally at the expense of all its neighbours. These triumphs were
achieved while the monarchy was absolute, and thus able to
concentrate in its hands all the resources of the state, but towards
the end of the period a political revolution began. The weakness
and prodigality of the later Arpads, the depopulation of the
realm during the Tatar invasion, the infiltration of western
feudalism and, finally, the endless civil discords of the I3th
century, brought to the front a powerful and predacious class
of barons who ultimately overshadowed the throne. The
ancient county system was gradually absorbed by this new
governing element. The ancient royal tenants became the
feudatories of the great nobles, and fell naturally into two classes,
the nobiles bene possessionati, and the nobiles unius sessionis,
in other words the richer and the poorer gentry. We cannot
trace the gradations of this political revolution, but we know
that it met with determined opposition from the crown, which
resulted in the utter destruction of the Arpads, who, while
retaining to the last their splendid physical qualities, now'
exhibited u'nmistakeable signs of moral deterioration, partly
due perhaps to their too frequent marriages with semi-Oriental
Greeks and semi-savage Rumanians. On the other hand the
great nobles were the only class who won for themselves a
recognized political position. The tendency towards a repre-
sentative system of government had begun, but the almost
uninterrupted anarchy which marked the last thirty years
of the Arpad rule was no favourable time for constitutional
development. The kings were fighting for their lives, the great
nobles were indistinguishable from brigands and the whole nation
seemed to be relapsing into savagery. ,
It was reserved for the two great princes of the house of Anjou,
Charles I. (1310-1342) and Louis I. (1342-1382), to rebuild the
Hungarian state, and lead the Magyars back to
civilization. Both by character and education they ^o^ou '
were eminently fitted for the task, and all the circum-
stances were in their favour. They brought from their native
Italy a thorough knowledge of the science of government as the
middle ages understood it, and the decimation of the Hungarian
magnates during the civil wars enabled them to re-create the
noble hierarchy on a feudal basis, in which full allowance was
made for Magyar idiosyncracies. Both these monarchs were
absolute. The national assembly (Orszaggyules) was still
summoned occasionally, but at very irregular intervals, the
real business of the state being transacted in the
royal council, where able men of the middle class, ^/sT *'
principally Italians, held confidential positions. The
lesser gentry were protected against the tyranny of the
magnates, encouraged to appear at court and taxed for military
service by the royal treasury direct so as to draw them
closer to the crown. Scores of towns, too, owe their origin
and enlargement to the care .of the Angevin princes, who were
lavish of privileges and charters, and saw to it that the high-roads
were clear of robbers. Charles, moreover, was a born financier,
and his reform of the currency and of the whole fiscal system
greatly contributed to enrich both the merchant class and the
treasury. Louis encouraged the cities to surround themselves
with strong walls. He himself erected a whole cordon of forts
round the flourishing mining towns of northern Hungary.
He also appointed Hungarian consuls in foreign trade centres,
and established a system of protective tariffs. More 'important
in its ulterior consequences to Hungary was the law of 1351
which, while confirming the Golden Bull in general, abrogated
the clause (iv.) by which the nobles had the right to alienate
their lands. Henceforward their possessions were to descend
directly and as of right to their brothers and their issue, whose
claim was to be absolute. This " principle of aviticity " (osiseg,
aviticum), which survived till 1848, was intended to preserve
the large feudal estates as part of the new military system, but
its ultimate effect was to hamper the development of the country
by preventing the alienation, and therefore the mortgaging of
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
95
lands, so long as any, however distant, scion of the original
owning family survived. 1 Louis's efforts to increase the national
wealth were also largely frustrated by the Black Death, which
ravaged Hungary from 1347 to 1360, and again during 1380-1381,
carrying off at least one-fourth of the population.
Externally Hungary, under the Angevin kings, occupied a
commanding position. Both Charles and Louis were diplo-
matists as well as soldiers, and their foreign policy, largely
based on family alliances, was almost invariably successful.
Charles married Elizabeth, the sister of Casimir the Great of
Poland, with whom he was connected by ties of close friendship,
and Louis, by virtue of a compact made by his father thirty-one
years previously, added the Polish crown to that of Hungary in
1370. Thus, during the last twelve years of his reign, the
dominions of Louis the Great included the greater part of central
Europe, from Pomerania to the Danube, and from the Adriatic
to the steppes of the Dnieper.
The Angevins were less successful towards the south, where the
first signs were appearing of that storm which ultimately swept
away the Hungarian monarchy. In 1353 the Ottoman
invasions. Turks crossed the Hellespont from Asia Minor and
began that career of conquest which made them the
terror of Europe for the next three centuries. In 1360 they
conquered southern Bulgaria. In 1365 they transferred their
capital from Brusa to Adrianople. In 1371 they overwhelmed
the Servian tsar Vukashin at the battle of Taenarus and pene-
trated to the heart of old Servia. In 1380 they threatened
Croatia and Dalmatia. Hungary herself was now directly
menaced, and the very circumstances which had facilitated the
advance of the Turks, enfeebled the potential resistance of the
Magyars. The Arpad kings had succeeded in encircling their whole
southern frontier with half a dozen military colonies or banates,
comprising, roughly speaking, Little Walachia, 2 and the northern
parts of Bulgaria, Servia and Bosnia. But during this period a
redistribution of territory had occurred in these parts, which
converted most of the old banates into semi-independent and
violently anti-Magyar principalities. This was due partly to the
excessive proselytizing energy of the Angevins, which provoked
rebellion on the part of their Greek-Orthodox subjects, partly to
the natural dynastic competition of the Servian and Bulgarian
tsars, and partly to the emergence of a new nationality,
viachs. the Walachian. Previously to 1320, what is now
called Walachia was regarded by the Magyars as part
of the banate of Szoreny. The base of the very mixed and ever-
shifting population in these parts were the Viachs (Rumanians),
perhaps the descendants of Trajan's colonists, who, under their
voivode, Bazarad, led King Charles into an ambuscade from
which he barely escaped with his life (Nov. 0-12, 1330). From
this disaster are to be dated the beginnings of Walachia as an
independent state. Moldavia, again, ever since the nth century,
had been claimed by the Magyars as forming, along with Bessar-
abia and the Bukowina, a portion of the semi-mythical Etelkoz,
the original seat of the Magyars before they occupied modern
Hungary. This desolate region was subsequently peopled by
Viachs, whom the religious persecutions of Louis the Great had
driven thither from other parts of his domains, and, between
1350 and 1360, their voivode Bogdan threw off the Hungarian
yoke altogether. In Bosnia the persistent attempts of the
Magyar princes to root out the stubborn, crazy and poisonous
sect of the Bogomils had alienated the originally amicable
Bosnians, and in 1353 Louis was compelled to buy the friendship
of their Bar Tvrtko by acknowledging him as king of Bosnia.
Both Servia and Bulgaria were by this time split up into half a
dozen principalities which, as much for religious as for political
reasons, preferred paying tribute to the Turks to acknowledging
the hegemony of Hungary. Thus, towards the end of his reign,
Louis found himself cut off from the Greek emperor, his sole ally
in the Balkans, by a chain of bitterly hostile Greek-Orthodox
states, extending from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. The
1 Knatchbull-Hugessen, i. 41.
2 That is to say the western portion of Walachia, which lies
between the Aluta and the Danube.
commercial greed of the Venetians, who refused to aid him with
a fleet to cut off the T^irks in Europe from the Turks in Asia
Minor, nullified Louis' last practical endeavour to cope with a
danger which from the first he had estimated at its true value.
Louis the Great left two infant daughters: Maria, who was
to share the throne of Poland with her betrothed, Sigismund of
Pomerania, and Hedwig, better known by her Polish name of
Jadwiga, who was to reign over Hungary with her young bride-
groom, William of Austria. This plan was upset by the queen-
dowager Elizabeth, who determined to rule both kingdoms
during the minority of her children. Maria, her favourite, with
whom she refused to part, was crowned queen of Hungary a
week after her father's death (Sept. 17, 1382). Two years later
Jadwiga, reluctantly transferred to the Poles instead of her
sister, was crowned queen of Poland at Cracow (Oct. 15, 1384)
and subsequently compelled to marry Jagiello, grand-duke of
Lithuania. In Hungary, meanwhile, impatience at the rule of
women induced the great family of the Horvathys to offer the
crown of St Stephen to Charles III. of Naples, who, despite the
oath of loyalty he had sworn to his benefactor, Louis the Great,
accepted the offer, landed in Dalmatia with a small Italian army,
and, after occupying Buda, was crowned king of Hungary on the
3ist of December, 1385, as Charles II. His reign lasted thirty-
eight days. On the 7th of February, 1386, he was treacherously
attacked in the queen-dowager's own apartments, at her instiga-
tion, and died of his injuries a few days later. But Elizabeth did
not profit long by this atrocity. In July the same year, while
on a pleasure trip with her daughter, she was captured by the
Horvathys, and tortured to death in her daughter's presence.
Maria herself would doubtless have shared the same fate, but for
the speedy intervention of her fianct, whom a diet, by the
advice of the Venetians, had elected to rule the headless realm on
the 3ist of March 1387. He married Maria in June the same
year, and she shared the sceptre with him till her sudden death
by accident on the i7th of May 1395.
During the long reign of Sigismund (1387-1437) Hungary was
brought face to face with the Turkish peril in its most threatening
shape, and all the efforts of the king were directed
towards combating or averting it. However sorry a
figure Sigismund may have cut as emperor in Germany,
as king of Hungary he claims our respect, and as king
of Hungary he should be judged, for he ruled her, not
unsuccessfully, for fifty years during one of the most difficult
crises of her history, whereas his connexion with Germany was
at best but casual and transient. 3 From the first he recognized
that his chief duty was to drive the Turks from Europe, or, at
least, keep them out of Hungary, and this noble ambition was
the pivot of his whole policy. A domestic rebellion (1387-1395)
prevented him at the outset from executing his design till 1396,
and if the hopes of Christendom were shattered at Nicopolis, the
failure was due to no fault of his, but to the haughty insubordina-
tion of the feudal levies. Again, his inaction during those memor-
able twelve years (1401-1413) when the Turkish empire, after the
collapse at Angora (1402), seemed about to be swallowed up by
" the great wolf " Tamerlane, was due entirely to the malice of
the Holy See, which, enraged at his endeavours to maintain the
independence of the Magyar church against papal aggression
(the diet of 1404, on Sigismund's initiative, had declared bulls
bestowing Magyar benefices on foreigners, without the royal
consent, pernicious and illegal), saddled him with a fresh rebellion
and two wars with Venice, resulting ultimately in the total loss of
Dalmatia (c. 1430). Not till 1409 could Sigismund be said to be
king in his own realm, yet in 1413 we find him traversing Europe
in his endeavour to terminate the Great Schism, as the first step
towards uniting Christendom once more against the Turk.
Hence the council of Constance to depose three rival popes;
hence the council of Basel to pacify the Hussites, and promote
another anti-Moslem league. But by this time the Turkish
3 Though elected king of the Romans in 1411, he cannot be
regarded as the legal emperor till his coronation at Rome in 1423,
and if he was titular king of Bohemia as early as 1419, he was not
acknowledged as king by the Czechs themselves till 1436.
906
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
empire had been raised again from its ruins by Mahommed I.
(1402-1421), and resumed its triumphal progress under Murad
II. (1421-1451). Yet even now Sigismund, at the head of his
Magyars, thrice (1422-1424, 1426-1427, and 1430-1431) en-
countered the Turks, not ingloriously, in the open field, till,
recognizing that Hungary must thenceforth rely entirely on her
own resources in any future struggle with Islam, he elaborately
fortified the whole southern frontier, and converted the little fort
of Nandorfehervar, later Belgrade, at the junction of the Danube
and Save, into an enormous first-class fortress, which proved
strong enough to repel all the attacks of the Turks for more than
a century. It argued no ordinary foresight thus to recognize
that Hungary's strategy in her contest with the Turks must be
strictly defensive, and the wisdom of Sigismund was justified by
the disasters which almost invariably overcame the later Magyar
kings whenever they ventured upon aggressive warfare with
the sultans.
A monarch so overburdened with cares was naturally always
in need of money, 1 and thus obliged to lean heavily upon the
support of the estates of the realm. The importance and
influence of the diet increased proportionately. It met every
year, sometimes twice a year, during Sigismund's reign, and was
no longer, as in the days of Louis the Great, merely a consultative
council, but a legislative body in partnership with the king.
It was still, however, essentially an assembly of notables, lay
and clerical, at which the gentry, though technically eligible,
do not seem to have been directly represented. At Sigismund's
first diet (1397) it was declared that the king might choose his
counsellors where he listed, and at the diet of 1397 he invited
the free and royal towns to send their deputies to the parliament.
Subsequently this privilege was apparently erected into a statute,
but how far it was acted upon we know not. Sigismund, more
fortunate than the Polish kings, seems to have had little trouble
with his diets. This was largely due to his friendly intimacy
with the majority of the Magyar notables, from among whom
he chose his chief counsellors. The estates loyally supported
him against the attempted exactions of the popes, and do not seem
to have objected to any of his reforms, chief among which was
the army-reform project of 1435, to provide for the better
defence of the land against the Turks. This measure obliged all
the great dignitaries, and the principal towns also, according to
their means, to maintain a banderium of five hundred horsemen,
or a proportional part thereof, and hold it ready, at the first
summons, thus supplying the crown with a standing army
76,875 strong. In addition to this, a reserve force called the
telekkatonas&g was recruited from among the lesser gentry
according to their teleks or holdings, every thirty-three teleks
being held responsible for a mounted and fully equipped archer.
Moreover, river fleets, built by Genoese masters and manned by
Servians, were constructed to patrol and defend the great rivers
of Hungary, especially on the Turkish frontier. Much as he
owed to them, however, Sigismund was no mere nobles' king.
His care for the common people was sincere and constant, but
his beneficial efforts in this direction were thwarted by the
curious interaction of two totally dissimilar social
system. factors, feudalism and Hussitism. In Sigismund's
reign the feudal system, for the first time, became
deeply rooted in Magyar soil, and it is a lamentable fact that
in isth-century Hungary it is to be seen at its very worst,
especially in those wild tracts, and they were many, in which the
king's writ could hardly be said to run. Simultaneously from
Hussites tne west came tne Hussite propagandists teaching
that all men were equal, and that all property should
be held in common. The suffering Magyar multitudes eagerly
responded to these seductive teachings, and the result was a
series of dangerous popular risings (the worst in 1433 and 1436)
in which heresy and communism were inextricably intermingled.
With the aid of inquisitors from Rome, the evil was literally
burnt out, but not before provinces, especially in the south and
1 In 1412 he pawned the twenty-four Zips towns to Poland, and,
In 1411 he pledged his margraviate of Brandenburg to the Hohen-
zollcrns.
south-east, had been utterly depopulated. They were re-
peopled by Vlachs.
Yet despite the interminable wars and rebellions which
darken the history of Hungary in the reign of Sigismund, the
country, on the whole, was progressing. Its ready response
to the king's heavy demands for the purpose of the national
defence points to the existence of a healthy and self-sacrificing
public spirit, and the eagerness with which the youth of all classes
now began to flock to the foreign universities is another satis-
factory feature of the age. Between 1362 and 1450 no fewer
than 4151 Magyar students frequented the university of
Vienna, nearly as many went by preference to Prague, and this,
too, despite the fact that there were now two universities in
Hungary itself, the old foundation of Louis the Great at Pecs,
and a new one established at Buda by Sigismund.
Like Louis the Great before him, Sigismund had failed to
found a dynasty, but, fifteen years before his death, he had
succeeded in providing his only daughter Elizabeth with a
consort apparently well able to protect both her and her in-
heritance in the person of Albert V., duke of Austria. Albert,
a sturdy soldier, who had given brilliant proofs of valour and
generalship in the Hussite wars, was crowned king of Hungary
at Szekesfehervar (Stuhlweissenburg) on the ist of January
1438, elected king of the Romans at Frankfort on the i8th of
March 1438, and crowned king of Bohemia at Prague on the
2gth of June 1438. On returning to Buda in 1439, he at once
plunged into a war with the Turks, who had, in the meantime,
captured the important Servian fortress of Semendria and
subjugated the greater part of Bosnia. But the king got no
farther than Servia, and was carried off by dysentery (Oct. 27,
1439), in the forty-second year of his age, in the course of the
campaign.
Albert left behind him two infant daughters only, but his
consort was big with child, and, in the event of that child proving
to be an heir male, his father's will bequeathed to him the
kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, under the regency of
his mother. Thus, with the succession uncertain, with the
Turk at the very door, with the prospect, dismal at the best,
of a long minority, the political outlook was both embarrassing
and perilous. Obviously a warrior-king was preferable .to a
regimen of women and children, and the eyes of the wiser
Magyars turned involuntarily towards VVladislaus III. of Poland,
who, though only in his nineteenth year, was already renowned
for his martial disposition. \Vladislaus accepted the proffered
throne from the Magyar delegates at Cracow on the 8th of
March 1440; but in the meantime (Feb. 22) the queen-widow
gave birth to a son who, six weeks later, as Ladislaus V. (q.v.)
was crowned kijg of Hungary (May 15) at Szekesfehervar. On
the 22nd of May the Polish monarch appeared at Buda, was
unanimously elected king of Hungary under the title of \\ ladislaus
I. (June 24) and crowned on the I7th of July. This duoregnum
proved even more injurious to Hungary than the dreaded
interregnum. Queen Elizabeth, aided by her kinsmen, the
emperor Frederick III. and the counts of Cilli, flooded northern
and western Hungary with Hussite mercenaries, one of whom,
Jan Giszkra, she made her captain-general, while \Yladislaus
held the central and south-eastern parts of the realm. The
resulting civil war was terminated only by the death of Elizabeth
on the i3th of December 1443.
All this time the pressure of the Turks upon the southern
provinces of Hungary had been continuous, but fortunately
all their efforts had so far been frustrated by the
valour and generalship of the ban of Szoreny, John
Hunyadi, the fame of whose victories, notably in 1442
and 1443, encouraged the Holy See to place Hungary for the
third time at the head of a general crusade against the infidel.
The experienced diplomatist Cardinal Cesarini was accordingly
sent to Hungary to reconcile Wladislaus with the emperor.
The king, who had just returned from the famous " long cam-
paign " of 1443, willingly accepted the leadership of the Christian
League. At the diet of Buda, early in 1444, supplies were voted
for the enterprise, and Wladislaus was on the point of quitting
hg
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
907
his camp at Szeged for the seat of war, when envoys from Sultan
Murad arrived with the offer of a ten years' truce on such favour-
able conditions (they included the relinquishment of Servia,
Walachia and Moldavia, and the payment of an indemnity)
that Hunyadi persuaded the king to conclude (in July) a peace
which gave him more than could reasonably be anticipated from
the most successful campaign. Unfortunately, two days later,
Cardinal Cesarini absolved the king from the oath whereby he
had sworn to observe the peace of Szeged, and was thus mainly
responsible for the catastrophe of Varna, when four months
later (Nov. 10) the young monarch and the flower of the Magyar
chivalry were overwhelmed by fourfold odds on Turkish soil.
(See HUNYADI, JANOS; and W LADISLAUS III.)
The next fourteen years form one of the most interesting and
pregnant periods of Hungarian history. It marks the dawn
of a public spirit as represented by the gentry, who, alarmed
at the national peril and justly suspicious of the ruling magnates,
unhesitatingly placed their destinies in the hands of Hunyadi,
the one honest man who by sheer merit had risen within the
last ten years from the humble position of a country squire
to a leading position in the state. This feeling of confidence
found due expression at the diet of 1446, which deliberately
passing over the palatine Laszlo Garai elected Hunyadi governor
of Hungary, and passed a whole series of popular measures
intended to be remedial, e.g. the decree ordering the demolition
of the new castles, most of them little better than robber-strong-
holds; the decree compelling the great officers of state to
suspend their functions during the session of the diet; the
decree declaring illegal the new fashion of forming confederations
on the Polish model, all of which measures were obviously
directed against the tyranny and the lawlessness of the oligarchy.
Unfortunately this salutary legislation remained a dead letter.
It was as much as the governor could do to save the state from
destruction, let alone reform it. At this very time northern
Hungary, including the wealthy mining towns, was in the
possession of the Hussite mercenary Jan Giszkra, who held
them nominally for the infant king Ladislaus V., still detained
at Vienna, by his kinsman the emperor. The western provinces
were held by Frederick himself. Invaluable time was wasted
in negotiating with these intruders before the governor could
safely devote himself to the task of expelling the Turk from the
southern provinces. He had to be content with armistices,
reconciliations and matrimonial contracts, because the great
dignitaries of the state, men like the palatine Laszlo Garai,
Count Ulrich of Cilli, and the voivode of Transylvania, Mihaly
Ujlaky, thwarted in every way the novus homo whom they hated
and envied. From them, the official guardians of Hungary's
safety, he received no help, either during his governorship (1446-
!4S3) r when, in 1454, on the eve of his departure for his last
and most glorious campaign, the diet commanded a levee en
masse of the whole population in his support. At that critical
hour it was at his own expense that Hunyadi fortified Belgrade,
now the sole obstacle between Hungary and destruction, with
the sole assistance of the Franciscan friar Giovanni da Capistrano,
equipped the fleet and the army which relieved the beleaguered
fortress and overthrew Mahommed II. But the nation at least
was grateful, and after his death (Aug. n, 1456) it freely trans-
ferred its allegiance to his family as represented by his two
sons, Laszlo, now in his 23rd, and Matthias, now in his i6th
year. The judicial murder of Laszl6 Hunyadi (q.v.) by the
enemies of his house (March 16, 1457) was therefore a stupid
blunder as well as the foulest of crimes, and on the death of his
chief assassin, Ladislaus V., six months later (Nov. 23, 1457),
the diet which assembled on the banks of the Rakos, in defiance
of the magnates and all foreign competitors, unanimously and
enthusiastically elected Matthias Hunyadi king of Hungary
(Jan. 24, 1458).
In less than three years the young king had justified their
confidence, and delivered his country from its worst embarrass-
ments. (See MATTHIAS I., king of Hungary.) This
prodigy was accomplished in the face of every
conceivable obstacle. His first diet grudgingly granted him
Matthias I.
supplies and soldiers for the Turkish war, on condition that
under no circumstances whatever should they henceforth be
called upon to contribute towards the national defence, and he
was practically deprived of the control of the banderia or
mounted militia. It was with a small force of mercenaries,
raised at his own expense, that the young king won his first
Turkish victories, and expelled the Czechs from his northern
and the Habsburgs from his western provinces. But his limited
resources, and, above all, the proved incapacity of the militia
in the field, compelled him instantly to take in hand the vital
question of army reform. In the second year of his reign he
undertook personally the gigantic task of providing Hungary
with an army adequate to her various needs on the model of the
best military science of the day. The landless younger sons
of the gentry and the Servian and Vlach immigrants provided
him with excellent and practically inexhaustible military
material. The old feudal levies he put aside. Brave enough
personally, as soldiers they were distinctly inferior both to the
Janissaries and the Hussites, with both of whom Matthias had
constantly to contend. It was a trained regular army in his
pay and consequently at his disposal that he wanted. The
nucleus of the new army he found in the Czech mercenaries,
seasoned veterans who readily transferred their services to the
best payer. This force, formed in 1459, was generally known
as the Fekete Sereg, or "Black Brigade," from the colour of its
armour. From 1465 the pick of the Magyars and Croatians
were enlisted in the same way every year, till, towards the end
of his reign, Matthias could count upon 20,000 horse and 8000
foot, besides 6000 black brigaders. The cavalry consisted of
the famous Hussars, or light horse, of which he may be said to
have been the creator, and the heavily armed mounted musketeers
on the Czech-German model. The infantry, in like manner,
was divided into light and heavy. This army was provided
with a regular commissariat, cannon 1 and ballistic machines,
and, being constantly on active service, was always in a high
state of efficiency. The land forces were supported by a river
fleet consisting (in 1479) of 360 vessels, mostly sloops and
corvettes, manned by 2600 sailors, generally Croats, and carrying
10,000 soldiers. Eight large military stations were also built
at the chief strategic points on the Danube, Save and Theiss.
These armaments, which cost Matthias 1,000,000 florins per
annum, equivalent to 200,000, did not include the auxiliary
troops of the hospodars of Walachia and Moldavia, or the
feudal levies of the barons and prelates.
The army of Matthias was not only a military machine of
first-rate efficiency, but an indispensable civilizing medium.
It enabled the king to curb the lawlessness of the Magyar nobility,
and explains why none of the numerous rebellions against him
ever succeeded. Again and again, during his absence on the
public service, the barons and prelates would assemble to
compass his ruin or dispose of his crown, when, suddenly,
" like a tempest," from the depths of Silesia or of Bosnia, he
would himself appear among them, confounding and scattering
them, often without resistance, always without bloodshed. He
also frequently employed his soldiers in collecting the taxes from
the estates of those magnates who refused to contribute to the
public burdens, in protecting the towns from the depredations
of the robber barons, or in convoying the caravans of the
merchants. In fact, they were a police force as well as an army.
Despite the enormous expense of maintaining the army,
Matthias, after the first ten years of his reign, was never in want
of money. This miracle was achieved by tact and management.
No Hungarian king had so little trouble with the turbulent diet
as Matthias. By this time the gentry, as well as the barons
and prelates, took part in the legislature. But attendance at
the diet was regarded by the bulk of the poorer deputies as an
intolerable burden, and they frequently agreed to grant the taxes
for two or three years in advance, so as to be saved the expense
1 Some of these were of gigantic size, e.g. the Varga Mozsar, or
great mortar, which sixty horses could scarce move from its place,
and a ballistic machine invented by Matthias which could hurl
stones of 3 cwt.
908
of attending every year. Moreover, to promote their own
convenience, they readily allowed the king to assess as well
as to collect the taxes, which consequently tended to become
regular and permanent, while Matthias' reform of the treasury,
which was now administered by specialists with separate
functions, was economically of great benefit to the state. Yet
Matthias never dispensed with the diet. During the thirty-two
years of his reign he held at least fifteen diets, 1 at which no
fewer than 450 statutes were passed. He re-codified the Hungarian
common law; strictly defined the jurisdiction of the whole
official hierarchy from the palatine to the humblest village judge;
cheapened and accelerated legal procedure, and in an age when
might was right did his utmost to protect the weak from the
strong. There is not a single branch of the law which he did not
simplify and amend, and the iron firmness with which he caused
justice to be administered, irrespective of persons, if it exposed
him to the charge of tyranny from the nobles, also won for him
from the common people the epithet of " the Just." To Matthias
is also due the credit of creating an efficient official class. Merit
was with him the sole qualification for advancement. One of his
best generals, Pal Kinizsy, was a miller's son, and his capable
chancellor, Peter Varady, whom he made archbishop of Kalocsa,
came of a family of small squires. For education so scholarly
a monarch as Matthias naturally did what he could. He founded
the university of Pressburg (Academia Istropolitana, 1467),
revived the declining university of Pecs, and, at the time of his
death, was meditating the establishment of a third university
at Buda.
Unfortunately the civilizing efforts of Matthias made but
little impression on society at large. The bulk of the Magyar
nobility was still semi-barbaric. Immensely wealthy (it is
estimated that most of the land, at this time, was in the hands of
25 great families, the Zapolyas alone holding an eighth of it), it
was a point of honour with them to appear in public in costly
raiment ablaze with silver, gold and precious stones, followed at
every step by armies of retainers scarcely less gorgeous. At the
same time their ignorance was profound. Many of the highest
dignitaries of state did not know their alphabet. Signatures to
documents of the period are rare; seals served instead of signa-
tures, because most of the nobles were unable to sign their names.
Learning, indeed, was often ridiculed as pedantry in a gentleman
of good family.
The clergy, the chief official class, were naturally less ignorant
than the gentry. Some of the prelates notably Janos
Csezmeczey, better known as Janus Pannonius (1433-1472)
had a European reputation for learning. The primate Cardinal,
Janos Vitez (1408-1472), at the beginning, and the primate,
Cardinal Tamas Bakocz (q.ii.), at the end of the reign were men
of eminent ability and the highest culture. But the moral tone of
the Magyar church at this period was very low. The bishops
prided themselves on being great statesmen, great scholars, great
financiers, great diplomatists anything, in fact, but good
Christians. Most of them, except when actually celebrating
mass, were indistinguishable alike in costume and conduct from
the temporal magnates. Of twelve of them it is said that
foreigners took them at first for independent temporal princes,
so vast were their estates, so splendid their courts, so numerous
their armed retainers. Under such guides as these the lower
clergy erred deplorably, and drunkenness, gross immorality,
brawling and manslaughter were common occurrences in the
lives of the parish priests. The regular clergy were if possible
worse than, the secular, with the exception of the Paulicians, the
sole religious order which steadily resisted the general corruption,
of whose abbot, the saintly Gregory, was the personal friend of
Matthias.
What little culture there was outside the court, the capital and
the palaces of a few prelates, was to be found in the towns, most
of them of German origin. Matthias laboured strenuously to
develop and protect the towns, multiplied municipal charters, and
materially improved the means of communication, especially in
1 We know actually of fifteen, but there may have been many
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
Transylvania. His Silesian and Austrian acquisitions were also
very beneficial to trade, throwing open as they did the western
markets to Hungarian produce. Wine and meat were the chief
exports. The wines of Hungary were already renowned through-
out Europe, and cattle breeding was conducted on a great scale.
Of agricultural produce there was barely sufficient for home
consumption, but the mining industries had reached a very high
level of excellence, and iron, tin and copper were very largely
exported from the northern counties to Danzig and other Baltic
ports. So highly developed indeed were the Magyar methods
of smelting, that Louis XI. of France took the Hungarian mining
system as the model for his metallurgical reforms, and Hungarian
master-miners were also in great demand at the court of Ivan the
Terrible. Moreover, the keen artistic instincts of Matthias led him
to embellish his cities as well as fortify them. Debreczen was
practically rebuilt by him, and dates its prosperity from his
reign. Breslau, his favourite town, he endowed with many fine
public buildings. Buda he endeavoured to make the worthy
capital of a great realm, and the palace which he built there was
pronounced by the papal legates to be superior to any in Italy.
Politically Matthias raised Hungary to the rank of che greatest
power in central Europe, her influence extending into Asia and
Africa. Poland was restrained by his alliances with
the Teutonic Knights and the tsardom of Muscovy, Europe.
and his envoys appeared in Persia and in Egypt to
combat the diplomacy of the Porte. He never, indeed, jeo-
pardized the position of the Moslems in Europe as his father had
done, and thus the peace of Szeged (1444), which regained the
line of the Danube and drove the Turk behind the Balkans,
must always be reckoned as the high-water mark of Hungary's
Turkish triumphs. But Matthias at least taught the sultan to
respect the territorial integrity of Hungary, and throughout his
reign the Eastern Question, though often vexatious, was never
acute. Only after his death did the Ottoman empire become a
menace to Christendom. Besides, his hands were tied by the
unappeasable enmity of the emperor and the emperor's allies, and
he could never count upon any material help from the West
against the East. The age of the crusades had gone. Through-
out his reign the Czechs and the Germans were every whit as
dangerous to Hungary as the Turks, and the political necessity
which finally compelled Matthias to partition Austria and
Bohemia, in order to secure Hungary, committed him to a policy
of extreme circumspection. He has sometimes been blamed for
not crushing his incurably disloyal and rebellious nobles, instead
of cajoling them, after the example of his contemporary, Louis
XI., who laid the foundations of the greatness of France on the
ruin of the vassals. But Louis XI. had a relatively civilized and
politically developed middle class behind him, whereas Matthias
had not. It was as much as Matthias could do to keep the civic
life of Hungary from expiring altogether, and nine-tenths of his
burgesses were foreigners with no political interest in the country
of their adoption. Never was any dominion so purely personal,
and therefore so artificial as his. His astounding energy and
resource curbed all his enemies during his lifetime, but they
were content to wait patiently for his death, well aware that the
collapse of his empire would immediately follow.
All that human foresight could devise for the consolidation and
perpetuation of the newly established Hungarian empire had
been done by Matthias in the last years of his reign.
He had designated as his successor his natural son, aecUoe.
the highly gifted Janos (John) Corvinus, a youth of
seventeen. He had raised him to princely rank, endowed him with
property which made him the greatest territorial magnate in the
kingdom, placed in his hands the sacred crown and half-a-dozen
of the strongest fortresses, and won over to his cause the majority
of the royal council. How Janos was cajoled out of an almost
impregnable position, and gradually reduced to insignificance, is
told elsewhere (see CORVINUS, JANOS). The nobles
and prelates, who detested the severe and strenuous laus n ~
Matthian system, desired, as they expressed it, " a king
whose beard they could hold in their fists," and they found a
monarch after their own heart in Wladislaus Jagiello, since 1471
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
909
king of Bohemia, who as Wladislaus II. was elected unanimously
king of Hungary on the i5th of July 1490. Wladislaus was the
personification of helpless inertia. His Bohemian subjects had
long since dubbed him "King All Right " because he said yes to
everything. As king of Hungary he was, from first to last, the
puppet of the Magyar oligarchs, who proceeded to abolish all the
royal prerogatives and safeguards which had galled them under
Matthias. By the compact of Farkashida (1490) Wladislaus not
only confirmed all the Matthian privileges, but also repealed all
the Matthian novelties, including the system of taxation which
had enabled his predecessor to keep on foot an adequate national
army. The virtual suppression of Wladislaus was completed at
the diet of 1492, when " King All Right " consented to live on the
receipts of the treasury, which were barely sufficient to maintain
his court, and engaged never to impose any new taxes on his
Magyar subjects. The dissolution of the standing army, including
the Black Brigade, was the immediate result of these decrees.
Thus, at the very time when the modernization of the means of
national defence had become the first principle, in every other
part of Europe, of the strongly centralized monarchies which were
rising on the ruins of feudalism, the Hungarian magnates deliber-
ately plunged their country back into the chaos of medievalism.
The same diet which destroyed the national armaments and
depleted the exchequer confirmed the disgraceful peace of
Pressburg, concluded between Wladislaus and the emperor
Maximilian on the 7th of November 1491, whereby Hungary
retroceded all the Austrian conquests of Matthias, together with
a long strip of Magyar territory, and paid a war indemnity
equivalent to 200,000.
The thirty-six years which elapsed between the accession of
Wladislaus II. and the battle of Mohacs is the most melancholy
and discreditable period of Hungarian history. Like Poland two
centuries later, Hungary had ceased to be a civilized autonomous
state because her prelates and her magnates, uncontrolled by
any higher authority, and too ignorant or corrupt to look beyond
their own immediate interests, abandoned themselves to the
exclusive enjoyment of their inordinate privileges, while openly
repudiating their primal obligation of defending the state against
extraneous enemies. During these miserable years everything
like patriotism or public spirit seems to have died out of the
hearts of the Hungarian aristocracy. The great officers of state
acted habitually on the principle that might is right. Stephen
Bathory, voivode of Transylvania and count of the Szeklers,
for instance, ruled Transylvania like a Turkish pasha, and
threatened to behead all who dared to complain of his exactions;
" Stinking carrion," he said, was better than living Szeklers.
Thousands of Transylvanian gentlemen emigrated to Turkey
to get out of his reach. Other great nobles were at perpetual feud
with the towns whose wealth they coveted. Thus the Zapolyas,
in 1500 and again in 1507, burnt a large part of Breznobanya
and Beszterczebanya, two of the chief industrial towns of north
Hungary. Kronstadt, now the sole flourishing trade centre
in the kingdom, defended itself with hired mercenaries against
the robber barons. Everywhere the civic communities were
declining; even Buda and Pressburg were half in ruins. In
their misery the cities frequently appealed for protection to the
emperor and other foreign potentates, as no redress was attainable
at home. Compared even with the contemporary Polish diet
the Hungarian national assembly was a tumultuous mob.
The diet of 1497 passed most of its time in constructing, and then
battering to pieces with axes and hammers, a huge wooden image
representing the ministers of the crown, who were corrupt enough,
but immovable, since they regularly appeared at the diet with
thousands of retainers armed to the teeth, and openly derided
the reforming endeavours of the lower gentry, who perceived
that something was seriously wrong, yet were powerless to
remedy it. All that the gentry could do was to depress the lower
orders, and this they did at every opportunity. Thus, many
of the towns, notably Visegrad, were deprived of the charters
granted to them by Matthias, and a whole series of anti-civic
ordinances were passed. Noblemen dwelling within the walls
of the towns were especially exempted from all civic burdens,
while every burgess who bought an extra-mural estate was made
to pay double for the privilege. 1 Every nobleman had the right
to engage in trade toll-free, to the great detriment of their
competitors the burgesses. The peasant class suffered most of all.
In 1496 Varady, archbishop of Kalocsa, one of the few good
prelates, declared that their lot was worse than that of brute
beasts. The whole burden of taxation rested on their shoulders,
and so ground down were they by ingeniously multiplied
exactions, that thousands of them were reduced to literal
beggary.
Yet, despite this inward rottenness, Hungary, for nearly
twenty years after the death of Matthias, enjoyed an undeserved
prestige abroad, due entirely to the reputation which that great
monarch had won for her. Circumstances, indeed, were especi-
ally favourable. The emperor Maximilian was so absorbed by
German affairs, that he could do her little harm, and under
Bayezid II. and Selim I. the Turkish menace gave little anxiety
to the court of Buda, Bayezid being no warrior, while Selim's
energies were claimed exclusively by the East, so that he was
glad to renew the triennial truce with Hungary as often as it
expired. Hungary, therefore, for almost the first time in her
history, was free to choose a foreign policy of her own, and had
she been guided by a patriot, she might now have easily regained
Dalmatia, and acquired besides a considerable sea-board.
Unfortunately Tamas Bakocz, her leading diplomatist from
1499 to 1521, was as much an egotist as the other magnates,
and he sacrificed the political interests of Hungary entirely
to personal considerations. Primate of Hungary since 1497, he
coveted the popedom and the red hat as the first step thereto
above all things, and looked mainly to Venetian influence for
both. He therefore supported Venice against her enemies,
refused to enter the League of Cambray in 1508, and concluded
a ten years' alliance with the Signoria, which obliged Hungary to
defend Venetian territory without any equivalent gain. Less
reprehensible, though equally self-seeking, were his dealings
with the emperor, which aimed at a family alliance between the
Jagiellos and the Habsburgs on the basis of a double marriage
between the son and daughter of Wladislaus, Louis and Anne,
and an Austrian archduke and archduchess; this was concluded
by the family congress at Vienna, July 22, 1515, to which Sigis-
mund I. of Poland, the brother of Wladislaus, acceded. The
Hungarian diet frantically opposed every Austrian alliance
as endangering the national independence, but to any unpre-
judiced observer a union with the house of Habsburg, even with
the contingent probability of a Habsburg king, was infinitely
preferable to the condition into which Hungary, under native
aristocratic misrule, was swiftly drifting. The diet itself had
become as much a nullity as the king, and its decrees were
systematically disregarded. Still more pitiable was the condition
of the court. The penury of Wladislaus II. was by this time so
extreme, that he owed his very meals to the charity of his
servants. The diet, indeed, voted him aids and subsidies, but
the great nobles either forbade their collection within their
estates, or confiscated the amount collected. Under the cir-
cumstances, we cannot wonder if the frontier fortresses fell
to pieces, and the border troops, unpaid for years, took to
brigandage.
The last reserves of the national wealth and strength were
dissipated by the terrible peasant rising of Gyorgy Dozsa (q.v.)
in 1514, of which the enslavement of the Hungarian
peasantry was the immediate consequence. The
" Savage Diet " which assembled on the i8th of I5l4f
October the same year, to punish the rebels and restore
order, well deserved its name. Sixty-two of its seventy-one
enactments were directed against the peasants, who were hence-
forth bound to the soil and committed absolutely into the
hands of " their natural lords." To this vindictive legislation,
which converted the labouring population into a sullenly hostile
1 It should be remembered that at this time one-third of the land
belonged to the church, and the remainder was in the hands of less
than a dozen great families who had also appropriated the royal
domains.
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
force within the state, it is mainly due that a healthy political
life in Hungary became henceforth impossible. The same
spirit of hostility to the peasantry breathed through
the f amous condification of the Hungarian customary
law known as the Triparlitum, which, though never
actually formally passed into law, continued until 1845 to be
the only document defining the relations of king and people, of
nobles and their peasants, and of Hungary and her dependent
states. 1
Wladislaus II. died on the I3th of March 1516, two years
after the " Savage Diet," the ferocity of whose decrees he had
feebly endeavoured to mitigate, leaving his two
kingdoms to his son Louis, a child of ten, who was
pronounced of age in order that his foreign guardians,
the emperor Maximilian and Sigismund of Poland,
might be dispensed with. The government remained in the
hands of Cardinal Bakocz till his death in 1521, when the supreme
authority at court was disputed between the lame palatine Istvan
Bathory, and his rival, the eminent jurist and orator Istvan
Verboczy (?..), both of them incompetent, unprincipled
place-hunters, while, in the background lurked Janos Zapolya
(see JOHN (ZAPOLYA), KING OF HUNGARY), voivode of Tran-
sylvania, patiently waiting till the death of the feeble and
childless king (who, in 1522, married Maria of Austria) should
open for him a way to the throne. Every one felt that a catas-
trophe was approaching. " Things cannot go on like this much
longer," wrote the Venetian ambassador to his government.
The war of each against all continued; no taxes could be
collected; the holders of the royal domains refused to surrender
them at the command of the diet; and the boy king had very
often neither clothes to wear nor food to eat. The whole atmo-
sphere of society was one of rapine and corruption, and only on
the frontier a few self-sacrificing patriots like the ban-bishop,
Peter Biriszlo, the last of Matthias's veterans, and his successor
the saintly Pal Tomori, archbishop of Kalocsa, showed, in their
ceaseless war against the predatory Turkish bands, that the
ancient Magyar valour was not yet wholly extinct. But the
number of the righteous men was too few to save the state.
The first blow fell in 1521, when Suitan Suleiman appeared
before the southern fortresses of Sabac and Belgrade, both of
which fell into his hands during the course of the year. After
this Venice openly declared that Hungary was no longer worth
the saving. Yet the coup de grdce was postponed for another
five years, during which time Suleiman was occupied with the
conquest of Egypt and the siege of Rhodes. The Magyars
fancied they were safe from attack, because the final assault
was suspended; and everything went on in the old haphazard
way. Every obstacle was opposed to the collection of the taxes
which had been voted to put the kingdom in a state of defence.
" If this realm could be saved at the expense of three florins,"
exclaimed the papal envoy, Antonio Burgio, " there is not a man
here willing to make the sacrifice." Only on the southern
frontier did Archbishop Tomori painfully assemble a fresh army
and fleet, and succeed, by incredible efforts, in constructing at
Peterwardein, on the right bank of the Danube, a new fortress
which served him as a refuge and sally post in his interminable
guerilla war with the Turks.
In the spring of 1526 came the tidings that Sultan Suleiman
had quitted Constantinople, at the head of a countless host, to
conquer Hungary. On the z8th of July Peterwardein, after a
valiant resistance, was blown into the air. The diet, which met
at Buda in hot haste, proclaimed the young king 2 dictator,
1 The Opus tripartitum juris consuetudinar-ii regni Hungarian
was drawn up by Verboczy at the instance of the diet in 1507. It
was approved by a committee of the diet and received the royal
imprimatur in 1514, but was never published. In the constitutional
history of Hungary the Tripartitum is of great importance as re-
asserting the fundamental equality of all the members of the populus
(i.e. the whole body of the nobles) and, more especially, as defining
the co-ordinate power of the king and "people" in legislation:
i.e. the king may propose laws, but they had no force without the
consent of the people, and vice versa. See Knatchbull-Hugessen,
i. 64.
2 He was just twenty.
granted him unlimited subsidies which there was no time to
collect, and ordered a levie en masse of the entire male population,
which could not possibly assemble within the given time. Louis
at once formed a camp at Tolna, whence he issued despairing
summonses to the lieges, and, by the middle of August, some
25,000 ill-equipped gentlemen had gathered around him. With
these he marched southwards to the plain of Mohacs, where,
on the 29th of August, the Hungarians, after a two hours' fight,
were annihilated, the king, both the archbishops, five bishops
and 24,000 men perishing on the field. The sultan refused to
believe that the pitiful array he had so easily overcome could be
the national army of Hungary. Advancing with extreme caution,
he occupied Buda on the 1 2th of September, but speedily returned
to his own dominions, carrying off with him 105,000 captives,
and an amount of spoil which filled the bazaars of the East for
months to come. By the end of October the last Turkish
regular had quitted Magyar soil, and, to use the words of a
contemporary observer, one quarter of Hungary was as utterly
destroyed as if a flood had passed over it.
The Turks had no sooner quitted the land than John Zapolya,
voivode of Transylvania, assembled a diet at Tokaj (Oct. 14,
1526) at which the towns were represented as well as Joha
the counties. The tone of the assembly being violently Zapolya
anti-German, and John being the only conceivable elected
national candidate, his election was a matter of course ; Kl s-
but his misgivings were so great that it was not till the beginning
of November that he very reluctantly allowed himself to be
crowned at a second diet, held at Szekesfehervar. By this
time a competitor had entered the field. This was the archduke
Ferdinand, who claimed the Hungarian crown by right of
inheritance in the name of his wife, Anne, sister of the late king.
Ferdinand was elected (Dec. 16) by a scratch assembly
consisting of deputies from Croatia and the towns Fe t rdl " s ^ d
of Pressburg and Sopron; but he speedily improved e i ec t ef i.
his position in the course of 1527, by driving King
John first from Buda and then from Hungary. In November
the same year he was elected and crowned by a properly con-
stituted diet at Szekesfehervar (Stuhlweissenburg). In 1529
Zapolya was reinstated in Buda by Suleiman the Magnificent
in person, who, at this period, preferred setting up a
rival to " the king of Vienna " to conquering Hungary Kings.
outright. Thus the Magyars were saddled with two
rival kings with equally valid titles, which proved an even worse
disaster than the Mohacs catastrophe; for in most of the
counties of the unhappy kingdom desperadoes of every descrip-
tion plundered the estates of the gentry, and oppressed the com-
mon people, under the pretext that they were fighting the battles
of the contending monarchs. The determination of Ferdinand
to partition Hungary rather than drive the Turks out, which
he might easily have done after Suleiman's unsuccessful attempts
on Vienna in 1520-1530, led to a prolongation of the struggle
till the 24th of February 1538, when, by the secret peace of
Nagyvarad, 3 Hungary was divided between the two competitors.
By this treaty Ferdinand retained Croatia-Slavonia and the
five western counties with Pressburg and Esztergom (Gran),
while Zapolya kept the remaining two-thirds with the royal
title. He was indeed the last national king of Hungary till
modern times. His court at Buda was maintained according
to the ancient traditions, and his gyiiles, at which 67 of the 73
counties were generally represented, was the true national diet,
the phantom assembly occasionally convened at Pressburg by
Ferdinand scarcely deserving the title. Indeed, Ferdinand
regarded his narrow strip of Hungarian territory as simply
.a barrier behind which he could better defend the hereditary
states. During the last six years (1534-1540) of John's reign, his
kingdom, beneath the guidance of the Paulician monk, Frater
Gyorgy, or George Martinuzzi (<?..), the last great statesman
of old Hungary, enjoyed a stability and prosperity marvellous
in the difficult circumstances of the period, Martinuzzi holding
the balance exactly between the emperor and the Porte with
3 It was kept secret for some years for fear of Turkish inter-
vention.
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
911
astounding diplomatic dexterity, and at the same time intro-
ducing several important domestic reforms. Zapolya died on
the 1 8th of July 1540, whereupon the estates of Hungary elected
his baby son John Sigismund king, in direct violation of the
peace of Grosswardein which had formally acknowledged
Ferdinand as John's successor, whether he left male issue or not.
Ferdinand at once asserted his rights by force of arms, and
attacked Buda in May 1541, despite the urgent remonstrances of
Martinuzzi, who knew that the Turk would never suffer the
emperor to reign at Buda. His fears were instantly justified.
In August 1541, Suleiman, at the head of a vast army, invaded
Hungary, and on the 3oth of August, Buda was in his hands.
During the six following years the sultan still further improved
his position, capturing, amongst many other places, Pecs, and
the primatial city of Esztergom; but, in 1547, the exigencies
of the Persian war induced him to sell a truce of five
Partition years to Ferdinand for 100,000, on a uti possidetis basis,
"itungary Ferdinand holding thirty-five counties (including
Croatia and Slavonia) for which he was to pay an
annual tribute of 60,000; John Sigismund retaining Tran-
sylvania and sixteen adjacent counties with the title of prince,
while the rest of the land, comprising most of the central counties,
was annexed to the Turkish empire. Thus the ancient kingdom
was divided into three separate states with divergent aims and
interests, a condition of things which, with frequent rearrange-
ments, continued for more than 150 years.
A period of infinite confusion and extreme misery now ensued,
of which only the salient points can here be noted. The attempts
of the Habsburgs to conquer Transylvania drew down
S Stfgetvar. u P on them two fresh Turkish invasions, the first in
1552, when the sultan's generals captured Temesvar
and fifty-four lesser forts or fortresses, and the second in
1566, memorable as Suleiman's last descent upon Hungary,
and also for the heroic defence of Szigetvar by Miklos Zrinyi
(q.v.), one of the classical sieges of history. The truce of
Adrianople in 1568, nominally for eight years, but prolonged
from time to time till 1593, finally suspended regular hostilities,
and introduced the epoch known as " The Long Peace," though,
throughout these twenty-five years, the guerilla warfare on the
frontier never ceased for more than a few months at a time, and
the relations between the Habsburgs and Transylvania were
persistently hostile.
Probably no other country ever suffered so much from its
rulers as Hungary suffered during the second half of the i6th
century. This was due partly to political and partly to religious
causes. To begin with, there can be no doubt that from 1558,
when the German imperial crown was transferred from the
Spanish to the Austrian branch of the Habsburg family, royal
Hungary ' was regarded by the emperors as an insignificant
barrier province yielding far more trouble than profit. The
visible signs of this contemptuous point of view were (i) the
suspension of the august dignity of palatine, which, after the
death of Tamas Nadasdy, " the great palatine," in 1562, was left
vacant for many years; (2) the abolition or attenuation of all the
ancient Hungarian court dignitaries; (3) the degradation of the
capital, Pressburg, into a mere provincial town; and (4) the more
and more openly expressed determination to govern Hungary
from Vienna by means of foreigners, principally German or
Czech. During the reign of Ferdinand, whose consort, Anne,
was a Hungarian princess, things were at least tolerable; but
under Maximilian (1564-1576) and Rudolph (1576-1612) the
antagonism of the Habsburgs towards their Magyar subjects
was only too apparent. The diet, which had the power of the
purse, could not be absolutely dispensed with; but it was
summoned as seldom as possible, the king often preferring to
forego his subsidies rather than listen to the unanswerable
remonstrances of the estates against the illegalities of his
government. In the days of the semi-insane recluse Rudolph
things went from bad to worse. The Magyar nobles were now
systematically spoliated on trumped-up charges of treason;
1 In contradistinction to Turkish Hungary and Transylvanian
Hungary.
hundreds of them were ruined. At last they either durst not
attend the diet, or " sat like dumb dogs " during its session,
allowing the king to alter and interpret the statutes at his
good pleasure. Presently religious was superadded to political
persecution.
The Reformation had at first produced little effect on Hungary.
Except in the towns, mostly of German origin, it was generally
detested, just because it came from Germany. The
battle of Mohacs, however, severely shook the faith Effect of
of the Hungarians. " Where are the old Magyar t^a"
saints? Why do they not defend the realm against
the Turks? " was the general cry. Moreover, the corrupt church
had lost its hold on the affections of the people. Zapolya, a
devout Catholic, is lauded by Archbishop Frangipan in 1533
for arresting the spread of the new doctrines, though he would
not allow Martinuzzi to take the extreme step of burning
perverts at the stake. These perverts were mostly to be
found among nobles desirous of amassing church property, or
among those of the clergy who clamoured for communion in
both kinds. So long, however, as the old national kingdom
survived, the majority of the people still clung to the old faith.
Under Ferdinand the parochial clergy were tempted to become
Lutherans by the prospect of matrimony, and, in reply to the
remonstrances of their bishops, declared that they would rather
give up their cures than their wives. In Transylvania matters
were at first ordered more peaceably. In 1552 the new doctrines
obtained complete recognition there, the diet of Torda (1557)
going so far as to permit every one to worship in his own way so
long as he did not molest his neighbour. Yet, in the following
year, the whole of the property of the Catholic Church there,
was diverted to secular uses, and the Calvinists were simul-
taneously banished, though they regained complete tolerance in
1564, a privilege at the same time extended to the Unitarians,
who were now very influential at court and converted Prince
John Sigismund to their views. In Turkish Hungary all the
confessions enjoyed liberty of worship, though the Catholics, as
possible partisans of the " king of Vienna," were liked the least.
It was only when the Jesuits obtained a footing both at Prague 2
and Klausenburg that persecution began, but then it was very
violent. In Transylvania the princes of the Bathory family
(1571-1604) were ardent disciples of the Jesuit fathers, and
Sigismund Bathory in particular persecuted fiercely, his fury
being especially directed against the queer judaizing sect known
as the Sabbatarians, whose tenets were adopted by the Szeklers,
the most savage of " the three nations " of Transylvania, many
thousands of whom were, after a bloody struggle, forced to
emigrate. In royal Hungary also the Jesuits were the chief
persecutors. The extirpation of Protestantism was a deliberate
prearranged programme, and as Protestantism was by this
time identical with Magyarism 3 the extirpation of the one was
tantamount to the extirpation of the other. The method gener-
ally adopted was to deprive the preachers in the towns of their
churches by force, Italian mercenaries being preferably employed
for the purpose. It was assumed that the Protestant nobles'
jealousy of the burgesses would prevent them from interfering;
but religious sympathy proved stronger than caste prejudice,
and the diets protested against the persecution of their fellow
citizens so vehemently that religious matters were withdrawn
from their jurisdiction.
This persecution raged most fiercely towards the end of what
is generally called " The Long War," which began in 1593,
and lasted till 1606. It was a confused four-cornered
struggle between the emperor and the Turks, the e
Turks and Transylvania, Michael of Moldavia and War."
Transylvania, and Transylvania and the emperor,
desultory and languishing as regards the Turks (the one notable
battle being Sigismund Bathory's brilliant victory over the
1 At first the Habsburgs held their court at Prague instead of at
Vienna.
! According to contemporary records the number of prelates
and priests in the three parts of Hungary at the beginning of the
1 7th century was but 103, all told, and of the great families not
above half a dozen still clung to Catholicism.
912
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
grand vizier in Walachia in 1595, when the Magyar army pene-
trated as far as Giurgevo), but very bitter as between the emperor
and Transylvania, the principality being finally subdued by the
imperial general, George Basta, in August 1604. A reign of terror
ensued, during which the unfortunate principality was well-nigh
ruined. Basta was authorized to Germanize and Catholicize
without delay, and he began by dividing the property of most of
the nobles among his officers, appropriating the lion's share him-
self. In royal Hungary the same object was aimed at by in-
numerable indictments against the richer landowners, indictments
supported by false title-deeds and carried through by forged or
purchased judgments of the courts. At last the estates of even
the most devoted adherents of the Habsburgs were not safe,
and some of them, like the wealthy Istvan Illeshazy (1540-1609),
had to fly abroad to save their heads. Fortunately a peculiarly
shameless attempt to blackmail Stephen Bocskay, a rich and
powerful Transylvanian nobleman, converted a long-
sufferin S friend of the emperor into a national deliverer.
Bocskay (?..), a quiet but resolute man, having once
made up his mind to rebel, never paused till he had estab-
lished satisfactory relations between the Austrian court and the
Hungarians. The two great achievements of his brief reign
(he was elected prince of Transylvania on the $th of April 1605,
and died on the 29th of December 1606) were the peace of Vienna
(June 23, 1606) and the truce of Zsitvatorok (November 1606).
By the peace of Vienna, Bocskay obtained religious liberty and
political autonomy, the restoration of all confiscated estates,
the repeal of all unrighteous judgments and a complete retro-
spective amnesty for all the Magyars in royal Hungary, besides
his own recognition as independent sovereign prince of an
enlarged ' Transylvania. This treaty is remarkable as being the
first constitutional compact between the ruling dynasty and the
Hungarian nation. Almost equally important was the twenty
years' truce of Zsitvatorok, negotiated by Bocskay between the
emperor and the sultan, which established for the first time a
working equilibrium between the three parts of Hungary, with
a distinct political preponderance in favour of Transylvania.
Of the 5163 sq. m. of Hungarian territory, Transylvania now
possessed 2082, Turkish Hungary 1859, and royal Hungary only
1222. The emperor, on the other hand, was freed from the
humiliating annual tribute to the Porte on payment of a war
indemnity of 400,000. The position of royal Hungary was still
further improved when the popular and patriotic Archduke
Matthias was elected king of Hungary on the i6th of November
1608. He had previously confirmed the treaty of Vienna, and
the day after his election he appointed Illeshazy, now reinstated
in all his possessions. and dignities, palatine of Hungary. 2 In
Transylvania, meantime, Gabriel Bathory had been elected
(Nov. ii, 1608) in place of the decrepit Sigismund Rakoczy,
Bocskay's immediate successor.
For more than fifty years after the peace of Vienna the princi-
pality of Transylvania continued to be the bulwark of the
liberties of the Magyars. It owed its ascendancy in
ran"^^" tne ^ rst P^ ace to t ' le abilities of the two princes who
Hegemony, ruled it from 1613 to 1648. The first and most
famous of these rulers was Gabriel Bethlen (q.v.),
who reigned from 1613 to 1629, perpetually thwarted all
the efforts of the emperor to oppress or circumvent his Hungarian
subjects, and won some reputation abroad by adroitly pretend-
ing to champion the Protestant cause. Three times he waged
war on the emperor, twice he was proclaimed king of Hungary,
and by the peace of Nikolsburg (Dec. 31, 1621) he obtained for
the Protestants a confirmation of the treaty of Vienna, and for
himself seven additional counties in northern Hungary besides
other substantial advantages. Bethlen's successor, George I.
Rakoczy, was equally successful. His principal achievement was
the peace of Linz (Sept. 16, 1645), the last political triumph of
Hungarian Protestantism, whereby the emperor was forced to
confirm once more the oft-broken articles of the peace of Vienna,
1 The counties of Szatmar, Ugocsa and Bereg and the fortress of
Tokaj were formally ceded to him.
1 He was the first Protestant palatine.
to restore nearly a hundred churches to the sects and to acknow-
ledge the sway of Rakoczy over the north Hungarian counties.
Gabriel Bethlen and George I. Rakoczy also did much for educa-
tion and civilization generally, and their era has justly been called
the golden era of Transylvania. They lavished money on the
embellishment of their capital, Gyulafehervar, which became a
sort of Protestant Mecca, whither scholars and divines of every
anti-Roman denomination flocked to bask in the favour of
princes who were as liberal as they were pious. Yet both Bethlen
and Rakoczy owed far more to favourable circumstances than
to their own cunning. Their reigns synchronized with the Thirty
Years' War, during which the emperors were never in a position
seriously to withstand the attacks of the malcontent Magyars,
the vast majority of whom were still Protestants, who naturally
looked upon the Transylvanian princes as their protectors and
joined them in thousands whenever they raided Moravia or
Lower Austria, or threatened to advance upon Vienna. In all
these risings no battle of importance was fought. Generally
speaking, the Transylvanians had only to appear, to have their
demands promptly complied with; for these marauders had to
be bought off because the emperor had more pressing business
elsewhere. Yet their military efficiency must have been small, for
their allies the Swedes invariably allude to them as wild and
ragged semi-barbarians.
Another fortunate accident which favoured the hegemony of
Transylvania was the temporary collapse of Hungary's most
formidable adversary, the Turk. From the peace of
Zsitvatorok (1606) to the ninth year of the reign of
George Rakoczy II., who succeeded his father in 1648,
the Turkish empire, misruled by a series of incompetent sultans
and distracted by internal dissensions, was unable to intervene in
Hungarian politics. But in the autumn of 1 656 a great statesman,
Mahommed Kuprili (<?..), obtained the supreme control of affairs
at Constantinople, and all Europe instantly felt the pressure of the
Turk once more. It was George Rakoczy II. (q.v.) who gave the
new grand vizier a pretext for interference. Against the advice
of all his counsellors, and without the knowledge of the estates,
Rakoczy, in 1657, plunged into the troubled sea of Polish politics,
in the hope of winning the Polish throne, and not only failed
miserably but overwhelmed Transylvania in his own ruin.
Kuprili, who had forbidden the Polish enterprise, at once
occupied Transylvania, and, in the course of the next five years,
no fewer than four princes, three of whom died violent deaths,
were forced to accept the kaftan and kalpag of investiture in the
camp of the grand vizier. When, at the end of 1661, a more
stable administration was set up with Michael Apaffy (1661-1690)
as prince, Transylvania had descended to the rank of a feudatory
of the Turkish empire. On the death of Mahommed Kuprili
(Oct. n, 1661) his son Fazil Ahmed succeeded him as grand
vizier, and pursued his father's policy with equal genius and
determination. In 1663 he invaded royal Hungary, with the
intention of uniting all the Magyars against the emperor, but,
the Magyars steadily refusing to attend any diet summoned
under Turkish influence, his plan fell through, and his only
notable military success was the capture of the fortress of
Ersekujvar (Neuhausel). In the following year, thanks to the
generalship and heroism of Miklos Zrinyi the younger (q.v.),
Kuprili was still less successful. Zrinyi captured
fortress after fortress, and interrupted the Turkish
communications by destroying the famous bridge of U64.
Esseg, while Montecuculi defeated the grand vizier at
the battle of St Gothard (Aug. i, 1664). Yet,' despite these
reverses, Kuprili's superior diplomacy enabled him, at the peace of
Vasvar (Aug. 10, 1664) to obtain terms which should only have
been conceded to a conqueror. The fortress of Ersekujvar and
surrounding territory were now ceded to the Turks, with the
result that royal Hungary was not only still further diminished,
but its northern practically separated from its southern portion.
On the other hand the treaty of Vasvar gave Hungary a respite
from regular Turkish invasions for twenty years, though the
border raiding continued uninterruptedly.
Of far more political importance than these fluctuating wars of
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
invasion and conquest was the simultaneous Catholic reaction
in Hungary. The movement may be said to have begun
about 1601, when the great Jesuit preacher and
reaction, controversialist, Peter Pazmany (q.v.), first devoted
himself to the task of reconverting his countrymen.
Progress was necessarily retarded by the influence of the inde-
pendent Protestant princes of Transylvania in the northern
counties of Hungary. Even as late as 1622 the Protestants at
the diet of Pressburg were strong enough to elect their candidate,
Szaniszlo Thurzo, palatine. But Thurzo was the last Protestant
palatine, and, on his death, the Catholics, at the diet of Sopron
(1625), where they dominated the Upper Chamber, and had a
large minority in the Lower, were able to elect Count Miklos
Esterhazy in Thurzo's stead. The Jesuit programme in Hungary
was the same as it had been in Poland a generation earlier, and
may be summed up thus: convert the great families and all
the rest will follow. 1 Their success, due partly to their
whole-hearted zeal, and partly to their superior educational
system, was extraordinary; and they possessed the
additional advantage of having in Pazmany a leader
of commanding genius. During his primacy (1616-
1637), when he had the whole influence of the court, and the
sympathy and the assistance of the Catholic world behind him,
he put the finishing touches to his life's labour by founding a great
Catholic university at Nagyszombat (1635), and publishing a
Hungarian translation of the Bible to counteract the influence of
Caspar Karoli's widely spread Protestant version. Pazmany
was certainly the great civilizing factor of Hungary in the
seventeenth century, and indirectly he did as much for the
native language as for the native church. His successors had
only to build on his foundations. One most striking instance of
how completely he changed the current of the national mind may
here be given. From 1526 to 1625 the usual jubilee pilgrimages
from Hungary to Rome had entirely ceased. During his primacy
they were revived, and in 1650, only seventeen years after his
death, they were as numerous as ever they had been. Five years
later there remained but four noble Protestant families in royal
Hungary. The Catholicization of the land was complete.
Unfortunately the court of Vienna was not content with
winning back the Magyars to the Church. The Habsburg kings
were as jealous of the political as of the religious
repression liberties of their Hungarian subjects. This was partly
owing to the fact that national aspirations of any sort
were contrary to the imperial system, which claimed to
rule by right divine, and partly to an inveterate distrust of
the Magyars, who were regarded at court as rebels by nature,
and therefore as enemies far more troublesome than the Turks.
The conduct of the Hungarian nobles in the past, indeed, some-
what justified this estimate, for the fall of the ancient monarchy
was entirely due to their persistent disregard of autho/ity, to
their refusal to bear their share of the public burdens. They
were now to suffer severely for their past misdoings, but un-
fortunately the innocent nation was forced to suffer with them.
Throughout the latter part of the i7th and the beginning of the
1 8th century, the Hungarian gentry underwent a cruel discipline
at the hands of their Habsburg kings. Their privileges were
overridden, their petitions were disregarded, their diets were
degraded into mere registries of the royal decrees. They were
never fairly represented in the royal council, they were excluded
as far as possible from commands in Hungarian regiments, and
were treated, generally, as the members of an inferior and
guilty race. This era of repression corresponds roughly with
the reign of Leopold I. (1657-1705), who left the government
of the country to two bigoted Magyar prelates, Gyorgy Szele-
pesenyi (1595-1685) and Lip6t (Leopold) Kollonich (1631-1707),
whose domination represents the high-water mark of the anti-
national regimen. The stupid and abortive conspiracy of Peter
Zrinyi and three other magnates, who were publicly executed
(April 30, 1671), was followed by wholesale arrests and confisca-
1 The jobbugyok, or under-tenants, had to follow the example of
their lords; they were, by this time, mere serfs with 'no privileges
either political or religious.
tions, and for a time the legal government of Hungary was
superseded (Patent of March 3, 1673) by a committee of eight
persons, four Magyars and four Germans, presided over by a
German governor; but the most influential person in this
committee was Bishop Kollonich, of whom it was said that,
while Pazmany hated the heretic in the Magyar, Kollonich
hated the Magyar in the heretic. A gigantic process against
leading Protestant ministers for alleged conspiracy was the first
act of this committee. It began at Pressburg in March 1674,
when 236 of the ministers were " converted " or confessed to
acts of rebellion. But the remaining 93 stood firm and were
condemned to death, a punishment commuted to slavery in the
Neapolitan galleys. Sweden, as one of the guarantors of the
peace of Westphalia, and several north German states, protested
against the injury thus done to their coreligionists. It was
replied that Hungary was outside the operation of the treaty
of Westphalia, and that the Protestants had been condemned
not ex odio religionis but crimine rebellionis.
But a high-spirited nation cannot be extinguished by any
number of patents and persecutions. So long as the Magyar
people had any life left, it was bound to fight in
self-defence, it was bound to produce " malcontents "
who looked abroad for help to the enemies of the
house of Habsburg. The first and most famous of the
malcontent leaders was Count Imre Toko'li (q.v.). Between
1678 and 1682 Tokoli waged three wars with Leopold, and,
in September 1682, was acknowledged both by the emperor and
the sultan as prince of North Hungary as far as the river Garam,
to the great relief of the Magyar Protestants. The success of
Tokoli rekindled the martial ardour of the Turks, and a war
party, under the grand vizier Kara Mustafa, determined to
wrest from Leopold his twelve remaining Hungarian counties,
gained the ascendancy at Constantinople in the course of 1682.
Leopold, intent on the doings of his perennial rival Louis XIV.,
was loth to engage in an eastern war even for the liberation of
Hungary, which he regarded as of far less importance than a
strip or two of German territory on the Rhine. But, stimulated
by the representations of Pope Innocent XL, who, well aware
of the internal weakness of the Turk, was bent upon forming
a Holy League to drive them out of Europe, and alarmed, besides,
by the danger of Vienna and the hereditary states, Leopold
reluctantly contracted an alliance with John III. of Poland, and
gave the command of the army which, mainly through the efforts
of the pope he had been able to assemble, to Prince Charles of
Lorraine. The war, which lasted for 16 years and put an end
to the Turkish dominion in Hungary, began with the world-
renowned siege of Vienna (July i4-Sept. 12, 1683). There is no
need to recount the oft-told victories of Sobieski (see JOHN III.
SOBIESKI, KING OF POLAND). What is not quite so generally
known is the fact that Leopold slackened at once and would have
been quite content with the results of these earlier victories
had not the pope stiffened his resistance by forming a Holy
League between the Emperor, Poland, Venice, Muscovy and the
papacy, with the avowed object of dealing the Turk the coup de
grQ.ce (March 5, 1684). This statesmanlike persistence was
rewarded by an uninterrupted series of triumphs, culminating
in the recapture of Buda (1686) and Belgrade (1688), and the
recovery of Bosnia (1689). But, in 1690, the third of the famous
Kuprilis, Mustafa, brother of Fazil Ahmed, became grand
vizier, and the Turk, still further encouraged by the death
of Innocent XI., rallied once more. In the course of that year
Kuprili regained Servia and Bulgaria, placed Tokoli on the
throne of Transylvania, and on the 6th of October took Belgrade
by assault. Once more the road to Vienna lay open,
but the grand vizier wasted the remainder of the year Liberation
in fortifying Belgrade, and on August i8th, 1691, he
was defeated and slain at Slankamen by the margrave
of Baden. For the next six years the war languished owing to
the timidity of the emperor, the incompetence of his generals and
the exhaustion of the Porte; but on the nth of September 1697
Prince Eugene of Savoy routed the Turks at Zenta and on
the I3th of November 1698 a peace-congress was opened at
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
Karlowitz which resulted in the peace of that name (Jan. 26,
1699). Nominally a truce for 25 years on the uti possidetis basis,
the peace of Karlowitz left in the emperor's hands the
z wn l e f Hungary except Syrmia and the territory
lying between the rivers Maros, Theiss, Danube and
the mountains of Transylvania, the so-called Temeskoz,
or about one-eleventh of the modern kingdom. The peace of
Karlowitz marks the term of the Magyar's secular struggle with
Mahommedanism and finally reunited her long-separated
provinces beneath a common sceptre.
But the liberation of Hungary from the Turks brought no
relief to the Hungarians. The ruthless suppression of the Magyar
malcontents, in which there was little discrimination between
the innocent and the guilty, had so crushed the spirit of the
country that Leopold considered the time ripe for realizing a
long-cherished ideal of the Habsburgs and changing Hungary
from an elective into an hereditary monarchy. For this purpose
a diet was assembled at Pressburg in the autumn of 1687. It
was a mere rump, for wholesale executions had thinned its
numbers and the reconquered countries were not represented
in it. To this weakened and terrorized assembly the emperor-
king explained that he had the right to treat Hungary as a
conquered country, but that he was prepared to confirm its
constitutional liberties under three conditions: the inaugural
diploma was to be in the form signed by Ferdinand I., the crown
was to be declared hereditary in the house of Habsburg, and the
3ist clause of the Golden Bull, authorizing armed resistance to
unconstitutional acts of the sovereign, was to be abrogated.
These conditions the diet had no choice but to accept, and, in
October 1687, the elective monarchy of Hungary, which had
been in existence for nearly seven hundred years, ceased to exist.
The immediate effect of the peace of Karlowitz was thus only to
strengthen despotism in Hungary. Kollonich, who had been
created a cardinal in 1685, archbishop of Kalocsa in 1691 and
archbishop of Eszt:rgom (Gran) and primate of Hungary in
1695, was now at the head of affairs, and his plan was to germanize
Hungary as speedily as possible by promoting a wholesale
immigration into the recovered provinces, all of which were
in a terrible state of dilapidation. 1
The border counties, now formed into a military zone, were
planted exclusively with Croatian colonists as being more
trustworthy defenders of the Hungarian frontier than the
Hungarians themselves. Moreover, a neo-acquisita commissio was
constituted to inquire into the title-deeds of the Magyar land-
owners in the old Turkish provinces, and hundreds of estates
were transferred, on the flimsiest of pretexts, to naturalized
foreigners. Transylvania since 1690 had been administered
from Vienna, and though the farce of assembling a diet there was
still kept up, even the promise of religious liberty, conceded to
it on its surrender in 1687, was not kept. No wonder then if
the whole country was now seething with discontent and only
awaitin g an opportunity to burst forth in open re-'
bellion. This opportunity came when the emperor,
involved in the War of the Spanish Succession, with-
drew all his troops from Hungary except some 1600 men. In
1703 the malcontents found a leader in Francis Rakoczy II.
(q.v.), who was elected prince by the Hungarian estates on the
6th of July 1704, and during the next six years gave the emperor
Joseph I., who had succeeded Leopold in May 1705, considerable
anxiety. Rakoczy had often as many as 100,000 men under him,
and his bands penetrated as far as Moravia and even approached
within a few miles of Vienna. But they were guerillas, not
regulars; they had no good officers, no serviceable artillery, and
very little money; and all the foreign powers to whom Rakoczy
turned for assistance (excepting France, who fed them occasion-
ally with paltry subsidies) would not commit themselves to a
formal alliance with rebels who were defeated in every pitched
battle they fought. On the other hand, if the Rakoczians were
easily dispersed, they as quickly reassembled, and at one time
they held all Transylvania and the greater part of Hungary.
1 E.g. in Esztergpm, the primatial city, there were only two
buildings still standing.
Francis
Charles
HI.
In the course of 1 707 two Rakoczian diets even went so far as
formally to depose the Habsburgs and form an interim govern-
ment with Rakoczy at its head, till a national king could be
legally elected. The Maritime Powers, too, fearful lest Louis
XIV. should materially assist the Rakoczians and thus divert
part of the emperor's forces at the very crisis of the War
of the Spanish Succession, intervened, repeatedly Pemx of
and energetically, to bring about a compromise be- s**f mir '
tween the court and the insurgents, whose claims they
considered to be just and fair. But the obstinate refusal of
Joseph to admit that the Rakoczians were anything but rebels
was always the insurmountable object in all such negotiations.
But when, on the 7th of April 1711, Joseph died without issue,
leaving the crown to his brother the Archduke Charles, then
fighting the battles of the Allies in Spain, a peace-congress met
at Szatmar on the 27th of April, and, two days later, an under-
standing was arrived at on the basis of a general amnesty, full
religious liberty and the recognition of the inviolability of the
ancient rights and privileges of the Magyars.
Thus the peace of Szatmar assured to the Hungarian nation
all that it had won by former compacts with the Habsburgs; but
whereas hitherto the Transylvanian principality had been the
permanent guardian of all such compacts, and the authority of
the reigning house had been counterpoised by the Turk, the
effect and validity of the peace of Szatmar depended entirely
upon the support it might derive from the nation itself. It
was a fortunate thing for Hungary that the conclusion of the
War of the Spanish Succession introduced a new period, in
which, at last, the interests of the dynasty and the nation were
identical, thus rendering a reconciliation between them desirable.
Moreover, the next century and a half was a period of domestic
tranquillity, during which Hungary was able to repair the ruin of
the long Turkish wars, nurse her material resources, and take
the first steps in the direction of social and political
reform. The first reforms, however, were dynastic
rather than national. Thus, in 171.5, King Charles III. 2
persuaded the diet to consent to the establishment of a standing
army, which though the diet reserved the right to fix the
number of recruits and vote the necessary subsidies from time
to time was placed under the control of the Austrian council
of war. The same centralizing tendency was shown in the
administrative and judicial reforms taken in hand by the diet
of 1722. A Hungarian court chancery was now established at
Vienna, while the government of Hungary proper was com-
mitted to a royal stadholdership at Pressburg. Both the
chancery and the stadholdership were independent of the diet
and responsible to the king alone, being, in fact, his executive
instruments. It was this diet also which accepted
the Pragmatic Sanction, first issued in 1713, by which t * a z matlc
, , ,'. T . , c ,'c i*. i Sanction,
the emperor Charles VI., m default of his leaving U23.
male heirs, settled the succession to his hereditary
dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa and her heirs. By
the laws of 1723, which gave effect to the resolution of the diet
in favour of accepting the principle of female succession, the
Habsburg king entered into a fresh contract with his Hungarian
subjects, a contract which remained the basis of the relations of
the crown and nation until 1848. On the one hand it was
declared that the kingdom of Hungary was an integral part of the
Habsburg dominions and inseparable from these so long as a
male or female heir of the kings Charles, Joseph and Leopold
should be found to succeed to them. On the other hand, Charles
swore, on behalf of himself and his heirs, to preserve the Hungarian
constitution intact, with all the rights, privileges, customs,
laws, &c., of the kingdom and its dependencies. Moreover, in the
event of the failure of a Habsburg heir, the diet reserved the
right to revive the " ancient, approved and accepted custom
and prerogative of the estates and orders in the matter of the
election and coronation of their king."
The reign of Charles III. is also memorable for two Turkish wars,
the first of which, beginning in 1716, and made glorious by the
victories of Prince Eugene and Janos Pallfy, was terminated by
* Charles VI. as emperor.
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
the peace of Passarowitz (July 21, 1718), by which the Temeskoz
was also freed from the Turks, and Servia, Northern Bosnia and
Little Walachia, all of them ancient conquests of Hungary,
were once more incorporated with the territories of the crown
of St Stephen. The second war, though undertaken in league
with Russia, proved unlucky, and, at the peace of Belgrade
(Sept. i, 1730), all the conquests of the peace of Passarowitz,
including Belgrade itself, were lost, except the banat of Temesvar.
With Maria Theresa (1740-1780) began the age of enlightened
despotism. Deeply grateful to the Magyars for their sacrifices
and services during the War of the Austrian Succession,
sne dedicated her whole authority to the good of the
nation, but she was very unwilling to share that
authority with the people. Only in the first stormy years of her
reign did she summon the diet; after 1764 she dispensed with
it altogether. She did not fill up the dignity of palatine, vacant
since the 26th of October 1765, and governed Hungary through
her son-in-law, Albert of Saxe-Teschen. She did not attack
the Hungarian constitution; she simply put it on one side.
Her reforms were made not by statute, but by royal decree. Yet
the nation patiently endured the mild yoke of the great queen,
because it felt and knew that its welfare was safe in her motherly
hands. Her greatest achievement lay in the direction of educa-
tional reform. She employed the proceeds of the vast sums
coming to her from the confiscation of the property of the sup-
pressed Jesuit order in founding schools and colleges all over
Hungary. The kingdom was divided into ten educational districts
for the purpose, with a university at Buda. Towards all her
Magyars, especially the Catholics, she was ever most gracious;
but the magnates, the Batthyanis, the Nadasdys, the Pallfys,
the Andrassys, who had chased her enemies from Bohemia
and routed them in Bavaria, enjoyed the lion's share of her
benefactions. In fact, most of them became professional
courtiers, and lived habitually at Vienna. She also attracted the
gentry to her capital by forming a Magyar body-guard from the
cadets of noble families. But she was good to all, not even
forgetting the serfs. The tirberi szabdlyzat (feudal prescription)
of 1767 restored to the peasants the right of transmigration and,
in some respects, protected them against the exactions of their
landlords.
Joseph II. (1780-1790) was as true to the principles of en-
lightened despotism and family politics as his mother; but
he had none of the common sense which had led her
to realize the limits of her power. Joseph was an
idealist and a doctrinaire, whose dream was to build up
his ideal body politic; the first step toward which was to be the
amalgamation of all his dominions into a common state under
an absolute sovereign (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY; and JOSEPH II.,
Emperor). Unfortunately, the Hungarian constitution stood in
the way of this political paradise, so Joseph resolved that the
Hungarian constitution must be sacrificed. Refusing to be
crowned, or even to take the usual oaths of observance, he simply
announced his accession to the Hungarian counties, and then
deliberately proceeded to break down all the ancient Magyar
institutions. In 1784 the Language Edict made German the
official language of the common state. The same year he ordered
a census and a land-survey to be taken, to enable him to tax
every one irrespective of birth or wealth. Protests came in
from every quarter and a dangerous rebellion broke out in
Transylvania; but opposition only made Joseph more obstinate,
and he endeavoured to anticipate any further resistance by
abolishing the ancient county assemblies and dividing the
kingdom into two districts administered by German officials.
In taking this course Joseph made the capital mistake of
neglecting the Machiavellian maxim that in changing the
substance of cherished institutions the prince should be careful
to preserve the semblance. In substance the county assemblies
were worse than ineffective: mere turbulent gatherings of
country squires and peasants, corrupt and prejudiced, represent-
ing nothing but their own pride of race and class; and to try
and govern without them, or to administer in spite of them, may
have been the only expedient possible to statesmen. But to the
Magyars they were the immemorial strpngholds of their liberties,
the last defences of their constitution; and the attempt to
suppress them, which made every county a centre of disaffection
and resistance, was the action not of a statesman, but of a
visionary. The failure of Joseph's " enlightened " policy in
Hungary was inevitable in any case; it was hastened by the
disastrous Turkish war 'of 1787-92, which withdrew Joseph
altogether from domestic affairs; and on his death-bed (Feb.
22, 1790) he felt it to be his duty to annul all his principal
reforms, so as to lighten the difficulties of his successor.
Leopold II. found the country on the verge of revolution;
but the wisdom of the new monarch saved the situation and won
back the Magyars. At the diet of 1790-1791 laws were
passed not only confirming the royal prerogatives Leopold
and the national liberties, but leaving the way open for i' 7 ' 92f '
future developments. Hungary was declared to be a
free, independent and unsubjected kingdom governed by its
own laws and customs. The legislative functions were to be
exercised by the king and the diet conjointly and by them alone.
The diets were henceforth to be triennial, and every new king
was to pledge himself to be crowned and issue his credentials '
within six months of the death of his predecessor. Latin was
still to be the official language, but Magyar was now introduced
into the university and all the schools. Leopold's successor
Francis I. (1792-1835) received a declaration of war from the
French Legislative Assembly immediately on ascending
the throne. For the next quarter of a century he, as Fraacls '
the champion of legitimacy ,was fighting the Revolution 18 j S-
on countless battle-fields, and the fearful struggle
only bound the Magyar nation closer to the Habsburg dynasty.
Ignaz Jozsef Martinovics (1755-1795) ar >d his associates, the
Hungarian Jacobins, vainly attempted a revolutionary propa-
ganda (1795), and Napoleon's mutilations of the ancient kingdom
of St Stephen did not predispose the Hungarian gentry in his
favour. Politically, indeed, the whole period was one of retro-
gression and stagnation. The frequent diets held in the earlier
part of the reign occupied themselves with little else but war
subsidies; after 1811 they ceased to be summoned. In the
latter years of Francis I. the dark shadow of Metternich's policy
of " stability " fell across the kingdom, and the forces of re-
actionary absolutism were everywhere supreme. But beneath
the surface a strong popular current was beginning to run in a
contrary direction. Hungarian society, not unaffected by
western Liberalism, but without any direct help from abroad,
was preparing for the future emancipation. Writers, savants,
poets, artists, noble and plebeian, layman and cleric, without any
previous concert, or obvious connexion, were working towards
that ideal of political liberty which was to unite all the Magyars.
Mihaly Vorosmartyo, Ferencz Kolcsey, Ferencz Kazinczy and
his associates, to mention but a few of many great names, were,
consciously or unconsciously, as the representatives of the
renascent national literature, accomplishing a political mission,
and their pens proved no less efficacious than the swords
of their ancestors.
It was a direct attack upon the constitution which, to use the
words of Istvan Szechenyi, first " startled the nation out of its
sickly drowsiness." In 1823, when the reactionary
powers were meditating joint action to suppress the
revolution in Spain, the government, without consulting rev/va/.
the diet, imposed a war-tax and called out the recruits.
The county assemblies instantly protested against this illegal
act, and Francis I. was obliged, at the diet of 1823, to repudiate
the action of his ministers. But the estates felt that the mainten-
ance of their liberties demanded more substantial guarantees than
the dead letter of ancient laws. Szechenyi, who had resided
abroad and studied Western institutions, was the recognized
leader of all those who wished to create a new Hungary out of
the old. For years he and his friends educated public opinion
by issuing innumerable pamphlets in which the new Liberalism
was eloquently expounded. In particular Szechenyi insisted
that the people must not look exclusively to the government,
' Litterae credentials, nearly equivalent to a coronation oath.
916
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
or even to the diet, for the necessary reforms. Society itself
must take the initiative by breaking down the barriers of
class exclusiveness and reviving a healthy public spirit. The
effect of this teaching was manifest at the diet of 1832, when the
Liberals in the Lower Chamber had a large majority, prominent
among whom were Francis Deak and Odon Beothy. In the
Upper House, however, the magnates united with the government
to form a conservative party obstinately opposed to any project
of reform, which frustrated all the efforts of the Liberals.
The alarm of the government at the power and popularity
of the Liberal party induced it, soon after the accession of the
new king, the emperor Ferdinand I. (1835-1848), to attempt to
crush the reform movement by arresting and imprisoning the
most active agitators among them, Louis Kossuth and Miklos
Wesselenyi. But the nation was no longer to be cowed. The
diet of 1839 refused to proceed to business till the political
prisoners had been released, and, while in the Lower Chamber
the reforming majority was larger than ever, a Liberal party
was now also formed in the Upper House under the brilliant
leadership of Count Louis Batthyany and Baron Joseph Eotvos.
Two progressive measures of the highest importance were
passed by this diet, one making Magyar the official language of
Hungary, the other freeing the peasants' holdings from all
feudal obligations.
The results of the diet of 1839 did not satisfy the advanced
Liberals, while the opposition of the government and of the
Upper House still further embittered the general
discontent. The chief exponent of this temper was the
Pesti Hirlap, Hungary's first political newspaper, founded in
1841 by Kossuth, whose articles, advocating armed reprisals if
necessary, inflamed the extremists but alienated Szechenyi,
who openly attacked Kossuth's opinions. The polemic on both
sides was violent; but, as usual, the extreme views prevailed,
and on the assembling of the diet of 1843 Kossuth was more
popular than ever, while the influence of Szechenyi had sensibly
declined. The tone of this diet was passionate, and the govern-
ment was fiercely attacked for interfering with the elections.
Fresh triumphs were won by the Liberals. Magyar was now
declared to be the language of the schools and the law-courts
as well as of the legislature; mixed marriages were legalized;
and official positions were thrown open to non-nobles.
The interval between the diet of 1843 and that of 1847 saw
a complete disintegration and transformation of the various
political parties. Szechenyi openly joined the government,
while the moderate Liberals separated from the extremists and
formed a new party, the Centralists. Immediately before the
elections, however, Deak succeeded in reuniting all the Liberals
on the common platform of " The Ten Points ": (i) Responsible
ministries, (2) Popular representation, (3) The incorporation of
Transylvania, (4) Right of public meeting, (6) Absolute religious
liberty, (7) Universal equality before the law, (8) Universal
taxation, (9) The abolition of the Aviticum, an obsolete and
anomalous land-tenure, (10) The abolition of serfdom, with
compensation to the landlords. The ensuing elections resulted
in a complete victory of the Progressives. All efforts to bring
about an understanding between the government and the opposi-
tion were fruitless. Kossuth demanded not merely the redress of
actual grievances, but a reform which would make grievances
impossible in the future. In the highest circles a dissolution of
the diet now seemed to be the sole remedy; but, before it
could be carried out, tidings of the February revolution
in Paris reached Pressburg 1 (March i), and on the 3rd
of March Kossuth's motion for the appointment of an
independent, responsible ministry was accepted by the
Lower House. The moderates, alarmed not so much
by the motion itself as by its tone, again tried to inter-
vene; but on the I3th of March the Vienna revolution broke out,
and the king, yielding to pressure or panic, appointed Count
Louis Batthyany premier of the first Hungarian responsible
ministry, which included Kossuth, Szechenyi and Deak. The
Ten Points, or the March Laws as they were now called, were
1 Up to 1848 the Hungarian diet was usually held at Pressburg.
Revolu-
tion of
1848.
The
March
Laws.
Jella-
chkh.
then adopted by the legislature and received the royal assent
(April 10). Hungary had, to all intents and purposes, become an
independent state bound to Austria only by the fact that the
palatine chanced to be an Austrian archduke.
In the assertion of their national aspirations, confused as these
were with the new democratic ideals, the Magyars had had the
support of the German democrats who temporarily
held the reins of power in Vienna. On the other hand, j^ e """'
they were threatened by an ominous stirring of the ra ^"'
subject races in Hungary itself. Croats, Vlachs, Serbs
and Slovaks resented Magyar domination a domination which
had been carefully secured under the revolutionary constitution
by a very narrow franchise, and out of the general chaos each race
hoped to create for itself a separate national existence. The
separatist movement was strongest in the south, where the
Rumans were in touch with their kinsmen in Walachia and
Moldavia, the Serbs with their brethren in Servia, and the Croats
intent on reasserting the independence of the " Tri-une Kingdom."
The attitude of the distracted imperial government towards
these movements was at first openly suspicious and hostile.
The emperor and his ministers hoped that, having
conceded the demands of the Magyars, they would
receive the help of the Hungarian government in
crushing the revolution elsewhere, a hope that seemed to be
justified by the readiness with which Batthyany consented to
send a contingent to the assistance of the imperialists in Italy.
That the encouragement of the Slav aspirations was soon
deliberately adopted as a weapon against the Hungarian govern-
ment was due, partly to the speedy predominance at Pest of
Kossuth and the extreme party of which he was the mouthpiece,
but mainly to the calculated policy of Baron Jellachich, who on
the I4th of April was appointed ban of Croatia. Jellachich, who
as a soldier was devoted to the interests of the imperial house,
realized that the best way to break the revolutionary power of
the Magyars and Germans would be to encourage the Slav
national ideas, which were equally hostile to both; to set up
against the Dualism in favour at Pest and Vienna the federal
system advocated by the Slavs, and so to restore the traditional
Habsburg principle of Divide et impera. This policy he pursued
with masterly skill. His first acts on taking up his office were to
repudiate the authority of the Hungarian diet, to replace the
Maygar officials with ardent " Illyrians," and to proclaim
martial law. Under pressure from the palatine of Batthyany
an imperial edict was issued, on the 7th day of May, ordering the
ban to desist from his separatist plans and take his orders from
Pest. He not only refused to obey, but on the 5th of June con-
voked to Agram the Croatian national diet, of which the first act
was to declare the independence of the Tri-une Kingdom. Once
more, at the instance of Batthyany, the emperor intervened; and
on the loth an imperial edict stripped Jellachich of all his offices.
Meanwhile, however, Jellachich had himself started for
Innsbruck, where he succeeded in persuading the emperor of the
loyalty of his intentions, and whence, though not as yet formally
reinstated, he was allowed to return to Croatia with practically
unfettered discretion. The Hungarian government, in fact, had
played into his hands. At a time when everything depended
on the army, they had destroyed the main tie which bound the
Austrian court to their interests by tampering with the relation
of the Hungarian army to the crown. In May a national guard
had been created, the disaffected troops being bribed by increased
pay to desert their colours and join this; and on the ist of June
the garrison of Pest had taken an oath to the constitution. All
hope of crushing revolutionary Vienna with Magyar aid was
thus at an end, and Jellachich, who on the 2oth issued a proclama-
tion to the Croat regiments in Italy to remain with their colours
and fight for the common fatherland, was free to carry out his
policy of identifying the cause of the southern Slavs with that
of the imperial army. The alliance was cemented in July by a
military demonstration, of which Jellachich was the hero, at
Vienna; as the result of which the government mustered up
courage to declare publicly that the basis of the Austrian state
was " the recognition of the equal rights of all nationalities."
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
917
This was the challenge which the Magyars were not slow to
accept.
In the Hungarian diet, which met on the 2nd of July, the
influence of the conservative cabinet was wholly overshadowed
by that of Kossuth, whose inflammatory orations
directed against the disruptive designs of the Slavs and
Hungary, the treachery of the Austrian government precipitated
the crisis. At his instance the diet not only refused to
vote supplies for the troops of the ban of Croatia, but only
consented to pass a motion for sending reinforcements to the
army in Italy on condition that the anti-Magyar races in Hungary
should be first disarmed. On the nth, on his motion, a decree
was passed by acclamation for a levy of 200,000 men and the
raising of 4,500,000 for the defence of the independence of the
country. Desultory fighting, in which Austrian officers with the
tacit consent of the minister of war took part against the Magyars,
had already broken out in the south. It was not, however, until
the victory of Custozza (July 25) set free the army in Italy, that
the Austrian government ventured on bolder measures. On
the 4th of September, after weeks of fruitless negotiation, the
king-emperor threw down the gauntlet by reinstating Jellachich
in all his honours. Seven days later the ban declared open
war on Hungary by crossing the Drave at the head of 36,000
Croatian troops (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY : History) . The immediate
result was to place the extreme revolutionaries in power at Pest.
Szechenyi had lost his reason some days before; Eotvos and
Deak retired into private life; of the conservative ministers only
Batthyany, to his undoing, consented to remain in office, though
hardly in power. Kossuth alone was supreme.
The advance of Jellachich as far as Lake Balaton had not been
checked, the Magyar troops, though contrary to his expecta-
tion none joined him, offering no opposition. The palatine,
the Austrian Archduke Stephen, after fruitless attempts at
negotiation, laid down his office on the 24th of September and
left for Vienna. One more attempt at compromise was made,
General Count Lamberg 1 being sent to take command of all
the troops, Slav or Magyar, in Hungary, with a view to arranging
an armistice. His mission, which was a slight to Jellachich, was
conceived as a concession to the Magyars, and had the general
approval of Batthyany. Unhappily, however, when Lamberg
arrived in Pest, Batthyany had not yet returned; the diet,
on Kossuth's motion, called on the army not to obey the new
commander-in-chief, on the ground that his commission had not
been countersigned by a minister at Pest. Next day, as he was
crossing the bridge of Buda, Lamberg was dragged from his
carriage by a frantic mob and torn to pieces. This made war
inevitable; though Batthyany hurried to Vienna to try and
arrange a settlement. Failing in this, he retired, and on the
2nd of October a royal proclamation, countersigned by his
successor, Recssey, placed Hungary under martial law and
appointed Jellachich viceroy and commander of all the forces.
This proclamation, together with the order given to certain
Viennese regiments to march to the assistance of Jellachich,
who had been defeated at Pakozd on the 2pth of September,
led to the 6meute (Oct. 3) which ended in the murder of the
minister of war, Latour, and the second flight of the emperor
to Innsbruck. The fortunes of the German revolutionaries in
Vienna and the Magyar revolutionists in Pest were now closely
bound up together; and when, on the nth, Prince
Windischgratz laid siege to Vienna, it was to
Hungary that the democrats of the capital looked for
relief. The despatch of a large force of militia to the assistance
of the Viennese was, in fact, the first act of open rebellion of the
Hungarians. They suffered a defeat at Schwechat on the 3oth
of October, which sealed the fate of the revolutionists in Vienna
and thus precipitated a conflict d, entrance in Hungary itself.
'Franz Phillip, Count von Lamberg (1791-1848), a field-marshal
in the Austrian army, who had seen service in the campaigns of
1814-1815 in France, belonged to the Stockerau branch of the
ancient country family of Orteneck-Ottenstein. He was chosen for
this particular mission as being himself a Hungarian magnate
conversant with Hungarian affairs, but at the same time of the
party devoted to the court.
In Austria the army was now supreme, and the appointment
of Prince Felix Schwarzenberg as head of the government was a
guarantee that its power would be used in a reactionary
sense without weakness or scruple. The Austrian
diet was transferred on the isth of November to
Kremsier, remote from revolutionary influences; and, though
the government still thought it prudent to proclaim its con-
stitutional principles, it also proclaimed its intention to preserve
the unity of the monarchy. A still further step was taken when,
on the 2nd of December, the emperor Ferdinand abdicated in
favour of his nephew Francis Joseph. The new sovereign was
a lad of eighteen, who for the present was likely to be the mere
mouthpiece of Schwarzenberg's policy. Moreover, he was not
bound by the constitutional obligations unwillingly accepted by
his uncle. The Magyars at once took up the challenge. On the
7th- the Hungarian diet formally refused to acknowledge the title
of the new king, " as without the knowledge and consent of
the diet no one could sit on the Hungarian throne," and called
the nation to arms. Constitutionally, in the Magyar opinion,
Ferdinand was still king of Hungary, and this gave to the revolt
an excuse of legality. Actually, from this time until the collapse
of the rising, Louis Kossuth was the ruler of Hungary.
The struggle opened with a series of Austrian successes.
Prince Windischgratz, who had received orders to reduce
Hungary by fire and sword, began his advance on the
iSth of December; opened up the way to the capital fadeea'
by the victory of Mor (Oct. 30), and on the 5th of aence."
January 1849 occupied Pest, while the Hungarian
government and diet retired behind the Theiss and established
themselves at Debreczen. A last attempt at reconciliation,
made by the more moderate members of the diet in Windisch-
gratz's camp at Bieske (Jan. 3), had foundered on the uncom-
promising attitude of the Austrian commander, who demanded
unconditional submission; whereupon the moderates, including
Deak and Batthyany, retired into private life, leaving Kossuth
to carry on the struggle with the support of the enthusiastic
extremists who constituted the rump of the diet at Debreczen.
The question now was: how far the military would subordinate
itself to the civil element of the national government. The
first symptom of dissonance was a proclamation by the com-
mander of the Upper Danube division, Arthur Gorgei, from his
camp at Va.cz (Jan. 5) emphasizing the fact that the national
defence was purely constitutional, and menacing all who might
be led astray from this standpoint by republican aspirations.
Immediately after this proclamation Gorgei disappeared with
his army among the hills of Upper Hungary, and, despite the
difficulties of a phenomenally severe winter and the constant
pursuit of vastly superior forces, fought his way down to the
valley of Hernad and safety. This masterly winter-campaign
first revealed Gorgei 's military genius, and -the discipline of
that terrible month of marching and counter-marching had
hardened his recruits into veterans whom his country regarded
with pride and his country's enemies with respect. Unfortu-
nately his success caused some jealousy in official quarters, and
when, in the middle of February 1849, a commander-in-chief
was appointed to carry out Kossuth's plan of campaign, that
vital appointment was given, not to the man who had made
the army what it was, but to a foreigner, a Polish refugee,
Count Henrik Dembinski, who, after fighting the
bloody and indecisive battle of Kapolna (Feb. 26-27), Kipoiaa.
was forced to retreat. Gorgei was immediately
appointed his successor, and the new generalissimo led
the Honveds from victory to victory. Ably supported by
Klapka and Damjanich he pressed forward irresistibly. Szolnok
(March 5), Isaszeg (April 6), Vacz (April 10), and Nagysarlo
(April 19) were so many milestones in his triumphal progress.
On the 2 sth of May the Hungarian capital was once more in the
hands of the Hungarians.
Meanwhile, the earlier events of the war had so altered the
political situation that any idea which the diet at Debreczen
had cherished of a compromise with Austria was destroyed. The
capture of Pest had confirmed the Austrian court in its policy
918
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
of unification, which after the victory of Kapolna they thought
it safe to proclaim. On the 7th of March the diet of Kremsier
Pnciama- was dissolved, and immediately afterwards a proclama-
tion of a tion was issued in the name of the emperor Francis
united Joseph establishing a united constitution for the whole
empire. empire, of which Hungary, cut up into half a dozen
administrative districts, was henceforth to be little more than
the largest of several subject provinces. The news of 'this
manifesto, arriving as it did simultaneously with that of Gorgei's
successes, destroyed the last vestiges of a desire of the Hungarian
revolutionists to compromise, and on the i4th of April, on the
motion of Kossuth, the diet proclaimed the independence of
Hungary, declared the house of Habsburg as false and perjured,
for ever excluded from the throne, and elected Kossuth president
of the Hungarian Republic. This was an execrable blunder in
the circumstances, and the results were fatal to the national
cause. Neither the government nor the army could accom-
modate itself to the new situation. From henceforth the military
and civil authorities, as represented by Kossuth and Gorgei,
were hopelessly out of sympathy with each other, and the breach
widened till all effective co-operation became impossible.
Meanwhile the humiliating defeats of the imperial army and
the course of events in Hungary had compelled the court of
Vienna to accept the assistance which the emperor
Nicholas L of Russia had proffered in the loftiest
Russia. spirit of the Holy Alliance. The Austro-Russian
alliance was announced at the beginning of May, and
before the end of the month the common plan of campaign
had been arranged. The Austrian commander-in-chief, Count
Haynau, was to attack Hungary from the west, the Russian,
Prince Paskevich, from the north, gradually environing the
kingdom, and then advancing to end the business by one decisive
blow in the mid-Theissian counties. They had at their dis-
posal 375,000 men, to which the Magyars could only oppose
160,000. The Magyars, too, were now more than ever divided
among themselves, no plan of campaign had yet been drawn
up, no commander-in-chief appointed to replace Gorgei, whom
Kossuth had deposed. Haynau's first victories (June 20-28)
put an end to their indecisions. On the 2nd of July the
Hungarian government abandoned Pest and transferred its
capital first to Szeged and finally to Arad. The Russians were
by this time well on their way to the Theiss, and the terrible
girdle which was to throttle the liberties of Hungary was all
but completed. Kossuth again appointed as commander-in-
chief the brave but inefficient Dembinski, who was utterly
routed at Temesvar (Aug. 9) by Haynau. This was the last great
battle of the War of Independence. The final catastrophe was
now unavoidable. On the I3th of August Gorgei, who had been
appointed dictator by the panic-stricken government two days
before, surrendered the remnant of his hardly pressed army to
the Russian General Riidiger at Vilagos. The other army corps
and all the fortresses followed his example, Komarom, heroically
defended by Klapka, being the last to capitulate (Sept. 27).
Kossuth and his associates, who had quitted Arad on the loth
of August, took refuge in Turkish territory. By the end of
the month Paskevich could write to the Emperor Nicholas:
" Hungary lies at the feet of your Imperial Majesty."
From October 1849 to July 1850 Hungary was governed by
martial law administered by " the butcher " Haynau. This was
a period of military tribunals, dragooning, wholesale
confiscation and all manner of brutalities. 1 From
System." 1851 to 1860 pure terrorism was succeeded by the
" Bach System," which derives its name from the
imperial minister of the interior, Baron Alexander von Bach.
The Bach System did not recognize historical Hungary. It
The crowning atrocities, which the Magyars have never wholly
forgiven, were the shooting and hanging of the " Arad Martyrs " and
the execution of Batthyany. On October 6, 1849, thirteen generals
who had taken part in the war, including Damjanics and Counts
Vecsey and Leiningen, were hanged or shot at Arad. On the same
day Count Louis Batthyany, who had taken no part in the war and
had done his utmost to restrain his countrymen within the bounds of
legality, was shot at Pest.
The
Bach
postulated the existence of one common indivisible state of
which mutilated Hungary 2 formed an important section. The
supreme government was entrusted to an imperial council
responsible to the emperor alone. The counties were ad-
ministered by imperial officials, Germans, Czechs and Galicians,
who did not understand the Magyar tongue. German was the
official language. But though reaction was the motive power
of this new machinery of government, it could not do away with
many of the practical and obvious improvements of 1848, and
it was not blind to some of the indispensable requirements of a
modern state. The material welfare of the nation was certainly
promoted by it. Modern roads were made, the first railways
were laid down, the regulation of the river Theiss was taken in
hand, a new and better scheme of finance was inaugurated.
But the whole system, so to speak, hung in the air. It took no
root in the soil. The Magyar nation stood aloof from it. It was
plain that at the first revolutionary blast from without, or the
first insurrectionary outburst from within, the " Bach System "
would vanish like a mirage.
Meanwhile the new Austrian empire had failed to stand the
test of international complications. The Crimean War had
isolated it in Europe. The Italian war of 1859 had The
revealed its essential instability. It was felt at court October
that some concessions were now due to the subject Diploma,
nationalities. Hence the October Diploma (Oct. 20,
1860) which proposed to prop up the crazy common state with
the shadow of a constitution and to grant some measure of local
autonomy to Hungary, subject always to the supervision of the
imperial council (Reichsrath). 3 This project was favoured by
the Magyar conservative magnates who had never broken with
the court, but was steadily opposed by the Liberal leader Ferencz
Deak whose upright and tenacious character made him at this
crisis the oracle and the buttress of the national cause. Deak's
standpoint was as simple as it was unchangeable. He demanded
the re-establishment of the constitution of 1848 in its entirety,
the whole constitution and nothing but the constitution.
The October Diploma was followed by the February Patent
(Feb. 26, 1861), which proposed to convert the Reichsrath into
a constitutional representative assembly, with two rhe
chambers, to which all the provinces of the empire February
were to send deputies. The project, elaborated by Patent,
Anton von Schmerling, was submitted to a Hungarian I86t '
diet which assembled at Pest on the 2nd of April 1861. After
long and violent debates, the diet, on the 8th of August, unanim-
ously adopted an address to the crown, drawn up by Deak,
praying for the restoration of the political and territorial integrity
of Hungary, for the public coronation of the king with all its
accompaniments, and the full restitution of the fundamental
laws. The executive retorted by dissolving the diet on the 2ist
of August and levying the taxes by military execution. The
so-called Provisorium had begun.
But the politicians of Vienna had neither the power nor the
time to realize their intentions. The question of Italian unity
had no sooner been settled than the question of The
German unity arose, and fresh international difficulties Austro-
once more inclined the Austrian government towards Prussian
moderation and concession. In the beginning of June ^ '
1865, Francis Joseph came to Buda; on the 26th a
provisional Hungarian government was formed, on the 2Oth of
September the February constitution was suspended, and on the
I4th of December a diet was summoned to Buda- Pest. The great
majority of the nation naturally desired a composition with its
ruler and with Austria, and this general desire was unerringly
interpreted and directed by Deak, who carried two-thirds of
the deputies along with him. The session was interrupted
by the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, but not before a
2 Transylvania, Croatio-Slavonia with Fiume and the Temes
Banat were separated from the kingdom and provided with local
governments.
8 This Reichsrath was a purely consultative body, the ultimate
coatrol of all important affairs being reserved to the emperor.
Its representative element consisted of 100 members elected by
the provinces.
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
919
eat
Hungary.
committee had been formed to draft the new constitution.
The peace of Prague (Aug. 20, 1866), excluding Austria from
Italy and Germany, made the fate of the Habsburg monarchy
absolutely dependent upon a compromise with the Magyars.
(For the Compromise or Ausgleich, see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY:
History.) On the 7th of November 1866, the diet reassembled.
On the 1 7th of February 1867 a responsible inde-
pendent ministry was formed under Count Gyula
of 1867. Andrassy. On the 2pth of May the new constitution
was adopted by 209 votes to 89. Practically it was
an amplification of the March Laws of 1848. The coronation
took place on the 8th of June, on which occasion the king
solemnly declared that he wished " a veil to be drawn over the
past." The usual coronation gifts he devoted to the benefit
of the Honved invalids who had fought in the War of Independ-
ence. The reconciliation between monarch and people was
assured.
Hungary was now a free and independent modern state; but
the very completeness and suddenness of her constitutional
Parties la victory made it impossible for the strongly flowing
Indepead- current of political life to keep within due bounds.
The circumstance that the formation of political
parties had not come about naturally, was an additional
difficulty. Broadly speaking, there have been in Hungary since
1867 two parties: those who accept the compromise with
Austria, and affirm that under it Hungary, so far from having
surrendered any of her rights, has acquired an influence which
she previously did not actually possess, and secondly, those who
see in the compromise an abandonment of the essentials of
independence and aim at the restoration of the conditions
established in 1848. Within this broad division, however, have
appeared from time to time political groups in bewildering
variety, each adopting a party designation according to the
exigencies of the moment, but each basing its programme on
one or other of the theoretical foundations above mentioned.
Thus, at the outset, the most heterogeneous elements were to be
found both on the Left and Right. The Extreme Left was
Infected by the fanaticism of Kossuth, who condemned the
compromise and refused to take the benefit of the amnesty,
while the prelates and magnates who had originally opposed
the compromise were now to be found by the side of Deak and
Andrassy. The Deak party preserved its majority at the
elections of 1869, but the Left Centre and Extreme Left returned
to the diet considerably reinforced. The outbreak of the Franco-
German War of 1870 turned the attention of the Magyars to
Andrassy f re ig n affairs. Andrassy never rendered a greater
service to his country than when he prevented the
imperial chancellor and joint foreign minister, Count Beust, 1
from intervening in favour of France. On the retirement of
Beust in 1871, Andrassy was appointed his successor, the first
instance, since Hungary came beneath the dominion of the
Habsburgs, of an Hungarian statesman being entrusted with
the conduct of foreign affairs. But, however gratifying such an
elevation might be, it was distinctly prejudicial, at first, to
Hungary's domestic affairs, for no one else at this time, in
Hungary, possessed either the prestige or the popularity of
Andrassy. Within the next five years ministry followed ministry
in rapid succession. A hopeless political confusion ensued.
Few measures could be passed. The finances fell into disorder.
The national credit was so seriously impaired abroad that
foreign loans could only be obtained at ruinous rates of interest.
During this period Deak had almost entirely withdrawn from
public life. His last great speech was delivered on the 28th of
June 1873, and he died on the 2gth of January 1876. Fortun-
, , ately, in Kalman Tisza, the leader of the Liberal
Tis*." (Szabodelmu, i.e. " Free Principle ") party, he left
behind him a statesman of the first rank, who for the
next eighteen years was to rule Hungary uninterruptedly.
1 Beust was the only " imperial chancellor " in Austro-Hungarian
history; even Metternich bore only the title of " chancellor "; and
Andrassy, who succeeded Beust, styled himself " minister of the
imperial and royal household and for foreign affairs."
From the first, Tisza was exposed to the violent attacks of the
opposition, which embraced, not only the party of Independence,
champions of the principles of 1848, but the so-called National
party, led by the brilliant orator Count Albert Apponyi, which
aimed at much the same ends but looked upon the Compromise
of 1867 as a convenient substructure on which to build up the
Magyar state. Neither could forgive Tisza for repudiating
his earlier Radical policy, the so-called Bihar Programme
(March 6, 1868), which went far beyond the Compromise in the
direction of independence, and both attacked him with a violence
which his unyielding temper, and the ruthless methods by which
he always knew how to secure victory, tended ever to fan into
fury. Yet Tisza's aim also was to convert the old polyglot
Hungarian kingdom into a homogeneous Magyar state, and the
methods which he employed notably the enforced magyariza-
tion of the subject races, which formed part of the reformed
educational system introduced by him certainly did not err
on the side of moderation. 2 Whatever view may be held of
Tisza's policy in this respect, or of the corrupt methods by which
he maintained his party in power, 3 there can be no doubt that
during his long tenure of office which practically amounted
to a dictatorship he did much to promote the astonishing
progress of his country, which ran a risk of being stifled in the
strife of factions. Himself a Calvinist, he succeeded in putting
an end to the old quarrel of Catholic and Protestant and uniting
them in a common enthusiasm for a race ideal; nominally a
Liberal, he trampled on every Liberal principle in order to secure
the means for governing with a firm hand; and if the political
corruption of modern Hungary is largely his work, 4 to him also
belongs the credit for the measures which have placed the country
on a sound economic basis and the statesmanlike temper which
made Hungary a power in the affairs of Europe. In this latter
respect Tisza rendered substantial aid to the joint minister for
foreign affairs by repressing the anti-Russian ardour of the
Magyars on the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78,
and by supporting Andrassy's execution of the mandate from
the Berlin Congress to Austria-Hungary for the occupation of
Bosnia, against which the Hungarian opposition agitated for
reasons ostensibly financial. Tisza's policy on both these
occasions increased his unpopularity in Hungary, but in the
highest circles at Vienna he was now regarded as indispensable.
The following nine years mark the financial and commercial
rehabilitation of Hungary, the establishment of a vast and
original railway system which won the admiration of
Europe, the liberation and expansion of her over-sea
trade, the conversion of her national debt under
the most favourable conditions and the consequent equilibrium
of her finances. These benefits the nation owed for the most part
to Gabor Baross, Hungary's greatest finance minister, who
entered the cabinet in 1886 and greatly strengthened it. But the
opposition, while unable to deny the recuperation of Hungary,
shut their eyes to everything but Tisza's " tyranny, " and their
attacks were never so savage and unscrupulous as during the
session of 1889, when threats of a revolution were uttered by the
opposition leaders and the premier could only enter or leave the
House under police protection. The tragic death of the crown
prince Rudolph hushed for a time the strife of tongues, and in
the meantime Tisza brought into the ministry Dezso Szilagyi, the
most powerful debater in the House, and Sandor Wekerle,
whose solid talents had hitherto been hidden beneath the bushel
of an under-secretaryship. But in 1890, during the debates on
the Kossuth Repatriation Bill, the attacks on the premier were
renewed, and on the i3th of March he placed his resignation in the
king's hands.
The withdrawal of Tisza scarcely changed the situation, but
the period of brief ministries now began. Tisza's successor,
2 See for this Mr Seton-VVatson's Racial Problems of Hungary,
passim. ' Ibid. p. 168.
4 Especially the Electoral Law of 1874, which established a very
unequal distribution of electoral areas, a highly complicated franchise,
and voting by public declaration, thus mating it easy for the govern-
ment to intimidate the electors and generally to gerrymander the
elections.
Material
progress.
920
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
Count Gyula Szapiry, formerly minister of agriculture, held
office for eighteen months, and was succeeded (Nov. 21, 1892) by
. Wekerle. Wekerle, essentially a business man, had
w^ttrle taken office for the express purpose of equilibrating
Ministry, the finances, but the religious question aroused by the
1892. The encroachments of the Catholic clergy, and notably
7"estioa. their insistence on the baptism of the children of mixed
marriages, had by this time (1893-1894) excluded all
others, and the government were forced to postpone their financial
programme to its consideration. The Obligatory Civil Marriage
Bill, the State Registries Bill and the Religion of Children of
Mixed Marriages Bill, were finally adopted on the 2ist of June
1894, after fierce debates and a ministerial interregnum of ten
days (June 10-20); but on the 2 5th of December, Wekerle, who
no longer possessed the king's confidence, 1 resigned a second
time, and was succeeded by Baron Dezso (Desiderius) Banffy.
The various parties meanwhile had split up into some half a
dozen sub-sections; but the expected fusion of the
P art y f independence and the government fell through,
1894. and the barren struggle continued till the celebration of
the millennium of the foundation of the monarchy pro-
duced for some months a lull in politics. Subsequently, Banffy
still further exasperated the opposition by exercising undue
influence during the elections of 1896. The majority he obtained
on this occasion enabled him, however, to carry through the Army
Education Bill, which tended to magyarize the Hungarian portion
of the joint army; and another period of comparative calm
ensued, during which Banffy attempted to adjust various out-
standing financial and economical differences with Austria. But
in November 1898, on the occasion of the renewal of the com-
mercial convention with Austria, the attack on the ministry was
renewed with unprecedented virulence, obstruction being
systematically practised with the object of goading the govern-
ment into committing illegalities, till Banffy, finding the situation
impossible, resigned on the i7th of February 1899. His successor,
Kalman Szell, obtained an immense but artificial
Ministry majority by a fresh fusion of parties, and the minority
1899. pledged itself to grant an indemnity for the extra-
parliamentary financial decrees rendered necessary by
Hungary's understanding with Austria, as well as to cease from
obstruction. As a result of this compromise the budget of 1899
was passed in little more than a month, and the commercial and
tariff treaty with Austria were renewed till I903. 2 But the
government had to pay for this complacency with a so-called
" pactum," which bound it? hands in several directions, much to
the profit of the opposition during the " pure " elections of 1901.
On the reassembling of the diet, Count Albert Apponyi
language' was e ' ect;e d speaker, and tht minority seemed disposed
question, to let the government try to govern. But the proposed
raising of the contingent of recruits by 15,000 men
(Oct. 1902) once more brought up the question of the common
army, the parliament refusing to pass the bill, except in return
for the introduction of the Hungarian national flag into the
Hungarian regiments and the substitution of Magyar for German
in the words of command. The king refusing to yield an inch of
his rights under clause ii. of Law XII. of the Compromise of 1867,
the opposition once more took to obstruction, and on the ist of
May 1903 Szell was forced to resign.
Every one now looked to the crown to extract the nation
from an ex-lex, or extra-constitutional situation, but when the
First king, passing over the ordinary party-leaders, appointed
Khuea- as premier Count Karoly Khuen-Hedervary, who had
made himself impossible as ban of Croatia, there was
general amazement and indignation. The fact was that
the king, weary of the tactics of a minority which for
years had terrorized every majority and prevented the government
from exercising its proper constitutional functions, had resolved
to show the Magyars that he was prepared to rule unconstitu-
1 The Austrian court resented especially the decree proclaiming
national mourning, for Louis Kossuth, though no minister was
present at the funeral.
* Subsequently extended till 1907.
tionally rather than imperil the stability of the Dual Monarchy
by allowing any tampering with the joint army. In an ordinance
on the army word of command, promulgated on the i6th of
September, he reaffirmed the inalienable character of the powers
of the crown over the joint army and the necessity for maintaining
German as the common military language. This was followed by
the fall of Khuen-Hedervary (September 29), and a quarrel
d entrance between crown and parliament seemed unavoidable.
The Liberal party, however, realized the abyss towards which
they were hurrying the country, and united their efforts to come
to a constitutional understanding with the king. The problem
was to keep the army an Hungarian army without infringing on
the prerogative of the king as commander-in-chief, for, un-
constitutional as the new ordinance might be, it could not
constitutionally be set aside without the royal assent. The king
met them half way by inviting the majority to appoint a com-
mittee to settle the army question provisionally, and a committee
was formed, which included Szell, Apponyi, Count Istvan Tisza
and other experienced statesmen.
A programme approved of by all the members of the com-
mittee was drawn up, and on the 3rd of November 1903, Count
Istvan Tisza was appointed minister president to istvan
carry it out. Thus, out of respect for the wishes of Tisza
the nation, the king had voluntarily thrown open to
public discussion the hitherto strictly closed and
jealously guarded domain of the army. Tisza, a statesman of
singular probity and tenacity, seemed to be the one person
capable of carrying out the programme of the king and the
majority. The irreconcilable minority, recognizing this, ex-
hausted all the resources of " technical obstruction " in order to
reduce the government to impotence, a task made easy by the
absurd standing-rules of the House which enabled any single
member to block a measure. These tactics soon rendered
legislation impossible, and a modification of the rule of procedure
became absolutely necessary if any business at all was to be done.
The Modification of the Standing-orders Bill was
accordingly introduced by the deputy Gabor Daniel jgo4-
(Nov. 18, 1904); but the opposition, to which the 1906.
National party had attached itself, denounced it as " a
gagging order " inspired at Vienna, and shouted it down so
vehemently that no debate could be held; whereupon the
president declared the bill carried and adjourned the House till
the I3th of December 1904. This was at once followed by an
anti-ministerial fusion of the extremists of all parties,
including seceders from the government (known as the
Constitutional party); and when the diet reassembled, tion."
the opposition broke into the House by force and
wrecked all the furniture, so that a session was physically
impossible (Jan. 5, 1905). Tisza now appealed to the country,
but was utterly defeated. The opposition thereupon proceeded
to annul the Lex Daniel (April 7) and stubbornly to clamour for
the adoption of the Magyar word of command in the Hungarian
part of the common army. To this demand the king as
stubbornly refused to accede; 3 and as the result of the con-
sequent dead-lock, Tisza, who had courageously continued in
office at the king's request, after every other leading politician
had refused to form a ministry, was finally dismissed on the
1 7th of June. (R. N. B.; W. A. P.)
Long negotiations between the crown and the leaders of
the Coalition having failed to give any promise of a modus
Vivendi, the king-emperor at last determined to appoint an
3 The question involves rather complex issues. Apart from the
question of constitutional right, the Magyars objected to German
as the medium of military education as increasing the difficulty of
magyarizing the subordinate races of Hungary (see Knatchbull-
Hugessen, ii. 296). On the other hand the Austrians pointed out
that not only would failure to understand each other's language
cause fatal confusion on a battlefield, but also tend to disintegrate
the forces even in peace time. They also laid stress on the fact
that Magyar was not, any more than German, the language of
many Hungarian regiments, consisting as these did mainly of
Slovaks, Vlachs, Serbs and Croats. In resisting the Magyar word of
command, then, the king-emperor was able to appeal to the anti-
Magyar feeling of the other Hungarian races. (W. A. P.)
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
921
extra-parliamentary ministry, and on the aist of June Baron
Fej6rvary, an officer in the royal bodyguard, was nominated
minister president with a cabinet consisting of little-
Feiervary k nown permanent officials. Instead of presenting the
men*" usual programme, the new premier read to the parlia-
ment a royal autograph letter stating the reasons which
had actuated the king in taking this course, and giving as the
task of the new ministry the continuance of negotiations with the
Coalition on the basis of the exclusion of the language question.
The parliament was at the same time prorogued. A period
followed of arbitrary government on the one hand and of stubborn
passive resistance on the other. Three times the parliament
was again prorogued from the i5th of September to the loth
of October, from this date to the ipth of December, and from
this yet again to the ist of March 1906 in spite of the protests
of both Houses. To the repressive measures of the government
press censorship, curtailment of the right of public meeting,
dismissal of recalcitrant officials, and dragooning of disaffected
county assemblies and municipalities the Magyar nation
opposed a sturdy refusal to pay taxes, to supply recruits or to
carry on the machinery of administration.
Had this attitude represented the temper of the whole
Hungarian people, it would have been impossible for the crown
to have coped with it. But the Coalition represented, in fact,
not the mass of the people, but only a small dominant minority, 1
and for years past this minority had neglected the social and
economic needs of the mass of the people in the eager pursuit
of party advantage and the effort to impose, by coercion and
corruption failing other means, the Magyar language and Magyar
culture on the non-Magyar races. In this supreme crisis, then,
it is not surprising that the masses listened with sullen indifference
to the fiery eloquence of the Coalition leaders. Moreover, by
refusing the royal terms, the Coalition had forced the crown into
an alliance with the extreme democratic elements in the state.
Universal suffrage had already been adopted in the Cis-leithan
half of the monarchy; it was an obvious policy to propose it
for Hungary also, and thus, by an appeal to the non-Magyar
KHst&Hy's majority, to reduce the irreconcilable Magyar minority
Universal to reason. Universal suffrage, then, was the first and
Suffrage most important of the proposals put forward by Mr
proposal. j osze f Kristoffy, the minister of the interior, in the
programme issued by him on the 26th of November 1905.
Other proposals were: the maintenance of the system of
the joint army as established in 1867, but with the con-
cession that all Hungarian recruits were to receive their
education in Magyar; the maintenance till 1917 of the actual
customs convention with Austria; a reform of the land laws,
with a view to assisting the poorer proprietors; complete
religious equality; universal and compulsory primary education.
The issue of a programme so liberal, and notably the inclusion
in it of the idea of universal suffrage, entirely checkmated the
opposition parties. Their official organs, indeed, continued
to fulminate against the " unconstitutional " government, but
the enthusiasm with which the programme had been received
in the country showed the Coalition leaders the danger of their
position, and henceforth, though they continued their denuncia-
tions of Austria, they entered into secret negotiations with the
king-emperor, in order, by coming to terms with him, to ward
off the fatal consequences of Kristoffy 's proposals.
On the igth of February 1906 the parliament was dissolved,
without writs being issued for a new election, a fact accepted
by the country with an equanimity highly disconcerting
Coalition to p atr i ots _ Meanwhile the negotiations continued,
loos*"*' so secretly that when, on the 9th of April, the appoint-
ment of a Coalition cabinet 2 under Dr Sandor Wekerle
was announced, the world was taken completely by surprise.
1 Of the 16,000,000 inhabitants of Hungary barely a half were
Magyar; and the franchise was possessed by only 800,000, of whom
the Magyars formed the overwhelming majority.
2 The cabinet consisted of Dr Wekerle (premier and finance),
Ferencz Kossuth (commerce), Count Gyula Andrassy (interior),
Count Albert Apponyi (education), Davanyi (agriculture), Polonyi
(justice) and Count Aladir Zichy (court).
The agreement with the crown which had made this course
possible included the postponement of the military questions
that had evoked the crisis, and the acceptance of the principle
of Universal Suffrage by the Coalition leaders, who announced
that their main tasks would be to repair the mischief wrought
by the " unconstitutional " Fejervary cabinet, and then to
introduce a measure of franchise reform so wide that it would
be possible to ascertain the will of the whole people on the
questions at issue between themselves and the crown. 3 In the
general elections that followed the Liberal party was practically
wiped out, its leader, Count Istvan Tisza, retiring into private life.
For two years and a half the Coalition ministry continued in
office without showing any signs that they intended to carry out
the most important item of their programme. The Aodrassy's
old abuses continued: the muzzling of the press in the universal
interests of Magyar nationalism, the imprisonment Suffrage
of non-Magyar deputies for " incitement against
Magyar nationality," the persecution of Socialists and of the
subordinate races. That this condition of things could not be
allowed to continue was, indeed, recognized by all parties; the
fundamental difference of opinion was as to the method by
which it was to be ended. The dominant Magyar parties were
committed to the principle of franchise reform; but they were
determined that this reform should be of such a nature as not
to imperil their own hegemony. What this would mean was
pointed out by Mr Kristoffy in an address delivered at Budapest
on the i4th of March 1907. " If the work of social reform," he
said, " is scamped by a measure calculated to falsify the essence
of reform, the struggle will be continued in the Chamber until full
electoral liberty is attained. Till then there can be no social
peace in Hungary." 4 The postponement of the question was,
indeed, already producing ugly symptoms of popular indignation.
On the loth of October 1907 there was a great and orderly demon-
stration at Budapest, organized by the socialists, in favour of
reform. About 100,000 people assembled, and a deputation
handed to Mr Justh, the president of the Chamber, a monster
petition in favour of universal suffrage. The reception it met
with was not calculated to encourage constitutional methods.
The Socialist deputy, Mr Mezoffy, who wished to move an
interpellation on the question, was howled down by the Inde-
pendents with shouts of "Away with him! Down with him!" 5
Four days later, in answer to a question by the same deputy,
Count Andrassy said that the Franchise Bill would be introduced
shortly, but that it would be of such a nature that " the Magyar
State idea would remain intact and suffer no diminution." 6
Yet more than a year was to pass before the promised bill was
introduced, and meanwhile the feeling in the country had
grown more intense, culminating in serious riots at Budapest
on the I3th of March 1908.
At last (November n, 1908) Count Andrassy introduced the
long-promised bill. How far it was from satisfying the demands
of the Hungarian peoples was at once apparent. It granted
manhood suffrage, it is true, but hedged with so many qualifying
conditions and complicated with so elaborate a system of plural
voting as to make its effect nugatory. Every male Hungarian
citizen, able to read and write, was to receive the vote at the
beginning of his twenty-fifth year, subject to a residential
qualification of twelve months. Illiterate citizens were to choose
one elector for every ten of their number. All electors not having
the qualifications for the plural franchise were to have one vote.
Electors who, e.g., had passed four standards of a secondary
school, or paid i6s. 8d. in direct taxation, were to have two
votes. Electors who had passed five standards, or who paid
4, 35. 4d. in direct taxes, were to have three votes. Voting
was to be public, as before, on the ground, according to the
Preamble, that " the secret ballot protects electors in dependent
positions only in so far as they break their promises under the
veil of secrecy."
It was at once seen that this elaborate scheme was intended
3 Seton- Watson, Racial Problems, p. 194. .
4 The Times, March 14, 1907.
6 Ibid. October n, 1907. Ibid. October 15, 1907.
922
HUNGARY
[HISTORY
1909-
1910.
to preserve " the Magyar State idea intact." Its result, had
it passed, would have been to strengthen the representation
of the Magyar and German elements, to reduce that of the
Slovaks, and almost to destroy that of the Rumans and other
non-Magyar races whose educational status was low. 1 On the
other hand, according to the Neue Freie Presse, it would have
increased the number of electors from some million odd to
2,600,000, and the number of votes to 4,000,000; incidentally
it would have largely increased the working-class representation.
This proposal was at once recognized by public opinion to
use the language of the Journal des Debats (May 21, 1909) as
" an instrument of domination " rather than as an attempt to
carry out the spirit of the compact under which the Coalition
government had been summoned to power. It was not, indeed,
simply a reactionary or undemocratic measure; it was, as
The Times correspondent pointed out, " a measure sui generis,
designed to defeat the objects of the universal suffrage movement
that compelled the Coalition to take office in April 1906, and
framed in accordance with Magyar needs as understood by one
of the foremost Magyar noblemen." Under this bill culture
was to be the gate to a share in political power, and in Hungary
culture must necessarily be Magyar.
Plainly, this bill was not destined to settle the Hungarian
problem, and other questions soon arose which showed that the
crisis, so far from being near a settlement, was destined
to become more acute than ever. In December 1908
it was clear that the Coalition Ministry was falling to
pieces. Those ministers who belonged to the con-
stitutional and popular parties, i.e. the Liberals and Clericals,
desired to maintain the compact with the crown; their col-
leagues of the Independence party were eager to advance the
cause they have at heart by pressing on the question of a separate
Hungarian bank. So early as March 1908 Mr Hallo had laid a
formal proposal before the House that the charter of the Austro-
Hungarian bank, which was to expire on the 3ist of December
Demand I 9 I ' should not be renewed; that negotiations should
for be opened with the Austrian government with a view
separate to a convention between the banks of Austria and
ungarian Hungary; and that, in the event of these negotiations
failing, an entirely separate Hungarian bank should be
established. The Balkan crisis threw this question into the
background during the winter; but, with the settlement of
the international questions raised by the annexation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, it once more came to the front. The ministry
was divided on the issue, Count Andrassy opposing and Mr
Ferencz Kossuth supporting the proposal for a separate bank.
Finally, the prime minister, Dr Wekerle, mainly owing to the
pressure put upon him by Mr Justh, the president of the Chamber,
yielded to the importunity of the Independence party, and,
in the name of the Hungarian government, laid the proposals for
a separate bank before the king-emperor and the Austrian
government.
The result was a foregone conclusion. The conference at
Vienna revealed the irreconcilable difference within the ministry ;
but it revealed also something more the determination of
the emperor Francis Joseph, if pressed beyond the limits of his
patience, to appeal again to the non-Magyar Hungarians against
the Magyar chauvinists. He admitted that under the Com-
promise of 1867 Hungary might have a separate bank, while
urging the expediency of such an arrangement from the point
of view of the international position of the Dual Monarchy.
But he pointed out also that the question of a separate bank
did not actually figure in. the act of 1867, and that it could not
be introduced into it, more especially since the capital article of
the ministerial programme, i.e. electoral reform, was not realized,
nor near being realized. On the 27th of April, in consequence of
this rebuff, Dr Wekerle tendered his resignation, but consented to
hold office pending the completion of the difficult task of forming
another government.
This task was destined to prove one of almost insuperable
difficulty. Had the issues involved been purely Hungarian and
1 The Times, September 27, 1908.
constitutional, the natural course would have been for the king
to have sent for Mr Kossuth, who commanded the strongest
party in the parliament, and to have entrusted him with the
formation of a government. But the issues involved affected
the stability of the Dual Monarchy and its position in Europe;
and neither the king-emperor nor his Austrian advisers, their
position strengthened by the success of Baron Aehrenthal's
diplomatic victory in the Balkans, were prepared to make any
substantial concessions to the party of Independence. In these
circumstances the king sent for Dr Laszlo Lukacs, once finance
minister in the Fejervary cabinet, whose task was, acting as a
homo regius apart from parties, to construct a government out
of any elements that might be persuaded to co-operate with him.
But Lukacs had no choice but to apply in the first instance to
Mr Kossuth and his friends, and these, suspecting an intention of
crushing their party by entrapping them into unpopular engage-
ments, rejected his overtures. Nothing now remained but for
the king to request Dr Wekerle to remain " for the present "
in office with his colleagues, thus postponing the settlement of the
crisis (July 4).
This procrastinating policy played into the hands of the
extremists; for supplies had not been voted, and the question
of the credits for the expenditure incurred in connexion with the
annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, increasingly urgent,
placed a powerful weapon in the hands of the Magyars, and
made it certain that in the autumn the crisis would assume an
even more acute- form. By the middle of September affairs
had again reached an impasse. On the i4th Dr Wekerle,
at the ministerial conference assembled at Vienna for the pur-
pose of discussing the estimates to be laid before the delegations,
announced that the dissensions among his colleagues made the
continuance of the Coalition government impossible. The
burning points of controversy were the magyarization of the
Hungarian regiments and the question of the separate state
bank. On the first of these Wekerle, Andrassy and Apponyi
were prepared to accept moderate concessions; as to the second,
they were opposed to the question being raised at all. Kossuth
and Justh, on the other hand, competitors for the leadership
of the Independence party, declared themselves not prepared to
accept anything short of the full rights of the Magyars in those
matters. The matter was urgent; for parliament was to meet
on the 28th, and it was important that a new cabinet, acceptable
to it, should be appointed before that date, or that the Houses
should be prorogued pending such appointment; otherwise
the delegations would be postponed and no credits would be
voted for the cost of the new Austro-Hungarian " Dreadnoughts "
and of the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. In the event,
neither of these courses proved possible, and on the 28th Dr
Wekerle once more announced his resignation to the parliament.
The prime minister was not, however, as yet to be relieved
of an impossible responsibility. After a period of wavering
Mr Kossuth had consented to shelve for the time the question
of the separate bank, and on the strength of this Dr Wekerle
advised the crown to entrust to him the formation of a govern-
ment. The position thus created raised a twofold question:
Would the crown accept? In that event, would he be able to
carry his party with him in support of his modified programme?
The answer to the first question, in effect, depended on that
given by events to the second; and this was not long in declaring
itself. The plan, concerted by Kossuth and Apponyi, with the
approval of Baron Aehrenthal, was to carry on a modified
coalition government with the aid of the Andrassy Liberals, the
National party, the Clerical People's party 2 and the Independence
party, on a basis of suffrage reform with plural franchise, the
2 The People's party first emerged during the elections of 1896,
when it contested 98 seats. Its object was to resist the anti-clerical
tendencies of the Liberals, and for this purpose it appealed to the
" nationalities " against the dominant Magyar partie.s, the due
enforcement of the Law of Equal Rights of Nationalities (1868)
forming a main item of its programme. Its leader, Count Zichy,
in a speech of Jan. I, 1897, declared it to be neither national, nor
Liberal, nor Christian to oppress the nationalities. See Seton- Watson,
p. 185.
HISTORY]
HUNGARY
9 2 3
prolongation of the charter of the joint bank, and certain con-
cessions to Magyar demands in the matter of the army. It was
soon clear, however, that in this Kossuth would not carry his
party with him. A trial of strength took place between him
and. Mr de Justh, the champion of the extreme demands in the
matter of Hungarian financial and economic autonomy; on the
7th of November rival banquets were held, one at Mako, Justh's
constituency, over which he presided, one at Budapest with
Kossuth in the chair; the attendance at each foreshadowed the
outcome of the general meeting of the party held at Budapest
on the nth, when Kossuth found himself in a minority of 46.
The Independence party was now split into two groups: the
" Independence and 1848 party," and the " Independence, 1848
and Kossuth party."
On the 1 2th Mr de Justh resigned the presidency of the Lower
House and sought re-election, so as to test the relative strength
of parties. He was defeated by a combination of the Kossuthists,
Andrassy Liberals and Clerical People's party, the 30 Croatian
deputies, whose vote might have turned the election, abstaining
on Dr Wekerle promising them to deliver Croatia from the
oppressive rule of the ban, Baron Rauch. A majority was thus
secured for the Kossuthist programme of compromise, but a
majority so obviously precarious that the king-emperor, in-
fluenced also it was rumoured by the views of the heir-
apparent, in an interview with Count Andrassy and Mr Kossuth
on the 1 5th, refused to make any concessions to the Magyar
national demands. Hereupon Kossuth publicly declared (Nov.
22) to a deputation of his constituents from Czegled that he
himself was in favour of an independent bank, but that the king
opposed it, and that in the event of no concessions being made
he would join the opposition.
How desperate the situation had now become was shown by
the fact that on the 27th the king sent for Count Tisza, on the
recommendation of the very Coalition ministry which had been
formed to overthrow him. This also proved abortive, and
affairs rapidly tended to revert to the ex-lex situation. On the
23rd of December Dr Lukacs was again sent for. On the previous
day the Hungarian parliament had adopted a proposal in favour
of an address to the crown asking for a separate state bank.
Against this Dr Wekerle had protested, as opposed to general
Hungarian opinion and ruinous to the national credit, pointing
out that whenever it was a question of raising a loan, the mainten-
ance of the financial community between Hungary and Austria
was always postulated as a preliminary condition. Point was
given to this argument by the fact that the premier had just
concluded the preliminaries for the negotiation of a loan of
20,000,000 in France, and that the money which could not
be raised in the Austrian market, already glutted with Hungarian
securities was urgently needed to pay for the Hungarian share
in the expenses of the annexation policy, for public works
(notably the new railway scheme), and for the redemption in
1910 of treasury bonds. It was hoped that, in the circumstances,
Dr Lukacs, a financier of experience, might be able to come to
terms with Mr de Justh, on the basis of dropping the bank
question for the time, or, failing that, to patch together out of
the rival parties some sort of a working majority.
On the 28th the Hungarian parliament adjourned sine die,
pending the settlement of the crisis, without having voted the
estimates for 1910, and without there being any prospect of a
meeting of the delegations. On the two following days Dr
Lukacs and Mr de Justh had audiences of the king, but without
result; and on the 3ist Hungary once more entered on a period
of extra-constitutional government.
After much negotiation a new cabinet was finally constituted
on the 1 7th of January 1910. At its head was Count Khuen
Khuea Hedervary, who in addition to the premiership, was
Hederviry minister of the interior, minister for Croatia, and
Govern- minister in waiting on the crown. Other ministers
meat. wgre ^j r Karoly jg Hieronymi (commerce), Dr Lukacs
(finance), Ferencz de Szekely (justice, education, public worship),
Bela Serenyi (agriculture) and General Hazay (national defence).
The two main items in the published programme of the new
government were the introduction of universal suffrage and
even more revolutionary from the Magyar point of view the
substitution of state-appointed for elected officials in the counties.
The real programme was to secure, by hook or by crook, a
majority at the polls. Meanwhile, the immediate necessities of
the government were provided for by the issue through Messrs
Rothschild of 2,000,000 fresh treasury bills. These were to be
redeemed in December 1910, together with the 9,000,000 worth
issued in 1909, out of the 20,000,000 loan agreed on in principle
with the French government; but in view of the opposition in
Paris to the idea of advancing money to a member of the Triple
Alliance, it was doubtful whether the loan would ever be floated.
The overwhelming victory of the government in June at the
polls produced a lull in a crisis which at the beginning of the
year had threatened the stability of the Dual Monarchy and the
peace of Europe; but, in view of the methods by which the
victory had been won, not the most sanguine could assert
that the crisis was overpassed. Its deep underlying causes
can only be understood in the light of the whole of Hungarian
history. It is easy to denounce the dominant Magyar
classes as a selfish oligarchy, and to criticize the methods
by which they have sought to maintain their power. But
a nation that for a thousand years had maintained its in-
dividuality in the midst of hostile and rival races could not
be expected to allow itself without a struggle to be sacrificed
to the force of mere numbers, and the less so if it were
justified in its claim that it stood for a higher ideal of culture
and civilization. The Magyars had certainly done much to
justify their claim to a special measure of enlightenment. In
their efforts to establish Hungarian independence on the firm
basis of national efficiency they had succeeded in changing their
country from one of very backward economic conditions into
one which promised to be in a position to hold its own on equal
terms with any in the world. (W. A. P.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (a) Sources. The earliest important collection
of sources of Hungarian history was Johann Georg Schrandtncr's
Scriptores rerum Hungaricarum (4th ed., Vienna, 1766-1768). The
Codex diplomaticus of Gyorgy FejeY (40 vols., Buda, 1829-1844),
though full of errors, remains an inexhaustible storehouse of
materials. In 1849 Stephen Ladislaus Endlicher (1804-1849),
better known as a botanist than as a historian, published a collection
of documents, Rerum hungaricarum monumenta Arpadiana. This
was followed by Gustav VVenzel's Codex diplomaticus arpadianus
conlinuens (12 vols., Pest, 1857) and A. Theiner's Vet. monumenta
hist. Hungarian sacram illustranlia (2 vols., Rome, 1859, &c.).
Later collections are Documents of the Angevin Period, ed. by G.
VVenzel and Imre Nagy (8 vols., ib. 1874-1876); Diplomatic Records
of the Time of King, Matthias (Mag. and Lat.), ed. by Ivan Nagy
(ib. 1875-1878); National Documents (Mag. and Lat.), ed. by
Parkas Deak and others (Pest, 1878-1891); Monumenta Vaticana
historiam regni Hungariae illustrantia (8 vols., Budapest, 1885-
1891), a valuable collection of materials from the Vatican archives,
edited under the auspices of the Hungarian bishops; Principal
Sources for the Magyar Conquest (Mag.), by Gyula Paulerand Sandor
Szilagyi (ib. 1900). Numerous documents have also been issued in
the various publications of the Hungarian Academy and the Hun-
garian Historical Society. Of these the most important is the
Monumenta Hungariae Historica, published by the Academy. This
falls into three main groups: Diplomala (30 vols.); Scriptores
(40 vols.) ; Monumenta Comilialia (records of the Hungarian and
Transylvanian diets, 12 vols. and 21 vols.). With these are as-
sociated the Turkish-Hungarian Records (9 vols.), Turkish Historians
(2 vols. pubd.), and the Archives of the Hungarian subordinate
countries (2 vols. pubd.).
On the sources see Hendrik Marczali, Ungarns Geschichtsquellen
im Zeitalter des Arpdden (Berlin, 1882); Kaindl, Studien zu den
ungarischen Geschichtsquellen (Vienna, 1894-1902); and, for a
general appreciation, Mangold, Pragmatic History of the Hungarians
(in Mag., 5th ed., Budapest, 1907).
(b) Works : The modern literature of Hungary is very rich in
historical monographs, of which a long list will be found in the Subject
Index of the London Library. Here it is only possible to give some
of the more important general histories, together with such special
works as are most readily accessible to English readers. Of the
earlier Hungarian historians two are still of some value: Katona,
Hist, critica regum Hungariae (42 vols., Pest, 1779-1810), and Pray,
Annales regum Hungariae (5 vols., Vienna, 1764-1770). Of modern
histories written in Magyar the most imposing is the History of the
Hungarian Nation (10 vols., Budapest, 1898), issued to commemorate
the celebration of the millennium of the foundation of the monarchy,
by Sandor Szilagyi and numerous collaborators. Of importance, too,
924
HUNGARY
[LANGUAGE AND
is Ignacz Acsady's History of the Magyar Empire (2 vols., Budapest,
1904), though its author is too often ultra-chauvinistic in tone.
To those who do not read Magyar the following books on the
general history of Hungary may be recommended: Armin Vamb^ry,
Hungary in Ancient and Modern Times (London, 1897); R. Chelard,
La Hongrie millenaire (Paris, 1896); Mor GellM, Aus der Vergangen-
heit und Gegenwart des tausendjiihrigen Ungarn (Budapest, 1896);
jpzsef Jekelfalussy, The Millennium of Hungary (Budapest, 1897);
E. Sayous, Histoire generate des Hongrois (2 vols., Budapest, 1st ed.,
1876, and ed., ib. 1900); Janos Majlath, Geschichte der Magyaren
(5 vols., 3rd ed., Regensburg, 1852-1853) somewhat out of date
(it first appeared in 1828), but useful for those who like a little more
detail; Count Julius Andrassy, The Development of Hungarian
Constitutional Liberty, translated by C. Arthur and Ilona Ginever
(London, 1908), containing an interesting comparison with English
constitutional development; C. M. Knatchbull-Hugessen, The
Political Evolution of the Hungarian Nation (2 vols., London, 1908),
strongly Magyar in sympathy; R. W. Seton- Watson (Scotus
Viator), Racial Problems in Hungary (London, 1908), a strong
criticism of the Magyar attitude towards the Slay subject races,
especially the Slovaks, with documents and a full bibliography.
. (c) Constitutional : Anton von Virozsil, Das Staatsrecht des
Konigreichs Ungarn (3 vols., Pest, 1865); S. Rado-Rothfeld, Die
ungarische Verfassung (Berlin, 1898) and, based on this, A. de
Bertha, La Constitution Hongroise (Paris, 1898), both supporting
the policy of Magyarization; Akos von Timon, Ungarische Ver-
fassungs- und Rechtsgeschichte (Berlin, 1904) ; Knatchbull-Hugessen,
op. cit.
(d) Biographical : In Magyar, the great serial entitled Hungarian
Historical Biographies (Budapest, 1884, &c.), edited by Sandor
Szilagyi, is a collection of lives of famous Hungarian men and
women from the earliest times by many scholars of note, finely illus-
trated.
For works on special periods see the separate articles on the
sovereigns and other notabilities of Hungary. For works on the
Compromise of 1867 and the relations of Austria and Hungary
generally, see the bibliography to the article AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
III. LANGUAGE
The Magyar or Hungarian language belongs to the northern
or Finno-Ugric (q.v.) division of the Ural-Altaic family, and
forms, along with Ostiak and Vogul, the Ugric branch of that
division. The affinity existing between the Magyar and the
Finnic languages, first noticed by John Amos Comenius
(Komensky) in the middle of the I7th century, 1 and later by
Olav Rudbeck, 2 Leibnitz, 3 Strahlenberg, 4 Eccard, Sajnovics, 6
and others, was proved " grammatically " by Samuel Gyarmathi
in his work entitled Affinitas linguae Hungaricae aim linguis
Finnicae originis grammatice demonstrate. (Gottingen, 1799).
The Uralian travels of Anthony Reguly (1843-1845), and the
philological labours of Paul Hunfalvy and Joseph Budenz,
may be said to have established it, and no doubt has been thrown
on it by recent research, though most authorities regard the
Magyars as of mixed origin physically and combining Turkish
with Finno-Ugric elements.
Although for nearly a thousand years established in Europe and
subjected to Aryan influences, the Magyar has yet retained its
essential Ural-Altaic or Turanian features. The grammatical forms
are expressed, as in Turkish, by means of affixes modulated according
to the high or low vowel power of the root or chief syllables of the
word to which they are appended the former being represented
by e, 6, '6, u, u, the latter by a, d, o, 6, u, u; the sounds e, i, I are
regarded as neutral. In some respects the value of the consonants
varies from that usual in the Latin alphabet. 5 is pronounced as sh
in English, the sound of simple i being represented by sz. C or cz is
pronounced as English ts; cs as English ch; ds as English j; zs as
French j ; gy as dy. Among the striking peculiarities of the language
are the definite and indefinite forms of the active verb, e.g. Idtom,
" I see " (definite, viz. " him," " her," " the man," &c.), Idtok, " I
see" (indefinite); the insertion of the causative, frequentative,
diminutive and potential syllables after the root of the verb, e.g. ver,
"he beats"; veret, "he causes to beat"; vereget, "he beats re-
peatedly"; verint, "he beats a little"; verhet, "he can beat";
the mode of expressing possession by the tenses of the irregular verb
lenni, " to be ' (viz. van, " is "; vannak, " are "; volt, " was"; lesz,
1 See Hunfalvy's " Die ungarische Sprachwissenschaft," Litera-
rische Berichte aus Ungarn, pp. 80-87 (Budapest, 1877).
2 Specimen usus linguae Gothicae in eruendis alque illuslrandis
obscurissimis quibusdam Sacrae Scriptural locis; addita analogia
linguae Gothicae cum Sinica, necnon Finnicae cum Ungarica (Upsala,
I7I7)-
8 Hunfalvy, p. 81. 4 Id. pp. 82-86.
* Demonstratio Idioma Ungarorum el Lupponum idem esse (Copen-
hagen und Tyrnau, 1770).
" will be," &c.)t with the object and its possessive affixes, e.g. nekem
vannak konyveim, literally, "to me are books my" = "I have
books"; neki volt konyve, "to him was book his" = "he had a
book." Other characteristic features are the use of the singular
substantive after numerals, and adjectives of quantity, e.g. ket ember,
literally, " two man "; sok szo, " many word," &c. ; the position of
the Christian name and title after the family name, e.g. 6lmosy
Kdroly tandr ur, " Mr Professor Charles Olmosy " ; and the possessive
forms of the nouns, which are varied according to the number and
person of the possessor and the number of the object in the following
way: tollam, ''my pen"; tollaim, "my pens"; tollad, "thy
pen"; tollaid, " thy pens"; tollunk, "our pen"; tollaink, "our
pens," &c. There is no gender, not even a distinction between
" he," " she," and " it," in the personal pronouns, and the declension
is less developed than in Finnish. But there is a wealth of verbal
derivatives, the vocabulary is copious, and the intonation harmoni-
ous. Logical in its derivatives and in its grammatical structure, the
Magyar language is, moreover, copious in idiomatic expressions, rich
in its store of words, and almost musical in its harmonious intonation.
It is, therefore, admirably adapted for both literary and rhetorical
purposes.
The first Hungarian grammar known is the Grammatica Hungaro-
Latina of John Erdosi alias Sylvester Pannonius, printed at Sarvar-
Ujsziget in 1539. Others are the posthumous treatises of Nicholas
ReVai (Pest, 1809); the Magyar nyelvmester of Samuel Gyarmathi,
published at Klausenburg in 1794; and grammars by J. Farkas
(gth ed., Vienna, 1816), Mailath (2nd ed., Pest, 1832), Kis (Vienna,
1834), Marton (8th ed., Vienna, 1836), Maurice Ballagior (in German)
Bloch (5th ed., Pest, 1869), Topler (Pest, 1854), Riedl (Vienna, 1858),
Schuster (Pest, 1866), Charles Ballagi (Pest, 1868), Remele (Pest and
Vienna, 1869), Roder (Budapest, 1875), Ftthrer (Budapest, 1878),
Ney (20th ed., Budapest, 1879), C. E. de Ujfalvy (Paris, 1876),
S. Wekey (London, 1852), j. Csink (London, 1853), Ballantik
(Budapest, 1881); Singer (London, 1882).
The earliest lexicon is that of Gabriel (Mizs6r) Pesti alias Pestinus
Pannonius, Nomenklatura sex linguarum, Latinae, Italicae, Gallicae,
Bohemicae, Ungaricae et Germanicae (Vienna, 1538), which was
several times reprinted. The Vocabula Hungarica of Bernardino
Baldi (1583), the original MS. of which is in the Biblioteca Nazionale
at Naples, contains 2899 Hungarian words with renderings in Latin
or Italian. 6 In the Dictionarium undecim linguarum of Calepinus
(Basel, 1590) are found also Polish, Hungarian and English words
and phrases. This work continued to be reissued until 1682. The
Lexicon Latina-Hungaricum of Albert Molnar first appeared at
Nuremberg in 1604, and with the addition of Greek was reprinted
till 1708. Of modern Hungarian dictionaries the best is that of the
Academy of Sciences, containing 110,784 articles in 6 vols., by
Czuczor and Fogarasi (Pest, 18621874). The next best native
dictionary is that of Maurice Ballagi, A Magyar nyelv teljes szotdra,
(Pest, 1868-1873). In addition to the above may be mentioned the
work of Kresznerics, where the words are arranged according to the
roots (Buda, 18311832); the Etymologisches Worterbuch . . . aus
chinesischen Wurzeln, of Podhorszky (Paris, 1877); Lexicon linguae
Hungaricae aevi antiquioris, by Szarvas Gabor and Simonyi Zsig-
mond (1889) ; and " Magyar-Ugor osszehasonlito szotar " Hungarian
Ugrian Comparative Dictionary, by Bydenz (Budapest, 1872-1879).
Other and more general dictionaries for German scholars are those of
Marton, Lexicon trilingue Latino-Hungarico-Germanicum (Vienna,
1818-1823), A. F. Richter (Vienna, 1836), E. Farkas (Pest, 1848-
1851), Fogarasi (4th ed.. Pest, 1860), Loos (Pest, 1869) and M. Ballagi
(Budapest, 3rd ed., 1872-1874). There are, moreover, Hungarian-
French dictionaries by Kiss and Karady (Pest and Leipzig, 1844-
1848) and Babos and Mol6 (Pest, 1865), and English-Hungarian
dictionaries by Dallos (Pest, 1860) and Bizonfy (Budapest, 1886).
(C. EL.)
IV. LITERATURE
The Catholic ecclesiastics who settled in Hungary during the
nth century, and who found their way into the chief offices of
the state, were mainly instrumental in establishing Latin as the
predominant language of the court, the higher schools and
public worship, and of eventually introducing it into the admini-
stration. Having thus become the tongue of the educated
and privileged classes, Latin continued to monopolize the chief
fields of literature until the revival of the native language at
the close of the i8th century.
Amongst the earliest Latin works that claim attention are the
" Chronicle " (Gesta Hungarorum), by the " anonymous notary " of
King Bela, probably Bela II. (see Podhradczky, 7 Bela kirdly nevtelen
jegyzoje, Buda, 1861, p. 48), which describes the early ages of
6 See Count G6za Kuun's " Lettere Ungheresi," La Rivista
Europea, anno vi., vol. ii. fasc. 3, pp. 561-562 (Florence, 1875).
7 So also Jambor (A Magyar Irod. Tort., Pest, 1864, p. 104).
Kornyei, Imre and others incline to the belief that it was Bela I.
and that consequently the " anonymous notary " belongs rather to
the iith than to the I2th century.
LITERATURE]
HUNGARY
925
1000-
1301.
Hungarian history, and may be assigned to the middle of the I2th
century; the Carmen Miserabile of Rogerius; the Liber Cronicorum
of Simon Kezai, belonging to the end of the I3th century,
the so-called " Chronicon Budense," Cronica Hungarorum,
h Icl printed at Buda in 1473 (Eichhorn, Geschichteder Litteratur,
li. 319); and the Chronicon Rerum Hungaricarum of
John Thuroczi. 1 An extraordinary stimulus was given to literary
enterprise by King Matthias Corvinus, who attracted both foreign
and native scholars to his court. Foremost amongst the Italians
was Antonio Bonfini, whose work, Rerum Hungaricarum Decades
IV., comprising Hungarian history from the earliest times to the
death of King Matthias, was published with a continuation by
Sambucus (Basel, I5&8). 2 Marzio Galeotti, the king's chief librarian,
wrote an historical account of his reign. The most distinguished of
the native scholars was John Cesinge, alias Janus Pannonius, who
composed Latin epigrams, panegyrics and epic poems. The best
edition of his works was published by Count S. Teleki at Utrecht in
1784.
As there are no traces of literary productions in the native or
Magyar dialect before the I2th century, the early condition
of the language is concealed from the philologist. It is,
however, known that the Hungarians had their own
terature. mar tj a i SO ngs, and that their princes kept lyre and lute
players who sang festal odes in praise of the national
heroes. In the nth century Christian teachers intro-
duced the use of the Roman letters, but the employment of the Latin
language was not formally decreed until 1114 (see Bowring, Poetry
of the Magyars, Introd. xix.). It appears, moreover, that
irpsdi'n up t o that date public business was transacted in
ma, Hungarian, for the decrees of King Coloman the Learned
(1095-1 1 14) were translated from that language into Latin.
Among the literary relics of the I2th century are the
" Latiatuc " or Halotli Beszed funeral discourse and prayer in
Hungarian, to which Dobrentei in his Regi Magyar Nyelvemlekek
assigns as a probable date the year 1171 (others, however, 1182 or
1183). From the Margit-Legenda, or " Legend of St Margaret,"
composed in the early part of the I4th century, 3 it is evident that
from time to time the native language continued to be employed as a
means of religious edification. Under the kings of the house of
Anjou, the Magyar became the language of the court.
Aajou- That it was used also in official documents and ordinances
is shown by copies of formularies of oaths, the import of
' which proves beyond a doubt that the originals belonged
to the reigns of Louis I. and Sigismond; by a statute of the
town of Sajo-St- Peter (1403) relating to the wine trade;
by the testament of Kazzai-Karacson (1413); and by other relics of
this period published by Dobrentei in vol. li. of the R. M. Nyelvem-
lekek. To the early part of the 15th century may be assigned also the
legends of " St Francis " and of " St Ursula," and possibly the original
of the Enek Pannonia megvetelerol, an historical " Song about the
Conquest of Pannonia." But not until the dawn of the Reformation
did Magyar begin in any sense to replace Latin for literary purposes.
The period placed by Hungarian authors between 1437 and 1530
marks the first development of Magyar literature.
About the year 1437 two Hussite monks named Tamas and
Balint (i.e. Thomas and Valentine) adapted from older sources a
, large portion of the Bible for the use of the Hungarian
Jagello- refugees in Moldavia. To these monks the first extant
Matthias M a g yar version of part of the Scriptures (the Vienna or
Revai Codex*) is directly assigned by Dobrentei, but the
' exact date either of this copy or of the original transla-
ertod t' " cannot be ascertained. With approximate certainty
(1437- ma y be as cribed also to Tamas and Balint the original of
1530} the sti11 extant transcript, by George Nemeti, of the Four
Gospels, the Jdszay or Munich Codex (finished at Tatros
in Moldavia in 1466). Amongst other important codices are the
Jorddnszky Codex (1516-1519), an incomplete copy of the translation
of the Bible made by Ladislaus Batori, who died about 1456; and
the Dobrentei or Gyulafehervdr Codex (1508), containing a version of
the Psalter, Song of Solomon, and the liturgical epistles and gospels,
copied by Bartholomew Halabori from an earlier translation
(Kornyei, A Magyar nemzeti irodalomtortenet vdzlata, 1861, p. 30).
Other relics belonging to this period are the oath which John Hunyady
took when elected governor of Hungary (1446); a few verses sung
by the children of Pest at the coronation of his son Matthias (1458) ;
1301
1437.
1 An example of this work, printed on vellum in Gothic letter
(Augsburg, 1488), and formerly belonging to the library of Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, may be seen in the British Museum.
Of the three first-mentioned chronicles Hungarian translations by
Charles Szabo appeared at Budapest in 1860, 1861 and 1862.
2 Both this and the later editions of Frankfort (1581), Cologne
(1690) and Pressburg (1744) are represented in the British Museum.
3 The only copy existing at the present time appears to have been
transcribed at the beginning of the l6th century. Both this and the
Halolti Beszed (Pray Codex) are preserved in the National Museum at
Budapest.
4 This codex contains Ruth, the lesser prophets, and part of the
Apocrypha. According to Toldy, it -is copied from an earlier one of
the 1 4th century.
irth
century
period
(1606-
1711).
the Siralomenek Both Jdnos veszedelmen (Elegy upon John Both),
written by a certain " Gregori," as the initial letters of the verses
show, and during the reign of the above-mentioned monarch; and
the Emlekdal Mdtyds kirdjy haldldra (Memorial Song on the Death of
King Matthias, 1490). To these may be added the rhapsody 6 on
the talcing of " Szabacs " (1476); the Katalin-Legenda, a metrical
" Legend of St Catherine of Alexandria," extending to over 4000
lines: and the Feddoenek (Upbraiding Song), by Francis Apathi.
In the next literary period (1530-1606) several translations of the
Scriptures are recorded. Among these there are versions of
the Epistles of St Paul, by Benedict Komjati (Cracow,
1533); of the Four Gospels, by Gabriel (Mizser) Pesti
Vienna, 1536); of the New Testament, by John Erdosi
(Ujsziget, 1541; 2nd ed., Vienna, 1574*), and by Thomas
Felegyhazi (1586); and the translations of the Bible,
by Caspar Heltai (Klausenburg, 1551-1565), and by Caspar
Karoli (Vizsoly, near Goncz, 1589-1590). The last, considered the
best, was corrected and re-edited by Albert Molnar at Hanau in
1608.' Heltai published also (1571) a translation, improved from
that by Blasius Veres (1565), of the Tripartitum of Verboczy, and
Ckronika (1575) adapted from the Decades of Bonfini. Karadi in
1569 brought to light the earliest national drama, Balassi Menyhert.
Among the native poets, mostly mere rhyming chroniclers of the
i6th century, were Csanadi, Tinodi, Nagy-Baczai, Bogati, Ilosvay,
Istvanfi, Gorgei, Temesvan and Valkai. Of these the best and most
prolific writer was Tinodi. Szekely wrote in prose, with verse
introduction, a " Chronicle of the \Vorld " under the title of Cronica
ez vildgnac yeles dolgairol (Cracow, 1559). Csaktornya and Kakony
imitated the ancient classical points, and Erdosi introduced the
hexameter. Andrew Farkas and th? homilist Peter Mclius (Juhasz)
attempted didactic verse; and Batizi busied himself with sacred
song and Biblical history. During the latter part of the i6th century
and the beginning of the I7th two po?ts of a higher order appeared in
Valentine Balassa, the earliest Mag/ar lyrical writer, and his con-
temporary John Rimay, whose poems are of a contemplative and
pleasing character.
The melancholy state of the country consequent upon the perse-
cutions of Rudolph I., Ferdinand II. and Leopold I., as also the
continual encroachment of Germanizing influences under
the Habsburgs, were unfavourable to the development of
the national literature during the next literary period,
dating from the Peace of Vienna (1606) to that of Szatmar
(1711). A few names were, however, distinguished in
theology, philology and poetry. In 1626 a Hungarian
version of the Vulgate was published at Vienna by the Jesuit George
Kaldi, 8 and another complete translation of the Scriptures, the
so-called Komdromi Biblia (Komorn Bible) was made in 1685 by the
Protestant George Csipkes, though it was not published till 1717
at Leiden, twenty-nine years after his death. 9 On behalf of the
Catholics the Jesuit Peter Pazman, eventually primate, Nicholas
Eszterhazy, Sambar, Balasfi and others were the authors of various
works of a polemical nature. Especially famous was the Hodaegus,
kalauz of Pazman, which first appeared at Pozsony (Pressburg) HI
1613. Among the Protestants who exerted themselves in theological
and controversial writings were Nemeti, Alvinczy, Alexander
Felvinczy, Martonfalvi and Melotai, who was attached to the court
of Bethlen Gabor. Telkibanyai wrote on " English Puritanism "
(1654). The Calvinist Albert Molnar, already mentioned, was more
remarkable for his philological than for his theological labours.
Parispapai compiled an Hungarian-Latin Dictionary, Dictionarium
magyar es dedk nyelven (Locse, 1708), and Apaczai-Csere, a Magyar
Encyclopaedia (Utrecht, 1653). John Szalardi, Paul Lisznyai,
Gregory Petho, John Kemeny and Benjamin Szilagyi, which last,
however, wrote in Latin, were the authors of various historical works.
In polite literature the heroic poem Zrinyidsz (1651), descriptive of
the fall of Sziget, by Nicholas Zrinyi, grandson of the defender of
that fortress, marks a new era in Hungarian poetry. Of a far inferior
character was the monotonous Mohdcsi veszedelem (Disaster of
Mohacs),in 13 cantos, produced two years afterwards at Vienna by
Baron Liszti. The lyric and epic poems of Stephen Gyongyosi, who
sang the deeds of Maria Szechy, the heroine of Murany, Murdnyi
Venus (Kassa, 1664), are samples rather of a general improvement in
the style than of the purity of the language. As a didactic and
elegiac poet Stephen Kohari is much esteemed. More fluent but not
less gloomy are the sacred lyrics of Nyeki- Veres first published in
1636 under the Latin title of Tintinnabulum Tripudiantium, The
songs and proverbs of Peter Beniczky, who lived in the early part of
the 1 7th century, are not without merit, and have been several times
reprinted. From the appearance of the first extant printed Magyar
6 First made known by Coloman Thaly (1871) from a discovery by
MM. E. Nagy and D. Veghelyi in the archives of the Csicsery family,
in the county of Ung.
6 One of the only seven perfect copies extant of the Vienna (1574)
edition is in the British Museum library.
7 A copy, with the autograph of the editor, is in the British
Museum.
8 A copy is in the British Museum library.
' There are two copies of this edition in the British Museum
library.
926
HUNGARY
[LITERATURE
Period ol
decline
(1711-
1772).
work ' at Cracow In 1531 to the end of the period just treated, more
than 1800 publications in the native language are known. 2
The period comprised between the peace of Szatmar (1711) and
the year 1772 is far more barren in literary results than even that
which preceded it. The exhaustion of the nation from its
protracted civil and foreign wars, the extinction of the
court of the Transylvanian princes where the native
language had been cherished, and the prevalent use of
Latin in the schools, public transactions and county courts,
all combined to bring about a complete neglect of the Magyar language
and literature. Among the few prose writers of distinction were
Andrew Spangar, whose " Hungarian Bookstore," Magyar Konyvtdr
(Kassa, 1738), is said to be the earliest work of the kind in the
Magyar dialect ; George Baranyi, who translated the New Testa-
ment (Lauba, 1754); the historians Michael Cserei and Matthew
B61, which last, however, wrote chiefly in Latin; and Peter Bod,
who besides his theological treatises compiled a history of Hungarian
literature under the title Magyar Athends (Szeben, 1766). But the
most celebrated writer of this period was the Jesuit Francis Faludi,
the translator, through the Italian, of William Darrell's works. On
account of the classic purity of his style in prose, Faludi was known as
the " Magyar Cicero." Not only as a philosophic and didactic
writer, but also as a lyric and dramatic poet he surpassed all his con-
temporaries. Another pleasing lyric poet of this period was Ladislaus
Amade, the naturalness and genuine sentiment of whose lightly
running verses are suggestive of the love songs of Italian authors.
Of considerable merit are also the sacred lyrical melodies of Paul
Radai in his Lelki hddolds (Spiritual Homage), published at Debreczen
in 1715. Among the didactic poets may be mentioned Lewis Nagy,
George Kalmar, John Illey and Paul Bertalanfi, especially noted for
his rhymed " Life of St Stephen, first Hungarian king," Dicsoseges Sz.
Istvdn elso magyar kirdlynak elete (Vienna, 1751).
The next three literary periods stand in special relationship
to one another, and are sometimes regarded as the same. The
first two, marking respectively the progress of the " Regeneration
of the Native Literature " (1772-1807) and the " Revival of the
Language " (1807-1830), were introductory to and preparatory
for the third or "Academy," period, which began about 1830.
In consequence of the general neglect of the Magyar language
during the reigns of Maria Theresa and her successor Joseph II.,
the more important prose productions of the latter part of
the 1 8th century, as for instance the historical works of
George Pray, Stephen Katona, John Engel and Ignatius
Fessler, were written either in Latin or in German. The
reaction in favour of the native literature manifested
itself at first chiefly in the creation of various schools of
Foremost among these stood the so-called "French "
founded by George Bessenyei, the author of several
dramatic pieces, and of an imitation of Pope's " Essay on
Man," under the title of Az embernek probdja (Vienna, 1772). Bes-
senyei introduced the use of rhymed alexandrines in place of the
monotonous Zrinian measure. Other writers of the same school
were Laurence Orczy and Abraham Barcsay, whose works have a
striking resemblance to each other, and were published together by
Revai (1789). The songs and elegies of the short-lived Paul Anyos,
edited by Bacsanyi in 1798, show great depth of feeling. Versifiers
and adapters from the French appeared also in Counts Adam and
Joseph Teleki, Alexander Baroczi and Joseph Peczcli, known also as
the translator of Young's " Night Thoughts." The chief repre-
sentatives of the strictly " classical " school, which adopted the
ancient Greek and Latin authors as its models, were David Baroti
Szabo, Nicholas Revai, Joseph Rajnis and Benedict Virag. Among
the most noteworthy works of Baroti are the Uj mertekre vett kiilomb
versek (Kassa, 1777), comprising hexameter verses, Horatian
odes, distichs, epistles and epigrams; the Paraszti Majorsdg
(Kassa, 1779-1780), an hexameter version of Vaniere's Praedium
rusticum; and an abridged version of "Paradise Lost," contained
in the Koltemenyes munkaji (Komarom, 1802). Baroti, moreover,
published (1810-1813) a translation of Virgil's Aeneid and Eclogues.
Of Baroti's purely linguistic works the best known are his Orto-
graphia es Prosodia (Komarom, 1800) ; and the Kisded Szotdr (Kassa,
1784 and 1792) or " Small Lexicon " of rare Hungarian words. As a
philologist Baroti was far surpassed by Nicholas Revai, but as a poet
he may be considered superior to Rajnis, translator of Virgil's
Bucolics and Georgics, and author of the Magyar Helikonra vezeto
kalauz (Guide to the Magyar Helicon, 1781). The " classical "
school reached its highest state of culture under Virag, whose poetical
works, consisting chiefly of Horatian odes and epistles, on account
of the perfection of their style, obtained for him the name of the
" Magyar Horace." The Poetai Munkai (Poetical Works) of Virag
were published at Pest in 1799, and again in 1822. Of his prose works
the most important is the Magyar Szdzadok or " Pragmatic History
of Hungary" (Buda, 1808 and 1816). Valyi-Nagy, the first Magyar
Regenera-
tion of the
/ftera/ure
(1772-
1807).
poetry,
school,
1 The earliest, styled " Song on the Discovery of the right hand of
the Holy King Stephen," and printed at Nuremberg by Anton
Koburger in 1484. is lost.
1 See Chas. Szabo's Regi Magyar Konyvtdr (Budapest, 1879). Cf.
also Lit. Ber. aus Ungarn for 1879, Bd. iii. Heft 2, pp. 433-434.
translator of Homer, belongs rather to the " popular " than the
" classical " school. His translation of the Iliad appeared at
Sarospatak in 1821. The establishment of the "national" or
" popular " school is attributable chiefly to Andrew Dugonics,
though his earliest works, Troja veszedelme (1774) and Ulysses (1780),
indicate a classical bias. His national romances, however, and
especially Etelka (Pozsony, 1787) and Az arany pereczek (Pest and
Pozsony, 1790), attracted public attention, and were soon adapted
for the stage. The most valuable of his productions is his collection
of " Hungarian Proverbs and Famous Sayings," which appeared in
1820 at Szeged, under the title of Magyar peldabeszedek es jeles
monddsok. The most noteworthy follower of Dugonics was Adam
Horvath, author of the epic poems Hunnidsz (Gyor, 1787) and
Rudolphidsz (Vienna, 1817). Joseph Gvadanyi's tripartite work
Falusi notdrius (Village Notary), published between 1790 and 1796,
as also his Ronto Pal es gr. Benyowsky torteneteik (Adventures of Paul
Ronto and Count Benyowski), are humorous and readable, but
careless in style. As writers of didactic poetry may be mentioned
John Endrody, Caspar Gobol, Joseph Takacs and Barbara Molnar,
the earliest distinguished Magyar poetess.
Of a more general character, and combining the merits of the
above schools, are the works of the authors who constituted the so-
called " Debreczen Class," which boasts the names of the naturalist
and philologist John Foldi, compiler of a considerable part of the
Debreczeni magyar grammatica; Michael Fazekas, author of Ludas
Matyi (Vienna, 1817), an epic poem, in 4 cantos; and Joseph
Kovacs. Other precursors of the modern school were the poet
and philologist Francis Verseghy, whose works extend to nearly
forty volumes; the gifted didactic prose writer, Joseph Karman;
the metrical rhymster, Gideon Raday; the lyric poets, Ssentjobi
Szabo, Janos Bacsanyi (q.v.), and the short-lived Gabriel Dayka,
whose posthumous " Verses " were published in 1813 by Kazinczy.
S_till more celebrated were Mihaly Csokonai (q.v.) and Alexander
Kisfaludy (q.v.). The first volume of Alexander Kisfaludy's Himfy,
a series of short lyrics of a descriptive and reflective nature, appeared
at Buda in 1801, under the title of Kesergo szerelem (Unhappy Love),
and was received with great enthusiasm ; nor was the success of the
second volume Boldog szerelem (Happy Love), which appeared in
1807, inferior. The Regek, or " Tales of the Past," were published at
Buda from 1807 to 1808, and still further increased Kisfaludy's
fame; but in his dramatic works he was not equally successful.
Journalistic literature in the native language begins with the Magyar
Hirmondo (Harbinger) started by Matthias Rath at Pozsony in 1780.
Among the magazines the most important was the Magyar Muzeum,
established at Kassa (Kaschau) in 1788 by Baroti, Kazinczy and
Bacsanyi. The Orpheus (1790) was the special work of Kazinczy,
and the Urania (1794) of Karman and of Pajor.
Closely connected with the preceding period is that of the " Re-
vival of the Language " (1807-1830), with which the name of Francis
Kazinczy (q.v.) is especially associated. To him it was _
left to perfect that work of restoration begun by Baroti / /a
and amplified by R6vai. Poetry and belles lettres still '" e
continued to occupy the chief place in the native literature,
but under Kazinczy and his immediate followers Berzsenyi, 1330)
Kolcsey, Fay and others, a correctness of style and ex-
cellence of taste hitherto unknown soon became apparent. Kazinczy,
in his efforts to accommodate the national language to the demands
of an improved civilization, availed himself of the treasures of
European literature, but thereby incurred the opposition of those
who were prejudiced by a too biased feeling of nationality. The
opinions of his enemies were ventilated in a lampoon styled Mondolat.
Daniel Berzsenyi, whose odes are among the finest in the Hungarian
language, was the correspondent of Kazinczy, and like him a victim
of the attacks of the Mondolat. But the fervent patriotism, elevated
style, and glowing diction of Berzsenyi soon caused him to be re-
cognized as a truly national bard. A too frequent allusion to Greek
mythological names is a defect sometimes observable in his writings.
His collective works were published at Buda by Dobrentei in 1842.
Those of John Kis, the friend of Berzsenyi, cover a wide range of
subjects, and comprise, besides original poetry, many translations
from the Greek, Latin, French, German and English, among which
last may be mentioned renderings from Blair, Pope and Thomson, and
notably his translation, published at Vienna in 1791, of Lowth's
" Choice of Hercules." The style of Kis is unaffected and easy. As
a sonnet writer none stands higher than Paul Szemere, known also
for his rendering of Korner's drama Zrinyi (1818), and his contribu-
tions to the Elet 6s Literatura (Life and Literature). The articles of
Francis Kolcsey in the same periodical are among the finest speci-
mens of Hungarian aesthetical criticism. The lyric poems of
Kolcsey can hardly be surpassed, whilst his orations, and markedly
the Emlek beszed Kazinczy felett (Commemorative Speech on
Kazinczy), exhibit not only his own powers, but the singular ex-
cellence of the Magyar language as an oratorical medium. Andrew
Fay, sometimes styled the " Hungarian Aesop," is chiefly re-
membered for his Eredeti Mesek (Original Fables). The dramatic
works of Charles Kisfaludy, brother of Alexander, won him enthusi-
astic recognition as a regenerator of the drama. His plays bear a
distinctive national character, the subjects of most of them referring
to the golden era of the country. His genuine simplicity as a lyrical
writer is shown by the fact that several of his shorter pieces have
LITERATURE]
HUNGARY
927
passed into popular song. As the earliest Magyarizer of Servian
Folk-song, Michael Vitkovics did valuable service. Not without
interest to Englishmen is the name of Gabriel Dobrentei (o.f.), the
translator of Shakespeare's Macbeth, represented at Pozsony
in 1825. An historical poem of a somewhat philosophical nature
was produced in 1814 by Andreas Horvath under the title of Zircz
emlekezete (Reminiscence of Zircz); but his Arpdd, in 12 books,
finished in 1830, and published at Pest in the following year, is a
great national epic. Among other poets of this period were Alois
Szentmiklossy, George Gaal, Emil Buczy, Joseph Szasz, Ladislaus
Toth and Joseph Katona, author of the much-extolled historical
drama Bank Ban. 1 Izidore Guzmics, the translator of Theocritus
into Magyar hexameters, is chiefly noted for his prose writings on
ecclesiastical and philosophical subjects. As authors of special
works on philosophy, we find Samuel Koteles, John Imre, Joseph
Ruszek, Daniel Ercsei and Paul Sarvari; as a theologian and
Hebraist John Somossy; as an historian and philologist Stephen
Horvath, who endeavoured to trace the Magyar descent from the
earliest historic times; as writers on jurisprudence Alexander Kovy
and Paul Szlemenics. For an account of the historian George Fejer,
the laborious compiler of the Codex Diplomaticus, see FEJR.
The establishment of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences 2 (l7th
November 1830) marks the commencement of a new period, in
the first eighteen years of which gigantic exertions were
Academy mac je as regards the literary and intellectual life of the
period, nation. The language, nursed by the academy, developed
rapidly, and showed its capacity for giving expression to
almost every form of scientific knowledge. 3 By offering
rewards for the best original dramatic productions, the academy
provided that the national theatre should not suffer from a lack
of classical dramas. During the earlier part of its existence the
Hungarian academy devoted itself mainly to the scientific develop-
ment of the language and philological research. Since its reorganiza-
tion in 1869 the academy has, however, paid equal attention to the
various departments of history, archaeology, national economy and
the physical sciences. The encouragement of polite literature was
more especially the object of the Kisfaludy Society, founded in I836. 4
Polite literature had received a great impulse in the preceding
period (1807-1830), but after the formation of the academy and the
Kisfaludy society it advanced with accelerated speed towards the
point attained by other nations. Foremost among epic poets,
though not equally successful as a dramatist, was Mihaly Voros-
marty (g.v.), who, belonging also to the close of the last period,
combines great power of imagination with elegance of language.
Generally less varied and romantic, though easier in style, are the
heroic poems Augsburgi ulkozel (Battle of Augsburg) and Aradi
gyiiles (Diet of Arad) of Gregory Czuczor, who was, moreover, very
felicitous as an epigrammatist. Martin Dcbreczeni was chiefly famed
for his Kiavi csata (Battle of Kieff), published at Pest in 1854 after
his death by Count Emeric Miko. The laborious John Garay in his
Szent Ldszlo shows considerable ability as an epic poet, but his
greatest merit was rather as a romancist and ballad writer, as shown
by the " Pen Sketches " or Tollrajzok (1845), and his legendary
further as the translator of F. C. Dahlmann's Geschichte der englischen
1 The subject is similar to that of Grillparzer's tragedy, Bin treuer
Diener seines Ilerrn.
2 It was founded in 1825 through the generosity of Count Szechenyi,
who devoted his whole income for one year (60,000 florins) to the
purpose. It was soon supported by contributions from all quarters
except from the government.
3 Among the earlier publications of the academy were the Tudo-
mdnytdr (Treasury of Sciences, 1834-1844), with its supplement
Literatura; the Kulfoldi jdtekszin (Foreign Theatres); the Magyar
nyelv rendszere (System of the Hungarian language, 1846; 2nd ed.,
1847); various dictionaries of scientific, mathematical, philosophical
and legal terms; a Hungarian -German dictionary (1835-1838),
and a Glossary of Provincialisms (1838). The Nagy-Szotdr (Great
Dictionary), begun by Czuczor and Fogarasi in 1845, was not issued
till 1862-1874. Among the regular organs of the academy are the
Transactions (from 1840), in some 60 vols., and the Annuals.
4 Among its earlier productions were the Nemzeti konyi'tdr
(National Library), published 1843-1847, and continued in 1852
under the title Ujabb Nemzeti konyvtdr, a repository of works by
celebrated authors; the Killfoldi Regenytdr (Treasury of Foreign
Romances), consisting of translations; and some valuable collections
of proverbs, folk-songs, traditions and fables. Of the many later
publications of the Kisfaludy society the most important as regards
English literature is the Shakspere Minden Munkdi (Complete Works
of Shakespeare), in 19 vols. (1864-1878), to which a supplementary
vol., Shakspere Pdlydja (1880), containing a critical account of the
life and writings of Shakespeare, has been added by Professor A.
Greguss. Translations from Mpliere, Racine, Corneille, Caldcron
and Moreto have also been issued by the Kisfaludy society. The
vlapok uj folyama, or " New Series of Annuals," from 1860 (Buda-
pest, 1868, &c.), is a chrestomathy of prize orations, and translations
and original pieces, both in poetry and prose.
Revolution. As generally able writers of lyrical poetry during the
earlier part of this period may be mentioned among others Francis
Csaszar, Joseph Szekacs and Andrew Kunoss also Lewis Szakal
and Alexander Vachott, whose songs and romances are of an artless
and simple character, and the sacred lyricist Bela Tarkanyi. As an
original but rather heavy lyric and didactic poet we may mention
Peter Vajda, who was, moreover, the translator of Bulwer's " Night
and Morning." Of a more distinctly national tendency are the
lyrics of John Kriza 6 and John Erdelyi, but the reputation of the
latter was more especially due to his collections of folk-lore made
on behalf of the Kisfaludy society. More popular than any of the
preceding, and well known in England through Sir John Bowring's
translation, are the charming lyrics of Alexander Petofi (g.v.), the
" Burns " of Hungary. His poems, which embody the national
genius, have passed into the very life of the people; particularly is
he happy in the pieces descriptive of rural life. Among lyricists
were: Coloman Toth, who is also the author of several epic and
dramatic pieces; John Vajda, whose Kisebb Koltemcnyek (Minor
Poems), published by the Kisfaludy society in 1872, are partly
written in the mode of Heine, and are of a pleasing but melancholy
character; Joseph Levay, known also as the translator of Shake-
speare's Titus Andronicus, Taming of the Shrew and Henry IV.;
and Paul Gyulai, who, not only as a faultless lyric and epic poet,
but as an impartial critical writer, is highly esteemed, and whose
Romhdnyi is justly prized as one of the best Magyar poems that has
appeared in modern times. To these may be added the names of
Charles Berecz, Joseph Zalar, Samuel Nyilas, Joseph Vida, Lewis
Tolnai, the sentimental Ladislaus Szelestcy, and the talented painter
Zoltan Balogh, whose romantic poem Alpdri was published in 1871
by the Kisfaludy society. The lyrics of Anthony Varady (1875,
1877) are somewhat dull and unequal in tone; both he and Baron
Ivor Kaas, author of Az ilelet napja (Day of Judgment, 1876), have
shown skill rather in the art of dramatic verse. The poems of Count
Geza Zichy and Victor Dalmady, those of the latter published at
Budapest in 1876, are mostly written on subjects of a domestic
nature, but are conceived in a patriotic spirit. Emil Abranyi adopts
a rather romantic style, but his Nagypentek (Good Friday) is an
excellent descriptive sketch. Alexander Endrody, author of Tilcsok
dalok (Cricket Songs, 1876), is a glowing writer, with great power of
conception, but his metaphors, following rapidly one upon the other,
become often confused. Joseph Kiss in 1876 brought out a few lyric
and epic poems of considerable merit. The Mesek of Augustus
Greguss (1878), a collection of verse " Fables," belonging to the
school of Gay, partake more of a didactic than lyrical nature. This
feature is noticeable also in the Kdllemenyek (1873) of Ladislaus
Torkos and the Modern Mesek (1874) of Ladislaus Nevy. The
Salamon (1878) of Charles Szasz (b. 1829) was rewarded with the
prize of the academy. The subject, taken from the age of Hungarian
chivalry, is artistically worked out from medieval legends, and
gives an excellent description of the times of St Ladislaus of Hungary.
Charles Szasz is generally better known as a metrical translator than
as an original poet. He is the Magyarizer of Shakespeare's Anthony
and Cleopatra, Othello, Macbeth, Henry VIII., Winter's Tale, Romeo
and Juliet and Tempest, as also of some of the best pieces of Burns,
Moore, Byron, Shelley, Milton, Beranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo,
Goethe and others. A translator from Byron and Pope appeared
also in Maurice Lukacs. 6
6 Unitarian bishop of Transylvania, author of Vadrozsdk, or
" Wild Roses " (1863), a collection of Szekler folk-songs, ballads and
sayings.
6 Besides the various translators from the English, as for instance
William Gyori, Augustus Greguss, Ladislaus Arany, Sigismpnd Acs,
Stephen Fejes and Eugene Rakosy, who, like those already incident-
ally mentioned, assisted in the Kisfaludy society's version of Shake-
speare's complete works, metrical translations from foreign languages
were successfully made by Emil Abranyi, Dr Ignatius Barna,
Anthony Varady, Andrew Szabo, Charles Berczy, Julius Greguss,
Lewis Doczi, Bela Erodi, Emeric Gaspar and many others. A
Magyar version, by Ferdinand Barna, of the Kalewala was published
at Pest in 1871. Faithful renderings by Lewis Szeberenyi, Theodore
Lehoczky and Michael Fincicky of the popular poetry of the Slavic
nationalities appeared in vols. i. and ii. of the Hazai nep kolleszet tdra
(Treasury of the Country's Popular Song), commenced in 1866, under
the auspices of the Kisfaludy society. In vol. iii. Rumanian folk-
songs were Magyarized by George Ember, Julian Grozescu and Joseph
Vulcanu, under the title Roman nepdalok (Budapest, 1877). The
Rozsdk (Zombor, 1875) is a translation by Eugene Pavlovits from
the Servian of Jovan Jovanovits. Beth the last-mentioned works are
interesting from an ethnographical point of view. We may here note
that for foreigners unacquainted with Hungarian there are, besides
several special versions of Petofi and of Arany, numerous anthologjes
of Magyar poetry in German, by Count Majlath (1825), J. Fenyery
and F. Toldy (1828), G. Steinacker (1840, 1875), G. Stier (1850),
K. M. Kertbeny (1854, 1860'!, A. Dux (1854), Count Pongracz (1859-
1861), A. M. Riedl (1860), J. Nordheim (1872), G. M. Henning (1874),
A. von der Heide (1879) and others. Selections have also been
published in English by Sir John Bowring (1830), S. Wekey in his
grammar (1852) and E. D. Butler (1877), and in French by H.
Desbordes-Valmore and C. E. de Ujfalvy (1873).
928
HUNGARY
[LITERATURE
Meanwhile dramatic literature found many champions, of whom
the most energetic was Edward Szigligeti, proprie Joseph Szathmary,
who enriched the Hungarian stage with more than a hundred pieces.
Of these the most popular are comedies and serio-comic national
dramas. A less prolific but more classical writer appeared in Charles
Obernyik, whose George Brankovtcs is, next to Katona's Bdnk Ban,
one of the best historical tragedies in the language. Several of the
already mentioned lyric and epic poets were occasional writers also
for the drama. To these we may add the gifted but unfortunate
Sigismund Czako, Lewis Dobsa, Joseph Szigeti, Ignatius Nagy,
Joseph Szenvey (a translator from Schiller), Joseph Gaal, Charles
Hugo, Lawrence Toth (the Magyarizer of the School for Scandal),
Emeric Vahot, Alois Degre (equally famous as a novelist), Stephen
Toldy and Lewis Doczi, author of the popular prize drama Csok
(The Kiss). Az ember tragoedidja (The Tragedy of Man), by Emeric
Madach (1861), is a dramatic poem of a philosophical and contem-
plative character, and is not intended for the stage. Among suc-
cessful dramatic pieces may be mentioned the Falu rossza (Village
Scamp) of Edward Toth (1875), which represents the life of the
Hungarian peasantry, and shows both poetic sentiment and dramatic
skill; A szerelem harcza (Combat of Love), by Count Geza Zichy;
Iskdriot (1876) and the prize tragedy Tamora (1879), by Anthony
Varady; Janus (1877), by Gregory Csiky; and the dramatized
romance Szep Mikhal (Handsome Michal), by Maurus Jokai (1877).
The principal merit of this author's drama Milton (1876) consists in
its brilliance of language. The Szerelem iskoldja (School of Love),
by Eugene Rakosy, although in some parts exquisitely worded, did
not meet with the applause accorded to his Ripacsos Pista Dolmdnya
(1874). The Grof Dormdndi Kdlmdn(Couni Coloman Dormandi) of
Bela Bercsenyi (1877) is a social tragedy of the French school.
Among the most recent writers of comedy we single out Arpad
Berczik for his A hdzasilok (The Matchmakers) ;Ignatius Siilyovsky
for his Noi diplomatia (Female Diplomacy) ; and the above-mentioned
Gregory Csiky for his Ellendllhatatlan (The Irresistible), produced on
the stage in 1878. As popular plays the Sdrga csiko (Bay Foal) and
A piros bugyelldris (The Red Purse), by Francis Csepreghy, have their
own special merit, and were often represented in 1878 and 1879 at
Budapest and elsewhere.
Original romance writing, which may be said to have commenced
with Dugonics and Karman at the close of the i8th, and to have found
a representative in Francis Verseghy at the beginning of the igth
century, was afterwards revived by Fay in his Belteky hdz (1832),
and by the contributors to certain literary magazines, especially
the Aurora, an almanack conducted by Charles Kisfaludy, 1821-
1830, and continued by Joseph Bajza to 1837. Almost simultane-
ously with the rise of the Kisfaludy society, works of fiction assumed
a more vigorous tone, and began to present just claims for literary
recognition. Far from adopting the levity of style too often ob-
servable in French romances, the Magyar novels, although enlivened
by touches of humour, have generally rather a serious historical or
political bearing. Especially is this the case with Nicholas Josika's
Abafi (1836), A csehek M'agyarorszdgon (The Bohemians in Hungary),
and Az utolso Bdtori (The Last of the Bathoris), published in 1847.
In these, as in many other of the romances of josika, a high moral
standard is aimed at. The same may be said of Baron Joseph
Eotvos's Karthausi (1839) and Falu Jegyzoje (Village Notary),
published in 1845, and translated into English (1850) by O. Wenck-
stern (see EOTVOS). The Aniizonyv or " Inundation Book,'' edited
by Eotvos (1839-1841), is a collection of narratives and poems by
the most celebrated authors of the time. Of the novels produced by
Baron Sigismond Kemeny the Gyulai Pal (1847), in 5 vols., is, from its
historical character, the most important. His Ferj es no (Husband
and Wife) appeared in 1853 (latest ed., 1878), theRajongok (Fanatics),
in 4 vols., in 1858-1859. The graphic descriptions of Hungarian life
in the middle and lower classes by Lewis Kuthy won for him tempor-
ary renown; but his style, though flowery, is careless. Another
popular writer of great originality was Joseph Radakovics alias
Vas-Gereben. The romances of Baron Frederick Podmaniczky are
simpler, and rather of a narrative than colloquial character. The
fertile writer Paul Kovacs excels more particularly in humorous
narration. Fay's singular powers in this direction were well shown
by his Jdvor orvos es Bakator Ambrus szolgdja (Doctor Javor and his
servant Ambrose Bakator), brought out at Pest in 1855. The
Beszelyek (Tales) of Ladislaus Beothy were produced in the same
year, his Pusztdkfia (Son of the Pusztas) in 1857. Pleasing humorous
sketches are contained also in Ignatius Nagy's Beszelyek (1843) and
"Caricatures" or Torzkepek (1844); in Caspar Bernat's Fresko
kepek (18471850); in Gustavus Lauka's Videk, and his A jo regi
vildg (The Good Old World), published respectively in 1857 and
1863; and in Alexander Balazs's Beszelyei (1855) and Tiikordarabok
(1865). Among authors of other historical or humorous romances
and tales which have appeared from time to time are Francis Marton
alias Lewis Abonyi, Joseph Gaal, Paul Gyulai, William Gyori,
Lazarus Horvath, the short-lived Joseph Irinyi, translator of
Uncle Tom's Cabin, Francis Ney, Albert Palffy, Alexander
Vachottand his brother Emeric (Vahot), Charles Szathmary, Desider
Margittay, Victor Vajda, Joseph Bodon, Atala Kisfaludy and John
Kratky. But by far the most prolific and talented novelist that
Hungary can boast of is Maurus Jokai (q.v.), whose power of imagina-
tion and brilliancy of style, no less than his true representations of
Hungarian life and character, have earned for him a European
reputation. Of the novels produced by other authors between 1870
and 1880, we may mention A hoi az ember kezdodik (Where the Man
Begins), by Edward Kavassy (1871), in which he severely lashes the
idling Magyar nobility; Az en ismeroseim (My Acquaintances), by
Lewis Tolnai (1871); and Anatol, by Stephen Toldy (1872); the
versified romances Deli bdbok hose (Hero of the Fata Morgana),
generally ascribed to Ladislaus Arany, but anonymously published,
A szerelem hose (Hero of Love), by John Vajda (1873), ar >d Taldl-
kozdsok (Rencounters) by the same (1877), and A Tiinderov (The
Fairy Zone), by John Bulla (1876), all four interesting as specimens
of narrative poetry; Kdlozdy Bela (1875), a tale of Hungarian pro-
vincial life, by Zoltan Beothy, a pleasing writer who possesses a fund
of humour, and appears to follow the best English models; Edith
tortenete (History of Edith), by Joseph Prem (1876); Nyomorusdg
iskoldja (School of Misery), by the prolific author _Arnold Vertesi
(1878); Titkolt szerelem (Secret Love), by Cornelius Abranyi (1879),
a social-political romance of some merit; and Uj id.dk, avult
emberek (Modern Times, Men of the Past), by L. Veka (1879). In
the Itthon (At Home), by Alois Degre (1877), the tale is made the
medium for a satirical attack upon official corruption and Hungarian
national vanity; and in the Almok dlmodoja (Dreamer of Dreams),
by John Asboth (1878), other national defects are aimed at. A rosz
szomszed (The Bad Neighbour), by Charles Vadnay (1878), is a
felicitous representation of the power of love. The Az utolso Bebek
(The Last of the Bebeks), by the late Charles Petery, is a work rich
in poetic invention, but meagre in historical matter. The reverse is
the case with the Lajos pap (Priest Lewis), by Charles Vajkay (1879),
the secne of which is placed at Pest, in the beginning of the I4th
century. In this romance the interest of the narrative is weakened
by a superabundance of historical and archaeological detail.
As regards works of a scientific character, the Magyars until
recently were confessedly behindhand as compared with many other
European nations. Indeed, before the foundation of the Hungarian
academy in 1830, but few such works claiming general recognition
had been published in the native language. Even in 1847 astronomy,
physics, logic and other subjects of the kind had to be taught in
several of the lyceums through the medium of Latin. The violent
political commotions of the next few years allowed but little oppor-
tunity for the prosecution of serious studies; the subsequent quieter
state of the country, and gradual re-establishment of the language
as a means of education, were, however, more favourable to the
development of scientific knowledge.
In the department of philosophy, besides several writers of dis-
sertations bearing an imitative, didactic or polemical character,
Hungary could boast a few authors of independent and original
thought. Of these one of the most notable is Cyril Horvath, whose
treatises published in the organs of the academy display a rare
freedom and comprehensiveness of imagination. John Hetenyi and
Gustavus Szontagh must be rather regarded as adopters and de-
velopers of the ethical teaching of Samuel Koteles in the previous
period. Hyacinth Ronay in his Mutatvdny (Representation) and
Jellemisme (Characteristics) endeavoured to popularize psychological
studies. The philosophical labours of the already mentioned John
Erdelyi and of Augustus Greguss won for them well-deserved
recognition, the latter especially being famous for his aesthetical
productions, in which he appears to follow out the principles of
Vischer. The Tanulmdnyok (Studies) of Greguss were brought out
at Pest in 1872. The reputation of John Szilasy, John Varga,
Fidelius Beely and Francis Ney arose rather from their works bear-
ing on the subject of education than from their contributions to
philosophy.
The labours of Stephen Horvath in the preceding period had pre-
ared the way for future workers in the field of historical literature,
pecially meritorious among these are Michael Horvath, Ladislaus
Szalay, Paul Jaszay and Count Joseph Teleki. The Magyarok
tortenete (History of the Magyars), in 4 vols., first published at Papa
(1842-1846), and afterwards in 6 vols. at Pest (1860-1863), and in
8 vols. (1871-1873), is the most famous of Michael Horvath's numer-
ous historical productions. Ladislaus Szalay's Magyarorszdg
tortenete (History of Hungary), vols. i.-iv. (Leipzig, 1852-1854),
vols. v.-vi. (Pest, 1856-1861), 2nd ed., i.-v. (1861-1866), is a
most comprehensive work, showing more particularly the progress of
Hungarian legislative development in past times. His style is elevated
and concise, but somewhat difficult. Magyar history is indebted to
Paul Jaszay for his careful working out of certain special periods, as,
for instance, in his A Magyar nemzet napjai a legregibb idotol az arany
bulldig (Days of the Hungarian nation from the earliest times to the
date of the Golden Bull). Count Joseph Teleki is famed chiefly for
his Hunyadiak kora Magyarorszdgon (The Times of the Hunyadys
in Hungary), vols. i.-vi. (Pest, 1852-1863), x.-xii. (1853-1857), the
result of thirty years' labour and research. In particular depart-
ments of historical literature we find George Bartal, author of
Commentariorum . . . libri XV., torn, i.-iii. (Pozsony, 1847), John
Czech, Gustavus Wenczel, Frederick Pesty and Paul Szlemenics as
writers on legal history; Joseph Bajza, who in 1845 commenced
a History of the World; Alexander Szilagyi, some of whose
works, like those of Ladislaus Kovary, bear on the past of Transyl-
vania, others on the Hungarian revolution of 1848-1849; Charles
Lanyi and John Pauer, authors of treatises on Roman Catholic
LITERATURE]
HUNGARY
929
ecclesiastical history; John Szombathi, Emeric Revdsz and Balogh,
writers on Protestant church history; William Frakn6i, biographer
of Cardinal Pazman, and historian of the Hungarian diets; and
Anthony G4vay, Aaron Sziladi, Joseph Podhradczky, Charles Szabo,
John Jerney and Francis Salaraon, who have investigated and
elucidated many special historical subjects. For the medieval
history of Hungary the Mdtydskori diplomatikai emlekek (Diplomatic
Memorials of the Time of Matthias Corvinus), issued by the academy
under the joint editorship of Ivan Nagy and Baron Albert Nyary,
affords interesting material. As a masterly production based on
extensive investigation, we note the Wesselenyi Ferencz . . . osszees-
kuvese (The Secret Plot of Francis Wesselenyi, 1664-1671), by Julius
Pauler (1876). Among the many historians of Magyar literature
Francis Toidy alias Schedel holds the foremost place. As compilers
of useful manuals may be mentioned also Joseph Szvorenyi, Zoltan
Beothy, Alexander Imre, Paul Jambor, Ladislaus N6vy, John
Kornyei and Joseph Szinnyei, junior. For philological and ethno-
graphical research into the origin and growth of the language none
excels Paul Hunfalvy. He is, moreover, the warm advocate of the
theory of its Ugrio-Finnic origin, as established by the Uralian
traveller Anthony Reguly, the result of whose labours Hunfalvy
published in 1864, under the title A Vogul fold 6s nep (The Vogul
Land and People). Between 1862 and 1866 valuable philological
studies bearing on the same subject were published by Joseph
Budenz in the Nyelvtudomdnyi kozlemenyek (Philological Trans-
actions). This periodical, issued by the academy, has during the
last decade (1870-1880) contained also comparative studies, by
Arminius Vambery and Gabriel Balint, of the Magyar, Turkish-
Tatar and Mongolian dialects.
As compilers and authors of works in various scientific branches
allied to history, may be particularly mentioned in statistics and
geography, Alexius Fdnyes, Emeric Palugyay, Alexander Konek,
John Hunfalvy, Charles Galgoczy, Charles Keleti, Leo Beothy, Joseph
Korosi, Charles Ballagi and Paul Kiraly, and, as regards Transyl-
vania, Ladislaus Kovary; in travel, Arminius Vambdry, Ignatius
Goldziher, Ladislaus Magyar, John Xantus, John Jerney, Count
Andrassy, Ladislaus Podmaniczky, Paul Hunfalvy; in astronomy,
Nicholas Konkoly; in archaeology, Bishop Arnold Ipolyi, Florian
Romer, Emeric Henszlmann, John Erdy, Baron Albert Nyary,
Francis Pulszky and Francis. Kiss; in Hungarian mythology,
Bishop Ipolyi, Anthony Csengery, 1 and Arpad Kere^kgyarto; in
numismatics, John Erdy and Jacob Rupp; and in jurisprudence,
Augustus Karvassy, Theodore Pauler, Gustavus Wenczel, Emeric
Csacsko, John Fogarasi and Ignatius Frank. After 1867 great
activity was displayed in history and its allied branches, owing to the
direct encouragement given by the Hungarian Historical Society,
and by the historical, archaeological, and statistical committees of
the academy.
Notwithstanding the exertions of Paul Bugat to arouse an interest
in the natural sciences by the establishment in 1841 of the
" Hungarian Royal Natural Science Association," no general activity
was manifested in this department of knowledge, so far as the
native literature was concerned, until 1860, when the academy
organized a special committee for the advancement of mathematical
and natural science. 2 The principal contributors to the " Trans-
actions " of this section of the academy were for anatomy and
physiology, Coloman Balogh, Eugene Jendrassik, Joseph Lenhossek
and Lewis Thanhoffer; for zoology, John Frivaldszky, John Kriesch
and Theodore Margo; for botany, Frederick Hazslinszky, Lewis
Juranyi and Julius Klein; for mineralogy and geology, Joseph
Szabo, Max Hantkcn, Joseph Krenner, Anthony Koch and Charles
Hoffman; for physics. Baron Lorando Eotvos, Coloman Szily and
Joseph Sztoczek; for chemistry, Charles Than and Vincent Wartha;
for meteorology, Guidp Schenzl. As good text-books, for which the
so-called " Ladies' Prize " was awarded by the academy, we may
mention the Termeszettan (Physics) and Termeszettani foldrajz
(Physical Geography) of Julius Greguss.
Almost simultaneously with the formation of the above-mentioned
committee of the academy, the " Natural Science Association "
showed signs of renewed animation, and soon advanced with rapid
strides in the same direction, but with a more popular aim than the
academy. Between 1868 and 1878 the number of its members
increased from some 600 to about 5000. After 1872, in addition to
its regular organs, it issued Hungarian translations of several popular
scientific English works, as, for instance, Darwin's Origin of Species;
Huxley's Lessons in Physiology; Lubbock's Prehistoric Times;
Proctor's Other Worlds than Ours; Tyndall's Heat as a Mode of
Motion, &c. Versions were also made of Cotta's Geologie der Gegen-
wart and Helmholtz's Populare Vorlesungen. As important original
monographs we note Az drapdly a Fiumei obolben (Ebb and Flow
in the Gulf of Fiume), by Emil Stahlberger (1874); Magyarorszdg
pdkfaundja (The Arachnida of Hungary), by Otto Hermann (1876
1878); Magyarorszdg vaskovei es vastermenyei (The Iron Ores and
1 The translator of Macaulay.
1 See, however, J. Szinnyei & Son's Bibliotheca Ilungarica
historiae naturalis et matheseos, 14721875 (Budapest, 1878), where
the number of Magyar works bearing on the natural sciences and
mathematics printed from the earliest date to the end of 1875 >s
stated to be 3811, of which 106 are referred to periodicals.
Iron Products of Hungary), by Anthony Kerpely (1877); Mag-
yarorszdg nevezetesebb dohanyfajainak chemiai . . . megvizsgdldsa
(Chemical Examination of the most famous Tobaccos of Hungary),
by Dr Thomas Kosutany (1877). (E. D. Bu.)
The number of Magyar writers has since 1880 increased to
an extent hardly expected by the reading public in Hungary
itself. In 1830 there were only 10 Magyar periodical
publications; in 1880 we find 368; in 1885 their
number rose to 494; in 1890 to 636; and . at the
beginning of 1895 no fewer than 806 periodical publica-
tions, written in the Hungarian language, appeared in Hungary.
Since that time (1895) the number of periodical as well as of
non-periodical literary works has been constantly rising, although,
as in all countries with a literature of rather recent origin, the
periodical publications are, in proportion to the whole of the
output, far more numerous than the non-periodical. 3 This
remarkable increase in the quantity of literary work was, on
the whole, accompanied by a fair advance in literary quality.
In lyrical poetry, among the poets who first came to the fore in the
'sixties several were active after 1880, such as Joseph Komocsy
(d. 1894), whose Szerelem Konyve (" Book of Love ") has become a
popular classic; Victor Dalmady, who published in the 'nineties his
Hazafias Koltemtnyek (Patriotic Poems); and Ladislas Arany, son
of the great John. Among the prominent lyrists whose works,
although partly published before 1880, belong largely to the later
period, the following deserve special mention: The poetry of Emil
Abranyi (born 1850) is filled with the ideas and ideals of Victor Hugo.
Abianyi excels also as a translator, more particularly of Byron.
Julius Reviczky (1855-1899) also inclined to the Occidental rather
than to the specifically Magyar type of poets; his lyrics are highly
finished, aristocratic and pessimistic (Pan haldla, " The Death of
Pan "). Count Geza Zichy (b. 1849) published his lyrical poems
in 1892. Joseph Kiss (b. 1843) is especially felicitous in ballads
taken from village and Jewish life, and in love-songs; Alexander
Endrodi (b. 1850), one of the most gifted modern lyrical poets of
Hungary, has the charm of tenderness and delicacy together with
that of a peculiar and original style, his Kurucz notdk being so far
his most successful attempt at romantic lyrics. Louis Bartok (b.
1851) is a remarkable satirist and epigrammatist (Kdrpdti emlekek).
Odon Jakab (b. 1850) leans towards the poetic manner of Tompa,
with perhaps a greater power of expression than the author of the
Virdgregek (" Flower-fables ") ; Jakab wrote Hangok az ifjusdgb6l
(" Sounds of Youth "), Nydr (" Summer "), both collections of lyrical
poems. Louis Posa (b. 1850) has made a sphere of his own in his
charming poems for and about children, Edes anydm (" My dear
Mother "). In Andor Kozma (b. 1860), author of A tegnap es a
ma (" Yesterday and To-day," 1889), Versek (Poems, 1893), &c.,
there is undoubted power of genuine satire and deep humour.
Michael Szabolcska (b. 1864), author of Hangulalok (" Moods,"
1894), showed great promise; Julius Vargha (b. 1853) cult'vates
the nepies or folk-poetry as represented by Hungary's two greatest
poets, PetSfi and Arany; Vargha has also published excellent trans-
lations of Schiller and Goethe. Perhaps scarcely less remarkable are
the modern Magyar lyrists, such as, of the older set, John Bulla
(b. 1843), J. D. Temerdek, Gustavus Csengey (b. 1842), Paul
Korpda (b. 1854), E. Julius Kovacs (b. 1839, Poems, 1892),
Ladislas Incz6di, Julius Nogradi Pap, Julius Szavay (b. 1860),
John Dengi (b. 1853); among the juniors, Anton Rado (also an
excellent translator), Louis Palagyi (Magdnyps uton, " On Lonely
Way," &c.), Geza Gardonyi (b. 1863, Aprilis, 1894), Zoltan Pap,
Eugen Heltai (Ignotus), Julius Rudnyanszky (b. 1860, Szerelem,
" Love "; Nydr, Summer "), Arpad Zemplenyi, Julius Szentessy,
Emil Makai (b. 1870), Cornelius Caspar, Julius Varsanyi (b.
1863, Mulandosdg, " The Unstableness of Things "), Alexander Luby
(Vergodes, "Striving"), Eugen V. Szaszvarosi, Endre Szabo (b.
1849), political satirist. In the most recent lyrics of Hungary there
is a growing tendency to socialistic poetry, to the " poetry of misery "
(A nyomor kolteszele). In epic poetry Josef Kiss's Jehova is the most
popular work. Amongst rhymed novels novels in verse form
the best is the Delibdbok hose (" The Hero of Mirages "), in which
Ladislas Arany tells, in brilliantly humorous and captivating
fashion, the story of a young Magyar nobleman who, at first full 01
great ideals and aspirations, finally ends as a commonplace country
squire.
Among Hungarian novels we may distinguish four dominant
genres or tendencies. The first is represented almost exclusively by
Maurus Jokai (g.i>.). To the school so perfectly represented by
3 This will appear even more striking by a consideration of the
number of periodical publications published in Hungary in languages
other than Magyar. Thus, while of German periodicals apoearing in
Hungary there were in 1871 only 85, they increased in 1880 to 114,
in 1885 to 141; and they were, at the beginning of 1895, still 128,
in spite of the constant spread of that process of Magyarization
which has, since 1880, considerably changed the linguistic habits of
the people of Hungary.
xm. 30
930
HUNGARY
[LITERATURE
Jokai belong Arpad Kupa (A napszdmosok, "The Labourers";
Kepselt kirdlyok, " Imaginary Kings "); Robert Tabori (Nagy jdtek,
" Great Game "; A negyveneves ferfiu, " The Man at Forty "); and
Julius Werner (Kendi Imre hdzassdga, " The Wedding of Emericus
Kendi " ; Olga; Megvirrad meg valaha, "Dawn will come in the
End "). The second class of Hungarian modern novelists is led by
the well-known Koloman Mikszath, a poet endowed with originality,
a charming naivete, and a freshness of observation from life. A
close observer of the multifarious low life of Hungary, Mikszath has,
in his short stories, given a delightful yet instructive picture of all
the minor varied phases of the peasant life of the Slavs, the Palocok,
the Saxons, the town artisan. Amongst his numerous works may
be mentioned A jo paloczok (" The Good Paloczok," Slav peasants) ;
Egy vdlasztds Magyar or sz&gon (" An Election in Hungary"); Pipac-
sok a buzdban ("Wild Poppies in the Wheatfield"); A tekintetes
vdrmegye (" The Worshipful County ") ; Ne okoskodj Pista (" Don't
reason, Pista"); Szent Peter esernySje (" St Peter's Umbrella,"
translated from the original into English by Miss B. W. Worswick),
&c. Mikszath has had considerable influence upon other writers.
Such are Victor Rakosi (Sipulus tdrcdi, " The Essays of Sipulus ";
Rejtett feszkek, " Hidden Nests "); Stephen Mora (Atydnkfiai, " Our
Compatriots "); Alexius Benedek, the author of numerous distinctly
sympathetic and truly Magyar tales, fables and novels, one of the
most gifted and deserving literary workers of modern Hungary
(Huszar Anna, " Anna Huszar "; Egy szalmaozvegy levelei, " Letters
of a grass widow"; A sziv konyve, "The Book of the Heart";
Katalin, "Catherine"; Csendes ordk, "Quiet Hours"; Testa-
mentum is hat level, " Last Will and Six Letters," translated into
German by Dr W. Schonwald, &c.) ; Geza Gardonyi (several novels
containing the adventures, observations, &c., of Mr Gabriel Gore;
A kekszemu Davidkdne, " Blue-eyed Mrs Davidka "; A Kdtsa, scenes
from gipsy life); Charles Murai (Vig tortenetek, "Jolly Stories";
Bandi, a collection of short tales); Stephen Barsony (Csend,
" Silence " ; A Kameleon-ledny, " The Chamaeleon Girl, and other
Stories"; Erdon-mez&n, " In Wood and Field"). The third class
of Magyar novelists comprises those cosmopolitan writers who take
their method of work, their inspiration and even many of their
subjects from foreign authors, chiefly French, German, Russian and
also Norwegian. A people with an intense national sentiment, such
as the Hungarians, do not as a rule incline towards permanent
admiration of foreign-born or imported literary styles; and ac-
cordingly the work of this class of novelists has frequently met with
very severe criticism on the part of various Magyar critics. Yet it
can scarcely be denied that several of the " foreign " novelists have
contributed a wholesome, if not quite Magyar, element of form or
thought to literary narrative style in Hungary. Probably the fore-
most among them is Sigismund Justh, who died prematurely in the
midst of his painful attempt at reconciling French " realistic "
modes of thought with what he conceived to be Magyar simplicity
(A puszta konyve, " The Book of the Puszta," prairie of Hungary; A
Penz legendaja, "The Legend of Money"; Gdnyo Julcsa, "Juliet
Ganyo"; Fuimus). Other novelists belonging to this school are:
Desiderius Malonyai (Az utolso, " The Last " ; Judith konyve, " The
Book of Judith '; Tanulmdnyfejek, "Typical Heads"); Julius
Pekar (Dodo fShadnagy problemdi, " Lieutenant Dodo's Problems ";
Az aranykesztyus kisasszony, " The Maid with the Golden Gloves ";
A szoborszep asszony, "The Lady as Beautiful as a Statue"; A z
esztendo legenddja, " The Legend of the Year ") ; Thomas Kobor
(Aszfalt, " Asphalt "; O akarta, " He Wanted It "; A csillagok fele,
Towards the Stars"); Stephen Szomahazy (Huszonnegy 6ra,
"Twenty-four Hours"; A Clairette Kering5, "The Clairette
Valse"; Pdratlan szerddk, "Incomparable Wednesdays"; Nydri
felhok, " Clouds of Summer "); Zolt4n Thury (Ullrich fShadnagy es
egyeb tortenetek, "Lieutenant Ullrich and other Tales ";Urak es
parasztok, " Gentlemen and Peasants "); also Desiderius Szomory,
Odon Ger5, Arpid Abonyi, Koloman Szanto, Edward Sas, Julius
Vertesi, Tibor Denes, Akos Pinter, the Misses Janka and Stephanie
Wohl, Mrs Sigismund Gyarmathy and others. In the fourth class
may be grouped such of the latest Hungarian novelists as have tried,
and on the whole succeeded, in clothing their ideas and characters
in a style peculiar to themselves. Besides Stephen Petelei (Jetti,
a name^ "Henrietta " Felh&k, " Clouds ") and Zoltan Ambrus
(Pdkhdln Kisasszony, "Miss Cobweb"; Gyanu, "Suspicion")
must be mentioned especially Francis Herczeg, who has published a
number of very interesting studies of Hungarian social life (Simon
Zsuzsa, "Susanna Simon"; Fenn es lenn, "Above and Below";
Egy ledny tortenele, "The History of a Girl"; Idegenek kozott,
" Amongst Strangers ") ; Alexander Brody, who brings a delicate
yet resolute analysis to unfold the mysterious and fascinating inner
life of persons suffering from overwrought nerves or overstrung
mind (A ketlelkil asszony, "The Double-Souled Lady"; Don
Quixote kisasszony, " Miss Don Quixote "; Faust orvos, " Faust the
Physician"; Tunder Ilona, Rejtelmek, "Mysteries"; Az ezilst
kecske, " The Silver Goat ") ; and Edward Kabos, whose sombre and
powerful genius has already produced works, not popular by any
means, but full of great promise. In him we may trace the influence
of Nietzsche's philosophy (Koldusok, "Beggars"; Vdndorok,
Wanderers "). To this list we must add the short but incom-
parable feuilletons (tdrczalevelek) of Dr Adolf Agai (writing under the
rtotn de plume of Porzo), whose influence on the formation of modern
Hnngarian literary prose is hardly less important than the unique
esprit and charm of his writings.
Dramatic literature, liberally supported by the king and the
government, and aided by magnificent theatres in the capital and
also in the provinces (the finest provincial theatre is in Kolozsvar,
in Transylvania), has developed remarkably. The Hungarians have
the genuine dramatic gift in abundance ; they have, moreover, actors
and actresses of the first rank. In the modern drama three great and
clearly differentiated groups may be distinguished. First the neo-
romantic group, whose chief representatives are Eugen Rakosi,
Louis Doczi (b. 1845), who, in addition to Csok (" The Kiss "),
has written Utolso szerelem (" Last Love "), Szechy Maria (" Maria
Szechy "), Vegyes Pdrok (" Mixed Couples "). In these and other
dramatic writings, more remarkable perhaps for poetic than for stage
effects, Doczi still maintains his brilliancy of diction and the delicacy
of his poetic touch. To the same school belong Louis Bartok, Anton
Varadi and Alexander Somlo. The next group of Hungarian drama-
tists is dominated by the master spirit of Gregor Csiky (<?..)
Among Csiky's most promising disciples is Francis Herczeg (already
mentioned as a novelist), author of the successful society comedy,
A Gyurkovics lednyok (" The Misses Gyurkovics "), Harom testbr
("Three Guardsmen"), Honty hdza (The House of Honty ").
Arpad Berczik's Nezd. meg az anyjdt (" Look at her Mother "), A
protekczio (" Patronizing "), also followed on the lines of Csiky. The
third group of dramatic writers take their subjects, surroundings
and diction from the folk-life of the villages (nepszinmu, " folk-
drama "). The greatest of these dramatists has so far been Edward
Toth (Toloncz, ' The Ousted Pauper "). Amongst his numerous
followers, who have, however, sometimes vulgarized their figures
and plots, may be mentioned Tihamer Almasi (Milimdri, A Min-
iszterelnok bdlja, " The Ball of the Premier ") and Alexander Somlo.
In philosophy there has been a remarkable increase of activity,
partly assimilative or eclectic and partly original. Peter Bihari and
Maurice Karman have in various writings spread the ideas of Herbart.
After the school of Comte, yet to a large extent original, is the Az
ember es vildga (" Man and his World ' ) of Charles Bohm, who in
1 88 1 started a philosophical review (Magyar Filozofiai Szemle),
subsequently edited by Joseph Bokor, a vigorous thinker. Realism,
more particularly of the Wundt type, is represented by Emericus
Pauer, Az ethikai determinismus ('' Ethical Determinism "), and
Eugen Posch (Az idorSl, " On Time "). On a Thomistic basis John
Kiss edits a philosophical review (Bolcseleti Folyoirat); on similar
lines have been working Akos Mihalyfi, Repassy, Augustin Lubrich
and others. Neo-Hegelianism is cultivated by Eugen Schmitt,
efficiently assisted by Joseph Alexander Simon (Az egyseges es redlis
termeszet filozofia alapvonalai, " Outlines of a Uniform and Realistic
Philosophy of Nature "). F. Medveczky (formerly a German author
under the name of Fr. von Barenbach) espouses Neo-Kantism
(Tdrsadalmi elmeletek es eszmenyek, 1887, " Social Theories and
Ideals "). The Hungarian scholar Samuel Brassai published, in 1896,
Azigazipozitiv filozofia (" The True Positive Philosophy "). Amongst
the ablest and most zealous students of the history of philosophy
are Bernhard Alexander, under whose editorship, aided by Joseph
Banoczi, a series of the works of the world's great thinkers has
appeared; Andrew Domanovszky, author of an elaborate History
of Philosophy; Julius Gyomlai, translator of Plato; Eugen Peterfy,
likewise translator of philosophical works, &c.
Juristic literature has been stimulated by the activity in positive
legislation. On 1st January 1900 a new criminal code, thoroughly
modern in spirit, was put in force; and in 1901 a Civil Code Bill, to
replace the old Hungarian customary system, was introduced.
Among the newer writers on common and commercial law may be
mentioned Wenczal, Zlinsky, Zogod, Gustave Schwarz, Alexander
Plosz, Francis Nagy and Neumann; on constitutional law, Korbuly,
Boncz, Stephen Kiss, Ernest Nagy, Kmcty, Arthur Balogh, Ferdin-
andy, Bela Griinwald, Julius Andrassy and Emeric Hajnik; on
administration, George Festis, Kmety and Csiky; on finance,
Mariska, Exner and Laszlo. Among the later writers on statistics,
moreover, have been Konek, Keleti, Lang, Foldes, Jekelfalussy,
Vorgha, Korosy, Rath and Vizaknai.
On subjects of politics, amongst the more important works are the
various monographs of Gustavus Beksics on the Dualism of Austria-
Hungary, on the " New Foundations of Magyar Politics " (A magyar
politika uj alapjai, 1899), on the Rumanian question, &c. ; the
writings of Emericus Balint, Akos Beothy, Victor Concha (system-
atic politics), L. Ecsery, Geza Ferdinandy (historical and systematic
politics), Arpad Zigany, Bela Foldes (political economy), Julius
Mandello (political economy), Alexander Matlekovics (Hungary's
administrative service; Allamhdztartds, 3 vols.), J. Polya (agrarian
politics), M. Somogyi (sociology), and the late Augustus Pulszky
In history there has been great activity. The millennial
festivities in 1896 gave rise to the publication of what was then the
most extensive history of the Hungarian nation (A magyar nernzet
tortenete, 1895-1901), ten large and splendidly illustrated volumes,
edited by Alexander Szilagyi, with the collaboration of the best
specialists of modern Hungary, Robert Frohlich, B. Kuzsinszky,
Geza Nagy, H. Marczali, Anton Por, Schonherr, V. Fraknoi, Arpad
Karolyi, David Angyal, Cploman Thaly, Geza Ballagi.
Literary criticism is actively pursued. Among the more authori-
tative writers Paul Gyulai and Zsolt Beothy represent the
HUNGER AND THIRST HUNGERFORD
conservative school; younger critics, like Bela Lazar, Alexander
Hevesi, H. Lenkei, "/nit. in Ferenczy, Aladar Ballagi, Ladislas
N6gyessy, have shown themselves somewhat too ready to follow the
latest Norwegian or Parisian sensation.
AUTHORITIES. The best authorities on Magyar literature are:
F. Toldy, A Magyar nemzeti irodalom tortenete a legregibb idoktdl a
jelenkorig (Pest, 1864-1865; 3rd ed., 1872); S. Imre, A Magyar
irodalom 6s nyelv rovid tortenete (Debreczen, 1865; 4th ed., 1878); J.
Szvordnyi, Magyar irodalmi ' szemelvenyek (Pest, 1867), and A Magyar
irodalmi tanulmdnypk kezikonyve (Pest, 1868); P. Jambor, A
Magyar irodalom tortenete (Pest, 1864) ; J. Kornyei, A Magyar
nemzeti irodalomtortenet vdzlata (Pest, 1861; 3rd ed., 1874); A.
Lonkay, A Magyar irodalom ismertetese (Budan, 1855; 3rd ed.,
Pest, 1864); J. Ferencz, Magyar irodalom es tudomdnyossdg tortenete
(Pest, 1854); J. Ferencz 6s J. Danielik, Magyar Irak, fietrajz-
Gyutemeny (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858); and the literary histories of
L. N6vy, Z. Beothy and B. Erodi. One of the most useful mono-
graphs on " Magyar Literary History Writing " is that of J. Szinnyei,
junior, A Magyar Irodalomtortenet-Irds ismertetese (Budapest, 1878).
For information as to the most recent literature see A. Dux, Aus
Ungarn (Leipzig, 1880); Zsolt Beothy, A Magy. nemz. irod. tort.;
S. Bodnar, A magy. irod. tort.; Bela Lazar, A tegnap, a ma, es a
holnap^ (Budapest, 1896-1900); Joseph Szinnyei, Magy. irok elete es
munkdi (an extensive biographical dictionary of Hungarian authors) ;
Irodalom torteneti Kozlemenyek (a periodical edited by Aron Szilady,
for the history of literature) ; Emil Reich, Hungarian Literature
(London, 1898). (E. RE.*)
HUNGER and THIRST. These terms are used to express
peculiar sensations which are produced by and give expression
to general wants of the system, satisfied respectively by the
ingestion of organic solids containing substances capable of
acting as food, and by water or liquids and solids containing
water.
Hunger (a word common to Teutonic languages) is a peculiarly
indefinite sensation of craving or want which is referred to the
stomach, but with which is often combined, always indeed in its
most pronounced stages, a general feeling of weakness or faintness.
The earliest stages are unattended with suffering, and are charac-
terized as " appetite for food." Hunger is normally appeased
by the introduction of solid or semi-solid nutriment into the
stomach, and it is probable that the almost immediate alleviation
of the sensation in these circumstances is in part due to a local
influence, perhaps connected with a free secretion of gastric
juice. Essentially, however, the sensation of hunger is a mere
local expression of a general want, and this local expression
ceases when the want is satisfied, even though no food be intro-
duced into the stomach, the needs of the economy being satisfied
by the introduction of food through other channels, as, for
example, when food which admits of being readily absorbed is
injected into the large intestine.
Thirst (a word of Teutonic origin, Ger. Durst, Swed. and Dan.
torsi, akin to the Lat. torrere, to parch) is a peculiar sensation of
dryness and heat localized in the tongue and throat. Although
thirst may be artificially produced by drying, as by the passage
of a current of air over the mucous membrane of the above parts,
normally it depends upon an impoverishment of the system in
water. And, when this impoverishment ceases, in whichever
way this be effected, the sensation likewise ceases. The in-
jection of water into the blood, the stomach, or the large intestine
appeases thirst, though no fluid is brought in contact with the
part to which the sensation is referred.
The sensations of hunger and thirst lead us, or when urgent
compel us, to take food and drink Into the mouth. Once in the
mouth, the entrance to the alimentary canal, the food begins to
undergo a series of processes, the object of which is to extract
from it as much as possible of its nutritive constituents. Food
in the alimentary canal is, strictly speaking, outside the confines
of the body; as much so as the fly grasped in the leaves of the
insectivorous Dionea is outside of the plant itself. The mechanical
and chemical processes to which the food is subjected have their
seat and conditions outside the body which it is destined to
nourish, though unquestionably the body is no passive agent, and
innumerable glands come into action to supply the chemical
agents which dissolve and render assimilable those constituents of
the food capable of being absorbed into the organism, and of
forming part and parcel of its substance (see further under
NUTRITION).
HUNGERFORD, WALTER HUNGERFORD, BARON (d. 1449),
English soldier, belonged to a Wiltshire family. His father,
Sir Thomas Hungerford (d. 1398), was speaker of the House of
Commons in 1377, a position which he owed to his friend John of
Gaunt, and is the first person formally mentioned in the rolls
of parliament as holding the office. Walter Hungerford also
served as speaker, but he is more celebrated as a warrior and
diplomatist, serving in the former capacity at Agincourt and
in the latter at the council of Constance and the congress of
Arras. An executor of Henry V.'s will and a member of the
council under Henry VI., Hungerford became a baron in 1426,
and he was lord treasurer from 1426 to 1431. Remains of his
benefactions still exist at Heytesbury, long the principal re-
sidence of the family.
Hungerford's son Robert (c. 1400-1459) was also called to
parliament as a baron; he was very wealthy, both his mother
and his wife being heiresses. Like several other members of the
family, Robert was buried in the cathedral at Salisbury.
Robert's son and heir, Robert, Lord Moleyns and Hungerford
(c. 1420-1464), married Eleanor, daughter of Sir William de
Moleyns, and was called to parliament as Lord de Moleyns in
1445. He is chiefly remembered through his dispute with
John Paston over the possession of the Norfolk manor of Gresham.
After losing this case he was taken prisoner in France in 1452,
not securing his release until 1459. During the Wars of the
Roses he fought for Henry VI., with whom he fled to Scotland;
then he was attainted, was taken prisoner at the battle of
Hexham, and was executed at Newcastle in May 1464.
His eldest son, Sir Thomas Hungerford (d. 1469), was attainted
and executed for attempting the restoration of Henry VI.;
a younger son, Sir Walter Hungerford (d. 1516), who fought for
Henry VII. at Bosworth, received some of the estates forfeited
by his ancestors. Sir Thomas, who had no sons, left an only
daughter Mary (d. c. 1534). When the attainders of her father
and grandfather were reversed in 1485 this lady became Baroness
Hungerford and Baroness de Moleyns; she married into the
Hastings family and was the mother of George Hastings, ist
earl of Huntingdon.
Sir Walter Hungerford's son Edward (d. 1522) was the father
of Walter, Lord Hungerford of Heytesbury (1503-1540), who
was created a baron in 1536, but was attainted for his alleged
sympathy with the Pilgrimage of Grace; he was beheaded on
the 28th of July 1540, the same day as his patron Thomas
Cromwell. As his sons Sir Walter (1532-1596) and Sir Edward
(d. 1607) both died without sons the estates passed to another
branch of the family.
Sir Edward Hungerford (1596-1648), who inherited the estates
of his kinsman Sir Edward in 1607, was the son of Sir Anthony
(1564-1627) and a descendant of Walter, Lord Hungerford.
He was a member of both the Short and Long Parliaments in
1640; during the Civil War he attached himself to the parlia-
mentary party, fighting at Lansdowne and at Roundway Down.
His half-brother Anthony (d. 1657) was also a member of both
the Short and the Long Parliaments, but was on the royalist
side during the war. This Anthony's son and heir was Sir
Edward Hungerford (1632-1711), the founder of Hungerford
market at Charing Cross, London. He was a member of parlia-
ment for over forty years, but was very extravagant and was
obliged to sell much of his property; and little is known of the
family after his death.
See Sir R. C. Hoare, History of Modern Wiltshire (1822-1844).
HUNGERFORD, a market town in the Newbury parliamentary
division of Berkshire, England, extending into Wiltshire, 61 m.
W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
2906. It is beautifully situated in the narrow valley of the
Kennet at the junction of tributary valleys from the south and
south-west, the second of which is followed by the Bath road,
an important highway from London to the west. The town,
which lies on the Kennet and Avon canal, has agricultural trade.
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, presented to the citizens
manorial rights, including common pasture and fishing. The
fishing is valuable, for the trout of the Kennet and other streams
932
HUNINGEN HUNS
in the locality are numerous and carefully preserved. Hunger-
ford is also a favourite hunting centre. A horn given to the town
by John of Gaunt is preserved in the town hall, another horn
dating from 1634 being used to summon the manorial court of
twelve citizens called feoffees (the president being called the
constable), at Hocktide, the Tuesday following Easter week.
In 1774, when a number of towns had taken action against the
imposition of a fee for the delivery of letters from their local
post-offices, Hungerford was selected as a typical case, and
was first relieved of the imposition.
HUNINGEN, a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine, situated
on the left bank of the Rhine, on a branch of the Rhine-Rhone
canal, and 3 m. N. of Basel by rail. Pop. (1905) 3304. The
Rhine is here crossed by an iron railway bridge. The town boasts
a handsome Roman Catholic church, and has manufactures of
silk, watches, chemicals and cigars. Hiiningen ib an ancient
place and grew up round a stronghold placed to guard the passage
of the Rhine. It was wrested from the Imperialists by the duke
of Lauenburg in 1634, and subsequently passed by purchase
to Louis XIV. of France. It was fortified by Vauban (1670-
1681) and a bridge was built across the Rhine. The fortress
capitulated to the Austrians on the 26th of August 1815 and
the works were shortly afterwards dismantled. In 1871, the town
passed, with Alsace-Lorraine, to the German empire.
See Tschamber, Geschichte der Stadt und ehemaligen Festung
Huningen (St Ludwig, 1894) ; and Latruffe, Huningue et Bale
devantlestraitesdei8i$ (Paris, 1863).
HUNNERIC (d. 484), king of the Vandals, was a son of King
Gaiseric, and was sent to Italy as a hostage in 435 when his
lather made a treaty with the emperor Valentinian III. After his
return to the Vandal court at Carthage, he married a daughter of
Theodoric I., king of the Visigoths; but when this princess was
suspected of attempting to poison her father-in-law, she was
mutilated and was sent back to Europe. Hunneric became king
of the Vandals on his father's death in 477. Like Gaiseric he was
an Arian, and his reign is chiefly memorable for his cruel perse-
cution of members of the orthodox Christian Church in his
dominions. Hunneric's second wife was Eudocia, a daughter
of Valentinian III. and his wife Eudocia. (See VANDALS.)
HUNNIS, WILLIAM (d. 1597), English musician and poet, was
as early as 1549 in the service of William Herbert, afterwards
earl of Pembroke. His friend Thomas Newton, in a poem
prefixed to The Hive of Hunnye (1578), says: " In prime of youth
thy pleasant Penne depaincted Sonets sweete," and mentions his
interludes, gallant lays, rondelets and songs, explaining that it
was in the winter of his age that he turned to sacred lore and
high philosophy. In 1550 he published Certayne Psalms . . .
in Englishe metre, and shortly afterwards was made a gentleman
of the Chapel Royal. At Mary's accession he retained his appoint-
ment, but in 1555 he is said to have been one of a party of twelve
conspirators who had determined to take Mary's life. Nothing
came of this plot, but shortly afterwards he was party to a
conspiracy to dethrone Mary in favour of Elizabeth. Hunnis,
having some knowledge of alchemy, was to go abroad to coin the
necessary gold, but this doubtful mission was exchanged for the
task of making false keys to the treasury in London, which he was
able to do because of his friendship with Nicholas Brigham, the
receiver of the exchequer. The conspirators were, however,
betrayed by one of their number, Thomas Whyte. Some of
them were executed, but Hunnis escaped with imprisonment.
The death of Mary made him a free man, and in 1559 he married
Margaret, Brigham's widow, but she died within the year, and
Hunnis married in 1560 the widow of a grocer. He himself
became a grocer and freeman of the City of London, and super-
visor of the Queen's Gardens at Greenwich. In 1566 he was
made Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal. No complete
piece of his is extant, perhaps because of the rule that the plays
acted by the Children should not have been previously printed.
In his later years he purchased land at Barking, Essex. If the
lines above his signature on a 1557 edition of Sir Thomas More's
works are genuine, he remained a poor man, for he refuses to make
a will on the ground that " the good that I shall leave, will not
pay all I owe." In Harleian MS. 6403 is a story that one of his
sons, in the capacity of page, drank the remainder of the poisoned
cup supposed to have been provided by Leicester for Walter
Devereux, ist earl of Essex, but escaped with no injury beyond
the loss of his hair.
Hunnis's extant works include Certayne Psalms (1549), A Hive full
of Hunnye (1578), Seven Sobbes of a sorrowful Soule for Sinne (1583),
Hunnies Recreations (1588), sixteen poems in the Paradise of Dainty
Devices (1576), and two in England's Helicon (1600). See Mrs C.
Carmichael Stopes's tract on William Hunnis, reprinted (1892) from
the Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare Gesellschaft.
HUNS. This or some similar name is given to at least four
peoples, whose identity cannot be regarded as certain, (i) The
Huns, who invaded the East Roman empire from about A.D. 372
to 453 and were most formidable under the leadership of Attila.
(2) The Hungarians or Magyars. The Magyars crossed the
Carpathians into Hungary in A.D. 898 and mingled with the
races they found there. The modern Hungarians (excluding
Slavonic elements) are probably a mixture of these Magyars with
the remnants of older invaders such as Huns, Petchenegs and
Kumans. (3) The White Huns (Aeuxot Qvvvoi or Ephthalites),
who troubled the Persian empire.from about 420 to 557 and were
known to the Byzantines. (4) The Hunas, who invaded India
during the same period. There is not much doubt that the
third and fourth of these tribes are the same, and it is quite
likely that the Magyars are descended from the horde which sent
forth the Huns in the 4th century, but it is not demonstrable.
Neither can it be proved that the Huns and Magyars belonged
either physically or linguistically to the same section as the
Hunas and Ephthalites. But the occurrence of the name in
both India and Europe is prima facie evidence in favour of a
connexion between those who bore it, for, though civilized races
often lumped all their barbarian neighbours together under one
general name, it would seem that, when the same name is applied
independently to similar invaders in both India and eastern
Europe, the only explanation can be that they gave themselves
that name, and this fact probably indicates that they were
members of the same tribe or group. What we know of the
history and distribution of the Huns does not conflict with this
idea. They appear in Europe towards the end of the 4th century
and the Ephthalites and Hunas in western Asia about fifty years
later. It may be supposed that some defeat in China (and the
Chinese were successful in driving back the Hiung-nu in the
ist century A.D.) had sent them westwards some time earlier.
One body remained in Transoxiana and, after resting for a time,
pushed their way through the mountains into Afghanistan and
India, exactly as the Yiie-Chi had done before them. Another
division pressed farther westwards and probably made its head-
quarters near the northern end of the Caspian Sea and the
southern part of the Ural Mountains. It was from here that the
Huns invaded Europe, and when their power collapsed, after the
death of Attila, many of them may have returned to their
original haunts. Possibly the Bulgarians and Khazars were
offshoots of the same horde. The Magyars may very well have
gradually spread first to the Don and then beyond it, until in the
9th century they entered Hungary. But this sketch of possible
migrations is largely conjectural, and authorities are not even
agreed as to the branch of the Turanians to which the Huns
should be referred. The physical characteristics of these nomadic
armies were very variable, since they continually increased their
numbers by slaves, women and soldiers of fortune drawn from
all the surrounding races. The language of the Magyars is Finno-
Ugric and most nearly allied to the speech of the Ostiaks now
found on the east of the Ural, but we have no warrant for assum-
ing that the Huns, and still less that the Ephthalites and Hunas,
spoke the same language. Neither can we assume that the Huns
and Hunas are the same as the Hiung-nu of the Chinese. The
names may be identical, but it is not certain, for in Hun may
lurk some such designation as the ten (Turkish OH or wi) tribes.
Also Hiung-nu seems to be the name of warlike nomads in general,
not of a particular section. Again the Finnish languages spoken
in various parts of Russia and more or less allied to Magyar
must have spread gradually westwards from the Urals, and their
HUNS
933
development and diffusion seem to postulate a long period (for
the history of the Finns shows that they were not mobile like the
Turks and Mongols), so that the ancestral language from which
spring Finnish and Magyar can hardly have been brought across
Asia after the Christian era. The warlike and vigorous temper
of the Huns has led many writers to regard them as Turks. The
Turks were perhaps not distinguished by name or institutions
from other tribes before the 5th century, but the Huns may have
been an earlier offshoot of the same stock. Apart from this the
Hungarians may have received an infusion of Turkish Hood not
only from the Osmanlis but from the Kumans and other tribes
who settled in the country.
History. The authentic history of the Huns in Europe
practically begins about the year A.D. 372, when under a leader
named Balamir (or, according to some MSS., Balamber) they
began a westward movement from their settlements in the steppes
lying to the north of the Caspian. After crushing, or compelling
the alliance of, various nations unknown to fame (Alpilzuri,
Alcidzuri, Himari, Tuncarsi, Boisci), they at length reached the
Alani, a powerful nation which had its seat between the Volga
and the Don; these also, after a struggle, they defeated and
finally enlisted in their service. They then proceeded, in 374,
to invade the empire of the Ostrogoths (Greutungi), ruled over
by the aged Ermanaric, or Hermanric, who died (perhaps by
his own hand) while the critical attack was still impending.
Under his son Hunimund a section of his subjects promptly
made a humiliating peace; under Withemir (Winithar), however,
who succeeded him in the larger part of his dominions, an armed
resistance was organized; but it resulted only in repeated
defeat, and finally in the death of the king. The representatives
of his son Witheric put an end to the conflict by accepting the
condition of vassalage. Balamir now directed his victorious
arms still farther westward against that portion of the Visigothic
nation (or Tervingi) which acknowledged the authority of
Athanaric. The latter entrenched himself on the frontier which
had separated him from the Ostrogoths, behind the " Greutung-
rampart " and the Dniester; but he was surprised by the enemy,
who forded the river in the night, fell suddenly upon his camp,
and compelled him to abandon his position. Athanaric next
attempted to establish himself in the territory between the
Pruth and the Danube, and with this object set about heightening
the old Roman wall which Trajan had erected in north-eastern
Dacia; before his fortifications, however, were complete, the
Huns were again upon him, and without a battle he was forced
to retreat to the Danube. The remainder of the Visigoths,
under Alavivus and Fritigern, now began to seek, and ultimately
were successful in obtaining (376), the permission of the emperor
Valens to settle in Thrace; Athanaric meanwhile took refuge
in Transylvania, thus abandoning the field without any serious
struggle to the irresistible Huns. For more than fifty years the
Roman world was undisturbed by any aggressive act on the part
of the new invaders, who contented themselves with over-
powering various tribes which lived to the north of the Danube.
In some instances, in fact, the Huns lent their aid to the Romans
against third parties; thus in 404-405 certain Hunnic tribes,
under a chief or king named Uldin, assisted Honorius in the
struggle with Radagaisus (Ratigar) and his Ostrogoths, and
took a prominent part in the decisive battle fought in the
neighbourhood of Florence. Once indeed, in 409, they are said
to have crossed the Danube and invaded Bulgaria under perhaps
the same chief (Uldin), but extensive desertions soon compelled
a retreat.
About the year 432 a Hunnic king, Ruas or Rugulas, made
himself of such importance that he received from Theodosius II.
an annual stipend or tribute of 350 pounds of gold (14,000),
along with the rank of Roman general. Quarrels soon arose,
partly out of the circumstance that the Romans had sought to
make alliances with certain Danubian tribes which Ruas chose
to regard as properly subject to himself, partly also because
some of the undoubted subjects of the Hun had found refuge
on Roman territory; and Theodosius, in reply to an indignant
and insulting message which he had received about this cause
of dispute, was preparing to send off a special embassy when
tidings arrived that Ruas was dead and that he had been
succeeded in his kingdom by Attila and Bleda, the two sons of
his brother Mundzuk (433). Shortly afterwards the treaty of
Margus (not far from the modern Belgrade), where both sides
negotiated on horseback, was ratified. By its stipulations the
yearly stipendium or tribute payable to Attila by the Romans
was doubled; the fugitives were to be surrendered, or a fine
of 8 to be paid for each of those who should be missing; free
markets, open to Hun and Roman alike, were to be instituted;
and any tribe with which Attila might be at any time at war
was thereby to be held as excluded from alliance with Rome.
For eight years afterwards there was peace so far as the Romans
were concerned; and it was probably during this period that the
Huns proceeded to the extensive conquests to which the con-
temporary historian Priscus so vaguely alludes in the words:
" He (Attila) has made the whole of Scythia his own, he has
laid the Roman empire under tribute, and he thinks of renewing
his attacks upon Persia. The road to that eastern kingdom
is not untrodden by the Huns; already they have marched
fifteen days from a certain lake, and have ravaged Media."
They also appear before the end of this interval to have pushed
westward as far as to the Rhone, and to have come into
conflict with the Burgundians. Overt acts of hostility, how-
ever, occurred against the Eastern empire when the town of
Margus (by the treachery of its bishop) was seized and sacked
(441), and against the Western when Sirmium was invested and
taken.
In 445 Bleda died, and two years afterwards Attila, now sole
ruler, undertook one of his most important expeditions against
the Eastern empire; on this occasion he pushed southwards
as far as Thermopylae, Gallipoli and the walls of Constantinople;
peace was cheaply purchased by tripling the yearly tribute
(which accordingly now stood at 2100 pounds of gold, or 84,000
sterling) and by the payment of a heavy indemnity. In 448
again occurred various diplomatic negotiations, and especially
the embassy of Maximinus, of which many curious details have
been recorded by Priscus his companion. Then followed, in 451,
that westward movement across the Rhine which was only
arrested at last, with terrible slaughter, on the Catalaunian plains
(according to common belief, in the neighbourhood of the
modern Chalons, but more probably at a point some 50 m. to
the south-east, near Mery-sur-Seine) . The following year (452),
that of the Italian campaign, was marked by such events as the
sack of Aquileia, the destruction of the cities of Venetia, and
finally, on the banks of the Mincio, that historical interview with
Pope Leo I. which resulted in the return of Attila to Pannonia,
where in 453 he died (see ATTILA). Almost immediately after-
wards the empire he had amassed rather than consolidated fell
to pieces. His too numerous sons began to quarrel about their
inheritance, while Ardaric, the king of the Gepidae, was placing
himself at the head of a general revolt of the dependent nations.
The inevitable struggle came to a crisis near the river Netad in
Pannonia, in a battle in which 30,000 of the Huns and their
confederates, including Ellak, Attila's eldest son, were slain.
The nation, thus broken, rapidly dispersed, exactly as the White
Huns did after a similar defeat about a hundred years later.
One horde settled under Roman protection in Little Scythia
(the Dobrudzha), others in Dacia Ripensis (on the confines of
Servia and Bulgaria) or on the southern borders of Pannonia.
Many, however, appear to have returned to what is now South
Russia, and may perhaps have taken part in the ethnical com-
binations which produced the Bulgarians.
The chief original authorities are Ammianus Marcellinus, Priscus,
Jordanes, Procopius, Sidonius Apollinaris and Menander Protector.
See also Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; J. B. Bury,
History of the Later Roman Empire (1889); H. H. Howorth, History
of the Mongols (1876^1888); J. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders
(1892); and articles in the Revue ortentale pour les etudes Oural-
altaiques. For the Chinese sources see E. H. Parker, A Thousand
Years of the Tartars (1905), and numerous articles by the same
author in the Asiatic Quarterly; also articles by Chavannes, O.
Franke, Stein and others in various learned periodicals. For the
literature on the White Huns see EPHTHALITES. (C. EL.)
934
HUNSDON HUNT, LEIGH
HDNSDON, HENRY CAREY, IST BARON (c. 1524-1596),
English soldier and courtier, was a son of William Carey (d.
1529); his mother was Mary (d. 1543), a sister of Anne Boleyn,
and he was consequently cousin to Queen Elizabeth. Member of
parliament for Buckingham under Edward VI. and Mary, he
was knighted in 1558, was created Baron Hunsdon in 1559,
and in 1561 became a privy councillor and a knight of the Garter.
In 1568 he became governor of Berwick and warden of the east
Marches, and he was largely instrumental in quelling the rising
in the north of England in 1569, gaining a decisive victory over
Leonard Dacre near Carlisle in February 1570. Hunsdon
received very little money to cover his expenses, but Elizabeth
lavished honours upon him, although he did not always carry
out her wishes. In 1583 he became lord chamberlain, but he
did not relinquish his post at Berwick. Hunsdon was one of the
commissioners appointed to try Mary queen of Scots; after
Mary's execution he went on a mission to James VI. of Scotland,
and when the Spanish Armada was expected he commanded the
queen's bodyguard. He died in London, at Somerset House,
on the z^rd of July 1596.
His eldest son, GEORGE (1547-1603), 2nd Baron Hunsdon, was
a member of parliament, a diplomatist, a soldier and lord
chamberlain. He was also captain-general of the Isle of Wight
during the time of the Spanish Armada. He was succeeded by
his brother John (d. 1617). In 1628 John's son Henry, 4th
Baron Hunsdon, was created earl of Dover. This title became
extinct on the death of the 2nd earl, John, in 1677, and a like
fate befell the barony of Hunsdon on the death of the 8th baron,
William Ferdinand, in June 1765. Elizabeth, daughter of Sir
John Spencer of Althorp, and wife of the 2nd Lord Hunsdon,
is celebrated as the patroness of her kinsman, the poet Spenser;
and either this lady or her daughter Elizabeth was the author
of the Tragedie of Marian (1613).
The ist lord's youngest son, ROBERT CAREY (c. 1560-1639), was
for a long time a member of the English parliament. He was
frequently employed on the Scottish borders; he announced the
death of Elizabeth to James VI. of Scotland; and he was
created earl of Monmouth in 1626. He wrote some interesting
Memoirs, first published in 1759. His son and successor, Henry
(1596-1661), is known as a translator of various French and
Italian books. The title of earl of Monmouth became extinct
on his death in June 1661.
HUNSTANTON [commonly pronounced Hunston], a seaside
resort in the north-western parliamentary division of Norfolk,
England, on the east shore of the Wash, 112 m. N. by E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
of New Hunstanton (1901) 1893. The new watering-place is
about i m. from the old village. It has a good beach, a golf
course and a pier. The parish church of St Mary is a fine
Decorated building, containing monuments of the L'Estrange
family, whose mansion, Hunstanton Hall, is a picturesque Tudor
building of brick in a well-wooded park. A convalescent
home (1872) commemorates the recovery from illness of King
Edward VII. when Prince of Wales. At Brancaster, 6 m. E.,
there is a Roman fort which formed part of the defences of
the Litus Saxonicum (4th century A.D.)
HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (1830-1896), English painter,
son of Andrew Hunt, a landscape painter, was born at Liverpool
in 1830. He began to paint while at the Liverpool Collegiate
School; but as the idea of adopting the artist's profession was
not favoured by his father, he went in 1848 to Corpus Chris ti
College, Oxford. His career there was distinguished; he won
the Newdigate Prize in- 1851, and became a Fellow of Corpus
in 1858. He did not, however, abandon his artistic practice,
for, encouraged by Ruskin, he exhibited at the Royal Academy
in 1854, and thenceforward regularly contributed landscapes
in oil and water-colour to the London and provincial exhibitions.
In 1861 he married, gave up his Fellowship, and was elected
an Associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours,
receiving full membership three years later. His work is distin-
guished mainly by its exquisite quality and a poetic rendering
of atmosphere. Hunt died on 3rd May 1896. Mrs A. W. Hunt
(nee Margaret Raine) wrote several works of fiction; and one
of her daughters, Violet Hunt, is well known as a novelist.
See Frederick Wedmore, " Alfred Hunt," Magazine of Art
(1891); Exhibition of Drawings in Water Colour by Alfred William
Hunt, Burlington Fine Arts Club (1897).
HUNT, HENRY (1773-1835), English politician, commonly
called " Orator Hunt," was born at Widdington Farm, Upavon,
Wiltshire, on the 6th of November 1773. While following the
vocation of a farmer he made the acquaintance of John Home
Tooke, with whose advanced views he soon began to sympathize.
At the general election of 1806 he came to the front in Wiltshire;
he soon associated himself with William Cobbett, and in 1812
he was an unsuccessful candidate for Bristol. He was one of the
speakers at the meeting held in Spa Fields, London, in November
1816; in 1818 he tried in vain to become member of parliament
for Westminster, and in 1820 for Preston. In August 1819
Hunt presided over the great meeting in St Peter's Field,
Manchester, which developed into a riot and was called the
" Peterloo massacre. " He was arrested and was tried for
conspiracy, being sentenced to imprisonment for two years and
a half. In August 1830 he was elected member of parliament
for Preston, but he lost his seat in 1833. While in parliament
Hunt presented a petition in favour of women's rights, probably
the first of this kind, and he moved for a repeal of the corn laws.
He died on the i5th of February 1835. During his imprisonment
Hunt wrote his Memoirs which were published in 1820.
See R. Huish, Life of Hunt (1836); and S. Baraford, Passages in
the Life of a Radical (2nd ed., 1893).
HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1810-1889), American soldier,
was born in Detroit, Michigan, on the i4th of September 1819,
and graduated at the U.S. military academy in 1839. He
served in the Mexican War under Scott, and was breveted for
gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco and at Chapultepec. He
became captain in 1852 and major in 1861. His professional
attainments were great, and in 1856 he was a member of a board
entrusted with the revision of light artillery drill and tactics.
He took part in the first battle of Bull Run in 1861, and soon
afterwards became chief of artillery in the Washington defences.
As a colonel on the staff of General M'Clellan he organized and
trained the artillery reserve of the Army of the Potomac.
Throughout the Civil War he contributed more than any officer
to the effective employment of the artillery arm. With the
artillery reserve he rendered the greatest assistance at the
battle of Malvern Hill, and soon afterwards he became chief of
artillery in the Army of the Potomac. On the day after the
battle of South Mountain he was made brigadier-general of
volunteers. At the Antietam, Fredericksburg and Chancellors-
ville, he rendered further good service, and at Gettysburg his
handling of the artillery was conspicuous in the repulse of
Pickett's charge, and he was rewarded with the brevet of colonel.
He served in Virginia to the end of the war, attaining the brevet
ranks of major-general of volunteers and brigadier-general of
regulars. When the U.S. army was reorganized in 1866 he
became colonel of the 5th artillery and president of the permanent
Artillery Board. He held various commands until 1883, when he
retired to become governor of the Soldiers' Home, Washington,
D.C. He died on the nth of February 1889. He was the
author of Instructions for Field Artillery (1860), and of papers
on Gettysburg in the " Battles and Leaders " series.
His brother, LEWIS CASS HUNT (1824-1886), served throughout
the Civil War in the infantry arm, becoming brigadier-general of
volunteers in 1862, and brevet brigadier-general U.S.A. in 1865.
HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859), English essayist
and miscellaneous writer, was born at Southgate, Middlesex,
on the igth of October 1784. His father, the son of a West
Indian clergyman, had settled as a lawyer in Philadelphia, and
his mother was the daughter of_a merchant there. Having
embraced the loyalist side, Leigh Hunt's father was compelled
to fly to England, where he took orders, and acquired some
reputation as a popular preacher, but want of steadiness, want
of 6rthodoxy, and want of interest conspired to prevent his
obtaining any preferment. He was engaged by James Brydges,
3rd duke of Chandos, to act as tutor to his nephew, James
HUNT, LEIGH
935
Henry Leigh, after whom Leigh Hunt was called. The boy
was educated at Christ's Hospital, of which school he has left
a lively account in his autobiography. As a boy at school he
was an ardent admirer of Gray and Collins, writing many verses
in imitation of them. An impediment in his speech, afterwards
removed, prevented his being sent to the university. " For
some time after I left school," he says, " I did nothing but visit
my school-fellows, haunt the book-stalls and write verses."
These latter were published in 1801 under the title of Juvenilia,
and contributed to introduce him into literary and theatrical
society. He began to write for the newspapers, and published
in 1807 a volume of . theatrical criticisms, and a series of Classic
Tales with critical essays on the authors.
In 1808 he quitted the War Office, where he had for some time
been a clerk, to become editor of the Examiner newspaper, a
speculation of his brother John. The new journal with which
Leigh Hunt was connected for thirteen years soon acquired a
high reputation. It was perhaps the only newspaper of the time
which owed no allegiance to any political party, but assailed
whatever seemed amiss, " from a principle of taste," as Keats
happily expressed it. The taste of the attack itself, indeed,
was not always unexceptionable; and one upon the Prince
Regent, the chief sting of which lay in its substantial truth,
occasioned (1813) a prosecution and a sentence of two years'
imprisonment for each of the brothers. The effect was to give
a political direction to what should have been the career of a
man of letters. But the cheerfulness and gaiety with which
Leigh Hunt bore Ms imprisonment attracted general attention
and sympathy, and brought him visits from Byron, Moore,
Brougham and others, whose acquaintance exerted much
influence on his future destiny.
In 1810-1811 he edited for his brother John a quarterly
magazine, the Reflector, for which he wrote " The Feast of the
Poets," a satire which gave offence to many contemporary poets,
and particularly offended William Gifford of the Quarterly.
The essays afterwards published under the title of the Round
Table (2 vols., 1816-1817), conjointly with William Hazlitt,
appeared in the Examiner. In 1816 he made a permanent
mark in English literature by the publication of his Story of
Rimini. There is perhaps no other instance of a poem short of
the highest excellence having produced so important and durable
an effect in modifying the accepted standards of literary com-
position. The secret of Hunt's success consists less in superiority
of genius than of taste. His refined critical perception had
detected the superiority of Chaucer's versification, as adapted to
the present state of the language by Dryden, over the sententious
epigrammatic couplet of Pope which had superseded it. By a
simple return to the old manner he effected for English poetry
in the comparatively restricted domain of metrical art what
Wordsworth had already effected in the domain of nature; his
is an achievement of the same class, though not of the same
calibre. His poem is also a triumph in the art of poetical narra-
tive, abounds with verbal felicities, and is pervaded throughout
by a free, cheerful and animated spirit, notwithstanding the
tragic nature of the subject. It has been remarked that it does
not contain one hackneyed or conventional rhyme. But the
writer's occasional flippancy and familiarity, not seldom degen-
erating into the ludicrous, made him a mark for ridicule and
parody on the part of his opponents, whose animosity, however,
was rather political than literary.
In 1818 appeared a collection of poems entitled Foliage,
followed in 1819 by Hero and Leander, and Bacchus and Ariadne.
In the same year he reprinted these two works with The Story of
Rimini and The Descent of Liberty with the title of Poetical
Works, and started the Indicator, in which some of his best work
appeared. Both Keats an<i Shelley belonged to the circle
gathered around him at Hampstead, which also included William
Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Bryan Procter, Benjamin Haydon,
Cowden Clarke, C. W. Dilke, Walter Coulson, 1 John Hamilton
1 Walter Coulson (1794? 1860), lawyer and journalist, was at one
time amanuensis to Jeremy Bentham, and became in 1823 editor of
the Globe.
Reynolds, 2 and in general almost all the rising young men of
letters of liberal sympathies. He had now for some years been
married to Marianne Kent, who seems to have been sincerely
attached to him, but was not in every respect a desirable partner.
His own affairs were by this time in the utmost confusion, and
he was only saved from ruin by the romantic generosity of
Shelley. In return he was lavish of sympathy to Shelley at the
time of the latter's domestic distresses, and defended him with
spirit in the Examiner, although he does not appear to have
at this date appreciated his genius with either the discernment
or the warmth of his generous adversary, Professor Wilson.
Keats he welcomed with enthusiasm, and introduced to Shelley.
He also wrote a very generous appreciation of him in the Indi-
cator, and, before leaving for Italy, Keats stayed with Hunt at
Hampstead. Keats seems, however, to have subsequently felt
that Hunt's example as a poet had been in some respects
detrimental to him. After Shelley's departure for Italy (1818)
Leigh Hunt's affairs became still more embarrassed, and the pro-
spects of political reform less and less satisfactory. His health
and his wife's failed, and he was obliged to discontinue his
charming series of essays entitled the Indicator (1819-1821),
having, he says, " almost died over the last numbers." These
circumstances induced him to listen to a proposal, which seems
to have originated with Shelley, that he should proceed to Italy
and join Shelley and Byron in the establishment of a quarterly
magazine in which Liberal opinions should be advocated with more
freedom than was possible at home. The project was injudicious
from every point of view; it would have done little for Hunt
or the Liberal cause at the best, and depended entirely upon the
co-operation of Byron, the most capricious of allies, and the
most parsimonious of paymasters. Byron's principal motive for
acceding to it appears to have been the expectation of acquiring
influence over the Examiner, and he was exceedingly mortified
on discovering when too late that Hunt had parted, or was con-
sidered to have parted, with his interest in the journal. Leigh
Hunt left England for Italy in November 1821, but storm,
sickness and misadventure retarded his arrival until the ist
of July 1822, a rate of progress which T. L. Peacock appropriately
compares to the navigation of Ulysses.
The tragic death of Shelley, a few weeks later, destroyed every
prospect of success for the Liberal. Hunt was now virtually a
dependant upon Byron, whose least amiable qualities were cau^J
forth by the relation of patron to an unsympathetic deppndant,
burdened with a large and troublesome family. He was moreover
incessantly wounded by the representations of his friends that he
was losing caste by the connexion. The Liberal lived through four
quarterly numbers, containing contributions no less memorable
than Byron's " Vision of Judgment " and Shelley's translations
from Faust; but in 1823 Byron sailed for Greece, leaving his
coadjutor at Genoa to shift for himself. The Italian climate and
manners, however, were entirely to Hunt's taste, and he pro-
tracted his residence until 1825, producing in the interim Ultra-
Crepidarius, a Satire on William Gifford (1823), and his matchless
translation (1825) of Francesco Redi's Bacco in Toscana. In
1825 an unfortunate litigation with his brother brought him back
to England, and in 1828 he committed his greatest mistake by
the publication of his Lord Byron and some of his Contemporaries.
The work is of considerable value as a corrective of merely
idealized estimates of Lord Byron. But such a corrective should
not have come from one who had lain under obligations to
Byron. British ideas of what was decent were shocked, and
the author especially writhed under the withering satire of Moore.
For many years ensuing the history of Hunt's life is that of a
painful struggle with poverty and sickness. He worked un-
remittingly, but one effort failed after another. Two journalistic
ventures, the Taller (1830-1832), a daily devoted to literary and
dramatic criticism, and Leigh Hunt's London Journal( 1834-183 5),
* John Hamilton Reynolds (1796-1852), best known for his friend-
ship and correspondence with Keats. His narrative verse founded
on the tales of Boccaccio appeared in 1821 as The Garden of Florence
and other Poems. He wrote some admirable sonnets, one of which is
addressed to Keats.
936
HUNT, R.
were discontinued for want of subscribers, although in the
latter Leigh Hunt had able coadjutors, and it contained some of
his best writing. His editorship (1837-1838) of the Monthly
Repository, in which he succeeded W. J. Fox, was also unsuccess-
ful. The adventitious circumstances which had for a time made
the fortune of the Examiner no longer existed, and Hunt's strong
and weak points, his refinement and his affectations, were alike
unsuited to the general body of readers.
In 1832 a collected edition of his poems was published
by subscription, the list of subscribers including many of his
opponents. In the same year was printed for private circulation
Christianism, the work afterwards published (1853) as The
Religion of the Heart. A copy sent to Carlyle secured his friend-
ship, and Hunt went to live next door to him in Cheyne Row in
1833. Sir Ralph Esher, a romance of Charles II. 's period, had
a success, and Captain Sword and Captain Pen (1835) a spirited
contrast between the victories of peace and the victories of war,
deserves to be ranked among his best poems. In 1840 his cir-
cumstances were improved by the successful representation at
Covent Garden of his Legend of Florence, a play of considerable
merit. Lover's Amazements, a comedy, was acted several years
afterwards, and was printed in Leigh Hunt's Journal (1850-1851) ;
and other plays remained in MS. In 1840 he wrote introductory
notices to the work of R. B. Sheridan and to Moxon's edition of
the works of Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh and P'arquhar,
a work which furnished the occasion of Macaulay's essay on the
Dramatists of the Restoration. The pretty narrative poem of
The Palfrey was published in 1842.
The time of Hunt's greatest difficulties was between 1834 and
1 8 to. He was at times in absolute want, and his distress was
aggravated by domestic complications. By Macaulay's recom-
mendation he began to write for the Edinburgh Review. In 1844
he was further benefited by the generosity of Mrs Shelley and
her son, who, on succeeding to the family estates, settled an
annuity of 120 upon him; and in 1847 Lord John Russell
procured him a civil list pension of 200. The fruits of the
improved comfort and augmented leisure of these latter years
were visible in the production of some charming volumes.
Foremost among these are the companion books, Imagination
and Fancy (1844), and Wit and Humour (1846), two volumes of
selections from the English poets. In these Leigh Hunt shows
h'"-3elf within a certain range the most refined, appreciative
and felicitous of critics. Homer and Milton may be upon the
whole beyond his reach, though even here he is great in the
detection of minor and unapprehended beauties; with Spenser
and the old English dramatists he is perfectly at home, and his
subtle and discriminating criticism upon them, as well as upon
his own great contemporaries, is continually bringing to light
unsuspected beauties. His companion volume on the pastoral
poetry of Sicily, quaintly entitled A Jar of Honey from Mount
Hybla (1848), is almost equally delightful. The Town (2 vols.,
1848) and Men, Women and Books (2 vols., 1847) are partly
made up from former material. The Old Court Suburb (2 vols.,
1855; ed. A. Dobson, 1902) is an anecdotic sketch of Kensington,
where he long resided before his final removal to Hammersmith.
In 1850 he published his Autobiography (3 vols.), a naive and
accurate piece of self-portraiture, full of affectations, but on
that account free from the affectation of unreality. It contains
very detailed accounts of some of the most interesting periods
of the author's life, his education at Christ's Hospital, his
imprisonment, and his residence in Italy. A Book for a Corner
(2 vols.) was published in 1849, and his Table Talk appeared
in 1851. In 1855 his narrative poems, original and translated,
were collected under the title of Stories in Verse, with an interest-
ing preface. He died at Putney on the 28th of August 1859.
Leigh Hunt's virtues were charming rather than imposing
or brilliant; he had no vices, but very many foibles. His
great misfortune was that these foibles were for the most part
of an undignified sort. His affectation is not comparable to
Byron's, nor his egotism to Wordsworth's, but their very pettiness
excites a sensation of the ludicrous. The very sincerity of his
nature is detrimental to him ; the whole man seems to be revealed
in everything he ever wrote, and hence the most beautiful pro-
ductions of his pen appear in a manner tainted by his really very
pardonable weaknesses. Some of these, such as his helplessness
in money matters, and his facility in accepting the obligations
which he would have delighted to confer, involved him in painful
and humiliating embarrassments, which seem to have been
aggravated by the mismanagement of those around him. The
notoriety of these things has deprived him of much of the
honour due to him for his fortitude under the severest calamities,
for his unremitting literary industry under the most discouraging
circumstances, and for his uncompromising independence as a
journalist and an author. It was his misfortune to be involved
in politics, for he was as thorough a man of letters as ever existed,
and most of his failings were more or less incidental to that
character. But it is not every consummate man of letters of
whom it can be unhesitatingly affirmed that he was brave, just
and pious. When it was suggested that Leigh Hunt was the
original of Harold Skimpole in Bleak House, Charles Dickens
denied that any of the shadows in the portrait were suggested
by Hunt, who was, he said, " the very soul of truth and honour."
Leigh Hunt's character as an author was the counterpart of
his character as a man. In some respects his literary position is
unique. Few men have effected so much by mere exquisiteness
of taste in the absence of high creative power; fewer still, so
richly endowed with taste, have so frequently and conspicuously
betrayed the want of it; and he was incapable of discovering
where familiarity became flippancy. But his poetry possesses
a brightness, animation, artistic symmetry and metrical harmony,
which lift the author out of the rank of minor poets, particularly
when the influence of his example upon his contemporaries is
taken into account. He excelled especially in narrative poetry,
of which, upon a small scale, there are probably no better
examples than " Abou ben Adhem " and " Solomon's Ring."
He possessed every qualification for a translator; and as an
appreciative critic, whether literary or dramatic, he has hardly
been equalled.
Leigh Hunt's other works include: Amyntas, A Tale of the Woods
(1820), translated from Tasso; The Seer, or Common-Places refreshed
(2 pts., 1840-1841); three of the Canterbury Tales in The Poems of
Geoffrey Chaucer, modernized (1841); Stories from the Italian Poets
(1846); compilations such as One Hundred Romances of Real Life
(1843); selections from Beaumont and Fletcher (1855); and, with
S. Adams Lee, The Book of the Sonnet (Boston, 1867). His Poetical
Works (2 vols.), revised by himself and edited by Lee, were printed at
Boston, U.S.A., in 1857, and an edition (London and New York) by
his son, Thornton Hunt, appeared in 1860. Among volumes of
selections are: Essays (1887), ed. A. Symons; Leigh Hunt as Poet
and Essayist (1889), ed. C. Kent; Essays and Poems (1891), ed.
R. B. Johnson for the " Temple Library.''
His Autobiography was revised by himself shortly before his death,
and edited (1859) by his son Thornton Hunt, who also arranged his
Correspondence (2 vols., 1862). Additional letters were printed by
the Cowden Clarkes in their Recollections of Writers (1878). The
Autobiography was edited (2 vols., 1903) with full bibliographical
note by R. Ingpen. A bibliography of his works was compiled by
Alexander Ireland (List of the Writings of William Hazlitt and Leigh
Hunt, 1868). There are short lives of Hunt by Cosmo Monkhouse
(" Great Writers," 1893) and by R. B. Johnson (1896).
HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887), English natural philosopher,
was born at Devonport on the 6th of September 1807. His
father, a naval officer, was drowned while Robert was a youth.
He began to study in London for the medical profession, but
ill-health caused him to return to the west of England, and in
1840 he became secretary to the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic
Society at Falmouth. Here he was brought into contact with
Robert Were Fox, and carried on some physical and chemical
investigations with him. He took up photography with great
zeal, following Daguerre's discovery, and introducing new
processes. His Manual of Photography (1841, ed. 5, 1857) was
the first English treatise on the subject. He also experimented
generally on the action of light, and published Researches on
Light (1844). In 1845 he accepted the invitation of Sir Henry
de la Beche to become keeper of mining records at the Museum
of Economic (afterwards " Practical ") Geology, and when the
school of mines was established in 1851 he lectured for two
years on mechanical science, and afterwards for a short time on
HUNT, T. S. HUNT, W. HOLMAN
experimental physics. His principal work was the collection and
editing of the Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom, and this
he continued to the date of his retirement (1883), when the
mining record office was transferred to the Home Office. He was
elected F.R.S. in 1854. In 1884 he published a large volume on
British Mining, in which the subject was dealt with very fully from
an historical as well as a practical point of view. He also edited
the fifth and some later editions of Ure's Dictionary of Arts,
Mines and Manufactures. He died in London on the tyth of
October 1887. A mineralogical museum at Redruth has been
established in his memory.
HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892), American geologist
and chemist, was born at Norwich, Conn., on the sth of September
1826. He lost his father when twelve years old, and had to earn
his own livelihood. In the course of two years he found employ-
ment in a printing office, in an apothecary's shop, in a book
store and as a clerk. He became interested in natural science,
and especially in chemical and medical studies, and in 1845 ne
was elected a member of the Association of American Geologists
and Naturalists at Yale a body which four years later became
the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
In 1848 he read a paper in Philadelphia On Acid Springs and
Gypsum Deposits of the Onondaga Salt Group. At Yale he
became assistant to Professor B. Silliman, Jun., and in 1846
was appointed chemist to the Geological Survey of Vermont.
In 1847 he was appointed to similar duties on the Canadian
Geological Survey at Montreal under Sir William Logan, and
this post he held until 1872. In 1859 he was elected F.R.S., and
he was one of the original members and president of the Royal
Society of Canada. He was a frequent contributor to scientific
journals, writing on the crystalline limestones, the origin of
continents, the chemistry of the primeval earth, on serpentines,
&c. He also wrote a notable " Essay on the History of the
names Cambrian and Silurian " (Canadian Naturalist, 1872),
in which the claims of Sedgwick, with respect to the grouping of
the Cambrian strata, were forcibly advocated. He died in
New York City on the izth of February 1892.
His publications include Chemical and Geological Essays (1875,
ed. 2, 1879); Mineral Physiology and Physiography (1886); A New
Basis for Chemistry (1887, ed. 3, 1891); Systematic Mineralogy
(1891). See an obituary notice by Persifor Frazer, Amer. Geologist
(xi. Jan. 1893), with portrait.
HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790-1864), English water-colour
painter, was born near Long Acre, London, on the 28th of March
1790. He was apprenticed about 1805 to John Varley, the
landscape-painter, with whom he remained five or six years,
exhibiting three oil pictures at the Royal Academy in 1807.
He was early connected with the Society of Painters in Water-
colour, of which body, then in a transition state, he was elected
associate in 1824, and full member in 1827. To its exhibitions
he was until the year of his death one of the most prolific
contributors. Many years of Hunt's uneventful and industrious
life were passed at Hastings. He died of apoplexy on the loth
of February 1864. Hunt was one of the creators of the English
school of water-colour painting. His subjects, especially those
of his later life, are extremely simple; but, by the delicacy,
humour and fine power of their treatment, they rank second to
works of the highest art only. Considered technically, his works
exhibit all the resources of the water-colour painter's craft,
from the purest transparent tinting to the boldest use of body-
colour, rough paper and scraping for texture. His sense of
colour is perhaps as true as that of any English artist. " He
was," says Ruskin, " take him for all in all, the finest painter of
still life that ever existed." Several characteristic examples of
Hunt's work, as the " Boy and Goat," " Brown Study " and
" Plums, Primroses and Birds' Nests " are in the Victoria and
Albert Museum.
HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910), English artist,
was born in London on the 2nd of April 1827. An ancestor on
his father's side bore arms against Charles I., and went over to
Holland, where he fought in the Protestant cause. He returned
with William III., but the family failed to recover their property.
Holman Hunt's father was the manager of a city warehouse,
937
with tastes superior to his position in life. He loved books and
pictures, and encouraged his son to pursue art as an amusement,
though not as a profession. At the age of twelve and a half
Holman Hunt was placed in a city office, but he employed his
leisure in reading, drawing and painting, and at sixteen began
an independent career as an artist. ' When he was between
seventeen and eighteen he entered the Royal Academy schools,
where he soon made acquaintance with his lifelong friend John
Everett Millais, then a boy of fifteen. In 1846 Holman Hunt
sent to the Royal Academy his first picture (" Hark ! "), which
was followed by " Dr Rochecliffe performing Divine Service in
the Cottage of Joceline Joliffe at Woodstock," in 1847, and
" The Flight of Madeline and Porphyrio " (from Keats's Eve of
St Agnes) in 1848. In this year he and Millais, with the co-
operation of Dante Gabriel Rossetti and others, initiated the
famous Pre-Raphaelite movement in art. Typical examples
of the new creed were furnished in the next year's Academy
by Millais's " Isabella " and Holman Hunt's " Rienzi vowing
to obtain Justice for the Death of his Young Brother." This
last pathetic picture, which was sold to Mr Gibbons for 105,
was followed in 1850 by " A Converted British Family sheltering
a Christian Missionary from the Persecution of the Druids "
(bought by Mr Combe, of the Clarendon Press, Oxford, for 150),
and in 1851 by " Valentine protecting Sylvia from Proteus."
This scene from The Two Gentlemen of Verona was very warmly
praised by Ruskin (in letters to The Times), who declared that
as studies both of drapery and of every minor detail there had been
nothing in art so earnest and complete since the days of Albert
Dtirer. It gained a prize at Liverpool, and is reckoned as the
finest of Holman Hunt's earlier works. In 1852 he exhibited
" A Hireling Shepherd." " Claudio and Isabella," from Measure
for Measure, and a brilliant study of the Downs near Hastings,
called in the catalogue " Our English Coasts, 1852 " (since
generally known as " Strayed Sheep "), were exhibited in 1853.
For three of his works Holman Hunt was awarded prizes of 50
and 60 at Liverpool and Birmingham, but in 1851 he had become
so discouraged by the difficulty of selling his pictures, that he
had resolved to give up art and learn farming, with a view to
emigration. In 1854 he achieved his first great success by the
famous picture of " The Light of the World," an allegorical
representation of Christ knocking at the door of the human soul.
This work produced perhaps the greatest effect of any religious
painting of the century. " For the first time in England,"
wrote William Bell Scott, " a picture became a subject of con-
versation and general interest from one end of the island to the
other, and indeed continued so for many years." " The Awaken-
ing Conscience," exhibited at the same time, depicted a tragic
moment in a life of sin, when a girl, stricken with memories of her
innocent childhood, rises suddenly from the knees of her para-
mour. The inner meaning of both these pictures was explained
by Ruskin in letters to The Times in May 1854. " The Light
of the World " was purchased by Mr Combe, and was given by
his wife to Keble College. In 1904 Holman Hunt completed a
second " Light of the World," slightly altered from the original,
the execution of which was due to his dissatisfaction with the
way in which the Keble picture was shown there; and he in-
tended the second edition of it for as wide public exhibition
as possible. It was acquired by Mr Charles Booth, who arranged
for the exhibition of the new " Light of the World " in all the
large cities of the colonies.
In January 1854 Holman Hunt left England for Syria and
Palestine with thedesire to revivify on canvas the facts of Scripture
history, " surrounded by the very people and circumstances of
the life in Judaea of old days." The first fruit of this idea,
which may be said to have dominated the artist's life, was
" The Scapegoat," a solitary outcast animal standing alone on
the salt-encrusted shores of the Dead Sea, with the mountains of
Edom in the distance, seen under a gorgeous effect of purple
evening light. It was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1856,
together with three Eastern landscapes. His next picture (1860),
one of the most elaborate and most successful of his works, was
The Finding of our Saviour in the Temple." Like all his
xm. 30 a
HUNT, W. MORRIS
important pictures, it was the work of years. Many causes
contributed to the delay in its completion, including a sentence
of what was tantamount to excommunication (afterwards
revoked) passed on all Jews acting as models. Thousands
crowded to see this picture, which was exhibited in London and
in many English provincial towns. It was purchased for 5500,
and is now in the Birmingham Municipal Art Gallery. Holman
Hunt's next great religious picture was " The Shadow of Death "
(exhibited separately in 1873), an imaginary incident in the life
of our Lord, who, lifting His arms with weariness after labour
in His workshop, throws a shadow on the wall as of a man
crucified, which is perceived by His mother. This work was
presented to Manchester by Sir William Agnew. Meanwhile
there had appeared at the Royal Academy in 1861 " A Street in
Cairo: The Lanternmaker's Courtship," and in 1863 " The
King of Hearts," and a portrait of the Right Hon. Stephen
Lushington, D.C.L. In 1866 came " Isabella and the Pot of
Basil," " London Bridge on the Night of the Marriage of the
Prince of Wales," and " The Afterglow." In 1867 Holman Hunt
sent a charming head of " A Tuscan Girl " to the Grosvenor
Gallery and two pictures to the Royal Academy. These were
" II dolce far niente " and a lifelike study of pigeons in rain
called " The Festival of St Swithin," now in the Taylor Building,
Oxford, with many others of this artist's work. After two years'
absence Holman Hunt returned to Jerusalem in 1875, where he
was engaged upon his great picture of " The Triumph of the
Innocents," which proved to be the most serious labour of his
life. The subject is an imaginary episode of the flight into
Egypt, in which the Holy Family are attended by a procession
of the Holy Innocents, marching along the waters of life and
illuminated with unearthly light. Its execution was delayed
by an extraordinary chapter of accidents. For months Holman
Hunt waited in vain for the arrival of his materials, and at last
he unfortunately began on an unsuitable piece of linen procured
in despair at Jerusalem. Other troubles supervened, and when he
arrived in England he found his picture in such a state that he
was compelled to abandon it and begin again. The new version
of the work, which is somewhat larger and changed in several
points, was not completed till 1885. Meanwhile the old picture
was relined and so skilfully treated that the artist was able
to complete it satisfactorily, and there are now two pictures
entitled " The Triumph of the Innocents," one in the Liverpool,
the other in the Birmingham Art Gallery. The pictures ex-
hibited between 1875 and 1885 included "The Ship," a realistic
picture of the deck of a passenger ship by night (1878), and
portraits of his son (1880), Sir Richard Owen (1881) and Dante
Gabriel Rossetti (1884). All of these were exhibited at the
Grosvenor Gallery, where they were followed by " The Bride of
Bethlehem " (1885), " Amaryllis " and a portrait of his son
(tracing a drawing on a window) in 1886. His most important
later work is " May-Day, Magdalen Tower," a record of the
service of song which has been held on the tower of Magdalen,
Oxford, at sunrise on May-Day frm time immemorial. The
subject had interested the artist for a great many years, and, after
" The Triumph of the Innocents " was completed, he worked
at it with his usual devotion, climbing up the tower for weeks
together in the early morning to study the sunrise from the top.
This radiant poem of the simplest and purest devotion was
exhibited at the Gainsborough Gallery in Old Bond Street in
i8gi. He continued to send occasional contributions to the
exhibitions of the Royal Water-Colour Society, to the New
Gallery and to the New English Art Club. One of the most
remarkable of his later works (New Gallery, 1899) is " The
Miracle of Sacred Fire in the Church of the Sepulchre, Jerusalem."
By his strong and constant individuality, no less than by
his peculiar methods of work, Holman Hunt holds a somewhat
isolated position among artists. He remained entirely unaffected
by all the various movements in the art- world after 1850. His
ambition was always " to serve as high priest and expounder
of the excellence of the works of the Creator." He spent too
much labour on each work to complete many; but perhaps no
painter of the igth century produced so great an impression by a
few pictures as the painter of " The Light of the World," " The
Scapegoat," " The Finding of our Saviour in the Temple " and
" The Triumph of the Innocents "; and his greatness was
recognized by his inclusion in the Order of Merit. His History
of Pre-Raphaelitism, a subject on which he could speak as a
first authority, but not without dissent from at least one living
member of the P.R.B., was published in 1905. On the 7th of
September 1910 he died in London, and on September iath his
remains, after cremation at Golder's Green, were buried in St
Paul's Cathedral, with national honours.
See Archdeacon Farrar and Mrs Alice Meynell, " William Holman
Hunt, his Life and Work" (Art Annual) (London, 1893); John
Ruskin, Modern Painters; The Art of England (Lecture) [consult
Gordon Crauford's Ruskin's Notes on the Pictures of Mr Holman
Hunt, 1886]; Robert de la Sizeranne, La Peinture anglaise con-
temporaine (Paris, 1895); W. B. Scott, Autobiographical Notes;
W. M. Rossetti, Pre-Raphaelite Diaries and Letters; Percy H. Bate,
The Pre-Raphaelite Painters (1899); Sir W. Bayliss, Five Great
Painters of the Victorian Era (1902). (C. Mo.)
HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879), American painter,
was born at Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 3ist of March 1824.
His father's family were large landowners in the state. He was
for a time (1840) at Harvard, but his real education began when
he accompanied his mother and brother to Europe, where he
studied with Couture in Paris and then came under the influence
of Jean Francois Millet. The companionship of Millet had a
lasting influence on Hunt's character and style, and his work
grew in strength, in beauty and in seriousness. He was the real
introducer of the Barbizon school to America, and he more than
any other turned the rising generation of American painters
towards Paris. On his return in 1855 he painted some of his
most beautiful pictures, all reminiscent of his life in France and
of Millet's influence. Such are " The Belated Kid," " Girl at the
Fountain, " " Hurdy-Gurdy Boy," &c. But the public called
for portraits, and it became the fashion to sit to him, among his
best paintings in this kind being those of William M. Evarts,
Mrs Charles Francis Adams, the Rev. James Freeman Clarke,
William H. Gardner, Chief Justice Shaw and Judge Horace Gray.
Unfortunately many of his paintings and sketches, together
with five large Millets and other art treasures collected by him in
Europe, were destroyed in the great Boston fire of 1872. Among
his later works American landscapes predominated. They also
include the " Bathers " twice painted and the allegories for the
senate chamber of the State Capitol at Albany, N. Y., now lost by
the disintegration of the stone panels on which they were painted.
Hunt was drowned at the Isles of Shoals on the 8th of September
1879. His book, Talks about Art (London, 1878), is well known.
His brother, RICHARD MORRIS HUNT (1828-1895), the famous
architect, was born in Brattleboro, (Vermont, on the 3ist of
October 1828. He studied in Europe (1843-1854), mainly in
the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris, and in 1854 was appointed
inspector of works on the buildings connecting the Tuileries
with the Louvre. Under Hector Lef uel he designed the Pavilion
de la Bibliotheque, opposite the Palais Royal. In 1855 he
returned to New York, and was employed on the extension of
the Capitol at Washington. He designed the Lenox Library,
the Stuyvesant and the Tribune buildings in New York; the
theological library, and Marquand chapel at Princeton; the
Divinity College and the Scroll and Key building at Yale; the
Vanderbilt mausoleum on Staten Island, and the Yorktown
monument. For the Administration Building at the World's
Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 Hunt received the
gold medal of the Institute of British Architects. Among the
most noteworthy of his domestic buildings were the residences
of W. K. Vanderbilt and Henry G. Marquand in New York
City; George W. Vanderbilt's country house at Biltinore, and
several of the large " cottages " at Newport, R.I., including
" Marble House " and " The Breakers." He was one of three
foreign members of the Italian Society of St Luke, an honorary
and corresponding member of the Academic des Beaux Arts
and of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and a Chevalier
of the Legion of Honour. He was the first to command respect
in foreign countries for American architecture, and was the leader
HUNTER, JOHN
of a school that has established in the United States the manner
and the traditions of the Beaux Arts. He took a prominent part
in the founding of the American Institute of Architects, and,
from 1888, was its president. His talent was eminently practical;
and he was almost equally successful in the ornate style of the
early Renaissance in France, in the picturesque style of his
comfortable villas, and the monumental style of the Lenox
Library. There is a beautiful memorial to Hunt in the wall of
Central Park, opposite this building, erected in 1898 by the
associated art and architectural societies of New York, from
designs by Daniel C. French and Bruce Price. He died on the
3ist of July 1895.
HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793), British physiologist and surgeon,
was born on the I3th l of February 1728, at Long Calderwood,
in the parish of East Kilbride, Lanarkshire, being the youngest
of the ten children of John and Agnes Hunter. His father, who
died on the 3oth of October 1741," aged 78, was descended from
the old Ayrshire family of Hunter of Hunterston, and his mother
was the daughter of a Mr Paul, treasurer of Glasgow. Hunter
is said to have made little progress at school, being averse to
its restraints and pursuits, and fond of country amusements.
When seventeen years old he went to Glasgow, where for a short
time he assisted his brother-in-law, Mr Buchanan, a cabinetmaker.
Being desirous at length of some settled occupation, he obtained
from his brother William (q.v.) permission to aid, under Mr
Symonds, in making dissections in his anatomical school, then
the most celebrated in London, intending, should he be unsuccess-
ful there, to enter the army. He arrived accordingly in the
metropolis in September 1748, about a fortnight before the
beginning of his brother's autumnal course of lectures. After
succeeding beyond expectation with the dissection of the muscles
of an arm, he was entrusted with a similar part injected, and from
the excellence of his second essay Dr Hunter predicted that he
would become a good anatomist. Seemingly John Hunter had
hitherto received no instruction in preparation for the special
course of life upon which he had entered.
Hard-working, and singularly patient and skilful in dissection,
Hunter had by his second winter in London acquired sufficient
anatomical knowledge to be entrusted with the charge of his
brother's practical class. In the summer months of 1749-1750,
at Chelsea Military Hospital, he attended the lectures and
operations of William Cheselden, on whose retirement in the
following year he became a surgeon's pupil at St Bartholomew's,
where Percivall Pott was one of the senior surgeons. In the
summer of 1752 he visited Scotland. Sir Everard Home and,
following him, Drewry Ottley state that Hunter began in 1754 to
assist his brother as his partner in lecturing; according, however,
to the European Magazine for 1782, the office of lecturer was
offered to Hunter by his brother in 1758, but declined by him
on account of the " insuperable embarrassments and objections "
which he felt to speaking in public. In 1754 he became a
surgeon's pupil at St George's Hospital, where he was appointed
house-surgeon in i7$6. 3 During the period of his connexion with
Dr Hunter's school he, in addition to other labours, solved the
problem of the descent of the testis in the foetus, traced the
ramifications of the nasal and olfactory nerves within the nose,
experimentally tested the question whether veins could act
as absorbents, studied the formation of pus and the nature of the
placental circulation, and with his brother earned 'the chief
merit of practically proving the function and importance of the
lymphatics in the animal economy. On the sth of June I7S5, 4 he
1 The date is thus entered in the parish register, see Joseph Adams,
Memoirs, Appendix, p. 203. The Hunterian Oration, instituted in
1813 by Dr Matthew Baillie and Sir Everard Home, is delivered_at
the Royal College of Surgeons on the I4th of February, which
Hunter used to give as the anniversary of his birth.
1 Ottley 's date, 1738, is inaccurate, see S. F. Simmons, Account
of . . . W. Hunter, p. 7. Hunter's mother died on the 3rd of
November 1751, aged 66.
3 So in Home's Life, p. xvi., and Ottlcy's, p. 15. Hunter himself
(Treatise on the Blood, p. 62) mentions the date 1755.
4 Ottley incorrectly gives 1753 as the date. In the buttery book
f r 1755 at St Mary s Hall his admission is thus noted: " Die Junii
5 10 '755 Admissus est Johannes Hunter superioris ordinis Commen-
939
was induced to enter as a gentleman commoner at St Mary's
Hall, Oxford, but his instincts would not permit him, to use
his own expression, " to stuff Latin and Greek at the university."
Some three and thirty years later he thus significantly wrote of
an opponent: "Jesse Foot accuses me of not understanding
the dead languages; but I could teach him that on the dead
body which he never knew in any language dead or living." 6
Doubtless, however, linguistic studies would have served to
correct in him what was perhaps a natural defect a difficulty
in the presentation of abstract ideas not wholly attributable to
the novelty of his doctrines.
An attack of inflammation of the lungs in the spring of 1759
having produced symptoms threatening consumption, by which
the promising medical career of his brother James had been cut
short, Hunter obtained in October 1760 the appointment of
staff-surgeon in Hodgson and Keppel's expedition to Belleisle.
With this he sailed in 1761. In the following year he served with
the English forces on the frontier of Portugal. Whilst with the
army he acquired the extensive knowledge of gunshot wounds
embodied in his important treatise (1794) on that subject, in
which, amongst other matters of moment, he insists on the
rejection of the indiscriminate practice of dilating with the knife
followed almost universally by surgeons of his time. When not
engaged in the active duties of his profession, he occupied himself
with physiological and other scientific researches. Thus, in 1 761 ,
off Belleisle, the conditions of the coagulation of the blood were
among the subjects of his inquiries. 6 Later, on land, he continued
the study of human anatomy, and arranged his notes and
memoranda on inflammation; he also ascertained by experiment
that digestion does not take place in snakes and lizards during
hibernation, and observed that enforced vigorous movement at
that season proves fatal to such animals, the waste so occasioned
not being compensated, whence he drew the inference that, in
the diminution of the power of a part attendant on mortification,
resort to stimulants which increase action without giving real
strength is inadvisable. 7 A MS. catalogue by Hunter, probably
written soon after his return from Portugal, shows that he had
already made a collection of about two hundred specimens of
natural and morbid structures.
On arriving in England early in 1763, Hunter, having retired
from the army on half-pay, took a house in Golden Square, and
began the career of a London surgeon. Most of the metropolitan
practice at the time was held by P. Pott, C. Hawkins, Samuel
Sharp, Joseph Warner and Robert Adair; and Hunter sought
to eke out his at first slender income by teaching practical
anatomy and operative surgery to a private class. His leisure
was devoted to the study of comparative anatomy, to procure
subjects for which he obtained the refusal of animals dying in the
Tower menagerie and in various travelling zoological collections.
In connexion with his rupture of a tendo Achillis, 8 in 1767, he
performed on dogs several experiments which, with the illustra-
tions in his museum of the reunion of such structures after
division, laid the foundation of the modern practice of cutting
through tendons (tenotomy) for the relief of distorted and con-
tracted joints. In the same year he was elected F.R.S. His
first contribution to the Philosophical Transactions, with the
salis." Hunter apparently left Oxford after less than two months'
residence, as the last entry in the buttery book with charges for
battels against his name is on July 25, 1755. His name was, how-
ever, retained on the books of the Hall till December 10, 1756. The
record of Hunter's matriculation runs: " Ter Trin. 1755. J un 'i 5*
Aul. S. Mar. Johannes Hunter 24 Johannis de Kilbnde in Com.
Clidesdale Scotiae Arm. fil."
6 Ottley, Life of J. Hunter, p. 22.
6 Treatise on the Blood, p. 2 1 .
7 See Adams, Memoirs, pp. 32, 33. Cf. Hunter's Treatise on the
Blood, p. 8, and Works, ed. Palmer, i. 604. On the employment of
Hunter's term " increased action " with respect to inflammation, see
Sir James Paget, Led. on Surg. Path., 3rd ed., p. 321 sqq.
8 According to Hunter, as quoted in Palmer s edition of his lectures,
p. 437, the accident was " after dancing, and after a violent fit of
the cramp " ; W. Clift, however, who says he probably never danced,
believed that he met with the accident " in getting up from the dis-
secting table after being cramped by long sitting " (see W. Lawrence,
Hunt. Oral., 1834, p. 64).
940
exception of a supplement to a paper by J. Ellis in the volume
for 1766, was an essay on post-mortem digestion of the stomach,
written at the request of Sir J. Pringle, and read on the i8th of
June 1772, in which he explained that phenomenon as a result of
the action of the gastric juice. 1 On the gth of December 1768 he
was elected a surgeon to St George's Hospital, and, soon after, a
member of the Corporation of Surgeons. He now began to take
house-pupils. Among these were Edward Jenner, who came to
him in 1770, and until the time of Hunter's death corresponded
with him on the most intimate and affectionate terms, W. Guy,
Dr P. S. Physick of Philadelphia, and Everard Home,|his brother-
in-law. William Lynn and Sir A. Carlisle, though not inmates of
his house, were frequent visitors there. His pupils at St George's
included John Abernethy, Henry Cline, James Earle and
Astley Cooper. In 1770 he settled in Jermyn Street, in the
house which his brother William had previously occupied; and
in July 1771 he married Anne, the eldest daughter of Robert
Home, surgeon to Burgoyne's regiment of light horse. 2
From 1772 till his death Hunter resided during autumn at a
house built by him at Earl's Court, Brompton, where most of his
biological researches were carried on. There he kept for the
purpose of study and experiment the fishes, lizards, blackbirds,
hedgehogs and other animals sent him from time to time by
Jenner; tame pheasants and partridges, at least one eagle, toads,
silkworms, and many more creatures, obtained from every
quarter of the globe. Bees he had under observation in his
conservatory for upwards of twenty years; hornets and wasps
were also diligently studied by him. On two occasions his life
was in risk from his pets once in wrestling with a young
bull, and again when he fearlessly took back to their dens two
leopards which had broken loose among his dogs.
Choosing intuitively the only true method of philosophical
discovery, Hunter, ever cautious of confounding fact and
hypothesis, besought of nature the truth through the medium of
manifold experiments and observations. " He had never read
Bacon," says G. G. Babington, " but his mode of studying
nature was as strictly Baconian as if he had." 3 To Jenner, who
had offered a conjectural explanation of a phenomenon, he
writes, on the 2nd of August 1775: "I think your solution is
just; but why think? why not try the experiment? Repeat
all the experiments upon a hedgehog 4 as soon as you receive
this, and they will give you the solution." It was his axiom
however, " that experiments should not be often repeated which
tend merely to establish a principle already known and admitted,
but that the next step should be the application of that principle
to useful purposes " (" Anim. Oecon.," Works, iv. 86). During
1 The subjects and dates of his subsequent papers in the Trans-
actions, the titles of which give little notion of the richness of their
contents, are as follows: The torpedo (1773); air-receptacles in
birds, and the Gillaroo trout (1774) ; the Gymnotus electricus, and the
production of heat by animals and vegetables (supplemented in 1777),
(!775); the recovery of people apparently drowned (1776); the free
martin (1779); the communication of smallpox to the foetus in
utero, and the occurrence of male plumage in old hen pheasants
(1780); the organ of hearing in fishes (1782); the anatomy of a
" new marine animal" described by Home (1785); the specific
identity of the wolf, jackal and dog (supplemented in 1789), the effect
on fertility of extirpation of one ovarium, and the structure and
economy of whales (1787); observations on bees (1793); and some
remarkable caves in Bayreuth and fossil bones found therein (1794).
With these may be included a paper by Home, from materials
supplied by Hunter, on certain horny excrescences of the human
body.
2 Mrs Hunter died on the jth of January 1821, in Holies Street,
Cavendish Square, London, in her seventy-ninth year. She was a
handsome and accomplished woman, and well fulfilled the social
duties of her position. The words for Haydn's English canzonets
were supplied by her, and were mostly original poems; of these the
lines beginning " My mother bib's me bind my hair " are, from the
beauty of the accompanying music, among the best known. (See
R. Nares in Gent. Mag. xci. pt. I, p. 89, quoted in Nichols's Lit.
Anec., 2nd ser., vii. 638.)
3 Hunt. Oral., 1842, p. 15.
* The condition of this animal during hibernation was a subject of
special interest to Hunter, who thus introduces it, even in a letter of
condolence to Jenner in 1778 on a disappointment in love: " But
let her go, never mind her. I shall employ you with hedgehogs, for
I do not know how far I may trust mine."
HUNTER, JOHN
fifteen years he kept a flock of geese simply in order to acquaint
himself with the development of birds in eggs, with reference to
which he remarked: " It would almost appear that this mode of
propagation was intended for investigation." In his lexicological
and other researches, in which his experience had led him to
believe that the effects of noxious drugs are nearly similar in the
brute creation and in man, he had already, in 1780, as he states,
" poisoned some thousands of animals." 6
By inserting shot at definite distances in the leg-bones of young
pigs, and also by feeding them with madder, by which all fresh
osseous deposits are tinged, 6 Hunter obtained evidence that
bones increase in size, not by the intercalation of new amongst
old particles, as had been imagined by H.L. Duhamel du Monceau,
but by means of additions to their extremities and circumference,
excess of calcareous tissue being removed by the absorbents.
Some of his most extraordinary experiments were to illustrate
the relation of the strength of constitution to sex. He exchanged
the spurs of a young cock and a young pullet, and found that on
the former the transplanted structure grew to a fair size, on the
latter but little ; whereas a spur from one leg of a cock transferred
to its comb, a part well supplied with blood, grew more than twice
as fast as that left on the other leg. Another experiment of his,
which required many trials for success, was the engrafting of a
human incisor on the comb of a cock. 7 The uniting of parts of
different animals when brought into contact he attributed to
the production of adhesive instead of suppurative inflammation,
owing to their possession of " the simple living principle." 8 The
effects of habit upon structure were illustrated by Hunter's
observation that in a sea-gull which he had brought to feed on
barley the muscular parietes of the gizzard became greatly
thickened. A similar phenomenon was noticed by him in the
case of other carnivorous birds fed on a vegetable diet.
It was in 1772 that Hunter, in order effectually to gauge the
extent of his own knowledge, and also correctly to express his
views, which had been repeatedly misstated or ascribed to others,
began his lectures on the theory and practice of surgery,
at first delivered free to his pupils and a few friends, but sub-
sequent to 1774 on the usual terms, four guineas. Though Pott,
indeed, had perceived that the only true system of surgery
is that which most closely accords with the curative efforts of
nature, a rational pathology can hardly be said to have had at
this time any existence; and it was generally assumed that a
knowledge of anatomy alone was a sufficient foundation for the
study of surgery. Hunter, unlike his contemporaries, to most of
whom his philosophic habit of thought was a mystery, and
whose books contained little else than relations of cases and
modes of treatment, sought the reason for each phenomenon that
came under his notice. The principles of surgery, he maintained,
are not less necessary to be understood than the principles of
other sciences; unless, indeed, the surgeon should wish to
resemble " the Chinese philosopher whose knowledge consisted
only in facts." Too much attention, he remarked, cannot be
paid to facts; yet a multitude of facts overcrowd the memory
without advantage if they do not lead us to establish principles,
by an acquaintance with which we learn the causes of diseases.
Hunter's course, which latterly comprised eighty-six lectures,
delivered on alternate evenings between- the hours of seven and
eight, lasted from October to April. Some teachers of his time
were content to dismiss the subjects of anatomy and surgery in a
course of only six weeks' duration. His class was usually small
and never exceeded thirty. He was deficient in the gifts of a
good extempore speaker, being in this respect a remarkable
contrast to his brother William; and he read his lectures, seldom
raising his eyes from the manuscript. His manner with his
6 See his evidence at the trial of Captain Donellan, Works, i. 195.
6 On the discovery of the dyeing of bones by madder, see Belchier,
Phil. Trans., vol. xxxix., 1736, pp. 287 and 299.
7 Essays and Observations, i. 55, 56. " May we not claim for him,"
says Sir Wm. Fergusson, with reference to these experiments, " that
he anticipated by a hundred years the scientific data on which the
present system of human grafting is conducted?" (Hunt. Orat., 1871,
p. 17).
8 Essays and Observations, i. 115; cf. Works, i. 391.
HUNTER, JOHN
auditory is stated to have been embarrassed and awkward, or, as
Adams puts it (Obs. on Morbid Pois., p. 272), " frequently
ungraceful," and his language always unadorned; but that his
" expressions for the explaining of his new theories rendered his
lectures often unintelligible " is scarcely evident in his pupils'
notes still extant. His own and others' errors and fallacies were
exposed with equal freedom in his teaching. Occasionally he
would tell his pupils, " You had better not write down that
observation, for very likely I shall think differently next year ";
and once in answer to a question he replied, " Never ask me
what I have said or what I have written; but, if you will ask
me what my present opinions are, I will tell you."
In January 1776 Hunter was appointed surgeon-extraordinary
to the king. He began in the same year his Croonian lectures on
muscular motion, continued annually, except in 1777, till 1782:
they were never published by him, being in his opinion too
incomplete. In 1778 appeared the second part of his Treatise on
the Natural History of the Human Teeth, the first part of which
was published in 1771. It was in the waste of the dental alveoli
and of the fangs of shedding teeth that in 1754-1755, as he
tells us, he received his first hint of the use of the absorbents.
Abernethy (Physiological Lectures, p. 196) relates that Hunter,
being once asked how he could suppose it possible for absorbents
to do such things as he attributed to them, replied, " Nay, I
know not, unless they possess powers similar to those which a
caterpillar exerts when feeding on a leaf." Hunter in 1780 read
before the Royal Society a paper in which he laid claim to have
been the first to make out the nature of the.utero-placental
circulation. His brother William, who had five years previously
described the same in his Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus, there-
upon wrote to the Society attributing to himself this honour.
John Hunter in a rejoinder to his brother's letter, dated the 1 7th of
February 1780, reiterated his former statement, viz. that his dis-
covery, on the evening of the day in 1754 that he had made it in a
specimen injected by a Dr Mackenzie, had been communicated
by him to Dr Hunter. Thus arose an estrangement between the
two Hunters, which continued until the time of William's last
illness, when his brother obtained permission to visit him.
In 1783 Hunter was elected a member of the Royal Society of
Medicine and of the Royal Academy of Surgery at Paris, and took
part in the formation of " A Society for the Improvement of
Medical and Chirurgical Knowledge." l It appears from a letter
by Hunter that in the latter part of 1783, he, with Jenner, had
the subject of colour-blindness under consideration. As in that
year the lease of his premises in Jermyn Street was to expire, he
purchased the twenty-four years' leasehold of two houses, the one
on the east side of Leicester Square, the other in Castle Street
with intervening ground. Between the houses he built in 1783-
1785, at an expense of above 3000, a museum for his anatomical
and other collections which by 1782 had cost him 10,000. The
new edifice consisted of a hall 52 ft. long by 28 ft. wide, and
lighted from the top, with a gallery all round, and having beneath
it a lecture theatre. In April 1785 Hunter's collections were
removed into it under the superintendence of Home and William
Bell, 2 and another assistant, Andre. Among the foreigners of
distinction who inspected the museum, which was now shown by
Hunter twice a year in October to medical men, and in May
to other visitors were J. F. Blumenbach, P. Camper and A.
Scarpa. In the acquisition of subjects for his varied biological
investigations and of specimens for his museum, expense was a
matter of small moment with Hunter. Thus he endeavoured,
at his own cost, to obtain information respecting the Cetacea by
1 The Transactions of the Society contain papers by Hunter on
inflammation of veins (1784), intussusception (1789), a case of para-
lysis of the muscles of deglutition (1790), and a case of poisoning
during pregnancy (1794), with others written by Home, from
materials supplied by him, on Hunter's operation for the cure of
popliteal aneurism, on loose cartilages in joints, on certain horny
excrescences of the human body, and on the growth of bones.
2 Bell lived with Hunter fourteen years, i.e. from 1775 to 1789, and
was employed by him chiefly in making and drawing anatomical pre-
parations for the museum. He died in 1792 at Sumatra, where he
was assistant-surgeon to the East India Company.
941
sending out a surgeon to the North in a Greenland whaler. He is
said, moreover, to have given, in June 1783, 500 for the body of
O'Brien, or Byrne, the Irish giant, whose skeleton, 7 ft. 7 in. high,
is so conspicuous an object in the museum of the College of
Surgeons of London. 3
Hunter, who in the spring of 1760-1772 had suffered from gout,
in spring 1773 from spasm apparently in the pyloric region,
accompanied by failure of the heart's action (Ottley, Life, p. 44),
and in 1777 from vertigo with symptoms of angina pectoris, had
in 1783 another attack of the last mentioned complaint, to which
he was henceforward subject when under anxiety or excitement
of mind.
In May 1785,* chiefly to oblige William Sharp the engraver,
Hunter consented to have his portrait taken by Sir Joshua
Reynolds. He proved a bad sitter, and Reynolds made little
satisfactory progress, till one day Hunter, While resting his
somewhat upraised head on his left hand, fell into a profound
reverie one of those waking dreams, seemingly, which in his
lectures he has so well described, when " the body loses the
consciousness of its own existence." 6 The painter had now
before him the man he would fain depict, and, turning his canvas
upside down, he sketched out the admirable portrait which,
afterwards skilfully restored by H. Farrar, is in the possession
of the Royal College of Surgeons. A copy by Jackson, acquired
from Lady Bell, is to be seen at the National Portrait Gallery,
and St Mary's Hall, Oxford, also possesses a copy. Sharp's
engraving of the original, published in 1788, is one of the finest
of his productions. The volumes seen in Reynolds' picture are
a portion of the unpublished records of anatomical researches
left by Hunter at his death, which, with other manuscripts,
Sir Everard Home in 1812 removed from his museum, and
eventually, in order, it has been supposed, to keep secret the
source of many of his papers in the Philosophical Transactions,
and of facts mentioned in his lectures, committed to the flames. 6
Among the subjects of Hunter's physiological investigation
in 1 785 was the mode of growth of deer's antlers. As he possessed
the privilege of making experiments on the deer in Richmond
Park, he in July of that year had a buck there caught and
thrown, and tied one of its external carotid arteries. He observed
that the antler which obtained its blood supply therefrom,
then half-grown, became in consequence cold to the touch.
Hunter debated with himself whether it would be shed in due
time, or be longer retained than ordinarily. To his surprise
he found,' on re-examining the antler a week or two later, when
the wound around the ligatured artery was healed, that it had
regained its warmth, and was still increasing in size. Had, then,
his operation been in some way defective? To determine this
question, the buck was killed and sent to Leicester Fields. On
examination Hunter ascertained that the external carotid had
been duly tied, but that certain small branches of the artery
above and below the ligature had enlarged, and by their anasto-
moses had restored the blood supply of the growing part. Thus
it was evident that under " the stimulus of necessity," to use a
phrase of the experimenter, the smaller arterial channels are
3 O'Brien, dreading dissection by Hunter, had shortly before his
death arranged with several of his countrymen that his corpse should
be conveyed by them to the sea, and sunk in deep water; but his
undertaker, who had entered into a pecuniary compact with the great
anatomist, managed that while the escort was drinking at a certain
stage on the march seawards, the coffin should be locked up in a barn.
There some men he had concealed speedily substituted an equivalent
weight of paving-stones for the body, which was at night forwarded to
Hunter, and by him taken in his carriage to Earl's Court, and, to
avoid risk of a discovery, immediately after suitable division boiled
to obtain the bones. See Tom Taylor, Leicester Square, ch. xiv.
(1874); cf. Annual Register, xxvi. 209 (1783).
1 See C. R. Leslie and Tom Taylor, Life and Times' of Sir J.
Reynolds, ii. 474 (1865).
6 Works, i. 265-266.
6 A transcript of a portion of Hunter's MSS., made by Clift in 1793
and 1800, was edited by Sir Richard Owen, in two volumes with notes,
in 1861, under the title of Essays and Observations in Natural History,
Anatomy, Physiology, Psychology and Geology. On the destruction
of Hunter's papers see Clift's " Appendix in vol. ii. p. 497, also
W. H. Flower, Introd. Led., pp. 7-9 (1870).
942
capable of rapid increase in dimensions to perform the offices
of the larger. 1 It happened that, in the ensuing December,
there lay in one of the wards of St George's Hospital a patient
admitted for popliteal aneurism. The disease must soon prove
fatal unless by some means arrested. Should the surgeon,
following the usual and commonly fatal method of treatment,
cut down upon the tumour, and, after tying the artery above
and below it, evacuate its contents ? Or should he adopt the
procedure, deemed by Pott generally advisable, of amputating
the limb above it? It was Hunter's aim in his practice, even
if he could not dispense with the necessity, at least to diminish
the severity of operations, which he considered were an acknow-
ledgment of the imperfection of the art of healing, and compared
to " the acts of the armed savage, who attempts to get that
by force which a civilized man would get by stratagem." Since,
he argued, the experiment with the buck had shown that collateral
vessels are capable of continuing the circulation when passage
through a main trunk is arrested, why should he not, in the
aneurism case, leaving the absorbents to deal with the contents
of the tumour, tie the artery in the sound parts, where it is tied
in amputation, and preserve the limb? Acting upon this idea,
he ligatured his patient's femoral artery in the lower part of its
course in the thigh, in the fibrous sheath enclosing the space
since known as " Hunter's canal." 2 The leg was found, some
hours after the operation, to have acquired a temperature even
above the normal. 3 At the end of January 1786, that is, in
six weeks' time, the patient was well enough to be able to leave
the hospital. Thus it was that Hunter inaugurated an operation
which has been the means of preserving to hundreds life with
integrity of limb an operation which, as the Italian P. Assalini,
who saw it first performed, testifies, " excited the greatest wonder,
and awakened the attention of all the surgeons in Europe."
Early in 1786 Hunter published his Treatise on the Venereal
Disease, which, like some of his previous writings, was printed
in his own house. Without the aid of the booksellers, 1000
copies of it were sold within a twelvemonth. Although certain
views therein expressed with regard to the relationship of
syphilis have been proved erroneous, the work is a valuable
compendium of observations of cases and modes of treatment
(cf. John Hilton, Hunt. Orat. p. 40). Towards the end of the
year appeared his Observations on certain parts of the Animal
Oeconomy, which, besides the more important of his contributions
to the Philosophical Transactions, contains nine papers on
various subjects. In 1786 Hunter became deputy surgeon-
general to the army; his appointment as surgeon-general and
as inspector-general of hospitals followed in 1790. In 1787 he
received the Royal Society's Copley medal, and was also elected
a member of the American Philosophical Society. On account
of the increase in his practice and his impaired health, he now
obtained the services of Home as his assistant at St George's
Hospital. The death of Pott in December 1788 secured to him
the undisputed title of the first surgeon in England. He resigned
to Home, in 1792, the delivery of his surgical lectures, in order
to devote himself more fully to the completion of his Treatise
on the Blood, Inflammation and Gunshot Wounds, which was
published by his executors in 1794. In this, his masterpiece,
the application of physiology to practice is especially noticeable.
In his Treatise on the Blood, p. 288, Hunter observes: "We
find it a common principle in the animal machine, that every part
increases in some degree according to the action required. Thus we
find . . . vessels become larger in proportion to the necessity of
supply, as for instance, in the gravid uterus; the external carotids in
the stag, also, when his horns are growing, are much larger than at
any other time.
1 See Sir R. Owen, " John Hunter and Vivisection," Brit. Med.
Journ. (February 22, 1879, p. 284). In the fourth of his operations
for popliteal aneurism, Hunter for the first time did not include the
vein in the ligature. His patient lived for fifty years afterwards.
The results on the artery of this operation are to be seen in specimen
3472A (Path. Ser.) in the Hunterian Museum.
8 Home, Trans, of Sac. for Impr. of Med : and Chirurg. Knowl.
i. 147 (1793). Excess of heat in the injured limb was noticed also in
Hunter's second case on the day after the operation; and in his
fourth case it reached 4-5 on the first day, and continued during a
fortnight.
HUNTER, JOHN
Certain experiments described in the first part, which demon-
strate that arterialization of the blood in respiration takes
place by a process of diffusion of " pure air " or " vital air "
(i.e. -oxygen) through membrane, were made so early as the
summer of 1755.
Hunter in 1 792 announced to his colleagues at St George's, who,
he considered, neglected the proper instruction of the students
under their charge, his intention no longer to divide with them
the fees which he received for his hospital pupils. Against this
innovation, however, the governors of the hospital decided in
March 1793. Subsequently, by a committee of their appointing,
a code of rules respecting pupils was promulgated, one clause
of which, probably directed against an occasional practice of
Hunter's, stipulated that no person should be admitted as a
student of the hospital without certificates that he had been
educated for the medical profession. In the autumn two young
Scotchmen, ignorant of the new rule, came up to town and
applied to Hunter for admission as his pupils at St George's.
Hunter explained to them how he was situated, but promised
to advance their request at the next board meeting at the
hospital on the i6th of October. On that day, having finished a
difficult piece of dissection, he went down to breakfast in excel-
lent spirits and in his usual health. After making a professional
call, he attended the board meeting. There the interruption
of his remarks in behalf of his applicants by a flat contradic-
tion from a colleague brought on one of the old spasmodic
heart attacks; he ceased speaking, and retired into an adjoining
room only to fall lifeless into the arms of Dr Robertson, one
of the hospital physicians. After an hour had been spent in
vain attempts to restore animation, his body was conveyed to
his house in a sedan chair. 4 His remains were interred privately
on the 22nd of October 1793, in the vaults of St Martin's in the
Fields. Thence, on the 28th of March 1859, through the
instrumentality of F. T. Buckland, they were removed to
Abbot Islip's chapel in Westminster Abbey, to be finally deposited
in the grave in the north aisle of the nave, close to the resting-
place of Ben Jonson.
Hunter was of about medium height, strongly built and high-
shouldered and short-necked. He had an open countenance, and
large features, eyes light-blue or grey, eyebrows prominent, and hair
reddish-yellow in youth, later white, and worn curled behind ; and
he dressed plainly and neatly. He rose at or before six, dissected
till nine (his breakfast hour), received patients from half-past nine
till twelve, at least during the latter part of his life, and saw his out-
door and hospital patients till about four, when he dined, taking,
according to Home, as at other meals in the twenty years preceding
his death, no wine. After dinner he slept an hour; he then super-
intended experiments, read or prepared his lectures, and made,
usually by means of an amanuensis, records of the day's dissections.
" I never could understand," says W. Clift, " how Mr Hunter ob-
tained rest: when I left him at midnight, it was with a lamp fresh
trimmed for further study, and with the usual appointment to meet
him again at six in the morning." H. Leigh Thomas records 6 that,
on his first arrival in London, having by desire called on Hunter
at five o'clock in the morning, he found him already busily engaged
in the dissection of insects. Rigidly economical of time, Hunter
was always at work, and he had always in view some fresh enter-
prise. To his museum he gave a very large share of his attention,
being fearful lest the ordering of it should be incomplete at his death,
and knowing of none who could continue his work for him. " When
I am dead," said he one day to Dr Maxwell Garthshore, " you will
not soon meet with another John Hunter." At the time of his death
he had anatomized over 500 different species of animals, some of
them repeatedly, and had made numerous dissections of plants.
The manuscript works by him, appropriated and destroyed by Home,
among which were his eighty-six surgical lectures, all in full, are
stated to have been " literally a cartload "; and many pages of his
records were written by Clift under his directions " at least half a
4 The record of Hunter's death in the St James Chronicle for
October 15-17, 1793, p. 4, col. 4, makes no allusion to the immediate
cause of Hunter's death, but gives the following statement:
" JOHN HUNTER. This eminent Surgeon and valuable man was
suddenly taken ill, yesterday, in the Council-room of St George's
Hospital. After receiving the assistance which could be afforded by
two Physicians and a Surgeon, he was removed in a close chair to
his house, in Leicester Fields, where he expired about two o'clock."
Examination of the heart revealed disease involving the pericardium,
endocardium and arteries, the coronary arteries in particular showing
ossific change. 6 Hunt. Orat., 1827, p. 5.
HUNTER, JOHN
lozcn times over, with corrections and transpositions almost without
end."
To the kindness of his disposition, his fondness for animals, his
aversion to operations, his thoughtful and self-sacrificing attention to
his patients, and especially his zeal to help forward struggling
practitioners and others in any want abundantly testify. Pecuniary
means he valued no further than they enabled him to promote his
researches; and to the poor, to non-beneficed clergymen, professional
authors and artists his services were rendered without remuneration.
His yearly income in 1763-1774 was never 1000; it exceeded that
sum in 1778, for several years before his death was 5000, and at
the time of that event had reached above 6000. All his earnings
not required for domestic expenses were, during the last ten years
of his life, devoted to the improvement of his museum; and his
property, this excepted, was found on his decease to be barely
sufficient to pay his debts. By his contemporaries generally Hunter
was respected as a master of the art and science of anatomy, and as a
cautious and trustworthy if not an elegant or very dexterous operator.
Few, however, perceived the drift of his biological researches.
Although it was admitted, even by Jesse Foot, 1 that the idea after
which his unique museum had been formed namely, that of mor-
phology as the only true basis of a systematic zoological classification
was entirely his own, yet his investigations into the structure of
the lower orders of animals were regarded as works of unprofitable
curiosity. One surgeon, of no inconsiderable repute, is said to have
ventured the remark that Hunter's preparations were " just as
valuable as so many pig's pettitoes "; 2 and the president of the
Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, writing in 1796, plainly expressed
his disbelief as to the collection being " an object of importance to
the general study of natural history, or indeed to any branch of
science except to that of medicine." It was " without the solace
of sympathy or encouragement of approbation, without collateral
assistance," 3 and careless of achieving fame for he held that " no
man ever was a great man who wanted to be one " that Hunter
laboured to perfect his designs, and established the science of com-
parative anatomy, and principles which, however neglected in his
lifetime, became the ground-work of all medical study and teaching.
In accordance with the directions given by Hunter in his will,
his collection was offered for purchase to the British government.
But the prime minister, Pitt, on being asked to consider the matter,
exclaimed: "What! buy preparations! Why, I have not money
enough to purchase gunpowder." He, however, consented to the
bestowal of a portion of the king's bounty for a couple of years on
Mrs Hunter and her two surviving children. In 1796 Lord Auckland
undertook to urge upon the government the advisability of acquiring
the collection, and on the I3th of June 1799, parliament voted
15,000 for this purpose. Its custodianship, after refusal by the
College of Physicians, was unanimously accepted by the Corporation
of Surgeons on the terms proposed. These were in brief that the
collection be open four hours in the forenoon, two days every week,
for the inspection and consultation of the fellows of the College of
Physicians, the members of the Company of Surgeons and persons
properly introduced by them, a catalogue of the preparations and an
official to explain it being at those times always at hand; that a
course of not less than twenty-four lectures 4 on comparative anatomy
and other subjects illustrated by the collection be given every year by
some member of the Company ; and that the preparations be kept in
good preservation at the expense of the Corporation, and be subject
to the superintendence of a board of sixteen trustees.' The fulfil-
ment of these conditions was rendered possible by the receipt of fees
for examinations and diplomas, under the charter by which, in 1800,
the Corporation was constituted the Royal College of Surgeons. In
1806 the collection was placed in temporary quarters in Lincoln's
Inn Fields, and the sum of 15,000 was voted by parliament for the
erection of a proper and commodious building for its preservation
and extension. This was followed by a grant of 12,500 in 1807.
The collection was removed in 1812 to the new museum, and opened
to visitors in 1813. The greater part of the present edifice was built
in 1835, at an expense to the college of about 40,000; and the
combined Hunterian and collegiate collections, having been re-
arranged in what are now termed the western and middle museums,
were in 1836 made accessible to the public. The erection of the
eastern museum in 1852, on premises in Portugal Street, bought in
1847 for 16,000, cost 25,000, of which parliament granted 15,000;
it was opened in 1855.
The scope of Hunter's labours may be defined as the explication
of the various phases of life exhibited in organized structures, both
animal and vegetable, from the simplest to the most highly differen-
tiated. By him, therefore, comparative anatomy was employed, not
in subservience to the classification of living forms, as by Cuvier,
but as a means of gaining insight into the principle animating and
producing these forms, by virtue of which he perceived that, how-
ever different in form and faculty, they were all allied to himself.
In what does life consist? is a question which in his writings he
frequently considers, and which seems to have been ever present
1 See p. 266 of his malicious so-called Life of John Hunter (1794).
2 Cf. J. H. Green, Hunt. Oral., 1840, p. 27.
3 Abernethy, Physiological Lectures, p. n (1817).
* Instituted in 1806. Increased to seventeen in 1856.
943
in his mind. Life, he taught, was a principle independent of struc-
ture,' most tenaciously held by the least highly organized beings,
but capable of readier destruction as a whole, as, e.g., by deprivation
of heat or by pain, in young than in old animals. In life he beheld
an agency working under the control of law, and exercising its
functions in various modes and degrees. He perceived it, as
Abernethy observes, to be " a great chemist," a power capable of
manufacturing a variety of substances into one kind of generally
distributed nutriment, and of furnishing from this a still greater
variety of dissimilar substances. Like Harvey, who terms it the
anima vegetiva, he regarded it as a principle of self-preservation,
which keeps the body from dissolution. Life is shown, said he, in
renovation and action; but, although facilitated in its working by
mechanical causes, it can exist without action, as in an egg new-laid
or undergoing incubation. It is not simply a regulator of tempera-
ture; it is a principle which resists cold, conferring on the structures
which it endows the capacity of passing some degrees below the
freezing-point of ordinary inanimate matter without suffering
congelation. Hunter found, in short, that there exists in animals
a latent heat of life, set free in the process of death (see Treatise on
the Blood, p. 80). Thus he observed that sap if removed from trees
froze at 32 F., but within them might be fluid even at 15; that
a living snail placed in a freezing mixture acquired first a temperature
of 28, and afterwards of 32 ere it froze; and that, whereas a dead
egg congealed immediately at 32, a living egg did so only when
its temperature had risen to that point after a previous fall to 29^.
The idea that the fluid and semifluid as well as the solid constituents
of the body contain the vital principle diffused through them he
formed in 1755-1756, when, in making drawings illustrative of the
changes that take place in the incubated egg, he noted specially
that neither the white nor the yolk undergoes putrefaction. The
blood he, with Harvey, considered to possess a vitality of its own,
more or less independent of that of the animal in which it circulates.
Life, he held, is preserved by the compound of the living body and
the source of its solid constituents, the living blood. It is to the
susceptibility of the latter to be converted into living organized
tissue that the union of severed structures by the first intention is
due. He even inclined to the belief that the chyle has life, and he
considered that food becomes " animalized " in digestion. Coagula-
tion of the blood he compared to the contraction of muscles, and
believed to be an operation of life distinct from chemical coagulation,
adducing in support of his opinion the fact that, in animals killed
by lightning, by violent blows on the stomach, or by the exhaustion
of hunting, it does not take place. " Breathing," said Hunter,
" seems to render life to the blood, and the blood continues it in
every part of the body." ' Life, he held, could be regarded as a
fire, or something similar, and might for distinction's sake be called
" animal fire." Of this the process of respiration might afford a
constant supply, the fixed life supplied to the body in the food being
set free and rendered active in the lungs, whilst the air carried off
that principle which encloses and retains the animal fire. 8 The
living principle, said Hunter, is coeval with the existence of animal
or vegetable matter itself, and may long exist without sensation.
The principle upon which depends the power of sensation regulates
all our external actions, as the principle of life does our internal,
and the two act mutually on each other in consequence of changes
produced in the brain. Something (the " materia vitae diffusa ")
similar to the components of the brain (the " materia vitae coacer-
vata ") may be supposed to be diffused through the body and even
contained in the blood; between these a communication is kept up
by the nerves (the " chordae internunciae ").' Neither a material
nor a chemical theory of life, however, formed a part of Hunter's
creed. " Mere composition of matter," he remarked, " does not give
life ; for the dead body has all the composition it ever had ; life is a
property we do not understand; we can only see the necessary
leading steps towards it." 10 As from life only, said he in one of his
lectures, we can gain an idea of death, so from death only we gain an
idea of life. Life, being an agency leading to, but not consisting of,
any modification of matter, " either is something superadded to
matter, or else consists in a peculiar arrangement of certain fine
particles of matter, which being thus disposed acquire the properties
of life." As a bar of iron may gain magnetic virtue by being placed
for a time in a special position, so perhaps the particles of matter
arranged and long continued in a certain posture eventually gain the
power of life. " I enquired of Mr Hunter," writes one of his pupils, 11
if this did not make for the Exploded Doctrine of Equivocal
6 How clearly he held this view is seen in his remark (Treatise on
the Blood, p. 28, cf. p. 46) that, as the coagulating lymph of the blood
is probably common to all animals, whereas the red corpuscles are not,
we must suppose the lymph to be the essential part of that fluid.
Hunter was the first to discover that the blood of the embryos of
red-blooded animals is at first colourless, resembling that of inverte-
brates. (See Owen, Preface to vol. iv. of Works, p. xiii.)
7 Treatise on the Blood, p. 63.
8 Essays and Observations, i. 113.
9 Treatise on the Blood, p. 89. 10 Ib. p. 90.
11 P. P. Staple, with the loan of whose volume of MS. notes of
Hunter's " Chirurgical Lectures," dated, on the last page, Sept. 2Oth,
1787, the writer was favoured by Sir VV. H. Broadbent.
HUNTER, R. M. T. HUNTER, WILLIAM
944
Generation; he told me perhaps it did, and that as to Equivocal
Generation all we c d have was negative Proofs of its not taking Place.
He did not deny that Equivocal Generation happened; there were
neither positive proofs for nor against its taking place."
To exemplify the differences between organic and inorganic growth,
Hunter made and employed in his lectures a collection of crystallized
specimens of minerals, or, as he termed them, " natural or native
fossils." Of fossils, designated by him " extraneous fossils," because
extraneous respecting the rocks in which they occur, he recognized
the true nature, and he arranged them according to a system agreeing
with that adopted for recent organisms. The study of fossils enabled
him to apply his knowledge of the relations of the phenomena of life
to conditions, as exhibited in times present, to the elucidation of the
history of the earth in geological epochs. He observed the non-
occurrence of fossils in granite, but with his customary scientific
caution and insight could perceive no reason for supposing it to be
the original matter of the globe, prior to vegetable or animal, or that
its formation was different from that of other rocks. In water he
recognized the chief agent in producing terrestrial changes (cf.
Treatise on the Blood, p. 15, note) ; but the popular notion that the
Noachian deluge might account for the marine organismb discovered
on land he pointed out was untenable. From the diversity of the
situations in which many fossils and allied living structures are
found, he was led to infer that at various periods not only repeated
oscillations of the level of the land, lasting thousands of centuries, but
also great climatic variations, perhaps due to a change in the ecliptic,
had taken place in geological times. Hunter considered that very
few fossils of those that resemble recent forms are identical with
them. He conceived that the latter might be varieties, but that if
they are really different species, then " we must suppose that a new
creation must have taken place." It would appear, therefore, that
the origin of species in variation had not struck him as possible.
That he believed varieties to have resulted from the influence of
changes in the conditions of life in times past is shown by a some-
what obscure passage in his " Introduction to Natural History "
(Essays and Observations, i. 4), in which he remarks, " But, I think,
we have reason to suppose that there was a period of time in which
every species of natural production was the same, there being then
no variety in any species," and adds that " civilization has made
varieties in many species, which are the domesticated." Modern
discoveries and doctrines as to the succession of life in time are again
foreshadowed by him in the observation in his introduction to the
description of drawings relative in incubation (quoted in Pref. to
Cat. of Phys. Ser. i. p. rv., 1833) that: " If we were capable of follow-
ing the progress of increase of the number of the parts of the most
perfect animal, as they first formed in succession, from the very first,
to its state of full perfection, we should probably be able to compare it
with some one of the incomplete animals themselves, of every order of
animals in the creation, being at no stage different from some of those
inferior orders ; or, in other words, if we were to take a series of animals
from the more imperfect to the perfect, we should probably find an
imperfect animal corresponding with some stage of the most perfect."
In pathological phenomena Hunter discerned the results of the
perturbation of those laws of life by which the healthy organism
subsists. With him pathology was a science of vital dynamics.
He afforded principles bearing not on single complaints only, but
on the effects of injury and disease in general. To attempt to set
forth what in Hunter's teaching was new to pathology and systematic
surgery, or was rendered so by his mode of treatment, would be
well-nigh to present an epitome of all that he wrote on those subjects.
" When we make a discovery in pathology," says Adams, writing in
1818, " we only learn what we have overlooked in his writings or
forgotten in his lectures." Surgery, which only in 1745 had formally
ceased to be associated with " the art and mystery of barbers," he
raised to the rank of a scientific profession. His doctrines were,
necessarily, not those of his age: while lesser minds around him were
still dim with the mists of the ignorance and dogmatism of times past,
his lofty intellect was illumined by the dawn of a distant day.
AUTHORITIES. See, besides the above quoted publications, An
Appeal to the present Parliament . . . on the subject of the late J.
Hunter's Museum (1795) ; Sir C. Bell, A Lecture . . . being a
Commentary on Mr J. Hunter's preparations of the Diseases of the
Urethra (1830); The President of the Royal College of Surgeons of
England, Address to the Committee for the Erection of a Statue of
Hunter (Lond., March 29, 1859) ; Sir R. Owen, " Sketch of Hunter's
Scientific Character and Works," in Tom Taylor's Leicester Square
(1874), also in Hunter's Works, ed. by Palmer, vol. iv. (1837), and in
Essays and Observations; the invaluable catalogues of the Hunterian
Collection issued by the Royal College of Surgeons; and numerous
Hunterian Orations. In the Journal o/ a Voyage to New South Wales,
by John White, is a paper containing directions for preserving
animals, printed separately in 1809, besides six zoological descriptions
by Hunter; and in the Natural History of Aleppo, by A. Russell, are
remarks of Hunter's on the anatomy of the jerboa and the camel's
stomach. Notes of his lectures on surgery, edited by J. W. K.
Parkinson, appeared in 183,3 under the title of Hunterian Remi-
niscences. Hunter's Observations and Reflections on Geology, intended
to serve as an introduction to the catalogue of his collection of
extraneous fossils, was published in 1859, and his Memoranda on
Vegetation in 1860. (F. H. B.)
HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (1809-1887),
American statesman, was born in Essex county, Virginia, on
the 2ist of April 1809. He entered the university of Virginia
in his seventeenth year and was one of its first graduates; he
then studied law at the Winchester (Va.) Law School, and in
1830 was admitted to the bar. From 1835 to 1837 he was a
member of the Virginia house of delegates; from 1837 to 1843
and from 1845 to 1847 was a member of the national house of
representatives, being Speaker from 1839 to 1841; and from
1847 to 1861 he was in the senate, where he was chairman of the
finance committee (1850-1861). He is credited with having
brought about a reduction of the quantity of silver in the smaller
coins; he was the author of the Tariff Act of 1857 and of the
bonded-warehouse system, and was one of the first to advocate
civil service reform. In 1853 he declined President Fillmore's
offer to make him secretary of state. At the National Demo-
cratic Convention at Charleston, S.C., in 1860 he was the Virginia
delegation's choice as candidate for the presidency of the United
States, but was defeated for the nomination by Stephen A.
Douglas. Hunter did not regard Lincoln's election as being of
itself a sufficient cause for secession, and on the nth of January
1 86 1 he proposed an elaborate but impracticable scheme for the
adjustment of differences between the North and the South,
but when this and several other efforts to the same end had
failed he quietly urged his own state to pass the ordinance of
secession. From 1861 to 1862 he was secretary of state in the
Southern Confederacy; and from 1862 to 1865 was a member of
the Confederate senate, in which he was, at times, a caustic
critic of the Davis administration. He was one of the com-
missioners to treat at the Hampton Roads Conference in 1865
(see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM), and after the surrender of General Lee
was summoned by President Lincoln to Richmond to confer
regarding the restoration of Virginia in the Union. From 1874
to 1880 he was treasurer of Virginia, and from 1885 until his
death near Lloyds, Virginia, on the i8th of July 1887, was
collector of the Port of Tappahannock, Virginia.
See Martha T. Hunter, A Memoir of Robert M.T. Hunter (Washing-
ton, 1903) for his private life, and D. R. Anderson, Robert Mercer
Taliaferro Hunter, in the John P. Branch Historical Papers of
Randolph Macon College (vol. ii. No. 2, 1906), for his public career.
HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718-1783), British physiologist and
physician, the first great teacher of anatomy in England, was
born on the 23rd of May 1718, at East Kilbride, Lanark. He
was the seventh child of his parents, and an elder brother of the
still more famous John Hunter (<?..). When fourteen years of
age, he was sent to the university of Glasgow, where he studied
for five years. He had originally been intended for the church,
but, scruples concerning subscription arising in his mind, he
followed the advice of his friend William Cullen, and resolved
to devote himself to physic. During 1737-1740 he resided with
Cullen at Hamilton, and then, to increase his medical knowledge
before settling in partnership with his friend, he spent the winter
of 1740-1741 at Edinburgh. Thence he went to London, where
Dr James Douglas (1675-1742), an anatomist and obstetrician
of some note, to whom he had been recommended, engaged his
services as a tutor to his son and as a dissector, and assisted him
to enter as a surgeon's pupil at St George's Hospital and to
procure the instruction of the anatomist Frank Nicholls (1699-
1778). When Dr Douglas died Hunter still continued to live
with his family. In 1746 he undertook, in place of Samuel Sharp,
the delivery, for a society of naval practitioners, of a series of
lectures on operative surgery, so satisfactorily that he was
requested to include anatomy in his course. It was not long
before he attained considerable fame as a lecturer; for not only
was his oratorical ability great, but he differed from his con-
temporaries in the fullness and thoroughness of his teaching, and
in the care which he took to provide the best possible practical
illustrations of his discourses. We read that the syllab" of
Edward Nourse (1701-1761), published in 1748, Mam rcrtt
anatomicam complectens, comprised only twenty-three lectures,
exclusive of a short and defective " Syllabus Chirurgicus," and
that at " one of the most reputable courses of anatomy in
HUNTER, W. A. HUNTER, SIR W. W.
945
Europe," which Hunter had himself attended, the professor
was obliged to demonstrate all the parts of the body, except the
nerves and vessels (shown in a foetus) and the bones, on a single
dead subject, and for the explanation of the operations of
surgery used a dog! In 1747 Hunter became a member of the
Corporation of Surgeons. In the course of a tour through
Holland to Paris with his pupil, J. Douglas, in 1728, he visited
Albinus at Leiden, and inspected with admiration his injected
preparations. By degrees Hunter renounced surgical for obstetric
practice, in which he excelled. He was appointed a surgeon-
accoucheur at the Middlesex Hospital in 1748, and at the British
Lying-in Hospital in the year following. The degree of M.D.
was conferred upon him by the university of Glasgow on the
24th of October 1750. About the same time he left his old abode
at Mrs Douglas's, and settled as a physician in Jermyn Street.
He became a licentiate of the College of Physicians on the
30th of September 1756. In 1762 he was consulted by Queen
Charlotte, and in 1764 was made physician-extraordinary to her
Majesty.
On the departure of his brother John for the army, Hunter
engaged as an assistant William Hewson (1739-1774), whom
he subsequently admitted to partnership in his lectures. Hewson
was succeeded in 17 70 by W. C. Cruikshank (1745-180x3). Hunter
was elected F.R.S. in 1767; F.S.A. in 1768, and third professor
of anatomy to the Royal Academy of Arts; and in 1780 and
1782 respectively an associate of the Royal Medical Society and
of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. During the closing
ten years of his life his health failed greatly. His last lecture,
at the conclusion of which he fainted, was given, contrary to the
remonstrances of friends, only a few days before his death,
which took place in London on the 3oth of March 1783. He was
buried in the rector's vault at St James's, Piccadilly.
Hunter had in 1765 requested of the prime minister, George
Grenville, the grant of a plot of ground on which he might estab-
lish " a museum in London for the improvement of anatomy,
surgery, and physics " (see " Papers " at end of his Two Intro-
ductory Lectures, 1784), and had offered to expend on its erection
7000, and to endow in perpetuity a professorship of anatomy
in connexion with it. His application receiving no recognition,
he after many months abandoned his scheme, and built himself
a house, with lecture and dissecting-rooms, in Great Windmill
Street, whither he removed in 1770. In one fine apartment in
this house was accommodated his collection, comprising anatomi-
cal and pathological preparations, ancient coins and medals,
minerals, shells and corals. His natural history specimens were
in part a purchase, for 1200, of the executors of his friend,
Dr John Fothergill (1712-1780). Hunter's whole collection,
together with his fine library of Greek and Latin classics, and
an endowment of 8000, by his will became, after the lapse of
twenty years, the property of the university of Glasgow.
Hunter was never married, and was a man of frugal habits.
Like his brother John, he was an early riser, and a man of untiring
industry. He is described as being in his lectures, which were of
two hours' duration, " both simple and profound, minute
in demonstration, and yet the reverse of dry and tedious";
and his mode of introducing anecdotal illustrations of his topic
was most happy. Lecturing was to him a pleasure, and, not-
withstanding his many professional distractions, he regularly
continued it, because, as he said, he " conceived that a man
may do infinitely more good to the public by teaching his art
than by practising it " (see " Memorial " appended to Introd.
Led. p. 120).
Hunter was the author of several contributions to the Medical
Observations and Enquiries and the Philosophical Transactions. In
his paper on the structure of cartilages and joints, published in the
latter in 1743, he anticipated what M. F. X. Bichat sixty years after-
wards wrote concerning the structure and arrangement of the synovial
membranes. His Medical Commentaries (pt. i., 1762, supplemented
1764) contains, among other like matter, details of his disputes
with the Monros as to who first had successfully performed the
injection of the tubuli testis (in which, however, both he and they
had been forestalled by A. von Haller in 1745), and as to who had
discovered the true office of the lymphatics, and also a discussion on
the question whether he or Percivall Pott ought to be considered the
earliest to have elucidated the nature of hernia congenita, which, as a
matter of fact, had been previously explained by Haller. In the
Commentaries is exhibited Hunter's one weakness an inordinate love
of controversy. His impatience of contradiction he averred to be a
characteristic of anatomists, in whom he once jocularly condoned it,
on the plea that " the passive submission of dead bodies " rendered
the crossing of their will the less bearable. His great work, The
Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus, exhibited in Figures, fol., was published
in 1 774. His posthumous works are Two Introductory Lectures ( 1 784) ,
and Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid Uterus (1794),
which was re-edited by Dr E. Rigby in 1843.
See Gent. Mag. liii. pt. I, p. 364 (1783); S. F. Simmons, An
Account of the Life of W. Hunter (1783); Adams's and Ottley's Lives
of J. Hunter; Sir B. C. Brodie, Hunterian Oration (1837); W.
Munk, The Roll of the Royal College of Physicians of London, ii. 205
(1878). (F. H. B.)
HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898), Scottish
jurist and politician, was born in Aberdeen on the 8th of May
1844, and educated at Aberdeen grammar school and university.
He entered the Middle Temple, and was called to the English bar
in 1867, but then was occupied mainly with teaching. In 1869
he was appointed professor of Roman law at University College,
London, and in 1878 professor of jurisprudence, resigning that
chair in 1882. His name became well known during this period
as the author of a standard work on Roman law, Roman Law
in the Order of a Code, together with a smaller introductory
volume for students, Introduction to Roman Law. After 1882
Hunter took up politics and was elected to parliament for
Aberdeen as a Liberal in 1885. In the House of Commons he
was a prominent supporter of Charles Bradlaugh; he was the
first to advocate old age pensions, and in 1890 carried a proposal
to free elementary education in Scotland. In 1895 his health
broke down; he retired from parliament in 1896 and died on
the 2ist of July 1898.
HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-1900), British
publicist, son of Andrew Galloway Hunter, a Glasgow 'manu-
facturer, was born at Glasgow on the isth of July 1840. He
was educated at Glasgow University (B.A. 1860), Paris and
Bonn, acquiring a knowledge of Sanscrit, and passing first in the
final examination for the Indian Civil Service in 1862. Posted
in the remote district of Birbhum in the lower provinces of
Bengal, he began collecting local traditions and records, which
formed the materials for his novel and suggestive publication,
entitled The Annals of Rural Bengal, a book which did much to
stimulate public interest in the details of Indian administration.
He also compiled A Comparative Dictionary of the N on- Aryan
Languages of India, a glossary of dialects based mainly upon the
collections of Brian Houghton Hodgson, which testifies to the
industry of the writer but contains much immature philological
speculation. In 1872 he brought out two attractive volumes on
the province of Orissa and its far-famed temple of Jagannath.
In 1869 Lord Mayo asked Hunter to submit a scheme for a
comprehensive statistical survey of the Indian empire. The
work involved the compilation of a number of local gazetteers,
in various stages of progress, and their consolidation in a con-
densed form upon a single and uniform plan. The conception
was worthy of the gigantic projects formed by Arthur Young
and Sir John Sinclair at the close of the i8th century, and the
fact that it was successfully carried through between 1869 and
1 88 1 was owing mainly to the energy and determination of
Hunter. The early period of his undertaking was devoted to a
series of tours which took him into every corner of India. He
himself undertook the supervision of the statistical accounts of
Bengal (20 vols., 1875-1877) and of Assam (2 vols., 1879).
The various statistical accounts, when completed, comprised
no fewer than 128 volumes. The immense task of condensing
this mass of material proceeded concurrently with their com-
pilation, an administrative feat which enabled The Imperial
Gazetteer of India to appear in 9 volumes in 1881 (2nd ed., 14 vols.,
1885-1887; 3rd ed., 26 vols., including atlas, 1908). Hunter
adopted a transliteration of vernacular place-names, by which
means the correct pronunciation is ordinarily indicated; but
hardly sufficient allowance was made for old spellings consecrated
by history and long usage. Hunter's own article on India was
published in 1880 as A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, and
94-6
HUNTING
has been widely translated and utilized in Indian schools. A
revised form was issued in 1895, under the title of The Indian
Empire: its People, History and Products. In 1882 Hunter,
as a member of the governor-general's council, presided over the
commission on Indian Education; in 1886 he was elected vice-
chancellor of the university of Calcutta. In 1887 he retired from
the service, was created K.C.S.I., and settled at Oaken Holt, near
Oxford. He arranged with the Clarendon Press to publish a series
of Rulers of India, to which he himself contributed volumes on
Dalhousie (1890) and Mayo (1892). He had previously, in 1875,
written an official Life of Lord Mayo, in two volumes. He also
wrote a weekly article on Indian affairs for The Times. But the
great task to which he applied himself on his settlement in England
was a history upon a large scale of the British Dominion in India,
two volumes of which only had appeared when he died, carrying
the reader barely down to 1700. He was much hindered by the
confused state of his materials, a portion of which he arranged and
published in 1894 as Bengal Manuscript Records, in three volumes.
A delightful story, The Old Missionary (1895), and The Thackeray s
in India (1897), a gossipy volume which appeals to all readers of
The Newcomes, may be regarded as the relaxations of an Anglo-
Indian amid the stress of severer studies. In the winter of 1898-
1899, in consequence of the fatigue incurred in a journey to the
Caspian and back, on a visit to the sick-bed of one of his two
sons, Hunter was stricken down by a severe attack of influenza,
which affected his heart. He died at Oaken Holt on the 6th of
February 1900.
HUNTING (the verbal substantive from "hunt"; O. Eng.
huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic
hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda, booty), the pursuit of game
and wild animals, for profit or sport; equivalent to "chase"
(like " catch," from Lat. captare, Fr. chasse, Ital. caccia). The
circumstances which render necessary the habitual pursuit of
wild animals, either as a means of subsistence or for self-defence,
generally accompany a phase of human progress distinctly inferior
to the pastoral and agricultural stages; resorted to as a recreation,
however, the practice of the chase in most cases indicates a con-
siderable degree of civilization, and sometimes ultimately be-
comes the almost distinctive employment of the classes which are
possessed of most leisure and wealth. It is in some of its latter
aspects, viz. as a " sport," pursued on fixed rules and principles,
that hunting is dealt with here.
Information as to the field sports of the ancients is in many
directions extremely fragmentary. With regard to the ancient
Egyptians, however, we learn that the huntsmen
constituted an entire sub-division of the great second
Sports. caste; they either followed the chase on their own
account, or acted as the attendants of the chiefs in
their hunting excursions, taking charge of the dogs, and securing
and bringing home the game. The game was sought in the open
deserts which border on both sides the valley of the Nile; but
(by the wealthy) sometimes in enclosed spaces into which the
animals had been driven or in preserves. Besides the noose
and the net, the arrow, the dart and the hunting pole or vena-
bulum were frequently employed. The animals chiefly hunted
were the gazelle, ibex, oryx, stag, wild ox, wild sheep, hare and
porcupine; also the ostrich for its plumes, and the fox, jackal,
wolf, hyaena and leopard for their skins, or as enemies of the
farm-yard. The lion was occasionally trained as a hunting
animal instead of the dog. The sportsman appears, occasionally
at least, in the later periods, to have gone to cover in his chariot
or on horseback; according to Wilkinson, when the dogs threw
off in a level plain of great extent, it was even usual for him "to
remain in his chariot, and, urging his horses to their full speed,
endeavour to turn or intercept them as they doubled, discharging
a well-directed arrow whenever they came within its range." 1
The partiality for the chase which the ancient Egyptians mani-
fested was shared by the Assyrians and Babylonians, as is shown
by the frequency with which hunting scenes are depicted on the
walls of their temples and palaces; it is even said that their
'See on this whole subject ch. viii. of Wilkinson's Ancient
Egyptians (ii. 78-92, ed. Birch, 1878).
dresses and furniture were ornamented with similar subjects. 2
The game pursued included the lion, the wild ass, the gazelle
and the hare, and the implements chiefly employed seem to have
been the javelin and the bow. There are indications that hawk-
ing was also known. The Assyrian kings also maintained
magnificent parks, or " paradises," in which game of every kind
was enclosed; and perhaps it was from them that the Persian
sovereigns borrowed the practice mentioned both by Xenophon
in the Cyropaedia and by Curtius. According to Herodotus,
Cyrus devoted the revenue of four great towns to meet the
expenses of his hunting establishments. The circumstances
under which the death of the son of Croesus is by the same writer
(i. 34-45) related to have occurred, incidentally show in what
high estimation the recreation of hunting was held in Lydia. In
Palestine game has always been plentiful, and the Biblical
indications that it was much sought and duly appreciated are
numerous. As means of capture, nets, traps, snares and pitfalls
are most frequently alluded to; but the arrow (Isa. vii.24),the
spear and the dart (Job. xli. 26-29) are also mentioned. There
is no evidence that the use of the dog (Jos. Ant. iv. 8, 10, not-
withstanding) or of the horse in hunting was known among the
Jews during the period covered by the Old Testament history;
Herod, however, was a keen and successful sportsman, and is
recorded by Josephus (B.J. i. 21, 13, compare Ant. xv. 7, 7;
xvi. 10, 3) to have killed no fewer than forty head of game (boar,
wild ass, deer) in one day.
The sporting tastes of the ancient Greeks, as may be gathered
from many references in Homer (II. ix. 538-545; Od. ix. 120,
xvii. 295, 316, xix. 429 seq.), had developed at a very early
period; they first found adequate literary expression in the work
of Xenophon entitled Cynegeticus, 3 which expounds his principles
and embodies his experience in his favourite art of hunting.
The treatise chiefly deals with the capture of the hare; in the
author's day the approved method was to find the hare in her
form by the use of dogs; when found she was either driven into
nets previously set in her runs or else run down in the open.
Boar-hunting is also described; it was effected by nets into which
the animal was pursued, and in which when fairly entangled he
was speared. The stag, according to the same work, was taken by
means of a kind of wooden trap (7ro5ocrrpd/3r;) , which attached
itself to the foot. Lions, leopards, lynxes, panthers and bears
are also specially mentioned among the large game; sometimes
they were taken in pitfalls, sometimes speared by mounted
horsemen. As a writer on field sports Xenophon was followed by
Arrian, who in his Cynegeticus, in avowed dependence on his
predecessor, seeks to supplement such deficiencies in the earlier
treatise as arose from its author's unacquaintance with the dogs
of Gaul and the horses of Scythia and Libya. Four books of
Cynegetica, extending to about 2100 hexameters, by Oppian have
also been preserved; the last of these is incomplete, and it is
probable that a fifth at one time existed. The poem contains
some good descriptive passages, as well as some very curious
indications of the state of zoological knowledge in the author's
time. Hunting scenes are frequently represented in ancient
works of art, especially the boar-hunt, and also that of the hare.
In Roman literature allusions to the pleasures of the chase
(wild ass, boar, hare, fallow deer being specially mentioned as
favourite game) are not wanting (Virg. Georg. iii. 409-413;
Eel. iii. 75; Hor. Od. i. i, 25-28); it seems to have been viewed,
however, with less favour as an occupation for gentlemen, and
to have been chiefly left to inferiors and professionals. The
immense vivaria or theriotropheia, in which various wild animals,
such as boars, stags and roe-deer, were kept in a state of semi-
domestication, were developments which arose at a compara-
tively late period; as also were the venationes in the circus,
although these are mentioned as having been known as early
as 1 86 B.C. The bald and meagre poem of Grattius Faliscus on
hunting (Cynegetica) is modelled upon Xenophon's prose work;
a still extant fragment (315 lines) of a similar poem with the same
title, of much later date, by Nemesianus, seems to have at one
2 See Layard (Nineveh, ii. 431, 432), who cites Ammian. Marcell.
xxvi. 6, and Athen. xii. 9. * Engl. transl. by Blane.
HUNTING
947
time formed the introduction to an extended work corresponding
to that of Oppian.
That the Romans had borrowed some things in the art of
hunting from the Gauls may be inferred from the name canis
gallicus (Spanish galgo) for a greyhound, which is to be met with
both in Ovid and Martial; also in the words (canis) vertragus
and segusius, both of Celtic origin. 1 According to Strabo (p. 200)
the Britons also bred dogs well adapted for hunting purposes.
The addiction of the Franks in later centuries to the chase is
evidenced by the frequency with which not only the laity but
also the clergy were warned by provincial councils against
expending so much of their time and money on hounds, hawks
and falcons; and we have similar proof with regard to the
habits of other Teutonic nations subsequent to the introduction
of Christianity. 2 Originally among the northern nations sport
was open to every one 3 except to slaves, who were not permitted
to bear arms; the growth of the idea of game-preserving kept
pace with the development of feudalism. For its ultimate
development in Britain see FOREST LAW, where also the distinc-
tion between beasts of forest or vehery, beasts of chase and
beasts and fowls of warren is explained. See also GAME LAWS.
Modern Hunting. The term " hunting " has come to be
applied specially to the pursuit of such quarries as the stag or
fox, or to following an artificially laid scent, with horse and hound.
It thus corresponds to the Fr. chasse au courre, as distinguished
from chasse au tir, a I'oiseau, &c., and to the Ger. hetzjagd as
distinguished from birsch. In the following article the English
practice is mainly considered.
Doubtless the early inhabitants of Britain shared to a large
extent in the habits of the other Celtic peoples; the fact that
they kept good hunting dogs is vouched for by Strabo; and an
interesting illustration of the manner in which these were used
is given in the inscription quoted by Orelli (n. 1603) " Silvano
Invicto Sacrum ob aprum eximiae formae captum, quern multi
antecessores praedari non potuerunt." Asser, the biographer of
Alfred the Great, states that before the prince was twelve years
of age he " was a most expert and active hunter, and excelled in
all the branches of that noble art, to which he applied with inces-
sant labour and amazing success." 4 Of his grandson Athelstan
it is related by William of Malmesbury that after the victory of
Brunanburgh he imposed upon the vanquished king of Wales a
yearly tribute, which included a certain number of " hawks and
sharp-scented dogs fit for hunting wild beasts." According to
the same authority, one of the greatest delights of Edward the
Confessor was " to follow a pack of swift hounds in pursuit of
game, and to cheer them with his voice." It was under the
Anglo-Saxon kings that the distinction between the higher and
lower chase first came to be made the former being expressly
for the king or those on whom he had bestowed the pleasure of
sharing in it, while only the latter was allowed to the proprietors
of the land. To the reign of Cnut belong the " Constitutiones de
Foresta," according to which four thanes were appointed in
every province for the administration of justice in all matters
connected with the forests; under them were four inferior
thanes to whom was committed immediate care of the vert and
venison. 6 The severity of the forest laws which prevailed during
the Norman period is sufficient evidence of the sporting ardour
of William and his successors. The Conqueror himself " loved
the high game as if he were their father "; and the penalty
for the unauthorized slaughter of a hart or hind was loss of
both eyes.
1 Hehn, Kulturpflanzen u. Hausthiere, p. 327.
* References will be found in Smith's Dictionary of Christian
Antiquities art. on " Hunting."
3 " Vita omnis in venationibus . . . consistit," Caes. B.C., vi. 21.
" Quoties bella non ineunt, multum venatibus, plus per otium transi-
gunt," Tacitus, Germ. 15.
4 See Strutt, Sports and Pastimes, who also gives an illustration,
" taken from a manuscriptal painting of the gth century in the Cotton
Library," representing " a Saxon chieftain, attended by his hunts-
man and a couple of hounds, pursuing the wild swine in a forest."
' See Lappenberg, Hist, of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings
(ii. 361, Thorpe's trans.).
At an early period stag hunting was a favourite recreation
with English royalty. It seems probable that in the reign of
Henry VIII. the royal pack of buckhounds was kennelled
at Swinley, where, in the reign of Charles II. (1684), a
deer was found that went away to Lord Petre's seat in
Essex; only five got to the end of this 70 m. run, one being the
king's brother, the duke of York. George III. was a great stag
hunter, and met the royal pack as often as possible.
In The Chase of the Wild Red Deer, Mr Collyns says that the
earliest record of a pack of staghounds in the Exmoor district is
in 1598, when Hugh Polland, Queen Elizabeth's ranger, kept one
at Simonsbath. The succeeding rangers of Exmoor forest kept
up the pack until some 200 years ago, the hounds subsequently
passing into the possession of Mr Walter of Stevenstone, an
ancestor of the Rolle family. Successive masters continued the
sport until 1825, when the fine pack, descended probably from
the bloodhound crossed with the old southern hound, was sold in
London. It is difficult to imagine how the dispersion of such a
pack could have come about in such a sporting country, but in
1827 Sir Arthur Chichester got a pack together again. Stag
hunting begins on the i2th of August, and ends on the 8th of
October; there is then a cessation until the end of the month,
when the hounds are unkennelled for hind hunting, which con-
tinues up to Christmas; it begins again about Ladyday, and lasts
till the loth of May. The mode of hunting with the Devon and
Somerset hounds is briefly this: the whereabouts of a warrant-
able stag is communicated to the master by that important
functionary the harbourer; two couple of steady hounds called
tufters are then thrown into cover, and, having singled out a
warrantable deer, follow him until he is forced to make for the
open, when the body of the pack are laid on. Very often two or
three hours elapse before the stag breaks, but a run over the wild
country fully atones for the delay.
It is only within comparatively recent times that the fox has
come to be considered as an animal of the higher chase. William
Twici, indeed, who was huntsman-in-chief to Edward
II., and who wrote in Norman French a treatise on
hunting, 6 mentions the fox as a beast of venery, but
obviously as an altogether inferior object of sport. Strutt also
gives an engraving, assigned by him to the I4th century, in
which three hunters, one of whom blows a horn, are represented
as unearthing a fox, which is pursued by a single hound. The
precise date of the establishment of the first English pack of
hounds kept entirely for fox hunting cannot be accurately fixed.
In the work of " Nimrod " (C. J. Apperley), entitled The Chase,
there is (p. 4) an extract from a letter from Lord Arundel, dated
February 1833, in which the writer says that his ancestor, Lord
Arundel, kept a pack of foxhounds between 1690 and 1700, and
that they remained in the family till 1782, when they were sold
to the celebrated Hugh Meynell, of Quorndon Hall, Leicester-
shire. Lord Wilton again, in his Sports and Pursuits of the
English, says that "about the year 175 hounds began to be
entered solely to fox." The Field of November 6, 1875, p. 512,
contains an engraving of a hunting-horn then in the possession of
the late master of the Cheshire hounds, and upon the horn is the
inscription: " Thomas Boothby, Esq., Tooley Park, Leicester.
With this horn he hunted the first pack of foxhounds then in Eng-
land fifty-five years. Born 1677. Died 1752. Now the property
of Thomas d'Avenant, Esq., county Salop, his grandson." These
extracts do not finally decide the point, because both Mr Boothby's
and Lord Arundel's hounds may have hunted other game besides
fox, just as in Edward IV.'s time there were " fox dogs " though
not kept exclusively for fox. On the whole, it is probable that
Lord Wilton's surmise is not far from correct. Since fox hunting
first commenced, however, the system of the sport has been much
changed. In our great-grandfathers' time the hounds met early,
and found the fox by the drag, that is, by the line he took to his
kennel on his return from a foraging expedition. Hunting the
6 Le Art de venerie, translated with preface and notes by Sir
Henry Dryden (1893), new edition by Miss A. Dryden (1909), in-
cluding The Craft of Venerie from a 15th-century MS. and a I3th'
century poem La Chasse d'on cerf.
948
drag was doubtless a great test of nose, but many good runs
must have been lost thereby, for the fox must often have heard
the hounds upwind, and have moved off before they could get on
good terms with him. At the present day, the woodlands are
neither so large nor so numerous as they formerly were, while
there are many more gorse covers; therefore, instead of hunting
the drag up to it, a much quicker way of getting to work is to find
a fox in his kennel; and, the hour of the meeting being later, the
fox is not likely to be gorged with food, and so unable to take care
of himself at the pace at which the modern foxhound travels.
Cub hunting carried out on a proper principle is one of the
secrets of a successful season. To the man who cares for hunting,
as distinct from riding, September and October are not the least
enjoyable months of the whole hunting season. As soon as the
young entry have recovered from the operation of " rounding,"
arrangements for cub hunting begin. The hounds must have
first of all walking, then trotting and fast exercise, so that their
feet may be hardened, and all superfluous fat worked off by the
last week in August. So far as the hounds are concerned, the
object of cub hunting is to teach them their duty; it is a dress
rehearsal of the November business. In company with a certain
proportion of old hounds, the youngsters learn to stick to the
scent of a fox, in spite of the fondness they have acquired for
that of a hare, from running about when at walk. When cubbing
begins, a start is made at 4 or 5 A.M., and then the system is
adopted of tracking the cub by his drag. A certain amount of
blood is of course indispensable for hounds, but it should never
be forgotten that a fox cub of seven or eight months old, though
tolerably cunning, is not so very strong; the huntsman should
not therefore, be over-eager in bringing to hand every cub he
can find.
Hare hunting, which must not be confounded with Coursing
(q.v.), is an excellent school both for men and for horses. It is
attended with the advantages of being cheaper than
any other kind, and of not needing so large an area of
country. Hare hunting requires considerable skill; Beckford
even goes so far as to say: " There is more of true hunting with
harriers than with any other description of hounds. ... In the
first place, a hare, when found, generally describes a circle in
her course which naturally brings her upon her foil, which is
the greatest trial for hounds. Secondly, the scent of the hare
is weaker than that of any other animal we hunt, and, unlike
some, it is always the worse the nearer she is to her end." Hare
hunting is essentially a quiet amusement; no hallooing at
hounds nor whip-cracking should be permitted; nor should the
field make any noise when a hare is found, for, being a timid
animal, she might be headed into the hounds' mouths. Capital
exercise and much useful knowledge are to be derived by running
with a pack of beagles. There are the same difficulties to be
contended with as in hunting with the ordinary harrier, and a
very few days' running will teach the youthful sportsman that he
cannot run at the same pace over sound ground and over a deep
ploughed field, up hill and down, or along and across furrows.
Otter hunting, which is less practised now than formerly,
begins just as all other hunting is drawing to a close. When
Qtter the waterside is reached an attempt is made to hit
upon the track by which the otter passed to his
" couch," which is generally a hole communicating with the river,
into which the otter often dives on first hearing the hounds.
When the otter " vents " or comes to the surface to breathe, his
muzzle only appears above water, and when he is viewed or
traced by the mud he stirs up, or by air bubbles, the hounds are
laid on. Notwithstanding the strong scent of the otter, he often
escapes the hounds, and then a cast has to be made. When he
is viewed an attempt is made to spear him by any of the field
who may be within distance; if their spears miss, the owners
must wade to recover them. Should the otter be transfixed by
a speaf, the person who threw it goes into the water and raises
the game over his head on the spear's point. If instead of being
speared, he is caught by the hounds, he is soon worried to death
by them, though frequently not before he has inflicted some
severe wounds on one or more of the pack.
HUNTING
When railways were first started in England dismal prophecies
were made that the end of hunting would speedily be brought
about. The result on the whole has been the reverse. p .
While in some counties the sport has suffered, towns-
men who formerly would have been too far from a meet can now
secure transport for themselves and their horses in all directions;
and as a consequence, meets of certain packs are not advertised
because of the number of strangers who would be induced to
attend. The sport has never been so vigorously pursued as it was
at the beginning of the 2Oth century, 19 packs of staghounds being
kept in England and 4 in Ireland, over 170 packs of foxhounds in
England, 10 in Scotland and 23 in Ireland, with packs of harriers
and beagles too numerous to be counted. The chase of the wild
stag is carried on in the west country by the Devon and Somerset
hounds, which hunt three or four days a week from kennels at
Dunster; by the Quantock; and by a few other local packs.
In other parts of England staghound packs are devoted to the
capture of the carted deer, a business which is more or less of
a parody on the genuine sport, but is popular for the reason that
whereas with foxhounds men may have a blank day, they are
practically sure of a gallop when a deer is taken out in a cart
to be enlarged before the hounds are laid on. Complaints are
often raised about the cruelty of what is called tame stag hunting,
and it became a special subject of criticism that a pack should
still be kept at the Royal kennels at Ascot (it was abolished in
1901) and hunted by the Master of the Buckhounds; but it is
the constant endeavour of all masters and hunt servants to
prevent the infliction of any injury on the deer. Their efforts in
this direction are seldom unsuccessful; and it appears to be
a fact that stags which are hunted season after season come to
understand that they are in no grave danger. Packs of fox-
hounds vary, from large establishments in the " Shires," the
meets of which are attended by hundreds of horsemen, some of
whom keep large stables of hunters in constant work for though
a man at Melton, for instance, may see a great deal of sport with
half-a-dozen well-seasoned animals, the number is not sufficient
if he is anxious to be at all times well mounted to small kennels
in the north of England, where the field follow on foot. The
" Shires " is a recognized term, but is nevertheless somewhat
vague. The three counties included in the expression are Leicester-
shire, Rutlandshire and Northamptonshire. Several packs which
hunt within these limits are not supposed, however, to belong
to the " Shires," whereas a district of the Belvoir country is in
Lincolnshire, and to hunt with the Belvoir is certainly understood
to be hunting in the " Shires." The Shire hounds include the
Belvoir, the Cottesmore, the Quorn and the Pytchleys; for
besides the Pytchley proper, there is a pack distinguished as
the Woodland. It is generally considered that the cream of the
sport lies here, but with many of the packs which are generally
described as " provincial" equally good hunting may be obtained.
Round about London a man who is bent on the pursuit of fox
or stag may gratify his desire in many directions. The Essex
and the Essex Union, the Surrey and the Surrey Union, the Old
Berkeley, the West Kent, the Burstow, the Hertfordshire, the
Crawley and Horsham, the Puckeridge, as regards foxhounds;
the Berkhampstead, the Enfield Chase, Lord Rothschild's, the
Surrey, the West Surrey and the Warnham, as regards stag-
hounds as well as the Bucks and Berks, which was substituted
for the Royal Buckhounds are within easy reach of the capital.
Questions are constantly raised as to whether horse and hounds
have improved or deteriorated in modern times. It is probable
that the introduction of scientific agriculture has
brought about an increase of pace. Hounds hunt
as well as ever they did, are probably faster on the hounds.
whole, and in the principal hunts more thoroughbred
horses are employed. For pace and endurance no hunter
approaches the English thoroughbred; and for a bold man
who " means going," a steeplechase horse is often the best
animal that could be obtained, for when he has become too slow
to win races " between the flags," he can always gallop much
faster, and usually lasts much longer, than animals who have
not his advantage of blood. The quondam " 'chaser " is, how-
HUNTING DOG HUNTINGDON, EARLS OF
949
Hunt
servants.
ever, usually apt to be somewhat impetuous at his fences. But
it must by no means be supposed that every man who goes out
hunting desires to gallop at a great pace and to jump formidable
obstacles, or indeed any obstacles at all. A large proportion
of men who follow hounds are quite content to do so passively
through gates and gaps, with a canter along the road whenever
one is available. A few of the principal packs hunt five days a
week, and sometimes even six, and for such an establishment
not fewer than seventy-five couples of hounds are requisite.
A pack which hunts four days a week will be well supplied with
anything between fifty and sixty couples, and for two days a
week from twenty-five to thirty will suffice. The young hound
begins cub-hunting when he is some eighteen months old, and
as a rule is found to improve until his third or fourth season,
though some last longer than this. Often, however, when a
hound is five or six years old he begins to lack speed. Exceptional
animals naturally do exceptional things, and a famous hound
called Potentate is recorded by the 8th duke of Beaufort to
have done notable service in the hunting field for eleven seasons.
Servants necessary for a pack include the huntsman, the
duties of whose office a master sometimes fulfils himself; two
whippers-in, an earth-stopper and often a kennel hunts-
man is also employed, though the i8th Lord Willoughby
de Broke (d. 1902), a great authority, laid it down
that " the man who hunts the hounds should always feed them."
In all but the largest establishments the kennel huntsman is
generally called the " feeder." It is his business to look after
the pack which is not hunting, to walk them out, to prepare
the food for the hunting pack so that it is ready when they
return, and in the spring to attend to the wants of the matrons
and whelps. A kennel huntsman proper may be described as
the man who does duty when the master hunts his own hounds,
undertaking all the responsibilities of the huntsman except
actually hunting the pack. It may be said that the first duty
of a huntsman is to obtain the confidence of his hounds, to
understand them and to make himself understood; and the
intelligence of hounds is remarkable. If, for example, it is the
habit of the huntsman to give a single note on his horn when
hounds are drawing a covert, and a double note when a fox is
found, the pack speedily understand the significance. The
mysteries of scent are certainly no better comprehended now
than they were more than a hundred years ago when Peter
Beckford wrote his Thoughts on Hunting. The subject of scent
is full of mysteries. The great authority already quoted, the
8th duke of Beaufort, noted as a very extraordinary but
well-known fact, for example, " that in nine cases out of ten
if a fox is coursed by a dog during a run all scent ceases after-
wards, even when you get your hounds to the line of the fox
beyond where the dog has been." This is one of many phenomena
which have always remained inexplicable. The duties of the
whipper-in are to a great extent explained by his title. Whilst
the huntsman is drawing the cover the whipper-in is stationed
at the spot from which he can best see what is going on, in order
to view the fox away; and it is his business to keep the hounds
together when they have found and got away after the fox.
There are many ways in which a whipper-in who is not intelligent
and alert may spoil sport; indeed, the duke of Beaufort went
so far as to declare that " in his experience, with very few
exceptions, nine days out of ten that the whipper-in goes out
hunting he does more harm than good." In woodland countries,
however, a good whipper-in is really of almost as much import-
ance as the huntsman himself; if he is not alert the hounds
are likely to divide, as when running a little wide they are apt
to put up a fresh fox. The earth-stopper " stops out " and
" puts to " the first expression signifying blocking, during the
night, earths and drains to which foxes resort, the second perform-
ing the same duties in the morning so as to prevent the fox from
getting to ground when he has been found. In the interests
of humanity care should be taken that the earth-stopper always
has with him a small terrier, as it is often necessary to " stop-out "
permanently; and unless a dog is run through the drain some
unfortunate creature in it, a fox, cat or rabbit, may be imprisoned
and starved to death. This business is frequently performed
by a gamekeeper, a sum being paid him for any litter of cubs
or fox found on his beat.
With regard to the expenses of hunting, it is calculated that a
master of hounds should be prepared to spend at the rate of 500
a year for every day in the week that his hounds are
supposed to hunt. Taking one thing with another, hunting
this is probably rather under than over the mark, and
the cost of hunting three days a week, if the thing be really
properly done, will most likely be nearer 2000 than 1500. The
expenses to the individual naturally vary so much that no figures
can be given. As long ago as 1826 twenty-seven hunters and
hacks were sold for 7500 guineas, an average of over 290; and
when Lord Stamford ceased to hunt the Quorn in 1853, seventy-
three of his horses fetched at auction an average of close on 200.
Early in the igth century, when on the whole horses were much
cheaper than they are at present, 700 and 800 guineas are prices
recorded as having been occasionally paid for hunters of special
repute. A man may see some sport on an animal that cost him
40; others may consider it necessary to keep an expensive
establishment at Melton Mowbray or elsewhere in the Shires,
with a dozen or more 5oo-guinea hunters, some covert-hacks, and
a corresponding staff of servants. Few people realize what
enormous sums of money are annually distributed in connexion
with hunting. Horses must be fed; the wages of grooms and
helpers be paid; saddlery, clothing, shoeing, &c., are items;
farmers, innkeepers, railway companies, fly-men and innumerable
others benefit more or less directly. (A. E. T. W.)
HUNTING DOG (Lycaon pictus}, an African wild dog, differing
from the rest of the family in having only four toes on each foot,
and its blotched coloration of ochery yellow, black and white.
The species is nearly as large as a mastiff, with long limbs, broad
Cape Hunting Dog (Lycaon pictus).
flat head, short muzzle and large erect ears, and presents a
superficial resemblance to the spotted hyena on which account
it is sometimes called the hyena-dog. " Mimicry " has been
suggested as an explanation of this likeness; but it is difficult
to see what advantage a strong animal hunting in packs like
the present species can gain by being mistaken for a hyena,
as it is in every respect fully qualified to take care of itself.
These wild dogs are found in nearly the whole of Africa south
and east of the Sahara. The statement of Gordon Gumming
that a pack " could run into the swiftest or overcome the largest
and most powerful antelope," is abundantly confirmed, and
these dogs do great damage to sheep flocks. Several local
races of the species have been named.
HUNTINGDON, EARLS OF. GEORGE HASTINGS, ist earl of
Huntingdon 1 (c. 1488-1545), was the son and successor of
'The title of earl of Huntingdon had previously been held in
other families (see HUNTINGDONSHIRE). The famous Robin Hood
(? 1 1 60-? 1 247) is said to have had a claim to the earldom.
950
HUNTINGDON, COUNTESS OF HUNTINGDON
Edward, 2nd Baron Hastings (d. 1506), and the grandson of
William, Baron Hastings, who was put to death by Richard III.
in 1483. Being in high favour with Henry VIII., he was created
earl of Huntingdon in 1529, and he was one of the royalist
leaders during the suppression of the rising known as the Pilgrim-
age of Grace in 1536. His eldest son FRANCIS, the 2nd earl
(c. 1514-1561), was a close friend and political ally of John
Dudley, duke of Northumberland, sharing the duke's fall and
imprisonment after the death of Edward VI. in 1553; but he
was quickly released, and was employed on public business by
Mary. His brother Edward (c. 1520-1572) was one of Mary's
most valuable servants; a stout Roman Catholic, he was
master of the horse and then lord chamberlain to the queen,
and was created Baron Hastings of Loughborough in 1558, this
title becoming extinct when he died.
The 2nd earl's eldest son HENRY, the 3rd earl (c. ^535-1595),
married Northumberland's daughter Catherine. His mother
was Catherine Pole (d. 1576), a descendant of George, duke of
Clarence; and, asserting that he was thus entitled to succeed
Elizabeth on the English throne, Huntingdon won a certain
amount of support, especially from the Protestants and the
enemies of Mary, queen of Scots. In 1572 he was appointed
president of the council of the north, and during the troubled
period between the flight of Mary to England in 1568 and the
defeat of the Spanish armada twenty years later he was frequently
employed in the north of England. It was doubtless felt that
the earl's own title to the crown was a pledge that he would
show scant sympathy with the advocates of Mary's claim.
He assisted George Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, to remove the
Scottish queen from Wingfield to Tutbury, and for a short time
in 1569 he was one of her custodians. Huntingdon was re-
sponsible for the compilation of an elaborate history of the
Hastings family, a manuscript copy of which is now in the
British Museum. As he died childless, his earldom passed to his
brother George. Another brother, Sir Francis Hastings (d. 1610),
was a member of parliament and a prominent puritan during
Elizabeth's reign, but is perhaps more celebrated as a writer.
GEORGE, the 4th earl (c. 1540-1604), was the grandfather of
HENRY, the sth earl (1586-1643), and the father of Henry
Hastings (c. 1560-1650), a famous sportsman, whose character
has been delineated by the ist earl of Shaftesbury (see L. Howard,
A Collection of Letters, &c., 1753). The 6th earl was the 5th
earl's son FERDINANDO (c. 1608-1656). His brother Henry,
Baron Loughborough (c. 1610-1667), won fame as a royalist
during the Civil War, and was created a baron in 1643.
THEOPHILUS, the 7th earl (1650-1701), was the only surviving
son of the 6th earl. In early life he showed some animus against
the Roman Catholics and a certain sympathy for the duke of
Monmouth; afterwards, however, he was a firm supporter
of James II., who appointed him to several official positions. He
remained in England after the king's flight and was imprisoned,
but after his release he continued to show his hostility to
William III. One of his daughters, Lady Elizabeth Hastings
(1682-1739), gained celebrity for her charities and her piety.
Her beauty drew encomiums from Congreve and from Steele in
the pages of the Taller, and her other qualities were praised by
William Law. She was a benefactor to Queen's College, Oxford.
The 7th earl's sons, George and Theophilus, succeeded in turn
to the earldom. GEORGE (1677-1705) was a soldier who served
under Marlborough, and THEOPHILUS (1696-1746) was the
husband of the famous Selina, countess of Huntingdon (q.v.).
Theophilus was succeeded by his son FRANCIS (1720-1789),
on whose death unmarried the baronies passed to his sister
Elizabeth (1731-1808), wife of John Rawdon, earl of Moira, and
the earldom became dormant.
The title of earl of Huntingdon was assumed by THEOPHILUS
HENRY HASTINGS (1728-1804), a descendant of the 2nd earl, who,
however, had taken no steps to prove his title when he died.
But, aided by his friend Henry Nugent Bell (1792-1822), his
nephew and heir, HANS FRANCIS HASTINGS (1779-1828), was
more energetic, and in 1818 his right to the earldom was declared
proved, and he took his seat in the House of Lords. He did not,
however, recover the estates. Before thus becoming the nth
(or 1 2th) earl, Hastings had served for many years in the navy,
and after the event he was appointed governor of Dominica.
He died on the gth of December 1828 and was succeeded by his
son FRANCIS THEOPHILUS HENRY (1808-1875), whose grandson,
WARNER FRANCIS, became i4th or isth earl of Huntingdon in
1885. Another of the nth earl's sons was Vice-admiral George
Fowler Hastings (1814-1876).
See H. N. Bell, The Huntingdon Peerage (1820).
HUNTINGDON, SELINA HASTINGS, COUNTESS OF (1707-
1791), English religious leader and founder of a sect of Calvinistic
Methodists, known as the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion,
was the daughter of Washington Shirley, 2nd Earl Ferrers. She
was born at Stanton Harold, a mansion near Ashby-de-la-Zouch
in Leicestershire, on the 24th of August 1707, and in her twenty-
first year was married to Theophilus Hastings, 9th earl of
Huntingdon. In 1739 she joined the first Methodist society in
Fetter Lane, London. On the death of her husband in 1746 she
threw in her lot with Wesley and Whitefield in the work of
the great revival. Isaac Watts, Philip Doddridge and A. M.
Toplady were among her friends. In 1748 she gave Whitefield a
scarf as her chaplain, and in that capacity he frequently preached
in her London house in Park Street to audiences that included
Chesterfield, Walpole and Bolingbroke. In her chapel at Bath
there was a curtained recess dubbed " Nicodemus's corner "
where some of the bishops sat incognito to hear him. Lady
Huntingdon spent her ample means in building chapels in
different parts of England, e.g. at Brighton (1761), London and
Bath (1765), Tunbridge Wells (1769), and appointed ministers to
officiate in them, under the impression that as a peeress she had a
right to employ as many chaplains as she pleased. It is said that
she expended 100,000 in the cause of religion. In 1768 she con-
verted the old mansion of Trevecca, near Talgarth, in South
Wales, into a theological seminary for young ministers for the
connexion. Up to 1779 Lady Huntingdon and her chaplains
continued members of the Church of England, but in that year
the prohibition of her chaplains by the consistorial court from
preaching in the Pantheon, a large building in London rented for
the purpose by the countess, compelled her, in order to evade the
injunction, to take shelter under the Toleration Act. This step,
which placed her legally among dissenters, had the effect of
severing from the connexion several eminent and useful members,
among them William Romaine (1714-1795) and Henry Venn
(1725-1797). Till her death in London on the i7th of June 1791,
Lady Huntingdon continued to exercise an active, and even
autocratic, superintendence over her chapels and chaplains.
She successfully petitioned George III. in regard to the gaiety of
Archbishop Cornwallis's establishment, and made a vigorous
protest against the anti-Calvinistic minutes of the Wesleyan
Conference of 1770, and against relaxing the terms of subscription
in 1772. Her sixty-four chapels and the college were bequeathed
to four trustees. In 1792 the college was removed to Cheshunt,
Hertfordshire, where it remained till 1905, when it was transferred
to Cambridge. The college is remarkable for the number of men
it has sent into the foreign mission field.
The connexion in 1910 consisted of 44 churches and mission stations,
with a roll of about 2400 communicants under 26 ordained pastors.
The government is vested by the trust deed, sanctioned by the court
of Chancery on the 1st of January 1899, in nine trustees assisted by a
conference of delegates from each church in the trust. The endow-
ments of the trust produce 1500 per annum, and are devoted to four
purposes: grants in aid of the ministry; annuities to ministers over
sixty years of age who have given more than twenty years' continuous
service in the connexion, or to their widows; grants for the main-
tenance and extension of the existing buildings belonging to the trust ;
grants to assist in purchasing chapels and chapel sites. In addition
the trustees may grant loans for the encouragement of new pro-
gressive work from a loan fund of about 8000.
See The Life of the Countess of Huntingdon (London, 2 vols., 1844) ;
A. H. New, The Coronet and the Cross, or Memorials of Selina,
Countess of Huntingdon (1857); Sarah Tytler, The Countess of
Huntingdon and her Circle (1907).
HUNTINGDON, a market town and municipal borough and the
county town of Huntingdonshire, England, on the left bank of
the Ouse, on the Great Northern, Great Eastern and Midland
HUNTINGDON HUNTINGDONSHIRE
railways, 59 m. N. of London. Pop. (1901) 4261. It consists
principally of one street, about a mile long, in the centre of which is
the market-place. Of the ancient religious houses in Huntingdon
few traces remain. The parish church of St Mary occupies the
site of the priory of Augustinian Canons already existing in the
loth century, in which David Bruce, Scottish earl of Huntingdon,
was afterwards buried. The church, which was restored by Sir
A. W. Blomfield, in 1876, contains portions of the earlier building
which it replaced in 1620. All Saints' church, rebuilt about a
century earlier, has slight remains of the original Norman church
and some good modern, as well as ancient, carved woodwork.
The church registers dating from 1558 are preserved, together
with those of the old parish of St John, which date from 1585 and
contain the entry of Oliver Cromwell's baptism on the 2gth of
April 1599, the house in which he was born being still in existence.
Some Norman remains of the hospice of St John the Baptist
founded by David, king of Scotland, at the end of the i2th
century were incorporated in the buildings of Huntingdon
grammar school, once attended by Oliver Cromwell and by
Samuel Pepys. Hinchingbrooke House, on the outskirts of the
town, an Elizabethan mansion chiefly of the i6th century, was
the seat of the Cromwell family, others of the Montagus, earls
of Sandwich. It occupies the site of a Benedictine nunnery
granted by Henry VIII. at the Dissolution, together with many
other manors in Huntingdonshire, to Sir Richard Williams, alias
Cromwell, whose son, Sir Henry Cromwell, entertained Queen
Elizabeth here in 1564. His son, Sir Oliver Cromwell, was the
uncle and godfather of the Protector. Among the buildings of
Huntingdon are the town hall (1745), county gaol, barracks,
county hospital and the Montagu Institute (1897). A racecourse
is situated in the bend of the Ouse to the south of the town,
and meetings are held here in August. The town is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1074 acres.
Huntingdon (Huntandun, Hunter sdune) was taken by the
Danes in King Alfred's reign but recovered c. 919 by Edward the
Elder, who raised a castle there, probably on the site of an older
fortress. In 1010 the Danes destroyed the town. The castle
was strengthened by David, king of Scotland, after the Conquest,
but was among the castles destroyed by order of Henry II. At
the time of the Domesday Survey Huntingdon was divided into
four divisions, two containing 116 burgesses and the other two
140. Most of the burgesses belonged to the king and paid a rent of
10 yearly. King John in 1205 granted theni the liberties and
privileges held by the men of other boroughs in England and
increased the farm to 20. Henry III. further increased it to
40 in 1252. The borough was incorporated by Richard III. in
1483 under the title of bailiffs and burgesses, and in 1630 Charles
I. granted a new charter., appointing a mayor and 12 aldermen,
which remained the governing charter until the Municipal
Corporations Act of 1835 changed the corporation to a mayor,
4 aldermen and 12 councillors. The burgesses were represented
in parliament by two members from 1295 to 1867, when the
number was reduced to one, and in 1885 they ceased to be
separately represented. Huntingdon owed its prosperity to its
situation on the Roman Ermine Street. It has never been noted
for manufactures, but is the centre of an agricultural district.
The market held on Saturday was granted to the burgesses by
King John. During the Civil Wars Huntingdon was several
times occupied by the Royalists.
See Victoria County History, Huntingdon; Robert Carruthers,
The History of Huntingdon from the Earliest to the Present Times
(1824); Edward Griffith, A Collection of Ancient Records relating to
the Borough of Huntingdon (1827).
HUNTINGDON, a borough and the county-seat of Huntingdon
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Juniata river, about 150
m. E. of Pittsburg, in the S. central part of the state. Pop.
(1890) 5729, (1900) 6053, of whom 225 were foreign-born.
It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Huntingdon & Broad
Top Mountain railways, the latter running to the Broad Top
Mountain coalfields in the S.W. part of the county. The borough
is built on ground sloping gently towards the river, which furnishes
valuable water power. The surrounding country is well adapted
to agriculture, and abounds in coal, iron, fire clay, limestone
and white sand. Huntingdon's principal manufactures are
stationery, flour, knitting-goods, furniture, boilers, radiators
and sewer pipe. It is the seat of Juniata College (German
Baptist Brethren), opened in 1876 as the Brethren's Normal School
and Collegiate Institute, and rechartered as Juniata College in
1896, and of the State Industrial Reformatory, opened in 1888.
Indians (probably Oneidas) settled near the site of Huntingdon,
erected here a tall pillar, known as " Standing Stone "; the
original was removed by the Indians, but another has been
erected by the borough on the same spot. The place was laid
out as a town in 1767 under the direction of Dr William Smith
(1727-1803), at the time provost of the college of Pennsylvania
(afterwards the university of Pennsylvania); and it was named
in honour of the countess of Huntingdon, who had contributed
liberally toward the maintenance of that institution. It was
incorporated as a borough in 1796.
HUNTINGDONSHIRE (HUNTS), an east midland county of
England, bounded N. and W. by Northamptonshire, S.W. by
Bedfordshire and E. by Cambridgeshire. Among English
counties it is the smallest with the exception of Middlesex and
Rutland, having an area of 366 sq. m. The surface is low, and
for the most part bare of trees. The south-eastern corner of
the county, bounded by the Ouse valley, is traversed by a low
ridge of hills entering from Cambridgeshire, and continued
over the whole western half of the county, as well as in a strip
about 6 m. broad north of the Ouse, between Huntingdon and
St Ives. These hills never exceed 300 ft. in height, but form
a pleasantly undulating surface. The north-eastern part of
the county, comprising 50,000 acres, belongs to that division
of the great Fen district called the Bedford Levels. The prin-
cipal rivers are the Ouse and Nene. The Ouse from Bedfordshire
skirts the borders of the county near St Neots, and after flow-
ing north to Huntingdon takes an easterly direction past St
Ives into Cambridgeshire on its way to the Wash. The Kym,
from Northamptonshire, follows a south-easterly course and
joins the Ouse at St Neots, while the Alconbury brook, flowing
in a parallel direction, falls into it at Huntingdon. The
Nene forms for 15 m. the north-western border of the
county, and quitting it near Peterborough, enters the Wash
below Wisbech, in Cambridgeshire. The course of the Old
River Nene is eastward across the county midway between
Huntingdon and Peterborough, and about i| m. N. by E. of
Ramsey it is intersected by the Forty Foot, or Vermuyden's
Drain, a navigable cut connecting it with the Old Bedford river
in Cambridgeshire.
Geology. The geological structure is very simple. All the strati-
fied rocks are of Jurassic age, with the exception of a small area
of Lower Greensand which extends for a short distance along the
border, north of Potton. The Greensands form low, rounded hills.
Phosphatic nodules are obtained from these beds. On the north-
western border is a narrow strip of Inferior Oolite, reaching from
Thrapston by Oundle to Wansford near Peterborough. It is repre-
sented about Wansford by the Northampton sands and by a feeble
development of the Lincolnshire limestone. The Great Oolite Series
has at the base the Upper Estuarine clays; in the middle, the Great
Oolite limestone, which forms the escarpment of Alwalton Lynch;
and at the top, the Great Oolite clay. The Cornbrash is exposed
along part of the Billing brook, and in a small inlier near Yaxley.
Over the remainder of the county the lower rocks are covered by the
Oxford clay. It is about 600 ft. thick. This clay cannot be dis-
tinguished from the Kimmeridge clay except by the fossils; the two
formations probably graduate into one another, but thin limestones
are found in places, and at St Ives a patch of the intermediate
Corallian rock is present. All the stratified rocks have a general dip
towards the south-east.
Much glacial drift clay with stones covers the older rocks over a
good deal of the county; it is a bluish clay, often containing masses
of chalk, some of them being of considerable size, e.g. the one at
Catworth. The Fens on the eastern side of the county are under-
lain by Oxford clay, which here and there projects through the
prevailing newer deposit of silt and loam. There are usually two
beds of peat or peaty soil observable in the numerous drains; they
are separated by a bed of marine warp. Black loamy alluvium and
valley gravels, the most recent deposits, occur in the valleys of the
Ouse and Nene. Calcareous tufa is formed by the springs near
Alwalton. Oxford clay is dug on a considerable scale for brick-
making at Fletton, also at St Ives, Ramsey and St Neots.
952
HUNTINGDONSHIRE
Agriculture. Huntingdonshire is almost wholly an agricultural
county; nearly nine-tenths of its total area is under cultivation,
and much improvement has been effected by drainage. On
account of the tenacity of the clay the drains often require to
be placed very close. Much of the soil is, however, undrained,
and only partly used for pasturage. On the drained pasturage
a large number of cattle are fed. The district comprising the
gravel of the Ouse valley embraces an area of 50,000 acres.
On the banks of the Ouse it consists of fine black loam deposited
by the overflow of the river, and its meadows form very rich
pasture grounds. The upland district is under arable culture.
Wheat is much more extensively grown than any other grain.
Barley is more widely cultivated than oats, but its quality on
many soils is lean and inferior, and unsuitable for malting
purposes. Beans and pease are largely grown, while mangold
and cabbage and similar green crops are chiefly used for the
feeding of sheep. During the last quarter of the igth century
there was a large decrease in the areas of grain crops and of
fallow, and an increase in that of permanent pasture. Market-
gardening and fruit-farming, however, greatly increased in
importance. Willows are largely grown in the fen district.
Good drinking water is deficient in many districts, but there are
three natural springs, once famous for the healing virtues their
waters were thought to possess, namely, at Hail Weston near
St Neots, at Holywell near St Ives and at Somersham in the
same district. Bee-farming is largely practised. Dairy-farming
is not much followed, the milk being chiefly used for rearing
calves. The village of Stilton, on the Great North Road, had
formerly a large market for the well-known cheese to which
it has given its name. Large numbers of cattle are fattened in
the field or the fold-yard, and are sold when rising three years
old. They are mostly of the shorthorn breed, large numbers
of Irish shorthorns being wintered in the fens. Leicesters and
Lincolns are the most common breeds of sheep; they usually
attain great weights at an early age. Pigs include Berkshire,
Suffolk and Neapolitan breeds, and a number of crosses. Their
fattening and breeding are extensively practised.
Other Industries. There is no extensive manufacture, but the
chief is that of paper and parchment. Madder is obtained in
considerable quantities, and in nearly every part of the county
lime burning is -carried on. Lace-making is practised by the
female peasantry; and the other industries are printing, iron-
founding, tanning and currying, brick and tile making, malting
and brewing.
Communications. The middle of the county is traversed from
south to north by the Great Northern railway, which enters
it at St Neots and passing by Huntingdon leaves it at Peter-
borough. A branch line running eastward to Ramsey is given
off at Holme junction, midway between Huntingdon and
Peterborough. From Huntingdon branch lines of the Midland
and the Great Eastern run respectively west and east to Thrapston
(Northamptonshire) and to Cambridge via St Ives. From St
Ives Great Eastern lines also run N.E. to Ely (Cambridgeshire)
via Earith Bridges on the county border, and N. to Wisbech
(Cambridgeshire) with a branch line westward from Somersham
to Ramsey. The north-western border is served by the Great
Northern and the London and North- Western railways between
Peterborough and Wansford, where they part.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 234,218 acres, with a population in 1891 of 57,761,
and in 1901 of 57,771. The area of the administrative county
is 233,984 acres. The county contains 4 hundreds. The muni-
cipal boroughs are Godmanchester (pop. 2017), Huntingdon,
the county town (4261) and St Ives (2910). The other urban
districts are Old Fletton (4585), Ramsey (4823) and St Neots
(3880). The county is in the south-eastern circuit, and assizes
are held at Huntingdon. It has one court of quarter sessions,
and is divided into five petty sessional divisions. There are 105
civil parishes. Huntingdonshire, which contains 87 ecclesiastical
parishes or districts wholly or in part, is almost wholly in the
diocese of Ely, but a small part is in that of Peterborough.
The parliamentary divisions, each of which returns one member,
are the Northern or Ramsey and the Southern or Huntingdon.
Part of the parliamentary borough of Peterborough also falls
within the county.
History. The earliest English settlers in the district were the
Gyrwas, an East Anglian tribe, who early in the 6th century
worked their way up the Ouse and the Cam as far as Huntingdon.
After their conquest of East Anglia in the latter half of the gth
century, Huntingdon became an important seat of the Danes,
and the Danish origin of the shire is borne out by an entry in the
Saxon Chronicle (918-921) referring to Huntingdon as a military
centre to which the surrounding district owed allegiance, while
the shire itself is mentioned in the Hisloria Eliensis in connexion
with events which took place before or shortly after the death
of Edgar. About 915 Edward the Elder wrested the fen-country
from the Danes, repairing and fortifying Huntingdon, and a
few years later the district was included in the earldom of
East Anglia. Religious foundations were established at Ramsey,
Huntingdon and St Neots in the loth century, and that of
Ramsey accumulated vast wealth and influence, owning twenty-
six manors in this county alone at the time of the Domesday
Survey. In ion Huntingdonshire was again overrun by the
Danes and in 1016 was attacked by Canute. A few years later
the shire was included in the earldom of Thored (of the Middle
Angles), but in 1051 it was detached from Mercia and formed
part of the East Anglian earldom of Harold. Shortly before
the Conquest, however, it was bestowed on Siward, as a reward
for his part in Godwin's overthrow, and became an outlying
portion of the earldom of Northumberland, passing through
Waltheof and Simon de St Liz to David of Scotland. After the
separation of the earldom from the crown of Scotland during
the Bruce and Balliol disputes, it was conferred in 1336 on
William Clinton; in 1377 on Guichard d'Angle; in 1387 on
John Holand; in 1471 on Thomas Grey, afterwards marquess of
Dorset; and in 1529 on George, Baron Hastings, whose descend-
ants hold it at the present day.
The Norman Conquest was followed by a general confiscation
of estates, and only four or five thanes retained lands which
they or their fathers had held in the time of Edward the Confessor.
Large estates were held by the church, and the rest of the county
for the most part formed outlying portions of the fiefs of William's
Norman favourites, that of Count Eustace of Boulogne, the sheriff,
of whose tyrannous exactions bitter complaints are recorded,
being by far the most considerable. Kimbolton was fortified
by Geoffrey de Mandeville and afterwards passed to the families
of Bohun and Stafford.
The hundreds of Huntingdon were probably of very early
origin, and that of Norman Cross is referred to in 963. The
Domesday Survey, besides the four existing divisions of Norman
Cross, Toseland, Hurstingstone and Leightonstone, which from
their assessment appear to have been double hundreds, mentions
an additional hundred of Kimbolton, since absorbed in Leighton-
stone, while Huntingdon is assessed separately at fifty hides.
The boundaries of the county have scarcely changed since the
time of the Domesday Survey, except that parts of the Bedford-
shire parishes of Everton, Pertenhall and Keysoe and the
Northamptonshire parish of Hargrave were then assessed under
this county. Huntingdonshire was formerly in the diocese of
Lincoln, but in 1837 was transferred to Ely. In 1291 it consti-
tuted an archdeaconry, comprising the deaneries of Huntingdon,
St Ives, Yaxley and Leightonstone, and the divisions re-
mained unchanged until the creation of the deanery of Kimbolton
in 1879.
At the time of the Domesday Survey Huntingdonshire had
an independent shrievalty, but from 1154 it was united with
Cambridgeshire under one sheriff, until in 1637 the two counties
were separated for six years, after which they were reunited
and have remained so to the present day. The shire-court
was held at Huntingdon.
In 1174 Henry II. captured and destroyed Huntingdon Castle.
After signing the Great Charter John sent an army to ravage this
county under William, earl of Salisbury, and Falkes de Breaute.
During the wars of the Roses Huntingdon was sacked by the
HUNTINGTON, D. HUNTINGTON
953
Lancastrians. The county resisted the illegal taxation of Charles
I. and joined in a protest against the arrest of the five members.
In 1642 it was one of the seven associated counties in which the
king had no visible party. Hinchingbrook, however, was held
for Charles by Sir Sydney Montagu, and in 1645 Huntingdon
was captured and plundered by the Royalist forces. The chief
historic family connected with this county were the Cromwells,
who held considerable estates in the i6th century.
Huntingdonshire has always been mainly an agricultural
county, and at the time of the Domesday Survey contained
thirty-one mills, besides valuable fisheries in its meres and rivers.
The woollen industry flourished in the county from Norman
times, and previous to the draining of its fens in the tyth century,
by which large areas were brought under cultivation, the in-
dustries of turf-cutting, reed-cutting for thatch and the manu-
facture of horse-collars from rushes were carried on in Ramsey
and the surrounding district. In the I7th century saltpetre
was manufactured in the county. In the i8th century women
and children were largely employed in spinning yarn, and pillow-
lace making and the straw-plait industry flourished in the St
Neots district, where it survives; pillow lace was also manu-
factured at Godmanchester. In the early igth century there
were two large sacking manufactures at Standground, and
brewing and malting were largely carried on.
Huntingdonshire was represented by three members in parlia-
ment in 1290. From 1295 the county and borough of Huntingdon
returned two members each, until in 1868 the representation
of the borough was reduced to one member. By the act of 1885
the borough was disfranchised.
Antiquities. Huntingdonshire early became famous on account
of its great Benedictine abbey at Ramsey and the Cistercian
abbey founded in 1146 at Sawtry, 7 m. W. of Ramsey; besides
which there were priories at Huntingdon and Stonely, both
belonging to the Augustinian canons, and at St Ives and St
Neots belonging to the Benedictines, together with a Benedic-
tine nunnery at Hinchingbrook, near Huntingdon. Of these
buildings almost the only remains are at Ramsey and St Ives.
The most interesting churches for Norman architecture are
Hartford near Huntingdon, Old Fletton near Peterborough
(containing on the exterior some carved ornament said to have
belonged to the original Saxon cathedral at Peterborough),
Ramsey and Alwalton, a singular combination of Norman and
Early English. Early English churches are Kimbolton, Alcon-
bury, Warboys and Somersham, near Ramsey, and Hail Weston
near St Neots, with a 15th-century wooden tower and spire.
Decorated are Orton Longueville and Yaxley, both near Peter-
borough, the latter containing remains of frescoes on its walls;
Perpendicular, St Neots, Connington near Ramsey and God-
manchester. At Buckden near Huntingdon are remains of a
palace (i$th century) of the bishops of Lincoln. There were two
ancient castles in the county, at Huntingdon and at Kimbolton,
of which only the second remains as a mansion. Hinchingbrook
House, Huntingdon, was the seat of the Cromwell family.
Connington Castle passed, like the title of earl of Huntingdon,
through the hands of Waltheof, Simon de St Liz and the Scottish
royal family, and was finally inherited by Sir Robert Cotton
the antiquary, who was born in the neighbourhood, and is
buried in Connington church. Elton Hall, on the north-west
border of the county, was rebuilt about 1660, and contains,
besides a good collection of pictures, chiefly by English masters,
a library which includes many old and rare prayer-books, Bibles
and missals.
Norman Cross, 13 m. N. of Huntingdon, on the Great North
Road, marks the site of the place of confinement of several thousand
French soldiers during the Napoleonic wars at the beginning of the
I9th century. The village of Little Gidding, 9 m. >f.W. of Hunt-
ingdon, is memorable for its connexion with Nicholas Ferrar
in the reign of Charles I., when the religious community of which
Ferrar was the head was organized. Relics connected with this
community are preserved in the British Museum.
HUNTINGTON, DANIEL (1816-1906), American artist, was
born in New York on the I4th of October 1816. In 1835 he
studied with S. F. B. Morse, and produced " A Bar-Room
Politician " and " A Toper Asleep." Subsequently he painted
some landscapes on the river Hudson, and in 1839 went to Rome.
On his return to America he painted portraits and began the
illustration of The Pilgrim's Progress, but his eyesight failed,
and in 1844 he went back to Rome. Returning to New York
in 1846, he devoted his time chiefly to portrait-painting, although
he has painted many genre, religious and historical subjects.
He was president of the National Academy from 1862 to 1870,
and again in 1877-1890. Among his principal works are:
"The Florentine Girl," "Early Christian Prisoners," "The
Shepherd Boy of the Campagna," " The Roman Penitents,"
" Christiana and Her Children," " Queen Mary signing the
Death- Warrant of Lady Jane Grey," and " Feckenham in the
Tower " (1850), " Chocorua " (1860), " Republican Court in the
Time of Washington," containing sixty-four careful portraits
(186!), " Sowing the Word " (1869), " St Jerome," " Juliet on the
Balcony" (1870), "TheNarrows, Lake George" (1871), "Titian "
" Clement VII. and Charles V. at Bologna," " Philosophy and
Christian Art " (1878), " Goldsmith's Daughter " (1884). His
principal portraits are: President Lincoln, in Union League
Club, New York; Chancellor Ferris of New York University;
Sir Charles Eastlake and the earl of Carlyle, the property of
the New York Historical Society; President Van Buren, in the
State Library at Albany; James Lenox, in the Lenox Library;
Louis Agassiz (1856-1857), William Cullen Bryant (1866), John
A. Dix (1880) and John Sherman (1881). He died on the igth
of April 1906 in New York City.
HUNTINGTON, FREDERIC DAN (1819-1904), American
clergyman, first Protestant Episcopal bishop of central New
York, was born in Hadley, Massachusetts, on the 28th of May
1819. He graduated at Amherst in 1839 and at the Harvard
Divinity School in 1842. In 1842-1855 he was pastor of the
South Congregational Church of Boston, and in 1855-1860 was
preacher to the university and Plummer professor of Christian
Morals at Harvard; he then left the Unitarian Church, with
which his father had been connected as a clergyman at Hadley,
resigned his professorship and became pastor of the newly
established Emmanuel Church of Boston. He had refused the
bishopric of Maine when in 1868 he was elected to the diocese of
central New York. He was consecrated on the gth of April 1869,
and thereafter lived in Syracuse. He died in Hadley, Massa-
chusetts, on the nth of July 1904. His more important publica-
tions were Lectures on Human Society (1860); Memorials of a
Quiet Life (1874); and The Golden Rule applied to Business
and Social Conditions (1892).
See Memoir and Letters of Frederic Dan Htmtington (Boston, 1906),
by Arria S. Huntingdon, his wife.
HUNTINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Huntington
county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Little river, about 25 m. S.W.
of Fort Wayne. Pop. (1900) 9491, of whom 621 were foreign-
born; (1906, estimate) 11,047. Huntington is served by three
railways the Wabash, the Erie (which has car shops and
division headquarters here) and the Cincinnati, Bluffton &
Chicago (which has machine shops here) , and by the Fort Wayne
& Wabash Valley Traction Company, whose car and repair shops
and power station are in Huntington. The city has a public
library, a business college and Central College (1897), controlled
by the United Brethren in Christ (Old Constitution). Wooden--
ware is the principal manufacture. The value of the factory
product in 1905 was $2,081,019, an increase of 20-6% since
1900. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks
and the electric-lighting plant. Huntington, named in honour
of Samuel Huntington (1736-1796), of Connecticut, a signer
of the Declaration of Independence, was first settled about 1829,
was incorporated as a town in 1848 and was chartered as a
city in 1873.
HUNTINGTON, a township of Suffolk county, New York,
U.S.A., in the central part of the N. side of Long Island, bounded
on the N. by Huntington Bay, a part of Long Island Sound.
Pop. (1905, state census) 10,236; (1910) 12,004. The S. part
of the township is largely taken up with market-gardening;
but along the Sound are the villages of Huntington, Cold Spring
954
HUNTINGTON HUNTLY, MARQUESSES OF
Harbor, Centreport and Northport, which are famous for the
fine residences owned by New York business men; they are
served by the Wading river branch of the Long Island Railroad.
Northport pop. . (1910 census) 2096 incorporated in 1894,
is the most easterly of these; it has a large law-publishing house,
shipbuilding yards and valuable oyster-fisheries. Cold Spring
Harbor, 32 m. E. of Brooklyn, is a small unincorporated village,
once famous for its whale-fisheries, and now best known for
the presence here of the New York State Fish Hatchery, and of
the Biological Laboratory of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences and of the laboratory of the Department of Experimental
Evolution of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The village
of Huntington, 3^ m. E. of Cold Spring, is unincorporated, but
is the most important of the three and has the largest summer
colony. There is a public park on the water-front. The Soldiers'
and Sailors' Memorial Building is occupied by the public library,
which faces a monument to Nathan Hale on Main Street. A big
boulder on the shore of the bay marks the place of Hale's capture
by the British on the 2ist of September 1776. Benjamin
Thompson (Count Rumford) occupied the village and built a
British fort here near the close of the American War of Inde-
pendence. Huntington's inhabitants were mostly strong patriots,
notably Ebenezer Prime (1700-1779), pastor of the First
Presbyterian Church, which the British used as a barracks, and
his son Benjamin Young Prime (1733-1791), a physician, linguist
and patriot poet, who was the father of Samuel Irenaeus Prime
(1812-1885), editor of the New York Observer. Walt Whitman
was born near the village of Huntington, and established there
in 1836, and for three years edited, the weekly newspaper
the Long Islander. The first settlement in the township was
made in 1653; in 1662-1664 Huntington was under the govern-
ment of Connecticut. The township until 1872 included the
present township of Babylon to the S., along the Great
South Bay.
HUNTINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Cabell county,
West Virginia, U.S.A., about 50 m. W. of Charleston, W. Va.,
on the S. bank of the Ohio river, just below the mouth of the
Guyandotte river. Pop. (1900) 11,923, of whom 1212 were
negroes; (1910 census) 31,161. It is served by the Baltimore
& Ohio and the Chesapeake & Ohio railways, and by several
lines of river steamboats. The city is the seat of Marshall College
(founded in 1837; a State Normal School in 1867), which in
1907-1908 had 34 instructors and noo students; and of the
West Virginia State Asylum for the Incurable Insane; and it
has a Carnegie library and a city hospital. Huntington has
extensive railway car and repair shops, besides foundries and
machine shops, steel rolling mills, manufactories of stoves and
ranges, breweries and glass works. The value of the city's
factory product in 1905 was $4,407,153, an increase of 21%
over that of 1900. Huntington dates from 1871, when it became
the western terminus of the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, was
named in honour of Collis P. Huntington (1821-1900), the
president of the road, and was incorporated.
HUNTINGTOWER AND RUTHVENFIELD, a village of
Perthshire, Scotland, on the Almond, 3 m. N.W. of Perth, and
within i m. of Almondbank station on the Caledonian railway.
Pop. (1901) 459. Bleaching, the chief industry, dates from
1774, when the bleaching-field was formed. By means of an old
aqueduct, said to have been built by the Romans, it was provided
with water from the Almond, the properties of which render
it specially suited for bleaching. Huntingtower (originally
Ruthven) Castle, a once formidable structure, was the scene of
the Raid of Ruthven (pron. Riwen), when the Protestant lords,
headed by William, 4th Lord Ruthven and ist earl of Cowrie
(1541-1584), kidnapped the boy-king James VI., on the 22nd of
August 1582. The earl's sons were slain in the attempt (known
as the Cowrie conspiracy) to capture James VI. (1600), con-
sequent on which the Scots parliament ordered the name of
Ruthven to be abolished, and the barony to be known in future
as Huntingtower.
HUNTLY, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. This Scottish
title, in the Gordon family, dates as to the earldom from 1449,
and as to the marquessate (the premier marquessate in Scotland)
from 1599. The first earl (d. 1470) was Alexander de Seton,
lord of Gordon a title known before 1408; and his son George
(d. 1502), by his marriage with Princess Annabella (afterwards
divorced), daughter of James I. of Scotland, had several children,
including, besides his successor the 3rd earl (Alexander), a second
son Adam (who became earl of Sutherland) , a third son William
(from whom the mother of the poet Byron was descended)
and a daughter Katherine, who first married Perkin Warbeck
and afterwards Sir Matthew Cradock (from whom the earls of
Pembroke descended). Alexander, the 3rd earl (d. 1524), con-
solidated the position of his house as supreme in the north; he
led the Scottish vanguard at Flodden, and was a supporter of
Albany against Angus. His grandson George, 4th earl (1514-
1562), who in 1548 was granted the earldom of Moray, played
a leading part in the troubles of his time in Scotland, and in 1562
revolted against Queen Mary and was killed in fight at Corrichie,
near Aberdeen. His son George (d. 1576) was restored to the
forfeited earldom in 1565; he became Bothwell's close associate
he helped Bothwell, who had married his sister, to obtain a
divorce from her; and he was a powerful supporter of Mary till
he seceded from her cause in 1572.
GEORGE GORDON, ist marquess of Huntly (1562-1626),
son of the 5th earl of Huntly, and of Anne, daughter of James
Hamilton, earl of Arran and duke of Chatelherault, was born
in 1562, and educated in France as a Roman Catholic. He took
part in the plot which led to the execution of Morton in 1581
and in the conspiracy which delivered King James VI. from the
Ruthven raiders in 1583. In 1588 he signed the Presbyterian
confession of faith, but continued to engage in plots for the
Spanish invasion of Scotland. On the 28th of November he was
appointed captain of the guard, and while carrying out his duties
at Holyrood his treasonable correspondence was discovered.
James, however, who found the Roman Catholic lords useful as a
foil to the tyranny of the Kirk, and was at this time seeking
Spanish aid in case of Elizabeth's denial of his right to the English
throne, and with whom Huntly was always a favourite, pardoned
him. Subsequently in April 1589 he raised a rebellion in the
north, but was obliged to submit, and after a short imprisonment
in Borthwick Castle was again set at liberty. He next involved
himself in a private war with the Grants and the Mackintoshes,
who were assisted by the earls of Atholl and Murray; and on the
8th of February 1592 he set fire to Murray's castle of Donibristle
in Fife, and stabbed the earl to death with his own hand. This
outrage, which originated the ballad " The Bonnie Earl of
Moray," brought down upon Huntly his enemies, who ravaged
his lands. In December the " Spanish Blanks " weivs inter-
cepted (see ERROLL, FRANCIS HAY, gxn EARL OF), two of which
bore Huntly's signature, and a charge of treason was again
preferred against him, while on the 25th of September 1593 he
was excommunicated. James treated him and the other rebel
lords with great leniency. On the 26th of November they were
freed from the charge of treason, being ordered at the same
time, however, to renounce Romanism or leave the kingdom.
On their refusal to comply they were attainted. Subsequently
Huntly joined Erroll and Bothwell in a conspiracy to imprison
the king, and the former two defeated the royal forces under
Argyll at Glenlivat on the 3rd of October 1594, Huntly especially
distinguishing himself. His victory, however, gained no real
advantage; his castle of Strathbogie was blown up by James,
and he left Scotland about March 1595. He returned secretly
very soon afterwards, and his presence in Scotland was at first
connived at by James; but owing to the hostile feeling aroused,
and the " No Popery " riot in Edinburgh, the king demanded
that he should abjure Romanism or go into permanent banish-
ment. He submitted to the Kirk in June 1597, and was restored
to his estates in December. On the 7th of April 1599 he was
created a marquess, and on the gth of July, together with Lennox,
appointed lieutenant of the north. He was treated with great
favour by the king and was reconciled with Murray and Argyll.
Doubts, however, as to the genuineness of his abjuration again
troubled the Kirk. On the loth of December 1606 he was confined
HUNTLY HUNYADI, JANOS
to Aberdeen, and on the igth of March 1607 he was summoned
before the privy council. Huntly thereupon went to England
and appealed to James himself. He was excommunicated in
1608, and imprisoned in Stirling Castle till the loth of December
1610, when he signed again the confession of faith. Accused of
Romanist intrigues in 1616, he was ordered once more to sub-
scribe the confession, which this time he refused to do; imprisoned
at Edinburgh, he was liberated by James's order on the i8th of
June, and having joined the court in London was absolved from
excommunication by Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury; which
absolution, after some heartburnings at the archbishop's inter-
ference, and after a further subscription to the confession by
Huntly, was confirmed t>y the Kirk. At the accession of Charles I.
Huntly lost much of his influence at court. He was deprived
in 1630 of his heritable sheriffships of Aberdeen and Inverness.
The same year a feud broke out between the Crichtons and
Gordons, in the course of which Huntly's second son, Lord
Melgum, was burnt to death either by treachery or by accident,
while being entertained in the house of James Crichton of Fren-
draught. For the ravaging of the lands of the Crichtons Huntly
was held responsible, and having been summoned before the
privy council in 1635 he was imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle
from December till June 1636. He left his confinement with
shattered health, and died at Dundee while on his journey to
Strathbogie on the i3th of June 1636, after declaring himself a
Roman Catholic.
GEORGE GORDON, 2nd marquess of Huntly (d. 1649), his
eldest son by Lady Henrietta, daughter of the duke of Lennox,
was brought up in England as a Protestant, and created earl
of Enzie by James I. On succeeding to his father's title his
influence in Scotland was employed by the king to balance that
of Argyll in the dealings with the Covenanters, but without
success. In the civil war he distinguished himself as a royalist,
and in 1647 was excepted from the general pardon; in March
1649, having been captured and given up, he was beheaded by
order of the Scots parliament at Edinburgh. His fourth son
CHARLES (d. 1681) was created earl of Aboyne in 1660; and the
eldest son LEWIS was proclaimed 3rd marquess of Huntly by
Charles II. in 1651. But the attainder was not reversed by
parliament till 1661.
GEORGE GORDON, 4th marquess (1643-1716), served under
Turenne, and was created ist duke of Gordon by Charles II.
in 1684 (see GORDON). On the death of the 5th duke of Gordon in
1836 the title of 9th marquess of Huntly passed to his relative
GEORGE GORDON (1761-1853), son and heir of the 4th earl of
Aboyne; who in 1815 was made a peer of the United Kingdom
as Baron Meldrum, his descendants being the loth and nth
marquesses.
HUNTLY, a police burgh, burgh of barony and parish of
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, capital of the district of Strathbogie.
Pop. (1901) 4136. It lies at the confluence of the rivers Deveron
and Bogie, 41 m. N.W. of Aberdeen on the Great North of
Scotland Railway. It is a market town and the centre of a large
agricultural district, its chief industries including agricultural
implement-making, hosiery weaving, weaving of woollen cloth,
and the manufacture of lamps and boots. Huntly Castle, half a
mile to the north, now in ruins, was once a fortalice of the Comyns.
From them it passed in the I4th century to the Gordons, by
whom it was rebuilt. It was blown up in 1594, but was restored
in 1602. It gradually fell into disrepair, some of its stones being
utilized in the building of Huntly Lodge, the residence of the
widow of the " last " duke of Gordon, who (in 1840) founded the
adjoining Gordon schools to his memory. The Standing Stones
of Strathbogie in Market Square have offered a permanent
puzzle to antiquaries.
HUNTSMAN, BENJAMIN (1704-1776), English inventor and
steel-manufacturer, was born in Lincolnshire in 1704. His
parents were Germans. He started business as a clock, lock and
tool maker at Doncaster, and attained a considerable local
reputation for scientific knowledge and skilled workmanship.
He also practised surgery in an experimental fashion, and was
frequently consulted as an oculist. Finding that the bad quality
955
of the steel then available for his products seriously hampered
him, he began to experiment in steel-manufacture, first at
Doncaster, and subsequently at Handsworth, near Sheffield,
whither he removed in 1740 to secure cheaper fuel for his furnaces.
After several years' trials he at last produced a satisfactory cast
steel, purer and harder than any steel then in use. The Sheffield
cutlery manufacturers, however, refused to buy it, on the ground
that it was too hard, and for a long time Huntsman exported his
whole output to France. The growing competition of imported
French cutlery made from Huntsman's cast-steel at length
alarmed the Sheffield cutlers, who, after vainly endeavouring to
get the exportation of the steel prohibited by the British govern-
ment, were compelled in self-defence to use it. Huntsman had not
patented his process, and its secret was discovered by a Sheffield
ironfounder, who, according to a popular story, obtained ad-
mission to Huntsman's works in the disguise of a tramp.
Benjamin Huntsman died in 1776, his business being sub-
sequently greatly developed by his son, William Huntsman
(1733-1809).
See Smiles, Industrial Biography (1879).
HUNTSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Madison county,
Alabama, U.S.A., situated on a plain 10 m. N. of the Tennessee
river, 18 m. from the northern boundary of the state, at an
altitude of about 617 ft. Pop. (1900) 8068, of whom 3909 were
of negro descent, (estimated 1906) 8110. There is a considerable
suburban population. Huntsville is served by the Southern and
the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis railways. The public
square is on a high bluff (about 750 ft. above sea-level), at the
base of which a large spring furnishes the city with water, and
also forms a stream once used for floating boats, loaded with
cotton, to the Tennessee river. The surrounding country has
rich deposits of iron, coal and marble, and cotton, Indian corn
and fruit are grown and shipped from Huntsville. Natural gas
is found in the vicinity. The principal industry is the manu-
facture of cotton. The value of the city's factory products
increased from $692,340 in 1900 to $1,758,718 in 1905, or 154%.
At Normal, about 35 m. N.E. of Huntsville, is the State Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College for Negroes. Huntsville was
founded in 1805 by John Hunt, a Virginian and a soldier in
the War of Independence; in 1809 its name was changed to
Twickenham, in memory of the home of the poet Alexander Pope,
some of whose relatives were among the first settlers; but in
1811 the earlier name was restored, under which the town was
incorporated by the Territorial Government, the first Alabama
settlement to receive a charter. Huntsville was chartered as a
city in 1844. Here, in 1819, met the convention that framed the
first state constitution, and in 1820 the first state legislature.
On the nth of April 1862 Huntsville was seized by Federal
troops, who were forced to retire in the following September, but
secured permanent possession in July 1863.
HUNYADI, JANOS (c. 1387-1456), Hungarian statesman and
warrior, was the son of Vojk, a Magyarized Vlach who married
Elizabeth Morzsinay. He derived his family name from the
small estate of Hunyad, which came into his father's possession in
1409. The later epithet Corvinus, adopted by his son Matthias,
was doubtless derived from another property, Piatra da Corvo or
Raven's Rock. He has sometimes been confounded with an elder
brother who died fighting for Hungary about 1440. While still
a youth, he entered the service of King Sigismund, who appreci-
ated his qualities and borrowed money from him ; he accompanied
that monarch to Frankfort in his quest for the imperial crown in
1410; took part in the Hussite War in 1420, and in 1437 drove
the Turks from Semendria. For these services he got numerous
estates and a seat in the royal council. In 1438 King Albert II.
made him ban of Szoreny, the district lying between the Aluta
and the Danube, a most dangerous dignity entailing constant
warfare with the Turks. On the sudden death of Albert in 1439,
Hunyadi, feeling acutely that the situation demanded a warrior-
king on the throne of St Stephen, lent the whole weight of his
influence to the candidature of the young Polish king Wladis-
laus III. (1440), and thus came into collision with the powerful
Cilleis, the chief supporters of Albert's widow Elizabeth and her
95 6
HUNYADI, LASZLO
infant son, Ladislaus V. (see CILLEI, ULRICH; and LADISLAUS V.).
He took a prominent part in the ensuing civil war and was
rewarded by Wladislaus III. with the captaincy of the fortress of
Belgrade and the voivodeship of Transylvania, which latter
dignity, however, he shared with his rival Mihaly Ujlaki.
The burden of the Turkish War now rested entirely on his
shoulders. In 1441 he delivered Servia by the victory of
Semendria. In 1442, not far from Hermannstadt, on which he
had been forced to retire, he annihilated an immense Turkish
host, and recovered for Hungary the suzerainty of Wallachia
and Moldavia; and in July he vanquished a third Turkish army
near the Iron Gates. These victories made Hunyadi's name
terrible to the Turks and renowned throughout Christendom,
and stimulated him in 1443 to undertake, along with King
Wladislaus, the famous expedition known as the hosszu hdboru
or " long campaign." Hunyadi, at the head of the vanguard,
crossed the Balkans through the Gate of Trajan, captured Nish,
defeated three Turkish pashas, and, after taking Sofia, united
with the royal army and defeated Murad II. at Snaim. The
impatience of the king and the severity of the winter then com-
pelled him (February 1444) to return home, but not before he had
utterly broken the sultan's power in Bosnia, Herzegovina,
Servia, Bulgaria and Albania. No sooner had he regained
Hungary than he received tempting offers from the pope, repre-
sented by the legate Cardinal Cesarini, from George Brankovic,
despot of Servia, and George Castriota, prince of Albania, to
resume the war and realize his favourite idea of driving the Turk
from Europe. All the preparations had been made, when
Murad's envoys arrived in the royal camp at Szeged and offered
a ten years' truce on advantageous terms. Both Hunyadi and
Brankovic counselled their acceptance, and Wladislaus swore on
the Gospels to observe them. Two days later Cesarini received
the tidings that a fleet of galleys had set off for the Bosporus
to prevent Murad (who, crushed by his recent disasters, had
retired to Asia Minor) from recrossing into Europe, and the
cardinal reminded the king that he had sworn to co-operate by
land if the western powers attacked the Turks by sea. He then,
by virtue of his legatine powers, absolved the king from his
second oath, and in July the Hungarian army recrossed the
frontier and advanced towards the Euxine coast in order to
march to Constantinople escorted by the galleys. Brankovic,
however, fearful of the sultan's vengeance in case of disaster,
privately informed Murad of the advance of the Christian host,
and prevented Castriota from joining it. On reaching Varna,
the Hungarians found that the Venetian galleys had failed to
prevent the transit of the sultan, who now confronted them with
fourfold odds, and on the loth of November 1444 they were
utterly routed, Wladislaus falling on the field and Hunyadi
narrowly escaping.
At the diet which met in February 1445 a provisional govern-
ment, consisting of five Magyar captain-generals, was formed,
Hunyadi receiving Transylvania and the ultra-Theissian counties
as his district; but the resulting anarchy became unendurable,
and on the 5th of June 1446 Hunyadi was unanimously elected
governor of Hungary in the name of Ladislaus V., with regal
powers. His first act as governor was to proceed against the
German king Frederick III., who refused to deliver up the
young king. After ravaging Styria, Carinthia and Carniola and
threatening Vienna, Hunyadi's difficulties elsewhere compelled
him to make a truce with Frederick for two years. In 1448
he received a golden chain and the title of prince from Pope
Nicholas V., and immediately afterwards resumed the war with
the Turks. He lost the two days' battle of Kossovo (October
I7th-igth) owing to the treachery of Dan, hospodarof Wallachia,
and of his old enemy Brankovid, who imprisoned him for a time
in the dungeons of the fortress of Semendria; but he was
ransomed by the Magyars, and, after composing his differences
with his powerful and jealous enemies in Hungary, led a punitive
expedition against the Servian prince, who was compelled to
accept most humiliating terms of peace. In 1450 Hunyadi went
to Pressburg to negotiate with Frederick the terms of the
surrender of Ladislaus V., but no agreement could be come to,
whereupon the Cilleis and Hunyadi's other enemies accused
him of aiming at the throne. He shut their mouths by resigning
all his dignities into the hands of the young king, on his return
to Hungary at the beginning of 1453, whereupon Ladislaus
created him count of Bestercze and captain-general of the
kingdom.
Meanwhile the Turkish question had again become acute,
and it was plain, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, that
Mahommed II. was rallying his resources in order to subjugate
Hungary. His immediate objective was Belgrade, and thither,
at the end of 1455, Hunyadi repaired, after a public reconciliation
with all his enemies. At his own expense he provisioned and
armed the fortress, and leaving in it a strong garrison under the
command of his brother-in-law Mihaly Szilagyi and his own
eldest son Laszlo, he proceeded to form a relief army and a fleet
of two hundred corvettes. To the eternal shame of the Magyar
nobles, he was left entirely to his own resources. His one ally
was the Franciscan friar, Giovanni da Capistrano (<?..), who
preached a crusade so effectually that the peasants and yeomanry,
ill-armed (most of them had but slings and scythes) but full of
enthusiasm, flocked to the standard of Hunyadi, the kernel
of whose host consisted of a small band of seasoned mercenaries
and a few banderia of noble horsemen. On the i4th of July
1456 Hunyadi with his flotilla destroyed the Turkish fleet;
on the 2ist Szilagyi beat off a fierce assault, and the same day
Hunyadi, taking advantage of the confusion of the Turks,
pursued them into their camp, which he captured after a
desperate encounter. Mahommed thereupon raised the siege
and returned to Constantinople, and the independence of
Hungary was secured for another seventy years. The Magyars
had, however, to pay dearly for this crowning victory, the hero
dying of plague in his camp three weeks later (nth August 1456).
We are so accustomed to regard Hunyadi as the incarnation
of Christian chivalry that we are apt to forget that he was a
great captain and a great statesman as well as a great hero.
It has well been said that he fought with his head rather than
with his arm. He was the first to recognize the insufficiency and
the unreliability of the feudal levies, the first to employ a regular
army on a large scale, the first to depend more upon strategy
and tactics than upon mere courage. He was in fact the first
Hungarian general in the modern sense of the word. It was only
late in life that he learnt to read and write, and his Latin was
always very defective. He owed his influence partly to his
natural genius and partly to the transparent integrity and
nobility of his character. He is described as an undersized,
stalwart man with full, rosy cheeks, long snow-white locks, and
bright, smiling, black eyes.
See J. Teleki, The Age of the Hunyadis in Hungary (Hung.), (Pesth,
18521857; supplementary volumes by D. Csanki 1895); G.
Fejer, Genus, incunabula et virtus Joannis Coryini de Hunyad
(Buda, 1844); J. de Chassin, Jean de Hunyad (Paris, 1859); A. Por,
Life of Hunyadi (Hung.) (Budapest, 1873); V. Fraknoi, Car-
dinal Carjavdl and his Missions to Hungary (Hung.) (Budapest,
1889); P. Frankl, Der Friede von Szegedin und die Geschichte seines
Bruches (Leipzig, 1904) ; R. N. Bain, " The Siege of Belgrade, 1456,"
(Eng. Hist. Rev., 1892); A. Bonfini, Rerum ungaricarum libri xlv,
editio septima (Lejpzig, 1771). (R. N. B.)
HUNYADI, LASZLO (1433-1457), Hungarian statesman and
warrior, was the eldest son of Janos Hunyadi and Elizabeth
Szilagyi. At a very early age he accompanied his father in
his campaigns. After the battle of Kossovo (1448) he was left
for a time, as a hostage for his father, in the hands of George
Brankovid, despot of Servia. In 1452 he was a member of the
deputation which went to Vienna to receive back the Hungarian
king Ladislaus V. In 1453 he was already ban of Croatia-
Dalmatia. At the diet of Buda (1455) he resigned all his dignities,
because of the accusations of Ulrich Cillei and the other enemies
of his house, but a reconciliation was ultimately patched up and
he was betrothed to Maria, the daughter of the palatine, Laszlo
Garai. After his father's death in 1456, he was declared by
his arch-enemy Cillei (now governor of Hungary with unlimited
power), responsible for the debts alleged to be owing by the
elder Hunyadi to the state; but he defended himself so ably
at the diet of Futak (October 1456) that Cillei feigned a reconcilia-
HUNZA HUPFELD
957
tion, promising to protect the Hunyadis on condition that they
first surrendered all the royal castles entrusted to them. A
beginning was to be made with the fortress of Belgrade, of which
Laszlo was commandant, Cillei intending to take the king with
him to Belgrade and assassinate Laszlo within its walls. But
Hunyadi was warned betimes, and while admitting Ladislaus V.
and Cillei, he excluded their army of mercenaries. On the
following morning (pth of November 1456) Cillei, during a private
interview, suddenly drew upon Laszlo, but was himself cut down
by the commandant's friends, who rushed in on hearing the
clash of weapons. The terrified- young king, who had been
privy to the plot, thereupon pardoned Hunyadi, and at a sub-
sequent interview with his mother at Temesvar swore that he
would protect the whole family. As a pledge of his sincerity
he appointed Laszlo lord treasurer and captain-general of the
kingdom. Suspecting no evil, Hunyadi accompanied the king
to Buda, but on arriving there was arrested on a charge of
compassing Ladislaus's ruin, condemned to death without the
observance of any legal formalities, and beheaded on the i6th
of March 1457.
See I. Acsady, History of the Hungarian Realm (Hung.), vol. i.
(Budapest, 1904). (R. N. B.)
HUNZA (also known as KANJUT) and NAGAR, two small
states on the North-west frontier of Kashmir, formerly under
the administration of the Gilgit agency. The two states, which
are divided by a river which runs in a bed 600 ft. wide between
cliffs 300 ft. high, are inhabited generally by people of the same
stock, speaking the same language, professing the same form
of the Mahommedan religion, and ruled by princes sprung from
the same family. Nevertheless they have been for centuries
persistent rivals, and frequently at war with each other.
Formerly Hunza was the more prominent of the two, because
it held possession of the passes leading to the Pamirs, and could
plunder the caravans on their way between Turkestan and
India. But they are both shut up in a recess of the mountains,
and were of no importance until about 1880, when the advance
of Russia up to the frontiers of Afghanistan, and the great
development of her military sources in Asia, increased the
necessity fer strengthening the British line of defence. This
led to the establishment of the Gilgit agency, the occupation
of Chitral, and the Hunza expedition of 1891, which asserted
British authority over Hunza and Nagar. The country is
inhabited by a Dard race of the Yeshkun caste speaking Burishki.
For a description of the people see GILGIT. The Hunza-Nagar
Expedition of 1891, under Colonel A. Durand, was due to the
defiant attitude of the Hunza and Nagar chiefs towards the
British agent at Gilgit. The fort at Nilt was stormed, and after
a fortnight's delay the cliffs (1000 ft. high) beyond it were also
carried by assault. Hunza and Nagar were occupied, the chief
of Nagar was reinstated on making his submission, and the
half-brother of the raja of Hunza was installed as chief in the
place of his brother.
HUON OF BORDEAUX, hero of romance. The French
chanson de geste of Huon de Bordeaux dates from the first half of
the i3th century, and marks the transition between the epic
chanson founded on national history and the roman d'aventures.
Huon, son of Seguin of Bordeaux, kills Chariot, the emperor's son,
who had laid an ambush for him, without being aware of the rank
of his assailant. He is condemned to be hanged by Charlemagne,
but reprieved on condition that he visits the court of Gaudisse,
the amir of Babylon, and brings back a handful of hair from the
amir's beard and four of his back teeth, after having slain the
greatest of his knights and three times kissed his daughter
Esclarmonde. By the help of the fairy dwarf Oberon, Huon
succeeds in this errand, in the course of which he meets with
further adventures. The Chariot of the story has been identified
by A. Longnon (Romania viii. i-n) with Charles 1'Enfant, one
of the sons of Charles the Bald and Irmintrude, who died in 866 in
consequence of wounds inflicted by a certain Aubouin in precisely
similar circumstances to those related in the romance. The epic
father of Huon may safely be identified with Seguin, who was
count of Bordeaux under Louis the Pious in 839, and died
fighting against the Normans six years later. A Turin manu-
script of the romance contains a prologue in the shape of a
separate romance of-' Auberon, and four sequels, the Chanson
d' Esclarmonde, the Chanson de Clarisse et Florent, the Chanson
d'Ide et d'Olive and the Chanson de Codin. The same MS. con-
tains in the romance of Les Lorrains a summary in seventeen
lines of another version of the story, according to which Huon's
exile is due to his having slain a count in the emperor's palace.
The poem exists in a later version in alexandrines, and, with its
continuations, was put into prose in 1454 and printed by Michel
le Noir in 1516, since when it has appeared in many forms,
notably in a beautifully printed and illustrated adaptation
(1898) in modern French by Gaston Paris. The romance had a
great vogue in England through the translation (c. 1 540) of John
Bourchier, Lord Berners, as Huon of Burdeuxe. The tale was
dramatized and produced in Paris by the Confrerie de la Passion
in 1557, and in Philip Henslowe's diary there is a note of a
performance of a play, Hewen of Burdoche, on the z8th of
December 1593. For the literary fortune of the fairy part of the
romance see OBERON.
The Chanson de geste of Huon de Bordeaux was edited by MM F.
Guessard and C. Grandmaison for the Anciens poktes de la France in
1860; Lord Berners's translation was edited for the E.E.T.S. by
S. L. Lee in 1883-1885. See also L. Gautier, Les fcpopees }ranc.aises
(2nd ed. vol. iii. pp. 719-773); A. Graf, / complement! della Chanson
de Huon de Bordeaux (Halle, 1878); " Esclarmonde, &c.," by Max
Schweigel, in Ausg. u. Abhandl. . . .der roman. phil. (Marburg, 1889) ;
C. Voretzsch, Epische Studien (vol. i., Halle, 1900) ; Hist. lilt, de la
France (vol. xxvi., 1873).
HUON PINE, botanical name Dacrydium Franklinii, the most
valuable timber tree of Tasmania, a member of the order Coni-
ferae (see GVMNOSPERMS). It is a fine tree of pyramidal outline
80 to 100 ft. high, and 10 to 20 ft. in girth at the base, with
slender pendulous much-divided branchlets densely covered
with the minute scale-like sharply-keeled bright green leaves.
It occurs in swampy localities from the upper Huon river to Port
Davey and Macquarie Harbour, but is less abundant than
formerly owing to the demand for its timber, especially for
ship- and boat-building. The wood is close-grained and easily
worked.
HU-PEH, a central province of China, bounded N. by Ho-nan,
E. by Ngan-hui, S. by Hu-nan, and W. by Shen-si and Szech'uen.
It has an area of 70,450 sq. m. and contains a population of
34,000,000. Han-kow, Ich'ang and Shasi are the three open
ports of the province, besides which it contains ten other pre-
fectural cities. The greater part of the province forms a plain,
and its most noticeable feature is the Han river, which runs in a
south-easterly direction across the province from its nbrth-
westerly corner to its junction with the Yangtsze Kiang at Han-
kow. The products of the Han valley are exclusively agri-
cultural, consisting of cotton, wheat, rape seed, tobacco and
various kin<ls of beans. Vegetable tallow is also exported in
large quantities from this part of Hu-peh. Gold is found in the
Han, but not in sufficient quantities to make working it more
than barely remunerative. It is washed every winter from
banks of coarse gravel, a little above I-ch'eng Hien, on which it
is deposited by the river. Every winter the supply is exhausted
by the washers, and every summer it is renewed by the river.
Baron von Richthofen reckoned that the digger 1 earned from
50 to 150 cash (i.e. about ijd. to 4jd.) a day. Only one waggon
road leads northwards from Hu-peh, and that is to Nan-yang Fu
in Ho-nan, where it forks, one branch going to Peking by way of
K'ai-feng Fu, and the other into Shan-si by Ho-nan Fu.
HUPFELD, HERMANN (1796-1866), German Orientalist and
Biblical commentator, was born on the 3ist of March 1796 at
Marburg, where he studied philosophy and theology from 1813
to 1817; in 1819 he became a teacher in the gymnasium at
Hanau, but in 1822 resigned that appointment. After studying
for some time at Halle, he in 1824 settled as Priiiatdoccnt in
philosophy at that university, and in the following year was
appointed extraordinary professor of theology at Marburg.
There he received the ordinary professorships of Oriental
languages and of theology in 1827 and 1830 respectively;
thirteen years later he removed as successor of Wilhelm Gesenius
95 8
HURD HURDY-GURDY
(1786-1842) to Halle. In 1865 he was accused by some theo-
logians of the Hengstenberg school of heretical doctrines. From
this charge, however, he successfully cleared himself, the entire
theological faculty, including Julius Miiller (1801-1878) and
August Tholuck (1799-1877), bearing testimony to his sufficient
orthodoxy. He died at Halle on the 24th of April 1866.
His earliest works in the department of Semitic philology (Exerci-
tationes Aelhiopkae, 1825, and De emendanda ratione lexicographiae
Semiticae, 1827) were followed by the first part (1841), mainly
historical and critical, of an Ausfuhrliche Hebraische Grammatik,
which he did not live to complete, and by a treatise on the early
history of Hebrew grammar among the Jews (De rei grammaticae
apud Judaeos initiis antiquissimisque scriptoribus, Halle, 18^6). His
principal contribution to Biblical literature, the exegetical and
critical Ubersetzung und Auslegung der Psalmen, began to appear in
1855, and was completed in 1861 (2nd ed. by E. Riehm, 1867-1871,
3rd ed. 1888). Other writings are Vber Begrijf und Methode der
sogenannten biblischen Einleitung (Marburg, 1844); De primitiva et
vera feslorum apud Hebraeos ratione (Halle, 1851-1864); Die Quellen
der Genesis von neuem unlersucht (Berlin, 1853); Die heutige theo-
sophische oder mythologische Theologie und Schrifterkldrung (1861).
See E. Riehm, Hermann Hup/eld (Halle, 1867); W. Kay, Crisis
Hupeldiana (1865); and the article by A. Kamphausen in Band
viii. of Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1900).
HURD, RICHARD (1720-1808), English divine and writer,
bishop of Worcester, was bom at Congreve, in the parish of
Penkridge, Staffordshire, where his father was a farmer, on the
1 3th of January 1720. He was educated at the grammar-
school of Brewood and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He
took his B.A. degree in 1739, and in 1742 he proceeded M.A. and
became a fellow of his college. In the same year he was ordained
deacon, and given charge of the parish of Reymerston, Norfolk,
but he returned to Cambridge early in 1743. He was ordained
priest in 1744. In 1748 he published some Remarks on an
Enquiry into the Rejection of Christian Miracles by the Heathens
(1746), by William Weston, a fellow of St John's College,
Cambridge. He prepared editions, which won the praise of
Edward Gibbon, 1 of the Ars poetica and Epislola ad Pisones
(1749), and the Epistola ad Augustum (1751) of Horace. A com-
pliment in the preface to the edition of 1 749 was the starting-point
of a lasting friendship with William Warburton, through whose
influence he was appointed one of the preachers at Whitehall
in 1750. In 1765 he was appointed preacher at Lincoln's Inn,
and in 1767 he became archdeacon of Gloucester. In 1768 he
proceeded D.D. at Cambridge, and delivered at Lincoln's Inn the
first Warburton lectures, which were published later (1772) as
An Introduction to the Study of the Prophecies concerning the
Christian Church. He became bishop of Lichficld and Coventry
in 1774, and two years later was selected to be tutor to the prince
of Wales and the duke of York. In 1781 he was translated to the
see of Worcester. He lived chiefly at Hartlebury Castle, where he
built a fine library, to which he transferred Alexander Pope's and
Warburton's books, purchased on the latter's death. He was
extremely popular at court, and in 1783, on the death of Arch-
bishop Cornwallis, the king pressed him to accept the primacy,
but Hurd, who was known, says Madame d'Arblay, as " The
Beauty of Holiness," declined it as a charge not suited to his
temper and talents, and much too heavy for him to sustain.
He died, unmarried, on the 28th of May 1808.
Kurd's Letters on Chivalry and Romance (1762) retain a certain
interest for their importance in the history of the romantic
movement, which they did something to stimulate. They were
written in continuation of a dialogue on the age of Queen
Elizabeth included in his Moral and Political Dialogues (1759)
Two later dialogues On the Uses of Foreign Travel were printed in
1763. Hurd wrote two acrimonious defences of Warburton
On the Delicacy of Friendship (1755), in answer to Dr J. Jortin
and a Letter (1764) to Dr Thomas Leland, who had criticizec
Warburton's Doctrine of Grace. He edited the Works of William
Warburton, the Select Works (1772) of Abraham Cowley, anc
left materials for an edition (6 vols., 1811) of Addison. His
own works appeared in a collected edition in 8 vols. in
1811.
" Examination of Dr Kurd's Commentary on Horace's Epistles '
(Misc. Works, ed. John, Lord Sheffield, 1837, pp. 403-427).
The chief sources for Bishop Kurd's biography are " Dates of some
occurrences in the life of the author," written by himself and pre-
ixed to vol. i. of his works (1811); " Memoirs of Dr Hurd " in the
Ecclesiastical and University . . . Register (1809), pp. 399-452;
ohn Nichols, Literary anecdotes, vol. vi. (1812), pp. 468-612; Francis
{ilvert, Memoirs of . . . Richard Hurd (1860), giving selections
"rom Kurd's commonplace book, some correspondence, and extracts
Jrom contemporary accounts of the bishop. A review of this work,
entitled " Bishop Hurd and his Contemporaries," appeared in the
North British Review, vol. xxxiv. (1861), pp. 375"398.
HURDLE (O. Eng. hyrdcl, cognate with such Teutonic forms
as Ger. Htirde, Dutch horde, Eng. "hoarding"; in pre-Teutonic
anguages the word appears in Gr. Kvpria, wickerwork, Kvp-nj,
at. cratis, basket, cf. " crate," " grate "), a movable tem-
porary fence, formed of a framework of light timber, wattled
with smaller pieces of hazel, willow or other pliable wood, or
constructed on the plan of a light five-barred field gate, filled
n with brushwood. Similar movable frames can be made of
ron, wire or other material. A construction of the same type
Is used in military engineering and fortification as a foundation
r or a temporary roadway across boggy ground or as a backing
lor earthworks.
HURDLE RACING, running races over short distances, at
intervals in which a number of hurdles, or fence-like obstacles,
must be jumped. This has always been a favourite branch of
track athletics, the usual distances being 120 yds., 220 yds. and
440 yds. The 120 yds. hurdle race is run over ten hurdles
3 ft. 6 in. high and 10 yds. apart, with a space of 15 yds. from
the start to the first hurdle and a like distance from the last
hurdle to the finish. In Great Britain the hurdles are fixed
and the race is run on grass; in America the hurdles, although
of the same height, are not fixed, and the races are run on the
cinder track. The " low hurdle race " of 220 yds. is run over
ten hurdles 2 ft. 6. in. high and 20 yds. apart, with like distances
between the start and the first hurdle and between the last
hurdle and the finish. The record time for the 1 20 yds. race
on grass is 15! sees., and on cinders 15^ sees., both of
which were performed by A. C. Kraenzlein, who also holds the
record for the 220 yds. low hurdle race, 23! sees. For 440 yds.
over hurdles the record time is 57! sees., by T. M. Donovan,
and by J. B. Densham at Kennington Oval in 1907.
HURDY-GURDY (Fr. vielle a manivellc, symphonic or chyfonie
a roue; Ger. Bauernleier, Deutscheleier , Bettlerleier , Radleier;
Ital. lira tedesca, lira ruslica, lira pagana), now loosely used as~-
a synonym for any grinding organ, but strictly a medieval
drone instrument with strings set in vibration by the friction
of a wheel, being a development of the organistrum (q.v.) reduced
in size so that it could be conveniently played by one person
instead of two. It consisted of a box or soundchest, sometimes
rectangular, but more generally having the outline of the guitar;
inside it had a wheel, covered with leather and rosined, and worked
by means of a crank at the tail end of the instrument. On the
fingerboard were placed movable frets or keys, which, on being
depressed, stopped the strings, at points corresponding to the
diatonic intervals of the scale. At first there were 4 strings,
later 6. In the organistrum three strings, acted on simultane-
ously by the keys, produced the rude harmony known as organum.
When this passed out of favour, superseded by the first beginnings
of polyphony over a pedal bass, the organistrum gave place to
the hurdy-gurdy. Instead of acting on all the strings, the keys
now affected the first string only, or " chanterelle," though in
some cases certain keys, made longer, also reached the third
string or " trompette "; the result was that a diatonic melody
could be played on the chanterelles. The other open strings
always sounded simultaneously as long as the wheel was turned,
like drones on the bag-pipe.
The hurdy-gurdy originated in France at the time when the
Paris School or Old French School was laying the foundations of
counterpoint and polyphony. During the I3th and I4th centuries
it was known by the name of Symphonia or Chyfonie, and in
Germany Lira or Leyer. Its popularity remained undirninished
in France until late in the i8th century. Although the hurdy-
gurdy never obtained recognition among serious musicians in
Germany, the idea embodied in the mechanism stimulated
HURLSTONE HURRY
959
ingenuity, the result being such musical curiosities as the Geigen-
werk or Geigen-Clavicymbel of Hans Hayden of Nuremberg
(c. 1600), a harpsichord in which the strings, instead of being
plucked by quills, were set in vibration by friction of one of the
little steel wheels, covered with parchment and well rosined,
which were kept rotating by means of a large wheel and a series of
cylinders worked by treadles. Other instruments of similar type
were the Bogenclamer invented by Joh. Hohlfeld of Berlin in
1751 and the Bogenfiugel by C. A. Meyer of Gorlitz in 1794. In
Adam Walker's Celestina (1772) the friction was provided by a
running band instead of a bow. (K. S.)
HURLSTONE, FREDERICK YEATES (1800-1869), English
painter, was born in London, his father being a prcprietor of the
Morning Chronicle. His grand-uncle, Richard Hurlstone, had
been a well-known portrait-painter a generation earlier. F. Y.
Hurlstone studied under Sir W. Beechey, Sir T. Lawrence and
B. R. Haydon, and in 1820 became a student at the Royal
Academy, where he soon began to exhibit. In 1823 he won the
Academy's gold medal for historical painting. In 1831 he was
elected to the Society of British Artists, of which in 1835 he
became president; it was to their exhibitions that he sent most
of his pictures, as he became a pronounced critic of the manage-
ment of the Academy. He died in London on the loth of June
1869. His historical paintings and portraits were very numerous.
Some of the most representative are " A Venetian Page " (1824),
" The Enchantress Armida " (1831), " Eros " (1836), " Prisoner
of Chillon " (1837), " Girl of Sorrento " (1847), " Boabdil "
(1854), and his portrait of the 7th earl of Cavan (1833).
HURON (a French term, from hurl, bristled, early used as
an expression of contempt, signifying "lout "), a nickname given
by the French when first in Canada to certain Indian tribes
of Iroquoian stock, occupying a territory, which similarly was
called Huronia, in Ontario, and constituting a confederation called
in their own tongue Wendat (" islanders "), which was corrupted
by the English into Yendat, Guyandotte and then Wyandot.
The name persists for the small section of " Hurons of Lorette,"
in Quebec, but the remnant of the old Huron Confederacy which
after its dispersal in the i7th century settled in Ohio and was
afterwards removed to Oklahoma is generally called Wyandot.
For their history see WYANDOT, and INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN
(under " Indian Wars "; Algonkian and Iroquoian).
See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907), s.v.
" Huron."
HURON, the second largest of the Great Lakes of North
America, including Georgian Bay and the channel north of
Manitoulin Island, which are always associated with it. It
lies between the parallels of 43 and 46 20' N. and between
the meridians of 80 and 84 W., and is bounded W. by the
state of Michigan, and N. and E. by the province of Ontario,
Georgian Bay and North Channel being wholly within Canadian
territory. The main portion of the lake is 235 m. long from
the Strait of Mackinac to St Clair river, and 98 m. wide on the
45th parallel of latitude. Georgian Bay is 125 m. long, with
a greatest width of 60 m., while North Channel is 120 m. long,
with an extreme width of 16 m., the whole lake having an area
of 23,200 sq. m. The surface is 581 ft. above the sea. The
main lake reaches a depth of 802 ft.; Georgian bay shows
depths, especially near its west shore, of over 300 ft.; North
Channel has depths of 180 ft. Lake Huron is 20 ft. lower than
Lake Superior, whose waters it receives at its northern extremity
through St. Mary river, is on the same level as Lake Michigan,
which connects with its north-west extremity through the
Strait of Mackinac, and is nearly 9 ft. higher than Lake
Erie, into which it discharges at its south extremity through
St Clair river.
On the mainland, the north and east shores are of gneisses and
granites of archaean age, with a broken and hilly surface rising in
places to 600 ft. above the lake and giving a profusion of islands
following the whole shore line from the river St Mary to Waubau-
shene at the extreme east end of Georgian bay. Manitoulin Island
and the Saugeen Peninsula are comparatively flat and underlaid by
a level bed of Trenton limestone. The southern shores, skirting the
peninsula of Michigan, are flat. The rock formations are of sand-
stone and limestone, while the forests are either a tangled growth of
pine and spruce or a scattered growth of small trees on a sandy soil.
This shore is indented by Thunder bay, 78 s<j. m. in area, and
Saginaw bay, 50 m. deep and 26 m. wide across its mouth.
The chief tributaries of the lake on the U.S. side are Thunder bay
river, Au Sable river and Saginaw river. On the Canadian side are
Serpent river, Spanish river, French river, draining Lake Nipissing,
Muskoka river, Severn river, draining lake Simcoe, and Nottawasaga
river, all emptying into Georgian bay and North Channel, and
Saugeen and Maitland rivers, flowing into the main lake. These have
been or are largely used in connexion with pine lumbering operations.
They, with smaller streams, drain a basin of 75,300 sq. m.
There is a slight current in Lake Huron skirting the west shore
from inlet to outlet. At the south end it turns and passes up
the east coast. There is also a return current south of Manitoulin
Island and a current, sometimes attaining a strength of half a
knot, passes into Georgian bay through the main entrance. Ice
and navigation conditions and yearly levels are similar to those
on the other Great Lakes (q.v.).
Practically all the United States traffic is confined to vessels
passing through the main lake between Lakes Superior and
Michigan and Lake Erie, but on the Canadian side are several
railway termini which receive grain mostly from Lake Superior,
and deliver mixed freight to ports on that lake. The chief of
these are Parry Sound, Midland, Victoria Harbour, Collingwood,
Owen Sound, Southampton, Kincardine, Goderich and Sarnia,
at the outlet of the lake. The construction of a ship canal to
connect Georgian bay with Montreal by way of French river,
Lake Nipissing and Ottawa river began in 1910. A river and
lake route with connecting canals, in all about 440 m. long,
will be opened for vessels of 20 ft. draught at a cost estimated
at 20,000,000 saving some 340 miles in the distance from
Lake Superior or Lake Michigan to the sea.
There is a large fishing industry in Lake Huron, the Canadian
catch being valued at over a quarter million dollars per annum.
Salmon trout (Salvelinus namaycush, Walb.) and whitefish
(Coregonus clupeiformis, Mitchill) are the most numerous and
valuable. Amongst the islands on the east shore of Georgian
bay, which are greatly frequented as a summer resort, black
bass (micropterus) and maskinonge (Esox nobilior, Le Sueur)
are a great attraction to anglers.
See Georgian Bay and North Channel Pilot, Department of Marine
and Fisheries (Ottawa, 1903) ; Sailing Directions for Lake Huron,
Canadian Shore, Department of Marine and Fisheries (Ottawa,
1905); Bulletin No. 17, Survey of Northern and North-Western Lakes,
United States, War Department (Washington, 1907); U.S. Hydro-
graphic Office Publication, No. 108 C. Sailing Directions for Lake Huron,
&c. U.S. Navy Department (Washington, 1901).
HURRICANE, a wind-storm of great force and violence,
originally as experienced in the West Indies; it is now used to
describe similar storms in other regions, except in the East
Indies and the Chinese seas, where they are generally known
as " typhoons." Hurricane is the strongest force of wind in
the Beaufort scale. The Caribbean word huracan was introduced
by the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch explorers of the i5th and
1 6th centuries into many European languages, as in Span.
huracan, Portu. furacao, Ital. uracane, Fr. ouragan, and in
Swed., Ger. and Dutch as orkan, or orkaan. A " hurricane-deck "
is an upper deck on a steamer which protects the lower one,
and incidentally serves as a promenade.
HURRY (or URRY), SIR JOHN (d. 1650), British soldier,
was born in Aberdeenshire, and saw much service as a young
man in Germany. In 1641 he returned home and became
Lieut.-Colonel in a Scottish regiment. At the end of the
same year he was involved in the plot known as the " Incident."
At the outbreak of the Civil War Hurry joined the army of the
earl of Essex, and was distinguished at Edgehill and Brentford.
Early in 1643 he deserted to the Royalists, bringing with him
information on which Rupert acted at once. Thus was brought
about the action of Chalgrove Field, where Hurry again showed
conspicuous valour; he was knighted on the same evening.
In 1644 he was with Rupert at Marston Moor, where with Lucas
he led the victorious left wing of horse. But a little later,
thinking the King's cause lost, he again deserted, and eventually
was sent with Baillie against Montrose in the Highlands. His
960
HURST HURSTMONCEAUX
detached operations were conducted with great skill, but his
attempt to surprise Montrose's camp at Auldearn ended in
a complete disaster, partly on account of the accident of the
men discharging their pieces before starting on the march.
Soon afterwards he once more joined Charles's party, and he
was taken prisoner in the disastrous campaign of Preston (1648).
Sir John Hurry was Montrose's Major-General in the last
desperate attempt of the Scottish Royalists. Taken at Carbis-
dale, he was beheaded at Edinburgh, May 29th, 1650. A soldier
of fortune of great bravery, experience and skill, his frequent
changes of front were due rather to laxity of political principles
than to any calculated idea of treason.
HURST, JOHN FLETCHER (1834-1903), American Methodist
Episcopal bishop, was born in Salem, Dorchester county,
Maryland, on the I7th of August 1834. He graduated at
Dickinson College in 1854, and in 1856 went to Germany and
studied at Halle and Heidelberg. From 1858 to 1867 he was
engaged in pastoral work in America, and from 1867 to 1871 he
taughtin Methodist mission institutes in Germany. ^1871-1873
he was professor of historical theology at Drew Theological
Seminary, Madison, New Jersey, of which he was president
from 1873 till 1880, when he was made a bishop. He died at
Bethesda, Maryland, on the 4th of May 1903. Bishop Hurst,
by his splendid devotion in 1876-1879, recovered the endowment
of Drew Theological Seminary, lost by the failure in 1876 of
Daniel Drew, its founder; and with McClintock and Crooks he
improved the quality of Methodist scholarship. The American
University (Methodist Episcopal) at Washington, D.C., for
postgraduate work was the outcome of his projects, and he
was its chancellor from 1891 to his death.
He published A History of Rationalism (1866); Hagenbach's
Church History of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (2 vols.,
1869); von Oosterzee's John's Gospel: Apologetical Lectures (1869);
Lange's Commentary on the Epistle- to the Romans (1869); Martyrs
to the Tract Cause: A Contribution to the History of the Reformation
(1872), a translation and revision of Thelemann's Martyrer der
Traktatsache (1864); Outlines of Bible History (1873); Outlines of
Church History (1874); Life and Literature in the Fatherland (1875),
brilliant sketches of Germany; a brief pamphlet, Our Theological
Century (1877); Bibliotheca Theologica (1883), a compilation by his
students, revised by G. W. Gillmore in 1895 under the title Literature
of Theology; Indika: the Country and People of India and Ceylon
(1891), the outgrowth of his travels in 1884-1885 when he held the
conferences of India; and several church histories (Chautauqua
text-books) published together as A Short History of the Christian
Church (1893).
HURSTMONCEAUX (also HERSTMONCEUX), a village in the
Eastbourne parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 9 m. N.E.
of Eastbourne. Pop. (1901) 1429. The village takes its name
from Waleran de Monceux, lord of the manor after the Conquest,
but the castle, for the picturesque ruins of which the village
is famous, was built in the reign of Henry VI. by Sir Roger de
Fiennes. It is moated, and is a fine specimen of isth-century
brickwork, the buildings covering an almost square quadrangle
measuring about 70 yds. in the side. Towers flank the comers,
and there is a beautiful turreted entrance gate, but only the
foundations of most of the buildings ranged round the inner
courts are to be traced. The church of All Saints is in the main
Early English, and contains interesting monuments to members
of the Fiennes family and others. In the churchyard is the
tomb of Archdeacon Julius Charles Hare, the theologian (1855).
Much material from the castle was used in the erection of
Hurstmonceaux Place, a mansion of the i8th century.
END OF THIRTEENTH VOLUME
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